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 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030697688 
 
SKETCH OF THE MODE 
 
 MANUFACTURING GUNPOWDER. 
 
Copies of Col. Anderson's Work can he supplied to British and 
 Foreign Governments, to Military and Naval Officers and others, 
 by the Boohsellers in the following named cities in Europe, Asia, 
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 SKETCH OF THE MODE fe 
 
 
 o- .',.-, P"--"' --''^ 
 
 <;/ V 
 
 
 MANUFACTURING GUNPOwBlf 
 
 ISHAPORE MILLS IN BENGAL. 
 
 A RECOED OF THE EXPERIMENTS CARRIED ON TO ASCERTAIN THE 
 VALUE OP CHARGE, WINDAGE, VENT AND ■WEIGHT, ETC, 
 
 IN MOHTARS AND MUSKETS; 
 
 EEPOETS OF THE YAEIOIJS PROOFS OF POWDER. 
 
 COL. WILLIAM ANDERSON, C.B., 
 
 lATE AGENT AT ISHAPOKE. 
 
 WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS BY LIEUT.-COL. PAELBT, 
 
 I 
 BETIRED BENGAL ARTILLERY. 
 
 LONDON: 
 JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBOEN. 
 
 1862. 
 
LONDON : 
 BRATBURT AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. 
 
TO 
 
 THE OFFICERS 
 
 THE INDIAN ARTILLERY, 
 
 RECOLLECTION OF OLDEN TIMES. 
 
 1862. 
 
PREFACE. 
 — I — 
 
 The following pages result from an earnest study to acquire an 
 insight into the theory of Gunpowder, and from much labour in 
 making numerous experiments to test and fortify the art of 
 manipulation as practised at the Ishapore Mills, 
 
 No subject can easily be mentioned which is more difficult to 
 bound by fixed laws. 
 
 Danger attends all operations with Gunpowder. The results 
 are flashed forth in so momentary a period as to elude all scrutiny 
 into the mode by which such extraordinary power is produced : 
 the means have vanished while the end is often to be gathered 
 from destruction. 
 
 In teaching myself the art, I was necessitated to investigate 
 the facts and make the numerous experiments which form the 
 basis of this sketch ; the record of them may save much trouble to 
 future agents. 
 
 Every trial carried on, and every experiment made, are truly 
 and faithfully recorded, without deviation to meet any precon- 
 ceived theory. The greatest possible care was taken to have all 
 the circumstances identical except the one under consideration, to 
 the end that attention might not be withdrawn from the point 
 under investigation. 
 
 Much credit is due to the patience and perseverance of the 
 conductor of the works, and of the overseers of the estabhsh- 
 ment. 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 The records are true ; the deductions may be unsatisfactory. 
 They were carried on in the attempt to satisfy my own mind, but 
 often lead to no very perfect conclusion ; such is particularly the 
 case in all the reasonings and arguments on the various points of 
 charges, weight, windage, or distances, as connected with mortars 
 or muskets. 
 
 The simple art of powder-making is probably more correctly 
 worked out, being based on the Memoir of Colonel Galloway ; of 
 which a by no means incompetent judge once observed, " If any 
 person would but impUcitly follow the rules established by Colonel 
 Galloway, he could not fail of fabricating excellent powder." 
 
 Every officer understanding the subject must acknowledge the 
 labour and ingenuity which first established the present works at 
 Ishapore ; and although some trifling alterations have been since 
 introduced, the system will long remain a monument of no 
 common ability. 
 
 A few years in the present race of improvements and scientific 
 investigation may aid in obtaining greater perfection, even as 
 the good high roads succeeding mere tracks were in their turn 
 improved by Macadam, to be rendered almost useless for the 
 means of rapid conveyance by the introduction of railroads. 
 
 The chemical portion of the sketch has received not the 
 sanction or approbation of that eminent chemist Mr. O'Shaugh- 
 nessy,* but his mere simple affirmation that it is fully sufficient 
 and amply accurate for the required purpose. 
 
 The historical part is the best that my authorities would afford, 
 the greater portion being but a new version of the old story. 
 
 W. ANDEESON. 
 
 ISHAPOEE, 
 
 January, 1849. 
 
 '' Now Sir William. 
 
PEEFACE BY THE EDITOE. 
 
 There never was a period, since tlie discovery of gunpowder, 
 and its application to artillery and fire-arms, when nations 
 anxious to maintain their status and integrity, could less afford to 
 be inattentive to the improvement of their war equipments than 
 the present. 
 
 Every civilised country is unceasingly labouring, by invention, 
 experiment, and practice, to improve, regulate, and extend the 
 ranges and effectiveness of their artillery and fire-arms ; and if 
 we may judge from the number of new patents which have been 
 taken out of late years for improvements in them, and in the 
 important processes of the manufacture of gunpowder, from 
 which material all the mechanical power of fire-arms is derived, 
 individuals of the British nation have not been backward in the 
 race for improvement and superiority. 
 
 As long as other nations remained content with the weapons 
 of inferior power and construction, which served their purposes 
 in former wars, it was well for Great Britain, having no aggressive 
 intentions, but directed solely by the noble and patriotic principle 
 of being prepared for self-defence, to remain quiet and inactive ; 
 but a few years have brought about such important changes in 
 the materials employed in war, and the apparently trifling event 
 of the formidable effect, in naval warfare, of an iron-plated ship 
 in the American waters has produced so powerful an influence. 
 
X PREFACE BY THE EDITOE. 
 
 as necessarily to lead to the complete alteration and construction 
 of our navy, and to the certain necessity that we must alter the 
 old system of fortification, and give increased power to a portion 
 at least of our ordnance. 
 
 Under this necessity, which is of momentous national import- 
 ance, the nation must willingly submit to increased military 
 expenditure ; for we should recollect that in the time of peace 
 we can most quietly and economically prepare for all con- 
 tingencies : and it needs no argument to prove that what we can 
 thus do with forethought and with just scientific grounds, for 
 improvement and experiment is so much in advance in placing 
 our country in such permanent security as to meet the immediate 
 contingencies of war in the most decided manner, not with the 
 least intention of threatening our neighbours, but with the valu- 
 able certainty that such an established preparation is the best 
 guarantee for the happy continuance of peace. And if the 
 philanthropist will allow the many historical proofs, that wars 
 have become less deadly, less destructive, and less numerous, 
 since the discovery of gunpowder and its application to cannon 
 and fire-arms, than when battles were fought by numerous hosts 
 in close combat with each other, the consideration ought to 
 reconcile any one of right mind, that unless, happily, wars could 
 be made to cease altogether, the study of the science, and of 
 written information on the subject, are neither so unnecessary nor 
 repulsive, as many estimable persons are disposed to consider 
 them to be. 
 
 The historian well knows, as all who pursue the study of 
 history will find, that the records of wars, and the progress of 
 military science, are intimately connected with the past and 
 present, as they will be with the future conditions of nations ; 
 and it is hoped that the gleanings from this volume may not be 
 found wanting to supply a due portion of interest to some, and of 
 
PREifACB BY THE EDITOR. xi 
 
 advantage to others, objects which every person in placing a new 
 book before the pubhc should have in viev7. 
 
 The circumstances, however, which have been chiefly instru- 
 mental in bringing this volume forward, are as follows : — 
 
 Colonel William Anderson, C.B., late of the Bengal Artillery, 
 having, with great professional talent and industry, drawn up 
 voluminous MSS. on the subject of gunpowder, containing much 
 that is curious and instructive, placed them in my hands, to 
 prepare them for publication ; and it will be impossible to ex- 
 amine the patient and laborious experiments here recorded, with 
 his scientific deductions from the same, without according to 
 him the chief merit of the present publication. 
 
 From my own experience as an Artillery officer, and for 
 some years agent for the Manufactory of Gunpowder and War- 
 Rockets, at Allahabad, in Bengal, I have endeavoured to add to 
 the information given, and to bring down the progress of im- 
 provements to the present time. 
 
 Not having had access to the mine of very valuable infor- 
 mation which is, no doubt, stored in the records of the Select 
 Committee, on the subject of experiments with modern artillery 
 and fire-arms at Woolwich and Shoeburyness, my statements 
 on these subjects must be shorter and more incomplete than I 
 should wish them to have been ; and this deficiency is an 
 additional argument in favour of the patriotic opinion of Sir 
 Frederic Smith, M.P., in his place in Parliament, on the 16th 
 of May last, that these reports of experiments made at the 
 national expense, should be made public, for the benefit and 
 advantage of inventors, and others interested in the subject of 
 improving our national power in the most important arm of 
 artillery. 
 
 How very useful it would be, if the causes of the failure in 
 every projected improvement were pubhcly known and ex- 
 
 BMjBiiytj m'JM^%«*v-'-'^ '~- •.'■■"-^ 
 
XU PKEPAOE BY THE EDITOK. 
 
 plained. It is well known how many celebrated men, from the 
 great Newton to Watt, and others of later dates, have obtained 
 useful knowledge and experience from failures, and it has been 
 related of the last eminent man, to whose talents the world is 
 so deeply indebted, that when some friend was complimenting 
 him upon his extraordinary powers of invention and mechanical 
 skill, his modest reply was, " You are regarding what I have 
 succeeded in, but you are little aware in how many instances 
 I have failed in perfecting what I aspired to do." 
 
 All experiments in improving artillery and projectiles are 
 attended with expenses that few individuals can support or 
 attempt ; such improvement is a national benefit, and when 
 there is reasonable ground for expenditure, it should be at the 
 national expense. At the present time, when patriotism has 
 embodied so large and noble an army of volunteers, in whose 
 hands gunpowder, fire-arms, and artillery are widely distributed, 
 the present volume may fill a void which, I understand, has 
 been generally felt. In the small additions I have been. able 
 to make to Colonel Anderson's meritorious labours, I have sought 
 to render the pages additionally interesting and instructive ; and 
 if my thoughts upon the chemical effects of the combustion of 
 gunpowder are correct, they will serve to explain some circum- 
 stances as yet incorrectly understood, and probably awaken 
 inquiry, which must tend to valuable results in using gunpowder 
 as a projectile force. 
 
 SAMUEL PARLBY. 
 
 London, August, 1862. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Colonel Andbbson's PiiErAou . . -vii 
 
 Editor's PBErACE ... . ix 
 
 HiBIOKT OF GUNPOWBEB .... 1 
 
 Opinions of Mons. Dutens — Early em- 
 ployment of rockets and fire-darts — 
 Koger Bacon — Bartholdus Schwartz — 
 Gunpowder used by the Moors, 13i3 — 
 Strength of gunpowder gradually in- 
 creased—China or India place of first 
 invention — Early use of fireworks by 
 the Chinese — Ghungcez Khan^Tatar 
 magicians — Institutes of Teemoor — 
 Battle of Muhmood at Delhi — Elephants 
 and rockets — Smyrna taken, 1402, by 
 Bayuzeed — First mention of match- 
 locks in Indian history — Cannon pro- 
 bably introduced from Europe — Ustad 
 Uli Kuli as gun-founder — Military de- 
 spatch of the Emperor Babur — Fire- 
 arms and cannon in common use with 
 the decline of bows and arrows — Use of 
 bombs by Sheer Shah — His death — 
 Park of artillery drawn by men — The 
 Ayeen Akbarree — Price of saltpetre — 
 The Emperor Akebar's attention to 
 artillery — Mons. Manouchi — Curious 
 account of European gunners employed 
 by Akebar — Ancient artUlery supposed 
 to have been made by the Chinese 
 invaders of India — Akebar's numerous 
 artillery — Conclusion of sketch— Note 
 by Editor — Colonel Chesney's and Mr. 
 Eobert Mallet's works referred to for 
 farther information — China and India 
 produced the first gunpowder — Diffi- 
 culty of the inquiry — Extract from Mr. 
 Halhed's translation of the code of 
 Gentoo laws, proving the antiquity of 
 cannon and fire-arms in India. 
 Establishment oe the Mabupaotuiie op 
 
 Gunpowder in Bengal . . . 21 
 Native manufactories— Kemoved from 
 Baugh Bazaar to Ackra, in 1784 — In 
 1794, Mr. John Farqnhar obtained a 
 Government contract — Established 
 
 works at Bankee Bazaar, now Isha- 
 pore — New building erected in 1820 
 — Machinery improved by Colonel Gal- 
 loway — Allahabad Works established 
 by Captain Taylor, at Poppa Mhow, 
 in 1799. 
 
 First Establishment op Powder Works 
 
 IN Enoland 23 
 
 By the Evelyn family — Various licences 
 granted iu different reigns to dig for 
 saltpetre and make gunpowder — 
 Scarcity of gunpowder and saltpetre 
 — The East India Company esta- 
 blished works in Surrey in 1626 — 
 Bound to furnish the Government with 
 600 tons of saltpetre annually by 
 charter of 1693. 
 
 General Principles op Gunpowder . . 31 
 
 Chemical Principles op Gunpowder . 32 
 
 Tabular Statement of proportions of ia- 
 
 gredients used in different countries . 36 
 
 Saltpetre : Abundant in India — Attempts 
 to produce it artificially in France 
 — Mr. Stevenson's account of the 
 native process in Bengal — The Culmee 
 saltpetre of the Calcutta market — 
 Prices, &c. 
 
 Salipetee Kepinert at Ishaporb . . 41 
 Process described — First boiling — Se- 
 cond boiling — Fusing, grinding and 
 sifting — At Madras and in English 
 works large crystals prevented by 
 agitation of solution — Tests to try 
 the purity of — Table of prices — Im- 
 proved process of refining as now 
 pursued at Waltham Abbey Powder- 
 Works . 
 
 Charcoal 49 
 
 Prepared in pits — Mode of preparing 
 by cylinders at Ishapore — Woods used 
 — Specific gravities of various kinds — 
 Amount of charring, its effects upon the 
 density of powder — Quantity produced 
 ■ — Average cost at Ishapore — Test for 
 purity of. 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 SaLPHOK . . . . . . . 58 
 
 Whence obtained — Varied prices and 
 impurity — Mode of refining — By melt- 
 ing — Sutliming— Cost of new mode of 
 refining by distillation, as pursued at 
 Waltham Abbey — Mode of ascertaining 
 its purity. 
 
 Mode of Mandpaotuke of Gonpowdeb . 62 
 Dry-mixing— Mixing barrels — Experi- 
 ments with different times of revolu- 
 tion — Trials of the same. 
 
 Ikoobpokation of the Materials . . 69 
 Early mode by foot mills — PUon mills 
 — Colonel Galloway's grinding mill — 
 Hia description and mode of working as 
 used at Ishapore — Calculation of the 
 power of the mills — Considerations of 
 their action in grinding, mixing, press- 
 ing — Mr. Braddock's remarks on the 
 mills at Waltham Abbey and Madras — 
 Experiments in France with pilon mills 
 — Madras process of milling — Tabular 
 comparisons of effect of milling in Eng- 
 land, Bengal, and Madras — Advantages 
 and disadvantages of long milling — 
 Trials of powder to determine these — 
 Quantity of mill charge — Bate of mov- 
 ing — Water for wetting — Question of 
 light or heavy cylinders — Cost of the 
 present mills at Ishapore — Colonel Ten- 
 nant's opinion that powder made by 
 pilon mills is better than that made 
 by cylinders — His reasons — Heat of 
 India requires less velocity to mills than 
 in Europe — Quantity of pounding from 
 the old pilon mills. 
 
 Beuisinq 86 
 
 To prepare the mill cake for the press 
 — Process used at Ishapore — One man's 
 labour required for each mill — Trials of 
 mill cake charges made with different 
 numbers of revolutions. 
 
 Pbessino 90 
 
 Formerly used only to be pressed in the 
 mill — Description of press, by Colonel 
 Galloway, as used at Ishapore — Degree 
 of pressure — Power of the press — 
 Press boxes contain 320 lbs. — Calcula- 
 tion of the power of the Ishapore 
 presses — Specific gravities of mill cake 
 — Of solid gunpowder at Ishapore, Eng- 
 land (Hutton) — Mr. Braddook's opinion 
 of pressing and glazing— The Hon. Mr. 
 Napier's experiments — Table of varie- 
 ties of density of powder — Loss of 
 weight by evaporation — Men required 
 to work the press to produce twenty 
 
 PAGE 
 
 barrels in twelve hours — Cost of the 
 
 Geanulatioh 100 
 
 Old process— Continued till 1 824— New 
 corning machine described — Twelve 
 hours work to ICO barrels of powder. 
 
 SiFiiua 103 
 
 By sieves suspended from roof — 
 Where labour is dear a machine might 
 be used with advantage — Sizes of sieves 
 used at Ishapore. 
 
 GlAZING 101 
 
 English large-grained powder probably 
 not glazed — Process pursued at Isha- 
 pore — Glazing reels described. 
 
 Deiikg 105 
 
 In Europe artificial means are used — 
 Solar heat considered sufidcient in India 
 — Ishapore drying terraces described — 
 Process of drying — Heat of the pow- 
 der — After third day weighed and bar- 
 relled — After a month powder is proved 
 — Barrels closed up and marked. 
 
 Packing, Tbakspobting, Stoking . .108 
 Cost of transport — Barrels constantly 
 rolled over in magazines — Advantage 
 of occasionally exposing to sun — A pucka 
 terrace convenient. 
 
 Cost of the Ishapoee Powder . . . 109 
 Calculation of items — Average price 
 from 1841 to 1848— Prices of English 
 powder — Mr. Farquhar's contract — 
 Cost of Colonel Galloway's — Of Bom- 
 bay powder of 1846-47 — Of Madras 
 powder of 1846-47. 
 
 Motive Powee to Woek the Mills . Ill 
 Kimning water best power — Steam 
 much used — At Ishapore the power of 
 bullocks only — Number of cattle re- 
 quired — Cost of cattle and pay of at- 
 tendants — Bullocks of present day not 
 strong — Average expense on this head. 
 
 Htgrometeio Proof .... 113 
 Hygrometrio reports— French experi- 
 ment — Table of trial. 
 
 Proof of Powder at the Aoehot . . 115 
 Various modes adopted — At Ishapore a 
 Gomer chambered mortar used — Officers' 
 proof— Pendulum gun ^prouvette lately 
 
 introduced — Table of agency proof 
 
 Proof for commandant of artillery 
 
 Table of ranges — Court of directors' 
 proof— Trials of Bengal, Madras, and 
 Bombay powders — Triennial reports- 
 Experiments — Madras observations. 
 
 Extra Glazikg 127 
 
 Question of effects of glazing Madras 
 
 observations— Mr. Braddock'a opinions 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 — Table of results of prolonged glazing 
 — Hygrometrio reports — Effects of den- 
 sity on range, of facility of ignition — 
 Calculation— Effect of heat on gun- 
 powder — Effect of overcharge — Den- 
 sity — Density measure described, with 
 woodcut. 
 
 Baerel Depaktment 137 
 
 Powder barrels should be made of dry, 
 well-seasoned wood — Bengal barrels — 
 Mr. Walker's patent barrels — Native 
 Dubbas for packing powder — Dimen- 
 sions of Ishapore barrels — Weight — ■ 
 Loss in resetting up — Manufacture of — 
 Common barrels not water proof — Ex- 
 periment, with woodcut to explain — 
 Cost of the barrels — Colonel Anderson's 
 proposal for a new dimension of barrel 
 — Useful for transport by camels — 
 Hoops and staves — Experiment to try 
 the strength of staves and hoops — Ex- 
 periment to prove strength of barrel. 
 
 To Analyse Powdek , . . .144 
 Process described. 
 
 Sekh Gunpowder 145 
 
 Sekh gunpowder from Kabul 1842 — 
 Examined in 1849 — With small ball 
 proved superior to Bengal powder — Curi- 
 ous fact with the " Trident's " powder 
 — Proof of Bengal and Sekh powder — 
 Singular experiment of a Sekh Sirdar 
 with shell. 
 
 BniLBiNflS 147 
 
 Distances between— Size — Construction. 
 
 Experiments on Mortars . . . . 148 
 Necessity in proving powder to be very 
 exact in mortar and ball — Experiments 
 by reducing weight of ball — With re- 
 gard to size and of grain in the charge 
 — Table of ranges by progressive in- 
 crease of charge — Comparative proof 
 table — Calculations of charges and 
 ranges — Force of powder to blow out 
 clay, by Sir John Burgoyne — Table of 
 effects of reducing weight of ball — 
 Question of the advantages of hollow 
 projectiles. Windaoe : Effects of — The 
 first tenth of windage has the greatest 
 effect on range — Tables showing ranges 
 and loss by windage. Elevation : Ex- 
 periments and calculations of effect of ele- 
 vation. Recoil : Table of Experiment. 
 
 MuSKETKT Experiments .... 165 
 Penetration of shot through boards — 
 Tables of proof — Effect of windage — 
 Colonel Anderson's ingenious theory to 
 explain the effect of windage — Large 
 charges of inferior powder compensate 
 
 for loss by wiudage — Experiment with 
 shot of different windages in 1759, re- 
 lated by Antoni — Table of experiments 
 — Colonel Anderson's deductions — Con- 
 siders a. certain quantity of air neces- 
 sary to complete the explosion of a 
 chai'ge — Difficulty of the question — • 
 Kanges of muskets of olden days longer 
 than at present — Effect of length of 
 barrel — Table of experiments — Disad- 
 vantage of superfluous length — Different 
 lengths required for different qualities 
 of powder — Experiments related by 
 Antoni — Comparison of the effect of 
 Antoni' s charge with that of Bengal 
 powder — Proper proportion of charge to 
 length of barrel — ColonelAnderson's dia- 
 gram lo show the measureof the explod- 
 ing force of powder on different parts 
 of a barrel. Touch-hole : Tabular 
 proof with different sized touch-holes 
 — Difference of size of vent greatly 
 affects range — Antoni's experiment — 
 With no vent less powder of a charge is 
 fired — Unburnt grains of powder driven 
 out of a vent — Up to '3 of an inch of 
 no material consequence — Less than is 
 usually considered by European writers 
 — Supposed effects of the vent. Dis- 
 tance ; Effects of in diminishing initial 
 velocity of a ball — Calculations of the 
 resistance of the air — Differences of 
 charge and of length of barrel give dif- 
 ferent results in the computation — The 
 resistance is as the velocity impressed, 
 and as the square root nearly of the 
 distance. Increase of Charoe : 
 Table of experiments — An excess of 
 powder useless above a certain point — 
 Size of grain — Table of experiments 
 in favour of mixing sizes . — • Large 
 grains evolve fluid slower than smaller 
 — The higher gunpowder is pressed, 
 the smaller should be the grain — Effect 
 of placing different weights before the 
 ball, useful in short barrels, question- 
 able if long. 
 Various Proofs of Powders . . .193 
 Table of proofs — Comparison of boards 
 and range. 
 Recorded Ranges of Gunpowder from 
 
 Different Authorities . . . 195 
 
 Appendix 199 
 
 Experiments on varied proportions of 
 ingredients — Table of proof— Remarks 
 on the same — Unpulverised composi- 
 tions in milling worthy of extended 
 consideration — Remarks on the iron 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 mill — New propoiiions of ingredients 
 suggeBted — Other changes. 
 
 Cake of Powdek in Masazines . . . 203 
 Barrels to be carefully inspected — 
 Barrels to he constantly rolled about— 
 Hoops carefully set home — Occasional 
 exposure to the sun useful, 
 
 Damaoed Powder 20i 
 
 May be rendered serviceable for common 
 purposes — Care required. 
 
 Reoovebt op Saltpetre . . . . ii. 
 Apparatus required — The saltpetre 
 useful for magazine purposes. 
 
 Empty BAKKELg 205 
 
 Care in taKng them to pieces — Mode 
 of packing the hoops, heads, and staves. 
 
 Kepoei on the Iron Miil . . .206 
 
 Constructed by Messrs. Hall at Dartford 
 — Comparative cost of iron and gun metal 
 miUs — Apparent advantages of — Altera- 
 tion of form of bed suggested — Reduc- 
 tion of cost of powder by its adoption 
 — Quality of powders of iron and gun- 
 metal mills — Table of proof. 
 
 Removal of the Powder Works proposed 208 
 Admirable report of Colonel Ander- 
 son on the subject, with woodcut-sketch. 
 
 Analysis of Ishapore Powder Materials 
 
 BY Sir W. B. O'Shaitqhnessy . 212 
 
 Remarks on the Temperature of tee 
 Dryino Terraces. Tables op Heat 
 BY Thermometer, etc. . . . 214 
 Temperature from 80° to 130° — Appear- 
 ance of powder during three days' expo- 
 sure — ^Register of thermometer during 
 eight months 1843-4i, 1844-46, 1845- 
 46, and 1848-49. 
 
 Experiment on the Evaporation of 
 
 Water by Solar Heat at Ishapore 216 
 Banger of sun's rays in India. 
 
 Inquiry into the CiROtrMSTANOES arisins 
 FROM THE Chemical Effects op 
 
 THE PrODUOTS of GcNPOWDER WHEN 
 
 Fired in Close Chambers . . 217 
 Importance of this inquiry — Effects of 
 carbonic acid in extinguishing flame — 
 Known fact of grains of gunpowder 
 being blown out of the vent and muzzle 
 unoonsumed — Cause explained — Mis- 
 take in supposing that a gun filled with 
 powder, and plugged up at the muzzle, 
 is exposed to the severest strain of a 
 charge of gunpowder — How to extend 
 the ranges of cannon shot — Mr. Val- 
 lance's patent experiment with a 
 musket barrel — Mr. Cochrane's 
 gun. 
 GfiiN Cotton, or Pyroxyle. . . . 225 
 
 Investigation by Dr. W. B. O'Shaugh- 
 nessy of Calcutta Mint — Rationale of 
 the explosion of— Experiment at Dnm- 
 Dum with a mortar and guns as to its 
 projectile force— Major Mordeoai's expe- 
 riments at the Washington arsenal — 
 Unfavourable to Its adoption — Supposed 
 to be equally unfavourable at Woolwich 
 — Advantages of good gunpowder — New 
 invention to supersede gunpowder — 
 Supposed disadvantages of. 
 
 Other Substitutes for Gtunpowder . 229 
 Powders made with nitrate of soda — 
 Nitrate of ammonia — Chlorate of potash 
 — Danger of the last — Experiments 
 made with it in France — Use of it aban- 
 doned — Supposed to have been used by 
 Bonaparte in one of his campaigns — 
 White fulminating powder — For others, 
 chemical works may be consulted. 
 
 Remarks on Charcoal . . . . 233 
 Quality of charcoal of the first import- 
 ance in making good gunpowder — Too 
 much charcoal in the English proportions 
 — Mr. Cruickshank's experiments — 
 Serious importance of residue in rifles 
 — Chemical analysis of powders of little 
 use in determining the best proportions 
 of ingredients — Different results of 
 analysis by chemists as to nitrate of 
 potash — Earnest attention of the manu- 
 facturer should be directed to the char- 
 coal used — Nature and properties of 
 charcoal — Slow burning compositions 
 will not satisfy inquiry — Question well 
 worthy the attention of Government — 
 Trials of gas and residue of various 
 charcoals in France — The "charbon 
 rouge" of Mons. Violette. 
 
 Remarks on Sifting and Sizes op Grain 237 
 Tabular statements of the different 
 sizes of grain of Madras, Bombay, Ben- 
 gal, England — Comparative proofs with 
 various mixtures of grain — Eprouvette 
 proofs — Fall in the arc of measurement 
 with density and larger grain — With 
 mortars the arc rises with these — Trial 
 of English and Ishapore powders — Su- 
 periority of English powder may be from 
 weakness of Bengal charcoal. 
 
 Accidents 240 
 
 May be expected in making gunpowder 
 — With the old pilou mills in Bengal 
 were constantly occurring — Care and 
 prudence required — Accident when the 
 gloom stove was used — Accident at Alla- 
 habad in 1823, from the falling of a 
 barrel — Accidents at Ishapore in the 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 XVll 
 
 PASE 
 
 Corning House — In the mixing barrela 
 and mills — Colonel Anderson's inquiry 
 into the causes — Explosions of gunpow- 
 der caused by striking with a hammer 
 before a committee — Tabular statement 
 of explosions in the mills — Inquiry into 
 time and cause of explosions — All the 
 explosions took place in the day — Sup- 
 posed causes — The greater number in 
 the hottest season — Why Nos. 2 and 3 
 mills should have exploded more than 
 the others — Time of working, and 
 quantities of powder produced — 
 Keasou why no old copper or brass 
 should ever be worked up. 
 On the Modekh Impbovbmehts in Artil- 
 lery AND Fire-arms . . . 246 
 Improvements in America preceded 
 those of Europe — Iroii-plated vessels — 
 Storms'a breech-loading rifle — Colonel 
 Colt — In France under Napoleon I. — • 
 In the reign of Louis Philippe — Under 
 the Duke of Orleans — Monsieur Tami- 
 sier's rifled mortar — The Duke de 
 Montpensier's encouragement — Not the 
 first inventor of rifled guns — Patent of 
 James Bodmer, 1813 — In 1850 — Under 
 Napoleon III. — 200 rifled guns with 
 the Army of Italy — Prussia had 60,000 
 men armed with rifles in 1848 — Con- 
 tinued improvements in cannon — All 
 the continental nations engaged in 
 these — Great Britain of late years not 
 behind others — Varieties of arms in the 
 International Exhibition — Impossible 
 to state their relative values justly, 
 without the necessary trials under the 
 action of gunpowder — Necessity of not 
 neglecting every improvement — Pro- 
 gress of events has changed the science 
 and materiel of war both by sea and 
 land — Important points of controversy 
 and experiment as to solid or built-up 
 guns — Kifling or smooth bore, &o. — Can 
 only be settled by trial and experience 
 — Advantages of the results of experi- 
 ments being publicly known — Improve- 
 ments in the manu&cture of iron under 
 the Mersey Steel and Iron Works Com- 
 pany — Bessemer and other processes of 
 late years — Meritorious labours of Cap- 
 tain Blakeley — Bobins's experiment on 
 the deflection of round balls in the 
 Charter House Garden — Mr. Bashley 
 Britten's valuable improvements — The 
 advantages gained in the flight of 
 rifled balls — Curious phenomenon of 
 the velocity and momentum of a rifle 
 
 ball increasing for a short distance after 
 leaving the muzzle — Attempt to explain 
 it — Smooth bores best for heavy guns 
 — Advantages of the breech-loading 
 construction — Best plan of sustaining 
 the recoil of the breech-plug — Singular 
 variety, but nearly equal accuracy in 
 range in the Enfield, Jacob, Lancaster, 
 and Whitworth systems of rifling — 
 Advantages of forming shot tapering 
 to the rear, as Nature teaches us in the 
 shape of birds and fish — Mr. Whit- 
 worth's testimony to its advantages — 
 Time and experience wiU establish it — 
 For heavy guns the form of rifle grooves 
 requires serious consideration — The best 
 form not yet determined — Advantage 
 of having an excess of metal about the 
 breech, applicable to all cannon aawell 
 as fire-arms — General Jacob's opinion 
 ■ — Advantages of modem improvements 
 — The question of the best gun not 
 yet settled — Failure of the 120- 
 pounder Armstrong gun at Shoebury- 
 ness — Table of comparative trial of 
 the Armstrong and Whitworth guns — 
 Captain Blakeley's gun highly ap- 
 proved of in Spain — Severely proved 
 at Woolwich — Expectations from 
 Sir William Armstrong's 600-pounder 
 gun — A 400 -pounder by Mr. 
 LynaU Thomas — Another by Mr. 
 Whitworth. 
 Experiments on the Force and Penb- 
 TKATioN OP Shot, Woolwioh, 
 
 1651 261 
 
 Statement of the trials against timber 
 butts — Eemarks on the strength of the 
 powder and great penetration of shot 
 more than 200 years ago. 
 Allahabad Experimental Powder dried 
 
 BY Steam Heat . . . .263 
 My reasons for making this trial — 
 Permitted by Military Board — Descrip- 
 tion of the temporary means I used — 
 Materials carefully prepared — Attribute 
 the superiority of this powder greatly 
 to carefully selected charcoal — Proof 
 reports of this powder as compared 
 with that of Ishapore — Madras and 
 
 War Kookbts 270 
 
 Antiquity of this weapon — Attempts 
 to improve, as an ofiicer of the Bengal 
 Artillery — Offered my services to the 
 Earl of Moira in 1814 to make rockets 
 for the Nepaul War — Offer declined, as 
 the Congreve rocket had been sent for 
 b 
 
XVIU 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 from Europe — Eetumed to Europe — 
 Made apparatus at my own expense, 
 and on my own plan and invention, to 
 take to India on my return — The value 
 of the rocket as an aid to artillery — 
 Advantages — Explanation of the cause 
 of flight — An error as to this cause 
 long maintained ; endeavoured to cor- 
 rect it in the "Encyclopaedia Britan- 
 nica, " but error still continued — Mar- 
 shal Marmont's opinion of the value of 
 rockets — Faults of construction and 
 combination in the Congreve rocket — 
 Continued to the present day, as shown 
 by the specimens in the International 
 Exhibition — In consequence of the 
 irregularity of flight of the Congreve 
 rocket the weapon is held in contempt 
 — Colonel Boxer's statement of their 
 great irregularity of flight — Failure of 
 the rocket in India during the mutiny 
 22nd May, 1858 — Many other failures 
 in Bengal, Madras, and Bombay could 
 be detailed — Late failure with the 
 army in China — Large sums have been 
 expended on the Congreve rocket^ 
 Effect of the intimidation of rockets 
 on a Eoyal Regiment of Dragoons at 
 Meerut in 1821 or 1822— Not allowed 
 to make any rockets in India until Mr. 
 Adam was acting Governor-General — 
 In consequence of the failure and de- 
 fects of the Congreve rockets I was 
 ordered to prepare 70 for a compara- 
 tive trial — The trial took place at 
 Dum-Dum May 31st, 1834— Report of 
 the Commandant of Artillery — Extract 
 from "John Bull" newspaper, showing 
 that my rockets had a rotary motion — 
 Eooket manufactory established under 
 me at Allahabad in 1826 — Reports of 
 Captains Graham and Blake on the 
 rockets produced — Gunpowder works 
 and rocket ditto closed by Lord William 
 Bentinck — Return to Europe — Mr. 
 Hale's patent for a rotary principle in 
 rockets taken out in 1844, twenty 
 years after I had invented it — Re- 
 peated offers to the Government of this 
 country to show how to improve the 
 weapon declined — Large rockets made 
 by the Birmese for fireworks — The 
 most formidable vertical fii-e can be 
 produced by large rockets which no 
 other projectile can equal — ^Would be 
 of the utmost advantage in aid of the 
 Volunteers in resisting invasion — No 
 other ammunition so safe in store — 
 
 Late offer to the War OfiSce declined— 
 Effect of heat in the combustion of a 
 rocket — The reverberatory action 
 causes the great intensity of heat and 
 force in large charges of gunpowder in 
 cannon. 
 On the Velooitt with which Air ktishes 
 
 INTO A Vacuum .... 283 
 An interesting inquii-y to an artillerist 
 — No vacuum can take place behind a 
 shot— Inquiries on this subject in the 
 year 1686— The celebrated Dr. Papin's 
 communication to Royal Society — Error 
 in considering the resistance of the air 
 as acting only in front of the shot — The 
 friction of the air on the surface of the 
 ball is the great cause of resistance — 
 Cause of the report of a gun — No 
 vacuum is formed — Not even in the 
 passage of a current of lightning — The 
 striking on the air causes the thunder, 
 the friction the lightning — A cannon 
 ball would produce the same if it moved 
 fast enough. 
 Memokanda bt Colonel Andekson . . 287 
 Power required to start the cylinder 
 mills at Ishapore — Detail of experi- 
 ment. 
 
 EXPEKIMENTS ON THE HeATINO PROPERTIES 
 
 OP Coal and Fikewoop. . . 288 
 Quantity of each required to evaporate 
 mother waters — Relative cost of wood 
 and coal — Statement of prices. 
 
 Explosions of Mills 290 
 
 Explosion of No. 2 mill — ^Experiments 
 to try the causes of explosions. 
 
 Firewood at Ishapore .... 291 
 Trial of weight when wet and dry. 
 
 Experiments with Compositions op Nitre 
 
 AND Charcoal ib. 
 
 Detail of experiment — Table of re- 
 sults. 
 
 Pendulum Gun Eprouvette . . . 293 
 Description of woodcut — Principle of 
 construction — Claim of Chevalier 
 D' Arcy to the invention — Trial of result 
 of increase of charge — Trial with large 
 and small grains of powder. 
 
 Various Patents por Improvements in 
 
 MAKiNO Gunpowder . . . . 296 
 Remarks upon them — Private manufac- 
 turers should search for information 
 from the best sources — Iron mills will 
 probably supersede stone or gun-metal 
 — The advantage of experience in all 
 circumstances connected with this ma- 
 nufacture. 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 WITH REFERENCE TO PAGES. 
 
 PLATE PAGE 
 
 I. — Chaecoal Furnaces for charring with Iron 
 
 Cylinders. ....... to face 60 
 
 II. — Mixing-barrel, and Sieve to extract Bullets „ 63 
 
 (Referred to in pages 63 — 65.) 
 
 III. — Plan of Mixing-house with one Barrel . . „ 65 
 
 IV. — Mixing-barrels and Glazing-reels, with the 
 Adaptation of Cog-wheels to save manual 
 Labour „ 68 
 
 V. — Incorporating of Geinding-mill used at Isha- 
 
 pore „ 69 
 
 VI. — Press foe Gunpowder, as used at Ishapoee . „ 90 
 
 VII. — Plan,. Section, and Elevation of Press-house „ ih. 
 
 VIII. — CORNING-MACHINE, USED AT ISHAPORE . . . „ 101 
 
 IX.— Glazing-reel, Filter for damaged Powder. 
 Packing of Hoops and Staves of Baerels. 
 
 (Referred to in pages 104, 205, 206.) 
 
 104 
 
 X. — Section of a Charcoal or Sulphur-mill, with 
 Sifting-reel, proposed to be erected at 
 Madras " ^^^ 
 
Note omitted in Sir W. B. O'Sitauglinessy's analyses of Ishapore powder, 
 page 213, under Chakooal. 
 
 Density of selected Pieces. 
 
 Urliur -ISS 
 
 Jointee . • -213 
 
 Line 18 from top should be 100 grains of the coarse variety of gun- 
 powder. 
 
THE 
 
 HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER. 
 
 The question yet remains to be determined, who were the first 
 inventors and manufacturers of gunpowder. 
 
 Mr. Dutens, in his inquiry into the origin of the discoveries 
 attributed to moderns, infers with a reasonable appearance of 
 justice, that Gunpowder was known at a much earher age than 
 is usually supposed. This learned author thinks "that the 
 attempts of Salmoneus, King of Elis, to imitate thunder and 
 lightning, suggests to us that this prince used a composition of 
 the nature of gunpowder. Bustathius (a commentator on 
 Homer), in particular, speaks of him on this occasion as being 
 so very expert in mechanism, that he formed machines which 
 imitated the noise of thunder ; and the writers of fable (whose 
 surprise in this respect may be compared to that of the Mexicans 
 when they first beheld the fire-arms of the Spaniards) gave out 
 that Jupiter, incensed at the audacity of this prince, slew him with 
 lightning as he was employing himself in launching his thunder." 
 But it is much more natural to suppose that this unfortunate 
 prince (an inventor of gunpowder) gave rise to these fables by 
 having accidentally fallen a victim to his own experiments. 
 
 This supposition would carry the invention back to the fabulous 
 age of Grecian history. 
 
 Dion Cassius, a native of Bithynia, who flourished about a.d. 
 230, reports of Caligula, that this emperor had machines which 
 imitated thunder and lightning, and at the same time emitted 
 stones. Joannes Antiochenus corroborates the same statement. 
 
 E 
 
 L 
 
2 HISTORY OF GUNPOWDEE. 
 
 Philostratus, who lived about the year 244, wrote the life and 
 travels of Appollonius Thyanceus, a philosopher who is considered 
 to have made extended travels in the East and in Hindostan. On 
 the authority of this traveller, it is recorded "that when the 
 Indians of towns are attacked by their enemies, they do not rush 
 into battle, but put them to flight by thunder and lightning." On 
 the same authority it is said, "that Hercules and Bacchus, 
 attempting to assail the Indians in a fort where they were 
 intrenched, were so roughly received by reiterated strokes of 
 thunder and hghtning launched upon them from on high by the 
 besieged, that they were obliged to retire." 
 
 Agatheus, an historian of the time of Justinian, reports also 
 " that one Authemius having fallen out with his neighbour Zeno, 
 the Rhetorician, set fire to his house with thunder and lightning." 
 In the works of Julius Africanus, who flourished A.D. 220, Mr. 
 Dutens mentions, that there is a receipt for an ingenious composi- 
 tion to be thrown upon an enemy which nearly resembles gun- 
 powder. We now lose sight of the Latin authorities ; more 
 precise information being probably lost in the dark ages of the 
 Gothic period. An Arabian physician, called Mesue, is the first 
 author brought forward as evidence. He lived about the 9th 
 century, and mentions an author, called Marcus Gl-rsecus. A work 
 in manuscript exists under the name in the Royal Library at 
 Paris, entitled " Liber Ignium." This author describes several 
 ways of encountering an enemy by launching fire upon him ; 
 an(^ among others gives the following : Mix together one pound 
 of live sulphur, two of charcoal of willow, and six of saltpetre, 
 reducing them to a very fine powder in a marble mortar. He 
 adds that a certain quantity of this is to be put into a long 
 narrow and well compacted cover, and so discharged into 
 the air. 
 
 This is a clear description of a rocket ; and the entire extract 
 speaks of the composition and the effects of gunpowder. The 
 composition was known as Greek Pire.'^^ 
 
 * There were several kinds of Greek Fire spoken of by different authors. — 
 Editor. 
 
mSTOEY OF GUNPOWDER. 3 
 
 Rockets were also prepared during the reign of the Emperor 
 Leo, about a.d. 880. The Greeks were exceedingly cautious to 
 retain the secret of the composition, hence it may not have been 
 mentioned in books. We have no positive trace of the use of 
 this composition in rockets previous to the time of the Emperor 
 Leo. The fire-engine, or siphon, mentioned by Thucydides is con- 
 cluded to have been a species of pump, ejecting on the besiegers 
 of towns naphtha, oil, and rosin, in a melted state. These were 
 revived previous to the days of Leo by the earlier emperors of 
 Constantinople, and may in some manner connect the rocket com- 
 position of this emperor with the composition in the time of Julius 
 Africanus. 
 
 A.D. 1099, according to Maimbourg, in his " History of the 
 Crusades," the Saracens defending Jerusalem against Duke God- 
 frey, "threw abundance of pots of fire and shot fire-darts against 
 the machines to burn them.' On his side, the duke observing that 
 the enemy had filled up the breaches with hay, wood, rags, and 
 soft combustible matter, caused a great quantity of fire-darts to 
 be shot, which set the whole in a blaze, and caused the fall of the 
 city." 
 
 Frequent mention is made of these fire-darts. 
 
 Next, in 1216, we have mention of gunpowder by Friar Roger 
 Bacon. " That from saltpetre and other ingredients we are able 
 to make a fire that shall burn at what distance we please." The 
 other ingredients appear to have been studiously concealed at 
 first under a transposition of the letters : thus — lura mope can 
 ubrie stood for carbonum pulveri. The friar told his secret, and 
 the ingredients appeared by name in subsequent works. The 
 French assert that bouches dfeu existed at AmbergA.D. 1301, and 
 were something of the form and shape of our present mortars, but 
 made of wood hooped with iron, probably to cast balls of this 
 Greek fire. 
 
 Some authors consider that Bartholdus Schwartz, or the Black, 
 first discovered gunpowder in the year 1320, and that it was 
 used by the Venetians during a war with the Genoese in the year 
 1380. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 HISTORY OP GUNPOWDER. 
 
 It was also employed against Lorenzo de Medici at a place 
 called Posso Cloidia, when all Italy made complaints against it, 
 as a manifest contravention of fair warfare. When Mahom- 
 med the Second besieged Constantinople in 1455, he is said to 
 have used metal mortars capable of throwing stone balls of 200lbs. 
 weight. 
 
 Gunpowder also appears as a means of defence used by the 
 Moors in 1343, when besieged by the King of Castile. The 
 ships of Tunis had certain iron tubs or barrels wherewith they 
 threw thunderbolts of fire. 
 
 As rockets had ample openings to the rear, and their flight was 
 only opposed by the atmosphere, it is easy to understand that the 
 stronger the composition, the quicker the rocket escaped away 
 from the expanding fluid ; but when the tube was fixed, and the 
 basial opening closed up, with a view to propelling balls, it was 
 soon found that the cases of the rockets were rent to atoms. Hence, 
 in the first experiments on artillery as projecting shot, we find it 
 mentioned that the very weakest powder was used, of equal parts 
 of charcoal, nitre, and sulphur, the tubes for which were probably 
 made of thin iron, leather, or wood. As the means were found 
 for making these tubes of more tough materials and of greater 
 magnitude and tenacity, the strength of powder was by degrees 
 increased, until reaching the present relative proportions of 
 ingredients. The quantity of saltpetre has been gradually 
 increased. 
 
 A sort of universal belief has given to China or India the 
 credit of being the birthplace of this destructive compound. 
 As saltpetre, its chief ingredient, is largely found in Bengal 
 and to the north-west of India, and probably on many of the 
 vast plains eastward, in the direction of China, this assertion 
 has a probability well founded. At the same time, until the 
 passage round the Cape of Good Hope was discovered, gun- 
 powder must have been an extremely expensive article of 
 European warfare. A camel could hardly carry sufficient salt- 
 petre for SOOlbs. of gunpowder. 
 
 The nitre of Bahar may have reached the west coast of India, 
 
HISTOEY Of GUNPOWDEB, 5 
 
 tlience been shipped to some part of Arabia, and thence carried 
 on camels across the desert to Egypt ; or it may have been con- 
 veyed in coasting vessels either up the Red Sea to Suez, or the 
 Persian Gulf to the capital of that country on the Euphrates. 
 On the other side the nitre of Siestan would reach the Caspian, 
 and thence be carried to the various districts of Asia Minor. 
 From the heavy damp nature of the article, and its liability to be 
 spoiled by rain, the cost of transport by land must have been 
 excessive, almost reaching a point of prohibition, unless in small 
 quantities as a matter of curiosity, or as a drug for medicinal 
 purposes. We may thus infer that gunpowder could not have 
 been in general use in Europe at a very early period, and that 
 in all probability the knowledge of the manufacture and use 
 did slowly progress from the East. In this mode may be ac- 
 counted for the first appearance of gunpowder anjong the Turks, 
 Venetians, and Moors ; while their enemies, the Austrians, 
 Genoese, and Spaniards, were taken unawares by its destructive 
 effect. 
 
 John Bell, of Antermony, on his journey to Pekin, records, 
 under date 1721, January 1st : — " The Emperor's General of 
 Artillery, together with Father Fridelly, and a gentleman named 
 Stadhn, an old German, and a watchmaker, dined at the Ambas- 
 sador's. He was by birth a Tatar, and by his conversation it 
 appeared he was by no means ignorant of his profession, parti- 
 cularly with respect to the various compositions of gunpowder 
 used in artificial fireworks. I asked him how long the Chinese 
 had known the use of gunpowder ; he replied, above 2000 years 
 in fireworks, according to their records, but that its apphcation to 
 the purposes of war was only a late introduction. As the veracity 
 and candour of this gentleman were well known, there was 
 no room to question the truth of what he advanced on this 
 subject." 
 
 In the Ramayana it is stated, that the ban or rocket of Megnath, 
 son of Rawun, which instrument was called Sangee, emitted a 
 blaze of light equal to the flame from a thousand suns ! 
 
 Several of these wonderful rockets were dignified by proper 
 
G HISTOBY OF GUNPOWDEE. 
 
 names, and were hurled by their masters with great precision and 
 effect. 
 
 If we turn to Persian history for any information on the subject, 
 we do not find much bearing directly upon this explosive 
 compound as propelling projectiles. Ferduosee, the author of the 
 celebrated " Shah-namuh," had clearly heard something of the use 
 of this compound ; he describes the undoubted effects of rockets, 
 but, like all the Arabian and Persian authors, attributes the effect 
 to sorcery or jadoee. " One Sawuh Shah, a Tork, at the head of 
 a large army, crossed the frontiers of Persia, and marched on the 
 capital. Buhram Chuobeenah was appointed by the Persian King 
 to command the army sent to oppose the invaders. The armies 
 met on the plains of Herat. Ferduosee then introduces Sawuh 
 Shah, ordering his jadoee to be commenced, that the Persian army 
 might be dispirited, and his own preserved. On the command, 
 Jadogurs set to work and launched fire into the air. The chief 
 sorcerer, or head man, was mounted on a Hon ; in his right hand 
 he grasped a snake, while his left controlled a dragon. He 
 directed the work of destruction, causing the field of battle to be 
 covered with flame ; a wind arose, and dark clouds appeared, from 
 which showers of arrows descended on the Persian army. Buhram 
 entreated his band of warriors to believe the whole an ocular 
 deception, to close their eyes, and charge. Sawuh Shah was 
 killed in the battle, and all the Jadogurs taken prisoners were 
 destroyed." 
 
 We may in this description clearly trace the rocket in its flight, 
 the dark clouds of smoke, arising from some description of fire- 
 works, under cover of which the soldiers shot forth their arrows : 
 even the metaphors used by the poet for the implements of the 
 chief sorcerer, or fire-master, are the very names long employed for 
 ordnance of different kinds, as snake, bazilisk, serpent : none could 
 better represent tubes vomiting forth flames. 
 
 These wonderful instruments are described as being with a 
 Toorkee army, and entirely unknown to the warriors of Persia. 
 Buhram puts the Jadoees to death, as workers of deeds of 
 impiety. 
 
HISTORY OF GUNPOWDEE. 7 
 
 Benjamin, of Todela, visited Persia in 1 1 73 ; he mentions 
 having seen suns and other fireworks. 
 
 When Teemoor Mulek, Prince of Khojund, fled in boats down 
 the river Sehoon from his capital, ere it was captured by Chungeez 
 Khan about a.d. 1219, Meer Khawend (Mirconde) in the " Ruozet 
 al Sufa" thus relates : — 
 
 " As soon as the Moguls were in reach of the enemy, they 
 hurled a vast quantity of darts, arrows, and fire at the barks of 
 those of Khojund, but the brigantines, which were proof against 
 these attacks, received no damage, for the leader had them 
 plastered over with a certain composition, which was made of wet 
 felt, kneaded with clay and vinegar ; and the nature thereof was 
 such, that neither the arrows nor fire could hurt these vessels : 
 again, upon a signal given to him that some brigantines full of tar 
 and naphtha were got near the pontoons, of which the bridge was 
 made, and were going to set fire to them, the Prince escaped in 
 his boats." 
 
 The indication is of pots of burning composition, thrown to set 
 the boats in flames : no fair inference of powder of a propellant 
 nature can here be sustained. Fire-arms do not appear to be 
 distinctly mentioned, or even hinted at, during the conquests of 
 Chungeez Khan. 
 
 According to Carpini, " one Presbyter John (Ferishtuh Khan), 
 a king of certain Christians of India Major, marched to oppose this 
 Mogul conqueror, Chungeez Khan. Making men's images of 
 copper, he sat them each upon a saddle on horseback, and put fire 
 within them, and placed a man with a pair of bellows on the horse's 
 back behind every image ; and so with many horses and images 
 in such sort furnished, they marched to fight against the Moguls 
 or Tartars, and coming near unto the place of battle, they first of 
 all sent those horses in order one after the other, but the men 
 that sat behind laid I wot not what upon the fire within the 
 images, and blew strongly with their bellows, whereupon it came 
 to pass that the men and the horses were burnt with the wild-fire, 
 and the air was darkened with smoke." 
 
 This attempt may have been the first rocket troop, but more 
 
8 HISTORY OF GUNPOWDEK. 
 
 probably consisted of combustible images like the Rawuns, con- 
 structed by the Indian soldiers, to be blown up on one of their 
 grand holidays. 
 
 The use of vinegar as an antidote to fire is also mentioned in 
 the history of the Crusades. 
 
 When Toolwee Khan, in 1228, after the death of Chungeez 
 Khan marched from Central Asia to the southern districts of 
 China, he is said by Persian historians to have betaken him- 
 self to Jadoee, for the purpose of discomfiting a large Chinese 
 party. 
 
 " The Tatar magicians or sorcerers had a means, by the use of 
 certain stones thrown into the air, of producing heavy clouds, 
 thunder, lightning, and a discharge of rain or stones. Incan- 
 tations, forms, and ceremonies, were previously in secret performed; 
 among others, the stone called ' yudah ' was to be well washed in 
 the urine of a pure virgin." Perhaps in the stone we may trace 
 the sulphur dug up from the earth, and in the saline taste of nitre 
 the urine ; the unburnt composition found on the fields of battle 
 may have appeared dense as stones, and their concealed labora- 
 tory work in preparing the compositions been viewed as secret 
 ceremonies. The other phenomena mentioned, may be those of 
 rockets, having stones mixed with their exploding compositions, 
 thrown into the air. 
 
 Real loss or injury by these instruments is seldom mentioned ; 
 the indication is as of something unreal, as before mentioned, some 
 illusion which was perhaps more confined to terrifying the enemy 
 by fire, noise, and smoke, than by any real projectiles ; for had 
 many of these been thrown, some must have been picked up on 
 the field of battle. 
 
 A Toorkee Dictionary gives Juduh kash ; Arabic, Hejr-al-metr ; 
 Persian, Sung-yuddah ; — " a stone used by the Tork magicians, 
 which, being thrown into the air, produces all sorts of convulsions 
 of the elements, but which are often turned by the Almighty 
 against those who employ such impious means." 
 
 D'Herbelot, in the " Bibliotheque Orientale," under the word 
 Barud, says, " espfece de sel qui s'attache h la pierre nomm^e 
 
HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER. 9 
 
 Asius ; les Arabes I'appellent encore Thelg Sini, Neige de la 
 Chine, et les Persans Nemuk Tcliine, sel de la Chine. Ce mot de 
 Barud est aujourd'hui fort en usage dans les langues Arabique, 
 Persienne et Turque, et se prend pour le nitre ou salp^tre et 
 pour la poudre a canon qui en est compos^e." 
 
 In the metaphor snow of China we trace well-purified saltpetre, 
 and fairly argue, from the adoption of a foreign name, that the 
 substance named did not exist in any country nearer Arabia 
 than a frontier station of China. This last appellation is con- 
 stantly applied to articles reaching Persia from any stations 
 eastward of the meridian of Herat ; any produce of Bokhara 
 would, under certain periods of history, have been considered 
 Chinese. 
 
 In the " Institutes of Teemoor," written about the middle of the 
 fourteenth century, are laid down many of the equipments for the 
 soldiers of his army, but there is nothing indicative of the use of 
 matchlocks or of gunpowder. The offensive weapons are bows, 
 arrows, spears and daggers. One Hst of necessaries runs thus : — 
 1 bow; 1 quiver; 30 arrows; 1 spare horse, or yaboo, for carriage 
 of baggage between every two men ; 1 tent ; 1 pickaxe ; 1 bill- 
 hook ; 1 saw ; 1 axe ; 100 needles ; 1 standard ; half a mun of 
 rope ; 1 hide, and 1 cauldron to every ten men. 
 
 In the battle with Muhmood under the gates of Delhi, we 
 cannot trace fire-arms being used by Teemoor, but on the side of 
 Muhmood 120 elephants were drawn up, from the backs of 
 which men scattered fireworks and flung rockets in every 
 direction. It is true that Dow's " History of Hindostan," on the 
 authority of Ferishtuh, states, " that on reaching Meerut, the 
 Moguls having filled up the ditch, placed their scahng ladders, and 
 fastened their hook ropes to the wall, in spite of all opposition, 
 and without waiting for a breach by means of the mines, stormed 
 the place, and put every soul within it to the sword. The mines, 
 however, having been finished, the king ordered them to be sprung, 
 which blew the walls and bastions into pieces." 
 
 The word sprung used by the translator indicates the use of gun- 
 powder in mines, but fire had always been adopted by the Asians 
 
10 HISTOKY OF GUNPOWDER. 
 
 in mining. Galleries were run into the walls, supported by poles 
 and planks, and then filled with straw, which being fired destroyed 
 the support, and allowed the rampart to sink. This attack upon 
 Meerut took place a.d. 1398, at the close of the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 We have noticed above, that about fifty years previous to this 
 date, viz., 1343, the Moors of Spain were using gunpowder against 
 the King of Castile, while the Venetians had also been using it 
 against the Turks. Hence, if Teemoor had not already possession 
 of the secret from his birthplace, Sumurkhund, he may have 
 acquired it in his first expedition into Asia Minor. 
 
 During his second campaign against Bayuzeed, it is recorded 
 at the attack on the citadel of Damascus : — 
 
 " These platforms were built high enough to command it, 
 from which fire-pots, arrows, and great stones were thrown, as 
 thick as hail. The walls were shaken by battering rams ; the 
 large pieces of rock in the walls were heated, and shattered by 
 vinegar being cast on them, and then broken by hammers. The 
 walls were sapped, and one of the towers fell ; the soldiers rushed 
 into the breach, eighty Persians being crushed under the falling 
 ruins. The troops halted ; the breach was quickly filled up 
 by the Syrians, but the wooden props which supported part of 
 the walls being set on fire, the governor came out and sur- 
 rendered." 
 
 During Teemoor's march, there preceded the army a rank of 
 elephants, equipped magnificently, to serve as a rampart; their 
 towers were filled with archers and flingers of wild-fire. These 
 elephants were those captured at Delhi, or rather the remnant of 
 them. Elephants appear never to have thriven to the north or 
 west of India. 
 
 Up to this point we have no mention of gunpowder in the pro- 
 pellant uses understood by moderns. All is a species of Greek 
 fire, burning but not impulsive. 
 
 The Greek emperors at- Constantinople purchased peace by the 
 promise of the tribute of the usual customs and duties. But of 
 Smyrna it is thus related : — " There was an exceedingly strong 
 
HISTORY* OF GUNPOWDEK, H 
 
 place on the sea-shore, built of freestone, surrounded on three 
 sides by the ocean, and on the fourth by a deep ditch ; it 
 was inhabited by Europeans. It had never been taken by any 
 Mahoraedan, or paid tribute. Bayuzeed had besieged it in vain 
 for seven years ; his zeal for his religion made him resolve to 
 summon them to embrace that of Mahomed, or to pay tribute. 
 This place contained a great number of the bravest Christian 
 captains, or rather a band of desperate men who had laid up 
 much ammunition. By means of sapping, battering rams, and 
 fire,- the place was stormed, and the inhabitants put to the 
 sword. Two large ships, 'Curaccas,' arrived, and their com- 
 manders anchored. Teemoor ordered that some of the Chris- 
 tians' heads should be cast by machinery on board the vessels. 
 This took place in December, 1402." 
 
 These machines may have been mortars, and here Teemoor 
 may have obtained his first type of cannon ; for it has been 
 shown that about forty years before this period, projectiles by 
 powder were used in Europe. 
 
 We know from history that it was the invariable custom 
 of Teemoor to secure craftsmen, workmen, manufacturers, 
 artizans, add them to his camp followers, and ultimately locate 
 them at his capital ; therefore, if the manufacture of gunpowder, 
 matchlocks, and cannon, was prevalent in Asia Minor among the 
 Christians, it is more than probable he carried back to Bok- 
 hara this art, which may hence take the date of its re-introduc- 
 tion into Asia. We find the matchlocks and guns were always 
 considered Feringhee (or European), and that all the masters 
 of the" art of gunnery in Asia were denominated as Roomee, 
 Feringhee, or Osmanlee-Torks ; and almost the whole of the 
 terms used in the art by the Asiatics are of Toorkee deriva- 
 tion, -as Koor Khannuli (magazine), Shumkal (hand cannon), 
 Koorchee, Toopchee, Bundoohchce, and Topunchee ; all are ' 
 derived from the Moghul or Toorkee language. 
 
 About one hundred years after the period of the conquests of 
 Teemoor, we have, at the close of the fifteenth century, the 
 memoirs of Babur as a guide. 
 
12 HISTOBY OP GUNPOWDER. 
 
 In his early rebellious forays, risings, and battles beyond the 
 Oxus and the Juehoon, we do not trace any notice of gunpowder. 
 Arrows from cross-bows are mentioned as Teer-tutchsh, which, the 
 translator adds, may mean a war-rocket. One man is mentioned 
 who shot from this machine exceedingly well, and wounded a 
 great many people. 
 
 The defence of Sumurkhund against Shubanee Khan is detailed 
 at some length. All sorts of weapons are mentioned, as well as 
 operations offensive and defensive ; some of them are so described 
 as plainly to indicate that projectiles propelled by gunpowder 
 were not used. 
 
 Neither in his attack upon the town of Kandahar, nor in the 
 long detailed list of plunder taken, is there any trace of cannon 
 or matchlock. But ten or twelve years after this, when Babur 
 had obtained a permanent position in Kabul, he may have 
 found in that capital some of the rude ordnance brought by 
 Teemoor from Asia Minor, and the art of gunnery may have 
 remained with the descendants of the early Toopchees, brought 
 captives from the same land ; for we find, on a foray for 
 plunder, the following record : — 
 
 " As the people of Bajoor had never seen any matchlocks, 
 they at first were not the least apprehensive of them ; so that 
 when they heard the report of these fire-arms, they stood 
 opposite to them, making many unseemly and improper gestures. 
 That same day, Ustad Uh Kuh brought down five men with his 
 matchlock, and Wale Khazeen also killed two ; the rest of the 
 matchlock men likewise showed great courage and behaved 
 finely ; quitting their shields, their mail, and cowheads, they plied 
 their shot so well that before evening seven, eight, or ten Bajoorees 
 were brought down by them, after which the men of the fort 
 were so alarmed, for fear of the matchlocks, that not one of them 
 would venture to show his head." Ustad Uli Kuli was also there 
 again, and on that day too he managed his matchlock to a good 
 purpose. The Feringhee piece was also twice discharged. Wale 
 Khazeen also brought down a man with his matchlock. 
 
 I suspect the shield, mail, and cowheads, were used as a kind 
 
HISTOEY OP GUNPOWDER. 13 
 
 of stalking horse, behind which the men carried on the ope- 
 rations of loading and firing their pieces, which operations in 
 those early days were most likely a secret service of time and 
 danger. Ustad Uli Kuli is clearly a Persian name. 
 
 The translator remarks, " much has been written concerning 
 the early use of gunpowder in the East. There is, however, no 
 well-authenticated fact to prove the existence of anything like 
 artillery there, till it was introduced from Europe. Babur here, 
 and in other places, calls his larger ordnance Feringhee, a proof 
 that they were then regarded as owing their origin to Europe. 
 The Turks, in consequence of their constant intercourse with 
 the nations of the West, have always excelled all the other 
 Orientals in the use of artillery ; and when heavy cannon were 
 first used in India, Europeans and Turks were engaged to serve 
 them." 
 
 After Babur was fairly established at Agra the capital of 
 his dominions, and had obtained possession of the treasures col- 
 lected in that fort, we notice the services of Ustad Uli Kuli called 
 into play as a gun-founder. 
 
 " I had directed Ustad Uli Kuli to cast a large cannon for the 
 purpose of battering Biana and some other places which had not 
 submitted. 
 
 " Having prepared the forges and all the necessary implements, 
 he sent a messenger to give me notice that everything was ready. 
 On Monday, the 25th Mohurrum, we went to see Ustad Uli Kuli 
 cast his gun. Around the place where it was to be cast were 
 eight forges '^^ and all the implements in readiness ; below each 
 forge they had formed a channel which went down to the mould 
 in which the gun was to be cast. On my arrival they opened the 
 holes in all the different forges : the liquid metal flowed down 
 each channel and entered the mould. After some time, the flow- 
 ing of the metal from the various channels ceased, one after 
 another, before the mould was full. There was some oversight in 
 regard of the forges or the metal. Ustad Uli Kuli was in terrible 
 
 * The melting furnaces, from using bellows for blast, were called forges. — Ecitob. 
 
14 HISTORY OF GUNPOWDEE. 
 
 distress ; he was like to throw himself in the melted metal that 
 was ill the mould. Having cheered him up, and given him a dress 
 of honour, we contrived to soften his shame. Two days after, 
 when the mould was cool, they opened it. listed XJli Kuli, with 
 great delight, sent a person to let me know that the chamber of 
 the gun for the shot was without a flaw, and that it would be easy 
 to form the powder chamber. Having raised the bullet chamber 
 of the gun, he set a party to work to set it to rights, while he 
 betook himself to completing the powder chamber." * 
 
 With the unlimited command of the resources of India, and of 
 the art above indicated, no emperor after Babur will be found 
 without a means so conducive to dominion as a powerful battery. 
 
 Soon after this period we may safely allow to have been cast all 
 the numerous immense pieces of artillery which used to be found 
 in the various old forts of India. Many also have been carried 
 away as trophies to Europe by the different nations who have 
 effected conquests in Hindostan. 
 
 The early Portuguese visitors of India and China state, that they 
 were received with rejoicings by fireworks and explosions like 
 thunder by gunpowder contained in hollow cases. 
 
 The services of two artillery officers are thus spoken of in 
 the despatches of Babur on his victory at Biana. 
 
 Previous to the battle, Babur fortified the guns in front and 
 connected them by chains. 
 
 " Mustafa Rumi had disposed his guns according to the Rumi 
 fashion. He was extremely active, intelligent, and skilful in the 
 management of artillery. TJstad Uli Kuli was jealous of him. 
 
 " And the wonder of our times, Mustafa Rumi, from the centre, 
 directed by my excellent, -upright, and fortunate son, who is 
 regarded with favour in the sight of the Creating Majesty, and 
 distinguished with the particular grace of the Mighty King who 
 commands to do and not to do, having brought forward the 
 
 * This clearly describes tliat tte founder must have had a pattern to follow, of 
 a gun formed in separate pieces, having a powder-chamber perhaps similar to the 
 ancient patterns of China and Europe. 
 
HISTORY OF GUNPOWDEB. 15 
 
 cannon, broke the ranks of the Pagan army, with matchlocks 
 and guns (black), like their hearts." 
 
 " While the miracle of the times, Ustad Uli Kuli, who was 
 stationed with his men in front of the centre, having exhibited 
 great proofs of valour, discharged large bullets of such a size, 
 that if one of them were placed in the scale of duty, then the 
 man whose scale is heavy gains a name among the blessed ; and 
 if thrown against a rooted hill or a lofty mountain, it would 
 drive them from their foundations liked teazed wool. Such 
 were the bullets he darted on the iron-clad lines of the heathen 
 lands ; and from the discharge of balls, and guns, and match- 
 locks, many of the sons of the heathen were annihilated. The 
 imperial matchlock-men, according to orders, having issued from 
 behind the artillery, in the heat of the fight, each of them 
 made many Pagans drink of the draught of death." 
 
 During the closing period of the Afghan dynasties, which ruled 
 in India between the last of the Ghuzneevide chiefs and the first 
 of the Mogul kings, we trace fire-arms and artillery coming into 
 more common use with the concomitant decline of bows and 
 arrows. Thus, two Afghan chiefs held out Chunar with great gal- 
 lantry against the troops of Babur's son, Humayoon, the greater 
 part of the besiegers falling by the fire of the artillery. 
 
 " Sheer Shah, in his attack upon a fort called Raisein, drew 
 the artillery of other citadels to his camp, and planting it upon 
 high scafiblds, pressed so hard on the fort, that the garrison had 
 scarcely time to breathe ; besides that, he placed mine pipes filled 
 with powder at the foot of the besieged place on all sides." 
 
 On these high scafiblds we may suppose wall-pieces or smaller 
 cannon placed, rather than heavy guns. 
 
 Sheer Shah himself subsequently fell a victim to his own artil- 
 lery devices, in an attack on the fort of Kalinger. It is related : 
 " Sheer Shah upon this ascended the scaffolds, and having cast 
 with his own hands some bombs into the forts, he descended, and 
 going to the place where the bombs lay, gave orders for the bom- 
 bardment to be kept up. At this moment a shell that was 
 thrown against the wall rebounded, and fell down amongst the 
 
16 HISTORY OF GUNPOWDBE, 
 
 Store of bombs, which, catching fire, all at once blew up.* Sheer 
 Shah was carried away half burnt and died, 
 
 "When the Mogul party under Humayoon advanced from 
 Kabul to expel the Afghans, Islam Shah, the Putan king, was 
 urged to advance towards the frontier. On a representation 
 that the bullocks for dragging the artillery were in the country, 
 he ordered men to drag the guns instead of the animals. It 
 is said that he had sixty guns with him, each of them drawn 
 by one thousand men; notwithstanding which, he advanced 
 every day twelve miles, the artillery always arriving in advance 
 at the halting station." 
 
 About the year 1580 was written the " Ayeen Akbarree." In it 
 we find less than might have been expected on these impor- 
 tant subjects — gunpowder and artillery. 
 
 The price of saltpetre is stated at that time as from thirty 
 seers to four maunds for the rupee, about one halfpenny per 
 pound, for the finest quality. Under the head of artillery we 
 read — "These are the locks and keys of the empire, and ex- 
 cepting Room (Constantinople), no kingdom can compare with 
 this in the number and variety of its ordnance. Some pieces 
 are so large as to carry a ball of twelve maunds (the Tabreez 
 maund of eight pounds), and others require, each, several 
 elephants and a thousand bullocks for their transportation. 
 
 " His majesty gives great attention to this department, and has 
 appointed to it daroghas and clerks. He has invented several 
 kinds ; some of which are so contrived as to take to pieces for 
 the convenience of carriage, and when the army halts are nicely 
 put together again. Also seventeen pieces are so united together, 
 as to be discharged by one match. There are others which can 
 be easily transported by one elephant, and they are called gujnal ; 
 others can be carried by a single man, and they are called nurnal, 
 
 " It has been wisely ordered that a sufficient train of artillery be 
 placed in each Soobuh. The cannon for battery, and for boats, 
 
 * Here we have the first mention of bombs with fuses, as used in Hindostan/ 
 — Editor. 
 
HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER. 17 
 
 and those which are fit for journeys are kept separate. In this 
 department omrahs and uhdeyans receive large salaries : the 
 pay of the foot soldier (private) is from 100 to 400 dams," the 
 last sum values ten rupees. The price of matchlocks is noted 
 as varying from half a rupee to one mohur (sixteen rupees), and 
 of war-rockets from two and a half to four rupees. 
 
 I now extract a passage from the History of the Mogul 
 Emperors, sliated to be a translation from an ^.ccount written by 
 a Monsieur Manouchi, a Venetian, who resided at the Court of 
 Aurungzeeb for many years. The anecdote is amusing and 
 illustrative of the customs of a class of persons — the European 
 gunners, who were more numerous at the various Courts of Indian 
 potentates than is usually supposed. 
 
 " The projects of war which Akebar was continually forming 
 on one another obliged him to erect a school for cannoneers. 
 There was artillery enough in the Indies, and there is reason to 
 think that the Chinese, who doubtless had been formerly masters 
 of Hindoostan, had left some pieces there of which it is impos- 
 sible to discover the antiquity, 
 
 " It happened, unluckily, that there were but few in the Indies 
 who knew how to make use of them with the same art that we 
 do in Europe. 
 
 ^' Akebar, therefore, resolved to employ Europeans, and invite 
 them by rewards to come to Agra, The Enghsh had made 
 settlements not long before on the coast of Hindoostan, and soon 
 acquired a great reputation of valour. In sea-fights they com- 
 monly had the advantage of the Portugals. They are since 
 established at Suratte, where they begin to carry on a great trade. 
 It was from the town of Suratte that Akebar procured English- 
 men for his artillery. One of these gunners had an extraordinary 
 reputation of skill among those of his own country, and was no 
 less famous for drinking. 
 
 " He was at a strange loss, when he found himself in a Maho- 
 metan country, where taverns are forbid by the law. Mark the 
 cunning of the man to have the liberty and conveniency of 
 drinking. One day that the Emperor had a mind to see the 
 
18 HISTOEY OP GUNPOWDER. 
 
 trial of his skill, there was a large piece of cloth set up for a 
 mark, at a reasonable distance on the other side of the river, 
 where the gunner was to shoot. The Englishman levelled his 
 piece so ill, that he did not come near so fair a mark. The King 
 was surprised, and began to abuse him. ' Sire,' says the Englishman, 
 ' ever since I have left off drinking wine, my sight is so weakened 
 that I do not perceive the plainest object at a very small distance. 
 Nothing but wine is capable of restoring the organs of my sight, 
 and making me perceive objects as I used to do.' The place was 
 never without wine. Akebar kept some for his own drinking, and 
 the elephants had every day a certain quantity given them. The 
 King ordered a bottle to be brought for the gunner, who drank it 
 off at a draught. Then desiring that the mark might be changed 
 (which after his wine seemed too large) for another not much 
 broader than the diameter of the bullet, he hit it exactly, and had 
 the King's applause. 
 
 " From that time Akebar allowed his European gunners to 
 plant vineyards about Agra, and the wine they make there is 
 excellent. This ordinance of the King's was inserted in the 
 ' Chronicle ' with this preamble : wine is as natural to Europeans 
 as water to fish, and to forbid the use of it is in eflfect depriving 
 them of life. 
 
 " This liberty of planting vineyards, which the strangers in the 
 Mogul's service enjoy, is a vast profit to them, wine being scarce 
 and very dear at Agra, and the vines are not subject in the Indies 
 to the hazard of nipping frosts, as they are in Europe, so that it 
 is a certain revenue. 
 
 " Nor did Akebar take only English gunners into his service. 
 He sent for artists of all other kinds from Goa ; as lapidaries, 
 enamellers, goldsmiths, surgeons, and physicians, all of Europe." 
 
 Monsieur Manouchi closed his sketch of the Mogul armies with 
 the following accounts of the artillery for the period closing the 
 seventeenth century : — 
 
 " The Emperor has a numerous artillery, and the pieces of 
 cannon which he makes use of in his armies are for the most part 
 older than we have in Europe. Powder and cannon were certainly 
 
HISTORY OP GUNPOWDER. 19 
 
 known in the Indies long before the conquest of Tamerlane. It 
 is said the Chinese, who are supposed to be the first inventors, 
 had cast some pieces of cannon at Delhi at the time of their being 
 masters there. This is the tradition of the country. Every piece 
 of cannon has its particular name according to the custom of the 
 empire ; one is called Orang var, that is to say, the strength of 
 the throne; another Bargissitan, which signifies that which 
 batters bulwarks. The gunners of the empire were almost all 
 Europeans under the Emperors who preceded Aurungzeeb. The 
 present Mogul's zeal for the Alcoran will permit him to employ 
 none but Mahometans. There are hardly any Feringhees to be 
 seen now at court, except physicians and goldsmiths. All the 
 rest have quitted a country where the free exercise of religion is 
 not allowed as formerly. The Emperor has but too well learnt to 
 dispense with our gunners, and, generally speaking, with all our 
 artisans of Europe." 
 
 In the preceding imperfect sketch may be seen the progress 
 made by Eastern nations in the art of artillery ; guided by practice 
 and experience, they attained to the manufacturing of very 
 large and very heavy pieces of ordnance, such as were capable of 
 projecting balls fully as large as those in present use in Europe. 
 
 In the meantime, among the nations of the west, geometry 
 and the higher portions of mathematic investigation have been 
 applied to the art. 
 
 Certain laws and principles being demonstrated as true, the art 
 of artillery took its place among the sciences, and books and 
 treatises became common on the subject. 
 
 NOTK BY THE EdITOE. 
 
 There are so many excellent modern works, in which the early 
 histories of gunpowder and cannon, as well as in our encyclopaedias, 
 have been investigated, or touched upon, that I feel it would be quite 
 unnecessary to do more than refer to them in addition to Colonel 
 Anderson's treatment of the subject ; and I may recommend particu- 
 larly Colonel Chesney's work, " Observations on the Past and Present 
 state of Fire-arms," and Mr. Robert Mallet's truly scientific and valuable 
 work " On the Physical Condition involved in the Construction of 
 
 c 2 
 
20 HISTORY OP GONPOWDER. 
 
 Artillery," in which the notes on the above subjects contain much 
 information and instruction. 
 
 Few, however, can doubt, at the present day, that to China and 
 India the origin of gunpowder may be traced. It is most probable 
 that the kindling of fires upon the surface of the earth, and using tem- 
 porary earthen fireplaces, as well as the early use of pottery, which has 
 ever been, and now is, the custom of eastern nations, may have led to 
 the discovery of iron, gunpowder, and glass. The accidental use 
 of ochreous, nitrous, or silicious earths on these occasions may 
 sufficiently account for them; and we cannot wonder that, when 
 no written records were kept, the impenetrable veil of antiquity 
 stops our search. Let us consider the subject of iron alone; the 
 most useful and most widely distributed metal on the earth's 
 surface. "We know, from the earliest and most sacred of writings,* that 
 the use of iron may be traced back to the greatest antiquity of 
 the race of man, but aU is perfectly obscure as to the date of its first 
 discovery, except that it was most extensively used and wonderfully 
 worked up. 
 
 And that gunpowder and fire-arms were in use in India in the 
 earliest ages, the following extract — ^which I am aware has been 
 often quoted on the subject — from Mr. Halhed's translation of the 
 code of Gentoo laws, supposed to have been compiled at the time 
 of Moses, 1500 years before the Christian Era, is convincing proof: 
 ^' The magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful machine, or 
 with poisoned weapons, or with cannon and guns, or any hind of 
 fire-arms." 
 
 And thus, though the invaders of northern India may have brought 
 these, the repressive influence of the laws of the Gentoo code, and 
 their effect upon a superstitious, submissive, indolent, and uninventive 
 people, may have caused their use to lie dormant for many centuries 
 after their invaders retired. 
 
 * Gen. iv. 22. 
 
HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER. 21 
 
 EARLY ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER IN 
 
 BENGAL. 
 
 # 
 
 In the early records of the progressive conquests of England 
 in India, I cannot find that there was any complaint against 
 the quality of the gunpowder used, nor can I obtain any in- 
 formation of the sources from whence this article was supplied, 
 or of the prices paid. 
 
 Fire-arms are so clearly the instruments in which the European 
 excelled the native powers, that to them much of the English 
 success is due ; hence probably care was bestowed on the subject 
 of furnishing a good description of powder from England, or in 
 purchasing the best kinds from the native manufacturers. 
 
 The chief cause of inferiority in gunpowder is that, if the 
 ingredients are not carefully refined, and carefully manipulated, 
 the powder quickly deteriorates from its original strength of 
 propellent force when fresh from the mills. 
 
 In the early days of European occupation, war and battle were 
 too frequent to admit of the powder being long stored in the 
 magazines. 
 
 With native armies the powder-makers followed the camp ; the 
 women of families often manufactured the article for the match- 
 locks of their husbands ; such too at the present day is the 
 custom in the wilds of Afghanistan, where the hand flour-mills of 
 the huts are occasionally seen grinding the sulphur and saltpetre, 
 to fabricate a coarse powder for the use of the men on their 
 sporting occasions or plundering forays. 
 
 From the information I can collect it would appear, that up to 
 the year 1784 there existed at Baugh bazaar, near Calcutta, 
 several native manufactories of gunpowder, which supplied the 
 article at a high price to Government. As the population of 
 Calcutta increased, and as some attention was paid by the local 
 authorities to municipal regulations for the protection and safety 
 of lives and properties, these powder manufactories were declared 
 unsafe and dangerous. 
 
22 HISTOKY OF GUNPOWDEE. 
 
 From Baugh bazaar the works were removed, in 1784, to 
 Ackra, below Calcutta, where they continued for some years. 
 
 Though the situation was favourable as regards public safety, 
 yet the place, as unprotecfbd to the seaboard, was considered to be 
 insecure from an invading enemy. 
 
 About the years 1740 — 50 the Dutch possessed a settlement 
 on the Hooghly, with a fort and factory called Bankee bazaar. 
 These were located on the lands lying between the villages now 
 called Ishapoor and Nawab Gunge; close to the grand ferry at 
 Pultah Ghaut, and nearly opposite to the celebrated French 
 Government house and settlement of Guerettee. 
 
 The Nawab Nazim of Moorshedabad appears to have defeated 
 the Dutch in a battle, and regaining possession of Bankee bazaar, 
 to have assigned it to Rajah Nubookessen Bahadoor, on payment 
 of a small yearly revenue. 
 
 The importance of manufacturing good gunpowder, and the 
 profit to be obtained by such an article, did not escape the 
 attention and scrutiny of the talented, able, but eccentric John 
 Farquhar, then an assistant-surgeon in the service of the East 
 India Company, subsequently better known for the large fortune 
 which he acquired from the various speculations into which he 
 entered, and from his penurious habits. 
 
 Few articles of country produce escaped his attention, from 
 silk for the markets of Europe, to pwh for the bazaars of 
 Calcutta. 
 
 In 1794 Mr. Farquhar appears to have moved the Government 
 to obtain from Rajah Nubookessen an exchange between the old 
 Dutch factory and some lands at Satanooly, near Calcutta. This 
 was done ; and at Bankee bazaar, now called Ishapore, was laid 
 down the nucleus of the present powder manufactory. 
 
 Mr. Farquhar appears to have held a contract with the Govern- 
 ment. His powder was made in the native mode, by foot mills 
 under mat houses, and sifted in leather sieves. 
 
 In 1796 the magazines of Pultah and Duckinsore were es- 
 tablished as reserves for Fort WilHam, by General Kidd, of the 
 Engineers. 
 
HISTORY OP GUNPOWDEE. 23 
 
 The old Dutch buildings, the Pultah magazines, and, indeed, 
 the earlier parts of the different edifices erected by Colonel 
 McLeod and Colonel Galloway, are of most excellent construction. 
 
 Land has been from time to time added to the old Dutch 
 factory, until the works have reached their present extent. 
 
 In 1820 the agent's house was erected by Colonel McLeod. 
 Li the same year Colonel Galloway, returning from a trip to sea 
 for the benefit of his health, fell in with a foreign gentleman at 
 the Mauritius, who appeared well versed in the art of gun casting 
 and metal founding ; and he succeeded in bringing this gentle- 
 man to Calcutta, and by him, in Fort William, were cast in 
 bronze metal the machinery of the eight mills now in use. 
 
 From this time, slowly and progressively, have various im- 
 provements been introduced by different agents until the works 
 have attained their present magnitude. 
 
 Allahabad Works. 
 
 "With a view to meet the extended dominion of .the East India 
 Company, and in consideration of the advantage of a central 
 position, powder works were in the year 1799 established by 
 Captain Taylor, of the Bengal Artillery, at Poppa Mhow, near 
 Allahabad. From motives of state economy, during the first 
 years of Lord William Bentinck's career as Governor- General, 
 both the powder works at Allahabad and Ishapore were closed 
 for three years, and the Allahabad works have not since been re- 
 opened ; and it was fortunate that it was so determined, as in the 
 late mutiny and occupation of Allahabad by the mutineers the 
 most serious results would have followed. 
 
 The History of the first Establishment of Gunpowder Works in 
 
 England. 
 
 Before quitting the subject of the establishment of powder 
 works, I have deemed that it will be of considerable interest to 
 give such information as I have been able to obtain on this 
 subject through the kindness of Mr. Hart, of the Public Record 
 
2ri HISTORY OF QUNPOWDBB. 
 
 Office, which will in a considerable degree affor.d information 
 as to whence we derived our supplies both of gunpowder and 
 cannon. 
 
 The exact period when this important article of warfare, gun- 
 powder, was first made use of by our ancestors cannot now be 
 determined; but from the testimony of various records, as shown by 
 the Rev. Joseph Hunter, in a paper printed in the " Archseologia," 
 vol. 25, it is evident that it was used at the battle of Cressy, for 
 in an account rendered by John Cook, the clerk of the king's 
 great wardrobe, of the monies received and expended by him 
 from the 22nd Dec, 19 Edward III. (1349), it is stated that 912 
 pounds of saltpetre, and 886 pounds of quick sulphur, were sup- 
 plied to the king for his guns. 
 
 On the 25th November, 1346, the king issued a writ, com- 
 manding that all the saltpetre and sulphur that was anywhere to 
 be sold should be bought. The total amount obtained was 750 
 pounds of saltpetre and 310 pounds of quick sulphur. 
 
 In the time of Henry VI. an enterprising merchant of London, 
 John Judde, who was skilled in devising warlike instruments, 
 made at his own expense sixty guns, called serpentines, and also 
 " stuff for gonnepowdre of saltpietre and sidphur, to the weight of 
 XX tonne," which he offered to deliver to the treasurer for the 
 king's use under certain conditions, in consideration of which 
 good service the king, by letters patent, dated 21st Dec, in the 
 thirty-fifth year of his reign, constituted him Master-General of 
 the Ordnance for life. 
 
 It was not, however, till the latter part of the reign of Eliza- 
 beth that public attention was drawn to the necessity of estabUsh- 
 ing at home the manufacture of gunpowder, which before had 
 been chiefly suppUed by importing from abroad. It had been 
 up to that time an open trade ; but the Government being 
 compelled, by the menacing attitude which Spain assumed, to 
 provide more efficient means of defence, commenced the granting 
 of patents for the manufacture of gunpowder, which constituted 
 it a monopoly in the hands of those whom the Government 
 thought proper to trust with the privilege. 
 
HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER. 25 
 
 The first establishment of gunpowder mills of any importance 
 appears to have been at Long Ditton, near Kingston, in Surrey, 
 by George Evelyn, grandfather of the celebrated Sir John Evelyn. 
 He had mills also at Leigh Place, near Godstone, in the same 
 county. The Evelyn family is said to have brought the art over 
 from Flanders. The mills at Paversham, in Kent, were in 
 operation as far back as the time of Elizabeth ; but those of 
 the Evelyns, at Godstone, were at this time of the greatest 
 importance. 
 
 It appears, also, that on the 28th January, 1589, the thirty-first 
 of queen Elizabeth, was granted to George Evelyn, Esq., Richard 
 Hills, and John Evelyn, gentlemen, licence and authority for the 
 term of eleven years to dig, open, and work for saltpetre within 
 the realms of England and Ireland, and all other dominions 
 where the same should be found, as well as within the queen's 
 own lands and grounds and those of her subjects, except in the 
 city of London and two miles distant from the walls of the same, 
 and the counties of York, Northumberland, Westmoreland, Cum- 
 berland, and the Bishopric of Durham, and all the saltpetre so 
 found was to be made into powder for the queen's service. 
 
 And on the 26th April, 31 Elizabeth, George Constable, Esq., 
 had similar licence to dig for saltpetre within the counties of 
 York, Nottingham, Lancaster, Northumberland, Westmoreland, 
 Cumberland, and the Bishopric of Durham, for the term of eleven 
 years. 
 
 8th of January, 32 Elizabeth (1590), Thomas Robinson and 
 Robert Robinson had a similar licence to dig for saltpetre within 
 the cities of London and Westminster, and within two miles 
 of the city of London, or from the old palace of Westminster, for 
 the term of ten years. 
 
 By letters patent, dated 'rth September, 41 Ehzabeth, after 
 reciting that John Evelyn, John Wrenham, gentlemen, Richard 
 Hardinge, Esq., and Simeon Furner, gentleman, had undertaken 
 to deliver yearly into the store of the Tower of London a greater 
 quantity of good, perfect, and serviceable corn gunpowder, meet 
 and serviceable for cannon and caliver shot, at a lower rate than 
 
26 HISTORY OF GUNPOWDEK. 
 
 was before paid, whereby the queen would not be driven to seek 
 the said proportion of gunpowder out of any foreign countries, 
 and that they had devised means of making saltpetre, whereby 
 the excessive waste and spoil of woods and other inconveniences 
 to the queen's subjects will be avoided, licence was granted them 
 for the term of ten years to make and work for all and all 
 manner of saltpetre and gunpowder within the realms of England 
 and Ireland, and all other the queen's dominions, and to have the 
 sole making of all manner of saltpetre and gunpowder within the 
 realms of England and Ireland, except in the county of York, the 
 city of York, the counties of Nottingham, Lancaster, Northum- 
 berland, Westmoreland, Cumberland, and the Bishopric of Dur- 
 ham ; and they had from the last day of April similar Hcences 
 for those excepted places for the same term of ten years. 
 
 These parties were bound, it appears, to deliver during the 
 term 100 lasts of powder ; good, serviceable corn powder, eight 
 lasts ; and eight hundred pounds weight every month, half of 
 which was to be cannon corn gunpowder, and half to be caliver 
 corn powder, at the price of sevenpence per pound ; and they 
 had permission to sell to the public. 
 
 Thus we have estabUshed on undisputed testimony that gun- 
 powder of different sized grains, or corned — an art probably 
 obtained from Flanders — was generally used at this time ; and 
 that before this date the greater quantity of gunpowder used in 
 Great Britain had been imported from abroad. 
 
 It may be a wrong supposition, but with all this digging for 
 saltpetre, to the great distress and worrying of the inhabitants of 
 houses in the town and country, gardens, orchards, &c., which led 
 to much discontent, probably our great Shakespeare took the 
 expression — Act 1, Henry IV. : — ■ 
 
 " And that it was great pity, so it was. 
 That vUIanoTis saltpetre should be digg'd 
 Out of the bowels of this harmless earth." 
 
 Since the general practice in countries where it abounds is to 
 obtain it by hxiviation of the upper soils. 
 
HISTORY OJP GUNPOWDER. 27 
 
 It appears by letters patent, dated 24th January, 18 James I. 
 (1621), that in consequence of the abuses and inconveniences 
 which the inhabitants of this kingdom complained of as sustained 
 from the servants of the above patentees, that the patent was 
 revoked on the 17th December, and after reciting that there was 
 in the kingdom a great quantity of the mine of saltpetre, it stated 
 that the King had once determined again to furnish the store of 
 gunpowder by importation, but still as there were inconveniences 
 in this mode of obtaining the necessary supplies of gunpowder, 
 the King thought it expedient to continue the manufacture in 
 the kingdom, and to estabhsh certain vigilance and care to re- 
 press all abuses complained of by his loving subjects. 
 
 The King then granted to George, Marquis of Buckingham, 
 High Admiral of England ; Lord George Carew, Master of the 
 Ordnance ; and Sir Lionel Cranfield, Knight, Master of the 
 Court of Wards and Liveries, licence to make and work for salt- 
 petre and gunpowder. 
 
 On the 16th of January, 20 James, a proclamation was issued 
 which, after stating the great inconvenience of the sale of weak 
 and defective gunpowder, ordered that no persons should make 
 gunpowder in England and Wales, or any saltpetre, but by warrant 
 of His Majesty's Commission, and that no saltpetre could be sold 
 or bought but to and from the King's powder maker — and all gun- 
 powder was to be proved and allowed by the sworn proof-master, 
 and marked by him, for which he was to have a fee of sixpence 
 the barrel. The marks of the proof-master were three crowns 
 for the best, two crowns if new and strong, but W and one 
 crown for old powder new worked, but good and strong, and fit 
 for ordnance for one year's service at least. 
 
 By an indenture, dated 26th April, 2 Charles I. (1626), made 
 between the King on the one part and Sir John Brooke, Knight, 
 and Thomas Russell, Esq., after reciting that there was never yet 
 made, since the first making of saltpetre in the kingdom, being 
 about the beginning of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, a third part 
 of the saltpetre required for the service of the kingdom, but the 
 King, as well as his subjects, were forced to procure the same 
 
28 HISTORY OP GUKPOWDEH. 
 
 from Barbary, France, Poland, Hamburgh, and other places in 
 Germany ; and that Brooke and Russell had discovered a new 
 mode of making saltpetre, whereby the King should have what- 
 ever quantity was required ; the King' granted them a Ucence to 
 exercise this invention for twenty-one years, and they were to be 
 paid £3 3s. 4d. for every hundred-weight of saltpetre delivered 
 into the store in the Tower. 
 
 The East India Company by this time had begun importing 
 great quantities of saltpetre, and had erected gunpowder mills in 
 the county of Surrey, but being in an inconvenient situation they 
 were pulled down by the King's direction. The Bast IncMa Com- 
 pany then petitioned for leave to erect mills in the counties of 
 Surrey, Kent, and Sussex, or any or either of them, and accord- 
 ingly by letters patent, dated 17th August, 2 Charles I. (1626), 
 they were empowered to do so, and also to convert into powder 
 all such saltpetre as should be imported by them from foreign 
 parts, and to employ the same powder for their own use, or to the 
 use of any of the King's subjects. 
 
 28th April, 5 Charles I. (1629), the King granted Richard 
 Lord Weston, High Treasurer of England, and others, commis- 
 sions to work for saltpetre ; and on the 18th April, 10 Charles I. 
 (1634), a similar commission was granted to Richard Earl of 
 Portland and others. 
 
 No doubt the manufacture of gunpowder at this time was a 
 very profitable investment of money, and we find by a commis- 
 sion dated 8th March, 12 Charles I. (1637), directed to the 
 Bishop of London, and others, a contract was made with Samuel 
 Cordwell and John Collins for the sole working and making into 
 gunpowder all saltpetre made in England or imported. 
 
 A commission dated 26th April, Charles L (1637), after re- 
 citing that grievances had arisen from the indiscriminate sale of 
 gunpowder — Mountjoy, Earl of Newport, and others were ordered 
 and authorised to make choice of and license persons who were 
 desirous of buying and receiving gunpowder from any of the 
 Royal magazines, and selling the same by retail. 
 
 7th June (1637), another commission was granted to the 
 
HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER. 29 
 
 Bishop of London and others, giving the licence to dig for salt- 
 petre, and to make gunpowder. 
 
 I7th March, 16 Charles II. (1663), was issued a proclamation 
 prohibiting the exportation of saltpetre for three months. 
 
 June 5th, 18 Charles II. (1666), a commission was granted to 
 John Lord Berkeley, Baron of Stratton, and Sir John Dunscombe, 
 Knight, Thomas Chichely, Esq., commissioners for the execution 
 of the office of Ordnance, "WiUiam Legg, Lieutenant of the 
 Ordnance, John Evelyn, of Deptford, E. Strong, Esq., Edward 
 Sherborne, Esq., Clerk of the Ordnance, and Jonas Moore, Esq., 
 to dig and work for saltpetre, and make the same into gunpowder 
 for the King's service. 
 
 22nd July (1689), was issued another proclamation prohibiting 
 the exportation of saltpetre. 
 
 Letters patent, dated 29th October, 1692, were granted to 
 " Our trusty and well-beloved subjects — Richard Earl of Belmont, 
 in our kingdom of Ireland ; Peregrine Bertie and Phillip Bertie, 
 Esqs., sons of our trusty and right well-beloved cousin and coun- 
 cillor, Robert Earl of Lindsey, Sir John Huband, Bart., Sir Nicolas 
 Pelham, and Sir John Bucknall, Knights ; William Gulston, Wil- 
 liam Tindal, Thomas Cox, Rupert Brown, Richard Dayrell, Wil- 
 liam Barnesby, John Hoskyns, Esqrs. ; John Seger Widenfelt, 
 Charles Cox, Thomas Malyn, John Sherman, Patrick Gordon, 
 Samuel Antrim, Jonathan Smith, gentlemen ; Thomas Dawson, 
 and James West, merchants ; and all such others as shall here- 
 after be admitted and made free of the Company by the name 
 of the Governor and Company, for making and refining of 
 saltpetre within the kingdoms of England and Ireland, and to 
 have continuance for ever." 
 
 They were to sell and deliver into the office of the Ordnance 
 two hundred tons of the best white saltpetre, duly refined, within 
 one year from the date of the patent, and every year afterwards 
 such quantities, not exceeding one thousand tons in any one year, 
 as should be required by the Ordnance, at the price of £70 the 
 ton, in case it bore that price in the market; or if not, then at the 
 market price. 
 
30 HISTORY OF GUNPOWDEK. 
 
 " They were also to pay, yearly, during the continuance of their 
 grant, to the Treasurer of the Navy, lOOOZ. towards the relief and 
 maintenance of maimed, aged, and decayed seamen, until a hospital 
 should be built for them ; after the erection of which, the money 
 would go towards the support of the hospital." 
 
 There is no record, Mr. Hart states, that he has met with, of 
 this remarkable charter of incorporation, in any works on the 
 subject of gunpowder, nor is it known when the company was 
 dissolved, or the charter surrendered. 
 
 There can be little doubt, however, that, as by the Bast India 
 Company's Charter, the Company was bound to import a certain 
 quantity of saltpetre annually, for the use of the Ordnance, pro- 
 bably quite sufficient for the Government purposes, that the supply 
 from the Governor and Company was quite unnecessary, and that 
 the discovery of WiUiam Tindal and Thomas Cox, Esqs., of a " new 
 way of making saltpetre in great quantities," on which the com- 
 pany was formed, was of no commercial value, and thus the supply 
 of Indian saltpetre led to the discontinuance of their project.* 
 
 I have thus, through the kindness of Mr. "W. Hart, of the 
 Public Record Office, been able to place before the readers of 
 this volume some interesting facts which will establish the cer- 
 tainty that although the manufacture of gunpowder commenced 
 in England in the time of Edward III. (1345), it was not until 
 the reign of queen Ehzabeth, when the improved art was imported 
 from Flanders by the Evelyns, that it was fairly estabhshed ; 
 also that until the reign of Charles II. the quantity required for 
 the King's service, and of saltpetre also, was not sufficient, and 
 that large supplies were imported from various foreign countries. 
 It will also account for the supply to the East Indian armies 
 after the East India Company had established their manufactories 
 in England, in aid of the quantity furnished to the Bengal 
 Government by the native manufacturers, until the time of Mr. 
 John Parquhar, in 1794. — Editor. 
 
 *■ Acoorcling to tlie ctarter of 1693, A-D., tlie East India Company was bound 
 to funiisli the Government with 500 tons of saltpetre annnally, at from £38 to 
 £45 per ton. 
 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 31 
 
 General Principles of Gunpowder. 
 
 The first object in the manufacture of gunpowder is, to obtain, 
 in small space and weight, a material which produces, when 
 excited by chemical action, a high propellent force, possessing 
 an expansive power which shall be gradual, progressive and 
 under good control. 
 
 Such is gunpowder. Thus the weight of 2 oz. will, in its 
 expansion when fired, propel 1088 oz., the weight of an iron 
 ball placed before it in a mortar, the distance of 100 yards. 
 We are thus supplied with a power the artillerist requires, infi- 
 nitely superior to the mechanical contrivances of ancient times. 
 
 The expansion of gunpowder, though amazingly rapid, is by 
 no means instantaneous, as, if so, it would be totally unfit for 
 the purposes we apply it to, for the following reasons : — we 
 can only apply it to artillery projectiles or fire-arms generally, 
 by using chambers of metal to confine its expanding power, 
 except on the side of the shot or projectile placed before it, 
 in which we allow it to expand. Now all metals consist of 
 particles held together by what is termed the power of cohesion, 
 and that this is only a limited power of resistance, differing 
 in different metals, we know by experiment. Thus fulminating 
 powders, laid upon an open plate of metal, though confined 
 only by the atmosphere, produce a perforation in the plate of 
 metal from the momentary impulse of the force ; and when applied 
 to cannon or shot placed before it in a confined chamber, shatter 
 both probably, without producing any intended projectile motion. 
 
 Hence the advantages of gunpowder ; its expansion is progres- 
 sive, and there is time given to overcome the i?iertia of a weight 
 of matter placed before it, and to impart this force to the pro- 
 jectile, without the evil consequences of fulminating powders. 
 
 Gunpowder has also the advantage of being easily transported, 
 and, under proper precautions, with perfect safet}'- ; and it is a 
 singular circumstance, that notwithstanding the advance of science, 
 and the wonderful chemical progress of moderns, there has been 
 no substance yet produced that possesses all its advantages, 
 and that the three materials used in its composition from the 
 
32 CHEMICAL PEINCIPLES OF GUNPOWDEE. 
 
 earliest times, viz., saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur, have not been 
 superseded by others.* 
 
 Chemical Principles of Gunpowder. 
 
 Chemistry teaches us that there exist certain properties in 
 matter which, when different atoms of various kinds are brought 
 into contact, will, under the influence of heat, produce the won- 
 derful phenomena called sudden decomposition and consequent 
 explosion, changing their condition from solid particles to an expan- 
 sive gaseous or aeriform state. We cannot explain the nature of 
 the power, but we can, by experiment with it, produce effects, and 
 from these calculate the power we can produce, with other results. 
 
 There can be little doubt that, in the first formation of gun- 
 powder, when the science of chemistry was comparatively un- 
 known, accidental circumstances led to these properties being 
 discovered in the mixture of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur; 
 probably, in the first instance, only saltpetre and charcoal were 
 used. 
 
 But at the present day, from the science of chemistry, we find 
 that in these ingredients the following properties exist, which 
 render them so essential for the purpose of forming gun- 
 powder. 
 
 In saltpetre, or nitrate of potash, we have a compound con- 
 sisting of nitric acid and a base of potassium. 
 
 Chemists of the greatest celebrity have not given to their 
 analysis the exactness of the proportions, but if we take the fair 
 medium, we may consider saltpetre to consist of. 
 
 Nitric acid 54 
 Potassium 46 t 
 
 The charcoal and the sulphur may be considered as simple 
 substances if pure ; and though this is seldom the case, we must 
 so consider them at present. 
 
 In the three components of gunpowder, we have, therefore, a 
 compound and two simple combustibles. 
 
 * Gun cotton, and other proposed substitutes for gunpowder, will be noticed in 
 the Appendix. — Editor. 
 
 I Celebrated chemists differ in the proportions. See Appendix. 
 
CHEMICAL PKmCIPLES. 33 
 
 The compound (the saltpetre) consists of nitric acid combined 
 with a base of potash. The nitric acid consists of oxygen and 
 nitrogen, six parts of oxygen to one of nitrogen ; when salt- 
 petre is exposed to a red heat, or above 800°, it decomposes 
 gradually if there is no combustible present, and a portion of tRe 
 oxygen and all the nitrogen will pass away into the atmosphere, 
 the other portion of the oxygen will unite with the potash, and 
 form oxide of potassium ; but when we bring a combustible, as 
 charcoal, into contact with the saltpetre at this heat, a violent and 
 sudden decomposition takes place, and consequent explosion, from 
 its striking the surrounding air so suddenly. The oxygen com- 
 bines with the carbon, forming carbonic acid gas, and the nitrogen 
 is set free. It is found from experiment that the volume of 
 gaseous or aeriform fluid thus formed, occupies a space as a per- 
 manently elastic fluid, about 240 to 290 times that of the bulk 
 of the gunpowder used, when cooled down to the state of the 
 atmosphere ; but at the time of explosion the heat generated is 
 so great, that the expansion of this volume of gas is increased from 
 four to eight times in bulk, varying according to quantity and 
 quahty of the gunpowder and the circumstances of the explosion. 
 Such is the cause of the amazing power of fired gunpowder. 
 
 We have as yet taken no notice of the third material used in 
 the composition of gunpowder, viz., sulphur ; nor of the base of 
 the saltpetre, potash. For neither the sulphur nor the potash are 
 elements from which the expanding gas is formed ; that proceeds 
 alone from the combination of the oxygen of the nitre with 
 the carbon, for gunpowder of equal strength can be formed 
 with saltpetre and charcoal only ; but the sulphur has many 
 valuable properties, which render its mixture necessary and 
 advantageous in the manufacture of good gunpowder ; it is highly 
 combustible at a lower temperature, about 550°, and in the com- 
 bustion, no doubt, assists in thp ignition of the charcoal and com- 
 bines with the potash forming sulphuret of potassium. It has the 
 valuable property, being unalterable itself in moisture, of closing 
 the absorbent pores of the charcoal, and from its hardness and 
 tenacity assists in adding firmness to the grain of gunpowder. 
 
34 
 
 CHEMICAL PEINCIPLES. 
 
 qualities that are invaluable when powder is to be stored or trans- 
 ported. Good gunpowder cannot, therefore, be manufactured 
 without a due portion of sulphur. 
 
 The question, therefore, now is, what are the best proportions 
 of the three ingredients 1 Chemists have decided, in general terms, 
 that the proportion of charcoal should be just sufficient to absorb 
 the oxygen of the saltpetre, and the sulphur to saturate the potash. 
 Then, according to the theory of chemical equivalents, the weight 
 of the compound will be the sum of the weights of the equivalents, 
 thus : — 
 
 Nitre consists of . 
 Nitric acid consists of 
 Potassa consists of . 
 
 {1 proportion nitric acid 
 1 ,, potassa 
 
 {5 proportions of oxygen 
 l „ nitrogen 
 
 oxygen 
 potassium 
 
 Equivalents. 
 
 {; 
 
 Nitre consists of 
 
 Carbonic acid consists ( 
 
 r 
 
 Therefore to absorb it will f 6 
 require . . . . \3 
 
 Sulpburet of potassium fl 
 will reqmre . . • \ 1 
 
 oxygen 
 nitrogen 
 potassium 
 carbon . 
 oxygen 
 oxygen . 
 carbon 
 sulphur . 
 potassium 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 . 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 14 
 40 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 48 
 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 102 
 
 102 
 
 102 
 
 22 
 
 66 
 
 oG 
 
 Supposing nothing lost in the transfer the result would be- 
 Nitrogen 14 "j 
 
 Carbonic acid 66 > 136 or 
 
 Sulphuret of potassium 56 J 
 
 10 -a 
 
 48-6 
 41-1 
 
 100 
 
 To obtain the three ingredients in these proportions would 
 require — 
 
 136 : 100 
 
 102 
 18. 
 16. 
 
 ; T5 '08 saltpetre 
 13 '12 charcoal 
 11 '8 sulphur 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Dr. Shaughnessy remarks on the above :— « There are, at least, 
 seven definite compounds of sulphur and potassium, and there are, 
 
 * Carbonic acid gas was first discovered by Dr. Black in ITST ; and Dr. 
 Priestly discovered oxygen gas in 1774 ; and Dr. Cruickshanks, of Woolwich, 
 made many experiments on gunpowder and these gases, for notice of which, see 
 Appendix. — Editok. 
 
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES. 35 
 
 at least, two of carbon and oxygen always formed on the explosion 
 of gunpowder. The carbonic acid in part combines with potassa ; 
 the sulphur is partly converted into sulphuric acid ; compounds 
 of nitrogen and oxygen, especially nitric oxyde (N 1, 2), are 
 produced, and in some analyses cyanogen and its compounds have 
 been detected ; all this is cited to show that the results cannot be 
 enunciated in the above simple terms, and admit not of estimation 
 in these simple formulge." 
 
 There is a simplicity in the above calculations ; but as we find 
 that the most celebrated chemists offer different results, and that 
 it is easy to combine under given proportions atomic weights into 
 other and different forms, we must pause ere we accept the 
 above theory as complete. 
 
 As regards gunpowder, we may observe, and it is a curious 
 circumstance, that the resulting proportions of chemistry are 
 nearly those universally made use of by manufacturers of gun- 
 powder in early times. 
 
 The quantity of gas, the temperature of the combustion, and 
 the expansion under this temperature, are uncertain and varied 
 quantities ; but the average may be taken, that one measure of 
 gunpowder will yield from 240 to 290 equal measures of perma- 
 nent elastic gas ;* that if the temperature during combustion is 
 as high as 2196° Fahr., this will create an expansion or a pro- 
 pulsive force of about 1592 atmospheres; taking the atmo- 
 sphere at only 14^ lbs., there results the astonishing pressure of 
 1592 X 14^ = 22,074 lbs. on the square inch of surface at the 
 moment of combustion. 
 
 Note. — I am well aware that many writers on the subject have 
 estimated these measures, temperature and expansive forces, both in 
 excess and below the average statement here given. Great variety will 
 arise from the nature of the charcoal used in the composition, supposing 
 the other ingredients pure, and also from the circumstances under which 
 such experiments are tried, from the quality of the manufactured 
 
 * Gay Lussao estimated this quantity of permanently gaseous volume at 450. 
 See Appendix on this subject. — Editob. 
 
 D 2 
 
36 
 
 CHEMICAL PEOPOETIONS. 
 
 material and the proportions used. The subject will be further alluded 
 to in the Appendix. — Editob. 
 
 The following tabular statement of the proportions of the in- 
 gredients to form gunpowder used in different countries may well 
 find a place in this portion of our pages : — 
 
 
 Names of Countries and 
 Places, &o. 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 Charcoal. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Eemarks. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 i 
 
 Bengal, Ishapore, and\ 
 Allahabad . . / 
 
 75 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 
 '3 
 
 Madras 
 
 75 
 
 13^ 
 
 11| 
 
 
 A 
 
 Bombay . . . . 
 
 75 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 Best Sikh powder . 
 
 75 
 
 12-5 
 
 12-5 
 
 Probably derived from French 
 
 f 
 
 England Royal miUs, \ 
 Waltham Abbey . / 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 officers. 
 
 ja 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 
 S ' 
 
 Dartford 
 
 79-70 
 
 12-48 
 
 7-82 
 
 From French analysis. 
 
 I" 
 
 Hounslow . . . 
 
 78 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Mining powder 
 
 65 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 Government mills, 1808 . 
 
 75 
 
 12-5 
 
 12-5 
 
 
 
 Mons. Champy 
 
 80 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 „ Bouchet (sporting) . 
 
 78 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 ,, Chaptal 
 
 77 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 
 i\ 
 
 De Berne . . . . 
 
 76 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 These proportions -were made 
 
 Poudre ronde 
 
 76 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 by the French chemists, in 
 
 
 Maoquer . . , . 
 
 75 
 
 15-5 
 
 9-5 
 
 order to satisfy the Govem- 
 
 fi 
 
 1794ofBac . 
 GreneUe 
 
 76 
 76 
 
 14 
 12 
 
 10 ^ 
 12 
 
 mentwhich were the best pro- 
 portions, and the three first 
 were declared strongest, and 
 
 
 M. Merveau . 
 
 76 
 
 9 
 
 9-24| 
 
 the third proportion was then 
 
 
 Ditto. . . . 
 
 77-32 
 
 9-24 
 
 adopted, though it contamed 
 
 
 M. KefiFault . 
 
 77-50 
 
 7-50 
 
 7-50l 
 
 less charcoal and kept bet- 
 ter ; but of late years the 
 
 
 Austria . . .J 
 
 76 
 
 13 
 
 11 ^ 
 
 proportions were adopted of 
 
 
 75-5 
 
 11-3 
 
 13-2 
 
 75-, 12 -S-, 12-5, as the in- 
 
 
 United States . / 
 
 76 
 75 
 
 14 
 15 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 crease of sulphur was found 
 to be a great preservative. 
 
 
 Prussia . . . . 
 
 75 
 
 13-6 
 
 11-5 
 
 
 
 Switzerland . 
 
 76 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 Spherical grain. 
 
 
 Hanover . . . . 
 
 71-2 
 
 13-2 
 
 10-9 
 
 
 
 Sweden 
 
 76 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 Spain , . . . 
 
 76-47 
 
 12-76 
 
 10-78 
 
 
 
 Belgium 
 
 75 
 
 12-5 
 
 12-5 
 
 
 
 Ditto, Carbine . . . 
 
 78 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 HoUand 
 
 75-6 
 
 12-5 
 
 12-5 
 
 
 
 Wirtemburgj Artillery, ) 
 „ Infantry J 
 
 75 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 74-6 
 
 10-7 
 
 14-7 
 
 « 
 
 
 Russia .... 
 
 70 
 
 18-5 
 
 11-5 
 
 
 
 For mining 
 
 65 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 Hesse Cassel . 
 
 73-3 
 
 13-35 
 
 13-35 
 
 
 
 Chinese . 
 
 75-7 
 
 14-4 
 
 9-9 
 
 
SALTPETRE. 37 
 
 Other analyses of 1844 give different proportions to these 
 powders with but slight alterations. But there are many cir- 
 cumstances which will cause variation, and much will depend 
 upon the purity of the saltpetre employed by different manu- 
 facturers. 
 
 All the rarious powders agree in these points — to require 
 nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon ; to reject all substances attractive 
 of moisture, as hydrogen and its compounds, or sulphuric acid 
 and its salts. Hence it appears the object should be to bring 
 those substances evolving the first desiderata free from all com- 
 binations of the latter ; or when found together to separate them 
 as "far as possible, so as to neutralise the effects of the injurious 
 ingredients. 
 
 Saltpetre is found in abundance in Siestan, and between 
 Persia and India ; but in Bengal this salt exists, perhaps, in 
 greater abundance than in any other country. The great 
 demand for it in the periods of European warfare, combined 
 with the distance from whence brought, rendered saltpetre a 
 truly valuable article. The greatest exertions were used in 
 France to counteract the EngHsh monopoly, but they were not 
 rewarded with the success desired, art being unable to compete 
 with the natural production. Still the attempts led in some 
 measure to a better understanding of the nature of the article. 
 
 In some cases advantage was taken of situations affording a 
 portion of the required elements, and by the addition of the other 
 portions the compound was produced. 
 
 Thus in cases of limestone containing nitric acid, the stone was 
 pounded up and mixed with earth ; to this was superadded ashes 
 obtained from vegetable matter affording potassa; after which 
 the whole mixture was watered. The nitric acid combined with 
 the potassa and rose to the surface, whence, the water being 
 evaporated, the saltpetre was deposited. The carbonic acid united 
 to the lime was allowed to remain at the bottom. 
 
 In other cases decaying animal matter of every description was 
 obtained as containing nitrogen and yielding ammonia. This was 
 brought into contact with a mixture of earth and ashes with water. 
 
38 SALTPETRE. 
 
 when the same result appeared in an efflorescence of nitre on the 
 surface. 
 
 Thus from 433 lbs. of urine thus mixed were obtained 100 lbs. of 
 crude saltpetre. 
 
 Experience pointed out that the following conditions required 
 to be fulfilled : — 
 
 The presence of a base ; 
 ,, „ of moisture ; 
 
 ,, ,, temperature above 32° Fahr. ; 
 
 ,, ,, matter containing nitrogen ; 
 
 ,, J, atmospheric air. 
 
 The great difficulty appeared to exist in the obtainment of the 
 nitric acid. 
 
 Many other opinions were held. Some considered the presence 
 of carbonic acid necessary, and that both the elements required for 
 the nitric acid were obtained from the atmosphere, and were gene- 
 rated and recombined under certain laws, with reference to the 
 moisture, temperature, and mode of union. 
 
 Unable to compete with the natural production, from the time 
 that the material was brought to Europe by commercial enterprise, 
 the manufacture of the article by such processes was abandoned. 
 
 The subsequent development of th,e process of manufacturing 
 saltpetre in the provinces of Bengal indicates that a near approach 
 had been made in France, under the clever chemists of that nation, 
 to the correct elements of the compound, all that was further 
 required being the vivifying energy of nature peculiar to certain 
 locations. 
 
 According to Mr. Stevenson's account, all the soils of the 
 districts of Tirhoot, Bahar, and Agra consist more or less of 
 saline matter intermixed with sand and carbonate of lime. 
 
 The quantity of saline matter is extremely various, the salt of 
 potash being chiefly found in places tainted with animal matter. 
 There exist also large portions of saline ground, barren by reason 
 of their saltness. During the periodical rains these districts are 
 overflown, the various salts are dissolved and brought into con- 
 tact, when new combinations follow, and fresh salts result; as the 
 
SALTPETEB; 39 
 
 water evaporates or percolates the soil, these are found and 
 collected ; the lowest produce of saltpetre bemg, perhaps, three 
 per cent, of the collection of surface soil, and the highest about 
 thirty-eight per cent. 
 
 These products, by repeated washings, evaporations, and 
 filterings, are collected in a mass, valued at three rupees per 
 uiaund, and contain by analysis — 
 
 Moisture . . . . . . . . 10'6 
 
 Sand, mud . . . . . . . . 22'V' 
 
 Sulphate of soda . . . . . . . 23'8 
 
 Muriate of soda . . , . . . . 4 "2 
 
 Nitrate of potash . . . . . . . 38 '7 
 
 100 
 
 This raw material next passes into the hands of the class 
 who crystallise it in the form required by the Calcutta mer- 
 chants. The crude mass above (called dhoah) is boiled in its 
 weight of water ; evaporation goes on, and it is skimmed on the 
 surface. The liquor is then let off into a deep tub, where the 
 insoluble matter sinks to the bottom ; after that the solution is 
 again transferred into a shallow vat, where in three days the 
 crystals are formed. 
 
 These crystals are then well washed in pure spring water, and 
 are then called the culmee saltpetre of the Calcutta market, and 
 valued at 94 per cent, of pure nitre, which, however, is full 20 per 
 cent, over estimated. 
 
 Mr. Stevenson gives the following result of an experiment to 
 ascertain the quantity of culmee saltpetre, extraneous salts, and 
 insoluble matter contained in 20 maunds of native dhoah, or crude 
 saltpetre, purchased by the Gomastah at 3 rs. 8 as. per maund. 
 
 Dhoah saltpetre ...... 
 
 20 maunds. 
 
 Water used in solution . . . . . 
 
 20 „ 
 
 Time in evaporating the solution to a crystal- 
 
 
 lising state ...... 
 
 3^ hours. 
 
 Fuel consumed (jungle grass) . 
 
 3 maunds. 
 
 Time the liquid remained to crystallise . 
 
 30 hours. 
 
 Temperature after standing 30 hours 
 
 S4? Pahr. 
 
 Produce of culmee saltpetre 
 
 4 maunds 10 seers. 
 
40 SALTPETRE. 
 
 Mother Liquok or Fikst Boiiino. 
 Time in effecting the evaporation of this . 3 hours. 
 
 Fuel consumed (iimgle grass) . . . . 2 maunds. 
 
 Time setting to crystallise . . • -30 hours. 
 
 Oulmee saltpetre produced . . . . 3 maunds. 
 
 Mother Liqttok of Second Boiling. 
 
 Time in evaporating . ' . . • • 2j hours. 
 
 Fuel consumed (jungle grass) . . . . 2 maunds. 
 
 Time in crystallising 30 hours. 
 
 OuJmee saltpetre produced .... 1 maund 33 seers. 
 
 Last portion of Mother Liquor evaporated to Dryness contained 
 
 Md. Seers. 
 
 Sulphate and chloride of soda 3 5 
 
 Insoluble matter, mud and sand . . • . . 4 36 
 
 Total Quantity from the 20 Maunds of Dhoah Saltpetre, 
 
 Md. See 
 Culmee saltpetre .....■•" 3 
 Extraneous salts . . . • ■ • . . 3 10 
 
 Insoluble matter, mud and sand . . . . . 4 36 
 
 Moisture in the dhoah . . . ■ ■ . . 2 31 
 
 20 
 
 The above Quantities reduced to per-cbntage, 
 
 Non-insoluble matter 25 per cent. 
 
 Extraneous salts . . . . . • • 16 ,, 
 
 Moisture in the dhoah . . . ■ . 14 ,, 
 
 Total impurity . . ■ • • . . 65 
 
 Nitre or culmee saltpetre . . . • .45 
 
 100 
 
 Such may be estimated as the result of the manufacture of the 
 nitre or saltpetre of the Calcutta market ; and, notwithstanding 
 the recorded extraction of 1 6 per cent, of extraneous salts in 
 the native processes, a large quantity — more than half the above 
 per-centage — still remains, which must be extracted before the 
 saltpetre is fit for the manufacture of gunpowder. 
 
 As the gunpowder agency holds forth a demand for a consider- 
 able supply of culmee saltpetre in its crude state, of course the 
 dealers attempt to sell it to the best advantage, and the agent 
 to buy on the same terms. Tenders are invited for the quan- 
 
EEFINIKa SALTPETRE. 41 
 
 tity required, and musters sent. Of each sample fifty pounds 
 are taken, and boiled with an equal quantity of water. On 
 the third day the produce of crystals is weighed, and that 
 tender giving the best result, with reference to the price, is 
 usually taken (provided the terms are in every other respect 
 unexceptionable) . 
 
 The price multiplied by 61, and divided by the produce of the 
 50 lbs., gives the rate per 100 lbs. on the price per maund. 
 
 In examination of an extended average of the loss in refining 
 the saltpetre of the Calcutta market to the state of purity fit for 
 powder, it may be put down as 32 per cent. 
 
 According to the charter of 1693 A.D., the East India Com- 
 pany was bound to furnish the Government with 500 tons of 
 saltpetre at from £38 to £45 per ton. The price in London 
 in April, 1849, was about £28 per ton. Of course, at the 
 present day, the Government obtain their own supplies in the 
 market. Bengal exported on an average of seven years, from 
 1840 to 1847, of saltpetre 570,300 maunds, valued in invoice at 
 rupees 5 r. 6 a. 5 p. per maund, about £16 the ton. 
 
 SALTPETRE. 
 
 PEEPAKATION OF THE SALTPETEB FOE THE FOEMATION OF 
 GUNPOWDBE AT ISHAPORB. 
 
 First Boiling. 
 
 In the evening 32 maunds of crude saltpetre of commerce 
 was put with 40 maunds of tank water into each of the large 
 boilers ; a strong fire in the furnace below (having proper flues to 
 carry the heat and flame round the boiler before it entered the 
 chimney) was kept up all night, by which the solution was boiled 
 until the morning, when the fire was withdrawn and all impurities 
 that had risen to the surface were skimmed off. A small quantity 
 of cold water was then thrown in to check the ebullition, and 
 
42 EEFINING SALTPETRE. 
 
 cause the lighter impurities to rise, and the muriate of soda 
 and other impurities to subside. 
 
 The solution was then pumped off into large wooden vats, and 
 there left to settle for three or four hours ; after this the liquor 
 was run off into large wooden vats, 16 ft. square by 18 in. deep, 
 where it was allowed to remain three days to crystaUise. 
 
 The mother liquor, remaining uncrystallised, was then drawn 
 off, and returned to evaporating boilers, where it was boiled down 
 to a state fit to form crystals, which state was easily ascer- 
 tained by dipping in a small clean stick, and exposing a drop 
 of the moisture upon it to cool in the air on a cold surface ; 
 if crystals form in cooling, the boiling has proceeded sufficiently. 
 
 The crystals are now drained from all moisture, and placed 
 in the store as the first-boiled saltpetre. 
 
 Second Boiling. 
 
 The first-boiled saltpetre was treated in the same manner as in 
 the first boiling, and then run off to cool in copper pans, to avoid 
 any chance of impurity being imbibed from the wood of the vats. 
 These pans were set on an incline, upon elevated troughs, to 
 allow the crystals when formed to be well drained from moisture. 
 The crystals were then thrown on a canvas-covered platform, 
 and broken up coarsely to allow all impure water in the cavities 
 of the crystals to escape. 
 
 The bruised crystals were then put into a washing-tub and 
 washed with cold tank-water, which, carrying with it a small 
 portion of saltpetre as it runs off, will free the crystals from 
 almost all the impure salts which may have remained. 
 
 After this the nitre was piled up in baskets over draining 
 troughs, and sprinkled with distilled water from watering-pots. 
 It was then tried with the test of a solution of nitrate of silver 
 in distilled water ; and if no cloudiness appeared as it dissolved, 
 was received as pure nitre ; and after draining in the baskets 
 for two days, was carried to the fusing-house. 
 
 All the washing or draining waters, dirty or clean, were then 
 returned to evaporating boilers ; this liquor was kept constantly 
 
REFINING SALTPETEE. 43 
 
 on the sifiimer, impurities skimmed off, and the evaporation 
 carried on for about twenty-four hours, till crystals began to 
 form in cooling. These crystals after being drained, were con- 
 sidered and stored as saltpetre of the first boiling. The crystals 
 of the second boiling, after having been tested by the nitrate 
 of silver, and drained in their basket for two days, were 
 then carried to the fusing-house, where they were placed into 
 iron pots, set in proper furnaces, and heated until melted, and 
 then appeared perfectly fluid, and as clear as water. The 
 heat may be continued until a little slip of paper dipped 
 in occasionally begins to ignite ; the fire must then be damped, 
 and the liquid nitre ladled off into shallow copper pans, in 
 which it cools in twenty-four hours into a solid cake, opaque, 
 being the sal prunella of commerce, quite free from all 
 water of crystalhsation ; and when broken and put under the 
 mills, far more easily reduced to a fine powder than when in 
 a crystallised state. The time required to heat a pot of 200 lbs. 
 of saltpetre to the melting point, is about four hours : wood fuel 
 was used in all the furnaces. 
 
 Care must be taken in this process that the heat does not reach 
 that of redness, or 1050° Fahr., for then a portion of the nitre 
 would be decomposed ; but the test of the strip of paper will 
 guard against this evil. 
 
 This process is by many considered unnecessary and useless ; 
 it can in no respect render the nitre more pure ; and should 
 the pot ever attain a red heat of 1050° Fahr., a portion of 
 the nitre might be decomposed, part with some of its oxygen, 
 and become hyponitrite of potash, a salt extremely attractive of 
 moisture. 
 
 The advantage hes in leaving no water whatever in the nitre, 
 and hence the weight given to the powder being quite correct, and 
 always the same. But this difference might be easily calculated. 
 
 No very large amount of weight or loss of nitre should 
 result from this operation, except that quantity incidental to all 
 handling ; still the fuel, the pots, buildings, labour, and loss, all 
 add to the cost of the powder. Very dry first-boiled nitre, being 
 
44 REFIiiriNa SALTPETEE. 
 
 fused, lost by weight 1-8 per cent., but from waste fmd other 
 causes 2 per cent, may be considered as the loss. 
 
 The fused cakes of nitre, when cool, being broken up by hard 
 mallets, their produce was then placed in the grinding mill of 
 the common construction, viz., vertical wheels running round on 
 a circular bed. These were of iron at the Ishapore Mills, the 
 wheels 7 ft. diameter, with iron rims 16 in. in face, with a 
 small bed of iron to work upon 2 in. thick, and their required 
 weight was made up by fiUing up the openings of the wheels with 
 blocks of wood. 
 
 Three or four bullocks worked the mill, and could turn out 
 75 lbs. of saltpetre finely ground in forty minutes, a man follow- 
 ing the wheels round with a wooden spatula to prevent it caking 
 under the process. Heavier wheels were tried ; but though the 
 effect was produced in a shorter time, the nitre was found to 
 cake, and time was lost in breaking the lumps. 
 
 When the nitre was considered sufficiently pulverised, it was 
 taken and dried over an iron stove, and afterwards passed to the 
 sifting-house, and sifted in common hand-sieves, the bottoms of 
 which are made of fine Tussore silk. 
 
 I am inclined to doubt if there exists any advantage in 
 this very fine sifting ; and to ask, if the impurities resulting 
 from too much handling (especially in a hot climate, as India) 
 may not counterbalance the advantage of this minute state. 
 Indeed, pulverised and sifted nitre soon sets together under- 
 the dampness of the atmosphere, so that it will hardly pass 
 a second time through the sieve with less labour than the first 
 operation required. The expense of the silk sieve is great. 
 A fine wire one would answer equally well, and save money.. 
 The old agency books go far to estabHsh that unfused, coarsely 
 pulverised nitre, and even first-boiled nitre, do not give inferior 
 powder when fresh. 
 
 At Madras, and in some of the English works, the saltpetre is 
 prevented from crystallising by causing the solution, in the boil- 
 ing, to cool down and settle under constant agitation ; the result 
 being that no crystals of any size are fornied, and the saltpetre 
 
EEFINIKG SALTPETKE. 45 
 
 is produced at once in a fine powder ; and -where great economy 
 and quick production are required, the process might be followed 
 without disadvantage, and considerable saving of expense. 
 
 The average quality of the saltpetre brought to the agency at 
 Ishapore, yielded about 69 per cent, of pure nitre. Prices varied, 
 but the cost of the 100 lbs. of nitre, after going through all the 
 processes of refining and preparation for mixture, was from 13 to 
 14 rs. for the 100 lbs. 
 
 The analysis of saltpetre, as given by chemists, differs con- 
 siderably ; but we shall bring this under further consideration 
 in the concluding pages of this book; and in this place will 
 merely allude to 
 
 The Tests to try the Purity of Saltpetre as fitted for Gunpowder. 
 
 To ascertain the presence of muriates, common salt, &c., a 
 solution of nitrate of silver in distilled water is the most con- 
 venient — 4 grains of this substance being dissolved in 1 ounce of 
 distilled water. 
 
 If a small portion of the refined saltpetre is to be examined, it 
 may be dissolved in pure distilled water, and, if the saltpetre 
 is pure, when a few drops of the solution of silver are mixed with 
 it, no cloudiness or change of transparency will be observed ; but 
 if the contrary, and any white cloudiness appears, it denotes the 
 presence of a muriate, and the saltpetre will require further 
 refining. One drop of the solution of the nitrate of silver will 
 indicate the presence of so minute a quantity of muriate as -^q. 
 
 By this test the quantity of the muriate present may be 
 detected; for if 100 grains of crude saltpetre are dissolved in 
 distilled water, then 2 drachms of the solution of nitrate will throw 
 down a precipitate ; and if more be not occasioned by a further 
 addition, the saltpetre may be considered to contain \ per cent, 
 of common salt : one drachm of the solution will detect -g- per cent. 
 
 To ascertain the presence or absence of sulphate of soda, a 
 similar process is followed with a solution of 4 grains of nitrate of 
 barytes to 1 ounce of water ; of which solution 2 drachms will indi- 
 cate the presence of \ per cent, of sulphate of soda or Glauber salt. 
 
4G 
 
 TABLE OF AVEKAQES 
 
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IMPKOVED PROCESSES. 47 
 
 Improved Process of Refining Saltpetre. 
 The usual impurities of unrefined saltpetre — as nitrates and 
 muriates of lime, with other salts having bases of magnesia and 
 soda — dissolve and remain in solution equally in hot or cold 
 waters, and saltpetre has the property of excess of solution as 
 the temperature is increased : advantage has been for some years 
 taken of this property, both in France and at Madras, as well as 
 the saving of labour accruing, in preventing large crystals being 
 formed by the slow process of coohng, by keeping the solution in 
 agitation during the boiling, so as to obtain pure saltpetre in the 
 state of fine meal at one operation. This new system of refining 
 has now been improved upon, and adopted at the Royal Mills, 
 Waltham Abbey, and by some other private manufactories. 
 
 A quantity of unrefined saltpetre, according to the size of the 
 manufactory, say 40 cwt., is put into a copper boiler holding 500 
 gallons, with 270 lbs. of water, and brought to a boiling point ; 
 the impurities are carefully skimmed off as they rise, and a small 
 additional quantity of cold water is occasionally thrown in to 
 assist in precipitating such salts, as not equally soluble with the 
 nitre as the temperature rises. After boiling about 3 J hours, the 
 fire is damped, and those salts that have crystallised fall to the 
 bottom. In about two hours a copper pump is used to pump ofi" 
 the solution into a trough, properly provided with cocks, to 
 each of which a canvas bag of a jelly-bag shape is attached, 
 and the solution runs ofi" through the canvas into large troughs 
 10 ft. by 6 ft. wide, 9 in. deep, lined with sheet copper, and 
 is kept in a state of agitation with wooden rakes until nearly 
 cold. Thus a large quantity of very minute crystals are formed, 
 which are drawn up by a wooden hoe, and thrown by a 
 shovel on a framework wire sieve resting on the opposite sides 
 of the trough ; here they are allowed time to drain, and have 
 the appearance of fine white snow ; when drained sufficiently, 
 the produce is raked over into a washing cistern conveniently 
 placed, which is 6 ft. long by 4 ft. wide, and 3 ft. 6 in. deep, and 
 fitted with a false bottom of wood, that can be removed at plea- 
 
48 IMPROVED PKOCESSES. 
 
 sure. A quantity of pure cold water is then allowed to run on 
 the saltpetre into this cistern until it is nearly full ; after remain- 
 ing an hour in this bath, the first water is drained off, and fresh 
 water is again added to fill the cistern. After an hour this is 
 drained off by raising the bottom, and the saltpetre is found to be 
 perfectly pure, and equal to that which used to be obtained in 
 three crystallisations on the old plan of refining. 
 
 The water remaining in the cisterns where the solution had 
 been kept in agitation is allowed to remain until the next morn- 
 ing, when a quantity of larger crystals will be found at the 
 bottom and sides. 
 
 These are placed with the unrefined saltpetre, and the mother 
 liquor from the agitating cistern is then drained off and evapo- 
 rated to crystallising density as usual. 
 
 The water from each washing of the crystals is conveyed to 
 cisterns, and used with the boiling of the unrefined nitre instead 
 of other water ; but, as it contains a small portion of saltpetre in 
 solution, a lesser quantity of the unrefined saltpetre is used to 
 make the proportions correct. 
 
 This saltpetre, having a snowy appearance, contains a degree 
 of moisture, which is evaporated by its being placed in 2 copper 
 trays, about 10 ft. 6 in. by 3 in. deep; and these, trays are 
 heated by being placed over flues heated by a furnace ; 4 in. of 
 dry sand being laid between the flues and the bottom of the 
 trays. The saltpetre is spread about 2 in. thick in strata, and 
 raked about till dry : 4 cwt. will dry in about 2 hours. The 
 saltpetre is then barrelled for use. 
 
 Thus the whole process of refining takes place in one day, 
 instead of six on the old plan, and with less than half the 
 amount of labour and fuel. 
 
 The apparatus is trifling in quantity, and the space required 
 in the refining building greatly reduced. 
 
 Thus, for a refinery to produce 23 cwt. of refined saltpetre per 
 day, the following apparatus will be ample : — 
 
 1 copper boiler, holding 500 gaUons, set in a proper furnace, 
 and provided with a wooden trough lined with copper or 
 
CHARCOAL. 49 
 
 lead, and 4 or 5 cocks with canvas filtering bags of the 
 
 jelly-bag form. 
 50 copper crystallising pans. 
 
 2 copper cisterns, 10 ft. long by 6 ft. wide, and 9 in. deep. 
 2 wooden cisterns, 6 ft. by 4 ft. wide, 3 ft. 6 in. deep, having 
 
 false wooden bottoms, easily fitting, and loops to lift by. 
 2 copper evaporating pots for the mother water, &c. 
 2 copper drying trays, 10 ft. by 6 ft., with 4 in. rims, and set 
 
 over furnaces with flues, and a bed of 4 in. of sand, on 
 
 which the trays are placed. 
 2 copper pumps, and troughs of the necessary length. 
 Wooden rakes, shovels, &c., as required, with cisterns to receive 
 
 the washing water. 
 The floor of the refinery should be lined with flag-stones, and 
 
 the sides and roof capable of free ventilation. — Editor. 
 
 CHARCOAL. 
 
 The common mode of preparing charcoal is to fill a deep pit 
 with the pieces of wood in regular layers, and then to apply fire. 
 The water, gum, mucilage, and other volatile parts distil from the 
 wood ; the greater part falls from the upper to the lower strata ; 
 to these denser particles succeeds a gas, called carbonic acid, with 
 portions of hydrogen gas. The fighter gaseous matters ascend to 
 the upper strata. Both these exudations are ultimately eva- 
 porated, incinerated, "or driven off by the fire. 
 
 When the carburetted hydrogen gas appears in its purest form 
 coloured with a light tinge of red, and inflammable by a light 
 being applied, the external air is excluded by closing up the 
 pit ; the fire dies out, and charcoal remains. 
 
 Such is the common and cheapest mode of preparing charcoal. 
 By many authors it is considered equal to all other expensive 
 ways of producing it, and to this day it is followed at the Madras 
 manufactory of gunpowder. 
 
50 CHAUOOAL. 
 
 The method used at Ishapore, as in the best manufactories in 
 England, is to cut the wood into small sticks about 5 or 6 inches 
 in length, and to separate them into parcels of nearly equal 
 diameters ; carefully taking off the bark of the wood, and sepa- 
 rating all unsound pieces. The wood is then packed into a sheet- 
 iron cyhnder 6 feet long by 2 feet 5 inches diameter, and its cover 
 fitted on. The cylinders will contain 150 pounds to double that 
 quantity of wood with reference to its state of dryness and the 
 size and close packing of the pieces. 
 
 The cylinder is then placed inside a thick cast-iron cylinder or 
 retort, of a little larger diameter and length, fixed horizontally, 
 and set, generally two or three together, in a proper brick 
 furnace. The open end of the cylinder is then closed with an 
 iron circular plate, fitting exactly to the neck of the retort, and 
 luted up with clay. An iron shutter working on hinges below, 
 and looped up at the top, covers the retort completely, and the 
 edges of this shutter being turned inwards close against the 
 brickwork of the furnace, the vacant space between the shutter 
 and the mouth of the retort is filled up with damp sand. 
 
 There are four short projecting pipes cast on the opposite or 
 rear end of the retort, two of which only are required to be used 
 in the process, the other two being carefully luted up. The 
 advantage of having the four pipes is, that after use for some 
 time, the lower parts of the retort being exposed to the greatest 
 heat of the furnace burn, when the whole retort being shifted J 
 round in the brickwork, will bring fresh parts of the exterior 
 into equal exposure. 
 
 The two open pipes are so placed that one is above and 
 the other directly below in a vertical line, and to these are 
 attached copper pipes about 1 8 feet long, leading to cisterns of 
 water, into which, after the denser vapours are passed off when 
 the furnaces are first lighted, they are, by means of a bent 
 nozzle, to be fitted on at the proper time, made to dip a little 
 below the surface of the water, to prevent the admission into the 
 retorts of any atmospheric air, which would cause the consump- 
 tion of the charcoal. The fire is then applied to the grate below the 
 
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 Pviblisherl by John Weale, London. 
 
 Kell BroS LithT? Castle S» Holborn. 
 
CHARCOAL. 51 
 
 retort, which becomes nearly red-hot. In the process the heavier 
 matter and vapours distilled off pass through the lower pipe, and 
 are condensed in the waters of the cistern, and form the pyro- 
 ligneous tar and acid much used in commerce. The lighter 
 vapours escape from the upper pipe, first in the form of dense 
 smoke, then follows carburetted hydrogen gas,''^ and, lastly, pure 
 hydrogen, which is of a light red tinge, and inflames by the 
 application of a candle. This is the time to apply the upper 
 nozzle, to exclude the atmosphere, and to withdraw the fire of 
 the furnaces, the process of carbonisation being completed. 
 
 After a time, when the retorts have cooled down a little, the 
 doors may be opened, the internal cylinders withdrawn, and 
 immediately carefully luted up with clay that no air may enter. 
 It is very advantageous to have little circular pits to let these 
 cylinders down into, and to cover them with a flat sheet-iron 
 cover and sand — where they will cool gradually. 
 
 As the retorts are now hot, another set of the interior cylinders, 
 with their loads of wood, may immediately take the place of those 
 that are withdrawn, from which practice a saving of time and 
 fuel will be obtained. 
 
 In twenty-four hours the new formed charcoal may be safely 
 taken out. 
 
 The time of charring in these retorts is from three to four 
 hours. The test of good charcoal for gunpowder is that it 
 should not scratch copper, and that it should retain the com- 
 plete organic forms of the fibres of the wood — any pieces that 
 appear glazed on the outside should be rejected. 
 
 It is of the utmost importance to the goodness and quick 
 ignition of the gunpowder, that the charcoal should be of the best 
 quality, and recently made and pulverised. 
 
 In Bengal, the woods chiefly used are the — 
 
 Sp. gr. 
 UAur — Dhallbusli . (Cytisus Cajan) . . . -4:78 
 
 Jointee — Jayunteo . . (-(Escliynomeiie Sesban) . . . '520 
 
 Bukns . . . (Justicia Gundarusa) , . . "CST 
 
 ■'■ Many manufacturers consider that this gas should be retained, and that the 
 first appearance of inflammable gas is the time to withdraw the fire. 
 
!)2 CHARCOAL. 
 
 In Europe, theRhamnus frangula, or Alnus niger, is considered 
 a good wood for gunpowder. 
 
 The Willow (Salix) — sp. g. 585 — is also much used, as is the 
 Alder (Betula alnus). 
 
 The Dhallbush, Urhur (Cytisus Cajan), has a growth of a few 
 months, the seed is planted in April, and the grain ripens about 
 the 1st of January the next year, when the bushes are cut down. 
 The stalks are bought, and stacked for use at the Powder-works. 
 The wood is white and soft, and contains much saccharine matter. 
 Hence, insects breed internally, while externally it is attacked by 
 various moths, which deposit their larva. The charcoal is good, 
 its fibrous texture distinct, and it rings with a clear metallic 
 sound, being at the same time soft and friable. 
 
 The Jointee grows from seed, and flowers after the first year ; it 
 then increases in size till it becomes a small tree ; at three or four 
 years old it makes the best charcoal, the fibres large, and defined, 
 and well separated ; the charcoal is of a Hghtish colour, and is not 
 dense to the eye or touch. The tree flourishes best on the banks 
 of the small nullahs. Jointee charcoal is not so soft as that of the 
 Dhallbush ; it is more dry, brittle, and hard. An average sized 
 tree of three years' growth will occupy about five square yards, 
 and produce about three maunds of wood, which will yield about 
 thirty pounds of charcoal, the quantity required for two 100-lb. 
 barrels of gunpowder. 
 
 Therefore 10,000 barrels would require about 60 beegahs of 
 land under constant cultivation, one-third to be cut each year. 
 
 A beegah of Urhur wood is calculated to give about 200 
 maunds of wood in its yearly crop, or the charcoal for 160 
 barrels; hence 10,000 barrels would require a yearly cultivation 
 of 60 beegahs. 
 
 The Bukus wood (Justicia Adhaloda) is exceedingly heavy, and 
 full of juices ; its leaves are a good vermifuge, and considered 
 medicinal. 
 
 Native powder-makers esteem the Bukus as the best for char- 
 coal. Of the Parkinsonia and Milkhedge, I have had no 
 experience. 
 
OHAECOAL. 
 
 53 
 
 In Affghanistan the cuttings from the vines make excellent 
 charcoal. 
 
 The following is a list of woods and their charcoals, with their 
 specific gravities as ascertained by me in experiments :— 
 
 Name of Wood. 
 
 Sp. gr. 
 
 Sp. gr. of 
 
 
 
 of wood. 
 
 charcoal. 
 
 
 Lignum vitse, twenty years old .... 
 
 1-3 
 
 •755 
 
 
 Teak 
 
 •739 
 
 •236 
 
 
 Bukus, four months dry ..... 
 
 •657 
 
 •389 
 
 average 
 
 Jointee, three months dry . . . . . 
 
 •520 
 
 •275 
 
 average 
 
 Urhur, fresh ... .... 
 
 •478 
 
 •302 
 
 average 
 
 Soondree ........ 
 
 •922 
 
 •451 
 
 
 Solah, almost a pith ...... 
 
 
 •0159 
 
 
 Mahogany, old ....... 
 
 ■780 
 
 •405 
 
 
 Deal (Europe), old ... . . 
 
 •438 
 
 ■299 
 
 
 Saul, dry ........ 
 
 •922 
 
 ■401 
 
 
 Seesoo ........ 
 
 •724 
 
 ■400 
 
 
 Urhur wood, fresh, not split, IJ in. diameter , 
 
 ■602 
 
 
 
 Do. do. 1 in. diameter 
 
 •560 
 
 
 
 Do. do. very small twigs, J in. diameter 
 
 •377 
 
 
 
 j' 1 in. diameter 
 
 
 ■303 
 
 \ 
 
 Urhur wood charcoal < | in. diameter 
 
 
 ■319 
 
 
 ( J in. diameter 
 
 
 ■285 
 
 
 Urhur wood charcoal < ^^ , , ■ ' ' ' 
 \ smallest twigs . 
 
 
 ■321 
 ■322 
 
 .•269 
 
 Urhur wood, highly charred < ,, • ' ' 
 ' ° •' ( smaller size . 
 
 
 ■215 
 •220 
 
 
 flarge 
 
 •713 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 •703 
 
 
 
 middling ... 
 
 •704 
 
 
 
 1^ small, 2 ia. diameter 
 
 •572 
 
 
 
 Bukus wood charcoal, branches 1^ in. . . . 
 
 
 •389 
 
 
 Jointee wood, cut one month and split ■ ",, 
 
 •790 
 
 •745 
 
 •230 
 •281 
 
 
 _ , f unclean . 
 Do. do. , 
 
 roots . 
 
 
 •292 
 •329 
 
 ••283 
 
 
 
 •266 
 •231 
 
 J 
 
 How far the quality of the charcoal of these woods may 
 follow that of their uncharred state, it is difficult to determine ; 
 but lasting, tough, astringent woods are selected in Europe, as 
 if less likely to suffer under damp. Thus the Dogwood is used 
 chiefly by the makers of the finest grained sporting and rifle 
 powder. The density of this wood corresponding with the density 
 of their cake. 
 
54 CHAKCOxYL. 
 
 It must be boriie in mind that price and supply are regulating 
 points to a large manufactory ; that a superior wood for charcoal 
 to that generally used may exist ; but not so with respect to 
 supply and cost. 
 
 The Urhur varies much, but the large chiefly predomi- 
 nates ; while the Jointee is almost always of the same age and 
 dimensions. 
 
 From the table it clearly appears, that the specific gravity 
 of charcoals difi"ers most considerably; next, that the wood 
 of the larger branches, as well as the charcoals of the same, are 
 denser as larger ; and that the twigs of the Urhur are one-third 
 less dense than the larger branches. 
 
 On the average, the specific gravity of the Jointee coal is 
 perhaps less than that of the Urhur coal ; while both are inferior 
 in this respect to the Bukus. The density of the wood depends 
 much on its age and dryness ; not so the charcoal. 
 
 The amount of charring also clearly determines the specific 
 gravity of the coal, as well as the carbon available. This is seen 
 in the specific gravity of the highly-charred Urhur wood. 
 
 I placed 4oz. of pulverised charcoal in an open crucible which 
 was heated in the furnace ; the charcoal was reduced to 8 drachms, 
 of a light slate-coloured ash. 
 
 An experiment was instituted with charcoal over-charred, for 
 one, and for two hours ; there appeared little difference in their 
 gunpowders. The result of over-charring would be, that when 
 all the gas had disappeared, the carbon would combine with the 
 oxygen of the air, and pass off as carbonic acid ; but the saline 
 and earthy matters of the portion passed off would be left with 
 the remainder, round which it might vitrify, and thus render it 
 less inflammable and more dense. 
 
 Still there must exist a point up to which the gases should be 
 expelled, and when the process should be suspended. Uncharred 
 wood is useless as appUed to ignite nitre, as are the residues of 
 ashes when all the gases are driven out. 
 
 Colonel Tennant, when agent, using equal measures of pul- 
 verised charcoal, compared his densities with those given by 
 
CHARCOAL. 
 
 55 
 
 Colonel Galloway a former agent, and concluded that the Jointee 
 was a denser coal than the TJrhur ; that both being less charred 
 in the days of Colonel Galloway, were therefore denser ; and 
 that the gunpowder of that period was denser ; which proved 
 to be the case, Colonel Galloway's powder being 280 to Colonel 
 Tennant's 270 drams in the same measure : 
 
 
 Pulverised 
 
 Urhur 
 Charcoal. 
 
 Pulverised 
 Jointee. 
 
 Pulverised 
 Bukus. 
 
 277 
 
 _ J 
 
 Colonel Tennant .... 
 Colonel Galloway 
 Difference in charcoal 
 
 162» 
 
 202 
 
 40 
 
 189 
 236 
 
 47 
 
 Weight of drams 
 in tlie Ishapore 
 density measure. 
 
 The produce from different woods is also very different. In 
 England the manufacturers expect from 25 to 26 per cent, of 
 charcoal in the 100 of wood used. From the Dogwood, full this 
 quantity. 
 
 One of the Ishapore slip cylinders will contain 160 lbs. of 
 the dry tlrhur or Jointee wood, and will produce 40 lbs. of char- 
 coal, or about 25 per cent. 
 
 The Madras Government sent up to Ishapore, in four barrels, 
 247 lbs. of dry Urhur wood to be charred ; it was quite dry, 
 and much eaten by worms. The result was : — 
 
 (Thick . . . 63i 
 Urhur <^ Thin ... 82 
 ( Rotten (useless) 89 
 
 i } 1451 ) 
 
 235. Loss, 12 in transit. 
 
 The 145^ lbs. gave, after three hours' charring, 40 lbs. of 
 charcoal. 
 
 It requires about 150 lbs. of Soondree firewood to char one 
 cylinder, at a cost of five annas. 
 
 On a long average of years it is found, that 120 lbs. of 
 (jreen -fresh wood will give 10 lbs. of charcoal, including every 
 loss of drying, insects, and decay ; the refuse is used as a portion 
 of firing for the furnaces. 
 
 In the common mode of carbonising, by pits, no firing is used, 
 
56 CHABCOAL. 
 
 the wood itself nourishing the fire during the process. This 
 economical process thus saves the cost of the firewood cylinders 
 and buildings, and is still pursued at Madras. 
 
 Captain Bishop, one of the agents at the Madras mills, re- 
 corded, that the Milkhedge, Euphorbia, yields a charcoal which 
 requires 10 lbs. to make equal strength of powder to that of 
 
 8 lbs. of the Urhur charcoal. 
 
 Unpulverised charcoal, in its fresh carbonised state, is highly 
 porous, and exceedingly attractive of moisture. The condensing 
 power of its mass over gases, under very shght chemical afiinity, 
 is well established. Thus : 1 6 oz. of charcoal, fresh from the retort, 
 became 17 oz. 6 drachms after exposure to the atmosphere for 
 twenty-four hours ; but during the next twenty-four hours it lost 
 
 9 drachms, which it had absorbed. 
 
 Fresh pulverised charcoal, even after it has been sifted 
 through fine sieves, often inflames spontaneously when left 
 exposed to the air ; and when once lighted by the application 
 of fire, or spontaneously, continues to burn for some time, 
 smouldering away, and unless supplied with a current of air, 
 dies out.''^ 
 
 After the charcoal is taken out of the cylinders, it is well 
 rubbed between cloths, to clear away all particles of dirt, bark, 
 &c. ; and no -more is made in one day than can be used the next. 
 It is then ground in a mill similar to those used for the saltpetre 
 and sulphur, only that the face and bed are of a whitish metal, 
 termed Tutenague. This mill is worked by four bullocks ; it re- 
 quires 82 revolutions in half-an-hour to reduce one maund of char- 
 coal to be fit for sifting. The sifting is performed with common 
 
 * It is probable that tlie carbonic acid gas formed by the charcoal combining 
 with the oxygen of the atmosphere as it burns, being heavier than the latter, forms a 
 screen, and prevents the combustion continuing by shutting off the supply of 
 oxygen. 
 
 Mr. Hall of the Dartford Gunpowder "Works, who has done much to improve the 
 machinery and the processes used in the manufacture of gunpowder, has produced 
 a machine for reducing charcoal to fine powder on the principle of the colfee-grind- 
 ing mill, thus superseding the usual milling for this piurpose, and having other 
 advantages. — Editor, 
 
CHARCOAL. 57 
 
 sieves, the bottoms of ■which, are made of fine wire cloth. This 
 previous grinding and sifting is not performed in all the manu- 
 factories of Europe. At Madras, the charcoal is broken and 
 pulverised between several pairs of rollers ; which, having under 
 them a sieve in a close box, sifts the charcoal at the same time, 
 which is a saving of time and labour. 
 
 The Bengal supply of TJrhur is exceedingly precarious ; any 
 increased quantity which necessity required could hardly be 
 obtained. The average price is sixteen rupees per maund ; but 
 a very slight increase of the demand raises the price, as all now 
 within limit of the Agency is brought by water carriage. 
 
 The use of Jointee wood every two or three years would there- 
 fore have an excellent efiect on the market, and it would cause 
 the wood to be cultivated and 'looked after ; thus giving two 
 sources of supply. The cost is, however, dearer than that of 
 Urhur. 
 
 The average of six years' cost of 100 lbs. of pulverised char- 
 coal is 2r. lia. Ip. Thus explained — 
 
 Wood 
 
 Fuel 
 
 Labour ..... 
 Wear and tear .... 
 
 As Urhur wood is only procurable after the month of January, 
 necessity causes a supply for the months of November, December, 
 and January to be kept in stock during the rains ; and, con- 
 sequently, there is considerable waste and damage sustained. 
 
 Gunpowder made of large or small charred wood appeared 
 nearly equal in strength ; and the old Agency proofs show that 
 powder, with 1 lb. extra of charcoal in the proportions, was very 
 superior in range, but not in resisting atmospheric changes. (See 
 Appendix.) 
 
 Tests for the Purity of Charcoal. 
 
 One hundred grains must be well digested in hot distilled 
 water, when the solution of nitrate of silver and nitrate 
 
 r. a. 
 1 6 
 
 18-6 
 
 10 
 
 0-3 
 
 9 
 
 6-4 
 
 3 
 
 7-r 
 
 2 14 
 
 I'O 
 
58 SULPHUR. 
 
 of bcarytes will indicate the presence of muriate and sulphate 
 of soda, if any exist. Acids will be rendered apparent by 
 litmus paper. If the solutions contain any alkali, the original 
 blue colour will be wholly or partially restored to the reddened 
 paper. 
 
 SULPHUR. 
 
 The treatment of this material in the Agency at Ishapore was 
 different according to the quality of the crude sulphur supplied. 
 
 In the East much is brought, from the Persian Gulf, from 
 Scinde, Sumatra, and Burmah, but all in an exceedingly impure 
 state. There was one standing rule, however, to admit no sulphur 
 into the composition of gunpowder until it had passed once at 
 least through the fusing process. 
 
 The prices of sulphur have varied from ir. 10a. lip. to 9r. a«. 
 2p. per hundred pounds, and the states of purity varying from 92 
 to 71 per cent., and even less. 
 
 The fusing pots are of iron (gun-metal would be better, and is 
 used in England) ; they are set in proper furnaces, the bottom 
 resting on the masonry, and the flue being carried all round, as 
 this prevents the sulphur at the bottom from being too much 
 heated from being directly exposed to the fire. It is very neces- 
 sary to attend carefully to the heat in this process, from the 
 following circumstances.* 
 
 When sulphur is heated to about 180° Fahr., it begins to give 
 out vapour of a peculiar odour, strong and disagreeable ; at 225° 
 it liquifies, and becomes clear, of a bright amber colour ; at 350°, 
 or above, it begins to become viscid, and of a deep brown colour ; 
 and at 600° it quickly sublimes. 
 
 ■■' The proper shape of a pot for fusing sulphur should be rather deep than 
 shallow ; the size must be according to the quantity required for consumption. 
 One 2 ft. in diameter, and 2 ft. 6 in. deep, woiild be enough for a large manu- 
 factory, as sulphur is unalterable in store, and maj' therefore be refined at any 
 season, and supplied for the daily manufacture kept in store. It is better to have 
 two refining pots set in separate furnaces, in case of accidents or repairs ; and one of 
 these may be exclusively kept for the first fusing of very impure sulphur. — Editob. 
 
SULPHUR. 59 
 
 In this process, therefore, the crude sulphur is broken into 
 lumps, and thrown by a ladle in small quantities into the pot, 
 under which the fire is burning ; it must be kept constantly 
 stirred with an iron rod, which should be slightly oiled,* to prevent 
 the sulphur adhering ; and as the first quantity melts more should 
 be added, until the pot is nearly full, and the liquid sulphur looks 
 clear and amber-coloured ; the fire must then be damped, the 
 stirring suspended, and all impurities that rise skimmed off with 
 an iron ladle, and the skimmings put into a vessel by themselves. 
 Small needles of sulphur will in a short time begin to appear on 
 the surface, the fluid sulphur must then be ladled into small 
 wooden tubs of a conical form slightly greased or oiled inside, and 
 then left to cool and crystallise. 
 
 These tubs should be narrow at the base and wide at the top, 
 fastened with iron hoops, so as easily to be taken to pieces 
 if necessary ; when the sulphur is cool, by turning the tub 
 upside down, and gently knocking upon it, the contents will 
 come out in a solid cone, having the shape of the interior of the 
 vessel. 
 
 This cone wiU appear of unequal colour, but the pure sulphur 
 will be of a fine pale yellow and equal colour ; and this part must 
 be carefully separated from the rest, and may be considered fit 
 for gunpowder. The impure parts, with the skimmings, may 
 then be mixed with other crude sulphur, to undergo the process 
 of fusing again, or to be carried, if very impure, to the subliming 
 furnace. The impurities will be found chiefly at the small end of 
 the cone, having subsided to the bottom of the tub ; none but the 
 pure, equal, pale yellow colour must be taken. 
 
 Sulphur suffers no change in the atmosphere, and is perfectly 
 insoluble in water, so that a small quantity of each sample may be 
 bruised and washed in boiling water, to discover if there are any 
 soluble salts mixed with it, which the loss of weight or testing the 
 Avater in which it is washed will discover. The following results 
 were ascertained in refining the very best and perhaps the very 
 worst samples of sulphur brought to the Agency. 
 
 * Mustard oil is a cheap and useful oil for this purpose in India. 
 
60 SULPHUE. 
 
 Of 299^ maunds at the price of 3r. 11a. ^. per maund, about 
 6 cwt. was melted successively in one of the refining pots as a 
 trial, and produced — 
 
 C«'t. qrs. lbs. 
 Sulphvir refined and fit for powder .... (None.) 
 Sulphur that will require one more fusing 
 Sulphur that will require two more fusings 
 Scoria fit only to be sublimed .... 
 Loss ......■• 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 »•. 
 
 0. 
 
 1105 
 
 3 
 
 204 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 178 
 
 10 
 
 The above 299^ maunds were kept entirely separate, and pro- 
 duced 209 maunds of sulphur fit for pulverising, including 80^ 
 maunds obtained by the sublimation of the scoria, and cost as 
 follows : — 
 
 Original cost of the crude sulphiir .... 
 
 1167 maunds of firewood for subliming, at 17r. la. per 
 100 maunds ........ 
 
 150 maunds of firewood for fusing .... 
 
 Three men in refining, 45 days, at 4r. per month each 
 Two men at subliming, 62 days, at ,, „ 
 
 Earthern jars, baskets, wear and tear of masonry 
 One subliming pot destroyed ..... 
 
 1663 12 
 
 making the cost per factory maund of 7r. 7a. 8p. 
 
 The expense of sublimation is 5r. 2a. 4|^. per factory maund) 
 considering the scoria is of no value. When sulphur is much 
 above this price, the process will pay, but the wear and tear of 
 pots is great. 
 
 Another trial was with 298^ factory maunds of very good rock 
 sulphur at 7r. la. 8p. the maund as purchased. This produced 
 290-|- maunds fit to pulverise at the following cost : — 
 
 Original cost of sulphiu: ...... 
 
 100 maunds of firewood . . . . . . 
 
 Three men in refining, 30 days .... 
 
 2152 14 
 
 the cost being 7r. 6a. 6p. per maund refined. 
 
 '/'. 
 
 a. 
 
 2123 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 
 
SULPHUR. 61 
 
 Note.. — New Mode oj refining the Sulphur by Distillation. 
 
 As the purity of the sulphur and its freedom from all 
 acids is of great importance in the manufacture of gunpowder, 
 new rnethods have been introduced of late years in the Govern- 
 ment and in the best private manufactories which furnish sulphur 
 of superior purity. 
 
 The following description of that used at the Royal mills, 
 Waltham Abbey, will convey full information on the subject : — 
 
 A large iron boiler or pot is set in a furnace three feet from the 
 ground ; it has a moveable lid fitting well, to be luted with clay 
 when in use. In this lid there is a conical plug which can be 
 removed at pleasure. From the sides of the pot two pipes lead, 
 one to a circular dome, and the other to an iron retort set below 
 the level of the boiler. The last pipe has a casing or jacket 
 round it, which can be filled with cold water : the communication 
 of these pipes with the melting pot are opened or closed by 
 proper valves. About 5 or 6 cwt. of the once refined sulphur is 
 broken up into small pieces, and placed in the melting pot ; the 
 plugs in the lid of the pipe leading to the dome are at this time 
 left open, but the pipe to the retort is closed. After from two 
 to three hours, when the heat of the furnace is appHed, a pale 
 yellow vapour rises, when the plug in the lid is put in its place, 
 and the vapour is conducted through the pipe to the dome, where 
 it condenses in the form of an impalpable powder, commonly 
 called flowers of sulphur. A small pipe leads from the bottom of 
 the dome, on the opposite side to the furnace, into a reservoir of 
 water, to allow the escape of air, and the sulphuric acid is taken 
 up by the water. In about an hour and a half or two hours 
 after, the vapour becomes of a deep iodine colour, the communi- 
 cation with the dome is then shut off, and that to the retort 
 opened ; a supply of cold water is now kept circulating, from a 
 tank above, in the jacket of the pipe ; the vapour distils over, is 
 condensed as it passes through the pipe, and runs into the retort 
 below in the form of a thick yellow fluid. When nearly all has 
 distilled, which can be known by the jacket getting cold, the com- 
 
62 MODE OP MANUFACTURING GUNPOWDER. 
 
 munication -with the retort is then closed, and the fluid sulphur 
 left an hour to get sufficiently cool to ladle into moulds ; the fur- 
 nace door and the communication with the dome are thrown open 
 again, that the rest of the vapour may pass off into them. 
 
 The flowers of sulphur thus obtained are used for fireworks and 
 laboratory purposes, but are unfit for gunpowder, as they contain 
 acids. The crystallised sulphur, after being allowed to cool in 
 the moulds, is taken out and barrelled up for use. 
 
 To ascertain its purity, a small portion is burnt by exposing it 
 to heat over a lamp on a piece of porcelain or sheet platina, 
 and no residue should be left, as the sulphur will pass off in the 
 state of vapour into the atmosphere ; and if boiled in distilled 
 water, the water should produce no discoloration in litmus 
 paper. 
 
 THE FABRICATION OF GUNPOWDER AFTER THE CRUDE MATERIALS 
 
 ARE REPINED. 
 
 The three ingredients to compose the powder are now to be 
 weighed in the proper proportions, dry-mixed, incorporated, com- 
 pressed, granulated, sifted, glazed, dried, and barrelled. 
 
 The sifted ingredients are conveyed to the weighing house in 
 proper quantities, where the man prepares them in the relative 
 proportions of ^^q of saltpetre, j^q of charcoal, and i-q-q of sul- 
 phur for a mill charge of 80 lbs. 
 
 He uses leaden weights of 30, 1.2, and 8 lbs., dividing the salt- 
 petre into two proportions, so as to confine the charcoal and 
 sulphur between them. 
 
 The whole is slightly intermixed, by hand, in a wooden box, 
 carefully surrounded by a cloth covering to prevent the escape of 
 any of the light particles. 
 
 As the entire loss by wastage in the manufacture of the pre- 
 pared ingredients is about 5 per cent, of the composition, perhaps 
 it would be better if that per-centage was added at first to the 
 mill charge, so as to conclude the process with the full 80 lbs. of 
 powder. 
 
CM 
 
 4® 
 
 J 
 M 
 
 (eel 
 
 if 
 
 5< 
 -It! 
 
MODE OP MANUPACTUEING GUNPOWDEK. G3 
 
 Dry-Mixing. 
 
 This is perhaps one of the most important parts of the process, 
 the object being so to intermix the ingredients, that 1 atom by 
 weight of sulphur should be in contact with 1"5 of charcoal and 
 7' 5 of nitre. 
 
 In former times it used to be performed upon a wide, flat table, 
 using wooden rollers. In European mills the mixture is made in 
 a large tub, having a pronged wooden stirabout. At Madras, the 
 saltpetre, according to the proper proportion, is put into a wooden 
 box, and undergoes a further pulverisation by a hand roller made 
 of lignum vitse, which is worked backwards and forwards for one 
 hour and a half ; the proportion of sulphur is then added to the 
 nitre, and rolled as before for about half an hour, when the char- 
 coal is added, and the composition of the three ingredients is 
 now well worked together for two hours more, this whole process 
 occupying about four hours. 
 
 At Ishapore this process of dry -mixing is carried on in a much 
 improved mode, producing the most perfect intimacy of mixture, 
 and it is thus well described by Colonel Galloway, who introduced 
 it:— 
 
 " The composition is put into the mixing or triturating barrels,* 
 together with an equal weight of brass bullets] about -fths of an 
 inch in diameter ; each barrel containing a charge for one of the 
 cylinder mills. It is subjected for two hours to the revolutions 
 of the barrels on their axes at the rate of 35 to 40 revolu- 
 tions per minute ; altogether from 4200 to 4800 revolutions ; 
 perhaps 4200 may be nearest the truth, it being difficult to keep 
 the people who turn the barrels to the higher rate of working. 
 
 " The action of the bullets amongst the composition constantly 
 revolving, tends essentially, not indeed to incorporate, but to 
 intermix closely, and to distribute equally and perfectly, the 
 particles of the different ingredients amongst one another, as 
 well as to increase considerably their tenuity, so that if the 
 process had been faithfully performed at the end of two hours, its 
 
 * See Plates, mixing barrels. 
 
64 MODE OP MANUFACTURING GUNPOWDER. 
 
 appearance is that of a dusty homogeneous mass, in which no one 
 ingredient is distinguishable by the naked eye, and to the feel it 
 is perfectly soft, fine, and entirely free from being gritty. Its 
 colour is by no means black, but resembles more the neutral tint 
 of the painters. 
 
 " The barrels in use here are 2 feet 9 inches long, and 2 feet 
 2 inches in diameter ; made perfectly cyhndrical internally, the 
 outside with a small bulge for the sake of hooping, and with 
 six ledges projecting from the interior of the staves at equal 
 distances f of an inch, for the purpose of producing as much 
 irregularity of motion amongst the contents of the barrel as 
 may be. 
 
 " They are, in fact, precisely the French tonneaux in which 
 the whole process of manufacturing the powder called Poudre 
 Ronde of Mons. Champy, was performed." 
 
 To reduce the labour in working, barrels of a different descrip- 
 tion were also used here ; instead of one barrel of large dimensions 
 longitudinally, four small ones were used — attached round one 
 centre axis ; the compositions with their proportions of bullets 
 being thus divided into four, and placed in the four barrels all 
 equidistant from the common axis, each furnished a counter- 
 poise for its opposite weight, and the whole machine was thus not 
 only kept in motion with greater ease, but when moving, hke a 
 loaded fly, its motion became accelerated, and might be kept up 
 by the slightest application of power. 
 
 But the ingenious inventor forgot the nature of the motion 
 required of the machine ; it was not to move easily or to move 
 quickly, but to move so as to produce the greatest possible intes- 
 tine motion amongst the contents of the barrels, so as to ensure 
 the greatest quantity of trituration of the ingredients by the 
 agitation of the particles and of the bullets amongst them, the 
 bullets being dashed from one ledge to the other on the revolu- 
 tion of the machine. 
 
 This degree of motion even in a single barrel, whose diameter 
 is little more than one-third that of the combined set, cannot be 
 preserved if the velocity given exceed 40 to 45 revolutions in a 
 
^ 
 
 
MODE OF MANUFACTURING QUNPOWDEK. 65 
 
 minute, tlie centrifugal force becoming in excess of the gravita- 
 tion of the matter moved, which consequently attaches itself 
 to, and remains motionless on, the inner surface of the barrel. 
 We limit the number of revolutions of the single mixing barrel 
 to from 35 to 40 per minute, that being the most efficient rate 
 of motion for the purpose required. 
 
 It was found that the composition worked in the combined set 
 for three hours, was not equal to that worked in the single barrel 
 for two, and was often found very inferior. The labourers also 
 soon discovered that the faster they turned the combined barrels, 
 the lighter was their labour ; and it was no unusual circumstance 
 to see the barrels moving in perfect silence, instead of hearing 
 the noise of the bullets dashing against the sides. 
 
 I had no hesitation, therefore, in recommending that the use of 
 these combined barrels should be abolished, and that the single 
 ones should be used as at first ; which was done. Fifteen sets of 
 the combined barrels were then in use, each requiring a spare set 
 of barrels to be filled while the others were working, altogether 
 120 barrels, worked by sixty men. Their place was supplied by 
 eight single barrels worked by thirty-two men, sufficient to mix 
 composition for the four cylinder mills at Ishapore (see Plate). 
 
 The composition is put into the barrel by means of a funnel- 
 shaped bag (of thick cloth or pliable leather ; either substance, 
 but to be impervious to the composition), to the mouth of which 
 a copper tube is fixed, which fits into the mouth or door of the 
 barrel, and that of the cloth or leather funnel in unloading 
 is made to embrace the mouth of the budge-barrel, in which the 
 composition is carried to the sifting house for the purpose of 
 separating the balls. 
 
 The only alteration since Colonel Galloway's time has been to 
 reduce the number of revolutions from 40 to 20 per minute, 
 and the weight of the bullets to one-half the weight of the com- 
 position ; there is also a register clock attached to each barrel, 
 which indicates the number of revolutions made. 
 
 The ingredients, after this alteration, were found to be as 
 well mixed under the reduced velocity, while the occasional 
 
66 MODE OP MANUFACTUEING GUNPOWDER. 
 
 explosions of the barrels which had taken place, were materially 
 reduced in number. 
 
 It was found that the quick turning caused the temperature ef 
 the composition to rise some degrees above that of the external 
 air. In the slow turning both remained nearly the same — the 
 increased heat of the quicker revolutions no doubt aiding the 
 accidental explosions. 
 
 I am of opinion that these explosions may in some measure be 
 accounted for by the direct concussion between two or three of 
 the balls, and perhaps from some impurities of sand, or other 
 metallic particles, in the cast metal of the balls themselves. 
 
 The barrels cost 54 rupees each, and last three seasons of 
 manufacture, each furnishing about 1500 barrels of gunpowder. 
 A set of balls will only last one season. 
 
 The Ishapore metal of the balls is copper 1, zinc 15 ; it should 
 not be too hard. 
 
 The abrasion of the balls against each other in the barrel 
 imparts to the powder a slight tinge of copper, in some form of 
 a sulphate, as well as adds very minute particles of splintered 
 wood, but these have proved no deterioration to the powder. 
 
 Experiments connected with trials of the composition from 
 these barrels will be detailed towards the conclusion of the 
 volume, in the Appendix. 
 
 Two men at each barrel work off three charges in twelve hours. 
 
 Note. — At Allahabad, when agent for gunpowder and war- 
 rockets, I used mixing barrels made entirely of sheet-copper, 
 which answered perfectly well, and totally secured the mixture 
 from any intermixture of impurities of wood, &c., as with wooden 
 barrels. The brass bullets wei-e cast in iron moulds, and the 
 axles of the barrels were supported on pairs of friction-wheels, 
 running in an oil reservoir well covered from dust, and no explo- 
 sion ever took place in using them for the five years I was agent. 
 — Editoe. 
 
MODE OF MANUFAOTUEING GUKPOWDEE. 
 
 67 
 
 Mixing Barrels. 
 
 Experiments made by Colonel Anderson with .the intention of examining the. 
 effect of the Mixing Barrels, Ishapore, Xst July and Xst March, 1848. 
 
 
 2-oz. Charge, 
 8-in. Mortar, 
 68-lb. Ball. 
 
 2-oz. Charge, 
 Eprouvette. 
 
 Colour. 
 
 Range 
 in Yds. 
 
 Ave- 
 rage. 
 
 Degrees of 
 Arc. 
 
 Ave- 
 rage. 
 
 Composition simply 
 mixed, but not put in 
 the barrels . . 
 
 Turned in the barrels 
 for half an hour . . 
 
 Turned in the barrels 
 for one hour . . 
 
 Turned for one hour 
 and a half .... 
 
 Turned two hours, — 
 considered as finished 
 
 Turned for four hours, 
 being two hours extra 
 
 {l5l 
 
 11} 
 
 li} 
 
 7 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 121 
 
 31 
 
 « ... 
 
 ( 1° 10' ) 
 \ 1° 10' \ 
 \ 1° 1') 
 
 ( 1° 5') 
 \ 1° 15' \ 
 
 { 1° 8'J 
 
 C 3° 15') 
 { 3° 10' ). 
 { 3° 16' j 
 
 (13° 10') 
 { 13° 15' V 
 (]3° 17' j 
 
 ( 18° 50' ) 
 <^ 18° 36' } 
 [ 15° 50' ) 
 
 1°7' 
 
 1°9' 
 
 3° 14' 
 
 13° 14' 
 
 17° 45' 
 
 / Light grey, the 
 1 different in- 
 1 gredients ly- 
 \ ing in masses. 
 
 Dark grey. 
 
 /Dark grey, nearly 
 \ black. 
 
 Black. 
 Very black. 
 Very black. 
 
 In the above, there is a regular gradation of colour, an increase of range and 
 of arc, but in no correct proportions. 
 
 In the old proof books I traced the following trials of February, 1836 :- 
 
 
 Mortar, 
 2-oz. Charge. 
 
 Eprouvette. 
 
 1-lb. Charge, 
 65i-lb. Ball. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Ave- 
 rage. 
 
 Degrees 
 of arc. 
 
 Ave- 
 rage. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Ave- 
 rage. 
 
 Composition from mixing ^ 
 barrel ready for mills / 
 
 Ditto, ditto 
 
 25 
 
 {"} 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 o / 
 
 21 26 
 
 
 J214 
 |260 
 
 
 F 2 
 
68 MODE OF MANUFACTtJEING GUNPOWDER. 
 
 Great irregularity of range may be observed with the mortar, 
 but a progressive improvement in the confined tube of the 
 eprouvette. 
 
 The molecules of the ingredients may be more reduced and 
 more blended together in the longer period of turning in the 
 barrels. 
 
 In England, the mixing-barrels are not used, but compensation 
 for this mode of well mixing is made in the lengthened milHng of 
 the charges in the grinding-mills. It may be argued, therefore, 
 that this previous system of dry-mixture would permit of a 
 reduction in the number of revolutions given to the mills. 
 
 The strong side-waUs, to be observed in the plan, have quite 
 preserved the workmen ; in all instances of explosion that have 
 taken place, the barrels and roofing have been blown to pieces 
 and a bit of a copper hoop, in one instance, pierced through a 
 plank at 200 yards distance. The turners are sometimes injured 
 by the iron handles. I think the space between the walls is too 
 confined, and a longer barrel would not be objectionable, were a 
 new set of works to be erected. 
 
 In the present arrangement at Ishapore, the barrels being 
 separated from each other, accidental explosion of one does not 
 communicate with another — and though the whole might be 
 turned by one power, either steam, cattle, or water, yet, if 
 closed up, an accident might destroy the whole. By the present 
 separate arrangement the works can be resumed in an hour 
 after an explosion. 
 
 Should labourers be scarce, it would be possible to .turn the 
 barrels with a few men, by having proper wheels and commu- 
 nications, so to generate the velocity required, and, perhaps, a 
 revolving frame with arms within the barrels might supersede the 
 use of the brass bullets. 
 
 At present there are employed two men at each barrel ; they 
 work off three charges in twelve hours. 
 
!?[LA1KI & mLH^AlTQ® 
 
 OF MIXING BARRELS * GLAZING REELS. SHEWING THE ADAPTATION OF COG WHEELS 
 
 TO REDUCE MANUAL LABOUR. 
 
 REFER ENCES. 
 D. Jri J/'n-tim' ui the Biirivl fbr tin- piir/ir^re nllomlOtf). 
 F. Tlir Xlioot into n-liidi t/if /fcii-./zr Af//.r i/ivn, Hi.nee into a tub. 
 \ . The Spur iiiirr/ nf .10 fi-iis iiAiWi iiw/.f 0ic Jl.iivrl Xif-r ^l,1<bi/s. 
 J. T/ie XtU.r Hfftir/i arc hiinr/ on the Barrel sfia/Kv. 
 
 Scale of'I'eef . 
 
 PiiWisbiHl Vv ■l">in ■WcaJ.'.Lonrlc-n 
 
 FlcUe^ 4. 
 
 ga ©n ^Q iw 
 
 OF GLAZING REELS, PARTLY OPEN. 
 
 REFER ENCES. 
 D- The ,'\finet info whxrh the Powder falls. 
 
 F. The ."^pur tvheel cf S$ Coi/s whirh works the. Reel Nttts of 2€0}i^s. 
 C. Hcrl Nuts luinq on the sajne shaft as the^ Reeh. 
 
 Scale of Feet'. 
 
 Pu>lish©d Vy iJaKn 'W.jale, London. 
 
 Ml BroS tith'.? Cssfl* S«HoIlMm. 
 
•»<^ 
 
 
 © 
 
 IfiV, 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 
 ly) 
 
 
 .1 
 
 I 
 
MODE OF MANUFACTURING GUNPOWDER. 69 
 
 Incorporation of the Ingredients of the Composition. 
 
 During the early manufacture of powder, this part of the 
 process was looked upon as the key-stone of the fabrication, on 
 which entirely depended the goodness of the powder, and it was 
 then considered that milling could not be performed for too long 
 a period to any detrimental extent. 
 
 In those times the process of milling, long continued, did duty 
 for the dry-mixing just detailed, and for the act of pressing, 
 which will be explained hereafter. 
 
 The native mode of incorporating the ingredients was by the 
 simple denkee, or pestle, worked by the foot, and falling into a 
 wooden mortar ; such I found to be the case in the wilds of 
 Affghanistan; and such was the mode pursued by which the 
 powder was incorporated in the earlier days of the Ishapore 
 works. 
 
 Subsequently an attempt was made to introduce a grand pilon- 
 mill, worked by cattle, with several other machines, all of which 
 have been discontinued since the cylinder-mills were introduced. 
 
 In the first alteration, these mills were used to grind the crude 
 materials, intermix them with each other, and incorporate the 
 whole into one mass. 
 
 The following is Colonel Galloway's description of the mill 
 erected by him. (See Elevation of Mill. See Plate.) 
 
 " The construction of the new cylinder mills is extremely 
 simple. The cylinders are 6 ft. in diameter and 18 in. broad 
 on the face ; they are of bronze or gun-metal, and their weight 
 is between 5f tons and 6 tons each. They are termed cylinders 
 because their outline is that of a cylinder, whose axis is 18 in., 
 and diameter 6 ft. ; but it wiU be seen that the weight of a 
 perfect cylinder of these dimensions, of metal, would far exceed 
 6 tons. To preserve the size whilst we limit the weight, they 
 are consequently made more like a wheel than a cylinder, with 
 a nave 22 in. in diameter, rim 18 in. broad, the space between 
 containing six openings, and the faces are hollowed out to reduce 
 the weight of metal. 
 
70 MODE OF MANUFACTURING GUNPOWDER. 
 
 " The bed on which they revolve is also of the same metal ; 
 the outer rim (or curb of the bed, as it is technically called) is 
 made to slope outwards at an angle of about 35°, and is cast in 
 one piece ; and being cast perfectly true, the angle formed by the 
 horizontal and sloping hnes thus forms a defined circle, in the 
 centre of which is the box on which the pivot of the upright 
 shafts works, which conveys the motion to the cylinders. The 
 outer plough, which throws the composition inwards under the 
 cylinder, consequently works with the greatest accuracy in the 
 angle of the curb in moving round. 
 
 " The cyhnders are attached to the upright shafts above men- 
 tioned, by a horizontal spindle or axle of iron, 4|- in. in diameter, 
 turned perfectly cylindrical, on which they revolve. This spindle 
 passes through the centre of the vertical shaft and through both 
 of the cylinders, which are keyed up at each end of the spindle, 
 and confined in their proper position by means of washers, which 
 also keep them off the shaft as well as off the keys, and which 
 may be shifted, so as to admit of the cylinders moving either in 
 the same or in different tracks, if required. 
 
 " The bed is raised about 6 ft. above the level of the floor of 
 the mill and the bullocks' walk, for the purpose of giving pro- 
 tection to the driver and cattle in case of explosion. 
 
 " This great elevation, together with the form of the curb, or 
 outer rim of the bed, which slopes upwards, as above described, 
 gives the blast, already above their heads, a direction still farther 
 upwards, so as to pass over them entirely. 
 
 " Even the men who turn the composition, and whose bodies 
 above the middle are on a level with it, by throwing themselves 
 instantaneously down, might possibly find a little shelter from the 
 blast. 
 
 " The action of a cylinder mill as a machine for incorporating 
 the ingredients of gunpowder, is perhaps the most perfect of any 
 yet introduced for that purpose. The compound action of grind- 
 ing and compression seems to be precisely that which is wanted, 
 viz., to pulverise and unite the heterogeneous atoms of the 
 composition. 
 
MODE OF MANUFACTTJEIKG GUNPOWDEK. VI 
 
 " The power of these mills is immense, each cylinder weighing 
 nearly 6 tons ; so that with the weight of the spindle, boxes, 
 washers, &c., 12 tons of metal are constantly in motion on the 
 composition. To derive the full advantage of this immense 
 power, it is necessary that the composition be kept well under 
 the cylinders ; this is done by a plough moving on each side of 
 the composition, which is also necessarily stirred up by the men 
 with shovels (whom we call turners), who follow the cylinders, or 
 runners as they are called, taking care at the same time to keep 
 the composition from caking, which it would otherwise do, and ' 
 drift before the runner. 
 
 " These turners are furnished with prongs or shovels made of 
 wood, resembhng the human hand with the fingers spread out. 
 I found this preferable to the flat shovel, which laid too much of 
 the bed bare, shoving the composition before it, instead of turning 
 it up, as it ought to be. One man moves round directly opposite 
 the inner plough, and it is here that the principal part of the 
 labour of turning is performed : the side of the plough, offering 
 a perfect resistance to the shovel, admits of the prongs being 
 pushed through the composition, without shoving it on one side 
 of the track of the runners, each prong forcing up its furrow, and 
 thus answering the required purpose in the most perfect manner. 
 
 " The turner, who moves before the other runner and outer 
 plough, is merely required to keep patting the composition gently 
 with his shovel, which breaks the incipient cakes, and thus has 
 the effect of entirely preventing the drifting, which, when allowed 
 to form into large sheets or cakes, would fly or " drift," as it is 
 called, before the runner, leaving the bed bare. 
 
 " This, it is thought, might be attended with danger. The 
 great weight of the cylinder falling upon the bare bed, it is sup- 
 posed, might occasion such a degree of percussion and friction as 
 to produce explosion. I doubt this, but still every precaution 
 ought to be observed, and the danger ought to be strongly 
 impressed upon the minds of the people, to ensure their own 
 safety and secure their attention to their duty." 
 
 Previous to any disquisition or comparison of the effect of this 
 
6* tons each 
 
 6 feet. 
 
 18 inches. 
 
 6 feet. 
 
 3 feet. 
 
 72 MODE OF MANUFACTURING GUNPOWDER. 
 
 with that of any other mill, we will carefully examine the facts 
 of the case. 
 
 Cylinder weight ..... 
 
 ,, diameter .... 
 Face of cylinder 
 Diameter of outside track 
 
 „ of inside track 
 
 Therefore, 3^— 6^ x -7854 = 21-105, say 20 sq. ft., or 2880 sq. 
 in., will be the space covered by the composition. 
 
 Allow the line of contact to be ^ in. broad, then 18 x "25 = 
 4-5 sq. in., supporting 6 tons. Hence 4-5 : 120 cwt. : : 1 : 26^ 
 cwt., is the weight per square inch. 
 
 Now, the cubic contents of 80 lbs. of composition is 4257 in. ; 
 hence the composition would be "43, or not -^ in. deep. 
 
 Again, 80 lbs. x 16 = 1288 oz. in a charge ; 2880 : 1288 : : 
 1 : '41, say half an ounce to a square inch, as the ratio of com- 
 position to surface. 
 
 Now what is the action caused by the revolution of this 
 frustum of a cylinder round its axis, while the axis is carried 
 round in a circle 1 It is a grinding, tearing, mixing, and pressing 
 action combined in one. 
 
 For the sake of simplification, let us consider each of these 
 actions in detail, and first the grinding. 
 
 It is evident that the grinding action, under the weight of 
 26 cwt. on each square inch, will be met by the impenetrability 
 and resistance of the composition interposed between the cyUnder 
 and the bed ; this consists of a stratum of the very finest par- 
 ticles ; and as the breadth of the surfaces in contact is not very 
 great at the point where the actual grinding action takes place, 
 I doubt if the particles themselves are reduced to a much finer 
 state than when issued from the sifting-house, though no doubt 
 two or more particles of different ingredients might, under this 
 twisting, grinding action, have their union rendered more com- 
 plete. The edges and the points of the atoms are abraded, and 
 the contact rendered more facile. These results will be more 
 apparent as the depth of the stratum becomes less. 
 
MODE OP MANUFACTUEIKG GUNPOWDER, 73 
 
 But we have already ground tlie ingredients to almost the 
 finest possible state, and the depth of the stratum is con- 
 siderable. 
 
 Next we will glance at the mixing action. Some of this 
 results from the twisting action under and near the line of 
 motion of the cylinder ; also from the sinking of the cylinder 
 into and through the mass of the composition, which causes a 
 motion among the particles, a portion of them escaping laterally. 
 Again, we have the two ploughs turning over these raised ridges, 
 separating the mass and altering its form ; also two men with 
 wooden forks, who are constantly employed in breaking up the 
 cakes and lumps, and giving the whole a good deal of motion. 
 "We have already given to the composition almost all the mixture 
 it can require. 
 
 Lastly, we have the pressing of the weight of the cylinders. 
 In many respects this is opposed in result to the grinding and 
 mixing process. The pressing no doubt may, and does force a 
 compact union between the different particles of the various 
 ingredients, and if these have assumed their correct relative 
 position towards perfect amalgamation, then the pressure would 
 confirm the same, and render the arrangement, binding. 
 
 We do not require the density of mass, because this we seek 
 and subsequently obtain from the continued operation of a 
 powerful press. 
 
 Let us pause for a moment on the simple operation of mixing 
 with a pestle and mortar : if we merely press down with the 
 pestle, the matter under it might be broken, but without the 
 twisting round and round and shaking up we should never acquire 
 a perfect mixture ; and so it is with our cylinders, the more 
 dense the strata is made, the less easily it is broken up and the 
 matter re-mixed. If the mass of the composition becomes set 
 under the cylinders, their use, since the introduction of presses, 
 is concluded. 
 
 Now we have well ground, well mixed, and propose in a sub- 
 sequent operation to give the composition good pressure : hence 
 there must be some other law or element in action under the 
 
74 MODE OP MANUFACTURING GUNPOWDER. 
 
 mills, and this I take to be the water, which operates to expel 
 the air from between the atoms, to lubricate, damp, and soften 
 the surfaces of the saltpetre, so as to permit the atoms of the 
 other ingredients being pressed into the interstices — a union 
 which the gradual contraction in drying up of the water would 
 render permanent. 
 
 Hence the grinding, mixing, and pressing are all of service to 
 cause the water to percolate the mass, bring the particles into 
 close contact, and give tenacity to the whole — constant motion 
 all furthers this end. 
 
 A quantity of water holding nitre in solution would, on its 
 evaporation, leave a most minute deposit of nitre on the other 
 particles. 
 
 The extremes would be, constant milling continued till all the 
 water was evaporated, when the result would appear in a dry 
 composition such as it left the mixing barrel ; or, water holding- 
 nitre in suspension to be mixed with the charcoal and sulphur, 
 kept from being precipitated by agitation. 
 
 The quantity of water and of mixture under the evapora- 
 tion are the points to be determined. These I conceive to 
 be various as the attending circumstances, only to be determined 
 by practice. 
 
 The conclusion would be — that a certain time is requisite for 
 the cylinder to overcome the elasticity and impenetrability of the 
 damp composition. 
 
 That the quicker the cylinder turns on its axle the greater will 
 be the grinding action. 
 
 That as regards pressure, 400 revolutions in two hours would 
 be equal to 200 in two hours, although the former would give 
 more pulverisation. 
 
 That more tossing about, intermixture, and evaporation, would 
 result from the quicker velocity of the cylinders, but less as 
 regards the work of the turners, who would have diminished 
 time in which to perform their operations. 
 
 That the greater the charge, the less it is certainly pressed. 
 
 That ploughs, confining the charge under the path of the 
 
MODE OF MANUFACTURING GUNPOWDER. 75 
 
 runners, render it more thick, and cause it to be less pressed, but 
 enhance the intermixture by extra motion. 
 
 That the atmosphere has much influence on the extent of 
 evaporation. 
 
 That there may be an essence in the ingredients which escapes 
 in too much handling, as does decidedly the light volatile 
 charcoal. 
 
 The following is the remark of Mr. Braddock on this 
 subject : — 
 
 " The incorporating mills at Waltham Abbey are turned by 
 water-power. They make six or seven revolutions per minute ; 
 the quantity of ingredients laid on a mill at one time is called a 
 charge, it weighs 42 lbs., and is worked for three hours — hence 
 from 1000 to 1200 revolutions of the mill result as the regulated 
 degree of incorporation for 42 lbs. of composition. 
 
 " The cylinders are of dark grey limestone, bearing a good 
 polish ; not brittle, nor of an easy fracture, and weigh about 
 3 tons each, and, calculating the weight of the two cylinders 
 at 6 tons, it follows that in three hours, at six revolutions per 
 minute, they subject the ingredients to the action of no less a 
 pressure than 6,480 tons. It is this exceedingly great quantity 
 of manipulative effect, that makes most ample compensation for 
 the imperfect mixture of the ingredients before incorporation. 
 
 " The gun metal cylinders at Madras weigh, as nearly as 
 possible, 41 tons each; the pair of cylinders therefore being 9 
 tons, and number of revolutions 100, the pressure they exert on 
 the composition is 900 tons — the charge laid on the Madras 
 mill is 60 lbs., about half as much again as at Waltham Abbey — 
 and at the 80th revolution of the mill, gunpowder dust from the 
 corning-house is mingled with the composition, and the whole is 
 then worked and incorporated during 20 more revolutions to 
 complete the established number of 100 ; so that the Madras 
 fowder undergoes, finally, only about one-tenth part of the King's 
 gunpowder. 
 
 " There is a certain point beyond which it is unnecessary to 
 carry the process of incorporation, but where that point is gained 
 
76 MODE OP MANUPACTUEING GUNPOWDER. 
 
 remains to be fixed. I think it difficult to say, having reason to 
 believe that it differs in different systems of manufacture. 
 
 " To determine the maximum effect of the cylinders at Madras, 
 60 lbs. of composition vrere milled from the rising to the setting 
 of the sun ; it was made into powder, proved, and found greatly 
 inferior to that which had been only miUed with 100 rounds. 
 The powder so made was kept apart some years after it was 
 proved, and as often found of the same inferiority. Similar 
 quantities were milled with 1000, 500, 400, and 200 rounds, and 
 found still in corresponding proportion inferior. 
 
 " In the ' Aide M^moire,' p. 707, ed. 1819, maybe seen the 
 results of some experiments made in France in 1816, on the 
 incorporation of powder in Pilon mills, whereby it appears that 1 7 
 hours' stamping produced a powder no stronger than 8 hours' 
 stamping. The following were the ranges in metres : — 
 
 8 hours . 
 
 . 260-6 
 
 11 hours 
 
 . . 261-5 
 
 14 hours . 
 
 . 262-6 
 
 17 hours 
 
 . . 258-4 
 
 " These experiments plainly show that there is a certain point 
 at which the process of incorporation has attained its maximum, 
 and beyond which the powder derives from it no increase of 
 strength. 
 
 " The practice of mingling the dust of gunpowder with the fresh 
 composition is not in use in England. 
 
 " The gunpowder made from reworked dust or mill-powder 
 gains no additional strength by its additional incorporation ; on 
 the contrary, it is not so strong nor so regular in its effects as the 
 powder which is made from fresh ingredients." 
 
 From a manuscript memorandum the following is given as the 
 Madras mode of procedure : — 
 
 " The composition having been brought from the mixing-room, 
 one charge of 60 lbs. is placed on the bed of the mill, and 
 sprinkled with 4 pints of distilled water ; the mill is then put in 
 motion, and at the 17th revolution 20 lbs. of gunpowder dust, 
 received from the coming-room, is added to the above quantity 
 
MODE OF MANUFACTUEING GUNPOWDER. 
 
 77 
 
 of composition without stopping the mill, which continues re- 
 volving till it has completed 100 revolutions, which number is 
 denoted by a tell-tale or dial plate ; the time occupied with one 
 charge is 35 minutes. 
 
 " The composition is pressed into hard cakes by the weight of 
 the cylinders, which weigh 6 tons." 
 
 In the following Tables we have some results worthy of notice : 
 
 
 S? a 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 u 
 
 ii 
 
 1 
 
 ll 
 SI 
 
 Kemarks. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Hrs. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Qts. 
 
 
 Revolutions. 
 
 England .... 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 (3601 
 
 lisoj 
 
 42 
 
 1 
 
 50° 1 
 
 360 by water. 
 180 by horses. 
 
 Bengal .... 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 150 
 
 80 
 
 3 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 Madras (Bradook) . 
 
 9 
 
 * 
 
 200 
 
 60 
 
 
 I 80° 
 
 
 MSS. Mem. . . 
 
 12 
 
 i 200 
 
 60 
 
 2 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 Table I. 
 
 
 
 
 JRatio of weight and time, to charge. 
 
 
 
 England 
 Bengal 
 
 Madras (Bradock) 
 MSS. Memo . 
 
 42 : 18 : : 1 : -42 
 80 : 24 : : 1 : -3 
 70 : 4-5 : : 1 : -076 
 60 : 6 : : 1 : •I 
 
 Table II. 
 
 • 
 
 Batio, England 
 
 being 1. 
 . 1^ 
 
 •392 
 
 . ■170 
 
 •238 
 
 Batio 
 
 of revolutions, weight, and time, to 
 
 charge. 
 
 
 England 
 
 Bengal 
 Madras 
 Ditto, MSS. . . 
 
 ,., f6480) . , ri54 1 
 ^^ =13240/ ■■^■\ 77/ 
 80 : 3600 : : 1 : 45 
 60 : 900 : : 1 : 15 
 60 : 1200 : : 1 : 20 
 
 • 
 
 . 1- 
 
 •292 
 ■097 
 ■129 
 
 In addition to which, at the 70th revolution, 20 lbs. of dust is 
 added to the Madras charge, further reducing the ratio of water 
 to the composition : 
 
 England 
 
 Bengal 
 
 Madras 
 
 1-4^ 
 
 in fair proportion 
 
 to the heat of climate. 
 
 The evaporation of the atmosphere in India is so much greater 
 
78 MODE OP MANUPACTURmG GUNPOWDEB. 
 
 that a much shorter time, or less numbers of revolutions, will be 
 required to reduce a mixed damp mass of composition to an 
 equal degree of tenacity, than in Europe. The whole process is 
 in its results very analogous to kneading of bread, mixing of 
 mortar, or making clay for bricks : a certain quantity of mixture 
 reduces all these articles to the required tenacity, beyond which 
 few manufacturers would think it necessary to carry on the 
 labour ; indeed, extra labour would vitiate the process. 
 
 If water equal to the evaporated quantity was added to every 
 100 revolutions, I believe the composition would retain the same 
 tenacity up to 10,000 revolutions; but, if water was not added, 
 that after a time it would deteriorate into dust from which the 
 lighter particles would escape. 
 
 I consider the Madras powder to be nearly equal to the Bengal, 
 and neither to be greatly inferior to the English ; yet by Table I. 
 we find the products for mixture to vary from 1 to "238, and by 
 Table II. from 1 to '129 — variations in no way commensurate 
 with the trifling difference in quality of the powders. Hence 
 I argue that a very large amount of labour has been, and is, 
 thrown away, and that double the quantity of composition 
 might be milled at the Ishapore works in the same period ; that 
 much lighter cyhnders would answer equally well, especially since 
 the introduction of presses, which now entirely supersede one of 
 the former chief objects of milling. 
 
 The question has been much argued and variously treated and 
 tried, but never, I think, in its simple bearing. 
 
 Mixing barrels and presses have been superadded, and yet no 
 reduction made in the quantity of milling. Can there be any 
 reason given why the Madras powder of 100 revolutions should 
 be equal to the Bengal of 240 ? 
 
 Colonel Galloway considered that the power of 28 lbs. would 
 keep the cyhnders in motion over the empty bed, and that 
 200 lbs. would continue the motion over 60 lbs. of composition. 
 
 I find it requires full work for five good bullocks to move the 
 mills for four hours in every twelve, and to keep up 120 revolu- 
 tions per hour. 
 
MODE OP MANUFACTURING GUNPOWDER. 79 
 
 Each, of the mills is provided with a register clock to record its 
 revolutions. 
 
 Much argument was entered upon to determine the number of 
 revolutions, and many experiments made ; at last a final trial was 
 ordered. Barrels of powder were made from 100 to 600 revolu- 
 tions. These were distributed to various stations, and ordered to 
 be regularly tried. 
 
 This powder was made in 1836, after the mills had been reset 
 up, and cylinders newly faced ; and would therefore be a superior 
 specimen of the manufacture. 
 
 The agency proof of these samples is given in the following 
 page. 
 
80 
 
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MILL CHARGES. 
 
 81 
 
 To determine the best quantity for mill charge, Colonel 
 Galloway records the following experiments : — 
 
 8-Inoh Brass Mortab, Shell 50 lbs., Charge 3 oz. 
 
 100 revolutions 
 
 200 ditto 
 
 300 ditto 
 
 400 ditto ■ 
 
 Totals 
 
 100 revolutions 
 
 200 ditto 
 
 300 ditto 
 
 400 ditto 
 
 Totals 
 
 Mm charge 60 lb. 
 
 MUl charge 80 lb. 
 
 Musketry. 
 
 Ordnance. 
 
 Musketry. 
 
 Ordnance. 
 
 Yards. 
 128 
 150 
 172 
 165 
 
 Yards. 
 129 
 144 
 172 
 158 
 
 Yards. 
 128 
 149 
 167 
 155 
 
 Yards. 
 119 
 131 
 158 
 141 
 
 615 
 
 603 
 
 599 
 
 549 
 
 Eprouvette. 
 
 Degrees. 
 24 
 24} 
 25| 
 25f 
 
 Degrees. 
 21 
 21i 
 23| 
 22f 
 
 Degrees. 
 23i 
 24f 
 251 
 24| 
 
 Degrees. 
 21i 
 221 
 231 
 22i 
 
 100 
 
 88f 
 
 97f 
 
 89 
 
 These trials exhibit but trifling difference. 
 Again, we have the following remarkable experiment on the 
 subject of mill charge : — 
 
 Moll charge 40 lbs., 300 revolutions musketry . 
 „ 60 lbs., „ „ 
 „ 60 lbs., „ „ 
 
 8-inch Mortar, 
 
 68 lb. ball, 2 oz. 
 
 charge. 
 
 Eprouvette. 
 
 Yards. 
 95 
 95i 
 96^ 
 
 Degi-ees. 
 22f 
 
 22^ 
 22f 
 
 and to this last charge 14 lbs. of dust were added, making 
 the charge 80 lbs. at the taking out. Here we do not find any 
 of the diff"erence we were prepared to expect ; in fact, as each 
 of these had early attained its maximum effect, so they remained 
 stationary. 
 
 In the matter of the velocity of the cyhnders, I find recorded 
 
82 
 
 MILL CHARGES. 
 
 in the old books of the Agency the following experiment, made by 
 horses, giving 300 revolutions in one and a-half hour ; — 
 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 Mnstetry. 
 
 Ordnance. 
 
 
 m 
 
 la's 
 
 2 ■« 
 
 .« «0 tH 
 00 
 
 8-inch Mortar, 
 68 lb. ball, 
 2 oz. charge. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 .g to i-f 
 
 GO 
 
 8-inch Mortar, 
 68 lb. ball, 
 2 OZ. charge. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Po-svder milled by- 
 horses, 
 
 300 revolutions in 
 1^ hour. 
 
 / 
 
 6 Dec. 1834 
 19 Dec. 1834 
 12 Jan. 1835 
 
 Total . 
 
 Average . 
 
 Yards. 
 725 
 753 
 688 
 
 Yards. 
 88 
 
 75 
 75 
 
 22-17 
 
 23-5 
 
 22-50 
 
 Yards. 
 554 
 593 
 511 
 
 Yards. 
 94 
 79 
 76 
 
 20-5 
 
 20-40 
 
 20-30 
 
 2166 
 
 238 
 
 68 12 
 
 1658 
 
 249 
 
 61-15 
 
 722 
 
 79 
 
 22-44 
 
 552 
 
 83 
 
 20-25 
 
 This is probably- the quickest rate of revolution ever given to cylinders in India. 
 
 The slowest rate which I can find recorded is, that of the 
 commencement of the season, 1848 ; the buUocks being all new 
 were extremely slow, and required two hours and forty minutes 
 to work off the charge. 
 
 Po-wder milled by bul- 
 locks : 240 revolutiona 
 in 2 hours and 40 min. 
 October, 1847. 
 
 Average of five trials 
 made on the 1st of 
 every month to April. 
 
 Musketry. 
 
 Ordnance. 
 
 8-in. Mortar, 
 68-lb. BaU, 
 1-lb. Charge. 
 
 8-in. Mortar, 
 68-lb. Ball, 
 2-oz. Charge. 
 
 1 
 
 8-in. Mortar, 
 68-lb. Ball, 
 1-lb. Charge. 
 
 8-in. Mortar, 
 68-lb. Ball, 
 2-oz. Charge. 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 Yds. 
 784 
 
 Yds. 
 102 
 
 23-9 
 
 Yds. 
 630 
 
 Yds. 
 101 
 
 20-49 
 
 The 1-lb. charge was here with a 68-lb. ball. We may 
 affirm that no great gain is apparent from the difference of 
 300 revolutions in one and a half hour, and 240 revolutions 
 in two hours and forty minutes, the first being, in fact, a double 
 velocity. 
 
 "We have thus seen that there appears no great appreciable 
 difference between a double ratio of mill charge of velocity or of 
 revolutions. It must be noticed that we haA^e no measure for 
 
MILL CHAEGES. 83 
 
 the quantity of tossing about, the amount of evaporation of the 
 moisture, or any very precise mention of the quantity of water ; 
 whether, for instance, in the 600 revolutions in four hours only 
 the three quarts of water was given, as settled for the 300 revolu- 
 tions in two hours, or whether double water was aiforded, which 
 would require, of course, double the work to reduce the composi- 
 tion to the same state of tenacity and adhesion. 
 
 Density of mass is not sought for, because this operation is now 
 obtained by the subsequent operation of pressing. All, then, we 
 seek in the ■ operation of milling is, to overcome the natural re- 
 pulsion between the particles, to expel the internal air from 
 between the atoms, and thus engender a strong tenacity and 
 adhesion amongst them : a point more to be judged of by touch 
 and experience, than reached by measure. 
 
 Extremely dry dust, without being remilled and watered, can- 
 not be pressed into a cake, on the one hand ; while, on the 
 other, a very small addition to the three quarts of water would 
 cause a liquid state, in comparison with the usual damp com- 
 position ; and between these extremes lies the answer to the 
 inquiry. 
 
 Hence the heat of the atmosphere, quantity of water, amount 
 of tossing about and being pressed to cause the water to percolate 
 the mass, must all be considered — and these will hardly be the 
 same in any two charges ; but for practical work, a proper 
 medium quantity of each is soon found. 
 
 In the native manufactories of gunpowder in India, the com- 
 position is made much more damp, and in this state is forced to 
 drop or distil through the catgut sieves they use to form their 
 grains. 
 
 My opinion is, that a little less water, and a reduced number of 
 revolutions, would fabricate equally good powder ; and in the 
 event of a sudden demand of powder for war, a greater supply 
 might be furnished in a shorter time. 
 
 The following record, in regacd to the weight of cylinders, may 
 well find a place here : — 
 
 G 2 
 
84 
 
 MILL CHARGES. 
 
 Description of Gnnpowder. 
 
 8 -in. Mortar, 
 
 68-lb. Ball, 
 
 2-oz. Charge. 
 
 Pendulum 
 Eprouvette. 
 
 Cannon. 
 Heavy Bengal double cylinder mill 
 Light Bombay „ ,, . . . 
 Light Bombay single „ . . 
 
 Musketry. 
 Heavy Bengal double cylinder mUl . . . 
 Til gilt Bombay „ ,, . . 
 Light Bombay single „ ... 
 
 Feet. 
 313i 
 310| 
 306| 
 
 314f 
 320i 
 2921 
 
 Deg. Min. 
 23 36| 
 23 31| 
 22 30 
 
 25 45 
 25 40 
 25 36^ 
 
 All circumstances, so necessary to any comparison of gunpowder, 
 are not recorded, but the ranges indicate very little inferiority in 
 the single light cylinder. 
 
 The single cylinder would allow the turners niuch more time 
 and space in which to turn over the composition, and break up 
 the lumps ; in short, to give the desired intermixture and motion. 
 
 The state of the mills, as to the level surfaces of the bed 
 and cylinders, is of much consequence. In this point, I believe, 
 consists the reduction of the revolutions ; for I am convinced 
 that 100 revolutions in a good mill are equal — nay, superior — ■ 
 to 200 in one out of order ; and that after a year's work 
 in a mill, it will require a compensation of at least twenty revo- 
 lutions to keep it up to its proper work. 
 
 We are not told in the above record the breadth of the faces 
 or the distance of the cylinders from their working centre, and 
 hence the area of the ring of the bed over which the composition 
 is spread and worked ; elements affecting the thickness of the 
 composition, the velocities, and hence the milling obtained. 
 
 In England, in consequence of the danger from explosions, the 
 mill charge is regulated by law to 42 lbs. of composition, which is 
 well damped. 
 
 The revolutions are variously stated ; by some authors as 480 in 
 the hour from water power ; the time of working the charge being 
 from three to six hours, according to the state of the atmosphere. 
 
 Ploughs are used ; but I strongly suspect that the turners are 
 
COST OF GRINDING MILL. 85 
 
 not, as with us, constantly employed over the powder, but now 
 and then visit the mills to lay the composition even ; having 
 previously stopped the machinery. Many of the cylinders are of 
 stone ; and cast-iron beds are mentioned by Mr. Wilkinson. 
 
 It requires one chuprassee, two turners, six bullocks, and three 
 drivers to work off four charges in twenty-four hours at Ishapore. 
 
 The cost of the present mills may be resolved into — 
 
 Two gun-metal cylinders, about 5 tons each, at r. a. p, 
 
 Ir. 3a. 4j9. per lb . 2Y,057 1 8 
 
 One bed of ditto, at Ir. la. %p. per lb. . . 8,546 13 10'4 
 
 Machinery ... ... 2,500 
 
 House and foundation . . . . 3,625 10 2 
 
 Total .... 41,729 9 1-2 
 
 The necessary weight may be obtained by cast-iron wheels 
 inserted into a brass rim, should new cylinders ever be required. 
 
 Stone beds might be obtained at a less cost than the above- 
 mentioned articles of brass, which are soft, and soon rubbed into 
 hollows. 
 
 Colonel Tennant,Bengal Artillery, writes to me that he considered 
 powder made by the pilon mills to be superior to that fabricated 
 by the cylinder mills, for this reason : — that the sulphur played 
 a certain part in the composition of binding into one molecule the 
 other particles, whether by the plastic adhesive tenacity inherent 
 in the sulphur, or by its electricity. If the former be taken as 
 the active cause, a certain degree of heat and friction is requisite 
 to generate this adhesive attraction and soften the sulphur ; while, 
 if electricity be considered as the combining and binding cause, 
 then also was friction and heat requisite. 
 
 The nature of the pilon mill was such, that by the fall of the 
 pestle much motion was given to the composition as it escaped 
 sidewards and upwards from under the pestle ; while, by the 
 movement of the trough longitudinarily, these side heaps were in 
 turn brought under a second pestle ; and in their turn the com- 
 position of these side heaps was forced down, much escaping 
 laterally and upwards ; that thus there resulted a constant 
 motion and friction, and intermixture of the particles, which 
 
86 COMPAEISON OF MILLS. 
 
 raised the sulphur into the adhesive state, or excited its elec- 
 tricity. That, taking either cause as the active one, a particle 
 of sulphur required heat and friction to generate the required 
 state ; and then a certain freedom of motion in space, as it 
 were, to permit the particle of sulphur to wander about until it 
 had drawn into itself its proper coating of charcoal and salt- 
 petre ; which obtained, it then lost its power of attraction and 
 adhesion, or even electricity. Now the pilon mills had all the 
 required elements of motion, friction, and intermixture, while 
 the very essence of the cylinder mills is pressing, which in its 
 nature represses both mixture and motion, and movement of the 
 particles, except as much as may result from the ploughs and the 
 forks in the hands of the turners. 
 
 The longer the milling is continued, the harder and denser 
 becomes the cake ; and thus there is less motion of the particles. 
 Convex-faced cylinders cause something of this lateral play, and 
 when mo^^ng in different tracks, they afforded more mixing by the 
 second breaking up the cake formed under the preceding cyHnder. 
 
 Thus convex-faced cylinders, not following each other in the 
 same track, are superior to fiat-faced cylinders following each 
 other at the same distance from the centre of motion. 
 
 The necessary heat may be obtained in this country (India) 
 with a less velocity than is requisite for the colder climate of 
 England ; hence the mills may require to be worked with far 
 greater quickness in Europe. 
 
 To the absence of motion, want of mixture, and of agitation, may 
 be attributed an inferiority, perhaps, of cylinder to pilon mills. 
 
 The pilon mills used in India were generally of two batteries 
 of 12 pilons each. The theoretic weight was about 80 lbs., 
 falling from a height of 10 ft. at 50 times in a minute, on a 
 charge of 22 lbs., for a period of from seven to eleven hours ; 
 thus an enormous quantity of pounding was given to a small 
 charge. 
 
 Bruising. 
 The next step in the process of the manufacture conveys the 
 
BRUISING MILL CHAEGE. 87 
 
 composition from the mill to the bruising-house. Here men, 
 seated in a large vat, pick out any very hard bits of mill-cake, as fit 
 for corning ; and rub down between a roller and a plate of zinc 
 all smaller lumps, till the mass is of one uniform consistency. 
 
 Hence there is an apparent undoing of the work of the 
 mills in this operation. 
 
 The reduction to one consistency is necessary, to enable the 
 composition to run into the interstices between the sheets of 
 copper of the press-box. 
 
 There is perhaps no fitter place to introduce a question, often 
 raised, how best to re-work up the dust which is obtained at every 
 stage of the manufacture. 
 
 It has been mixed up with the fresh composition under the 
 cylinders, in the bruising-house, before reaching the press, and 
 in several other modes ; which have all ended, at Ishapore, in a 
 . mill being appropriated to the dust, at 40 revolutions to the 
 charge, with one quart of water. Some particles of the dust, in 
 its working and re-working, must receive many thousands of 
 revolutions. 
 
 It is by many manufacturers considered that the dust consists 
 of a greater portion of charcoal, which has separated in the course 
 of manufacture, being the lightest of the component particles ; 
 but, on analysis, I did not find this to be the case. 
 
 I do not believe the dust to require more incorporation than it 
 has already received ; but it may become too dry for the press, 
 especially in India, hence the propriety of a little water and a 
 few turns under the cyhnders; forty revolutions is the utmost 
 that is required. 
 
 This point is of importance, as to finish 100 barrels of powder, 
 requires 140 barrels of new composition, 40 being returned in 
 dust from the various stages. 
 
 Several trials were made on this subject, which are here given. 
 
 The operations of the bruising-house require one man for each 
 mill. 
 
88 
 
 EFFECTS OF NUMBER OP RETOLUTIOKS. 
 
 No. 1. — IsHAPOEB, Aprix 22, 1834. 
 
 Description of Powder. 
 
 Musketry. 
 
 Ordnance. 
 
 8-in. Mortar, 
 1-lb. Charge, 
 654-lb. Ball. 
 
 1 
 s a 
 
 8-in. Mortar, 
 1-lb. Charge, 
 65i-lb. Ball. 
 
 If 
 
 rn o 
 
 Powder witli only 50 revolutions in 
 the mills .... 
 
 Powder with only 100 revolutions 
 in the miUs . . . . 
 
 Powder from dust, but not re- 
 milled, dry, pressed as usual 
 
 Powder from dust re-milled with 60 
 revolutions . . . . . 
 
 Powder from dust re-miUed with 
 100 revolutions 
 
 Powder from dust re-milled with 
 150 revolutions . . . . 
 
 Yds. 
 729 
 754 
 791 
 758 
 747 
 766 
 
 Deg. Min. 
 
 22 25 
 
 23 7* 
 23 20 
 23 25 
 
 22 25 
 
 23 10 
 
 Yds. 
 590 
 602 
 619 
 605 
 602 
 618 
 
 Deg. Min. 
 
 20 45 
 
 21 2i 
 21 25 
 21 20 
 21 35 
 21 35 
 
 No. 2. — IsHAPOEB, Mat 1, 1834. 
 
 
 Musketry. 
 
 Ordnance. 
 
 
 tT oT * 
 
 >::• <ff 
 
 
 ^ tu^ 
 
 tT id' 
 
 
 Description of Powder. 
 
 ■s sS 
 
 -in. Morta 
 -oz. Charg 
 0-lb. Ball. 
 
 ■a o 
 o is 
 
 |f2 
 
 -in. Morta 
 -oz. Charg 
 0-lb. Ball. 
 
 a " 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 
 00 ,-H CO 
 
 00 IM OO 
 
 PmP^ 
 
 CO 1— 1 <© 
 
 OO (M CO 
 
 (uf^ 
 
 PS 
 
 
 Yds. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 Deg. Min. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 Deg. Min. 
 
 
 Powder from composition^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 receiving 300 revolu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tions in the cylinder 
 mills, not mixed with 
 
 747 
 
 94 
 
 22 10 
 
 549 
 
 98 
 
 19 50 
 
 ■3 
 
 dust, of common manu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 facture / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 Powder made solely from\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 dust of the common 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 manufacture, re-milled 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 with 50 revolutions 
 
 731 
 
 94 
 
 22 30 
 
 554 
 
 101 
 
 19 50 
 
 J 
 
 in the cylinder mills, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 corned, glazed, (fee, as 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the above J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHARGES OP VARIOUS COMPOSITIONS. 
 
 89 
 
 No. 
 
 3. ISHAPOEB, 
 
 June 2, 
 
 1834. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Musketry . 
 
 
 Ordnance. 
 
 
 tT oT^- 
 
 c-f 
 
 
 b y-J 
 
 t^ oT 
 
 
 Description of Powder. 
 
 Id 
 
 p^ 
 
 al 
 
 PI 
 
 
 al 
 
 
 
 
 ^6^. 
 
 "3 a 
 
 16^- 
 
 So . 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 . • r^ 
 
 -a o 
 
 
 . .J2 
 
 -5 o 
 
 ri 
 
 
 "T* "T »o 
 
 •??3 
 
 g g. 
 
 ■ 1 . >o 
 
 •??3 
 
 S S. 
 
 a 
 
 
 OO ,-1 -J3 
 
 Qo cq oo 
 
 f»m 
 
 CO r-i CO 
 
 OO (N CO 
 
 ^ w 
 
 « 
 
 
 Yds. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 Deg.Min. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 Deg. Min. 
 
 
 Powder made from fresh ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 composition and dust 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 incorporated together 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in the mills ; 16 lb. , 
 of dust being added 
 
 755 
 
 95 
 
 22 45 
 
 591 
 
 91 
 
 21 2^ 
 
 
 to the charge of fresh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 composition at 260 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 revolutions ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Powder from fresh com-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 position and dust, in- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 corporated in the 
 
 744 
 
 95 
 
 23 30 
 
 598 
 
 94 
 
 20 55 
 
 
 bruising-house as usual 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 with aU common manu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 facture / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ishapore common manu-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 facture delivery, No. , 
 
 762 
 
 97 
 
 23 7i 
 
 587 
 
 96 
 
 20 45 
 
 22 
 
 63 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 §■3 
 
 Ditto, ditto. No. 64 . 
 
 754 
 
 100 
 
 22 50 
 
 583 
 
 104 
 
 20 47 
 
 
 Ditto, ditto, No. 65 . 739 
 
 98 
 
 22 55 
 
 603 
 
 102 
 
 20 55 
 
 
 I believe all these powders to be of one age — about a month. 
 It is certainly strange how very little difference is to be dis- 
 covered between them. There exists an indication that the 
 50 revolutions fresh powder is slightly inferior ; that of 100 revo- 
 lutions proving the best, even superior to that of 300. 
 
 The dust-powder of 50 revolutions is equal to any, even to the 
 dust of 150 revolutions. 
 
 Dust-powder, being already dampish, would probably reach the 
 amount of tenacity of fresh composition of 100 revolutions in about 
 half the time. There appears no difference, whether the dust was 
 mixed up in the bruising-house or under the cylinders. 
 
 In the 300 revolutions, fresh composition, as probably the most 
 dense, we trace the worst range in the ordnance-powder, and in 
 the dust not milled at all, the very best range. I have no doubt 
 this last powder was very porous and light, hence in the larger 
 
90 PRESSING. 
 
 charges it ranged most high, but how this powder would have 
 stood travelHng and keeping was not ascertained. 
 
 Much depends on the state of the dryness of the dust ; when 
 very dry, I could hardly force it into a rotten porous light cake, 
 which would not have borne graining. 
 
 Much depends, as stated before, on the state of the beds and 
 cylinders ; when these are perfect, I suspect the best powder is 
 reached at 150 revolutions, and that all above is labour lost, 
 whether with dust or fresh composition. 
 
 Pressing. 
 
 The next step carries the bruised composition to the press. 
 
 In earlier days of the manufacture, this operation was not 
 performed ; but the composition was pressed into cake, more or 
 less thick, under the cylinders. 
 
 This mode was, in the first instance, superseded by a press, in 
 which the whole mass was formed into a dense block, to be sub- 
 sequently broken up. 
 
 A great improvement next resulted from the introduction of 
 copper sheets between strata of composition. This plan has been 
 attended with the best success. 
 
 The presses are thus described by Colonel Galloway : — 
 
 " We now introduce, horizontally, sheets of copper, at regular 
 intervals of three-quarters of an inch, among the composition ; 
 so that, when the whole is pressed, the composition is taken out 
 in separate cakes, of a superficies equal to the horizontal section 
 of the press-box, and half an inch in thickness. 
 
 " These cakes are perfectly smooth and well defined on both 
 sides, resembling so many slabs of black marble, and almost equally 
 hard when dry ; and when broken still more closely resembling 
 in fracture that of marble, having all that closeness of grain and 
 gloss which is seen in that substance when recently fractured. 
 
 " For the convenience of loading the press, the composition- 
 containing box is made to fold backwards, instead of being loaded 
 with composition, as it stands within the cheeks of the press; 
 the front moves on hinges, and is made to lift up. 
 
IPKlSg ^®U ©yK][P@M®EK [yJSES) ATT fl§M/aiP®K[E 
 
 Fla£e 6. 
 
 (gAlPSTi\lK] [F®1^ [PK[E§§ 
 
 pullislied bj Jolm.'Weale London. 
 
 KeUEic'Lirr:.';! Cas;lr tj'.Kolt:.m.. 
 
Ilate. 7. 
 
 IPIL^iKl g[E©Tll®Kl ^Kl© llLIIW/af 11®K1 ©IF KIIEM IPI^ESg Kl®l!J)i[E 
 
 ai[HlAtP@[^l = 
 
 Ha^' ¥ ''~^ Tp ^^^^^^^^^' lii'" u 
 
 w 
 
 lea 
 
 i 
 
 FrorvlySle'VcUioTv' . 
 
 Section/ on/jl B 
 
 y .... -f .. . . f : 
 
 /pj^eet^ 
 
 PiLblished. I17 Jolm-Weale Loiidim. 
 
 Kelllird^-LitK" Casclfl StHoTtom. 
 
PEESSING. 91 
 
 "The whole box, thus folded backwards, takes its position 
 behind the press, with its front now become, as it were, the lid or 
 top ; so that the sheets of copper, horizontal when the box was 
 in the press, are now vertical, and the composition is put in 
 between them with great ease and all at once, which shortens the 
 labour of loading the press exceedingly : for without this con- 
 trivance, each layer of composition must have been put in sepa- 
 rately, beginning with the lowermost ; it is, in fact, an improve- 
 ment on the French mode of pressing in plateaux. 
 
 " "When loaded, the front is shut down and bolted, and the box 
 is raised up, and being attached to the bottom of the press by 
 hinges, is folded up into its position between the cheeks of the 
 press. The blocks are now placed over the lid or top of the box, 
 and the power of the screw is applied. 
 
 " These blocks are of hard wood ; and as well as the lid of 
 the box, are made small enough to go down within the box, as 
 the pressure is exerted.' 
 
 "The quantity of composition put into the press is regularly 
 measured by a measure. Our presses hold 500 lbs., and are 
 worked by eight men, with a lever and capstan, the arms of 
 which should be 6 ft. instead of 4, as at present, which would 
 save labour. In order to secure as much as can be done 
 the essential point of equality of composition, besides the test of 
 exhaustion of the power in the men, we have the presses gauged 
 and a mark made, so that the volume of composition being 
 always the same, when the stamp of the press reaches that 
 mark, we know that a sufficient quantity of compression has 
 been given. 
 
 " If sufficiently pressed, the quantity of moisture being cor- 
 rect, as I have before said, the cake on being broken presents 
 a clean, smooth, shining fracture ; otherwise the fracture is 
 coarse, rough, and dull, without any gloss, an appearance so 
 easily discriminated that it is unnecessary to be more minute in 
 describing it." 
 
 There are small rods f in. square, used to keep the copper 
 sheets separate when loading. 
 
92 PRESSING. 
 
 From Mr. Braddock we gather only a few remarks on the 
 art of pressing, because it was not in use at Madras. He says : — 
 
 " At Waltham Abbey each 500 lbs. of composition received 
 pressure considered to be equal to 600 tons." 
 
 The following is a fair description of the press in use at 
 Ishapore. (See plates.) 
 
 The upright posts are 22 in. broad. The screw beam is 2 ft. 
 
 2 in. broad. The thicknesses are shown in the plate. 
 
 A tenon of 9 in. passes through the foundation timber, and 
 is bolted through with an 1^ in. bolt. Of the screw-box beam, 
 two tenons A^ in. thick, pass through each post ; and two of 
 4 in. thick slip across the front and rear edge of the posts ; 
 and two bolts, 1| in. thick, secure each end. The head is com- 
 posed of two pieces, about 10 in. broad, let upon the post 
 half their breadth, and let 1 in. into the posts, so that they 
 project 4 in. front and rear. The space between, at the outer 
 end, is filled up with a small block, and bolted with inch bolts. 
 
 Above the beam, under the press-box, is a platform rabbeted, 
 1^ in. into the faces of the posts, and extending 8 in. beyond 
 the cheeks of the press in front and rear. 
 
 In front and rear of the press-box, a rabbet, ^ in. deep, is 
 made across ; into these rabbets the low edges of the front and 
 rear planks rest. These planks are 3 in. thick, chamfered 
 oflf at each end to 2 in. The false cheeks of the press are 
 
 3 in. thick, and so long as to extend 3^ in. beyond the 
 outside of these planks ; and across each end a piece of hard 
 wood is riveted 3j in. broad, and 1 in. thick. When the 
 press-box is filled and set in its place, the front and rear planks 
 are set into the rabbets in the platform, and pressing against 
 the press-box ; then the false cheeks are screwed home, so that 
 they likewise touch the press-box, and the ends of the front and 
 rear planks are laid hold of by the piece of hard wood riveted 
 across the ends of the false cheeks. Thus forming another and 
 stronger box, closely embracing the press-box on all sides, so 
 that it is enabled to sustain the lateral pressure, which is very 
 considerable. 
 
PKBSSINa. 
 
 93 
 
 The press-box is made of Sisoo planks, 1^ in. thick, and 
 strongly clamped with copper clamps, riveted on the inside ; 
 it is 11 ft. 5^ in. wide, 2 ft. 3^ in. long, and 2 ft. 7-^ in. deep. 
 The screw, inclusive of the head, is 2 ft. 10 in. long; diameter 
 over the threads 7^ in., thickness of the head f of an inch, 
 depth of the thread i^ths, thickness of the thread f of an inch ; 
 diameter of the head of the screw 14 in. ; length of the head 
 13^ in., diameter of the hole in the head, 7 in. 
 
 Taking into consideration the loss of the time by constant 
 shifting of the lever, this machine (though not costly in itself) is 
 expensive in its result on the powder. 
 
 After the press-box is charged, 8 press blocks are put in, at 
 which point there are 3 '5 threads of the screw exposed ; after 
 which, the operation is as follows : — 
 
 Layer of Press 
 blocks. 
 
 Quarter Eevolutiona of Screw. 
 
 Eevolistions of 
 Screw. 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ( 20 by hand of 4 men ..'... 
 \ 7 by 2 handspikes, 1 man each . 
 24 with small lever, by 3 men 
 J 8 small lever 
 
 
 5- 
 
 1-75 
 6- 
 2- 
 5 '5 
 
 \ 22 large lever and windlass, with 6 men 
 
 4 
 
 81 
 
 20 '25 
 
 Now, as it requires four quarter movements, or four quarter 
 revolutions, of the lever, to one revolution of the screw, the levers 
 have to be shifted eighty times, and the screw to be screwed 
 back twice, to admit the blocks. 
 
 The windlass makes 3\ revolutions to 1 quarter revolution 
 of the lever. 
 
 There remains 1 foot 3 inches of mass in the box when 
 finished. The loss of time and loss of impulse is very great. 
 The present screws might be improved if second or third threads 
 were added to them ;* or, if they were fitted with a crown wheel. 
 
 * After this was written, there was one awful explosion at the press-house ; 
 five men were killed, and not a vestige was left of the building. The lighted bits 
 
94 PEESSING. 
 
 and some machinery admitting of their being worked by bullocks, 
 with no stoppage for shifting the lever, or addition of press- 
 blocks : a division of labour among the men, and a succession 
 of boxes, one being emptied, the second being pressed, and the 
 third being filled by different parties, would enable one press 
 to work off the composition of four or five mills with greater 
 facility. The only disadvantage I can discover being the larger 
 quantity of powder assembled in one spot, and the danger of 
 explosion when hurry and velocity are given to operations on 
 gunpowder. 
 
 Great care is requisite that the composition be uniformly and 
 evenly worked into the intervals between the copper sheets, in 
 loading the press, with the wooden slices. 
 
 The present press-boxes at Ishapore contain about 320 lbs. of 
 composition, being the charges of four mills. It takes about 
 one and a-half hour to work one box clear. 
 
 The cake, on being taken out of the box, has a dampish 
 appearance ; but on being exposed to the sun, becomes quite as 
 hard and even very similar to slate. 
 
 If the great force used in compression be borne in mind, 
 some idea may be formed of the force again requisite to sepa- 
 rate the cake from the sheets of copper, or indeed to re-open 
 the box. 
 
 To make an accurate calculation of the power of the screw 
 moved under the many modes just described, with the con- 
 sideration of the resistance of the sheets of copper, and of the 
 composition, and of the friction of the screw and ropes, would 
 be no easy matter. 
 
 I am induced to write off all the turns by hand and 
 handspikes to the above ; to consider the windlass as merely 
 sufficient to bring into operations the full powers of six men, 
 and to estimate the pressure as that attained by the six last 
 turns of the screw. Then^ — ■ 
 
 of wood were scattered over the whole enclosure, and the results might have been 
 terrible. The press-houses at Ishapore are all too small, and hardly placed at suffi- 
 cient distances from each other : no accident had before taken place. 
 
POWER OF THE PRESS. 95 
 
 Diameter of tlie circle of leverage . . . 16 ft. 8 in, 
 
 Distance between the tlu-eads . 
 
 Power of a man .... 
 
 Number of men . ... 
 
 Revolutions of the screw 
 
 f of an inch. 
 150 lbs. 
 
 Therefore, 16-8 x 3-1416 x f = 1407, say 1400 ; 1400 x 6 
 ^ ■'■^^ ^ 2^0 ~ ^^2 tons per revolution of the screw. 
 
 17'5 X 27'5 = 481 square inches in the superficies of the box. 
 
 1^ = 1-17 tons, or 23 cwt. per square inch. 
 
 375 lbs. of composition = 6000 ounces. 
 
 ^ = -093 tons, or 1-86 cwt. of pressure per ounce of com- 
 position. 
 
 Mr. Braddock says " that every 500 lbs. of cake was at Wal- 
 tham Abbey submitted to a mean theoretic pressure of 600 tons." 
 
 It is difficult to estimate the result of an increased number of 
 turns of the screw. I pressed some composition with both eleven 
 and with twenty-two turns of the lever ; but the cake from the 
 latter did not indicate any greater density. The fact is, after 
 a certain point, I suspect the strain fell on the various parts of 
 the machine, on the bottom of the box, tenons, cross heads, and 
 side-posts, but did not increase the density of the composition. 
 
 Composition fit to press is too damp to run into our density 
 measure. Fresh dry composition from the mixing barrels will so 
 run, and gives a density of 145 drams, while dry much-handled 
 dust gives 240 ; our density measure holds 307 drams of distilled 
 water |^ = '78, as the specific gravity of dust. We press the 
 composition into half its bulk: therefore '78 x 2 = 1-56, will be 
 about the specific gravity of cake. I made many experiments by 
 taking the specific gravity of cake in distilled water. Common 
 press cake runs between 1"6 and 1'8, while mill cake varies 
 between 1-5 and 1-7 ; the average is about 1-75. Of course this 
 result depends on many circumstances, as the bit selected being 
 from the centre of the box under the screw, or from the sides. 
 There was an indication that thicker pieces gave a greater 
 density ; perhaps in the thinner pieces all the water was evapo- 
 rated, while in the thicker bits the interstices may have been 
 
96 SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 
 
 occupied by water and not air ; for, on the evaporation of the 
 damp, the interstices would not close up, but remain as honey- 
 combs filled with air. I thus make solid gunpowder to have 
 a specific gravity of 1-75. Allow our ordnance powder to give 
 by our measure of 33-25 cubic inches, 280 drams, its specific 
 gravity is '912. 
 
 Hutton gives solid gunpowder 1-74, and gunpowder in grains 
 close shaken -937 ; a proof that my calculations are not very 
 far wrong. Probably the average of our cake is 1'8, or higher 
 than the Enghsh. 
 
 The advantages and disadvantages of pressing and glazing 
 powder are fairly laid down by Mr. Braddock in the following 
 memorandums, which in some measure anticipate the question 
 of glazing. He says : — 
 
 " The susceptibility that even the best powder possesses to 
 absorb moisture from the hygrometric property of the charcoal, 
 renders pressing and glazing always desirable, and in some 
 cases indispensable. 
 
 " It is essential that gunpowder should not only possess great 
 impellent force, when newly made, but that it retain its force 
 to remote periods. No other modes of efiecting this are known 
 at present, than b}"^ imparting density to the powder, and a 
 gloss or polish to the surface of the grain. 
 
 " The operations of pressing and glazing preserve the powder ; 
 they make it competent to withstand the shaking and friction 
 of carriage ; and render it less liable to deteriorate if kept long 
 in store, or if subjected to the influence of humid atmospheres." 
 
 This cannot be better illustrated than by an extract from the 
 report of experiments made on Marlbro' Downs in 1811. 
 
 " Mill cake gunpowder cannot retain its strength because the 
 grains are too soft and porous, and, in consequence, attract 
 moisture like a sponge. Mill cake gunpowder made in the year 
 1789, ranged this year 3628 yards. 
 
 " Gunpowder manufactured from hard-pressed cake has a 
 firm close grain ; and, consequently, is not liable to attract 
 moisture. A charge of this powder similar to the charges which 
 
EFFECTS OF PRESSING AND GLAZING. 97 
 
 "Were used with unpressed cake powder, ranged 4193 yards, 
 although it had been made five years longer than the former. 
 
 "Moderately glazed powder is more durable than unglazed 
 powder, because the grains are rendered firmer, and less liable 
 to attract moisture. 
 
 " The benefits of pressing and glazing are absolute ; the 
 disadvantage (if so it may be termed) is rather imaginary than 
 real, unless the powder be of inferior quality. 
 
 " These operations interrupt the rapidity of combustion, and 
 therefore, in all ordinary cases, they impair the propellant force 
 of the powder. This deterioration has been estimated as high 
 as from ^ to ;^ of the range : that is, if a given charge of mill 
 cake powder ranges 1000 yards, the same charge of the same 
 powder when pressed and glazed will range but 750 or 800 
 yards. This refers to the powder only when newly made ; 
 we have Just shown that it does not apply when it is 20 or 
 30 years old, for then pressed powder will range further than 
 unpressed. 
 
 " It is a well-known fact that pressed and glazed powder does 
 not range so far as mill cake gunpowder. 
 
 "The Hon. Mr. Napier, while superintendent of the Royal 
 Laboratory at Woolwich, found, from a mean of 600 experiments, 
 that pressing and glazing gunpowder reduced its strength, about 
 one-fifth if the powder is good, and nearly one-fourth if it is of in- 
 ferior quality. This ratio of deterioration corresponds exactly with 
 experiments I made on gunpowder fabricated at Madras in 1813, 
 according to the English system of manufacture. The loss of 
 range was a Httle more than one-fifth, but less than one-fourth ; 
 but the degree of density, as well as size of the grain, will very 
 much modify the result of experiments made to ascertain the 
 quantity of loss. 
 
 " It does not appear necessary to investigate the causes why 
 dense powder ranges short of lighter powder of the same manu- 
 facture ; it is sufficient that such is the fact ; but if it be thought 
 a question of curiosity worth examining into, we think it attri- 
 butable not to loss of inherent strength, or the less copious 
 
98 EFFECTS OF PRESSING AND GLAZING. 
 
 extrication of the elastic fluids, but simply to the delay in their 
 due development. We think that the gunpowder of light specific 
 gravity ranges further than powder of greater density, only 
 because it explodes with greater facility ; for the same reason 
 that fir will burn quicker than oak, the one is more solid than 
 the other. Time, however, reverses this action ; the porousness of 
 the light powder makes it more susceptible of injury, Jt imbibes 
 more humidity than the dense powders, and what it gains in 
 immediate effect, it loses by long keeping." 
 
 Thus dense powder, in large charges, does not display its full 
 impellent power before the act of impulsion is over — from its 
 slower ignition. Suppose we were to make a column of solid 
 cake one foot long, just fitting a musket, it would not explode, but 
 burn vividly and quietly to the end. The fluid disengaged would 
 force the column of solid composition up the bore ; the portion 
 unburnt would be shot forth into the air, but to no useful pur- 
 pose ; the unburnt portion would be greater as the density of the 
 solid column of composition was greater. The same takes place 
 in long narrow charges of power ; much is exploded to no pur- 
 pose as the density of the powder is increased. There exists 
 a ratio of inflammation to the elasticity of the fluid, could we hit 
 upon it, but then such ratio varies with every change of cir- 
 cumstance. 
 
 In srnall charges, exposed over a large space, and hence not 
 deep, density is an object, as it concentrates the fire and fluid, 
 otherwise left too free and unconfined ; but this soon disappears 
 with increase of charge. On the other hand, density is of the 
 greatest effect in preserving powder through time, carriage, and 
 change of climate. Hence we sacrifice a portion of the impel- 
 ling power to the necessity of durability, and perhaps in some 
 measure also to the desire of pleasing the eye of inspectors, who 
 require a hard uniform grain, free from dust. 
 
 Again, each year's keeping, and every mile of transit, combine 
 by the abrasion of angles to form a dust, and thus to counteract 
 this fault of too hard a grain. The greater the density of the 
 cake, the less may be the size of the grains. 
 
VARIETIES OF DENSITY. 99 
 
 The following statement of densities are from my own experi- 
 ments :— 
 
 Average. 
 1-73 
 
 Average. 
 ) 1-79 
 
 Mill cake, fresh, l-inoh tHck, 4 or 5 days old . . . 1 -76 
 
 ,, 1 day, thick and -well cleaned, a selected bit 2' 09 
 
 „ 50 revolutions, 25 days old, unpicked, rough 1'54 
 
 „ 100 „ „ . 1-70 
 
 „ 150 „ „ . 1-58 . 
 
 Press cake, thin fine pieces, selected, i-inch thick, 
 
 5 days old 1'65 "^ 
 
 ,, not cleaned, rough, 6 months . . . . 1'86 
 
 „ „ 7 days, 22 turns .... 1 -83 
 
 ,, ,, ,, 11 ,, .... 2'02 
 
 „ dry dust, 14 days old l-SO 
 
 ,, best that could be selected, ^inoh thick, 
 
 22 turns 1-66 
 
 1, „ ,, g-inch thick 1'85 
 
 „ cylinder mill, very thin and clean . . . 1'69 ^ 
 
 The following facts were ascertained : — 1280 drams of fresh 
 press-cake, placed in a house of the mill-yard during the month 
 of November, parted with 14 drs. of weight by evaporation of 
 the moisture in seven days = -019. Exposed for six months 
 in a like situation, from April to November, 5 lbs. lost 14 drs. 
 in the first seven days, and then continued nearly at the same 
 weight during six months ; 5 lbs. of cake, well dried on exposure 
 to the sun, absorbed 8 drs. of moisture in three days, and the 
 same quantity of very damp cake parted with 15 oz. 6 drs. 
 of water in the same period. The press-cake requires two or 
 three days in the sun ere it is fit to corn. The total quantity 
 of water given to composition is about '075. In England, the 
 best Bramah's hydrostatic press is used for pressing, at a cost 
 of some 1200/. each. In time these will no doubt be introduced 
 into India. The present presses in use cost about 3000 rupees 
 each, of which the screws, male and female, will require nearly 
 1000 rupees. 
 
 The complement of men for each press is one mate and six men 
 to work oflF cake for twenty barrels of powder in twelve hours. 
 
 The copper sheets should be changed by degrees, some new 
 ones being given every month, as much depends on the perfect 
 
 H 2 
 
100 QEANTJLATION. 
 
 condition of these sheets ; the drying-terraces attached to each 
 press should be covered with copper, to increase the heat, and 
 thus more quickly dry the cake. The cake being now well dried 
 in the sun, is advanced to the next stage of the process. 
 
 Granulation. 
 
 The old process of corning, or of breaking up the sohd cake 
 into grains, is described by Colonel Galloway as follows : — 
 
 " The process of corning, that is, of forming the powder into 
 grains, was formerly performed at this manufactory as described 
 in several books, viz., by breaking the large block of composition 
 above described, of 500 or 600 lbs. weight perhaps, first with 
 heavy wooden mallets, and then with Ught ones, till it was 
 reduced to small pieces from the size of a cubic inch downwards ; 
 these were put in small quantities into sieves of parchment with 
 holes in them, just sufficiently large to admit the largest grains 
 of the powder required. Everything smaller went through of 
 course. These sieves were placed on a frame horizontally sup- 
 ported (some frames contained 24 sieves) from the four corners, 
 and revolving by the motion of a crank in the centre, so that 
 a violent horizontal and circular motion might be given to the 
 frame. Over the composition in the sieves a flat but circular, 
 rounded piece of lignum vitse, or other hard wood, was put, so 
 that when the frames revolved this disc moved round within 
 the sieves, dashing against the rims with considerable force, and 
 breaking the bits of composition that might intervene ; this 
 action of the disc, and motion of the powder under it, broke the 
 larger lumps of composition to a size equal to admit of their 
 passing through the holes of the sieves ; and also rounded them 
 into spherical grains, more or less perfect in proportion to the 
 hardness of the composition. 
 
 " But this season, since the cylinder-mills have been in use, 
 and I have endeavoured to attain the utmost possible density of 
 grain in our powder, I have not only found that the corning- 
 sieves, as such, have been perfectly useless, but that in breaking 
 down the cakes to granulate the powder, the wooden slabs and 
 
PlalR 8. 
 
 ©(©KSaaSiO© MA (5 531 Kill (y)i[|® ihl OSIKIAIP®^! 
 
 Sca/f of Feft . 
 
 -^^rt 
 
 ! -T - 
 
 /^T ^ \ 
 
 □ a D a 
 
 IFU 
 
 3C 
 
 i J 
 
 SIDE ELEVATION . 
 
 ELEVATION OF HORSE OR BULLOCK POWER 
 
 SIDE VIEW 
 
 END VIEW. 
 
 ■published, ky JolmWeiie ionaon 
 
 '^'ellEio'litJi'.; CuOe Stadliom. 
 
GEANULATION. 101 
 
 mallets used before were chopped up by the sharp edges of the 
 hard grains, like so much chaff ; these chopped fibres of wood 
 were necessarily mixed with the composition and the dust of the 
 powder, from which it was impossible wholly or even nearly to 
 extract them ; millions of particles, being of the same gravity 
 with the dust, fell along with it in winnowing, and being of the 
 same size, went through the same meshes of the sieves. 
 
 " They were consequently carried back to the mill and-wofked 
 up with the fresh composition, forming a most extensive impurity 
 in it, equal perhaps to that of which I had hoped we had got rid 
 by the introduction of metallic cylinders and beds, in the room of 
 the wooden troughs in which the incorporation was formerly 
 carried on here. 
 
 " I have been able to obviate this great evil entirely by intro- 
 ducing slabs of metal instead of wood, and using mallets of 
 lignum vitae, so that no foreign substance can now find its 
 way into the powder ; these slabs are 3 ft. 10 in. long, 15 in. 
 broad, and f in. thick, and are cast out of the old beds of the 
 cylinder mills made here by Mr. Farquhar many years ago, com- 
 posed of a kind of pewter, Banca tin, with an alloy of zinc." 
 
 This mode, with trifling alteration, appears to have been con- 
 tinued until 1834, when the modern granulating machine was 
 introduced. 
 
 At present the press-cake, after being exposed to the sun and 
 air for about 48 hours, is, when quite cool, sent to be corned : 
 which is done as follows : — 
 
 The corning machine consists of a frame of strong tough 
 wood, in which are placed five pairs of brass rollers (toothed), 
 with several brass wheels to work them. The cake is passed 
 between these rollers which reduce it to grain and a portion 
 of dust. 
 
 There is a large sieve under the machine, kept in motion by 
 the same power that works the machine, one pair of bullocks. 
 All cake that is broken up fine enough for the grain of powder 
 passes through this sieve and is received into small barrels under- 
 neath it, while the parts that are not broken fine enough are 
 
102 
 
 GRANULATION. 
 
 carried back, on elevating bands worked by the machinery, to be 
 passed again through the rollers. (See plate.) 
 
 As the small barrels under the sieve are filled they are carried 
 to the sifting house. 
 
 The runs from the different corning machines in various-sized 
 grains are about as follows : 
 
 
 Ordnance. 
 
 Musket. 
 
 Dust. 
 
 Loss. 
 
 Bengal cake, three days in store 
 
 •334 
 
 •329 
 
 •312 
 
 •023 
 
 „ ,, one month ,, 
 
 ■360 
 
 •348 
 
 ■285 
 
 •005 
 
 England, Waltham Abbey 
 
 ■555 
 
 ■277 
 
 •16 
 
 •006 
 
 Madras . . . . . . 
 
 •38 
 
 ■22 
 
 •40 
 
 ... 
 
 Bombay ..... 
 
 •37 
 
 ■31 
 
 •29 
 
 •03 
 
 The large sieve fixed to the corning house frame is composed 
 of brass wire of 13X13 meshes ; all that passes through this 
 sieve is fit for powder of some one of the three sorts — Ordnance 
 (0.) ; Musketry (M.) ; and Rifle (R.) ; below which are Fine (F.), 
 and Dust (D.). These two last are hardly to be called powder. 
 All that will not pass through the sieve in the corning house is 
 returned to the rollers to be broken up smaller. 
 
 The machinery of the corning house is of a very rough de- 
 scription, all cast and finished in the Agency. The metal is made 
 purposely soft, to avoid any chance of concussion. All parts 
 exposed to friction are kept well oiled. The wear and tear of the 
 wheels and rollers is very great ; a set of wheels would probably 
 last five seasons, but a set of rollers hardly two seasons ; the 
 latter are 3 ft. 2^ in. long and 3 H) in^ ^^ diameter — perhaps too 
 light, as they often bend or break when the cake is very hard. 
 
 Rollers of increased strength would be an improvement, but, if 
 too large, the velocity might be dangerously augmented, a result 
 to be avoided in powder works. 
 
 In England the rollers are large drums, similar to those of an 
 organ barrel, into which are screwed the teeth of brass ; these 
 are thus replaced when broken or worn. 
 
SIFTING. 
 
 103 
 
 A pair of Ishapore rollers will cost . . 150 rupees. 
 
 The entire macliine about . . 3000 „ 
 
 In 12 hours' constant work it could corn about 100 barrels of 
 powder, but at the end of the month would require very extensive 
 repairs. 
 
 The present establishment is three mates and six men. This 
 house was once destroyed by explosion, with great loss of life. I 
 consider the great absence of rigidity from all our very rough 
 machinery to be an advantage, as the giving way of the parts 
 prevents concussion, and saves explosion.* 
 
 Sifting. 
 
 Prom the corning house the entire run is carried to the 
 sifting houses, where it is separated into sizes by hand, men 
 working common sieves suspended from the roof of the house. 
 
 Were labour dear I have no doubt that a machine might be 
 made which would save much of the time and trouble now 
 undergone in passing the powder through several sieves in suc- 
 cession ; but it is a question whether the result would be cheaper 
 or less dangerous. 
 
 The sieves in use at Ishapore are — 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 13 
 
 Holds. 
 
 ill 
 
 If 
 
 ge 
 
 Eprouvette. 
 
 
 Cm 
 
 o 
 n to 
 
 1 
 
 5 ... 
 
 KunkuT . . 
 
 13 
 
 Yds. 
 77 
 
 Yds. 
 453 
 
 o / 
 
 296 
 
 298 
 
 K 
 
 4 ... 
 
 Ordnance 
 
 17 
 
 90 
 
 C18 
 
 20 41 
 
 281 
 
 279 
 
 
 
 3 ... 
 
 Musketry 
 
 24 
 
 94 
 
 793 
 
 22 67 
 
 270 
 
 269 
 
 M 
 
 2 ... 
 
 Rifle . . . 
 
 34 
 
 95 
 
 827 
 
 22 35 
 
 256 
 
 254 
 
 R 
 
 1 ... 
 
 Fine . . . 
 
 54 
 
 89 
 
 437 
 
 23 36 
 
 248 
 
 244 
 
 F 
 
 ... 
 
 Dust . . . 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 D 
 
 * I believe one of the great causes of explosions in gunpowder manufactories to 
 arise where there is machinery in quick motion, from the accumulation of the dust 
 of powder round the axles of the parts of the machinery ; and wherever these are, 
 the supporting them on double friction rollers, with reservoirs of oil, well covered, 
 as I used with my mixing barrels at AUahabad, is a great preservative against these 
 disastrous accidents. I had only one trifling explosion, which was in the grinding 
 mills, during the five years I was agent at Allahabad. — Editor. 
 
104 GLAZING. 
 
 Further details of experiments as to sizes of grain will be 
 given in the Appendix. 
 
 Glazing. 
 
 The various kinds of separated grains are next advanced to 
 the process of glazing. 
 
 Much importance is attached to this portion of the process, 
 which I am not quite prepared to argue the value of. 
 
 From inspection, and from various memoranda, I am convinced 
 that the large grained ordnance powder of the English service is 
 not submitted to this operation. 
 
 It probably adds a little to the durability of the powder, and 
 to the uniformity of the range, as reducing the grains to nearly 
 the same size, and thus equalising the combustion of the charge. 
 
 The following is the description of the glazing process : — The 
 powder is sent to the glazing house, where the whole is glazed by 
 putting 100 lbs. of powder into a skeleton rib-barrelled frame, 
 covered with coarse but equal-fibred canvas. 
 
 These barrels are turned on their axis for three hours, which 
 gives a slight polish to the grains, and at the same time clears 
 them from all dust. 
 
 The glazing reel or barrel is 3 ft. 10 in. long and 14 in. in 
 diameter inside. It is formed by 8 longitudinal ribs of wood, 
 with short stays from rib to rib to strengthen the frame, and 
 with heads at each end into which the ends of the long ribs are 
 morticed. The canvas is lashed to the heads besides being sewed 
 the whole length of the side. 
 
 Two of these glazing barrels work in one large box or plank 
 covering, on brass axes fixed to the heads of the box, and brass 
 sockets to receive them in the supporting frame of the box ; one 
 man turns each by a copper crank handle attached to the pro- 
 jecting end of the axes. There are 10 or 11 of these used every 
 day in the working season. 
 
 As the harder surface will take a better pohsh than a softer one, 
 I consider that this operation should follow the drying of the 
 powder, and not precede it, as is the present mode. Glazing should 
 

 
 @ 
 
 JAJ] 
 
 ■33 
 © 
 
 1=1 
 
 |W| 
 
 cm 
 
 43 
 
 
 ® 
 
 .Si 
 @ 
 
 (K5) 
 
 ® 
 
 ® 
 
DEYING. 103 
 
 be the finishing act of the manufacture, ere the powder be passed 
 through the final sieve before being barrelled for despatch to the 
 magazine. 
 
 There are ten men working at these reels in a very confined 
 space ; were any accident to take place there would result a 
 distressing loss of life. It would be an advantage if these reels 
 were turned by a simple mechanical power, to turn the whole at 
 once, which might easily be constructed, and the workmen would 
 thus be comparatively secured from danger. 
 
 It is probable that under the term of glazing very different 
 operations are included. In the Indian process glazing takes place 
 when the grains are dry and hard, but in Europe the powder is 
 probably glazed in a damp state, ere the powder is dried, and then 
 no doubt alteration of shape, roundness of form, would result, all 
 ending in the increase of density in a certain measure of capacity. 
 
 The English reels are much as those at Ishapore, but are made 
 with cross rods to increase the friction, which serve also to 
 strengthen the frame ; and, for the convenience of unloading, the 
 frame is so constructed as to be capable of being lowered to an 
 incHne, with an opening for this purpose at that end. 
 
 Drying. 
 
 In the variable climate of Europe it has been found necessary 
 to resort to artificial means for drying the large quantities of 
 powder at the manufactories. 
 
 This is accomplished by gloom stoves, or in rooms heated by 
 steam-pipes to the required temperature, rising by degrees from 
 66° to perhaps 140°, and then sinking back to 66°, by the same 
 regular degrees in 24 hours. 
 
 But in India, with an ample command of solar heat, and a 
 continued season of dryness without rain, there can exist no 
 reason for resorting to artificial means. 
 
 English powder being considered as usually superior to the 
 Indian, the use of solar desiccation has been considered by some 
 as a cause of the inferiority.* 
 
 * See Appendix in " Allahabad Experimental Powder." — Editok. 
 
106 DEYING TERRACES. 
 
 It is "well known that solar rays hate an effect in dissipating 
 certain substances — hence their use in bleaching ; but it is not 
 proved that any bad effects are produced on the simple elements, 
 or the compounded substance, of gunpowder. Indeed the powder 
 is nearly as strong when fresh from the corning house and before 
 exposure, as after lying for three days in the sun on the terraces 
 in use at Ishapore. 
 
 The object in drying gunpowder is, by evaporation, to get rid 
 of the water or dampness caused by the use of water in the 
 milling, which then amounts to about 7^ per cent. 
 
 This water is in a constant state of passing off during the 
 different processes subsequent to the milling. In the presses it 
 is forced out in a great degree, while in all the subsequent various 
 handlings, as in corning, sifting, &c., a further portion is evapo- 
 rated. Still a small quantity of moisture remains, and it is the 
 object of drying to dissipate this. 
 
 The fear that is usually entertained is that under too great a 
 heat some of the ingredients may alter their form. 
 
 Thus, sulphur is said to evaporate at 1 70° Fahr., but this is a 
 temperature not to be reached from simple exposure to the solar 
 rays in India. I find that in the register of three years, at 11 
 a.m., the temperature in the heaps of gunpowder but once ex- 
 ceeded 139° Fahr. 
 
 The following is the description of the Ishapore terrace : — It is 
 raised 1 8 in. above the ground by masonry, into which wooden 
 sleepers are laid, and over them platforms of wood, four in number, 
 94 by 21^ ft. each, with passages between them. These plat- 
 forms are covered with sheet copper. 
 
 Over this drying cloths, or sheets of canvas, are laid, and on 
 these the powder is spread about 1-| in. deep in the thickness of 
 stratum. 
 
 The powder is brought out about 9 a.m. and taken in about 
 3'30 p.m., a little later or earlier according to the season of the 
 year. During this interval of time it is repeatedly raked and 
 turned. The whole platform is enclosed with a wall 6 ft. high, in 
 which there are two openings on every side, with shutters, how- 
 
DRYING TEEEACES. 107 
 
 ever, to close them up, so as to regulate the temperature, which 
 is somewhat raised by this enclosure of the area. 
 
 This platform is sufficiently extensive to dry for a manufacture 
 of 32 barrels daily. 
 
 The chief faults are, the' sheet-copper being far too hght, and 
 nailed on the platform in sheets by copper nails, rather than con- 
 sisting of long rolls soldered together. A good slope would also 
 assist in draining off dew and rain, while the wall to the east 
 should be very low, to avoid the shadow cast by the sun when 
 at a low altitude in the winter season, and the days are compara- 
 tively shortened ; perhaps the walls are too high, and there 
 should be a shed close at hand to receive the powder cloths. 
 
 The process is as follows : The day promising well, about eight 
 o'clock, when the dew of the night has disappeared, the powder- 
 cloths are spread over the terraces, and the powder, emptied from 
 barrels, spread over them — one, two, and tliree days dried, being 
 kept separate ; the whole is then spread evenly out by rakes 
 of wood, to about an inch in thickness ; these fields of powder are 
 constantly being raked and turned over. 
 
 Towards evening the powder is gathered up in heaps, which 
 are tossed up and shaken in the air if there is any wind, and thus 
 winnowed and dusted ; this done, the whole is returned to the 
 barrels, and carried for the night to the magazine. This process 
 is continued for three days. 
 
 The powder leaves the terraces heated to about 110°Fahr. ; 
 during the night it sinks a little towards the uniform temperature 
 of the air of the magazine, which seldom varies much from 80° 
 at this season. Tables of the trials of temperature are given in 
 the Appendix. 
 
 The gunpowder thus exposed for three days to the sun, on the 
 second day became rather greyish in colour, and during the third 
 assumed a very pale grey ; but after being removed to the shade 
 returned to its original colour, black. 
 
 New and improved terraces, with thicker copper, with a slope 
 to the south, and only one division, thus forming two platforms, 
 were afterwards sanctioned, sufficiently large to dry 300 to 400 
 
108 
 
 PACKING, TRANSPORTING, STORING. 
 
 barrels of powder at once. The expense of them probably 
 40,000r., but they will last for many years, and prove a saving 
 ultimately. 
 
 When the third day's drying is completed, the powder is carried 
 to the weighing magazine ; there it is weighed into quantities of 
 100 lbs., and filled into barrels. 
 
 The barrels are then conveyed to the magazine. At the close 
 of the month, the powder being proved, and found up to the 
 established range, the bungs of the barrels are well closed down 
 with wax cloth, and covered with a piece of leather. The beads 
 are then marked : — 
 
 Kiiid of powder. 
 
 Place of manufacture. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Number. 
 
 OfiBcer's name who proved. 
 
 Eange in yards. 
 
 The barrels are then delivered to the Ordnance Department. 
 
 Packing, Transporting, Storing. 
 
 Before the powder is carried to any distance, the barrels are done 
 up in wax cloth and in gunny (a coarse canvas), also' well lashed 
 with rope. This packing probably costs per barrel 2r., but is ad- 
 mirably done, and never to my knowledge during all our long and 
 distant campaigns was the gunpowder found to be injured. 
 
 The transport of the powder depends of course on the mode of 
 carriage peculiar to the country through which it is passing. 
 
 Thus, from Calcutta to Delhi may be performed by water at a 
 cost of 2r. 8ffi. per barrel. If we suppose carts to be used from 
 Delhi to Loodianah, the charge will perhaps be 12ffl. To reach 
 the frontier, say, Peeshawur, the barrels will be loaded on camels, 
 and the expense incurred reach 3r. If to the actual outlay for 
 carriage be added all the contingent expenditure for guards. 
 
COST OP ISHAPORE POWDER. 109 
 
 •attendants, loss, and minor charges, perhaps from 70 to 80 per 
 cent, may be added to the original cost of the powder, and thus 
 when the interest of block and capital are included, the price of 
 the powder is doubled from first cost at the manufactory. 
 
 In magazines it is ordered that the barrels be constantly rolled 
 over. I believe a great improvement would be effected if now 
 and then, during the hottest season of the year, the barrels were 
 taken out a few at a time in some secure place, and well heated 
 in the sun. This exposure would drive off much of the damp- 
 ness which attends all magazines. The staves also, from shrink- 
 ing under the heat, would admit of the copper hoops being well 
 set up at such a time. 
 
 In England, all powder that has been at sea or on any campaign 
 is re-stoved on return. This operation drives off any contracted 
 damp, but exposure to the Indian sun produces much the same 
 heat as that to which stoves in Europe are raised. 
 
 A small pucka terrace attached to, but at a proper distance from, 
 a magazine, would be very advantageous when any powder is 
 found to have contracted dampness, as the powder might be 
 passed through a sieve, and the dust extracted ; and from this 
 dust, and other damaged powder, saluting cartridges might be 
 formed, or the saltpetre extracted for magazine purposes at a 
 trifling expense. 
 
 Cost of the Powder. 
 
 Secondary, and only secondary, to the quality of the powder 
 is the cost. Good powder made with a small outlay is the point 
 required from the agent by the Government ; but much of the 
 cost depends entirely on causes beyond the control of the agent, 
 as on the price of the crude materials. 
 
 This assertion will be better understood when it is added that 
 the cost of the nitre alone is one-half of the expense of powder. 
 
 All the ingredients and necessary articles vary with the rates of 
 the day. 
 
 The cost of the powder of 1848, per 100 lbs., may be resolved 
 into the following items : — 
 
110 COST OP ISHAPOEE POWDER. 
 
 r. a. p. 
 
 97 lbs. 14 oz. crude saltpetre, for 75 lbs. of pure 
 
 nitre, at Ir. 9a. 4-357iJ. per 100 lbs. . .7 6 9-4 
 
 10 lbs. 9 oz. of crude sulphur for 10 lbs. of pure, 
 
 at 5r. la. 9 -35^3. per 100 lbs. . . . 8 7-59 
 
 91 lbs. of urbur and joiiitee wood for 15 lbs. char- 
 coal, at 2a. 5-4^. for 80 lbs 3 1-4 
 
 Tools, stores, materials, and firewood used up, viz., 
 
 Firewood 14 
 
 European stores . . . . 12 0-68 
 
 Country stores . . . .020 
 
 8 2 6-39 
 
 I 12 0-68 
 
 Labour, including all establishments ..... 309 
 
 /Feeding. 1 1 6-81 
 
 Bullocks for motive power . . . ■ \ jjeath 1 8-9 
 
 Interest on fixed capital in block . . . . . 1 8 6-27 
 
 r. 
 
 a. 
 
 p- 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 15 11 2-05 
 
 Many of the items of charge depend on the quantity ma'de 
 during the year. 
 
 The average price from 1841 to 1848 is, per barrel of 100 lbs. — 
 
 Maximum .... 
 Medium ..... 
 Minimum .... 
 
 But in an article of such great national importance, price should 
 ever be a secondary consideration compared with quality. 
 
 The English service powders cost 5l. upwards for the 100 lbs., 
 say 50 rupees. 
 
 The best sporting powders sell in London about 2s. to 35. per 
 lb.— 10/. to 15/. the 100 lbs. 
 
 Blasting powder is sold by dealers at from 50s. to 75s. per 
 100 lbs. 
 
 Previous to 1814 Mr. Farquhar made the powder on a contract 
 of 32r. per barrel, of 100 lbs. 
 
 Ishapore, Colonel Galloway's powder of 1825-26, cost only 
 18?'. 15a. 3p. per barrel. The Bombay powder of 1846-47, cost 
 27r. 11a. ; the Madras powder of 1846-47, cost 29j*. 11a. 8p. per 
 100 lb. barrel. (See Appendix.) 
 
THE MOTIVE POWER FOR MILLS. Ill 
 
 On the Motive Power used for inaMng Gunpowder. 
 
 Every species of power has been used in powder mills. 
 
 Running water is a most excellent agent where available, cost- 
 ing little, requiring no great attendance, and hence, on explosions, 
 less danger to life exists. 
 
 Steam is now much used, but is obnoxious to this fault, that it 
 assembles together in a space too small so much of the explosive 
 matter. When accidents have taken place the loss of life and 
 destruction of property have been excessive. 
 
 At Ishapore the entire motive power is of bullocks, which 
 enables all the houses to be entirely independent of each other, 
 and so distant that the explosion in one house has hardly ever 
 communicated to the next. 
 
 Each of the Ishapore mills requires three changes of six 
 bullocks each, or, with an allowance for sick or lame, at least 24 
 bullocks for each mill. 
 
 The work of these cattle is extremely heavy, being the circular 
 movement of twelve tons of metal on a damp substance for four 
 hours in every twelve, at the rate of three miles the hour, covering a 
 full distance of twelve miles, with hardly a single moment of rest in 
 the whole period. Such is probably the very maximum effect ob- 
 tainable from a first-rate young bullock, and far above the aged and 
 infirm; indeed, the work tells exceedingly on all the cattle, they being 
 much reduced in condition when the season for manufacture closes, 
 in spite of the utmost care and attention bestowed upon them. 
 
 The average complement of eleven years has for five mills been 
 204 head of cattle, with an average casualty of 26, giving about 
 eight years effective work in each animal ; but this average is too 
 favourable. 
 
 Under the present large quantity of powder required, not less 
 than 280 head should be kept up, with an annual supply of at 
 least 3. 5 fresh young beasts. The cattle should be yearly sent of 
 the same age (say, four years), that a regular and constant influx 
 of youth and strength may take place. When the regularity of 
 the supply has been interrupted, or the admitted cattle have been 
 
112 HYGEOMETEIC PROOF. 
 
 aged, or even of one age, ultimate compensation in after years 
 will be demanded and must be paid. 
 
 The bullocks cost from 30r. to 40r. each. During the working 
 season, one driver with a small proportion of Sirdars is allowed 
 to each pair ; but not so during the rains, when the manufacture 
 ceases ; then one man is allowed to four bullocks. This is 
 perhaps a bad policy, as the men, knowing they will be dis- 
 charged at the close of the season, take less interest in their 
 cattle than is proper. Sirdars receive lOr. monthly pay, and 
 drivers 4r. 
 
 In the working season each bullock receives' three seers of grain 
 and as much straw as can be eaten, but only two seers of grain, 
 four seers of straw (boosie), and one seer of oil-cake in the resting 
 season. The total expense of the motive force by bullocks cannot 
 be less than 2r. on each barrel of gunpowder. 
 
 The food given to these bullocks should be of the best descrip- 
 tion. The pace at which they are driven requires they should 
 receive the largest possible nourishment in the smallest volume, 
 and such as can be easily consumed and digested. 
 
 The bullocks of the present day are not so powerful as they 
 were twenty years ago. The breed of large cattle is rapidly 
 disappearing. 
 
 The average expense on this head for the years 1834, 1836, 
 expense of feeding and servants, per bullock, 6r. 9a. A\p. per 
 month, and the charge per barrel of powder on this head, 2r. 8a. 
 9p., varying, of course, with the quantity of powder made and the 
 prices of food. 
 
 A separate hospital and good cattle doctor are much required. 
 
 Hygrometric Proof. 
 
 To ascertain the quantity of damp absorbed by gunpowder 
 has ever been a subject of inquiry. 
 
 Various modes have been adopted ; many of them extending 
 over an exposure of nearly a month, but powder is so extremely 
 susceptive under change of atmosphere, that one trial under a 
 
HYGEOMETIUC EEPOKT. 
 
 113 
 
 ■well-defined variation of atmosphere exhibiting marked results, is 
 ample. 
 
 I used 500 drams of powder highly dried in the sun, and 
 then exposed for one night, spread over a sheet of paper 1 9 in. by 
 13 in. in area. 
 
 It was laid in a small room of wood, about 10 feet from the 
 ground, by this the powder is merely subject to the variations in 
 the superincumbent strata of the atmosphere. I then tal<e its 
 weight and density, and, if necessary, try it in the mortar or 
 eprouvette ; next night, the same quantity on the same paper is 
 laid upon the pucka floor of the drying terrace. It now receives 
 the damp of the lowest strata, and also imbibes some of the damp 
 existing in the bricks of this floor. 
 
 This second night's exposure tells powerfully on the powder, 
 which always exhibits a marked increase of weight, decrease of 
 density, and other appearances of damp. 
 
 It is again tried in the mortar and eprouvette, and compared 
 with the range of its original state. 
 
 When any new class of powder is to be tried under this 
 process, some well-known powder should be also tried with it, to 
 afford a standard of comparison. 
 
 From this experiment has resulted the following Eeport : — 
 
 Hyqsometric Bepoet. 
 
 Description of Powder. 
 
 Boarded Floor. 
 
 Pucka Floor. 
 
 Eemarks. 
 
 I Weight. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Density, 
 
 Common manufac- 
 ture. 0. 
 
 + 3 
 
 + 2 
 
 + 14 
 
 
 
 Colour and grain as 
 usual, i^ = -028 of 
 damp taken up. 
 
 Proof. 
 
 
 Mortar. 
 
 DiiFerence. 
 
 Eprouvette. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Kemarks. 
 
 Before exposure 
 After the boarded 
 
 floor 
 After tlie pucka 
 
 terrace 
 
 not 
 
 tried. 
 
 21 
 20 50 
 19 11 
 
 4 
 
 1 45 
 
 Total 1° 49' 
 
114 
 
 ENGLISH AND FRENCH POWDER. 
 
 The actual results depend much on the state of the weather. 
 
 The following Report made on this subject to the French 
 Minister of War, on the powder manufactured at the establish- 
 ment of Bouchet, in 1824, is extracted from the British Indian 
 Military Repository : — 
 
 The quantity of powder operated upon was 100 grammes of 
 French, and 100 grammes of English powder. The two powders 
 were spread upon two pieces of glass of equal surfaces, and 
 placed by the side of each other, in a cavern of no great depth, 
 but very damp, from 15th of February to 10th of March. Dur- 
 ing the time the centigrade thermometer was between 5^ and 6 
 degrees, and the hygrometer between 96 and 99 degrees. 
 
 On the 10th of March, that is to say, after having been exposed 
 to the damp air for 24 days, the powder was weighed as follows : 
 The French powder 101 '30 grammes, and the EngHsh 101-80 
 grammes. This had thus increased l-56th of its weight, and the 
 other l-76th. 
 
 Submitted afterwards in the same state, and immediately after 
 weighing, to the hand eprouvette, the powders yielded, upon an 
 average of 5 trials, the French, 19° 95' and the English 18° 38', 
 which in my form would stand — ■ 
 
 French powder 
 
 English powder . . . . 
 
 Weight. 
 + •0131 
 + ■0178 
 
 
 „ , ( Before exposure . 
 French [^ftg, e^^p'og^.e . 
 
 „ ,. , f Before exposure . 
 ° \ After exposure 
 
 Hand Eprouvette. 
 
 21 76 
 
 19 95 
 
 20 24 
 18 38 
 
 O I 
 
 — 1 . 81 
 -1 86 
 
 These results are not very dissimilar to mine acquired in two 
 nights' exposure. The great object should be to obtain decided 
 and well-marked differences under similar circumstances with a 
 standard powder for comparison. 
 
PROOF OF POWDEE. 115 
 
 Proof of Powder at the Agency. 
 
 The manufacturing part of the powder being finished, it is re- 
 quisite that some standard of strength be estabhshed ; and some 
 mode settled as to measuring it. Moreover, if the powder did not 
 continue of one uniform strength, or in some known ratio of a 
 conserved standard, all the science, experience, and practice of 
 the Artillery would be useless. It is also neceissary that the 
 powder should retain its established strength, and be able to bear 
 transport. 
 
 Many modes have been adopted, in various times and in differ- 
 ent places, to obtain a correct measure of the strength of powder, 
 all more or less good in their plan. Every species of ordnance, 
 with every possible charge, have been tried, and several machines 
 have been invented and made for this express purpose. The 
 great desideratum being, that the trial should be made with as 
 much uniformity of proceeding as possible, every variation tend- 
 ing to lead to error : a comparison of proofs of powder made 
 under varying circumstances is very perplexing and uncertain. 
 
 With the same machine I believe the results of the proofs of 
 equal powder to be nearly uniform, and that provided the same 
 instrument be used, that it little matters what description is 
 adopted. 
 
 The present authorised mode is a Gomer Mortar of 8 in. dia- 
 meter, 8 cwt. 1 qr. in weight, 1 ft. 4 j^q in. length of bore. The shot 
 a ball of solid iron of 68 lbs. in weight, 7' 8 5 in. in diameter. 
 Charge of powder, 2 oz. ; elevation, 45° ; proof distance for the 
 shot to be thrown, 63 yards ; if below this range the powder is 
 rejected. 
 
 A decrease of half a tenth of an inch in the diameter of the 
 ball, or an increase of the same quantity in the diameter of the 
 mortar, will render both unserviceable for proof, as will also an 
 enlargement of the vent of half a tenth of an inch. 
 
 In former days it was the custom to try separately each barrel 
 of powder ; but now the oificer selected for the proof duty, takes 
 
 I 2 
 
116 ORDNANCE AND MUSKET POWDEE, 
 
 a quantity from as many barrels as lie pleases of the previous 
 month's manufacture ; these he mixes, and from the mass weighs 
 out 25 charges of Ordnance and 25 of Musketry powder. 
 
 He carefully tries each of these charges in the mortar, with 
 regular and careful uniformity in loading. The average of 
 the ranges constitutes the proof range of the month's produce. 
 
 As the instruments are far less used by this than the old sys- 
 tem, the abrasion of the metals is small, and as the circumstances 
 are nearly, equal, the results are in proportion identical. 
 
 As a short barrel is favourable to a quickly igniting powder, 
 while a long barrel is more advantageous to a slowly burning 
 powder, that both cases may be brought into examination, it has 
 lately been ordered that the average arc of the pendulum gun 
 eprouvette be also given for each powder under trial with a charge 
 of 2 oz. 
 
 The monthly results of the trials as given in the annexed Table 
 show little variation in the powder of different years, when one 
 month old. 
 
PllOOP AVERAGES. 
 
 117 
 
 00 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 to" 
 
 00 
 
 a 
 ■< 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 ,{0 
 
 J:^ 
 
 « 
 
 05 
 
 o 
 
 C-l 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 •9?'j3AnoJcTa; 
 
 oW) 
 
 r-l 
 
 CO- 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 < 
 
 
 15 
 
 IM 
 
 cq 
 
 cq 
 
 CI 
 
 1— ( 
 
 
 
 
 
 >* 
 
 lO 
 
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118 PEOOF FOE THE COMMANDANT OF AETILLEEY. 
 
 Proof for the Commandant of Artillery. 
 
 To ascertain that the powder does not deteriorate by keep- 
 ing, at the close of the practice season of the next following 
 year, the Commandant of Artillery sends to the Arsenal for 
 any barrels at hand of the last year's manufacture. These are 
 taken indiscriminately from the number in store, and from these 
 barrels a trial is made with every available piece of ordnance. 
 Hence this proof exhibits excellent service ranges of what may be 
 expected from Bengal powder with the common description of 
 ordnance in use, great and small. 
 
 The occasional falling off of the 68-lb. ball proof in this annual 
 report from that of the first proof at the Agency, has often 
 attracted the notice of the authorities and of Government. 
 
 But the variation may, I believe, be satisfactorily accounted for 
 in several ways. 
 
 1. From any deviation in shape or windage of the mortar 
 and shot compared with those first used at the Agency. 
 
 2. From the temporary accession of damp from the maga- 
 zines on the river. 
 
 3. From the acclimating of the powder itself from its fresh 
 state at the manufactory to its average state with refer- 
 ence to the atmosphere. 
 
 4. From the difference in the mode of setting home the ball. 
 
 The deviations of range in different mortars have often reached 
 18 yards. 
 
 The powder in passing from its highly-finished and well-dried 
 state at the Agency through all the variations of one year's 
 mutable climate in Bengal, will lose about one-tenth of its original 
 range in small charges, and frorn that estimate will improve or 
 deteriorate a trifle with reference to the atmosphere in which it is 
 immediately exposed. 
 
 If the contact between the ball and the converging sides of the 
 Gomer Mortar is not complete, so that there is considerable 
 
PROOF FOR THE COMMANDANT OF ARTILLERY. 119 
 
 windage, the range of a shot with the 2-oz. charge will be reduced 
 one-half nearly. 
 
 It will also be noticed that the ranges from all the pieces of 
 ordnance do not follow the first, or 68-lb. ball proof, but often the 
 reverse, and that a good range from the 2-oz. charge is often 
 followed by a proportionable decrease of range from larger charges 
 in longer-barreled pieces than the mortar. This has reference 
 to the length of the bore and the inflammability and expansion of 
 the powder. 
 
 The general average will be found to correspond admirably 
 with the various range-tables formed from practice at the different 
 artillery stations. 
 
 The totals exhibit a uniformity not to have been expected, and 
 in the numerous and varied pieces of artillery used the errors of 
 one have counterbalanced the errors of a second, producing a 
 general equality. 
 
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directors' proof. 3 21 
 
 The Court of Directors' Proof. 
 
 The last and most minute Report is that called the " Court of 
 Directors' Proof." It is carried on at each of the Presidencies, 
 Bengal, Bombay, and Madras, on the powders of the several 
 Agencies, by a committee of artillery officers, and is as full and 
 particular as could be desired. 
 
 I have abstracted the results of the Reports of 1845 from each 
 Presidency. The average must be the most fair value of the 
 Indian Agency powders. 
 
 The size of the grain is not determined with the precision that 
 might be desired. It would, perhaps, be an improvement were 
 five pounds of powder passed through each sieve (five in number 
 composing a set), and the quantity of grains retained on each 
 noted. 
 
 The hardness is that of the cake whence the powder is cut, 
 and is in some degree a measure of the quantity of milling and 
 pressing given to the composition. The density is that of the 
 mixed grains, or of the powder, and is directly as the size of the 
 grain and the hardness of the cake. 
 
 The state of the atmosphere at the period of trial will afiect 
 all these quantities, as will the mode in which the results are 
 taken. 
 
 From the ranges we may notice the groat diff'erences in the 
 mortars, or in the mode of loading. 
 
 ! Bengal . . . . .421 yards. 
 
 Total from report of Madras 478 + 57 
 
 [ Bombay . . . . 578 + 100 
 
 This is greatly in favour of the Madras and Bombay 
 powders. The powders being all acclimated to the same 
 atmosphere, the range is almost identical from the 2-oz. charge. 
 
 Experiment No. 3 entirely depends on the materials — dry 
 mixture and proportions, perhaps, on the charcoal, more than any 
 other of the materials. Now, as I believe the Madras powder to 
 contain one pound and ten ounces less of charcoal, and one pound 
 and ten ounces more of sulphur, I do not understand its being, 
 ■when pulverized, the most quick of ignition, and hence forming a 
 
122 ALTERATION OF STEENGTH BY EXPOSURE. 
 
 more quick burning fuze composition, unless this may be attri- 
 buted to the cake being less liard, from the diminished milling at 
 Madras. 
 
 In the percussion musket experiments we may remark that, as 
 the Madras powder, being the most dense, gives the best mortar 
 range with the 2-oz. charge, so it gives the lowest musket range. 
 
 The Bombay powder, with the lowest mortar range, exhibits 
 the best musket result, being less dense and less hard. 
 
 The time of the train burning will be influenced by the quick- 
 ness of the ignition of the composition, varied by the size and 
 combination of the grains. Hence the Madras is the quickest. 
 
 In the wet weather report we may notice the result of an 
 accession of damp to the powder, from the state of the atmosphere 
 at the time. 
 
 Diy Tveatlier 
 Wet 
 
 Bengal . . . < 
 
 Madras . . /Dry^e^tlier . 
 
 \_ Wet 
 
 421 
 398 — 23 
 
 42^—51 
 
 578 
 
 564—14 
 
 -o 1 r Dry weather . 
 
 Bombay . . | ^^^^ _ 
 
 The boards in the musket proof do not appear to have been of 
 the same wood ; hence they afford no comparison between the 
 two seasons. 
 
 I suspect all the small-grained powder will have reached the 
 same degree of dampness. 
 
 The result of the 60-lb. exposure depends entirely on the 
 previous state of the powder, on the atmosphere of the day, 
 and on the size of the grain. Small grain is more liable to injury 
 from damp than larger. 
 
 All the powders must have been damp, and thus lost weight by 
 exposure to the sun. 
 
 Powder exposed is so quickly affected by the atmosphere, that 
 without minute data on all the atmospheric phenomena it is im- 
 possible to explain the results. 
 
 I was not prepared to find that the decreased quantity of char- 
 coal in the Madras powder did render it more susceptible under 
 atmospheric changes. 
 
 Does the diminution of the charcoal account for the less 
 
TRIENNIAL EBPOET ON POWDEE. 
 
 123 
 
 smoke and fiercer burning of the powder, or is the last due to 
 the diminished milHng 1 
 
 Powder standing so many tests of such various kinds may be 
 fairly depended upon for regularity of strength. 
 
 Result op the Tkienniai Report on Powdeu feom the Theee Pkesidbncies 
 
 Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. 
 Hot Weather, 
 
 
 
 Bengal Re- 
 
 Madras Re- 
 
 Bombay Re- 
 
 Result. 
 
 
 Powders of 1845, 
 one year old. 
 
 port. 
 May, 1846, 
 
 port. 
 July, 1846. 
 
 port. 
 June, 1846. 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Average. 
 
 Colour. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bengal . 
 
 . 
 
 Black 
 
 Grey black 
 
 f Bluish 
 [ black 
 
 
 
 
 Madras 
 
 ■{ 
 
 Bluish 
 black 
 
 Bluish 
 black 
 
 Bluish 
 black 
 ( Lighter 
 
 
 
 
 Bombay 
 
 • 
 
 Black 
 
 Black 
 
 < than 
 ( Madras 
 
 
 
 
 Size of Grain. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bengal 
 
 ( 
 
 492 
 
 492 
 
 500 
 
 1484 
 
 494 
 
 S >-Sj 
 
 Madras 
 
 r 
 
 606 
 
 507 
 
 508 
 
 1521 
 
 507 
 
 ""■s g| 
 
 Bombay- 
 
 500 
 
 492 
 
 506 
 
 1498 
 
 499 
 
 p S CO & 
 
 Bengal 
 
 j M 
 
 174 
 
 244 
 
 202 
 
 620 
 
 206 
 
 Madras 
 
 54 
 
 28 
 
 125 
 
 207 
 
 69 
 
 
 Bombay 
 
 154 
 
 154 
 
 218 
 
 526 
 
 176 
 
 Sardness. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■s g g g> 
 
 Bengal . 
 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 55 
 
 18 
 
 "S E '" -S . 
 
 Madras 
 
 , , 
 
 42 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 62 
 
 20 
 
 .s-sg -s 
 
 Bombay 
 
 
 46 
 
 14 
 
 - 23 
 
 83 
 
 27 
 
 ^rH « « a 
 
 Density 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /M 
 1 
 
 264 
 
 272 
 
 306 
 
 842 
 
 280 
 
 s^s 
 
 Bengal 
 
 274 
 
 280 
 
 328 
 
 882 
 
 294 
 
 
 Madras 
 
 CM 
 1 
 
 266 
 
 263 
 
 317 
 
 846 
 
 282 
 
 =« s 
 
 272 
 
 280 
 
 334 
 
 886 
 
 295 
 
 «-.- 
 
 Bombay 
 
 /M 
 
 256 
 
 278 
 
 252 
 ' 272 
 
 302 
 333 
 
 810 
 883 
 
 270 
 294 
 
 1 g.g« 
 
 
 
 4th May. 
 
 17th June 
 
 2nd April. 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 a.m. 
 
 7 a.m. 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 842 
 
 883 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 Thermom, 
 
 Thermom. 
 
 Thermom. 
 
 
 
 
 densities. 
 
 
 
 93. 
 
 85-5. 
 
 76. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 846 
 
 886 
 
 
 
 
 Barometer 
 
 Barometer 
 
 Barometer 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 29-8. 
 
 29 '9 
 
 29-8 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 810 
 
 882 
 
 
 
 
 Hygrome- 
 
 Hygrome- 
 
 Hygrome- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ter, 85 -5. 
 
 ter, 85-5. 
 
 ter, 74. 
 
 
 
 
 
IS-t 
 
 EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 Ranges. 
 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 
 Bomhay. 
 
 
 2-oz. charge. 
 
 1 
 
 2-oz.charge. 
 
 1 
 g 
 
 2-oz. charge. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Average. 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 r-t 
 
 .a 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1-1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2oz. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 2oz. 
 
 lib. 
 
 Bengali^ 
 
 71 
 
 24 34 
 
 838 
 
 80 
 
 2°3 6 
 
 828 
 
 100 
 
 24 75 
 
 382 
 
 251 
 
 2048 
 
 831 
 
 819 
 
 76 
 
 22 14 
 
 665 
 
 77 
 
 21 5 
 
 649 
 
 97 
 
 21 1 
 
 309 
 
 250 
 
 1623 
 
 83* 
 
 649 
 
 Madras j ^ 
 
 74 
 
 23 50 
 
 783 
 
 82 
 
 24 9 
 
 813 
 
 98 
 
 24 85 
 
 257 
 
 254 
 
 1953 
 
 84f 
 
 781 
 
 71 
 
 21 38 
 
 590 
 
 81 
 
 214 
 
 567 
 
 93 
 
 21 75 
 
 279 
 
 245 
 
 1436 
 
 81f 
 
 574 
 
 Bombay | ^ 
 
 63^23 24 
 
 763 
 
 82 
 
 24 6 
 
 814 
 
 98 
 
 25 75 
 
 352 
 
 233 
 
 1929 
 
 81 
 
 771 
 
 66j20 56 
 
 551 
 
 76 
 
 215 
 
 659 
 
 92 
 
 21 45 
 
 298 
 
 234 
 
 1508 
 
 78 
 
 603 
 
 Total . 
 
 421 
 
 
 4190 
 
 478 
 
 
 4330 
 
 578 
 
 1977 
 
 1477 
 
 10497 
 
 492i 
 
 
 ExPEEIMENT No. 3. 
 
 Time of burning 8 inches of 
 a 13-inch fuze. 
 
 f Sulphur 
 
 i Mealed Powder 
 
 (. Saltpetre 
 
 17 /■ Composition. 
 15 j 
 
 Bengal . . 
 Madras 
 Bombay . 
 
 33^ 
 35f 
 39 
 
 19 -^ Only 
 1 8 > 5 inches 
 22 ) long. 
 
 26i 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 78 
 76 
 87 
 
 26 
 
 25i 
 
 29 
 
 
 Percussion Musket. 
 
 Charge, 
 44 drams. 
 
 Boards Jin. 
 thick. 
 
 
 Bengal 
 Madras . . 
 Bombay 
 
 17f 
 
 15 
 
 16f 
 
 19 
 
 19f 
 
 21 
 
 22-6 
 
 22- 
 
 24-4 
 
 59 
 56 
 62 
 
 191 
 181 
 201 
 
 Time of burning SOlbs. length of train, 87 ft. long, 2 in. broad, in Seconds. 
 
 Bengal j^ 
 
 17 
 21J 
 
 21 
 24 
 
 17 
 15 
 
 
 
 Bengal 60^ 
 
 M 
 
 55 
 
 Madras ■ _ 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 23 
 
 14 
 15 
 
 Madras 56 
 
 50J 
 
 Bombay | ^ 
 
 14* 
 21 
 
 21 
 24 
 
 13 
 17 
 
 Bombay 62 
 
 63 
 
EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 123 
 
 Wet Weather Proof. 
 
 
 
 Bengal, 
 
 Madras, 
 
 Bombay, 
 
 
 
 
 
 September. 
 
 December. 
 
 July. 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 !. charge. 8-inch 
 
 mortar and epvouvette. 
 
 
 2 oz. charge. 
 
 2 oz. charge. 
 
 2 oz. charge. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Average. 
 
 8-inch 
 
 Eprou- 
 
 8-inch 
 
 Eprou- 
 
 8-inch 
 
 Eprou- 
 
 Bengal 
 
 r-M 
 
 Mortar. 
 
 vette. i 
 
 Itortar. 
 
 Tette. 
 
 Mortir. 
 
 vette. 
 
 
 
 69 
 
 1 
 23 18 
 
 75 
 
 2°2 24 
 
 96 
 
 2°4 50 
 
 240 
 
 80 
 
 72 
 
 20 41 
 
 70 
 
 21 2 
 
 96 
 
 21 50 
 
 238 
 
 791 
 
 Madras 
 
 ■\o 
 
 66 
 
 23 10 
 
 74 
 
 23 24 
 
 87 
 
 24 40 
 
 227 
 
 75i 
 
 71 
 
 20 34 
 
 74 
 
 21 2 
 
 94 
 
 22 
 
 239 
 
 79i 
 
 Bombay 
 
 (M 
 
 ■10 
 
 57 
 
 22 40 
 
 64 
 
 23 
 
 94 
 
 25 41 
 
 215 
 
 7lf 
 
 63 
 
 20 32 
 
 70 
 
 21 
 
 97 
 
 21 
 
 233 
 
 77| 
 
 Total . 
 
 398 
 
 
 427 
 
 
 564 
 
 
 1 
 
 Bengal . 
 Madras . 
 Bombay . 
 
 Percussion Mnsket, charge 4^ drams. 
 Boards J of an inch thick. 
 
 15| 
 16i 
 14 
 
 25 
 
 24f 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 23 
 25 
 
 65 
 63 
 64 
 
 21| 
 
 21 
 
 21i 
 
 Bengal . < ^ 
 Madras . ■ „ 
 Bombay, -j ^ 
 
 60 lbs. exposed for 14 hours in the sun, from 
 1'45 p.m., and then weighed after exposure. 
 
 1 
 
 — 2 drs. 
 + 14 
 
 + 10 
 + 2 
 
 -39 
 
 — 38 
 —32 
 
 — 34 
 —38 
 
 — 30 
 
 — 160 
 
 — 144 
 
 — 128 
 -176 
 
 — 192 
 -128 
 
 1 
 
 Thermometer, 
 
 861° 
 
 Thermometer, 
 79|° 
 
 Thermometer, 
 86° 
 
 
126 
 
 MADRAS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Exposure for 12 days, in different quantities, on trays, — the powder 
 1 inch. deep. 
 
 
 Bengal, 
 September. 
 
 Madras, 
 December. 
 
 Bombay, 
 July. 
 
 Nearly all the small 
 trays lost a trifle, 
 and the 20-lb. trays 
 gained very little. 
 
 All gained. The 
 20-lb. trays gained 
 1 oz. 10 drs. 
 
 In all instances the 
 20-lb. trays lost 4 
 to 5 oz. The smal- 
 ler trays gained. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Bengal 
 
 Madras . . . 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Very slightly caked. 
 Much caked. 
 Rather more than 
 Bengal . 
 
 Slightly caked. 
 Much caked. 
 Rather more than 
 Bengal. 
 
 No Remarks. 
 
 
 Musketry more than 
 ordnance. 
 
 Thermometer, 
 87° to 88°. 
 
 All the musketry 
 more than ord- 
 nance. 
 
 Thermometer, 
 79° to 82°. 
 
 Thermometer, 
 81° to 89°. 
 
 Madras Observations on Flashing. 
 
 Bengal 
 Powder. 
 
 Madras 
 Powder. 
 
 Bombay 
 Powder. 
 
 ^No residuum, no beads, no sparks observable in the ordnance, and 
 but few in the musket powder ; clear, bright light ; the smoke- 
 marks extended from 6 to 12 inches on each side" the train. 
 The musket powder slightly caked, the lumps breaking when 
 pressed by the hand. 
 
 { Left no residuum or beads ; a few sparks observable in both M and 
 O powders ; the flame clear and bright ; the marks of the 
 smoke not so great as the Bengal powder, but extended as 
 far on each side the train. The M powder burnt fiercer and 
 made more noise than any of the other powders. The Madras 
 M powder slightly caked, but not so much as the Bengal M. 
 
 ^Left no residuum or beads ; a few sparks observed in both O and M 
 powders ; the flame clear, but not so bright as the Bengal ; 
 the smoke-marks extend from 8 to 15 inches on each side of 
 the train ; the powder not caked in the least. 
 
EXTRA GLAZING. 127 
 
 Extra Glazing. 
 
 Circumstances induced me to make an extended trial of the 
 effects of glazing. The following table gives the results at each 
 period, as the operation on a single charge proceeded. 
 
 First. Let us examine the process of glazing in India. One 
 hundred pounds of "well dried powder are enclosed in a reel 
 covered with coarse canvas, length 3 ft. 8 in., diameter 1 ft. 4 in., 
 solid capacity 8844 cubic inches. One hundred pounds of 
 powder will occupy 2743 cubic inches ; hence there is a space 
 for movement of 6101 cubic inches. The reel is turned for two 
 hours at the rate of 1.500 revolutions per hour. 
 
 This motion will cause the removal of all the dust from the 
 surface of the grains, the truncating of the angles, and the abra- 
 sion of the sharp edges, from which facts may be expected the 
 following results : — 
 
 A general diminution in the size of the grain, with a mixture 
 of grain ; a reduction of the density of the powder ; an increased 
 liability to be affected by the atmosphere as the grains become 
 reduced in size ; a decrease of quickness of inflammation by the 
 polish and absence of dust, counterbalanced by an increase of 
 inflammation by the reduction of size and mixture of grains. 
 The result wiU be variable as either effect may preponderate. 
 
 Let us examine what inferences may be drawn from the table 
 of experiment. 
 
 An increase of density of 10 drs. in the 36-hour glazed, 
 Avlien taken fresh from the reel, the damp being driven off by the 
 friction ; but a decrease of 3 drs. when exposed in the usual 
 manner to the atmosphere. 
 
 The diminution of density results from the permanently re- 
 duced size of the grain. The large grain of sieve No. 4 is 
 reduced in quantity from 404 to 830 drs., by which difference 
 the quantity of sieve No. 3 is increased from 82 to 162 drs. 
 
 The single size of the original ordnance has resolved itself into 
 three sizes. 
 
 In the 2-oz. mortar range there was a sHght improvement 
 
128 BXTHA GLAZING, 
 
 of 3\ yards, and in the eprouvette an increase in tlie arc of recoil 
 of 0° 11', 
 
 In the pure ordnance unmixed grain of this powder there ap- 
 peared a gain of density of 10 drs. before drying, but of only 
 2 after that process. 
 
 To appearance the 36-hour glazed powder shows a very trifling 
 advantage. The colour, previously a deep black, did not alter ; 
 but the grain, on exposure, remained a little harder than the 
 grain of the less glazed. 
 
 The slight improvement in the small charges is hardly to be 
 considered much in favour of the long glazed ; while, in the larger 
 charges, the unglazed powder, both from mortar and cannon, will 
 give longer ranges. 
 
 Glazing will probably cause powder well preserved to last a 
 little longer without becoming dusty. 
 
 When the expense is taken into consideration, I can see no 
 gain whatever by the operation being continued longer than two 
 hours. Indeed, was a sudden demand for powder made for 
 immediate service, I believe the whole operation of glazing might 
 be neglected, or very materially reduced in time. All that is 
 necessary is to free the grain from dust. Glazing continued 
 beyond this point can only end in a reduction of the size Df 
 grain with a rounding of the grains, and slight, but very slight 
 pohsh. 
 
 Mr. Braddock, and the generality of writers upon gunpowder, 
 consider pressed and glazed powder will not range so far as mill 
 cake powder. These statements relate to mere density, and are 
 attributable rather to the first operation of pressing, than to the 
 subsequent one of glazing, for press cake is more dense than mill 
 cake. 
 
 I am not aware that the simple question of glazing has been 
 considered alone, and I much doubt if the ordnance powder 
 manufactured in England, is submitted to this operation ; its 
 grain being a mixture of many sizes, and less hard than the 
 Indian powder, it also contains very large amounts of dust. 
 
RESULT OF PEOLONGED GLAZING. 
 
 129 
 
 
 
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130 
 
 HYGEOMBTEIC EEPOET. 
 
 Hygrometric Report. 
 
 
 Boarded floor. 
 
 Pucka floor. 
 
 Bemarks. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Density, 
 
 The regular 3 1 
 hours glazed J 
 
 36 hours glazed . 
 
 + 3 
 
 + 2 
 + 1 
 
 + 14 
 + 13 
 
 — 
 
 — 8 
 
 Colour and grain as usual. 
 
 (■ Colour black, grain harder 
 1 than the above. 
 
 Proo£ 
 The regular 3 hours 
 
 36 hours glazed . 
 
 ( Before exposure . 
 . \ After boarded floor . . . 
 (. After pucka floor 
 
 ( Before exposure . . . 
 . < After boarded floor 
 
 ( After pucka floor . . . 
 
 Mortar. 
 
 Eprotfvette. 
 
 102 
 89 
 80 
 
 105i 
 96 
 82 
 
 o / 
 
 21 
 
 20 56 
 
 19 11 
 
 21 11 
 
 20 40 
 19 28 
 
 On the receipt of the above Reports, the Military Board was 
 pleased to order one barrel of musketry powder, to be made of 
 3, 6, 12, and 24 hours' glazing. This was done, the common 
 manufacture of the season standing for the three hours glazed. 
 Previously to sending this powder to Dum-Dum, I made the 
 experiment recorded in the following Tables. 
 
 Very little difference can be traced in the various densities or 
 ranges, as exhibited in Table No. 1. 
 
 Again, in the exposure. Table No. 2, very little variation is 
 seen ; the 24-hour glazed appears to have absorbed less damp, 
 although the grains were reduced in size by the operation of 
 glazing. 
 
 The Hygrometric Table No. 3 shows no great superiority in 
 the 24-hour glazed powder. On the 24th of October, or nearly 
 one month after the last trial, I examined these powders, which 
 had continued to he exposed in the magazine. All proved good, 
 nor could I distinguish one from the other in appearance. 
 
PKOOF REPORTS. 
 
 131 
 
 No. I. 
 Proof eepobt of 1849. 
 
 
 
 Density. 
 
 8 In. Mortar, 2 oz. charge. 
 
 Bprouvette. 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 -a 
 
 Si 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Si 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 oo 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 -^ 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 *i! 
 
 
 
 
 m 00 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 iH 
 
 ;§?? 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 00 
 00 
 
 "S o6 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,*-s 
 
 "^ ■ 
 
 Cfl 
 
 <J 
 
 t? 
 
 
 (M 
 
 <i 
 
 2 
 
 "3 
 
 (M 
 
 <i 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■s 
 
 .d 
 
 -73 
 
 i 
 
 
 1-^ 
 
 ,d 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 K 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 
 J:^ 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 
 ir~ 
 
 •s 
 
 
 
 
 
 cq 
 
 iH 
 
 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 rH 
 
 (M 
 
 iH 
 
 
 Unglazed . 
 
 ' 
 
 258 
 
 260 
 
 260 
 
 259 
 
 104 
 
 95 
 
 95 
 
 98 
 
 2°3 6 
 
 21 5'3 
 
 2°2 16 
 
 2°2 2'5 
 
 Eegular 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 hours . 
 
 262 
 
 266 
 
 262 
 
 263 
 
 105 
 
 9^ 
 
 92 
 
 98 
 
 23 4 
 
 21 65 
 
 — 
 
 22 29 
 
 6 hours . 
 
 -t 
 
 264 
 
 260 
 
 264 
 
 262 
 
 104 
 
 95 
 
 97 
 
 98 
 
 22 48 
 
 21 66 
 
 22 18 
 
 22 20 
 
 12 hours. 
 
 :S 
 
 262 
 
 260 
 
 262 
 
 261 
 
 105 
 
 96 
 
 97 
 
 99 
 
 23 11 
 
 21 45 
 
 22 10 
 
 22 22 
 
 24 hours . 
 
 
 266 
 
 262 
 
 260 
 
 262 
 
 106 
 
 95 
 
 97 
 
 99 
 
 23 8 
 
 21 43 
 
 22 26 
 
 22 25 
 
 No. n. 
 
 EXPOSITRB RbPOKT OF POWDEE HUNG UP IS THE AlR IN GuZEB* BAGS, DAY AND 
 NIGHT, FROM THE IST OF JuNE TILL THE IST OP OCTOBER, 1848. 
 
 Description 
 of 
 
 
 Weight on 
 the 1st of June, 
 
 r-i 
 
 ■3 
 
 Weight on 
 the 1st of October. 
 
 "3 
 
 f 
 
 Bernards. 
 
 powder. 
 
 lb. 
 
 oz. 
 
 drs. 
 
 lb. 
 
 oz. 
 
 drs. 
 
 IJng^lazed ... 
 
 j6 hours glazed 
 
 il2kours glazed 
 
 24 hours glazed. 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 
 258 
 264 
 
 262 
 266 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 
 6 
 4 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 256 
 260 
 
 258 
 259 
 
 j Bright black, 
 ( hard, no dust. 
 
 f Bright black, 
 J hard, one 
 \ friable lump, 
 
 (^ no dust. 
 
 r Bright black, 
 ■< hard, no dust 
 (_ or lumps. 
 
 C Dull brown, 
 -j hard, several 
 ( friable lumps. 
 
 * - Coarse, cotton. 
 
 s. 2 
 
132 
 
 HYGROMETRIC PROOF. 
 
 Ko. III. 
 
 Htgrombtkic Pboof of powdbb, on the Pucka Tbekace, 19th and 20th 
 
 September, 1849. 
 
 Description 
 of 
 
 
 Weight at 
 
 Density at 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Powder. 
 
 6 p.m. 
 
 6a.m. 
 
 
 6 p.m. 
 
 6 a.m. 
 
 
 Unglazed . .> 
 
 6 hours glazed . 
 
 12 hours glazed . 
 24 ho\u-s glazed . '' 
 
 1 
 
 drs. 
 500 
 
 500 
 
 [500 
 500 
 
 drs. 
 508 
 
 517 
 
 610 
 512 
 
 + 8 
 
 + ir 
 
 + 10 
 + 12 
 
 drs. 
 258 
 
 262 
 
 262 
 260 
 
 drs. 
 256 
 
 258 
 
 254 
 253 
 
 — 2 
 
 -4 
 
 - 8 
 
 -7 
 
 / Clodded and set to- 
 1 gether,colourblack, 
 j grain very soft, a 
 \ little dust. 
 
 /Slightly clodded, alit- 
 \ tlesettogether,grain 
 j softer, colour deep 
 \ and black, no dust. 
 
 r Slightly clodded, 
 S colour deep, no dust 
 ( grain soft. 
 
 f Slightly clodded, 
 -^ colour deep black, 
 ( grain soft, no dust. 
 
 On the Density of Powder in regard to Range. 
 
 Captain Bishop truly remarks, " That it is of the utmost im- 
 portance to attend to the quantity of water. If the cake be very 
 moist the water in the composition occupies certain interstices, 
 which itself occasions, and which in the process of drying are left 
 as receptacles, which inclose particles of air that introduce them- 
 selves as the water escapes. This powder will always be hght, 
 pulverable, susceptible to every change in the atmosphere, and be 
 improper for keeping. A cubic foot of this light powder weighs 
 48lbs., while that of the denser powder weighs 53lbs." 
 
 Dr. Scott, at Bombay, maintained, " That fine powder is 
 stronger than coarse, and that allowing a quantity of fine grain to 
 remain with the coarse improves the strength." 
 
 Captain Bishop considered that fine powder is not so strong as 
 coarse, which result he considered to be proved by the one ounce 
 charge experiment. Assertions diametrically opposed, and yet, 
 
EFFECT OF DENSITY ON EANGE. 133 
 
 to a certain extent, both true ! Captain Bisliop considered, 
 " That large grains were denser than small, as cut from the 
 densest and strongest places in the cake." 
 
 Mr. Braddock says, " We think that gunpowder of light specific 
 gravity ranges frirther than powder of greater density, only be- 
 cause it explodes with greater facility ; for the same reason that 
 fir will burn faster than oak." This, I have no doubt, is the truth. 
 
 Suppose the composition from which the powder is made to be 
 perfect in its elements and manipulation, that is to say, suppose 
 the matter of the powder to be merely the solid state of the elastic 
 fluid to be generated, only waiting the required heat to cause ex- 
 plosion ; then a charge of moderate size, in a single block, will not 
 explode, but burn away steadily but fiercely, when ignited from the 
 exposed surface, there being no passage for the fire to the centre of 
 the mass. Hence, sufficient heat is not concentrated at one instant 
 to create and expand the fluid. As the number of pieces are in- 
 creased, so is the passage for the fire, and so is the surface exposed 
 to the action of the fire, and so is the quantity of air between the 
 pieces ; so that the whole is exploded with greater facility. All 
 tilings being the same, the facihty of inflammation wiU be in- 
 versely as the density of the powder. 
 
 Now the moment the fire touches any part of a charge, that 
 part inflames and expands ; this fluid drives before itself, in con- 
 fined tubes, the distant unexploded portion of the charge. 
 
 It would appear that the flame or fire has no power in itself to 
 proceed or go before the expansion of the fluid ; hence there is a 
 ratio between the velocity given to the unexploded portion of the 
 charge, which is the velocity of the ball, and the rate of passage 
 of the fire through the charge : — If T be the time of passage of 
 the ball up the tube, t the time of passage of the flame through 
 the charge, then t should not be more than T, if greater, then a 
 portion of the charge will be fired beyond the tube to no effect. 
 If the density of the powder is such as to increase the time, 
 t to 2 t, it is clear, one half of the power of the charge will 
 be lost. 
 
 In very small charges unconfined by any tube, as one ounce 
 
134 
 
 EFFECT OP HEAT ON EANGE. 
 
 in the 8 in. mOrtar, the reverse is experienced, because the piQ-vfdd^r 
 is spread over a large space, and^ without any depth, occupies an 
 extended surface. Here the fire is less opposed, the large grains- 
 are less quickly separated by the fluid, also being of a greater 
 density, two ounces occupy less space than the same weight of 
 smaller grained powder, hence the heat and the fluid are more 
 concentrated. 
 
 In this ratio of the inflammation of powdef to the ratio of ball's 
 velocity, we may trace the resulting decreased effect from a very 
 minute accession of damp ; for all have witnessed the difficulty of 
 inflaming damp powder. This will also account for a fact recorded 
 by Mr. Braddock: 
 
 " Humidity and dryness are well known to exert a great and 
 opposite influence on gunpowder, and when it is heated by 
 artificial means, and fired while it possesses a high temperatiire, 
 the ranges of shot are amazingly increased." As it may soriie- 
 times occur in practice that a longer range may be required, 
 while any addition to the charge might not be made efPeetual to 
 promote it, it may be useful to state an experiment which seems 
 to point out that the same weight of powder will produce this 
 result, if it be only allowed to acquire an increase of temiperaturfe' 
 before it be used. 
 
 One ounce troy of powder fifed in a 4i inch mortar, shell ) ■. ^ ■■ j 
 81bs., gave a medium range of . . . . . j 
 
 One ounce of the same powder was heated in a copper pan ") 
 
 to about 400° of Fahrenheit, and then fired as before, > 242 yards. 
 gave a medium range of . . . . • - J 
 
 The following trials were made with a 24-pounder brass giin, at 
 the same degree of elevation specified. The range is taken to the 
 first graze of the shot. 
 
 Point blank, 
 2° elevation 
 
 61bs. of powder 
 
 Tarda. 
 480 
 1100 
 
 Yards. 
 
 lOlbs. of powder 480 
 „ 1100 
 
 2i „ 
 
 
 1165 
 
 1158 
 
 2i „ 
 
 
 1210 
 
 „ 1216 
 
 3| 
 
 
 1496 
 
 „ 149? 
 
 4 „ 
 
 
 1552 
 
 „ 1552 
 
 4i „ 
 
 
 1599 
 
 „ 1599 
 
 H „ 
 
 
 1646 
 
 „ 1646 
 
 4f „ 
 
 
 1690 
 
 1693 
 
 5 
 
 
 1746 
 
 „ 1740 
 
EFFECT OF OVEECHARGE. 135, 
 
 Here are too many coincidences to be the effect of accident, and 
 therefore we may conclude, that in every case 4 lbs. were blown 
 out of the gun unconsumed. 
 
 The accession of a quantity of damp cannot alter the propor- 
 tions of the ingredients, or abstract from their amounts : but it 
 delays the progress of combustion, and retards the concentration 
 of the fluid. 
 
 We hear of cannon being loaded with 40 or 50 lbs. of powder, 
 and the mind is at once deceived into the idea of the great tenacity 
 of the metal of the gun ; but the fact is, that probably after 1 lbs. 
 that it would have made no difference on the metal were the rest 
 of the 40 or 50 lbs. composed of sand or sawdust. Of a drier 
 powder 12 lbs., and of a damper powder 8 lbs., would, probably, 
 only be burnt to any useful effect. 
 
 The ratio of the length of the charge to its diameter will vary 
 with the humidity of the powder, but still is almost a fixed 
 quantity, which cannot be exceeded to any good purpose. 
 
 In the Court of Directors' proof, we find the difference of 
 twenty seconds in the time of the total burning of the three 
 trains of 87 ft., between the ordnance and the musketry powder ; 
 but there is no difference between the composition of the two 
 powders except in the size of the grains. 
 
 If the initial velocity of the ball from a musket 3 ft. 5 in. 
 length of barrel, is 1,700 ft. in a second, we have -^'-is for T 
 as this maximum of inflammation. Now the difference in 
 the inflammation of dampish powder is perceptible, while tItst 
 of a second wfll hardly be appreciated. How much more will 
 this effect of damp be experienced in the very short tube of a 
 mortar. 
 
 In the old proof books, I find the following experiment taken 
 to ascertain the general results of hard and medium pressed 
 cake : — 
 
136 
 
 EFFECTS OF DENSITY OK RANGE. 
 
 Description of Powder. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Charge, lib. 
 
 6Slb. ball. 
 
 8-inch, mortar. 
 
 
 Soft mill cake . / ^ 
 Hard mill cake . . | ^ 
 Medium pressed cake -1 „ 
 Hard pressed cake . -j _ 
 
 237 
 240 
 262 
 280 
 259 
 272 
 266 
 288 
 
 yards. 
 955 
 940 
 875 
 699 
 835 
 674 
 786 
 620 
 
 These, tabulated according to densities, will prove, in a wonder- 
 ful mode, the value of density in ranges. 
 
 Density. 
 237 
 240 
 
 Bange. 
 955 
 940 
 
 Hardly one of these ranges is 
 
 259 
 262 
 266 
 
 835 
 875 
 786 
 
 misplaced in an inverse ratio 
 of density. Hence a differ- 
 ence of 51 drama in the 
 
 272 
 280 
 288 
 
 674 
 699 
 620 
 
 Ishapore measure gives a less 
 range by 335 yards, or 6 
 yards for each dram. 
 
 According to the report for the French Minister, the density 
 of the French powder was to the litre 905 grammes, while the 
 English powder was 857. 
 
 According to the Ishapore measure, this would give the former 
 276, and the latter 261 drams. 
 
 Sir John Burgoyne estimates the specific gravity of powder at 
 •9200 which gives, by the Ishapore measure, 281 drams. 
 
 Mode of ascertaining the Density, 
 
 The density of the powder is a useful index of the mode in 
 which the work is being performed in the various parts of the 
 manufactory. 
 
 The slightest change is instantly betrayed by alteration in 
 the density. 
 
DENSITY MEASURE. 137 
 
 The measurements of the cup and stand are as follows :- 
 
 Cup, Interior dimensions . | ^Jght '' "^ ^^'^ " 
 
 Funnel . . f Diameter at top 
 
 ■ t Height . 
 Diameter of tube ..... 
 
 3 '5 inches. 
 3-5 
 
 9- 
 
 •05 
 2-5 
 
 Distance from the bottom of tube to the top of the cup 
 
 One and a quarter pounds of ordnance powder, or one and a 
 half of musketry, is thrown into the funnel descending by the 
 tube to the cup ; the level of the grains at the top of the cup is 
 struck off by a piece of copper, and the weight taken in drams, 
 say 262, which constitutes Ishapore density. This divided by 
 307'2 will give the specific gravity of the powder. 
 
 The size, height, and pressure must always be the same. 
 
 ON THE BARREL DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Powder barrels should be well made of perfectly dry well- 
 seasoned wood — so close that no dust can escape, so strong 
 that they should be secure against the common accidents of 
 transport. They should, indeed, be water and air tight. The 
 barrels used in Bengal are serviceable, as is proved by the 
 excellent state in which the agency powder is found after it has 
 been carried from one end of India to the other ; but the 
 packing is very heavy and costly. Still, when the nature of 
 gunpowder is taken into consideration — its cost, and the labour 
 to produce it — and the necessity that it should not deteriorate 
 
138 BARBELS. 
 
 in store, thus rendering the acquired skill and practice of the 
 artillery useless, surely it is of the utmost importance to use 
 every means of preserving it securely, 
 
 Mr. Walker's patent barrels have been introduced, lined with 
 a thin case of copper, or rather, a copper cylinder is cased over 
 and protected by an outward covering of wood. 
 
 These are, no doubt, more protective of the powder, but they 
 are expensive and heavy, and always occupy the same room, 
 full or empty. Three common barrels, taken to pieces and 
 packed up for store or carriage, only occupy the same space as 
 one of the patent barrels. 
 
 The native mode of packing gunpowder in dubbahs, or vessels 
 of raw hide, is most excellent. These dubbahs are air and water 
 tight, very elastic, and seldom break open as do the wooden 
 barrels with a fall. Covered with a casing of wicfcer work, 
 they would prove a most superior vessel for holding gunpowder 
 or transporting it from one magazine to another. Perhaps 
 they would be liable to injury from atmosphere, or from those 
 destructive insects, the white ants. But if each magazine were 
 supplied with a complement of patent barrels, the powder 
 relight be carried to them in these dubbahs, and exterior 
 varnish or other chemical suitable composition might be applied 
 to them to secure them from the evils above mentioned. 
 
 Several kinds of wood have been tried in India, for powder 
 barrels. Common refuse oak is soon destroyed by the ants and 
 other insects. Gomer wood was for a long period the material 
 used, but it proved heavy, hard to work up, and very brittle. At 
 present all the barrels are made of teak. 
 
 The regulated interior dimensions for powder barrels are— 
 
 Diameter of bulge . . . . . . .16 inoheg, 
 
 ,, head . , . . . . . . 14 ,, 
 
 Length of staves . . . . . . . . 21 ,, 
 
 Thickness of staves at head . . . . . . 1 inch. 
 
 „ „ bulge I „ 
 
 Diameter of bung hole . . . ... 1 '5 
 
 Weight 341bs, 
 
 Contents ...... 100 to I121bs. of powder. 
 
 Contents in cubic inches . . . . . .3180 
 
BAEEELS. 139 
 
 There are four copper hoops to each barrel of the following 
 measurements > — 
 
 Length . . . 4-7ft. Breadth . . . 1-25 in. 
 
 Weight. . . . 21bs. 2oz. Thickness . . . O'l in. 
 
 The "weight of a new barrel complete is from 35lbs. to 40lbs. ; 
 that of a patent barrel 45lbs. These are considered to measure 
 4" 08 cubic feet each for tonnage. 
 
 The rivets of the hoops range from 43 to 60 in the pound. 
 
 Repaired barrels are allowed to have the staves reduced to f 
 in the bulge, and f at the head ; the weight being thus reduced 
 to 251bs. 
 
 The staves, or wooden casing, of the patent barrels are thinner 
 than in common barrels. 
 
 There is great loss in resetting-up old barrels. Many of the 
 edges being broken in transit, require to be recut to enable them 
 to join correctly. Hence the heads have to be reduced in size, 
 while the openings for the heads are enlarged by the trimming 
 of the staves, whereas the old heads, as such, are useless, and 
 require to be enlarged by a new centre bit. Even then the job 
 is not very satisfactory. 
 
 The mode at present adopted is, that the half wrought heads 
 and staves are supplied by contract at the average rate detailed 
 in the table of prices. 
 
 The master cooper sets them up at the contract rate for work- 
 manship. 
 
 First the fresh staves are set up with iron former hoops over 
 the fire to give them the required bend and curve. In this half 
 wrought state they are retained as long as possible for the wood 
 to dry. In this first operation many staves are broken. 
 
 The next year these half- wrought barrels are finished. The 
 staves, now well set, are cut, trimmed, pared down correctly, 
 and the edges fitted with the utmost exactness. The heads are 
 also sloped off", cut carefully to a perfect circle, and fixed in the 
 groove, when the copper hoops are well driven home. The barrel 
 being finished, is retained as long as possible in the magazine. 
 
140 BARBELS. 
 
 The great advantage of this plan is, that by occasionally setting 
 home the hoops, any seams caused by the shrinking or drying of 
 the wood are immediately closed. The new staves had never 
 sufficient space given them in the storing sheds for the circulation 
 of air. In England steam machines are used for the manufacture 
 of barrels : these, in time, will doubtless reach India. 
 
 When filled, these barrels will bear very great direct pressure. 
 
 Some barrels, made with extraordinary care, were left under 
 water for a few days, and admitted no fluid inside to spoil the 
 contents ; but the common run of barrels will not long resist the 
 action of the fluid on its seams. To ascertain this fact, I made 
 the following experiment : 
 
 April 23rd. — .a.m, 8h. 25m. — Placed a barrel on a copper 
 cooling-pan, so that merely a small section of the bulge was 
 touched by the water, which did not reach the crown. 
 
 At 4 p.m. a little water had entered between the staves, and 
 a few small clods of powder existed. The water had not pene- 
 trated the wood. 
 
 In twelve hours more, the powder would have been all damp. 
 
 At 5 p.m. placed a second barrel so that the water reached 
 2^ inches up the head over the crown. 
 
 April 24:th. — At 8 a.m. opened the barrel ; 1-| inch of the water 
 was absorbed, the powder was half dissolved and much clogged. 
 
 From a bung-hole of diameter 1'5 inches one of these barrels 
 will empty itself, if inverted, in about five minutes. 
 
 The following is the minimum value of a barrel, with no charge 
 for tools or establishment. 
 
 
 R. 
 
 A. 
 
 p. 
 
 
 R. A. 
 
 p. 
 
 4 Half beads 
 
 at 
 
 3 
 
 7-6 
 
 z= 
 
 14 
 
 6-4 
 
 18 Staves of teak . 
 
 „ 
 
 1 
 
 10-0 
 
 = 
 
 2 1 
 
 
 
 4 Copper hoops . 
 
 „ 1 
 
 3 
 
 3-0 
 
 zz 
 
 4 13 
 
 0-0 
 
 4 Eivets 
 
 „ 
 
 i 
 
 0-0 
 
 = 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 Making in work 
 
 ,, 
 
 6 
 
 9-0 
 
 = 
 
 6 
 
 9-0 
 
 Total . . . .8 4 3-4 
 
BAERELS. 141 
 
 The barrels are divided into a class -with 4, and a class -with 6, 
 copper hoops each. The latter were required for the lower tier 
 of barrels on shipboard, but are now seldom called for. 
 
 My experience in Affghanistan led rae to suggest to the Mili- 
 tary Board, in March, 1845, some alterations in the powder 
 barrels, as set forth in the following extract. 
 
 As the matter stands at present it is usual to consider four 
 100 lb. barrels as the load for a camel, that is — 
 
 Powder 400 lbs. 
 
 4 Barrels , 140 „ 
 
 Hopes gearing — tarpaulings . . . 20 „ 
 
 Total 560 lbs. 
 
 Four barrels also involve extra ropes. Now, 560 lbs. is soon 
 found to be above the average load of even one of our best 
 camels at the pace we force them to proceed. 
 
 It becomes necessary to reduce the load, one barrel is taken 
 away, one is then slung on each side of the animal, and one is 
 piled on the top of the saddle ; a diflSculty arises in fixing this 
 single one securely ; from frequently rolling down it is constantly 
 injured. 
 
 I therefore conceive that barrels capable of containing 150 lbs. 
 of powder of the length of the saddle of a camel, and not in- 
 creased in diameter, would be very useful, and enable a convoy 
 to start with a medium load, which it would continue to carry per 
 camel. This arrangement would be attended with much less 
 trouble in loading and unloading, with some saving of expense in 
 ropes and shngs. 
 
 The load wUl thus stand — 
 
 Powder 300 lbs. 
 
 2 Barrels 90 „ 
 
 Rope, ifec. . . . . . . 15 „ 
 
 Total 405 lbs. 
 
 which I think is a better medium weight. The heads remain the 
 same as at present, only the staves are to be made longer ; 
 perhaps six hoops will be more secure than four. 
 
142 HOOPS AND STAVES. 
 
 There will be a trifling saving in the barrelhng expense of the 
 100 lbs., but the chief object has reference io facility of tuanaport. 
 I do believe suchibarrels will be fojand most convenient at stations 
 depending on camel (Carriage. 
 
 The dimensions proposed are as follows : — • 
 
 Interior diameter at bulge . . . . .16 inches. 
 
 „ „ liead 1^ » 
 
 Depth between heads . . . . . . 28 „ 
 
 Weight 45 lbs. 
 
 Contents — powder ...... 100 ,, 
 
 It is not beyond the strength of a single man to carry this 
 barrel, and it rolls equally easy. I cannot anticipate any in- 
 creased danger in the mass of 150 over 100 lbs. of powder. 
 
 Hoops xmd Staves. 
 
 I was directed to make certain experiments towards ascertain- 
 ing the strength of zinc hoops, with a view to their employment 
 in the construction of powder barrels. 
 
 It consequently became necessary to ascertain in some mode 
 the actual strength or resistance in powder barrels, towards esta- 
 blishing a scale of comparison. 
 
 I determined to try the experiment mentioned in philosophical 
 works, of the power of a column of water, if suflSciently high, to 
 burst any barrel ; and thus, in the height of the column, to obtain 
 the required measure. 
 
 I consequently selected 12 ft. of a leaden pipe,l in. in diameter; 
 this when filled with water, had no effect on the barrels. 
 
 The pipe was then increased to 24 ft. With a new barrel, the 
 water was forced through the pores of the end of the staves, but 
 the barrel was unaltered. 
 
 With a good repaired barrel the result was much the same. 
 ■ With a very thin staved and hooped barrel, such as would not 
 be sent out of the agency, the staves bent a little, the seams 
 opened, and the water escaped. 
 
 A still thinner staved barrel, with iron hoops of the thickness 
 
HOOPS AKD STAVBS. 
 
 1:43 
 
 of a^j, of an inch, allowed the water to escape at all the seams, 
 the hoops appeared quite unaltered. 
 
 Having thus reached no satisfactory results, I proposed to try 
 the strength of the various component parts. I made a scale 
 of rod -iron, and suspended the hoop between the hook of the 
 scale sand the hook of the gin, which last was loaded until ithe 
 Ihoop Obroke, ithe results being — 
 
 A. 
 
 H00P8. 
 
 Dimensions — Length, 4 ft. 8. in. 
 
 Breadth, 1^ in. 
 
 Hoop from 12 oz. copper 
 „ „ 16 oz. copper. . . 
 „ „ 40 oz. copper . . 
 
 Weight given, 
 lbs. 
 344 
 
 430 
 
 2236 
 
 Torn in half at hook. 
 
 / Torn at upper, broke at lower 
 
 \ hook. 
 Broke at hook. 
 
 Hoops of common powder bar- \ 
 lel. about 60 oz . . . / 
 
 Ditto ditto soldered, \ 
 rand no riyet . . ■ • J 
 
 Hoop of ditto cut up centre, \ 
 
 being half breadth . , J 
 Ditto ditto ditto 
 Ditto ditto ditto \ 
 
 without riyets soldered . . J 
 Hoop ^ breadth of 12 oz. copper . 
 
 „ „ 16 oz. ditto. 
 Hoops iroli, from sulphur cask, \ 
 
 breadth 1;^ in., thickness ^'^ in. J 
 
 4859 
 
 5461 
 
 2365 , 
 
 1333 
 
 1935 
 
 86 
 86 
 
 3053 
 
 f Cut ^ across at the hook end. 
 ■J Rivet dragged through the 
 (. :hole. 
 
 r Broke below soldering, where 
 < it may have been a little 
 (. weakened by the fire. 
 
 Gave at rivet hole. 
 
 Gave at rivet hole. 
 
 Broke in middle of side. 
 
 > Broke at rivet. 
 
 Torn at lower hook. 
 
 I then added side bars to the scale rods, placed between them 
 a stave, and suspending the scale by a ring to the staves added 
 weight till the stave broke. The result was as follows : 
 
144 
 
 HOOPS AND STAVES. 
 
 B. 
 
 Staves. 
 
 Measures. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Weight 
 
 required to 
 
 break. 
 
 
 An old stave, three times set\ 
 
 up, very dry . . . / 
 An old stave once set up, re- 1 
 
 turned from Bombay dry . j 
 A new stave cut down and ) 
 
 ready for setting up, good . J 
 A fresh half-wrought stave un- 1 
 
 trimmed . . . . j 
 A ditto ditto 1 average of \ 
 
 divided in half J each half, j 
 
 Inches. 
 Length. Breadth. 
 21 by 2-r 
 
 21 by 3 
 
 22 by 3f 
 
 Inches. 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 H 
 H 
 
 lbs. 
 258 
 
 645 
 
 8ir 
 
 1892 
 1118 
 
 The staves all broke readUy 
 in the centre at the weight 
 mentioned, some pf the wood 
 was very dry from the action 
 of the fire in giving the bend. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 I next loaded weights on a barrel full of saltpetre, when the 
 weights reached about 6,628 lbs. a stave broke, and three others 
 were flattened down and separated, the mass of weight had then 
 reached the resistance of the saltpetre. 
 
 A new empty barrel stood 7,000 lbs. when the head slipped in 
 being so forced by the staves becoming straight, two of the staves 
 were split, hence new barrels will stand a direct external pressure 
 of three tons. 
 
 To Analyse Powder. 
 
 To 100 grains, add 600 grains more or less of distilled water, 
 then filter the solution through clean filtering paper. The water 
 is then to be evaporated over a spirit lamp, the dried residue will 
 be the proportion of saltpetre. The mass collected on the filter- 
 ing paper consists of the sulphur and charcoal combined. If this 
 residue be placed in a copper dish and heated to above 240°, the 
 sulphur will disengage itself in fumes, and leave the charcoal. 
 
 If the saltpetre of any quantity of gunpowder to be examined 
 is not pure, by dropping a few drops of the solution of nitrate of 
 silver into the clear solution that has drained through the paper 
 filter, any impurity of chloride salts will be indicated by 
 
SEKH GUNPOWDEE. 145 
 
 the clear solution becoming cloudy : the proportion of impurity 
 may be detected by chemical tests. 
 
 Sehli Gunpowder. 
 
 In passing Peishawur on the return from Kabul, in December, 
 1842, I purchased from the Tooshuk Khanah a beautiful match- 
 lock and appointments, which had been presented to Sir George 
 Pollock, G.C.B., by the young Prince. 
 
 Every article was of the best description, and the powder-horn 
 contained about one pound of Sekh powder. 
 
 Considering the rank of the donor, I have no doubt that it was 
 powder of their first quality. 
 
 This powder remained until 1849 ; on opening the horn then, 
 to my astonishment I found it perfectly good. 
 
 I had also taken at the battle of Tazee, from an Afghan chief, 
 an excellent Sekh matchlock, with the barrels of which I made 
 the trials recorded under the head " Long Lahoor Matchlock." 
 
 With 5 drams of English powder the initial velocity of the 
 small ball of the matchlock is superior to that of the large ball of 
 the English musket, which with 5 drams would only penetrate 
 6 boards, while the matchlock, with 5 drams, penetrated 8^ 
 boards. 
 
 From the matchlock, 3^ drams from the wretched powder of 
 the ship " Trident " gave an initial velocity equal to that from 
 3^ drams of our own fine musketry powder — a fact requiring 
 attention and consideration. 
 
 The strength of this " Trident's " powder may be seen in a 
 subsequent Table, headed " Various Proofs." 
 
 After the battles of the Sutlege, the common Sekh powder was 
 submitted to proof and comparison with Bengal powder, of which 
 the following is the result : — 
 
146 
 
 SEKH GUNPOWDER. 
 
 Pkoop taken at Kussook ok the 16th Jvly, 1846. 
 S-in. mortar. Shell filled with sand, 45 lbs. Charge, 2 oz. 
 
 1. . 
 
 , Bengal P. 78 . 
 
 Sekh powder 14 
 
 2. 
 
 80 . . 
 
 >, 31 
 
 3. . 
 
 65 . . 
 
 „ 13 
 
 4. 
 
 75 . . 
 
 „ 18 
 
 5. . 
 
 75 . . 
 
 „ 20 
 
 6. 
 
 „ 80 . . 
 
 „ 19 
 
 Average . 75^ Average . 19 •16 
 
 In 1849 I turned attention to the powder In the horn given 
 with the matchlock : the result was, that in an 8-inch mortar, 
 with 2 oz. charge, and 67 lb. ball, it ranged 53 yards, to the 
 Bengal powder 94, under the same circumstances, and with the 
 ^prouvette gave an arc of 16° 52' against the Bengal musketry 
 powder arc of 23° 5'. The density of the Sekh powder was 272 
 to the Bengal powder 262. The appearance of the Sekh povrder 
 may be thus described — grain mixed, round as if cast, and not 
 very hard, not much dust ; colour, bluish black ; apparently con- 
 tained a large proportion of sulphur. 
 
 To analysis, this powder gave — 
 
 „ ,, , f Better than 1 boiled . . 501 „„ 
 
 Saltpetre . -^ ^ . . ,„}- . . 69- 
 
 llnfenor . . . . . 19J 
 
 Sulphur 12-5 
 
 Charcoal .......... 12'5 
 
 Loss ........... 6- 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 In 1844-45 one of the cleverest of the Sekh Sirdars, who re- 
 sided some time at Benares, when passing down the country, 
 exhibited to Colonel Brooke, C.B., the projection of a small shell 
 without either gun or mortar. 
 
 This was done by excavating a hole in the ground at an angle 
 of about 45° with a small chamber like the contraction of the 
 bore of a piece of ordnance. Tent pins were driven so as to 
 cover the bottom of the bore, and a piece of quickmatch was in- 
 serted at the mouth. The shell was then prepared with fusee, 
 and fired. The shell was projected about 300 yards, and exploded 
 in falling to the ground ; the charge was small, but no weights 
 
BUILDINGS. 147 
 
 or measure recorded. The excavation was very little injured in 
 firing two rounds. 
 
 Buildings. 
 
 The distance between buildings cOtit&inibg powder should be 
 beyond the range of the quantity contained in each house. The 
 range of powder forced by resistance into one direction is as 
 the quantity, but, when left unconfined, will perhaps be as the 
 square root of the quantity. The distance between the Ishapore 
 Mills, say 60 yards, is proved by experience to be Well calculated 
 for about 80 to 100 lbs. of powder, and may be assumed as the 
 unit ; hence for the press houses and corning houses, containing 
 upwards of 400 lbs. of powder, the interval should be double at 
 least. 
 
 All the houses should be as large as possible, for the purposes 
 of room in which to work, and for free circulation to the fluid in 
 case of explosion ; they should also be as high as possible, to re- 
 move all beams and rafters from the flame ; these should also be 
 as heavy as possible, with due regard to economy and convenience, 
 that they may be carried by the explosion to as little distance as 
 possible. 
 
 From the flight of burning beams or sphnters lies the great 
 secondary danger from explosion. 
 
 Perhaps the better form of walls w6uld be strong corners or 
 plinths in any position from which it is desirable to turn the blast, 
 with fillings-up of very weak masonry, to give way before the 
 fluid in any more safe direction. 
 
 As few door or window frames as possible should be inserted, 
 with as Uttle wood-work as is compatible with convenience. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 EXPEEIMENTS ON MORTARS, 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON MORTARS. 
 
 To arrive at any certainty in the matter of the proof of 
 powder, it becomes necessary to well understand the instruments 
 of proof in all their circumstances. To this end I instituted a 
 long series of experiments on each. My great aim was to have 
 only one circumstance in variation, and the remainder constant ; 
 the utmost care was given to obtain this end. 
 
 First, in regard to the mortar ; with all other circumstances 
 identical, the range was taken from 1 to 64 drams, and from one 
 ounce to a pound. 
 
 Next, to ascertain the value of weight, a brass ball was fired 
 off, placed on the lathe, and reduced internally each time by 
 5 lbs. of metal. It is true the centre of gravity was not always 
 the same, but this could not be avoided. 
 
 To determine the effect of windage, Colonel Wilson,* then in 
 the Cossipoor foundry, after each trial reduced the shot exter- 
 nally by one-tenth of an inch in diameter. 
 
 This was done with the precision for which the Cossipoor 
 foundry is celebrated. 
 
 Elevation was tried by a progressive advance on the quadrant. 
 
 Recoil by the mode and means indicated in the Table. 
 
 After this, an attempt was made to ascertain the value of the 
 circumstances of charge and size of grain as operating on the 
 gun pendulum. The results are mentioned under that instru- 
 ment. 
 
 Lastly, the musket was used. 
 
 The experiments on this head were made in the usual mode, 
 by fixing the barrel in the rest, and firing at planks secured in a 
 
 * Nov Sir Archdale Wilson, K.C.B. 
 
EXPERIMENTS ON MOETAES. 149 
 
 stand placed at the regular distance. But it was soon found that 
 half-inch planks, with an inch interval, were destroyed after a few 
 rounds ; to obviate this difficulty, the interval between the planks 
 was omitted ; then one-inch planks, with one-inch interval ; and 
 lastly one-inch, with no interval, was adopted, which proved the 
 best arrangement. 
 
 The equation between these modes is recorded, so that the 
 result under one mode may be reduced and compared with that 
 of any other. Captain Bazely, the Principal Commissary of 
 Ordnance, kindly furnished the muskets. Every possible care 
 was taken in keeping all the circumstances as nearly identical 
 as possible. The observations are faithfully recorded, and may 
 be depended upon, though the deductions drawn from them are 
 crude, and may be erroneous. Still these recorded facts may be 
 useful to others. 
 
 I have added a table of musketry results on planks, compared 
 with the ranges obtained from the average of the Commandant's 
 proof at Dum-Dum. 
 
 Also a table of trials of various powders obtained from time 
 to time. 
 
 The powders from the ships " Trident," " Good Hope," " Per- 
 severance," and " Mysoor," had laid in. the Myapoor magazine 
 from the dates mentioned until sold by auction, in 1847. 
 
 The results are curious, and show that powder inferior in 
 mortars and broader tubes is not so inferior in narrower tubes. 
 
 As much interest has been raised on the subject of Sekh 
 powder and Sekh matchlocks, I have added a separate paper on 
 this head. 
 
 Also a tabulated statement, tracing the effect of powder as far 
 back into past years as I could obtain for it authentic and un- 
 doubted authority. 
 
150 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH CHAEGES, 
 
 Charge. 
 
 OOMPARATIVB PeOOF BY A PUOGRBSSIVE InOBBASB 01? DkAMS OP OUDNAIfCB 
 
 Powder of 1844-45. 
 
 Weight of ball, 68 lbs. 
 Diameter of ball, 7 '92 in. 
 Diameter of mortar, 8 '02 in. 
 Windage, '10 in. 
 
 Ranges in feet. 
 
 A 
 
 h 
 
 B 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 A 
 
 B? 
 B' 
 
 BN 
 
 B' 
 
 o . 
 
 11 
 
 A 
 
 cl 
 
 II 
 
 33 
 
 B 
 
 .a 
 
 307 
 
 C 
 
 s 
 
 
 B 
 
 A 
 
 B2 
 B' 
 
 
 
 |3 
 
 2 S 
 
 M E3 o 
 
 -H 
 
 u a 
 
 11 
 
 a 
 
 2 S 
 
 a S >"" 
 
 o . 
 o % 
 
 11 
 
 X 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 
 9- 3 
 
 1- 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ir 
 
 + 7 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 1-70 
 
 1-7 
 
 34 
 
 33 5 
 
 + 
 
 8 
 
 9-26 
 
 1-02 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 + 14 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 1-82 
 
 3 1 
 
 35 
 
 321 
 
 + 
 
 6 
 
 9'17 
 
 101 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 + * 
 
 8 
 
 75 
 
 1-12 
 
 3-5 
 
 36 
 
 330 
 
 + 
 
 9 
 
 916 
 
 1-02 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 45 
 
 + 10 
 
 9 
 
 
 1'28 
 
 4-5 
 
 37 
 
 342 
 
 -f 
 
 12 
 
 9-24 
 
 1-03 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 58 
 
 + 13 
 
 9 
 
 66 
 
 1-28 
 
 4-5 
 
 38 
 
 361 
 
 + 
 
 9 
 
 9-23 
 
 102 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 67 
 
 + 9 
 
 9 
 
 57 
 
 1'45 
 
 6-7 
 
 39 
 
 357 
 
 + 
 
 6 
 
 9-15 
 
 101 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 71 
 
 + 4 
 
 8 
 
 87 
 
 1-05 
 
 7-1 
 
 40 
 
 369 
 
 + 
 
 12 
 
 9-32 
 
 1-03 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 83 
 
 + 12 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 1-16 
 
 8-3 
 
 41 
 
 378 
 
 + 
 
 9 
 
 9-21 
 
 1-02 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 110 
 
 + 27 
 
 11 
 
 
 1-32 
 
 11- 
 
 42 
 
 384 
 
 + 
 
 6 
 
 9a4 
 
 1-01 
 
 — 
 
 11 
 
 114 
 
 + 4 
 
 10 
 
 36 
 
 1'03 
 
 11-4 
 
 43 
 
 387 
 
 + 
 
 3 
 
 9- 
 
 1-00 
 
 — 
 
 12 
 
 119 
 
 + 5 
 
 9 
 
 91 
 
 104 
 
 11-9 
 
 44 
 
 405 
 
 + 
 
 18 
 
 9- 2 
 
 1-04 
 
 — 
 
 13 
 
 127 
 
 + 8 
 
 9 
 
 76 
 
 1-06 
 
 12'7 
 
 45 
 
 414 
 
 + 
 
 9 
 
 9' 2 
 
 1-02 
 
 — . 
 
 14 
 
 135 
 
 + 8 
 
 9 
 
 64 
 
 1-06 
 
 13-5 
 
 46 
 
 423 
 
 + 
 
 9 
 
 9-19 
 
 1-02 
 
 — 
 
 15 
 
 144 
 
 + 9 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 1-06 
 
 14-4 
 
 47 
 
 435 
 
 + 
 
 12 
 
 9-25 
 
 102 
 
 . — 
 
 16 
 
 166 
 
 + 22 
 
 10 
 
 37 
 
 1'15 
 
 16-6 
 
 48 
 
 469 
 
 + 
 
 24 
 
 9-56 
 
 1-05 
 
 45-9 
 
 17 
 
 167 
 
 + 1 
 
 9 
 
 82 
 
 1- 
 
 16-7 
 
 49 
 
 456 
 
 + 
 
 3 
 
 9- 3 
 
 1-01 
 
 — 
 
 18 
 
 183 
 
 + 16 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 1'09 
 
 18-3 
 
 50 
 
 466 
 
 + 
 
 9 
 
 9- 3 
 
 101 
 
 — 
 
 19 
 
 189 
 
 + 6 
 
 9 
 
 94 
 
 103 
 
 18-9 
 
 51 
 
 477 
 
 + 
 
 12 
 
 9-35 
 
 1'02 
 
 — 
 
 20 
 
 204 
 
 + 15 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 3 '07 
 
 20-4 
 
 52 
 
 489 
 
 + 
 
 12 
 
 9- 4 
 
 1-02 
 
 — 
 
 21 
 
 228 
 
 + 24 
 
 10 
 
 85 
 
 111 
 
 22-8 
 
 53 
 
 489 
 
 + 
 
 
 9-22 
 
 1- 
 
 — 
 
 22 
 
 237 
 
 + 9 
 
 10 
 
 77 
 
 103 
 
 — 
 
 54 
 
 495 
 
 + 
 
 6 
 
 9-16 
 
 101 
 
 — 
 
 23 
 
 240 
 
 + 3 
 
 10 
 
 43 
 
 1-01 
 
 ■ — 
 
 65 
 
 510 
 
 + 
 
 15 
 
 9-27 
 
 1'03 
 
 ■ — 
 
 24 
 
 252 
 
 + .L2 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 1-05 
 
 — 
 
 66 
 
 513 
 
 + 
 
 3 
 
 9-16 
 
 1-00 
 
 — 
 
 25 
 
 258 
 
 + 6 
 
 10 
 
 32 
 
 1-02 
 
 — ■ 
 
 57 
 
 625 
 
 + 
 
 12 
 
 9-21 
 
 1-02 
 
 — 
 
 26 
 
 261 
 
 + 3 
 
 10 
 
 03 
 
 1-01 
 
 — 
 
 58 
 
 534 
 
 + 
 
 9 
 
 9- 2 
 
 1-01 
 
 — 
 
 27 
 
 273 
 
 + 12 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 1-04 
 
 — 
 
 59 
 
 558 
 
 + 
 
 24 
 
 9-45 
 
 1-04 
 
 — 
 
 28 
 
 274 
 
 + 1 
 
 9 
 
 78 
 
 1-00 
 
 — 
 
 60 
 
 567 
 
 + 
 
 9 
 
 9-45 
 
 1-01 
 
 — 
 
 29 
 
 285 
 
 + 11 
 
 9 
 
 83 
 
 1-04 
 
 — . 
 
 61 
 
 573 
 
 4- 
 
 6 
 
 9'S9 
 
 1-01 
 
 — 
 
 30 
 
 292 
 
 + ^ 
 
 9 
 
 73 
 
 1-02 
 
 — 
 
 62 
 
 570 
 
 + 
 
 3 
 
 9'29 
 
 1-00 
 
 — 
 
 31 
 
 294 
 
 + 2 
 
 9 
 
 48 
 
 1-00 
 
 — 
 
 63 
 
 586 
 
 + 
 
 9 
 
 9-28 
 
 1-01 
 
 — 
 
 32 
 
 307 
 
 + 13 
 
 9-59 
 
 1'04 
 
 30-7 
 
 64 
 
 582 
 
 + 
 
 3 
 
 9-09 
 
 0'99 
 
 68 '2 
 
EXPEEIMENTS WITH CHARGES. 
 
 151 
 
 Of A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 B 
 A 
 
 B* 
 
 10 + 909 
 
 Total. 1 dram = 
 
 2,080 ?. X i - ^^^'^ = 9-56 15-1617 drs. 
 
 A ■ 64 64 3 
 
 19,64'r = average loss per dram. 3l'32'33 
 
 55-2 
 
 612-08 
 
 07'61 
 
 3 
 
 47 '48 -49 
 
 3 
 
 63-64 
 
 10 
 = 9-93 —•07 
 = 9-45 —-48 
 = 9-37 —-08 
 
 = 9-18 —-19 
 
 Total' -p "205 
 4 
 
 82 
 
 •013 
 
 „„ = '013 loss of range per dram. YcT ~ '0013 per foot. 
 
 9-54 mean of extremes per dram. 
 
 Total B = 19,647 
 Total A = 2,080 
 
 9 -44 average of extremes per dram. 
 
 COMPAKATIVE PeOQ]? ET A PROGRESSIVE INCREASE OF OtTNOES. 
 
 Diameter of mortar 
 
 ,, of ball 
 Windage 
 
 8-04 inches. 
 7-93 „ 
 0-12 „ 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 B 
 
 BN_ 
 
 B3 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 B' 
 
 B' 
 
 Charge in 
 
 Range in 
 
 1st 
 
 Range fur each 
 
 Ratio of in- 
 
 Ratio 
 
 ounces. 
 
 yards. 
 
 difference. 
 
 ounce. 
 
 crease of one. 
 
 of increase. 
 
 1 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 87 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 1-851 
 
 1-851 
 
 3 
 
 130 
 
 43 
 
 43-3 
 
 2-765 
 
 1-494 
 
 4 
 
 168 
 
 38 
 
 42 
 
 3-574 
 
 1-292 
 
 5 
 
 213 
 
 45 
 
 42-6 
 
 4-531 
 
 1-268 
 
 6 
 
 245 
 
 32 
 
 40-8 
 
 5-212 
 
 1-150 
 
 7 
 
 287 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 6-106 
 
 1-171 
 
 8 
 
 328 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 6-978 
 
 1-142 
 
 9 
 
 369 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 7-851 
 
 1-124 
 
 10 
 
 419 
 
 50 
 
 41-9 
 
 8-914 
 
 1-136 
 
 11 
 
 455 
 
 36 
 
 41-3 
 
 9-680 
 
 1-085 
 
 12 
 
 516 
 
 61 
 
 43 
 
 10-979 
 
 1-134 
 
 13 
 
 563 
 
 47 
 
 43-3 
 
 11-970 
 
 1-091 
 
 14 
 
 614 
 
 51 
 
 43-8 
 
 12-970 
 
 1-197 
 
 35 
 
 674 
 
 60 
 
 44-9 
 
 14-340 
 
 1-097 
 
 16 
 
 723 
 
 49 
 
 45 
 
 15-360 
 
 1-072 
 
152 CHAEGES AND RANGES. 
 
 ^^^^ I = 43 '6 yards per oz. 
 136 i 
 
 ' I = 45 average differencer 
 I = 42-75 
 :6 mean range per ounce. 
 
 On inspection of column B, we notice an approach to an 
 arithmetical progression, of -which the common difference de- 
 creases as the number of drams increases. Taken in periods of 
 sixteen drams — 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 r Total B = 
 \ Total A = 
 
 5838 : 
 
 Of 4 . 
 
 136 
 
 136 . 
 
 B , 
 
 5838 
 
 
 
 
 
 „, , C 
 
 676 1 
 
 , 
 
 676 
 
 Total - = 
 A— 1 
 
 15 i 
 
 B 
 A 
 
 684-9 
 
 Total A 
 
 A 
 
 684-9 
 
 BN 
 
 , 123-081 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 gi" 
 
 
 
 
 B= 
 B' 
 
 . 18-304 
 
 47 + 45 
 
 2 
 
 ■ = 4 
 
 1st period of 16 drs. . 
 
 common difference 10-4^ 
 
 
 2nd 
 
 „ 9-3 
 
 Average, 
 
 3rd 
 
 „ 10-1 
 
 9-55 
 
 4th 
 
 „ 8-4y 
 
 
 Assume the column B to be a regular arithmetical progression, 
 then the common difference = 9'07. Sum of the series 18944, 
 onlj 703 less than the sum exhibited in the table. Or, if we 
 
 T> 
 
 take the column—, the value in range of each dram, then 10 — 
 A 
 
 9'09 = -91-r-63 = "0144, the average decreases in value of each 
 
 added dram. 
 
 This column might be treated as a geometric progression where 
 
 the common ratio f-'^d ""^") would be -998. Hence ■998^>i» x 10 
 
 is the value of each dram in a charge of 16 drams. But this 
 ratio of '998 must be limited to a few terms, and it will probably 
 answer best to sixteen. 
 
 9 '78 ft. or 3-26 yards may be taken as the average range of a 
 68 lb. ball, with a dram of powder, from an 8 -in. mortar, as 
 described. 
 
 If the range be inversely as the weight, then one dram 
 should convey one pound of weight in the shape of a ball 7'92 
 diameter, with a windage of O'l, from an 8-in. mortar, 221 yards ; 
 
CHAEGES AND EANGES. 
 
 153 
 
 to be decreased in the ratio of •9981 ""^ for each increase of the 
 terms of the charge. 
 
 221 yards X 1 ^ 1 lb. of ball = for a dram. 
 
 221 yards x -OOSl" X 16 -f- 68 = 50-3 for the ounce charge \ ^j^j^ ^ ggj^^ ^^-^ 
 
 50-3 X ^^98^" X 16 -j- 1 = ITT for the lib. charge . ) 
 
 In fact, in the large tubes of mortars, -within reasonable limits, 
 the range is nearly as the charge, for a larger addition of weight 
 of powder makes but a small increase to the depth of the charge, 
 and hence the total ignition is not delayed as in narrow tubes. 
 
 A table of ranges might be better constructed from the 
 first, second, and third differences, if necessary, according to the 
 formula of the Summation of Series,'" where the sum of the series 
 
 would he a + ^ d' 
 
 ^ Sj ' 1 7// 
 
 X — - — a -^ X 
 
 X- 
 
 1 d?-2 
 
 3!" , &c. 
 
 2 2 3 
 
 the value in range for each increase of charge being considered 
 as a diminishing series, by reason of the delayed ignition, and the 
 quantity of the resistance of the air being increased with aug- 
 mented velocity. 
 
 Worked out from the recorded ranges of 1, 6, 11, and 16 ozs. 
 the following is a range table for Bengal musketry powder from 
 an 8-in. mortar : — 
 
 Powder. 
 Ounces. 
 
 1 
 
 2 . 
 
 3 
 
 4 . 
 
 5 
 
 6 . 
 
 7 
 
 8 . 
 
 Eange. 
 Yards. 
 . 47 
 
 Powder. 
 
 Oances. 
 
 9 
 
 . 83 
 
 10 . 
 
 . 121 
 
 11 
 
 160 
 
 12 . 
 
 . 200 
 
 13 
 
 . 242 
 
 14 . 
 
 . 285 
 
 15 
 
 . 329 
 
 16 . 
 
 Eange. 
 
 Yards. 
 374 
 428 
 470 
 518 
 567 
 617 
 668 
 720 
 
 According to a rough conclusion by Sir John Burgoyne, two 
 inches of powder in a — 
 
 Hole 1 in. in diameter will blow out 7 in. of clay. 
 " ^ )» )> 18 „ 
 
 » 3 „ ,, 20 ,, 
 
 The friction at the circumference will be as the diameters ; 
 
 * See Baker's and Cowling's " Eules and Formulie." 1862, 
 
154 EFFECT OF POEM OP CHARGE. 
 
 the areas and the weight of the clay will be as the square of the 
 diameters. If the latter, or weight of clay, measure the result, 
 the 3 in. hole is the more effective size for two ounces of powder. 
 This is a question which should be determined. 
 
 If these facts are correct, they prove how much depends on 
 the form, or rather on the thickness of the charge. 
 
 Diameter 
 of bore. 
 Inches. 
 1 
 
 Area of 
 bore. 
 
 •7854 
 
 Depth of 
 powder. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 4-4 
 
 Quantity of 
 
 powder. 
 
 Oz. 
 
 2 
 
 Quantity of 
 
 clay. 
 
 Cubic ins. 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3'1416 
 
 1-1 
 
 2 
 
 66 
 
 3 
 
 7- 
 
 ■48 
 
 2 
 
 140 
 
 Note. — In my remarks on tlie effect of reverberatio'n in large charges of powder, 
 with a heavy shot before it (see Appendix, on the paper on " War Rockets"), it 
 will appear that great consideration in calculating the force of gunpowder should 
 be given to this cause, a subject hardly noticed before, I believe, by any writer. — 
 Editob. 
 
EFFECTS OP EEDUCING WEIGHT OP BALL. 
 
 155 
 
 § I 
 
 4 3 
 
 ~ pq o 
 
 r/3 Hi 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 Ph 
 
 M 
 
 E-l 
 
 a 
 M 
 <f 
 
 EH 
 
 1-4 
 B 
 ■4- 
 
 ■< 
 
 o 
 
 
 •OT'ti?a; 
 
 
 
 lO OO O »A i>- i>- 
 Jr- CO O ^ -M CO 
 
 C5 C35 (33 05 O H Cs 
 
 
 -— ' o 
 
 
 
 1 
 CO iH to CO O tH -^ 
 
 a)ooi--J?-oO!oo 
 
 
 o 
 
 M |< 
 
 (M in lO ■* o o iH CO 
 
 CO i-O Jr- O CO I^ lO Tt< 
 r-ii-llHC^'M'MC'O-* 
 
 
 ^iS 
 
 J:- O CO O O CO rJ 
 O rH iH tH W CO ■* 
 
 tM iH iH tH iH r-( r-l 
 
 
 & \^ 
 
 in O 05 (M O to iH 
 1^ {M CO Cq fM rH CO 
 O O O p O rH O 
 
 H T-l iH 1-1 iH t-l i-l 
 
 Charge, lib. 
 
 Diameter of mortar, 8 '04. 
 
 Windage, -13. 
 
 •puno.iS sx{% 
 m indaa 
 
 
 
 _j -* CO <?i ip> 
 
 **^ H H tH r-l iH 
 
 ■[i^q 
 
 
 
 ^CO lO CO 
 
 •aon3.i9jgT(£ 
 
 
 
 O CO CO O lO T-4 IjS 
 
 CO iM cq G^ w i-i CO 
 
 ■sp.rei 
 
 (¥? 
 
 
 cocococqc^j^^ooco 
 osioi-ocq-^ioiM 
 
 i^OOOOcnOSOJOiH 
 r-l 1-1 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 Mk 
 
 00 O 
 ipO3C0Jj-THCi)Cp-*C;0 
 
 r^IH(N(^^co■*l«J^-o 
 
 65 
 
 1,12, 
 
 OT-l0000"^C0'<ii'^lOG0C0I0rH 
 rHCqCqcp>nj>.03iHC0ipcpprH 
 
 r^THl^l^I^l^rtI-^|^^(Nl^llMcol^o 
 
 
 « J& 
 
 OC3COOOiHiH<M'H 00 
 r-IOOOtHrHr-l--'rHW.HO 
 
 
 Charge, 2 ozs. 
 
 Diameter of mortar, S'02. 
 
 Windage, 0-11. 
 
 ■punojg 3X11 
 m Ti^jdod 
 
 
 
 a in tH CO CO 
 
 ■TFq 
 
 JO '>^i*!lil 
 
 
 
 lO lO 
 
 •3on92ajji(j 
 
 
 
 OOJ>-0 10COOr-IJt-(MCO^O 
 
 i-irH t-!r-lr-lC^(^^^^c^^o^(^q 
 
 •sp.re;t 
 
 M 
 
 
 lO lo lo iM N ±- in lo CO CO lo 00 o lo 
 
 ooi-icsicOTfcoooocq-.-ticoooo 
 
 rHi-lr-lr-ii-li-lr-l(N(M(M<MCqiM 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 ■ooro.iojgi(i 
 
 s 
 
 oinoioouooinoioovio 
 
 rHT-l(N(MCOCO^THininiOCO 
 
 
 inioinioioinioininiooTtir-i 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 o c-i CO lA j>- -jc ^ ^ 
 
 r-lr-li-liHiH(MCqCO-*tOiHCOO 
 
 •sqi 
 
 <4 
 
 
 o in o in o lo o m o in o lo r-l o 
 CO in in Tif -rii CO CO (N (M i-i 1-1 
 
156 EFFECTS OF EEDUCING WEIGHT OF BALL. 
 
 Tota] 
 
 Lto 20 lbs., 2 oz. 
 
 charge. 
 
 A . 
 
 • 
 
 360 
 
 D 
 
 . . . . 
 
 
 B . 
 
 . 
 
 , 12T2 
 
 B= 
 B' 
 
 . 
 
 . 8-T8 
 
 BN 
 B' 
 
 
 . 13 -32 
 
 B 
 A 
 
 . 
 
 . 36-T4 
 
 Total to 20 lbs.. 
 
 ,11b. 
 
 charge. 
 
 B 
 
 
 7474 
 
 B^ 
 B' ■ 
 
 • • 
 
 7-365 
 
 BN 
 
 B' 
 
 
 9-007 
 
 B 
 A ■ 
 
 ■ • 
 
 19-65 
 
 At the reduction of the 40 lbs., the ball contained 5 J lbs. of powder, which is 
 
 40 
 about the ratio of the specific gravity — powder 1, metal 8 _ = 5. 
 
 o 
 
 Now, as far as the reduction of weight to 20 lbs., we have 
 actual experienced results. 
 
 The object is to complete the Table. 
 
 2 B 
 
 The column -— - offers results so nearly similar, that we cannot 
 
 be far wrong in assuming them as identical, and taking the 
 average of 1"1 as the uniform ratio of the range for a reduction 
 of 5 lbs. of metal, all other circumstances being constant, and 
 the velocity low. 
 
 40 lbs. - .5 = 35 lbs. 132 x i-i = 147. The Table shows 147. 
 nB .. 
 
 common ratio I'l. Hence for a reduction of 40 lbs. or 5 x 8 = 40 
 10^8 = log. -041393 X 8 = -331144 h« = 2-14. 
 
 j^ = ^^=2-14.-.8R=lRxl^«- 
 
 If We extract the 5th root of this 1-1, we have a ratio for a 
 decrease of 1 lb. 
 
 Log. of 1-1 = 041393 -^ 5 = 008278 = nn = 1-019, say 1'02 
 for a reduction of 1 lb. 
 
 What would be the range for a reduction of 59 lbs., or at 
 lib.? 
 
 Log. of 1-02 = 008278 x 59 = '488402 nn = 3-079 x 95 = 291 
 for the range of 1 lb. of metal in shape of a ball 7-91 in. 
 diameter, with a windage of -11 and charge of 2 ozs. of powder. 
 
 Next :|-^ is almost a continued geometrical progression of this 
 
EFFECTS OF REDUCIITG WEIGHT OF BALL. 157 
 
 What would be the range at 59 lbs., or with a decrease of 
 one pound 1 
 
 95 X 1-02 = 96-8, range of a 59 1b. ball in the above 
 shape. 
 
 By Table 95* is the range of a 601b. ball 
 
 diff. 1-8x5 = 9 yards, while for a difference of 5 lbs. 
 
 the Table shows 10 yards. 
 
 For an increase of weight, we have only to inverse the ratio. 
 
 For 65lbs._95 ^ gg 
 1-1 ~ 
 
 70lbs._95_^ ^g 
 1-21 ^ 
 
 In the pound charge the results are nearly the same, r052 
 being the average ratio. 
 
 Log. 1-052 = 022116 x 7= 15i8l2 n n = 142. Table at 
 
 25 lbs. = 1-41. 
 
 793 X 1-42 = 1131. Table as above for 25 lbs. = 1123. 
 
 . , . Bib. . ,. ^ 
 
 The regular progressive decrease in ratio -5 — maicates new 
 
 laws resulting from alteration in the momentum and velocity. 
 
 The full force of the powder, in the large charge, may not have 
 time to operate on the lighter body, which has left the tube ere 
 the whole of the fluid has been evolved from the powder. 
 
 The records of the flight and penetration are too few to 
 establish any rule. 
 
 These facts tend to the advantage of hollow projectiles, in the 
 decreased weight of the shells to be carried, and the probably 
 greater destruction from the larger quantity of exploding powder 
 within the hollow of the shell. 
 
 Whether these advantages would counterbalance the loss of 
 momentum in the faUing ball remains to be seen. 
 
 An interesting experiment might be made in progressively 
 hollowing out an 18 or 24-pounder brass shot. 
 
 Now, if we consider the action of the powder to be a momen- 
 tary force, then the velocity generated at the issue from the 
 
158 EFFECTS OF EEDUCING WEiaHT OF BALL. 
 
 m 
 
 mortar is V = t-. When b = Q), then Y = m = / the force of the 
 
 powder ; •which could be measured by the range. 
 
 This may be diminished for the weight of the ball by the ratio 
 1"02, raised to the power of the number of pounds. 
 
 / of 2 oi. of powder = 295. Table at weight 0. 
 
 295 
 1^60 ^ 3-13 , . ^ 94_ Tjjg rpg^ijjg gjygg 95 f^j. ^ gg lb. ball. 
 
 Now, in the former experiment (Table 1) we found the range 
 of a 68 lb. ball, with 1 oz. of powder, to be 50 yards : 1*02'^^ = 
 3'65 X 50 = 182 for the simple force of 1 oz. 
 
 This multiplied by "909, or ratio for increase of charge from 
 1 to 2, gives 164 X 2 = 328 for the/ of 2 ozs. 
 
 In the Table on elevation it is established, that half the range 
 
 295 
 at 45° is equal to the altitude due to the velocity. Hence — - — 
 
 147, is the altitude due to the simple unloaded charge. 
 
 The same experiment gives the altitude due to a 68 lb. ball as 
 44 yards. 44 x ll)2)«« = 44x3-65zz:160, the altitude due to a 
 charge of 2 ozs. unloaded. 
 
 It would appear that these reductions in the weight h augment 
 the initial velocity in the direction of the curve, by increasing it 
 directly in a ratio of the reduction of weight. 
 
 The form of the curve would hence be different, and the height 
 greater ; consequently the velocity attained on reaching the 
 ground may be increased ; the momentum at this point will 
 depend on the difference between increased velocity and di- 
 minished weight. 
 
 The resistance of the air will be increased by the augmented 
 velocity, and by the size of the ball being greater in proportion 
 to its solid contents. 
 
 The thickness of metal for the shell necessary to resist the 
 impelHng charge, and the falUng momentum, requires to be 
 ascertained. 
 
 In many instances more is not required, as I beheve greater 
 
WINDAGE. 
 
 159 
 
 damage would often result from the explosion of an increased 
 quantity of powder, than from the effect of the large splinters 
 from the thick sides of the heavier shell. 
 
 In destroying gates, we find powder in a leather bag almost as 
 destructive as from a petard.* 
 
 Windage. 
 
 Comparative Proof by reducing the Ball externally to the following 
 
 Diameters. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Diameter of mortar, 8-04. 
 
 
 
 
 Diameter of mor- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ball 
 
 
 tar, 8-02. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Charge, 2 oz. 
 
 Charge, 
 2 oz. 
 
 Charge, 1 lb. 
 
 Diameter of 
 
 (6 
 
 s 
 
 Weight of 
 
 -a a 
 
 1 
 
 0) 
 
 
 (A 
 
 11 
 
 
 .3^ 
 ■3 a 
 
 ball. 
 
 
 baU. 
 
 A S 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 (^g 
 
 
 0,0 
 
 
 
 1 lb. oz. 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 7-92 
 
 
 07 12 
 
 100 
 
 
 •4 
 
 
 780 
 
 
 1-6 
 
 7-78 
 
 ■14 
 
 62 11 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 646 
 
 134 
 
 1-11 
 
 7-67 
 
 ■n 
 
 60 2 
 
 34 
 
 17 
 
 
 30 
 
 566 
 
 80 
 
 1-5 
 
 7-59 
 
 •08 
 
 •58 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 •4 
 
 20 
 
 487 
 
 79 
 
 2-8 
 
 7-47 
 
 •12 
 
 55 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 ■6 
 
 13 
 
 426 
 
 61 
 
 
 7-37 
 
 •10 
 
 52 7 
 
 19 
 
 +r 
 
 
 17 
 
 462 
 
 + 36 
 
 
 To deduce any practical results from this Table is a matter of 
 extreme difiBculty, because there are two items in constant varia- 
 tion, both the weight and the diameter of the ball. Also in some 
 cases a third, in the difference of diameters of the two mortars. 
 
 * The surrounding atmospliere offering its resistance to tlae expansion of the 
 gaseous yolume of the fired powder. Hence, that powder which is quickest of 
 ignition is the best for this purpose ; but qviick fulminating powder would not be 
 so destructive in extent as good gunpowder. — Editor. 
 
ICO 
 
 WINDAGE. 
 
 In the DirFBKENCE OF THE TwO MORTABS. 
 
 Mortar (^^5"^"^'' « ?" \ Diameters [ I'^t] Difference, -02 
 ( Short range, S. R. J ( 8 02 ) 
 
 Balls of the same weight and diameter. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Mortar. 
 
 Kange, 
 
 yards. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 
 68 
 60 
 58 
 55 
 
 r-92 
 
 7-67 
 
 7-59 
 
 7 '47 
 
 / Long range 
 \ Short range 
 fLong range 
 \ Short range 
 { Long range 
 ( Short range 
 1 Long range 
 \ Short range 
 
 87 
 102 
 30 
 34 
 20 
 24 
 13 
 12 
 
 I 4 
 
 1 ' 
 
 102 : 15 : : 34 : 5 
 ::24:3-5 
 ::12:l-7 
 
 Hence the loss by the difference of diameters of the mortars is 
 as the range. The enlargement of the mortars from 8'02 to 8'04 
 reduces the range. Now the difference in the area of the two is 
 about '25 of a square inch ; hence may be conceived the great 
 discrepancies observed by using, for proof purposes, old mortars 
 and shot, of which the flaws and imperfections would soon equal 
 this area. 
 
 The great reduction in the range, resulting from the reduction 
 in. the diameters of the shot, must next be considered. 
 
 When this becomes very great, the shot sinks deeper into the 
 chamber of a mortar, and approaches nearer to the powder, 
 when other relations may come into operation. 
 
 With the same mortar, same weight of ball, and well ascer- 
 tained diameter of shot — 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Windage. 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Kange, 
 
 i 
 
 
 of mortar. 
 
 of shot. 
 
 sS 
 
 ball. 
 
 yards. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 8-02 
 
 7-91 
 7-67 
 
 •11 ) 
 ■35 1 
 
 24 
 
 60 1 
 
 95 1 
 34 1 
 
 61 
 
 The 7-91 
 range is taken from 
 
 
 7-91 
 
 7-47 
 
 •11 ) 
 
 •65 / 
 
 44 
 
 55 1 
 
 105 1 
 12 1 
 
 93 
 
 the last Table on 
 Weight. 
 
 Thus, after the first tenth of an inch in windage, the average 
 
EFrECTS OP WINDAGE. 
 
 161 
 
 loss for each of the 2nd and 3rd tenths is one quarter of the 
 range, for the 4th and 5th tenths about one-seventh : and the 
 whole range would be destroyed between the 6th and 7th tenths ; 
 with very small charges. 
 To return to the Table. 
 
 r5^ 
 
 35 Reduced loss in yards for each 
 
 15 ) increase of one-tenth of 
 
 1 tenth 
 
 •02 : 
 
 2 tenths 
 
 •14 : 
 
 3 „ 
 
 •11 : 
 
 4 „ 
 
 •08 : 
 
 5 „ 
 
 •12 : 
 
 15 : 
 
 
 49 : 
 
 
 IT : 
 
 
 10 : 
 
 
 12 : 
 
 
 12 
 10 
 
 windage. 
 
 200 yards would be the extreme range, were the contact 
 perfect, and no windage existing. 
 
 Suppose we equate the recorded ranges by the equation for 
 difference of weight l-02>i- Table 2. 
 
 Weight of 
 ball. 
 
 Equated 
 range. 
 
 Eeeorded 
 range. 
 
 Diffei 
 
 ence. 
 
 Windage. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 a 
 b 
 
 68 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 62 
 
 110 
 
 51 
 
 59 
 
 
 •24 
 
 •14 
 
 •42 
 
 60 
 
 114 
 
 34 
 
 80 
 
 21 
 
 •35 
 
 •11 
 
 •19 
 
 58 
 
 118 
 
 24 
 
 94 
 
 14 
 
 •43 
 
 •08 
 
 •17 
 
 55 
 
 128 
 
 12 
 
 116 
 
 22 
 
 •55 
 
 •12 
 
 •18 
 
 The result again appears to be that the 1st tenth of windage 
 has the greatest effect on range. Hence the great loss, on a 
 trifling windage, to balls which previously fitted closely and 
 tightly in the mortar. The ratios between the loss for windage 
 in the 2-oz. and in the 1-lb. charge are so different as not to be 
 conclusive ; I- is the probable ratio in range for this difference of 
 charge. 
 
 Loss by windage, 2 oz. and 1 lb. charges. 
 
 49 : 134 : : 1 : 2-1 
 
 IT : 80 : : 1 : 4^7 
 
 10 : 79 : : 1 : 7-9 
 
 12 : 61 : : 1 : 5 
 
 Average of loss . . 5 
 
 Average of charge . 8 
 
 Eange, 2 oz. and 1 lb. charges. 
 
 100 : 780 : : 1 : 7-8 
 
 51 : 646 : : 1 : 12^ 
 
 34 : 566 : : 1 : 17^ 
 
 24 : 487 : : 1 : 20^ 
 
 12 : 426 : : 1 : 34- 
 
 Average of range . . 20 
 
 No doubt any circumstances altering the initial velocity will 
 inversely affect the loss by windage ; the escape of the fluid will 
 
162 
 
 EFFECTS OF WINDAGE. 
 
 be in a ratio of the time of tlie passage of the shot up the bore ; 
 more fluid will escape as the transit is slower. 
 
 The difference of area may be stated a cause of the loss. 
 
 The area of a circle of tlie diameter of the mortar — 
 
 8-02 is 8^'= 64 '32 X •7854 = 50-47 
 Area of a shot diameter . . . 7 "47 = 43-8 
 
 Difference . . . 6-69 
 
 Now the shot at this point will hardly leave the mortar, hence 
 an area of 43 in., loaded with 53 lbs., is a measure of the fluid 
 generated by 2 oz. of powder acting on an unpressed area of- 
 6 in. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Total loss of range calculated 
 on the difference of area. 
 
 Table. 
 
 802 
 
 50-4 
 
 
 66 : 100 : : 2-9 : 43 
 
 49 
 
 7-92 
 
 49 '2 
 
 1-2 
 
 4-2 : 62 
 
 66 
 
 7-78 
 
 47-5 
 
 1-7 
 
 5-1 : 76. 
 
 76 
 
 7-67 
 
 46-2 
 
 1'3 
 
 6-6 : 100 
 
 88 
 
 7-59 
 
 45-3 
 
 0-9 
 
 
 
 7-47 
 
 43-8 
 
 1-5 
 
 Total 6-6 
 
 
 Hence, in some degree, the loss by windage is measured by the 
 difference of areas. 
 
 In the 1-lb. charge : 
 
 29 : 134 
 
 In the 2-oz. charge : 
 29 : 49 
 
 66 : 304. Table 354. 
 
 66 : 111. Table 88. 
 
 The greater the weight, and the less the charge, the larger will 
 be the loss by windage, as is shown that '24 of windage in the 
 2-oz. charge reduces the range one-half; but this reduction of 
 range requires 6 or 7-tenths with the 1-lb. charge. 
 
 Thus a clever officer, with attention to an increase of charge, 
 may compensate for an under-gauge shell, one that otherwise 
 might be thrown aside as unserviceable. 
 
 Thus it requires 8 oz. of powder, or four times the 2-oz. 
 charge, to restore to a ball 7-27, or of a windage 73, its original 
 range. The result on trial was 107 yards from a new 8-in. 
 mortar, in which 2 oz. would give 102 with a 7-97 ball. 
 
EFFECTS OF ELEVATION. 
 
 163 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 COSEPABATITE PbOOP OF ElBTATION. 
 
 Charge, 2 oz. ; ■weight of ball, 6? lbs. 
 
 Diameter of ball, 7 '92 ; diameter of mortar, 8 •02. 
 
 EleTation. 
 
 Range in yards. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Minutes. 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 64 
 
 + 18 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 78 
 
 + 14 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 83 
 
 + 05 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 76 
 
 -07 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 62 
 
 —14 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 38 
 
 — 24 
 
 
 77 
 
 25 
 
 32 
 
 
 Height of curve 45 yards. 
 
 The result of this experiment confirms the parabolic theory 
 that the range is as the sine of the double angle of elevation, for — 
 
 S z 90 
 
 83 
 
 Per table 78 
 „ 64 
 „ 46 
 
 Hence also 
 
 S Z 35 X 2 : 78 09 
 
 S Z 26 X 2 : 63-5 
 
 S Z. 16 X 2 : 43-9 
 
 S Z 5x2: 14-4 
 
 S Z 1X2: 2-8 
 
 Also that there are two elevations giving the same range, those 
 equally distant from 45°. 
 
 Also that the range at 15° is equal to half the range at 45° = 
 
 qq 
 
 — = 41-5, per table at 16° = 46. As well as to (a), the alti- 
 2 
 
 tude due to the projectile velocity. 
 
 Ten degrees on either side of 45° only cause the range to vary, 
 
 78 _ 76 
 
 83 83. 
 
 An attempt was made to measure the height of the curve by 
 attaching a string to the ball ; the result of four rounds at 
 ^7° 25' was a range of 32 yards, and a height of 45, which reduced 
 to the perpendicular with a base of 16, will be 42. The mortar 
 could not be elevated higher. This trial gives 44 for the height 
 of the curve with 90° elevation, and exhibits an initial velocity of 
 9Q ft. in the second. 
 
 For 44 yards x 3 = 132 ft. height of curve a = space. 
 
 Now the space is the same as the square of the time : 
 16ft. : V" :: 132 ft. : 8-2", square root, say 3". 
 
 u 2 
 
 as 
 
164 EFFECTS OP ELEVATION. 
 
 The velocity acquired is as the time : 
 
 1" : 32 : : 3" : 96. 
 The initial velocity is equal to that acquired by a body falling 
 through (a), or the space of 132 ft. ; or for a period of 3". 
 
 The time of flight also equals the time of falUng through 4 a, 
 
 132 X 4 = 528. 
 16 ft. : V)^ : : 528 ft. : 33'', square root, say 5-7. 
 According to the projectile theory, Hutton, vol. ii. p. 156, for 
 90° Elevation : 
 
 = 93-5. 
 
 sc 35° 
 
 V = ^4agf = ^44x3 x 4: x 1& = ■s/ 8448 = 96, Initial Velocity. 
 T= *-= — = 6". for s of 90° = 1 z= Flight. 
 
 R = 2 a S z= : for s of 180° = S = = Range. 
 
 H = a s^ = 132 X 1' = 132 Height of curve. 
 
 For 35° Elevation : 
 
 R=2aS:2a= 264, log = 2-421604 
 Sine TO 9-988724 
 
 2-410328 wn = 257 ft., or 85 yards. Table 78. 
 X _ s'^_ I-og 96 = 1-982271 
 ~ 'g~ sine 35 9-758591 
 
 Log 16 1-204120 = 0-536742 n n 3"-4 
 H = as^ = L°S «-^. = 2-120574^ ^.^g^^gg ^ ^3 
 
 sine 35/ 9-517182 
 V=V 7^ _ 
 sc 35° 
 
 For a charge of 1 lb., when R = 800 yards. Elevation 45° : 
 
 V= v^^R 800 X 3 X 16, log = 4-584331 
 
 s c 45" 9-698770 
 
 2)4-885561 = 2-442680 = n.?i 277. 
 
 T. l.-.V. 
 
 32)277 = 8" = < = Time. 
 
 A or d =z Space = t"^ 
 
 1' : 1 6 :: 8^ : 1024 = a = altitude due to initial velocity. 
 
 Ai '^- iioQ 1 45°R 2400 i„„„.. 
 
 Also a:: — =1198 also a .-. =1200 ft. 
 
 4:g 2 2 
 
 All evidences of the correctness of the theory at low velocities. 
 
 Altitude due 1 lb. = 1024 ,, ^ j.- j; ij.-i. j 
 
 =7-7 ratio of altitudes. 
 
 „ „ 2 oz. 132 
 
 a.:Y\: a of lb. 277^2 
 
 r ^I 0*3. 
 
 96^ 
 These are about the ratios of the charges, or eight to one. 
 
RECOIL OF MOETAE. 
 
 Recoil. 
 
 165 
 
 Weight of mortar 
 
 bed 
 
 Total 
 
 Cwt. qr. lbs. 
 
 8 10 
 
 11 1 6 
 
 19 2 6 
 
 CJharge, 2 oz. ; diameter of mortar, 8-02 ; of ball, ^•92 ; -weight, &! lbs. 
 
 Nature of Platform. 
 
 Kange. 
 
 Platform composed of sleepers laid flat on ^ 
 pucka brick -work, over these a plank ( 
 platform of 2^ in. thick, boards well f 
 secured . . . . . . J 
 
 A platform of fascines, 1^ feet in diameter, "\ 
 of dalwood sticks, laid on the bare 1 
 earth. A plank, 1 ft. broad, 2 in. thick, f 
 imder each cheek of the mortar bed . . J 
 
 Platform of fascines as above, but no"^ 
 planks between the cheeks and the ■ 
 fascines 
 
 Bare hard soU, covered with the natural \ 
 light grass . . . . • • / 
 
 86 
 
 86 
 
 86 
 88 
 
 The result was, that so small a charge as 2 oz. had no power 
 to move BO heavy a mass as the bed and mortar. 
 
 MUSKETRY EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 Each set of these experiments was concluded with the same 
 description of boards ; and it is regretted that the whole series 
 was not so concluded. But the disadvantages of the thin 
 boards were only found out as the experiments progressed. 
 
 Tables. 
 
 Letters for 
 Keference. 
 
 
 Charge, 
 6 drams. 
 
 Measure of 
 Elasticity. 
 
 D 
 
 A, &c. 
 
 2 and 6 
 1 „ 3 
 4 „ 6 
 
 A 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 f Boards, ^ in. 
 \ Interval, 1 in. 
 C Boards, | in. . 
 \ No interval 
 1 Boards, 1 in. . 
 ( Interval, 1 in. 
 f Boards, 1 in. . 
 \ No interval 
 
 } 
 } 
 } 
 } 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 6-8 
 5 16 
 
 6 
 1-64 
 
 303 
 432 
 758 
 1- 
 
■ 166 
 
 MUSEETET EXPEEIMENTS, 
 
 The gain by the elasticity of the half-inch boards is 6. Hence, 
 if 17 : 6 :: 1 : -35. If the elasticity is inversely as the thick- 
 ness of the boards, the loss for inch boards will be "17. Hence, 
 6-8 will lose 1-15 .-. 6-8 — 1-15 = 5-65 ; table 6 gives 5-16. Much 
 depends on the density of the wood, and on the screwing up 
 of the frame. I assume 6-in. boards, with no interval, as the 
 measure of the usual initial velocity of the common musket, 
 with 6 drams of powder, equal to a point blank range of 
 250 yards. Hence each board is 41 "6 yards. The planks are 
 of mangoe wood. 
 
 Boards, 1 in. 
 Interval, 1 in. 
 Distance, 30 ft. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 WmDAQE. 
 
 Barrel, length . 3 ft. 2J in. 
 
 „ weight . . 41b. 14 oz. 
 
 ,, diameter . '78 in. 
 
 ,, touch hole. '09 in. 
 
 Ball, brass. 
 / -j-Jths copper. 
 ( j^thfl tin. 
 
 
 
 
 **^ 
 
 
 Two Drams. 
 
 Six Drams. 
 
 
 
 SS . 
 
 s 
 
 O 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c-1 
 
 
 
 1% 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 f 
 
 n3 T3 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 r= 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 «-a 
 
 ■5 
 
 *§•!. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Drams. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1") 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■2) 
 
 
 * ) 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 2 
 
 •6 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 •3 
 
 •26 
 
 4^4 
 
 4-23 
 
 JJ J^- CO 
 -^ CO CO 
 
 3J 
 
 
 
 
 
 •3J 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 &< " cq i 
 
 1) 
 
 
 
 
 
 •5) 
 
 
 4-6^ 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 •625 
 
 •025 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 •4 
 
 •43 
 
 4^8 
 
 4-7 
 
 
 3J 
 
 
 
 
 
 •4) 
 
 
 4-8) 
 
 
 Si tK 
 
 i-\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 11-) 
 
 
 6 ) 
 
 
 g tH cq 
 
 A 
 
 •650 
 
 •025 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 1- 
 
 103 
 
 5 
 
 5- 
 
 
 3) 
 
 
 
 
 
 1- 3 
 
 
 6 / 
 
 
 
 1) 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^' ] 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 r-l <0 
 
 2[ 
 
 •675 
 
 •025 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 1^1 V 
 
 1-06 
 
 6 
 
 6^33 
 
 
 3J 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 1 
 
 
 7 3 
 
 
 ■ ■ 
 
 1") 
 
 
 
 
 
 1' ) 
 
 
 IS] 
 
 
 s s 
 
 2 ■ 
 
 •? 
 
 •025 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 1-5 I 
 
 1-4 
 
 .6-5 
 
 7-43 
 
 »0 rQ 
 
 3) 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-1) 
 
 
 8- ) 
 
 
 e<) to 
 
 1) 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^5 1 
 2- V 
 1-7 j 
 
 
 9-6 \ 
 
 
 2 
 
 •725 
 
 •025 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 1^73 
 
 9 
 
 8^83 
 
 CO i-l J;- 
 
 3J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 j 
 
 
 
 1} 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-3) 
 
 
 8 ] 
 
 
 §■ ■'§'« i 
 
 •750 
 
 •025 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 3- } 
 
 2 •76 
 
 12 ( 
 
 10 
 
 •775 
 
 •025 
 
 oz. dr. 
 1 1 
 
 2 
 
 s- 1 
 
 5'5) 
 
 4^13 
 
 10 j 
 
 Ball lost 
 at tills 
 round. 
 
 
 1 h oq CO •-' • 
 
 .si »2 g 
 fin Sh! 
 
 Totals 
 
 Memo. Ball -6- 
 
 fOfaU . . 12-80 
 
 '\ Up to -750 . 8-67 
 -10 drams powder — 6^5 boards. 
 
MUSKETKY EXPEEIMBNTS. 167. 
 
 In all these experiments there appears to be requisite a 
 certain relation of all the parts to render the result comiilete : 
 as a certain relation of space to the quantity of powder to be 
 fired. 
 
 Thus we find the two-dram charge not to afford proportional 
 results with the six drams fired from the same barrel. 
 
 The momentary impact of a column of fluid on a hemisphere 
 may be supposed only one-half the pressure on the area of the 
 great circle. The areas are as the squares of the diameters ; 
 hence the velocity communicated will be as the square of the 
 diameter. But the momentum will be as the velocity and weight 
 of the ball. The weights are as the cubes of the diameters ; 
 hence the result on the boards may be assumed as the fifth 
 power of the diameter. The friction against the barrel will be 
 more in a heavy body. 
 
 We will suppose the column of fluid from the charge to move 
 up the length of the barrel with a velocity of 6, without any 
 ball before it ; when loaded with a well-fitting ball, let the 
 velocity of the mass, ball and fluid, be reduced to 5 ; next sup- 
 pose the barrel to be fitted with a ball of only half the area : 
 the result is, supposing a perfect division in the barrel, there 
 would be two columns of fluid, one moving up the barrel 
 with a velocity of 6, and the other with a velocity of 5, 
 or less. As there is no partition between the columns, either 
 a vacuum could take place at once, or the continuity of the 
 two could only be supported by the loaded column being 
 still further reduced by the pressure of the ball against the 
 vacuum, by which its velocity would be diminished say to 4 ; 
 thence a double loss would take place from the windage, first, 
 in the portion of the ball unpressed upon by the column of 
 fluid, which would make the velocity of a reduced ball less than 
 
 * The resistance to a sphere in a discontinued fluid is half that to a cylinder of 
 the same diameter j but I can hardly agree with the application of this law to the 
 action of gunpowder impinging on solid matter in a close chamber. But the idea 
 of working out the question of the effect of windage, if fanciful, is very in- 
 genioua — ^Bditob. 
 
168 
 
 EFFECT OF DIFFERENCE OF WINDAGE. 
 
 the assumed 5 ; and, secondly, in the loss of the fluid forced into 
 the vacuum. 
 
 Hence all circumstances retarding the velocity of the ball 
 increase the loss by windage. For the second loss of fluid, 
 friction, &c., let one power of the diameter be taken, and other 
 circumstances being the same, the momentum on the boards may 
 be as the fourth power of the diameter of the ball. 
 
 T)^ : <P : : B : b. 
 
 6* : 1:* : : 4'23 : T'S Table 7-43. 
 
 „ : 7-5* : : 423 : 10-3 „ 10, and 
 
 6* : 1* : : 4-23 : -0030 
 
 >!* : 1* : : T-43 : -0031 
 
 7-5" : 1* : : 10 : "0031 
 
 for the value of "1 in diameter, supposing all other circumstances 
 in proportion. 
 
 The loss from windage varies inversely, as the velocity of the 
 ball, or the charge : directly as the friction, weight, or diameter of 
 the ball. 
 
 Thus we see that the manifest imperfections of the native 
 guns and cannon, and balls, in this respect of windage, are met 
 by very large charges of powder, and probably a denser fluid 
 from inferior powder. 
 
 If we revert to the remarks on this subject by Antoni, we 
 find, p. 124 : — "In the month of July, 1759, the Commander 
 De Vincenti, Colonel of Artillery, made the following experi- 
 ments with two 16-pounders of the same weight and length, but 
 of difierent calibres : the calibre of A was divided into 813 
 parts, and that of B into 819 of the same parts ; the guns were 
 fired horizontally, mounted on their carriages upon platforms 
 perfectly horizontal. The shot were of two kinds, and grazed on 
 an even piece of ground, about 5 ft. below the axis of the gun ; 
 the shot of the first kind had the diameter = C .divided 
 into 784 of the above mentioned parts, and weighed -J- lb. more 
 than the proper weight ; the diameter = D of the second 
 weighing ^th more, was divided into 774 of the same parts. 
 Common grained powder was used, the charge was 4 lb. 2 oz., 
 put into flannel cartridges, in order to collect it exactly in the 
 
EFFECT OF DIFFERENCE OP WINDAGE. 
 
 169 
 
 same manner at each discharge. The -wads were of junk ; two 
 gunners gave three strokes with the rammer to the one over 
 the powder, and two to that over the shot." The following table 
 shows the result : — 
 
 Length of ranges 
 Ofthegim Of the gun 
 
 With the shot of the diameter = C. < 
 
 With the shot of the diameter = D. 
 
 I 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 No. of rounds. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Tarda. 
 
 1 
 
 188 
 
 249 
 
 2 
 
 198 
 
 197f 
 
 3 
 
 196| 
 
 224| 
 
 4 
 
 198; .. 
 
 245 
 
 6 
 
 . 224^ .. 
 
 248J 
 
 6 
 
 . 197 
 
 213J 
 
 1 
 
 . 221| .. 
 
 199^ 
 
 2 
 
 . 193 
 
 213 
 
 3 
 
 226 
 
 199| 
 
 4 
 
 . 223 
 
 199 
 
 That is, with the 4 lb. 2 oz. of powder from two 16 -pounders 
 
 Diameter of bore, 
 813 
 
 Dif- 
 ference. 
 
 Diameter of bore, 
 819 
 
 Dif- 
 ference. 
 
 Diameter of 
 shot. 
 
 Windage. 
 
 Range. 
 
 Diameter of 
 shot. 
 
 Windage. 
 
 Eange. 
 
 784 
 774 
 
 29 
 39 
 
 200 
 216 
 
 + 16 
 
 784 
 
 774 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 233 
 203 
 
 -30 
 
 Windage. 
 
 Kange 
 
 29 
 
 200 
 
 36 
 
 233 
 
 39 
 
 216 
 
 45 
 
 203 
 
 Difference. 
 
 -33 
 
 beat 
 
 -17 
 
 -13 
 
 Tried according to the formula D* 
 would be : 
 
 d^ ■.:'R : r, the result 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Bange, 
 
 Loss. 
 
 Eange. 
 
 Loss. 
 
 784 
 
 774 
 
 200 
 189 
 
 11 
 
 233 
 221 
 
 12 
 
1.70 EFFECTS OF WINDAGE. 
 
 showing that this formula is not very far from the truth, even 
 
 on data nearly 100 years old. The subject in those days 
 
 appears to have been more considered with reference to the 
 
 destruction of the bores of ordnance, than with reference to the 
 
 result from the powder. 
 
 Antoni considers, that windage may be too small, and 
 
 assumes the windage 35 of the range 223 yards to be the 
 
 784 
 
 correct value : or 1 to 958 in the diameters. 
 
 819' 
 
 No doubt the friction on the bore is the cause of decreased 
 velocity, as is also windage. There will be a point where the 
 two should meet. 
 
 Captain Broome found that a 16 to the pound ball, forced from a 
 barrel nicely adjusted to a 1 7 to the pound ball, decreased the 
 eflEect. 
 
 A certain quantity of air is also necessary to the complete ex- 
 plosion of the charge ; hence I am prepared to espect, that the loss 
 from small windage is not so great as has been usually represented, 
 and seldom such as could not be made up by a shght increase of 
 charge. We notice in the experiment on this head, that with a 
 
 3 . 
 
 charge of three times ^ C, a difference of diameters in the balls of 
 
 - — has been compensated for. May not much shot and many 
 
 guns be unnecessarily condemned on this head 1 
 
 New balls were subsequently made by me of the weight of 
 one ounce, and the diameter of 7"75 ; these in two cases, — one 
 for Table 3, and one specially for this Table, — gave 
 
 Table 3 . 
 
 2 drams charge. 
 . 3-5 
 
 6 drains cliarge. 
 : 6-8 
 
 Special 
 
 . . 3-8 . 
 
 . . 6-8 
 
 75 
 showing that above the windage of ^-— there is deterioration re- 
 
 78 
 
 suiting from friction, and, perhaps, from want of air. These two 
 
 losses being superior to the gain by the non-escape of fluid. 
 
 Indeed, if to be depended upon, this result would prove the 
 
EFFECTS OP WINDAGE. l7l 
 
 friction of "025 in excess of the proper point, to be equal to "075 
 of the loss of fluid by windage, and to diminish the result in 
 
 ^~ See table D, 6-75. Now— = -961, is nearly the same 
 10 . 78 -^ 
 
 784 
 
 ratio with = '958, established above by Antoni as the best 
 
 814 •' 
 
 point of windage, or ratio between the diameter of the bore and 
 
 the diameter of the shot. 
 
 819 
 
 If Antoni's ratio of best effect is increased by or 1 "00 7, 
 
 •^ 813 
 
 the ratio of the bores of his two guns, the loss will be "85 = 
 
 233, 
 
 775 
 while if our ratio be increased by - — or 1"03, the loss is 
 
 '' 750, 
 
 ^ = -68. 
 10 
 
 This diminishing result is so very far removed from the 
 accepted theory of rifle balls and tight wads, and ramming home, 
 that a suspicion of mistake is excited. 
 
 But I think I can partly account for this decrease of effect with 
 increased diameter of ball in another manner. 
 
 By Table 2, on length of barrel, we establish, that with a 
 
 •73 "75 11 
 
 windage of -—r to -=- the barrel was too long by of result. 
 
 '^ -77 "78 15-3 
 
 Friction reduces the result by drawing back the point of best 
 effect in the bore, and thus creating superfluous length. 
 
 It is thus resolved : that at the point of best effect the 
 windage and length are in equiUbrium, and the loss from wind- 
 age = 0. 
 
 Let R = the range of the point of best effect. 
 u, = the loss by windage. 
 6 ^ the loss by increase of length. 
 
 Then if the windage is increased, R a will be the result. 
 
 But if the windage is decreased, it increases the length of the 
 barrel by friction and want of air, which creates the loss {b). 
 Hence we have E, + a - ^ for the result. 
 
172 EFFECTS OF WINDAGE. 
 
 The scale will stand 
 
 
 Katio of 
 diameters. 
 
 Difference, 
 
 Kesult. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Bemarks. 
 
 R'best effect 
 U + a — b 
 
 9-29 
 9-61 
 9-93 
 
 -0-32 
 + 0-32 
 
 8-83 
 10 
 6-8 
 
 — 3-2 
 
 Loss by idndage. 
 Loss by friction 
 
 from increased 
 
 length. 
 
 Hence if the barrels are not well proportioned to R, there may 
 be a loss by tight balls, or balls tightly set home, or, strange to 
 say, by superior powder, that is, powder of quicker ignition. 
 
 This receives strong confirmation from Antoni's experiments, 
 where 
 
 A decrease of windage of "06, gives a loss of 33. 
 An z?zcrea5e of windage of "06, gives „ 17. 
 
 Hence also it foUows that equal powders will preserve the same 
 ratios from the same piece in all charges, biit that in different 
 pieces of other proportions of length and of calibre, these ratios 
 may not continue the same. The ranges of our muskets of olden 
 days will be found longer than at present, although the powder is 
 now superior ; that is of quicker ignition. 
 
 This want of identity of proportions will account for the 
 difference found between proof-mortars, as those of Dum Dum 
 and Ishapore, and evinces that powder superior in range from a 
 shoi t mortar may be inferior for a long gun proof. 
 
EFFECT OP LENGTH OF BAEEEL. 
 
 173 
 
 TSTo. 2. 
 
 Length of Barrbi. 
 
 Boards, i in. Ball, diameter -73 in. Musket, diameter -n in. 
 
 Interval, none. „ weight 16 drs. „ weight 4-13 lbs. 
 
 Distance, 30 ft. „ length 3 ft. 2 '5 in. 
 
 Charge M. P. 2 drs. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Boards 
 pierced. 
 
 ft. in. 
 3 2-5 
 
 3 
 
 2 10 
 2 8 
 2 6 
 2 4 
 2 2 
 2 
 1 10 
 1 8 
 1 r-25 
 -95 
 
 3-6 
 
 4-5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 1-5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3-5 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-5 
 
 5 
 
 6-5 
 
 6 
 
 4.6 
 
 5 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-5 
 
 3 5 
 
 5-5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-5 
 
 2 
 
 Average. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1-85 
 
 3-5 
 
 4-5 
 
 5-5 
 
 4-6 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-33 
 
 4-33 
 
 1-66 
 
 Charge M. P. 6 drs. 
 
 Length. 
 
 ft. in. 
 3 2-5 
 
 3 
 
 2 10 
 
 2 8 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 4 
 
 2 2 
 2 
 1 10 
 1 8 
 1 7-25 
 -95 
 
 Boards 
 pierced. 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 15-5 
 
 13-5 
 
 15-5 
 
 13-5 
 
 15-5 
 
 13-5 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 13-5 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 13 
 11-5 
 11 
 
 11-5 
 4-25 
 4-5 
 5 
 
 Average. 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 11 '6 
 
 12-5 
 13-6 
 15-33 
 13-17 
 14-5 
 13-3 
 11-33 
 4-58 
 
 New boards. 
 Mnch recoil. 
 New ball. 
 Great reooU. 
 
 C Length of barrel 
 J reduced to one- 
 ( half. 
 
 ( Length of barrel 
 < reduced to one- 
 
 fourth. 
 
 The correct length of the barrel may be defined, in relation to 
 the initial velocity, that which admits the perfect evolvement of 
 till the fluid and heat, and concentrates all the explosive force on 
 
174 EFFECT OF LENGTH OF BAREEL. 
 
 the ball. The moment the explosive force remains stationary or 
 decreases, if the friction along the barrel he greater than the resist- 
 ance from the external air, then it is letter the hall should leave the 
 barrel; and any increase of length, as regards initial velocity, is 
 disadvantageous. 
 
 Benefit, of course, may be derived from forcing the ball into a 
 higher curve, and thus increasing its range. 
 
 As the explosion of the charge is progressive, it would warrant 
 the assumption that the length of the barrel depends on the 
 size of the charge, combined with the degree of inflammabihty of 
 the powder. 
 
 It may be that the fluid from a certain quantity of powder will 
 drive before it both ball and the remaining powder ; and that an 
 increase of effect may result from the evolvement of fluid in 
 transit, — the first being a fixed amount, and the second depend- 
 ing on the length of the charge. 
 
 We may notice, in the Table, that the results gradually increase 
 both in the 2 and 6-dram charges until reaching the point of 
 2 ft. 2 in., which appears to give the greatest result, whence both 
 are progressively retrograde ; marking 2 ft. 2 in. as the best length 
 under all the circumstances recorded. There exists also an 
 appearance of equilibrium in this length, for the results being as 
 the charge is a proof of the correctness and of the absence of 
 disturbance. 
 
 5-5x3= 16-5. Table 16-33 
 
 If the disadvantage of superfluous length be as the friction, it 
 will clearly be as the time of its continuance, and hence be 
 measured by the length of tube ; and if the disadvantages of 
 shortness lie in the non complete concentration of the fluid, this 
 is a want of time measurable by the length of the barrel. 
 
 If we convert the lengths into decimals, when the charges are 
 the same, the loss by the increased length from friction or by 
 diminished length from want of concentration will be found as 
 the length. 
 
 For, under friction, 
 
 2-16 : 3-16 : : 4 : 58 
 :: 11 : 16 
 
EFFECT OF LENGTH OF BARREL. 
 
 175 
 
 and for want of concentration, 
 
 
 1-6 : 216 :: 4-33 
 
 : 5-8 
 
 „ : : 11-33 
 
 : 15-29 
 
 nearly the quantities in the Table. 
 
 
 When the length is the same, 
 
 
 1-66 : 4-58 : : 1 
 
 2-7 
 
 4-33 : 11-33 :: 1 
 
 2-7 
 
 5-5 : 15-33 : : 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 : 11 : • 1 
 
 2-75 
 
 which are nearly the ratios of the charge — 
 
 It may be remarked in Table No. 5, on the increase of charge, 
 that it was requisite to increase the charge of 6 drams to 8 
 drams for the purpose of raising the result from 11 boards to 15 
 boards ; hence -§■ of the charge is lost in compensating for the 
 extra length between 3 ft. 2 in. and 2 ft. 2 in. 
 
 From the totals it would appear that 1 ft. of the fluid from the 
 2 drams was equal to 1-57 boards ; but to 5-34 from the 6-dram 
 charge. 
 
 A column of a certain base and height is converted into fluid 
 in a certain time or space. This point being settled, any varia- 
 tion in the result will be as the variation in the space. The space 
 may have a relation to the base of the column, hence the length 
 
 2-16 
 divided by the diameter may be a good measure, so that — -^ wiU 
 
 - indicate 28 calibres as a correct length. The space may be that 
 required to form the highest density of the fluid from the powder. 
 For Bengal powder 2 ft. 2 in. appears the best length with 6 
 drams on a base of -77. 
 
 Hence wads, tight balls, ramming home, &c., which increase 
 the time, wiU in a certain degree improve a musket's range, if 
 shorter than the correct length, but depreciate the result from 
 one of the proper length, or from one longer than required. 
 
 Long barrels are best calculated for slowly igniting powder ; 
 hence the long native matchlock of India, and the short rifle of 
 England are suited to the difi'erent quaUties of their powders. 
 
 If we turn to Antoni on this subject, at page 83, he remarks : 
 " To obtain the initial velocities, four muskets of different lengths 
 
176 
 
 EFFECT OP LENGTH OP BAEEEL. 
 
 carrying a 1-oz. ball, were fired with 7 drams of fine war powder, 
 under a mean state of the atmosphere : — " 
 
 Lengtli of barrel from the 
 ball to the muzzle, 
 ft. in. 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 Initial velocities. 
 
 Feet in a second. 
 
 1037 
 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 
 
 1390 
 
 
 3 8 
 
 
 
 
 1736 
 
 That is 
 
 1 
 
 4 8 
 
 Length of 
 2 : 
 
 B. 
 : 1 
 
 Eange. 
 1-3 
 
 
 
 1815 
 
 1 
 
 2 : 
 
 : 1 
 
 1-25 
 
 
 
 
 "S; 
 
 2 : 
 1-3: 
 
 : 1 
 : 1 
 
 1-6 1 
 1-04) 
 
 Obtained from the next proportion of 
 3ft. 8 in. to 4ft. Sin. and ^^^^ 
 
 Take the 
 
 1 
 
 avera 
 
 2 : 
 
 ge 
 
 : 1 
 
 1-38 
 
 
 
 
 Our table gives 
 
 (1 : 1-47 : : 1 : 1-4) 
 °Ml : 2 :: 1 : 1-9 j 
 
 The result of increase from 2 ft. 2 in. 
 to 3 ft. 2-5 in. 
 
 Starting from the length 2'16 ft. as the point of best effect 
 for 6 drams of Bengal powder, and from 4-66 as the best point 
 for 7 drams of Antoni's powder, we have 1"9 in result for the 
 ratio of an increase of 2*2 in length to the Bengal, whUe a cor- 
 responding increase will only give to Antoni's 1'6 in result. 
 
 Again if 
 
 drs. Initial Telocity. 
 7 : 1815 : : 
 
 Length. 
 7 : 4-66 : : 
 Length and result, 
 
 2 : 1-38 : 
 
 drs. 
 6 
 
 1558 
 
 ; 6 : 3-98 = 3 ft. 11 in. 
 
 Length for 6 drs. 
 
 ^ = -85 X 1815 = 1542, for the initial Telocity of 
 4-66 length for 7 drs. 
 6 drams, according to Antoni's Table. 
 
 It appears 1542 ft. of initial velocity of Antoni is measured by 
 15 '3 3 boards one inch thick ; or each board is equal to 100 feet. 
 
 In fact, it takes a column of fluid of a certain measurement to 
 give a certain result ; if you reduce this column, you reduce the 
 result. 
 
 What would result from increasing the length of 9*5 in. three 
 times ? 
 
 Boards. 
 2 : 1-9 : : 3 : 285 = 4-58 x 2-85 = 13 
 9-5 X 3 = 28-5 = 2 ft. 4 -5 in. The Table gives 13-6 at this length. 
 
LENGTH OP BAEEEL. 
 
 177 
 
 The result varies as tlie length x by the charge ; hence the 
 result at 2 drams, with length 2 ft. 4 in., should equal the result 
 at 6 drams, with length ft. 9-5 in., which it does. (See Table.) 
 
 At Dum Dum experience proved that a charge well adjusted 
 to a short carbine, gave nearly equal results in a long carbine, and 
 that 2^ drams with the long carbine gave better results than a 
 larger charge. 
 
 •This length of barrel causes the remarks we so often hear, that 
 such a maker's powder is "very hard hitting." A sportsman 
 with a short barrel, previously using a slowly igniting powder, 
 finds a great improvement in a more quickly inflaming powder, 
 and hence his remark. 
 
 The diagram below exhibits a measure of the explosive force 
 of the powder at each point of the length of the barrel. 
 
 LENQIB Of BABBEL. 
 
 We usually find that inferior fowling pieces burst some way up 
 the barrel ; where the increasing force of the powder meets the 
 diminished thickness of metal.* 
 
 The figure also points out the position for any reinforces to the 
 metal. 
 
 I should have wished a trial to have been made under progres- 
 sive decrease to the thickness of the metal of the barrel, but it 
 could not be managed. 
 
 * I cannot agree witli these theories ; the force would be much greater at first, 
 and the calculations of power exerted would be different in any calculation of this 
 kind, with varied qualities of powder and size of grain. The resistance the com- 
 pressed column of air meets with from any trifling circumstance in the bore of a 
 barrel, a little snow, paper, even a feather, might cause the barrel to burst near the 
 muzzle. — ^Bdiiok. 
 
178 
 
 TOUCH HOLE OR VENT. 
 
 No. 3. 
 Touch Ho£b oe Veni. 
 Boards, 1 in. Ball, diameter . -775 Barrel, diameter •'78 
 
 Interval, 1 in. ,, weight . 16 drams. ,, weight . 4'14 lb. 
 
 Distance, 30 ft. „ length. 3 ft. 2 J in. 
 
 Charge, M. Powder, two drams. 
 
 Charg 
 
 e, M. Powder, six drams. 
 
 Touch hole. 
 Bianieter, 
 
 Boards. 
 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Touch hole. 
 Diameter. 
 
 Boards. 
 
 4 
 
 Bemarks. 
 
 
 (3 ) 
 
 
 
 
 (6-5\ 
 
 
 
 •09 
 
 4^25 
 (3^25) 
 
 3-5 
 
 
 •09 
 
 1;! 
 
 6-8 
 
 
 •1 
 
 3^5 ) 
 
 3'66 
 
 
 •1 
 
 
 7^33 
 
 
 •12 
 
 1 3 
 (3 ) 
 
 2^75) 
 
 31 
 
 
 •12 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 •14 
 
 3-5 } 
 (3 ) 
 
 3^8 
 
 
 •14 
 
 IH 
 
 7-33 
 
 
 •16 
 
 (2-75) 
 
 
 
 •16 
 
 (^ ) 
 
 
 
 •18 
 
 2-75 
 (3 ) 
 
 l2-'75) 
 
 2^83 
 
 
 •18 
 
 (6-5) 
 8^3) 
 
 6-8 
 
 
 •2 
 
 \l 1 
 
 (2 ) 
 
 2-9 
 
 
 •2 
 
 8-3 
 (8-3) 
 
 (7-5) 
 
 8^3 
 
 New boards. 
 
 •22 
 
 (2-5 
 
 (2 ) 
 
 2-16 
 
 ("Much unburnt 
 
 •22 
 
 
 7-66 
 
 
 •24 
 
 1^ } 
 
 (1^5 ) 
 
 2 
 
 J powder ejected 
 ] at the touch 
 L hole. 
 
 •24 
 
 7-5 
 (8 ) 
 (8 ) 
 
 7^58 
 
 New ball. 
 
 •26 
 
 1^5 
 
 (2-2 j 
 
 (2 ) 
 
 1^66 
 
 
 •26 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 •28 
 
 2 
 (2 ) 
 
 (1 ) 
 
 2 
 
 
 •28 
 
 
 7-33 
 
 
 •3 
 
 k\ 
 
 1^33 
 
 
 ■3 
 
 hi 
 
 6 
 
 
 •34 
 
 ■75 
 
 •91 
 
 
 ■34 
 
 ' 6 ) 
 
 5-S 
 
 j Muchimbaint 
 ( powder eject- 
 1 ed with force. 
 
 •39 
 
 I 3'3 ) 
 
 2 
 •75 
 
 1^03 
 
 
 •39 
 
 !L! 
 
 3-8 
 
 / Touch hole 
 I being f the 
 1 diameter of 
 ' the bore. 
 
SIZE OF VENT. 179 
 
 Average. Average. 
 
 From •! = 3-66 -2 = 8-3 
 
 •39= 1-03 -39 =3-8 
 
 oa o CQ / per •! of touch-hole, 4 '5 per 1 touch-] 
 
 •^9 _ 2 -63 j .g ^^^^^^^ 2 -4 boards. 
 
 Medium. Medium. 
 
 From-1 3-66 -2 8-3 
 
 •39 1-03 -39 3-8 
 
 2)-49 4^69 2)-59 12-1. 
 
 ( boards. Table a1 
 I ^24 = 2 boards 
 
 o^K „ o^ flaoards. Table at -295 6 Table at "3 = 6 boards. 
 
 We remark in both charges, 2 drams and 6 drams, that con- 
 trary to expectation, the effect increases with the size of the 
 touch-hole up to a point, and then commences to decrease. That 
 in the 2-dram charge •! gives a greater result than '09 ; that 
 in the 6-dram charge the effect increases up to % and then re- 
 trogrades, proving that a column of air may be necessary to the full 
 development of the fluid, and that this column has a relation to 
 the size of the charge, 2 drams requiring •! and 6 drams "2 of 
 touch hole. 
 
 This fact receives confirmation from the experiments recorded 
 in Antoni (p. 46), as follows :— 
 
 " We will conclude this chapter by showing experimentally how 
 much the difference in the size of the vent affects the force of 
 the shot. A musket was taken j^ of an inch in diameter, and 
 33 in. in length of barrel. The axis of the large screw which 
 closes the breech was perforated with a hole j^ of an inch in 
 diameter, to which three screws were successively applied ; the 
 first exactly closing the opening, and consequently forced all the 
 fired powder to pass through the muzzle ; the second had in its 
 axis a hole or vent ^q of an inch in diameter, through which a 
 part of the fluid might escape ; and the third had a vent of j^ 
 of an inch in diameter. The musket thus prepared was loaded 
 each time with 10 drams of fine powder, put into cartridges, 
 and with an iron ball 1 J oz. in weight ; the wads were rammed 
 down with equal force by the same man. 
 
 " The experiment began by firing the musket with the screw 
 ^0 in. diameter ; afterwards with that of -^^ ; and at length 
 without any vent in the screw. 
 
 N 2 
 
180 SIZE OF VENT. 
 
 " The medium of the penetration of the balls in 24 rounds is 
 as follows : — 
 
 'With, the vent entirely closed. . . .6 inches. 
 
 _ ,. , I ,, Jtt of an in. in diameter . 8 
 
 In discharges ^ ' " 
 
 H 
 
 s_ . 4 
 
 " It results from this experiment that, "whfen there is no vent, 
 less powder is fired, and that which does take fire burns more 
 slowly. If the large vent be left open, and a sheet of paper 
 stretched at 2 ft. from it, the paper will be pierced full of holes 
 by the powder forced through the vent at the explosion. Soldiers 
 firing in line are often pricked in the face by grains of powder 
 driven with force from the muskets on their left ; the common 
 opinion that these grains are a part of the priming is erroneous." 
 
 When the vent was nothing, 0, the result was 6 ; when the vent 
 was •!, the result was 8 ; nor are Antoni's results on the increase 
 from "1 to "2 very different from those of the Table. 
 
 8 : 6-3 : : 3-6 : 2-8 Table gives at •2 — 2-9 boards for 2 drams. 
 8:6-3:: 73 : 6-? „ „ 8 -3 boards for 6 drams. 
 
 but all the circumstances were not similar. 
 
 The whole extract is confirmed in the present experiment. 
 
 Again we may remark, that the ejection of unburnt grains is 
 noted at "24 with 2 drams, but not until -34 with 6 drams. 
 
 The loss appears to be directly as the diameter of the touch- 
 hole. A similar opening for fluid in the form of windage of one-half 
 the diameter of the ball would reduce the effect to "6, in place of 
 to 3-8. 
 
 The result is, that up to "3 of an inch the size of the touch- 
 hole is of no material value in the point of effect. 
 
 No doubt much inconvenience would be felt when firing from 
 closed ranks and files with very large touch-holes. 
 
 We may note also the little real value of a point on which 
 much stress is placed as a matter of theory ; and that the enlarged 
 touch-hole of a native musket used by men not in rank and file 
 is of less real importance than it is usually considered to be by 
 
SIZE OF VENT. 181 
 
 European writers. A bad powder, to be well ignited, may re- 
 quire the air from a large touch-hole. 
 
 Perhaps many muskets and guns are unnecessarily condemned 
 on the account of enlargement of the vent. 
 
 If we take -2 for the most advantageous vent for 6 drams, 
 and "l for 2 drams, then if these be in equilibrium, the result 
 should be as the charge. 
 
 =: 2 "3 for the result. 
 
 3-6 
 
 3 2 
 
 — = 3 for the charge, and —for the diameter of the vent. 
 
 A very small portion of the fluid can escape directly from the 
 touch-hole, as the bulk of the fluid is soon carried up the bore. 
 Increased calibre would probably augment the loss on this head, 
 for the column of fluid pressing on the touch-hole would be as 
 the diameter of the bore, 
 
 I can understand that the size of the touch-hole may alter 
 materially the point of concentration of the fluid ; first, by the 
 removal of the resistance in the rear ; secondly, by the lateral 
 escape of the fluid, and also by a greater or lesser admission of 
 oxygen.* 
 
 This point of concentration will be where the maximum of 
 heated fluid overtakes the rest of the powder, propelling before it 
 the ball. 
 
 Alterations in the touch-hole may counteract other varia- 
 tions : as, for instance, a small opening may delay the com- 
 plete ignition, and thus remedy the loss experienced by too 
 great a length of barrel. Change in any one of the principles 
 of construction may require corresponding alterations in all 
 other parts. 
 
 * The inconveBience of the escape from the rent laterally is now avoided by 
 the vent being placed vertically, as ia the percussion fire-arms. I am also rather 
 inclined to attribute the better ignition of the powder, with a large vent, to the 
 great movement amongst the grains which a more rapid escape of the fluid by the 
 vent may allow, and thus more perfect inflammation, as I cannot imagine any air 
 can enter against the opposing current of the expanding fluid of the gas from the 
 inflamed powder. — Editok. 
 
182 
 
 DISTANCE. 
 
 Boards, 1 in. 
 
 ,, interval, none. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Distance. 
 
 Ball, weigM, 1 oz. 
 ,, diameter, •733. 
 
 Barrels, length, 3 ft. 2^ in. and 
 1ft. 7'25in. ; diameter, -77. 
 
 Distance. 
 
 Long Barrel. 
 
 Short Barrel. 
 
 r 
 
 6 drams. 
 
 2 drams. 
 
 6 drams. 
 
 2 drams. 
 
 
 Ave- 
 rage. 
 
 
 Ave- 
 rage. 
 
 . 
 
 Ave- 
 rage. 
 
 
 Aye- 
 rage. 
 
 . . 
 30 ft. . 
 
 60 ft. . 
 120 ft. 
 240 ft. 
 
 ix } 
 
 til 
 
 1. 6 -25 J 
 
 8'41 
 
 8- 
 
 8-16 
 
 6-41 
 
 3-75 
 
 i 2-75 i 
 I 3-75 j 
 
 I 3-5 J 
 r2-25^ 
 
 <( 2'25 y 
 
 l^2-25j 
 1-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 3-66 
 
 2-25 
 
 2-16 
 
 1-5 
 
 t 8-25J 
 
 {!B 
 
 t6-25j 
 
 (ii) 
 
 <( 3-25 y 
 
 I 2-75 j 
 
 7-5 
 
 5-9 
 
 5-75 
 
 4-13 
 
 2-83 
 
 m 
 
 <^ 2-75 } 
 I 2-75 j 
 
 2-8 
 3-16 
 
 2-75 
 
 2-5 
 
 5-5 
 
 3 -75 
 2-5 
 •75 
 
 Distance, — 
 
 
 Distance, 240 ft. — 
 
 
 From stand 
 
 8-41 
 
 From stand 
 
 3-75 
 
 Shoulder of sergeant 
 
 6-5 
 
 Shoulder of sergeant 
 
 . 3-25 
 
 Distance. 
 
 Whatever may previously be the case, at the moment of leaving 
 the barrel, the momentum may be considered as generated by a 
 single impulse ; hence, m — bV. In the effect on the boards, 
 we have a measure of m ; as 3 is constant, 7n will be a 
 measure of V. 
 
 If we take the effect on the boards as the value on the velocity 
 remaining in the ball after passing over any distance, when the 
 distance is 0, the result is the measure of the total velocity of 
 which the ball is susceptible, i. e., the initial velocity. 
 
 In the differences between the results of any two distances, 
 we have a measure of the velocity lost by the resistance of the 
 air, gravity or other causes operating during the flight — 
 
RESISTANCE. 
 
 183 
 
 m of = V. 
 
 m 240 feet = w .-. V — u is the measure of the resistance of 
 the air of 240 feet in the trajectory of the ball. 
 
 Distance. 
 
 6 drams Long Barrel. 
 
 2 drams Long Barrel. 
 
 Boards. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Boards. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 8-41 
 
 
 
 3-50 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 6-41 
 
 2- 
 
 
 2-16 
 
 1-34 
 
 
 240 
 
 3-n 
 
 2-66 
 
 4-66 
 
 1-5 
 
 ■66 
 
 
 Where R, the resistance, is measured by 2 for 120 feet, by 2'66, 
 for the second 120 feet, and by 4-66 for the whole distance, with 
 6-dram charge. 
 
 If E. is as V (according to some authors V^.) 
 
 Y :v::n:r -y- 
 
 8-41 : 6-41 : : 2 : 1-5. The table gives 2-66 for 120 x 2. 
 
 If a table for an increase of 240 feet were completed on the 
 
 „ , vR . ,, - 
 
 lormula -^ = », it would run thus : 
 
 Distance. 
 
 6 drams Long Barrel. 
 
 2 drams Long Barrel. 
 
 Boards. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Boards. 
 
 Diffei-ence. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8-41 
 
 
 
 3-5 
 
 
 
 240 
 
 3-75 
 
 4-66 
 
 
 1-5 
 
 ■2 
 
 
 480 
 
 1-68 
 
 2-07 
 
 6-73 
 
 •65 
 
 •85 
 
 2-85 
 
 960 
 
 •38 
 
 1-3 
 
 8-03 
 
 •2 
 
 •45 
 
 3^3 
 
 Distance. 
 
 6 drams Short Barrel. 
 
 2 drams Short Barrel. 
 
 Boards. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Boards. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 
 240 
 
 480 
 
 960 
 
 2-83 
 1-13 
 
 •28 
 
 4-67 
 1-7 
 •85 
 
 6-37 
 
 7-22 
 
 2-81 
 1'75 
 
 1-05 
 
 
184 RESISTANCE. 
 
 If we compare the resistance under different lengths, but the 
 
 same charge — 
 
 8-41 : 7-5 : : 4-66 : 4-1. Table, 4-67 
 3-5 : 2-8 : : 2 : 1-4. Table, not given 
 
 it will be as the ratio for the lengths of barrel, which by Table 2 
 
 4 
 under the respective length is j:^ or nearly 1. 
 
 If under the same lengths but different charges — 
 
 8-41 
 
 3-5 
 
 : : 4-66 : 1-9. Table 3 
 : : 1-68 : -68 „ -65 
 : : 8-03 : 3-3 „ 3-3 
 
 The resistance will be nearly as the charge. 
 
 If we reduce the values of r of each of the experiments to the 
 
 values they would afford had they started from the initial velocity 
 
 of the long barrel and 6 drams — 
 
 Yr 
 V : Y :: r : R = — , we have for 240 feet 
 
 V 
 
 6 dram long barrel 
 
 4-66 
 
 2 „ ), 
 
 4-80 
 
 6 „ short barrel 
 
 5-2 
 
 3) 14-66 =4-88 
 for the value of the resistance to a ball of "775 diameter impelled 
 from a musket with 6 drams of powder, giving an initial velocity 
 of 8'41 planks, during a progress of 240 feet. 
 For 120 feet we have — 
 
 Long barrel . . j 
 Short barrel . . | 
 
 6 drams . . .2 
 
 2 drams . . .3-2 
 
 6 drams . . .3 
 
 2 drams . . .3-7 
 
 4) 11-9 = 2-9 as R for 120 feet. 
 
 4-88 . o • r 240 ^ 
 
 nTq = 1'8, ratio of resistance for Yon f^^^j or. double, = 2- 
 
 4-88 - 2'9 = 1-98 „ the second 120 feet. 
 
 2-9 
 
 — -, ratio of resistance between 1st and 2nd space of 120 feet 
 
 /240 
 
EBSISTANCE. 185 
 
 Hence the resistance is as the velocity impressed ; and as the 
 square root nearly of the distance. 
 
 If we turn to the results with a ball of reduced diameter, and 
 
 in the same mode calculate R = for the ball of "55 diameter, 
 
 V 
 
 For 120 feet we have R = 4-59, and for 240 feet R = 7-26, 
 
 4-59 
 compared with R of the ball ■7-75 diameters, we have-HTq- = 1"5, 
 
 7-26 
 and tjqo =1-4 for the respective distances. 
 
 D "775 
 Now -^, or -^ = 1-3, or R is inversely as the diameter of the 
 
 ball. The resistance will be as the surface of the ball, that is, d^, 
 
 and inversely as its weight, that is, as rf^ Hence, R is as jj =-7 
 
 4-88 X -775 
 2-9 X -775 = 3-7 5 = 'S-S the resistance on a ball of 
 
 "0 
 
 •6 diameter for the above distances of 120 and 240 feet. 
 
 This supposes the initial velocity equal in both cases, but re- 
 
 5"5 
 duced to the state of actual velocities, we have 3'7 x— — - = 2'4. 
 
 o'41 
 
 Table 3. -.V-w of diameter -55 = 5-5 -2-5 = 3 for 120 feet, 6-3 x 
 —-^ = 4-15. Table gives 475 ; 5-5 - -75 = 4-75 for 240 feet. 
 
 Hence the resistance varies directly as the initial velocity, and 
 inversely as the diameter of the ball and the square root of the 
 distance. 
 
 5"5 "775 
 
 V = gT^j = -65 D - -:g- = 1-3 X -65 = -845 x 4-66 R of 
 
 240 ft. = 3-932 = to resistance of 240 to ball -6 diameter. 
 2-9 X -845. = 2-4. Table gives 3 = R, for ball "6 at 120 ft. 
 2-4 X V 2 = 1-41= 3-36. Table gives 4-75, for ball -6 at 240 ft. 
 The result shown in the table in next page, increases in a ratio 
 almost equal to the ratio of the increase of charge ; in small quan- 
 tities the increase is a shade greater than in the larger. Eight 
 drams gives the highest effect, with the given length of the 
 
 musket : at which point the result is nearly that of the average up 
 
 . 72-5 , 15-3 
 
 to itself — -q^ = 2 result = —5 — = 1'91 charge. 
 
186 
 
 mCEEASE OF CHARGE. 
 
 From eight drams the effect slightly decreases. As a general 
 rule, we may predicate that all circumstances being in equilibrium, 
 the result is nearly as the charge -within a regulated maximum. 
 
 No. 5. 
 Increase of Ohaegb. 
 Boards, ^ in. Ball, brass. Musket barrel, length, 3 ft. 2j in. 
 
 ,, close together. „ diameter, ■'IS, ,, weight, 4 lbs. 13 oz. 
 
 „ distance, 30 ft. ,, weight, 1 oz. ,, diam. of bore, '7'7 ia. 
 
 Charge. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Boards. 
 Pierced. 
 
 ATerage. 
 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Drams. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 {1} 
 
 1-66 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 IE} 
 
 4- 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 6-6 
 
 
 4* 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 (i) 
 
 9-6 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 (ii) 
 
 9-5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 11- 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 {1} 
 
 13-3 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 15-3 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 14-5 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 (1} 
 
 14- 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 Totals. 
 
 
 101- 
 
 ^=- ■ 
 
 
 36 / 
 
 Totals to 
 8 drams. 
 
 
 72'5 
 
 r- 
 
 
 The following experiments, bearing on the subject of charge, 
 prove how useless is any excess of powder above a certain point. 
 
INCREASE OF CHARGE. 
 
 187 
 
 The boards in this differ from the previous experiment on 
 charge in t^q, reducing the 14 boards to 8 '6 for 10 drams. 
 This result does not greatly vary from the 8 with 13 drams 
 under different ball, barrel, and powder. The strange point is, 
 that 40 drams did not burst the barrel. When destroying the 
 useless arms at Kundahar, I found that three balled cartridges, 
 when placed one over another, burst the barrels with facility. 
 
 Boards, 1 in. Ball, brass. 
 
 ,, interval between each, 1 in. „ diameter, •'75. 
 
 „ distance, 30 ft. ,, weight, 1 oz. 2 drs. 
 
 Musket barrel, length, 3 ft. 2l in. 
 ,, weight, 4 lb. 13 oz. 
 
 ,, diameter of bore, -TS. 
 
 Charge. - 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Boar 
 
 Is. Average. 
 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Drams. 
 12 
 
 
 
 (i: 
 
 }^- 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 2. 
 
 (i; 
 
 V 9-33 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 I 10 
 
 > 10-33 
 
 
 
 18 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 I 10 
 
 ( 11 
 rii 
 
 
 
 Reports very loud ; 
 recoil on the hold- 
 ing frame very 
 heavy. Towards 
 the muzzle the 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 k 
 
 V 11-33 
 
 
 metal became so 
 hot as to be hardly 
 touchable by the 
 hand. 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 (li 
 
 :}- 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 4 
 
 •■ 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 (i; 
 
 • V 10-16 
 
 • 
 
 
 
188 
 
 SIZE OF GBAIN. 
 
 No. 6. — Size of Gkain. 
 Boards, 1 in. ; no interval between them. Ball, diameter "75 ; weight. 
 Musket Barrel, length 3 ft. 27 in. ; bore, '78 ; touch-hole, -09 ; 
 charge of powder, 6 drams. 
 
 1 oz. 
 
 total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 oi 
 
 fc. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 1? rtii Ti /I a 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Boards pierced 
 
 Ave- 
 
 Eemarke. 
 
 jLLUUUUB* 
 
 § 
 
 
 1 
 
 c5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 ty the shot. 
 
 rage. 
 
 B 
 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 ft 
 
 o 
 E-l 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 r } 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 6- 
 
 3-08 
 
 
 3 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 ( 4 '25 ) 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 I 4-50 V 
 
 4-41 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [ 4'50 j 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 • . . 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ( 4-60 ) 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 { 4-60 Y 
 
 4-50 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 • • . 
 
 ... 
 
 
 > . . 
 
 { 4-50 j 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 ( 5-50 ) 
 { 5-50 V 
 ( 5-25 j 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6-41 
 
 4-77 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (■ 5 '25 ] 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 { 5-25 > 
 
 5-25 
 
 4-9 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • •* 
 
 ( 6-25 J 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 • . ■ 
 
 . .. 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 f 4- ) 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 • 1 • 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 6-5 f 
 
 5-16 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 6- j 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 • . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 6-25 ) 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 6 
 
 { 6-75 [ 
 
 6-8 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 ( 7-50 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 . . • 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 • . • 
 
 r 8-75 ) 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 6 
 
 { 6-50 > 
 
 7-16 
 
 6-21 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 
 
 { 6-25 ) 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 7-60 ) 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 t . . 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 <^ 7-25 \ 
 
 7-5 
 
 6'56 
 
 3 
 
 • • • 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 { 7-75 J 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1" 
 
 i 7-26 3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 6 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 7-27 
 
 
 3 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 • . . 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 ( 6-25 ") 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 6-25 > 
 
 6-33 
 
 5-34 
 
 3 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 ... 
 
 
 i 6-5 ) 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 f 7-25 ) 
 \ 5-75 [ 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 6 '83 
 
 5-82 
 
 3 
 
 . • . 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 7-50 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 1 ^'5 ) 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 X 5-75 \ 
 
 5-91 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 . > . 
 
 
 
 
 
 [ 5'5 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 • > • 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 r 9- ) 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 • • . 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 7- f 
 
 7-66 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 1 7-5 3 
 
 
 
 Note. — A line of coarse cloth was laid on the ground to the boards, and a thin 
 curtain suspended perpendicularly to intercept grains unbumt. The result was, 
 that with Kunkur nearly half a dram was ejected unbumt, and with the 
 Ordnance many grains were observed. \^th the dust the report was very heavy. 
 
SIZE 0¥ GRAIN. 
 
 189 
 
 Description of Charge. 
 
 Powder as taken up from the 
 coming sieve ; tlie Kunkur 
 extracted and the dust sifted, 
 but the powder was not glazed 
 or much dried. 
 
 Long Barrel, 
 3 ft. 2-5 in. 
 
 Short Barrel, 
 9 '5 in. 
 
 Charge, 6 drams. 
 
 I275J 
 
 Charge, 2 drams. 
 
 pre-) 
 |o.,.|o 
 
 83 
 
 In Table 2 we have these lengths of barrel with pure mus- 
 ketry-powder, The results of which, reduced by -^j will give 
 
 fi^2^ 2^75~ 2^ ^ being all in favour of this mixture, and 
 against pure unmixed musketry grain. 
 
 Size of Grain. 
 
 Thus with unmixed powder the result appears to be, in some 
 ratio, inversely as the size of the grain rising progressively from 
 Kunkur to dust. 
 
 Of the mixtures that yield the best result in which the smallest 
 grains predominate. 
 
 That the total result is not the simple aggregation of the shares 
 of the compound {vide Column B), but that something is gained 
 by mixture. 
 
 The order appears to be — 
 
 • Eifle and Musketry. 
 Rifle and Ordnance. 
 Musketry and Ordnance. 
 
 When the composition, as in a fuze, is compact, the fire 
 destroys the surface, creates the fluid, and expands it by the 
 heat. Thus, in one inch, a certain quantity of fluid would be 
 generated and raised to a certain temperature. Supposing no 
 heat to escape in the burning of the second inch, more fluid 
 would be created, but whether the heat of the total fluid of the 
 two inches would be raised to a higher point is questionable. 
 
190 • SIZE OF GEAIN. 
 
 But heat must escape into the surrounding medium, hence it 
 is probable that the heat evolved in the second inch would not 
 increase the temperature of the fluid of the two inches. 
 
 As the fire and fluid are unable to penetrate beyond the surface 
 of the compact composition, the elasticity of the earlier portions of 
 the fluid may be weakened or destroyed ere the whole is evolved. 
 
 In the charge of powder, the compactness is as the size of 
 the grains. Between the grains are interstices by which both 
 the fire and the fluid can penetrate. 
 
 The fire will therefore advance and inflame a second layer 
 of grains ere the first are quite consumed. While some are 
 expiring others will be commencing to inflame in the propor- 
 tion of the density of the cake and the facihty of the fire 
 passing through the interstices of the grains. This ratio will be 
 determined by the diameter of the sphere of fire. 
 
 The heated fluid, more subtle than the fire, will expand, carry- 
 ing with it burnt and unburnt grains ; but as the space enlarges, 
 the fire will be less powerful, the distance between the grains will 
 become longer, the supply of oxygen will become less, until reach- 
 ing a point where the fire will be unable to touch and inflame the 
 grains in advance. These with the fluid will be carried on and 
 expelled unburnt from the barrel. 
 
 It takes a longer time to inflame the surface of a large than 
 of a small grain. Large grains evolve the fluid slower, circxilate 
 the fire with less rapidity ; hence more grains are expelled unburnt, 
 or are only burnt in the flame and fire issuing in a mass after the 
 ball has left the barrel ; these add not to the velocity of the ball. 
 
 The object appears to be, a size of grain that shall continue to 
 burn, evolve fluid, and raise the heat, as long as the flame takes 
 to penetrate the entire mass, and that the elastic fluid should be 
 kept rather behind than in advance of the flame, so as not to 
 force any grains beyond the reach of the fire ; this will constitute 
 the sphere of fire. 
 
 A certain depth of charge to a certain length. 
 
 Large grains burn slower and create more heat, while small 
 ones, lying in the interstices, better conduct the flame as a train. 
 
EFFECTS OF PEBSSURB. 
 
 191 
 
 These experiments show the desired effect to be best obtained by 
 musketry as the base ; and rifle as the train. 
 
 A large evolYement of heated fluid, with a rapid passage to the 
 flame, are points to be justly apportioned. 
 
 The Table exhibits the following ratios : — 
 
 m ^ o o ^ _ , , 4-41 
 
 - = -70 - = -85 : : - "70 x -85 = -595, Table -606 = ■=-^ 
 r m r ' 7"27. 
 
 A mixture of a smaller kind of grain appears decidedly to 
 improve the result from a larger grain. I think the Ishapore 
 powder is too regular, and that it will be found that almost all 
 other powders, English, Continental, Madras, Bombay, and Indian 
 contain a mixture of small with larger grain. 
 
 The higher the cake is pressed, the smaller should be the grain. 
 
 The use of the percussion caps has caused a reduction in the 
 amount of charge ; the percussion composition is more powerful, 
 the inflammation of the charge is quicker, and the fire of the 
 percussion powder is thrown into the charge. 
 
 I believe with percussion caps, a larger grained powder may be 
 used with advantage. And I think that one properly proportioned 
 mixture of powder would answer for all purposes, and save expense. 
 
 Column B contains the result by composition of the effects of 
 the unmixed grains. A dram of musketry powder of Ishapore 
 manufactory contains about 3000, and of common ordnance 
 powder 1200, separate grains. 
 
 The Effect of Pebssukb, ob Placing additional Weight before the Ball. 
 
 Boards, 1 in. 
 
 „ interval, 0. 
 
 Ball, diameter, "74. 
 ,, weight, 16 drs. 
 
 Barrel, length of long, 3 ft. 2 '5 in. 
 „ length of short, 9 '6 in. 
 
 Long Barrel . 
 Short Barrel 
 
 Charge of 6 drams. 
 
 i drams of Sand between 
 Powder and Ball. 
 
 6 drams of Sand between 
 Powder and Ball, set as usual. 
 
 Boards. 
 
 { H ) 
 
 Average. 
 6-16 
 
 2-93 
 
 Boards. 
 
 ( r } 
 { i^ } 
 
 Average. 
 7-25 
 
 3-83 
 
192 
 
 EFFECTS OF PEESSITEB. 
 
 The previous experience of the barrel of 9-5 in. is in Table 2 B 
 reduced to D, the result is •4-58 x •4-32 = 1-97. Hence, -with 
 the short barrel, by 4 drams of sand placed before the ball, the 
 result is increased from •1-97 to •2-83 = •1-49 ; and by 6 drams 
 of sand •1"97 to •3'83 = '1'86. The long barrel gives an increase 
 of 1-25 for 6 drams of sand over the usual result of this barrel of 
 6 boards. The result clearly proves the advantage of pressure 
 in very short barrels, with its questionable advantage or propriety 
 in those of increased length. 
 
 Boards, 1 in. 
 „ interval, 0. 
 
 Long Lahore Matchlock. 
 Ball, diameter, -5. Barrel, length, 4 ft. 2 in. 
 
 „ weight, 6 drs. ,, bore, -55. 
 
 ,, weight, 6 lbs. 5 J oz. 
 
 Charge of Powder, Bengal 
 Musketry. 
 
 Boards. 
 
 
 2^ drams . 
 
 Difference. 
 
 ( r } 
 
 Average. 
 6-5 
 
 
 3i „ . . . 
 
 r 6-75 -j 
 
 <^ 675 ). 
 
 i 6-75 j 
 
 6-75 
 
 
 6 „ . 
 
 1 r^ } 
 
 8' 25 
 
 
 8 „ . . 
 
 in 
 
 8-5 
 
 
 Trident's Powder. 
 3| drams . 
 
 (D 
 
 6-41 
 
 
 •5l' 
 The charge 2-5 is 8 drams X — > o"^ ^ ^^^ cube of the diameters of the shot. 
 
 •75]' 
 
 4-2 ft. 
 3-5 is the last increased in the proportion of—— for length of barrel 
 
 o' ^ lt( 
 
 „ 6 and 8 drams were taken at random. 
 
 The range with the Trident's powder is curious, being equal to 
 that of the best powder in these small quantities. 
 
 In the musket the Trident's result, compared with the Ishapore 
 
TAEIOUS PROOFS. 
 
 193 
 
 powder, was 
 
 4-62- 
 
 92 
 15 
 
 in the mortar ^ ; as if the force of the powder 
 
 were in some inverse ratio of the diameter of the charge. This 
 Trident's powder had been in the Moyapoor magazine since a.d. 
 1834. 
 
 In the long charge which 5 drams must constitute with a 
 barrel of such small diameter as -55, we note no additional force 
 from 3 additional drams. 
 
 Vamotts Proofs. 
 
 Description of Powders. 
 
 Bombay powder, received from Dum Dum . 
 " Trident," dated when placed in magazine 
 
 1834 
 
 " Good Hope," 1826 . 
 
 "Perseverance," 1829 . 
 
 Ship "Mysore," 1815 
 
 Danish, H. D. Majesty's ship " Galathsea 
 
 Dartford, from Bazaar 
 
 Decayed TJrhur wood (charcoal) . 
 
 Well damped with water, redried 
 
 Very damp, and clotted in lumps, redried 
 
 M. P. of 1846 from Dum Dum, dried 
 
 O. P. after exposure to sun from 10 to 4 
 
 O. below,* M. above; 3 drams O., 3 drams 
 
 M 
 
 M. below, O. above .... 
 M. below, E. above ; 3 drams M. , 3 drams R. 
 Ishapore musketry, fresh 
 Bombay, 3 years old, sifted to size of above 
 English sporting .... 
 
 Ishapore rifle .... 
 
 Madras common manufacture, 1844 
 
 Spanish, from a Spanish man-of-war . 
 English powder received from H.M. ship 
 
 "Sphinx" .... 
 
 English sporting .... 
 
 Ishapore rifle, 30 hours glazed 
 
 ■3 .">-< 
 
 ^ i «; '^ 9 
 p=i g S S S 
 
 ^- -a J g -g 
 
 S tOOWM 
 
 Average. 
 T-33 
 
 M. 
 0. 
 
 M. 
 O. 
 
 62 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 91 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 08 
 
 25 
 25 
 
 . . .^ 
 
 Average. 
 Yds. 
 
 15 
 66 
 59 
 10 
 
 115 
 87 
 75 
 76 
 91 
 
 100 
 
 94 
 87 
 
 130 
 91 
 86 
 89 
 70 
 
 108 
 99 
 
 130 
 93 
 
 C5 t.- <M 
 
 Average, 
 
 Deg. Min. 
 
 21 58 
 
 14 36 
 
 17 40 
 
 19 17 
 13 44 
 
 25 37 
 
 18 46 
 18 46 
 23 8 
 
 20 55 
 
 27 40 
 
 24 11 
 
 22 34 
 
 20 16 
 
 17 43 
 
 24 31 
 
 20 10 
 
 24 40 
 24 
 
 * That is, 3 drams Ordnance powder first put into the barrel of the musket, and then 3 drams 
 musketry. 
 
194 
 
 COMPAEISOK OF BOARDS AND EANGE. 
 
 •spj'Boq 
 J3d eSn^g 
 
 CO 
 
 
 to 
 
 •TOBjp 
 
 lad eSu'E^ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 05 
 
 ■rang rang 
 
 Bj^nBpn'cra 
 -raog iq aSniJa 
 
 
 CO 
 o 
 eq 
 
 05 
 
 •aSBMAy 
 
 00 
 
 
 03 
 
 ■* 
 
 
 ip 
 
 1 fc 
 «3 
 
 i jt- i 
 
 ^^ lO IC lO .t^ .b- lO 
 
 ip ip la 
 (N IN oq 
 
 I 
 
 -3 
 
 Eg 
 
 •i 
 
 g 
 
 Pi 
 
 |Z5 
 
 I 
 
 a 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 to 
 
 ■* 
 to 
 
 I 
 
 ■a 
 
 ■^ 
 I 
 
 ■a 
 
 to 
 
 I 
 
 
 ■* 
 
 to 
 
 I 
 
 -a 
 
 I 
 
 CO <M 
 
 
 ■<* CO j^" CO CO (J' 
 
 6p 60 a 
 
 S s 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 o 
 
 .g 
 
 
 rH 
 
 iM 
 
 
 £ 
 
 d 
 
 b- 
 
 IM 
 
 IM 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 lo 
 
 t 
 
 <D 
 
 •s 
 
 a 
 
 Q 
 
 .SB M a 
 
 ^:Hq ft Piq ft 
 
 S .9 
 
 .1= a 
 
 PM 
 
 -«9 
 
TABLE OP RECORDED RANGES. 
 
 195 
 
 a 
 p5 
 
 
 I i-C o 
 
 al 
 
 13 
 
 ai S 
 
 •2 a 
 
 a S _ 
 
 §^J5 
 
 a -D g .a ^ 
 
 _» rf2 
 
 
 a> o 
 
 a P w 
 
 „ ^ a 
 
 .§ a 
 is 
 
 a-« 
 
 O fi 
 
 'eS S 
 
 
 1 CTvi n 
 
 p Q> fn 
 
 SO &4 ^ 
 ^ ^ s s^ 
 
 -«" t 
 
 ^ -^ ^1 o 
 
 *a O -^ 
 
 .^ '*^ to 
 
 <u o 
 <U i-H 
 
 §■3 
 'T3 CO 
 
 
 
 rS S ."S S 9 
 
 .S -9 "o m 
 EH U5 ^ S 
 
 <2 
 
 i 
 
 P3 
 
 « 
 
 t-H o 
 
 & 
 
 ^' 
 
 " a S M) 
 o) • S. d 
 CI ro >> eg 
 
 <M O-J .Q 
 00^^2 
 
 «3 a-| 
 
 e] ri ■4a»-H 
 .i _Q "^ ,2 
 
 p - ^B 
 
 n sw O e? 
 <u o o o 
 
 o 
 
 bi, ■ ■ 
 
 OJ OS 50 
 
 Yards. 
 1000 
 832 
 
 ^00 ?D 
 
 I 
 
 o5 
 
 -Sw o 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Sh £ '"' "^ 
 
 as 
 
 
 4 to K 
 
 O OS (M 
 
 
 V IC3 CO lO 
 
 a 
 
 -5 S 9 
 
 2o ^^oo' 
 r o CO to 
 
 ^ '3 M bO 
 fa ^ b ^ 
 
 CO W CO 1-^ 
 
 .g 
 
 = § 
 
 ■g 
 
 ^ 
 
 .3' a 
 
 
 la 
 
 i 
 o 
 
 cJ dT 
 
 R (O 
 
 .S3 
 
 ^2EH 
 
 «H 
 
 r-( CO 
 T-H 1-1 
 
 o 2 
 
196 
 
 KECOEDED RANGES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■g s 
 
 
 
 
 fll 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 
 ■l!^i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i;; 
 
 
 
 
 •11^1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 o o g| 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ^ i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 's^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CH 'O S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cm e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EH a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .S P. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 go 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P4 
 
 ti 
 
 •s 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 
 a C5 
 
 i^* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 p 
 
 03 
 
 t4 
 
 
 [-^I'S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,— •— t 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 < 
 
 ft 
 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 o o 
 
 
 
 CD CO 
 
 lo as 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 id io 
 
 ■* rH 
 •^ i-H 
 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■*^ bfl 
 fn!S 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 OO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 1" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 b 
 
 
 bO 
 
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APPENDIX. 
 
 Experiments on varied proportions of Ingredients in Gunpowder. 
 
 During the years 1851-1853 I considered it advisable to 
 ascertain if any variations in the proportions of the ingredients, 
 or other changes in manipulation, would be attended with im- 
 proved results in the range of powder. 
 
 To determine the first point, I was careful that a well-marked 
 increased quantity of each ingredient should be made. For an 
 excess of saltpetre, I adopted a set of quantities which I found as 
 those of the Hounslow manufactories, viz. — 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 . 78 
 
 Charcoal . 
 
 . . 14 
 
 Sulpliiir . 
 
 8 
 
 Total . . 100 
 
 Here is given a quantity of three pounds more saltpetre than 
 in the common Ishapore powder. 
 
 For an excess of sulphur was used the proportions obtaining 
 at Madras — 
 
 Sulphur . . .11 
 
 Saltpetre . . . 75 
 
 Charcoal. . 14 
 
 100 
 
 giving an extra pound of sulphur to the composition of 100 lbs. 
 of powder. 
 
 For an excess of charcoal, I used — 
 
 Charcoal . . 16'5 
 
 Saltpetre. . . 75- 
 
 Sulphur . . 8-5 
 
 100 
 
 having \\ lb. of charcoal additional. This was named "Ex- 
 perimental Powder." 
 
200 EXPEEIMBNTS ON VAEIOITS PROPORTIONS OF INGREDIENTS. 
 
 Charcoal was also prepared from very old unserviceable teak- 
 wood staves, and was denominated " Teak Powder." 
 
 Powder was also made with unfused nitre ; but in all other 
 ingredients and respects like the established manufacture. 
 
 Next was made powder from the usual materials, but without 
 the previous grinding, sifting, or mixing by the mixing barrels ; 
 much in the mode in which the ingredients are mixed in England 
 and at Madras. The unpounded materials were thrown upon the 
 mill-bed and evenly placed by hand before the mill was started. 
 It required 600 revolutions before the composition was considered 
 fit to be passed to the press. 
 
 In 1853 I tried further experiments, as I had formed an 
 opinion that the cake of our powder was too dense, and of too 
 uniform a consistency, and that a more porous cake would 
 certainly improve the range of the Indian powder of the large 
 grained Ordnance size. 
 
 First. I substituted wire sieves in place of the silk used with 
 the saltpetre and sulphur. This powder was all called "Wire 
 Powder." 
 
 Second. I used silk sieves with the sulphur ; as its great 
 density and its smaller quantity rendered advisable that it only 
 should be reduced to the finest particles possible. This powder 
 is denominated " Sulphur Silk Powder." 
 
 In January, 1853, was set up a new mill received from 
 Europe, manufactured at Dartford by Messrs. Hall and Co., 
 on the principles obtaining in England. The essential difference 
 of this mill is, that every part of it is composed of iron, cast 
 or wrought ; the runners do not follow each other, but overlap 
 about one -half in their runs, so that the area of the bed is 
 necessarily much larger. 
 
 The runners are of the diameter 6 ft. 5 in., the breadth of the 
 faces 1 ft. 3 in., and these are slightly convex from the centre. The 
 ploughs are single, and no turners follow the runners. 
 
 The result of the trials of all these powders is given in the 
 following Table. The custom obtained at Ishapore, to try all- 
 experimental powders at the same time with the common manu- 
 
PROOF OP EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 201 
 
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202 REMARKS ON EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 facture on the 20tli of each month, and to record the results. 
 The averages of the year are thus obtained. 
 
 No common manufactured powder was submitted to the 
 hygrometric proof, so that I only give my judgment in this 
 respect as to how the powders would stand comparison. 
 
 But as the atmospheric proof is chiefly determined by purity 
 of materials, and as the ingredients were from identical heaps, no 
 excessive differences were to be expected, nor were such found. 
 
 From the above results, may be predicated that the Hounslow 
 proves that no addition is required to the saltpetre. 
 
 The Madras indicates that an addition of sulphur would not 
 be objectionable, but not at the expense of the charcoal. The 
 Experimental favours no reduction of charcoal. 
 
 The Old Teak powder shows that every kind of charcoal is 
 not equally good for powder. The unfused nitre is an im- 
 provement apparently. In the manipulation of these powders 
 there would result no saving of expense. ' 
 
 The unpulverised composition is worthy of extended consi- 
 deration, as some general principles may be gathered from it, 
 and great saving of expense might be obtained. The inter- 
 motion amongst the ingredients thrown unpulverised into the 
 mill, is much greater ; they do not at once set down into cake 
 under the runners, much previous handling is spared, and the 
 incorporation takes place at once, as the surfaces are fresh, and 
 adherence is thus, as it were, by first intention. There exists 
 vividness about the cake ; the grain, as porous, contains more 
 air, and explodes quicker. 
 
 The All- Wire sieve powder contains ingredients far less 
 handled, and the powder is less dense, but the structure appeared 
 too coarse, as the wire was in too large meshes. The intermotion 
 and intermixture of the unpulverised is absent. 
 
 The Sulphur Silk powder meets all my objections, the density 
 is less, and the structure more porous ; while the sulphur being 
 more pulverised than the saltpetre has the result of an additional 
 quantity, and binding the whole better together gives increased 
 firmness to the grain. 
 
CARE OF POWDER IN MAGAZINES. 203 
 
 Iron Mill. — The result of this lies in the less intermixture and 
 motion, by reason of the single plough and absence of the 
 turners ; although the grinding action may be enhanced by 
 the double centres of motions from the runners revolving in 
 different tracks. 
 
 Were I called upon to fix a standard for the proportions, it 
 should be — 
 
 Saltpetre . .74-6 
 
 Sulphvir . . . 10-5 
 
 Charcoal . . . 15' 
 
 100 
 
 ground as at present, but silk sieves only to be used for the 
 sulphur. One half an hour's turning to be diminished from the 
 mixing barrels, and forty revolutions deducted from the mills. 
 A greater mixture of sizes of grains to be admitted in the 
 Ordnance powder. 
 
 CARE OP POWDER IN MAGAZINES. 
 
 1. On their arrival, the barrels should be carefully and closely 
 inspected, to ascertain if they exhibit any appearance of damp, 
 or of the powder being altered as to colour, grain, or texture. 
 
 2. If the Magazine is supplied with a permanent set of the 
 patent barrels, these must be cleaned out, and care taken that 
 when the felt of the heads is decayed, such be replaced by iiew 
 numdah.* This will render quite unnecessary any filling up of 
 the crevices vrith putty ; a bad plan, always contaminating the 
 upper surface of the powder. The powder must then be care- 
 fully transferred to these patent barrels. 
 
 3. If the common barrels are to be retained in the Magazine, 
 the heads should never be taken out, as grains of powder entering 
 between the seams entirely preclude their again being completely 
 closed up. Any investigation into the condition of the powder 
 can be made by drawing the bung. 
 
 4. The barrels on the racks are to be constantly rolled about ; 
 the more they are turned over and moved, the less will the 
 powder be liable to cake or Lold the damp. 
 
 * Indian felt. 
 
204 DAMAGED POWDEE, 
 
 5. The hoops should be constantly but carefully set home. 
 
 6. Should there be available near the Magazine a court-yard 
 protected from the danger of fire, it would be of the greatest 
 advantage to the powder, if once or twice during the year, the 
 barrels were in an unopened state exposed on powder-cloths 
 to the very hottest sun of the season for the whole day. In 
 this state the hoops should be well set home. This operation will 
 dissipate any contracted damp both from the powder and from 
 the barrels. 
 
 Damaged Powder. 
 
 I have seen, in former days, much gunpowder condemned as 
 unserviceable, and thrown into rivers. I now know that such 
 powder only required to be redried and resifted to be fully 
 serviceable for all common exercise purposes. 
 
 All that is necessary being that a small walled enclosure, fi^ee 
 from danger of fire and accident by concussion, should be 
 selected at a good distance from the Magazine. 
 
 In this court powder-cloths should be spread, and the powder 
 thinly laid out to the thickness of an inch, and be constantly 
 turned over in the sun for eight hours of a very hot day. 
 
 Towards the evening, the powder, having been passed through 
 a sieve, No. 2 of 1156 meshes to the square inch, and all fine 
 dust and dirt extracted, may be returned to the barrel. 
 
 This operation is analogous to the restoring of the English 
 system. 
 
 Only a few barrels should be manipulated at once. 
 
 Recovery of Saltpetre. 
 
 From powder, damaged beyond recovery, or from the dust 
 extracted from powders redried, every magazine ought to be 
 able to supply itself with saltpetre for every required laboratory 
 purpose. 
 
 Or if no damaged powder is available, the same result may 
 be obtained by using common bazaar saltpetre. 
 
 A half-hogshead barrel must be prepared to stand over a 
 
EMPTY BAEEELS. 205 
 
 common copper cooling pan (see plate) ; holes must be drilled 
 
 in the bottom, and a stratum of fine sand, one foot deep, filled 
 
 in ; over this is to be placed a false bottom, also pierced -with 
 
 holes. 
 
 Four times the weight of powder, of pure well-water, must 
 
 now be added to the damaged powder, and well worked together 
 
 in a separate half-hogshead. 
 
 This mixture must be transferred to the filter by degrees, 
 
 whence it will soon run in a clear stream. 
 
 This water must then be transferred to a magazine boiler, and 
 over a fire, in a safe corner, be thickened down by evaporation to 
 one half its quantity, when it will be found that crystals of pure 
 saltpetre will form on any bit of common earthenware on which 
 it is dropped. 
 
 This being the case, the liquor may be poured into a second 
 cooling pan, and allowed to remain twenty-four hours, when a 
 fine crop of clean crystals will be obtained. 
 
 The drawn-off water may be again reduced over the fire, and 
 again placed to cool, and the operation continued until no water 
 remains. Should the crystals be discoloured, they may be 
 reboiled with a very small quantity of clear spring water. 
 
 By this operation 40 or 50 lbs. of pure saltpetre may be re- 
 covered at the expense of a little firewood, from every 100 lbs. of 
 damaged powder ; and each magazine can thus supply itself with 
 this necessary article. Care must of course be taken, as in all 
 operations with powder, that only a small quantity be mani- 
 pulated at one time, and in a place free from danger, and distant 
 from other magazines. Much advantage would result if a few 
 men for employment as sirdars of powder magazines, went 
 through a course of duty at the powder works, and were 
 instructed in the various manipulations. 
 
 Empty Barrels. 
 
 Barrels for return to the powder works should be carefully 
 taken to pieces. Teak wood is becoming daily more valuable 
 and scarce. 
 
206 REPORT ON THE NEW IRON MILL. 
 
 The staves and heads should be as little thrown about as 
 possible, for every chip from the edges has to be cut out, and 
 a very slight reduction in size renders both heads and staves 
 useless. 
 
 I am incHned to recommend all the component parts being tied 
 up, in rather heavy bundles, as they are then less liable to be 
 thrown about and broken. 
 
 For ten empty barrels weighing about 2f cwt., I would 
 suggest the following style of packages : — 
 
 Hoops, 40 Bundles 1, -weight of eacli f cwt. Total f cwt. 
 
 Heads, 20 „ 1, „ i „ „ i „ 
 
 Staves, 164 „ 3, „ i „ „ ij „ 
 
 Bundles 5 2f cwij. 
 
 One hundred barrels requiring about a ton. The hoops are 
 never to have the rivets taken out. Each bundle is to be secured 
 by two pieces of iron wire plate riveted. 
 
 The heads and staves are to be well tied with common lashing, 
 and, if found necessary, in coarse gunney ; as indicated in the 
 sketch. (See plate.) 
 
 Eeport on the New Iron Mill. 
 
 This Mill was sent out from England and set up in January, 
 1853; it was constructed at Dartford by Messrs. Hall and 
 Co., on the pattern of those used at their works ; every 
 part of it is composed of iron cast or wrought. The question 
 of its advantages may be best disposed of under three heads : — 
 the Mill ; the result on cost of powder ; the result on the good- 
 ness of the powder. 
 
 The Mill : its cost, exclusive of the house and foundations, 
 stands at about 3,900 rupees ; the gun metal mills when new 
 cost 37,000 rupees each. 
 
 At first the workmen were timid in approaching the cast-iron 
 mill, but this fear soon subsided. 
 
 No turners follow to turn up the composition, and the ploughs 
 are single ; hence the composition earlier settles into cake, and 
 
Finte 10. 
 
 PROPOSED TO BE ERECTED AT THE MADRAS POWDER MILLS. 
 
 REFER ENCES . 
 E. Tilt rrcivvt <<herl of 132 Cogs. 
 G. Tfie. Waltow Kilt ivorkinq in the Gvwn. 
 J , Th£ Spur wheel wcrhiinj t3te RemV, 
 
 Scol,- ofFrrf. 
 
 PabliBKed fcy John Weaie. Landcm. 
 
 Kell Bto^ Litii" Castle S* Holbom. 
 
REPORT OIT THE NEW IRON MILL. 
 
 207 
 
 being. very much less tossed about and worked, the density of 
 the cake is less, and the incorporation not quite so complete as 
 with the old miUs ; perhaps the 240 revolution cake of the new 
 mill, is equal to the 180 revolutions of the old mills. 
 
 The iron mill has only been worked about four months ; no 
 abrasion of the surface or bed or runners is apparent. The 
 diameter of the runners is so great as to render the work much 
 more light on the cattle than with the old mills. 
 
 The construction is simple, the workmanship superior; I am 
 of opinion, that the bed should be cast with a solid kerb like 
 that of the bronze beds. 
 
 Result on the Cost of Powder. 
 
 There wiU be a reduction in the cost of the block, of labour, 
 and motive power, and of the manufacturing charges generally, 
 so as to diminish the cost of the barrel of powder. 
 
 Result on the Goodness of the Powder. 
 
 I have always expressed my opinion that the density of the 
 Ishapore powder is too high, that such gives slightly decreased 
 ranges, though perhaps it improves the powder by better 
 resisting deterioration under change and climate. Hence that 
 some of our labour in milling is thrown away, for there can 
 be no reason why Bengal powder shall require 240 revolutions, 
 if 100 is found ample at Madras. 
 
 The following result bears out this theory ; but the ex- 
 perience from the cast iron mill is only derived from a limited 
 time of working, and hence is not entitled to full confidence. 
 
 Comparative Report. 
 
 Desoriptioa of Powder. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Mortar, 
 
 2-oz. 
 
 charge. 
 
 Eprouvette, 
 2-oz. charge. 
 
 Mortar, 
 lib. charge, 
 681b. ball. 
 
 Common manufacture, f M 
 average of 1849-50 . ( 
 
 Cast iron mill, average f M 
 from one ban-el . . ( 
 
 261 
 
 277 
 
 257 
 
 274 
 
 95 
 93 
 
 103i 
 103 
 
 Deg. Min. 
 
 22 11 
 
 19 33 
 
 23 6 
 
 20 11 
 
 719 
 473 
 
 831 
 
 not taken 
 
208 EEPORT ON THE REMOYAL OF THE POWDER WORKS. 
 
 On the whole nothing has appeared, at present, to detract from 
 the good opinion entertained in England for this class of mill. 
 
 The reduction of cost to one-tenth of that of the gun metal 
 mills, is fully sufficient to warrant the introduction under any 
 contemplated changes. 
 
 REMOVAL OF THE POWDER WORKS. 
 
 [Colonel Anderson having been called upon by the Govern- 
 ment to give his opinion on the subject of the removal of the 
 powder works to the upper provinces, and abandoning those of 
 Ishapore, furnished the following admirable Report, which is well 
 worthy of the attention of the Indian authorities." — Ed.] 
 
 To clear the way to a complete view of this question, I 
 consider it must first be determined, whether it be necessary 
 to manufacture all the powder required for the Presidency of 
 Bengal at one place. To this question I reply in the nega- 
 tive ; because the art is no secret, and the diffusion of more 
 correct principles would be advantageous. I myself experienced 
 the greatest trouble in getting up some supplies of powder, when 
 the Kundahar force was in prospect of being deficient. 
 
 The country is now far too extended to be easily supplied from 
 one distant manufactory, the danger of transporting so explosive 
 an article is excessive, and the expense of carriage very great. 
 
 The art itself is not one of very difficult attainment, nor does 
 it require so very expensive a block as was formerly deemed 
 desirable. 
 
 Political reasons would also point to the great weakness of the 
 advanced positions being dependant on one very distant source 
 of supply, to which the communication might easily be interrupted 
 by any disturbances in the intervening countries. 
 
 I believe the only advantage to be permanently relied upon is 
 that from one manufactory the strength of the powder will be 
 more uniform ; but the powder of both Bombay and Madras so 
 
EEPORT ON THE REMOVAL OF THE POWDER WORKS. 209 
 
 nearly resembles the powder of Bengal, that no inconvenience has 
 resulted. 
 
 Two blocks may, in a trifling degree, increase the cost of the 
 production, but this depends so much on local circumstances as only 
 to be settled in each individual case. 
 
 I think it may be considered as established, that it is not neces- 
 sary to manufacture all the powder in one place. 
 
 But the probable form into which any future European war will 
 glide, of large fleets of heavily armed men of war requiring 
 immense supplies of powder, points, I consider, to the impolicy 
 that the chief port of India, and capital of the empire, should be 
 dependent on a distant supply of so necessary a munition of 
 defence. Our new provinces to the eastward, in Burmah, must 
 also be duly considered. 
 
 Consequently, I consider that it would be highly advantageous 
 to retain Ishapore, and also to establish other distinct works. 
 
 It next becomes a point of consideration whether such shall be 
 at Allahabad or any other station. 
 
 The advantages of removal to Allahabad are general, for the 
 nearer the works of production are situated to the place of con- 
 sumption, so far, in some ratio, will be reduced the cost in expense 
 of carriage. This I believe to be the only real advantage that 
 would attend the removal to AUahabad. 
 
 I have no data on which to proceed to the special advantages, 
 but I do not hesitate to say that I believe the cost of production 
 will be greater at Allahabad, the powder inferior, and the danger 
 of manipulation augmented, and that such were the reasons 
 which induced the former Government to give up Allahabad. 
 
 The only recommendation to Allahabad is the existence of 
 some antiquated works, ill adapted to modern improvements, and 
 repairable at an expense which would nearly cover a new set 
 of works in a better position. 
 
 Removal to the Punjauh 
 Presents all the general advantages expected from removal 
 
210 
 
 REPORT ON THE REMOVAL OP THE POWDER WORKS. 
 
 to Allahabad in a greater proportion as the distance is greater. 
 The Sekhs manufactured very fair powder, of which, to my 
 analysis, the saltpetre was good. I am informed that all the 
 materials are plentiful, and that the cost of the powder was not 
 great, but on this point I can only speak on the evidence of 
 others. 
 
 But special advantages must accrue, for I have no doubt that 
 if we can obtain a suitable position on some of the lower hills, a 
 better description of wood for charcoal will be obtained than is 
 found in Bengal or the Doab, and that under a more temperate 
 climate we shall obtain the only points of difference existing 
 between Bengal and English powder. 
 
 From the second line of the army, say between Lahoor and 
 Loodiannah, magazines beyond Delhi and Agra might be cheaply 
 supplied with powder. The English materials might be imported 
 up the Indus. Sulphur exists in Scinde. Saltpetre, I con- 
 clude, but am not well advised, is also plentiful, and firewood 
 should not be scarce ; but these points require to be well 
 ascertained. 
 
 A slight inspection of the sketch shows that a set of powder 
 works placed near Lahoor will exhibit one powder manufactory 
 
 at each corner of a quadrangle nearly containing the entire 
 country of our Indian Government. These might be so worked 
 as to keep up the proportionate quantity of all the nearest 
 magazines, while the Ishapore works, increased if requisite, would 
 
EEPOET ON THE EBMOTAL OP THE POWDER WOBKS. 211 
 
 also be in a position to supply the demands of the navy or the 
 magazines of Ceylon. 
 
 Everything points to the great desirableness of establishing 
 works in the Punjaub, should inquiry support the asserted plenty 
 of materials. 
 
 I suspect the system of the English Government is to keep the 
 works necessary for the quick preparation of a large quantity of 
 powder, in preference to holding in store large amounts of a dan- 
 gerous and deteriorating article; such should be the Ishapore works. 
 
 I consider the locality of the Ishapore works to be admirable, 
 and such as could not easily be elsewhere obtained. 
 
 To the west they are bounded by the broad river Hoogly, 
 greatly in favour of transit by water ; to the north runs a deep 
 nullah, not fordable by men on foot ; to the east there exists a 
 narrow strip of land, which I have suggested should be annexed, 
 lying between the works and a rice jheel ; while to the south is 
 ample space included in the agency grounds between the works 
 and the village of Nuwabgunge. 
 
 The damp climate is superior for manufacturing gunpowder to 
 the very arid one of the Doab. 
 
 With the addition of an eighth miU, and from time to time the 
 improvements I have suggested, the Government would have at 
 its command an excellent set of works, capable of turning out 
 15,000 barrels of powder in eight months. 
 
 No two of the three powder works in India are working on the 
 same system. We differ on almost every point. Our proportions 
 are not the same. The other two Agencies do not use either 
 mixing barrels, the patent charcoal cylinder furnaces, or silk 
 sieves, all very expensive arrangements. I give to my powder 
 240 revolutions to the charge, while only 100 are employed at 
 Madras, and, I suspect, at Bombay. 
 
 All the Madras agents have visited these works, as also have 
 some, I believe, from Bombay ; they have all carried away ample 
 information and samples, but no rejoinder has ever been returned 
 as to the advantages derived, or what improvements have or have 
 not been introduced : — no intercommunication exists. Moreover, 
 
 p 2 
 
212 ANALYSIS OF ISHAPOEE POWDER MATERIALS. 
 
 the probability is great, that full advantage is not taken of our 
 relative positions as to supply, nor do I doubt that the arsenals of 
 each presidency contain much powder-work machinery that might 
 be made available for new works in the Punjaub. 
 
 Now, by September, I hope the accounts of last year will be 
 closed, and every arrangement made for the advantageous opening 
 of next year's manufacture ; should the Government deem such 
 advisable, I shall be most willing to proceed to Allahabad and the 
 Punjaub, returning down the Indus, and thus viewing and in- 
 specting the works both at Bombay and Madras ; from which 
 inspection and intercommunication I have no hesitation in saying 
 that I think pecuniary saving would result. 
 
 (Signed) W. Anderson". 
 
 Powder Works, Ishapore. 
 June, 1853. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF ISHAPOEE POWDER MATERIALS. 
 
 By Dr., (now) Sik W. B. O'SHAUGHNESST. 
 
 At the request of Colonel Anderson, powder agent, Ishapore, 
 I have carefully examined samples of the various materials used 
 by him in the manufacture of gunpowder, and with the subjoined 
 results. 
 
 Saltpetre. 
 
 The once refined, called at the Agency " first boiled," contains — 
 
 First boiled, cotmaon salt (per cent.) . . . -06 
 
 Second boiled, „ „ . . . '00162 
 
 The fused saltpetre is absolutely pure. 
 
 The residuum of the saltpetre refinery contains, per cent. — 
 
 Common salt (per cent.) . . . . 68'4 
 
 Water . . . . . . . 8'3 
 
 Saltpetre . . . . . . 4* 
 
 Sulphate of soda and Ume . . . . 8 '1 
 
 Sand . . . . . . .11-2 
 
 100-0 
 
ANALYSIS OF ISHAPOEE POWDER MATERIALS. 213 
 
 Sulphur. 
 Both, the refined and pulverised were absolutely pure. 
 
 Charcoal. 
 From the Urhur, on careful combustion in the assay muflae, 
 there were obtained — 
 
 Of saline and earthy matters, in 100 parts . 3 '50 
 Prom the Jointee wood charcoal, as above . 3 '00 
 
 After exposure to the air, in December, 1849, the pulverised 
 Urhur charcoal parted with 1"30 per cent, of moisture. The 
 Jointee charcoal, under the same circumstances, lost 3'6 per. cent. 
 
 Samples of both the charcoal powders, treated with distilled 
 water, gave solutions alkahne to test papers, and giving copious 
 precipitates, with the usual tests, of salts and sulphate of soda, 
 and a slight indication of lime. 
 
 The common salt was ascertained to be precisely — 
 
 1"40 grains from 900 grains of Urhur, and 
 1"20 grains from 900 of Jointee charooaL 
 
 100 grains of the coarse variety, treated with distilled water, 
 and filtered, gave a considerable black precipitate ; treated with 
 ammonia, — 
 
 It yielded chloride of silver . . '30 grains, 
 
 and sulphuret of silver . . 4' ,, 
 
 thus indicating the presence of 0'06 grains of sulphur in a soluble 
 state, probably combined with potassium or sodium, in the 
 gunpowder. 
 
 This fa«t is interesting, and, as far as 1 am aware, has not been 
 noticed before. It probably proceeds from the reaction of the 
 sulphur on the alkaline matters contained in the charcoal. 
 
 As the soluble sulphurets are very deliquescent, the presence 
 of the sulphuret now detected must, in some slight degree, de- 
 teriorate the powder, causing it to attract moisture from the air. 
 
 (Signed) W. B. O'Shaughnesst. 
 
 Calcutta Mint, 
 February 25, 1850. 
 
 Note. — I have already mentioned the importance of attending to the purity of 
 the charcoal used in the manufacture of gunpowder, as well as its quality ; and 
 the above analysis shows the great necessity of attending to it, as, with the other 
 two ingredients perfectly pure, a deteriorating property in gunpowder may proceed 
 from the charcoal. — Editok. 
 
214 
 
 TEMPBRATUKE OP THE DEYING TEEKACES. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE DRYING 
 
 TERRACES. 
 
 BY COLONEL ANDERSON. 
 
 The powder leaves the terraces generally heated to about 
 110° Fahr. ; during the night it falls a little towards the uniform 
 temperature of the magazine, which seldom varies much from 
 80°. The area of the old terraces at Ishapore was 8,1 48f super- 
 ficial ft. ; of the proposed new ones, 9,040 superficial ft. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 Thermometer 
 
 placed in the 
 
 powder. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1847 
 22nd May . 
 
 ( 1 P.M. 
 
 3 „ 
 (5 „ 
 
 o 
 
 96 
 120 
 119 
 
 -1 
 
 Exposed on the copper 
 terrace in the usual man- 
 ner. 
 
 23rd May . 
 
 /5 A.M. 
 
 i9 » 
 
 94 
 92 
 94 
 
 -'! 
 
 Cooling down in the maga- 
 zine. 
 
 
 {2 P.M. 
 
 96 
 
 + 1 
 
 On the terrace. 
 
 EaNGB of the ThEEMOMETEE, at every three HoUIlS DT7RIN& THE DaY, 
 
 ON THE 8iH April, 1848. 
 
 In the powder magazine at . 
 
 6 A.M. 
 
 95° Fahr. 
 
 ( 
 
 9 „ 
 
 108° „ 
 
 On the drying terraces at . . • • { 
 
 Noon. 
 
 3 P.M. 
 
 130° „ 
 112° „ 
 
 ( 
 
 6 „ 
 
 109° „ 
 
 It was found that the copper terraces added about 10° to the 
 temperature obtainable from the mere ground ; the dififering 
 thickness of sheet copper varies this slightly. 
 
 Thus, the gunpowder exposed on these terraces is three times 
 raised, by degrees, from a temperature of 80° to that of 130° ; 
 amply sufficient to evaporate any remaining moisture. 
 
 The raw materials of the gunpowder exposed for the three days 
 to the sun, only exhibited change in the colour of the charcoal. 
 During the second day this became rather whitish in colour, and 
 
REGISTER OP TPIERMOMETBR. 
 
 215 
 
 during the third day quite pale, being a very remarkable change. 
 On being removed to the shade, after some time, it returned to its 
 original colour, blach 
 
 Annexed is the report on the appearance of the powder during 
 its three days' exposure to the sun : — 
 
 Density and Appearance of the Gunpowder during the three Dats, and 
 THE Progress op its being sunned and winnowed. 
 
 Quality of powder. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1st day ./Mu^tetry . 
 ■' \ Ordnance . 
 
 3rd day ./M«/«t'7 • 
 \^ Ordnance , 
 
 260 
 
 2ro 
 
 258 
 270 
 256 
 271 
 
 \ Dampish, appearance, and grain a little 
 
 / soft. 
 
 \ Grain firmer, hardly any dust percep- 
 
 / tible. 
 
 \ Grain firm and good, no appearance of 
 
 / dust. 
 
 Register op Thermometer taken at the Drying Terrace of Ishapore at 
 11 a.m:. daily for eight Months, 1843-44, 1844-45, 1845-46. 
 
 
 Powder. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Shade. 
 
 Powder. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Shade. 
 
 Powder. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Shade. 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 October 
 
 127 
 
 91 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 
 118 
 
 90 
 
 80 
 
 November . 
 
 123 
 
 88 
 
 79 
 
 126 
 
 94 
 
 84 
 
 120 
 
 91 
 
 80 
 
 December . 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 120 
 
 89 
 
 87 
 
 115 
 
 84 
 
 73 
 
 January 
 
 117 
 
 89 
 
 76 
 
 123 
 
 92 
 
 80 
 
 117 
 
 80 
 
 76 
 
 February . 
 
 123 
 
 90 
 
 80 
 
 123 
 
 93 
 
 83 
 
 119 
 
 89 
 
 79 
 
 March . . 
 
 132 
 
 95 
 
 89 
 
 133 
 
 96 
 
 86 
 
 127 
 
 94 
 
 83 
 
 April. 
 
 139 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 131 
 
 94 
 
 89 
 
 131 
 
 96 
 
 86 
 
 May . . 
 
 136 
 
 98 
 650 
 
 92 
 
 133 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 131 
 
 95 
 719 
 
 89 
 
 
 897 
 
 589 
 
 889 
 
 653 
 
 599 
 
 978 
 
 646 
 
 Average 
 
 128 
 
 92f 
 
 84 
 
 127 
 
 931 
 
 ^H 
 
 -122| 
 
 89| 
 
 80i 
 
216 
 
 EEGISTER OF THEEMOMETEE, ETC. 
 
 AVEEAGB RbGISTEE OF ThBEMOMETBK AND DENSITY OF PoWDBE KEPT AT THE 
 
 Magazine feom the 23ed of October, 1848, to 23ed Mat, 1849, at 
 ishapoee. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Density. 
 
 Month. 
 
 Thermometer 
 in the powder. 
 
 Therm, in 
 the sun. 
 
 Therm, in 
 the shade. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Musketry. 
 
 Ordnance. 
 
 1848, October . 
 
 125 
 
 o 
 
 94 
 
 8°6 
 
 266 
 
 291 
 
 ,, November. 
 
 121 
 
 89 
 
 78 
 
 268 
 
 288 
 
 „ December . 
 
 118 
 
 88 
 
 11 
 
 268 
 
 284 
 
 1849, January . 
 
 113 
 
 85 
 
 14, 
 
 268 
 
 283 
 
 „ February . 
 
 121 
 
 92 
 
 85 
 
 269 
 
 284 
 
 „ March . . 
 
 125 
 
 91 
 
 83 
 
 267 
 
 282 
 
 „ April 
 
 139 
 
 9? 
 
 81 
 
 263 
 
 276 
 
 „ May . . 
 
 132 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 262 
 
 274 
 
 „ Total . . 
 
 994 
 
 T36 
 
 660 
 
 2131 
 
 2262 
 
 „ Average . 
 
 124 
 
 92 
 
 82^ 
 
 266 
 
 2821 
 
 BXPEEIMENT OF THE EvAPOEATION OF WaTEE EXPOSED TO THB SoLAE HbAT, IN 
 
 A coppBE Cooling Pan on the Geound at Ishapore in 1848. 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 Thermometer 
 
 Water by 
 
 Loss by 
 
 Depth of 
 
 
 Hour. 
 
 in sun's raya. 
 
 weight. 
 
 evaporation. 
 
 water. 
 
 Eemarks. 
 
 
 
 
 lb. oz. 
 
 lb. oz. 
 
 
 e three 
 ;e wind, 
 iameter 
 bottom. 
 
 April 8 . 
 
 1 P.M. 
 
 113 Falir. 
 
 5 8 
 
 
 
 3? 5) • 
 
 3 „ 
 
 114 „ 
 
 3 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 S9 95 • 
 
 4 -SO,, 
 
 95 „ 
 
 2 2 
 
 14 
 
 
 .2 S vc •= 
 
 S as« 
 
 5 tS 13 
 
 „ 10. 
 
 J3 35 • 
 
 9 A.M. 
 
 12 noon. 
 
 106 „ 
 116 „ 
 
 10 
 8 6 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 ?fl 53 • 
 
 3 P.M. 
 
 110 „ 
 
 6 4 
 
 2 2 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 „ 13. 
 
 6 A.M. 
 
 81 „ 
 
 10 
 
 
 •66 
 
 mospher 
 loudy, w 
 pper pan 
 top edge, 
 9 in. 
 
 )j ?> • 
 
 9 „ 
 
 101 „ 
 
 9 3^ 
 
 12J 
 
 •60 
 
 3> S> • 
 
 12 noon. 
 
 109 „ 
 
 7 14 
 
 1 5i 
 
 •50 
 
 >■) » • 
 
 3 P.M. 
 
 114 „ 
 
 6 2 
 
 1 12 
 
 •40 
 
 :i:n 
 
 )3 3J • 
 
 6 „ 
 
 90 „ 
 
 4 8 
 
 1 10 
 
 •27 
 
 l-l^-s 
 
 Calculating by specific gravity, 10 lbs. of water, exposed on a 
 circular base of 20-5 in. would give a depth of '83 of an inch, and 
 4 lbs. 8 oz. of water would require a depth of •37. The difference 
 is -46 by rough measurement. I made the difference -38. This 
 
DANGER OP sun's KAYS IN INDIA. 217 
 
 will give an evaporation of "26 of an oz., or 4-16 drams of water 
 per square inch in twelve hours, under the circumstances detailed. 
 
 Note. — As an evidence of the dangerous power of the sun's rays in India, 
 Colonel Anderson states that some sporting powder, exposed at Dum-Dum in a 
 chUumchee (a broad brass basin used for washing, in the apparatus of an Indian 
 toilet) to the sun's rays, exploded in the presence of several gentlemen ; some 
 part of the polished metal no doubt acting as a reflector, and concentrating the 
 rays on the powder. 
 
 I have myself experienced the danger of allowing globular glass bottles, filled 
 with water, to stand in a place exposed to the sun's rays, both in India and at 
 the Cape of Good Hope, the rays being concentrated into a focus, as with a 
 burning-glass, and producing combustion both in cloth and wood. — Editor. 
 
 INQUIRY 
 
 INTO THE CIRCUMSTANCES ARISING PROM THE CHEMICAL EFFECTS 
 OP THE PRODUCTS OP GUNPOWDER, WHEN PIRED IN CLOSE 
 CHAMBERS, SUCH AS THE BORES OF CANNON, MlfSKETS, &C. 
 
 This is a most important subject for an artillerist to study, and 
 it appears to me to be a very singular omission, that in all 
 chemical books, or others specially connected with the subject of 
 gunpowder which I have had access to, this inquiry seems to 
 have been generally entirely passed over, or by no means pur- 
 sued and explained as it ought to have been. 
 
 About thirty-eight years ago, when I was in the situation of 
 agent for gimpowder, and for the manufacture of war rockets of 
 my construction, at Allahabad, in the Bengal Estabhshment, I 
 made a great number of experiments with compositions resem- 
 bling gunpowder, which were fired in various modes in close 
 chambers, and I then became convinced that a true explanation of 
 such combustion had, at that time, never been placed before 
 the public, neither has it to the present day, so as to explain 
 satisfactorily the phenomena presented. 
 
 Por instance, it is commonly known to all practical artillerists, 
 that a great increase in the quantity of gunpowder to that of a 
 
218 CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF COMBUSTION IN CLOSE CHAMBERS. 
 
 common charge does not produce that greater range of the 
 projectile or shot placed before it that might have been expected ; 
 and this has generally been accounted for by the supposition 
 that a great portion of this enlarged charge is blown out of 
 the muzzle of the gun without being inflamed, but the circum- 
 stances to which I attribute the cause of its not being inflamed 
 have never before been stated. 
 
 Again, it has been proved by experiment that cannon loaded to 
 the muzzle, and afterwards closed up with an immovable plug, and 
 fired in the usual manner at the vent, have neither been burst by 
 the effect of the combustion, nor has the charge of powder ex- 
 ploded in the usual way, but has issued out of the small vent in 
 a violent current of inflamed expanding gases, and occupying some 
 seconds of time before the whole charge was consumed. 
 
 Such trials of an excessive quantity of powder so fired, have 
 also, erroneously, in my opinion, been considered as proofs of 
 the great strength in resistance to fracture, of cannon, fire-arms, 
 or cylinders ,used in the experiments ; and my reasoning is 
 founded upon the explanation which I shall now proceed to 
 offer, and, I trust, satisfactorily explain. 
 
 At another part of this work, the nature and analysis of the 
 three components of gunpowder are stated; it is therefore un- 
 necessary to enter on that subject here, as I wish to confine 
 myself to the effect which the gaseous products of infiamed 
 gunpowder produce at the moment of combustion. 
 
 Taking then the principal part of the volume of the gaseous 
 product to consist of carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, and nitrogen 
 gases, of which the former is much the greatest in quantity, 
 we have a gaseous compound which is not only a non-supporter 
 of combustion, but actually extinguishes if. 
 
 Thus, suppose we take an open-mouthed jar or receiver, 
 filled with carbonic acid gas, which being more than half as heavy 
 again as atmospheric air, will remain unmixed ; if we introduce a 
 burning body into it, even ignited phosphorus or sulphur, it 
 will be immediately extinguished. 
 
 If we lay the finest ignitable tinder, or mealed or grained 
 
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF COMBUSTION IN CLOSE CHAMBERS. 219 
 
 gunpowder, on the bottom of tlie jar, and ignited particles of 
 steel are struck off from a flint above tlie opening, their ignition 
 and their luminosity instantly disappear directly they enter the 
 gas, and neither the tinder nor the gunpowder will be fired. 
 
 If, in a volume of carbonic gas, under high pressure of several 
 atmospheres, gunpowder is laid in a loose train, and the end of the 
 train is fired by a hot iron or other means, the combustion will not 
 proceed, and the rest of the gunpowder will remain unconsumed. 
 
 We have only therefore to consider, that the moment one grain 
 is fired in a charge of gunpowder, it produces its volume of 
 gas, and every contiguous grain, as it inflames, adds to this 
 volume, so that the whole vacant space between the grains will 
 become filled with it in a highly concentrated state, acting with 
 a pressure of from 1500 to 2000 atmospheres. There can be 
 no wonder then that the grains which are furthest from those 
 first infiamed will not take fire under such a compression of 
 ?i flame-extinguishing gas ; hence if they are not driven out of the 
 muzzle perfectly unignited, as many grains constantly are with 
 every charge of gunpowder that is fired, yet, having been exposed 
 to a heat of high intensity, a portion of these, meeting the atmos- 
 phere, the oxygen of which permits their combustion, will inflame, 
 partly producing that flash of flame beyond the muzzle and over 
 the vent which is seen at every discharge, but lending no assist- 
 ance to the propelling power. 
 
 That many grains of gunpowder escape combustion altogether 
 has been constantly proved. It was found to be so in Dr. Button's 
 experiments at Woolwich. I have often proved it myself, and 
 Major Alfred Mordecai, in his pubhshed experiments made at 
 Washington Arsenal, in 1847-48, with a 6-pounder and a 12- 
 pounder gun, records that in several instances the solid grains 
 of gunpowder, unconsumed, reached the face of the baUistic 
 pendulum placed at the distance of thirty feet from the muzzle 
 of the piece of ordnance used. 
 
 In many instances where screens of paper or cloth have been 
 placed over the vents at some feet distance, solid grains of gun- 
 powder have passed through or been attached, quite unin- 
 
220 CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF COMBUSTION IjST CLOSE CHAMBERS. 
 
 flamed, though passing through the narrow space of a vent, under 
 intense heat. 
 
 It may be considered a singular circumstance, but I have found 
 some of these unconsumed grains, under examination, to have lost 
 their portion of sulphur, which appears to have been volatilised by 
 the heat, only the proper proportions of charcoal and saltpetre 
 remaining in them. 
 
 It is a mistake, then, to suppose that an excessive charge 
 of gunpowder is a proof of the power of resistance of the 
 metal of a gun or cylinder, when the ends are closed up, and 
 the escape of the expanding gases is only allowed through the 
 vent : — the presence of the compressed volume of incombustible 
 gases preventing the quick ignition of the grains. Yet this has 
 been considered to be the case in regard to trials vidth the Arm- 
 strong, Whitworth, Blakeley, and other guns, as also by Mr. James 
 Longridge, an eminent civil engineer, in his experiments on the 
 strength of cylinders. The pressure under such trials, I believe, 
 to have been far less severe than that which a cannon sustains 
 when fired with a full charge, especially when rifled, and having 
 a heavy weight or shot placed before it to be propelled. 
 
 It may be argued, that if the volumes of gases are extinguishers 
 of combustion, as I represent them to be, the combustion of part 
 of a large charge of powder would totally prevent the remainder 
 being consumed ; but we must recollect, that every grain of gun- 
 powder contains within itself the elements of combustion, when 
 exposed under common circumstances to a certain degree of heat, 
 about 800°, necessary to cause the chemical affinities of the 
 materials in its composition to enter into action ; and as the heat 
 of fired gunpowder is of far greater intensity, we can in no other 
 possible way explain the circumstance of any grains being uncon- 
 sumed, and especially as escaping through the small space and 
 intense heat of a narrow vent, except the fact of their being 
 encompassed with a highly compressed volume of non-combus- 
 tible, flame-extinguishing gas, which prevents the charcoal and 
 sulphur from being ignited, as they would certainly be if sur- 
 rounded by atmospheric air ; and to this cause we must attribute 
 
HOW RANGES OP CANNON SHOT MAY BE INCEBASED. 221 
 
 the retarded ignition of charges of gunpowder in pieces of artillery 
 or cylinders closed at the ends, as above stated. 
 
 Now, the consideration of such circumstances is of great im- 
 portance, not only in regulating charges of gunpowder, but also 
 in the forms of the chambers in which it is confined to be 
 exploded. 
 
 It has been generally supposed by writers on artillery sub- 
 jects, that the flame of fired gunpowder penetrates imme- 
 diately to the extremity of the charge, through the interstices 
 between the grains, and thus ignites the whole charge ; but if it 
 was so, then in the instances of the experiments with the cannon 
 having the muzzles plugged up as above stated, or the cylinders 
 having the ends immovably closed, the ignition of the charges 
 would not have been delayed, as it proves to be in such experi- 
 ments, by, as I have before stated, the condensation of flame- 
 extinguishing gas ; and it is an argument that the quantity of 
 atmospheric air contained between the grains, which may be in- 
 creased by using cartridges, not filling the chamber, is advantageous, 
 as yielding an additional supply of oxygen, the best supporter of 
 combustion, which will, in a degree, neutrahse the action of the 
 carbonic acid gas, and consequently promote the quicker ignition 
 of a greater quantity of the grains, producing a greater propel- 
 ling power from the same charge of gunpowder than when less 
 atmospheric air is present : and this has been found to be the 
 case in actual artillery practice on the continent, and, I believe, at 
 Woolwich, although the advantage gained has been attributed to a 
 wrong cause. 
 
 I will merely add here, that in the year 1855, in the number of 
 the Mechanics' Magazine for August, in a paper I wrote on the 
 subject of projectiles, is the following paragraph : — 
 
 " Are we, therefore, at once to admit that there is a limit to the 
 range to which we can throw a projectile by the means of gun- 
 powder ? I say, certainly not. Whether it is one mile or twenty 
 miles, the range can be effected. For it would be very easy to 
 ignite the largest quantity of gunpowder that could be accumulated 
 in one hundred points at once, by means of electrical action 
 
222 HOW RANGES OP CANNON SHOT MAT BE INOEEASED. 
 
 properly applied, and thus, instead of the slow progression of 
 igniting by one vent or touch-hole, we should precipitate the pro- 
 duction of the elastic gas one-hundredfold ! The only difficulty 
 would be to construct a piece of ordnance strong enough for the 
 purpose ; but this perhaps may be done, and the range of pro- 
 jectiles may be thus increased to distances never before contem- 
 plated." 
 
 By such means also, employing electricity to ignite a large 
 charge in several places at once, we can overcome the natural 
 obstacle to quick inflammation, which the carbonic acid and other 
 gases present in long charges, and obtain that superior initial 
 velocity in the projectile which seems to be the desire of the 
 present day. And I am given to understand, that Sir William 
 Armstrong used this means, having two electric wires to ignite the 
 charge at different points, with the 12-pounder of his principle of 
 construction, in the experiment at Shoeburyness, in April last, 
 when he obtained an initial velocity with an 8-lb. shell and 
 2 lbs. of powder, of 1740 ft. 
 
 But I have also a project, by the complete alteration of the form 
 of cannon, by which this desirable object may be obtained, which 
 I shall bring forward, if suitable opportunity offers, at a future day. 
 
 Having thus stated my explanation of the circumstances which, 
 I believe, have an important effect in the explosion of gunpowder, 
 I will just refer to a printed paper which is laid upon a table in 
 the Military Department of the International Exhibition, as the 
 explanation of the retarding causes of the combustion of powder in 
 narrow tubes may be derived from my theory. 
 
 Mr. Vallance heads his paper; which I give below, as describing 
 his " patent improvements in placing and. igniting the charge in 
 fire-arms and ordnance," and he states as follows : — " When 
 gunpowder, gun cotton, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases, 
 or other explosive compound, is placed in a narrow tube, and 
 ignited at an open end, the explosion is changed from a sudden 
 flash to a gradual and rocket-like combustion, and the narrower 
 the tube, the slower is the charge in burning. By taking advan- 
 tage of this, and placing the charge of a gun in a conical chamber. 
 
ME. vallance's patent. 223 
 
 having the base of the cone at the furthest end from the muzzle of 
 the gun, and igniting it in front, and so proportioning the diameter 
 of the chamber and the angle of the cone to the length of the 
 barrel as for the whole of the charge to be ignited just before the 
 shot leaves the muzzle of the gun, the greatest velocity may be 
 given to the shot, although very gradually started from a state of 
 rest, and consequently the recoil of the gun, and the bursting 
 strain on the barrel, may be reduced to a minimum. 
 
 " In this manner I have fired repeatedly three drams of powder» 
 and two ounces of shot, from the thinnest drawn trumpet tube, 
 with all the effect of the best fowling piece, and I have also fired 
 from the shoulder many times a six-ounce bullet, and six drams of 
 powder, without any unpleasant effect from the recoil." 
 
 I have given the whole paper, because I consider that experi- 
 ments of this description are always worthy of notice and con- 
 sideration, and as such I trust they will be considered by my 
 readers. 
 
 If Mr. Vallance had stated any results of comparative trials of 
 ranges, and penetration of bullet fired from his conical-chambered 
 barrel, as compared with others of the common cylindrical bore, 
 it would have been more satisfactory, as rapidity of ignition is 
 certainly a prime element in causing the strain upon the metal of 
 fire-arms, independent of other causes, as rifling, &c. 
 
 Such trials, among others also, are convincing facts that the 
 proof of the strength, or propeUirig force of gunpowder by the 
 Gun Eprouvette, is not to be depended upon, especially when 
 different powders are examined in comparison, and some very 
 singular effects were found to be produced when I made the 
 following experiments with fired charges of gunpowder, which I 
 will now relate. 
 
 I took a strong musket barrel, and removed the breech-plug. 
 To make sure that the barrel was perfectly cylindrical, I passed a 
 steel cylinder, armed with four well tempered steel cutters, 
 through the barrel. This cylinder was mounted on an axis of 
 sufficient length to be supported by sockets at each end, to each 
 end of which, crank handles were attached, and by gradually 
 
224 BXPEEIMBNTS WITH A MUSKET BAEEEL. 
 
 turning the same, and moving tlie barrel horizontally, the interior 
 was made truly cylindrical and pohshed. I then bored a small 
 touch hole, exactly in the centre of the barrel, a cartridge con- 
 taining three drams of powder was then introduced, and by regular 
 measured rods placed exactly equi-distant from each end ; steel 
 plugs flat at the end next the cartridge, and acorn-shaped in front, 
 were shoved down to the cartridge on each side. At the distance 
 of 5 ft. from each end of the barrel, two stems of plantain trees, 
 which were equally fresh, soft, and juicy, were cut off with per- 
 fectly flat faces, and placed as targets to receive the projectiles. 
 The charge was fired by a match, and the two balls penetrated 
 equally 17^ in. into the stems of the plantains. 
 
 I then screwed in the breech plug, placed the cartridge next it, 
 then the shot, and fired at the usual touch-hole, the baU having 
 the range of the whole length of the barrel ; the penetration was 
 29^ in. This was repeated three times, with nearly similar results. 
 A half cvi^t. of iron was placed against the breech, to prevent 
 any recoil. I then placed the cartridge, the same weight of powder, 
 in the middle, having stopped up the usual vent with a screw, and 
 leaving the air only behind the cartridge. The charge was fired 
 by the middle vent. The penetration of the shot was 28 in., or 
 only slightly differing from the penetration when the shot was 
 placed close to the breech, the air in the after part of the barrel 
 acting Uke an elastic cushion, and, I think, greatly assisting the 
 combustion of the powder, as the report was sharper, and I was 
 surprised to find, on removing the heavy weight at the breech, 
 and replacing it by lighter ones, that the force of the recoil was 
 greatly weakened by this cushion of air, and that a weight of 
 7 lbs. completely sustained it. 
 
 To prove that the fire of an exploding cartridge, placed in the 
 middle of this barrel, and fired, wiU not communicate its fire to 
 another, placed at the end vent of the breech, I fired the central 
 'cartridge several times, without causing the explosion of that next 
 the breech ; and 1 conceive this circumstance to arise from the for- 
 mation and compression of the carbonic gas preventing the fire 
 being communicated. 
 
OtJlT COTTON. 225 
 
 I find by the American papers, that a young mechanic, of New- 
 York, Mr. Cochran, has invented and experimented with a cannon 
 having a mechanical elastic cushion or volute spring behind the 
 charge, and that his ranges are equal to those without it, if not 
 superior, while the shock of the recoil is greatly lessened. 
 
 Editoe. 
 
 GUN COTTON, OR PYROXYLB. 
 
 FROM COLONEL ANDERSON'S MSS. 
 
 AccoEDiNQ to the investigation by Dr. W. B. O'Shaughnessy, of 
 the Calcutta mint, this explosive material resolves itself into an 
 acid nearly allied to the active principle of the fulminating 
 powders, a species of cyanic acid. 
 
 Cyanogen is a compound of carbon and nitrogen, which, acidified 
 by oxygen, compose cyanic acid, detonating and expanding under 
 the operation. 
 
 Cotton is composed of carbon and water. One hundred parts 
 of the best cotton are saturated with a mixture of equal 
 measures of sulphuric and nitric acid ; all superfluous acid 
 being expressed by force, or neutralised. The cotton thus pre- 
 pared and well dried, weighs 120 parts.^^^ 
 
 The .rationale of the explosion is thus proposed : — The sul- 
 phuric acid absorbs the water of the cotton, and leaves that 
 substance as carbon to combine with the oxygen and nitrogen, 
 which it does with detonation and force. Further investigation 
 is not yet settled. The affinities come into action at a tem- 
 perature of 375° Fahrenheit. A violent blow will also explode 
 this substance. 
 
 I' Carbon 
 
 ^°"°° ) Water /Hydrogen. 
 V I Oxygen. 
 
 Nitric acid . ff^'°S^^- 
 \ Oxygen. 
 
 Sulphuric acid . < ^ 
 
 \_ Oxygen. 
 
 * There are various receipts for preparing this material, — Editok. 
 
 Q 
 
228 NEW INVENTION FOE GUNPOWDEH. 
 
 less dangerous than gun cotton, and is quite strong enough as a 
 propellant for safe use with any cannon that have yet been made. 
 
 Reports, however, are constantly published in the public 
 journals, either of some improvement in the preparation of gun 
 cotton, rendering it more safe and suitable to fire-arms and 
 artillery, or that some new preparations, no doubt deriving their 
 propellant power from the same chemical principles, are to astonish 
 the world as substitutes for gunpowder. Thus, only a few days 
 back, in the "Times" and " Standard" of the 8th July, and 
 other papers, there appeared the following : — 
 
 " Gunpowder superseded. — Apart from the ancient discovery 
 of Berthold Schwartz, and the more novel invention of gun cotton 
 by Professor Schonbein, the feat has just now been repeated in 
 another way by two officers in the Prussian and Austrian services. 
 Of these Hauptman Schmidt, a captain of artillery at Berlin, is the 
 original discoverer, whose idea was subsequently imitated and im- 
 proved by Colonel von Uchatius. The latest explosive material 
 consists of the flour of starch, which, boiled in a peculiar way with 
 nitric acid, possesses a far greater projectile force than the gun- 
 powder in ordinary use. It has also the great advantage of not 
 fouling the piece to any appreciable extent, and, from the nature 
 of the materials used, is produced at a far cheaper rate. Another 
 point in its composition, which recommends It especially for for- 
 tresses and magazines, is the facility with which the ingredients 
 are mixed together, thus rendering it possible to keep them 
 separate until wanted for actual use. In this state the powder 
 is non-explosive. The experiments now in course of progress 
 in Vienna and Berlin, are said to leave little doubt as to its 
 general adoption in the Austrian and Prussian armies." 
 
 From the preparation with nitric acid, and the vegetable 
 matter acted upon, there can be Httle doubt that it assimilates to 
 gun cotton ; but it may still be doubted, until satisfactory experi- 
 ments prove the contrary, if it will supersede the admirable and 
 well-established agent for projectile force which gunpowder is 
 universally acknowledged to be ; and the question may well be 
 asked, would the wonderful exactness of the ranges of the rifles at 
 
SUBSTITUTES FOE GUNPOWDEK. 229 
 
 Wimbledon and elsewhere have been obtained, had charges of gun 
 cotton been used 1 
 
 Although it has been found that gun cotton does not generate 
 so much heat as gunpowder when fired, and the residue it leaves 
 is trifling, yet its chemical effect on iron or steel, if the mois- 
 ture it forms is not carefully wiped out, would seriously 
 damage the surface of the bore, and therefore be very injurious 
 to rifled barrels, and it is probable that this new composition, 
 having the same elements, would be equally deleterious. 
 
 Editok. 
 
 ATTEMPTS TO USE OTHER COMPOSITIONS AS SUBSTITUTES FOB 
 
 GUNPOWDER. 
 
 Notwithstanding the acknowledged advantages of gunpowder, 
 yet at various times experimentalists have, from different causes, 
 endeavoured to form a substitute, some with a view to economy, 
 others hoping to gain superior force. 
 
 The astonishing violence of the detonation of the fulminating 
 powders made from metals, as gold, silver, and mercury, is found 
 useless as a projectile force, and destructive to the tenacity of the 
 metal of guns or cannon, and they are therefore well set aside ; but 
 we wiU notice below a few compositions that have been tried. 
 
 1st. Powder made with nitrate of soda. 
 
 This. salt was used in the place of nitrate of potash, and a 
 compound made with some proportions of sulphur and charcoal, 
 as are usually employed in common gunpowder. It was found to 
 inflame more difficultly, its detonation was weaker and slower, and 
 its projectile force much less than that of gunpowder made with 
 nitrate of potash. This salt also subdeliquesces on exposure to 
 the air, so that no powder made with it would keep. 
 
 2. Powder made with nitrate of ammonia. 
 
 This composition was made at Essonne, in France, by Mons. 
 Eobin ; but it was found that with a charge of 6 oz. the shell 
 from a mortar was not projected. 
 
 The composition also inflamed very slowly, liquefying without 
 
230 DANGER OF CHLORATE OF POTASH. 
 
 detonating; it is also very deliquescent, its water of crystal- 
 lisation cannot be separated without a difiBcult process, and it 
 soon imbibes moisture on exposure to the air. 
 
 3. Powder made with oxymuriate of potash, or hyperoxy- 
 muriate of potash, now named chlorate of potash. 
 
 This astonishingly powerful compound was first made known 
 by Bertholet, in 1785, who proposed to substitute it for common 
 gunpowder. When Bertholet first formed this salt, he named it 
 oxygenised muriate of potash — afterwards Mr, Kirwan shortened 
 the term to oxymuriate of potash — because, as chlorine is produced 
 by distilling black oxide of manganese and muriatic acid, Ber- 
 tholet thought that it was a compound of muriatic acid and 
 oxygen. But in 1809, Sir H. Davy proved that it contained no 
 oxygen, and called it chlorine, from its yellow colour ; and this 
 t6rm was afterwards adopted by chemists. 
 
 This discovery set aside at once the old opinion that any 
 atmosphere which supported combustion was respirable and in- 
 noxious, and that without the presence of oxygen combustion 
 could not take place, for if any animal inhales chlorine, in a 
 pure state, it produces instant death, and some substances will 
 inflame in it spontaneously. 
 
 What Fourcroy says of this salt will convey an excellent idea 
 of its nature. (See Vol. iii. of his Chemistry.) He says, " that it 
 appears to include the elements of thunder in its particles," and 
 that "Nature seems to have concentrated all her powers of 
 detonation, fulmination, and inflammation in this terrible com- 
 pound." If three grains only of this composition are struck with 
 a hammer upon an anvil, the report is as loud as that of a gun. 
 There is great danger in mixing this composition, and too much 
 circumspection cannot be used in making experiments with it. It 
 explodes instantly on any violent stroke — often by friction only, 
 and sometimes spontaneously, or when at a state of rest, and no 
 known cause for its combustion can be ascertained. Several 
 individuals have lost their lives, or been dreadfully wounded, in 
 their attempts to manufacture gunpowder with this salt, and the 
 lives of the two first workmen employed by Bertholet were 
 
EXPERIMENTS WITH VARIOUS PROPORTIONS. 231 
 
 sacrificed to the experiment; for immediately they began to 
 triturate the ingredients, they exploded with dreadful violence, 
 which destroyed the building, and proved fatal to these un- 
 fortunate men. This was in 1788, and the accident was supposed 
 to have occurred principally from the ingredients not having been 
 reduced to extreme tenuity, as subsequent trials have succeeded 
 in manufacturing this dangerous compound without accident, and 
 the above melancholy fate of the two workmen employed by 
 Bertholet did not deter others from attempting the manufacture 
 under careful precautions. 
 
 Mons. Riffault, one of the members of the Imperial Adminis- 
 tration of Powder and Saltpetre in France, prepared, with great 
 caution, about 8 oz., by slowly triturating the materials when 
 moistened ; he then formed it into grains by pressing it through 
 a sieve, but he did not dare to dry it completely, and in this 
 moist state, with a charge of 8 oz., he tried its force in an old 
 mortar dprouvette, which, with a charge of 6 oz. of the best 
 cannon powder, would project a solid globe 240 yards. The new 
 composition threw the globe (with a velocity that the eye could 
 hardly follow it in the air) to the distance of 500 yards, where 
 it penetrated deep into the earth. 
 
 Mons. Cossigny made many experiments with this kind of 
 gunpowder, using a process which seems to be almost free from 
 any danger. He first made a strong solution of the salt in a 
 certain quantity of water, then adding the proportions of sulphur 
 and charcoal, and stirring the mixture gently, he evaporated the 
 moisture to dryness. 
 
 His proportions were 75 chlorate of potash, 12^ sulphur, and 
 12^ of charcoal, in 100 parts. 
 
 He also tried to increase the force of gunpowder by substi- 
 tuting a portion of this salt for a part of the nitrate of potash. 
 
 First Experiment :—d*t\ parts of chlorate of potash, 371 of 
 nitrate of potash, 12^ parts of sulphur, 12^ of charcoal. 
 
 The detonation of this was very strong, above that of common 
 gunpowder. 
 
 Second Ewperiment : — 3 parts of saltpetre ; 1 of chlorate of 
 
232 EXPERIMENTS WITH VAEIOUS PEOPOETIONS. 
 
 potash ; 1 of sulphur ; 1 of charcoal The detonation of thi^ 
 was also very strong. 
 
 Third Eosperiment : — 3 parts of saltpetre ; 2 of chlorate of 
 potash ; 1 of sulphur ; 1 of charcoal. This -was stronger than the 
 last, but -when made without any saltpetre, the composition is 
 strongest, being more than double that of gunpowder. 
 
 It was soon found, however, that fire-arms of the common 
 standard would not sustain, without danger of bursting, the 
 violence of the explosion, even with a small charge ; and when 
 the arms were made stronger, they were soon injured by the 
 vehemence of the combustion, and its active oxidation of the 
 metal. 
 
 Experiments were afterwards made with it for the purpose 
 of firing a charge of common gunpowder in cannon and fire- 
 arms by means of a priming of this compound, which should 
 be exposed in a peculiar kind of lock to a violent blow.* It 
 answered this end completely, but the vent and lock were soon 
 oxidated by the small quantity thus used (only an eighth of a 
 grain), and the danger attending the transport of this 
 composition soon caused it to be abandoned, even for the pur- 
 pose of priming, because a new preparation of silver was found 
 to be superior for this purpose. 
 
 Several attempts were made under Bonaparte to make use 
 of these gunpowders in his campaigns, and it is reported that, 
 in one campaign, they were actually used. 
 
 It is certain, however, that the disadvantages and dangers 
 • attending the use of compositions containing chlorate of potash, 
 greatly overbalance any advantages that can be gained from their 
 superiority in projectile force. 
 
 A white powder for fulminating may be made from — 
 
 Saltpetre . 3 ") 
 
 Salt of tartar 2 > parts by weight. 
 
 Sulphur . . l) 
 
 A small quantity of this explodes with great violence, if ex- 
 
 * I suspect these experiments in France must have preceded the invention of 
 the Eev. Mr. Forsyth for this purpose ia England. 
 
REMARKS ON CHARCOAL. 233 
 
 posed to a moderate heat for a quarter of an hour. Chlorate 
 of potash and arsenic mixed, also inflame with astonishing 
 quickness and incredible force. Many others might be named, 
 but chemical works can easily be consulted for their pre- 
 scription s. — Editor . 
 
 EEMAEKS ON CHARCOAL. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no ingredient in the composition of gun- 
 powder which is more important, supposing the others pure, 
 than the charcoal. It has been remarked by French chemists, 
 that the English use too much charcoal in the composition ; 
 and Chaptal, who searched carefully into the subject, says, 
 the proportions which yield the best gunpowder are, 
 
 77 Saltpetre \ 
 
 14 Charcoal | " Chemistry Applied to the Arts," vol. iv. p. 142. 
 9 Sulphur ) 
 
 There is every reason to believe that these proportions of 
 charcoal and sulphur might be advantageously introduced, and 
 many private manufacturers in England have certainly done so. 
 
 Not only in France, but at Woolwich, Mr. Cruickshanks, who 
 devoted much attention to the subject many years back, found 
 on examining the residues of fired gunpowder, that the uncon- 
 sumed charcoal amounted to, generally, one third of the quantity 
 used in the composition. As the residue or foulness of the 
 bores of cannon and fire-arms is of serious importance, now that 
 we have rifles in common use with the army manufactured 
 with the utmost truth and dehcacy of bore, sm-ely it would be 
 as well if careful experiments were made on this subject, 
 leading, perhaps, to a judicious improvement in our national 
 gunpowder ; and as charcoal is so high an absorbent of 
 moisture, any reduction of its proportion would be highly im- 
 portant for sea service. 
 
 Chemical analysis must fail in exactly determining the best 
 proportions of the ingredients for gunpowder made with varieties 
 of charcoal. 
 
236 " CHAEBON EOUGE " OF MONS, VIOLETTE. 
 
 Here may be remarked the effect in the loss of gas from the 
 willow from overheating. I do not, however, consider this trial 
 satisfactory, unless the composition was as intimately mixed and 
 milled as it is in gunpowder ; but it shows the great superiority 
 of black dogwood in proportion to that of other woods. 
 
 I was in hopes of having obtained from France a statement re- 
 garding a peculiar preparation of charcoal for gunpowder by Mons. 
 Violette, which is fully detailed in the Annales de Chimie et de 
 Physique, Paris, 1848, in which the inventor has given, a very 
 ingenious mode of preparing charcoal, which he terms " charbon 
 rouge," from its red appearance. It is made by passing super- 
 heated steam through the wood in the retort, until it is charred 
 by a degree of. heat not exceeding 400° of the centigrade ther- 
 mometer, so as to preserve a portion of the hydrogen gas which, 
 at a higher heat, would be driven off, and M. Violette, with 
 powder made with this charcoal, obtained very high ranges in 
 projecting shells and shot. 
 
 It has been stated, of late years, that the use of this charcoal 
 for gunpowder in France has been given up, as it was injurious 
 to the fire-arms, and I wished to learn whether this was the 
 case, and what was the cause ; whether the gunpowder was 
 too strong for the guns, or whether it was from any dele- 
 terious action on the metal chemically ; but I have not been 
 able to obtain a satisfactory answer, or I should have described 
 the whole process, as it seems an important one. — Editor. 
 
EBMAEKS ON SIZES OF GRAIN. 
 
 237 
 
 REMARKS ON SIFTING AND SIZE OF GRAIN. 
 
 BY COLONEL ANDERSON. 
 
 Thti manufactories of gunpowder appear to work with different 
 
 sieves. 
 
 Madras 
 
 Meshes. 
 
 O J 1 4. t Hence Madras contains a great deal of larger and a 
 ' ( 18 ( portion of smaller grain than that of Bengal. 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Bengal 
 
 M. 
 
 0. 
 
 M, 
 
 ■18 
 
 24 
 
 „„ ^ The Madras M, uniformly smaller than that of Bengal. 
 
 36 
 
 J}' 
 
 As Madras. 
 As Madras. 
 
 O. J^^ J- Small. 
 M 
 
 are proposed, which will be very 
 large musketry. 
 
 England 
 
 . J, riOlI suspect, more mixed, contains both larger and smaller 
 ) '124/ than Bengal. 
 
 ( M. /24 
 
 \36 Smaller than Bengal. 
 
 The following is the composition of the Ishapore powder, in 
 sizes of grains : — 
 
 Sieves. 
 
 Ordnance 
 two months old. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Ordnance 
 sifted to utmost. 
 
 Musketry 
 two months old. 
 
 Density. 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 •86 
 •13 
 •00 
 •01 
 
 
 •32 
 •61 
 •06 
 ■01 
 
 •47 
 •50 
 •03 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 1^00 
 
 280 
 
 1-00 
 
 1^00 
 
 263 
 
 The Table below gives the result obtained by sifting English 
 and Bombay powders : — 
 
 
 English 
 
 Ordnance 
 
 6 years old. 
 
 Density. 
 
 English 
 Ordnance 
 
 sifted 
 to utmost. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Bombay 
 Musketry, 
 6 years old. 
 
 Density. 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 Dust 
 
 •20 
 
 •32 
 
 •33 
 
 •1 
 
 •05 
 
 
 •59 
 ■28 
 •09 
 •04 
 
 English 
 
 Musketry 
 
 6 years old. 
 
 •35 
 •45 
 •16 
 •14 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 1-00 
 
 272 
 
 1-00 
 
 267 
 
 1^00 
 
 254 
 
238 
 
 RANGES WITH VARIOUS SIZED GEAIIf. 
 
 I made the following experiments on the run from the Corning 
 House : — 
 
 No. I. 
 
 Comparative Proof of GtrNPCwnBR taken at Ishapore on the 22nd of November, 
 1844, with powder of the different sizes of grain, that was passed through the 
 upper and retained by the next lower sieve. 
 
 Description of powder. 
 
 - Charge 
 1 lb. 65i lbs. 
 
 ball iron. 
 
 dia. 7-85. 
 
 Charge 
 
 2 oz, 68 lbs 
 
 ball iron, 
 
 dia. 7-92. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Ishapore powder of \ 
 
 1844-45. Large grain. > 
 
 Retained on No. 5 sieves. ) 
 
 Tarda. 
 453 
 
 Yards. 
 77 
 
 f Ktjkkttr. 
 (^ Firm sharp grain. 
 
 Ishapore powder of 
 
 1844-45. 
 
 Retained on No. 4 sieve, j 
 
 618 
 
 87 
 
 Ordnance. 
 Similar and regular grain . 
 
 Ishapore powder of \ 
 
 1844-45. 1 
 
 Retained on No. 3 sieve. ) 
 
 793 
 
 93 
 
 Musketry. 
 Long and flat, less round 
 ( grain. 
 
 Ishapore powder of \ 
 1844-45. 1 
 
 827 
 
 89 
 
 Refle. 
 Rounder and smaller 
 
 Retained on No. 2 sieve. ) 
 
 
 
 ( grain. 
 
 Ishapore powder of 
 1844-45. 
 
 437 
 
 53 
 
 ( Fine. 
 
 J Dusty ; brownish colour. 
 
 Retained on No. 1 sieve. ) 
 
 
 
 ( small grain. 
 
 Dust, with a few minute 7 
 grains . . . ) 
 
 288 
 
 35 
 
 { DirsT. 
 
 I Dust, with a few minute 
 
 ( grains, brown coloxur. 
 
 The above powder was not glazed, nor winnowed on the drying ter- 
 race ; hence the different kinds contain some small portion of dust. 
 
 No. IL 
 
 Comparative Peooi' of Gtrerpo'WBER taken at Ishapore Powder Manufactory, on 
 the 3rd December, 1844, with powder passed through the following sieves, 
 aU the larger grain extracted being the complement of the run of the 
 Corning House. 
 
 Description of powder. 
 
 Charge 1 lb. 
 
 with 654 lb. 
 ball iron, 
 dia. 7-84. 
 
 Charge 2 oz. 
 
 with 
 68 lb. ball, 
 proof ball, 
 dia. 7-93. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Powder as passed through \ 
 the Coming House sieves J 
 
 Ditto, ditto, No. 4 sieve . 
 
 Ditto, ditto. No. 3 sieve . 
 
 Ditto, ditto, No. 2 sieve . 
 
 Ditto, ditto, No. 1 sieve . 
 
 Yards. 
 685 
 
 678 
 486 
 340 
 356 
 
 Yards. 
 68 
 
 76 
 52 
 38 
 43 
 
 ( This contaiQS 0. M. R. P. 
 
 Dust. Unglazed, colour 
 
 dark brownish 
 /This containRM.R.F.cfeDust. 
 \ Unglazed dark slate colour. 
 f This contains R.F. and Dust. 
 \ Unglazed, dark black colour. 
 fThis contains F. and Dust. 
 \ Unglazed, black colour. 
 / This contains Dust. Un- 
 \ glazed, black colour. 
 
TRIALS OF COMBINATIONS OP VAEIOFS GRAINS. 
 
 239 
 
 Towards elucidating the question of grain, I also made the 
 following combinations of various sizes and sorts : — 
 
 
 8-in. mortar. 
 
 
 
 Charge, 2 oz. 
 
 
 
 68 lb. ball. 
 
 
 
 Tarda. 
 
 
 Press cake, 10 pieces . 
 
 12 
 
 
 ,5 20 pieces . . . 
 
 16 
 
 
 ,, 30 pieces . 
 
 20 
 
 
 ,j 40 pieces 
 
 24 
 
 
 ,, 50 pieces . 
 
 27 
 
 
 Next from the common run of powder, giving an average to 
 the officer on proof duty of ordnance, 96 yds., musketry 97. 
 I made up 2 oz. charges in the following proportions : — 
 
 Ordnance . 9 H Average proof of officer on duty. 
 Musketry .97/ 
 
 Proportion. 
 0. M. K. 
 
 T 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 s. 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 o 
 
 t 
 
 8 
 I 
 
 f 
 
 J 
 8 
 2-5 4 2'5g 
 
 f 
 
 I 
 3. 
 8 
 
 Yards. 
 
 105 
 110 
 102 
 99 
 92 
 90 
 96 
 96 
 
 97 
 89 
 89 
 89 
 93 
 90 
 92 
 
 Mortar No. 8, an average 
 mortar, was used. 
 
 To indicate the improvement by a slight mixture of musketry 
 with the ordnance powder ; the difference would be infinitely 
 more remarkable in long charges. 
 
 Sort of powder. 
 
 8-iii. mortar. 
 
 M. 2-oz. charge. 
 
 68 lb. baU. 
 
 Pendulum 
 EprouTette. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Kemarks. 
 
 M. 
 2 oz. 
 
 5-35 
 e 
 
 % 
 
 >> 
 
 2-65 
 8 
 
 0. 
 
 265 
 8 
 
 t 
 
 2 oz. 
 
 5-3 S 
 
 8 
 
 Yards. 
 66 
 59 
 66 
 69 
 70 
 
 o / 
 
 23 1 
 22 9 
 21 21 
 
 20 29 
 
 21 6 
 
 256 
 270 
 274 
 276 
 280 
 
 Prom a very inferior, bad 
 
 mortar, rejected for 
 
 proof, No. 173. 
 This mortar is 20 yards 
 
 in range, inferior to 
 
 No. 8. 
 
240 
 
 ACCIDENTS. 
 
 There is an indication of the Eprouvette are, falling progressively 
 ■with the density and with the larger grain. 
 
 The mortar range "with 2 oz. rising with the density and with the 
 larger grain. 
 
 To ascertain how far the mixture and size of grain caused the 
 difference between Ishapore and English ordnance powders, I 
 compounded some Ishapore of the same quantities of the same 
 sizes as the EngUsh ; the result was — 
 
 
 8-in. mortar. 
 
 2-oz. charge. 
 
 68 lb. ball. 
 
 Pendulum 
 Eprouvette. 
 
 
 English war powder 6 years old . . 
 Ishapore similar to the above . 
 
 Yards. 
 
 mi 
 
 91f 
 
 2°2 1 
 20 11 
 
 
 So that other cause for the difference must be found than the 
 variation in sizes, and quantities of grain. 
 
 This must be in the density of the cake, or in the weakness of 
 the Bengal charcoal.* 
 
 ACCIDENTS. 
 
 BY COLONEL ANDERSON. 
 
 In the manufacturing an article of the explosive nature of 
 gunpowder, serious and fatal accidents may be expected and will 
 occur. These have certainly taken place in the Ishapore works, 
 but perhaps, in proportion, less than in works of a similar nature 
 in other countries. 
 
 In former days, when pilon mills were in use, under common 
 bamboo huts, and worked by old women and children, these 
 explosions were constantly occurring ; but in later years they 
 have been few, and resolvable into two kinds : those from acci- 
 dental presence of fire, and those from a second cause, not quite 
 determined. 
 
 To those of the first kind there is no limit but under care and 
 prudence. 
 
 With reference to the arrangement of the works, it is won- 
 derful that they do not more often take place. 
 
 * See Appendix, my remarks on Charcoal. — Editor, 
 
ACCIDENTS. 241 
 
 When the gloom stove was used to dry the powder, a spark 
 once found entrance,* and the whole place was blown up with 
 serious loss. 
 
 At Allahabad, in 1823, a long string of men was carrying 
 barrels of powder to the drying terrace; it was supposed that 
 one man let a barrel fall, and the whole quantity of the powder 
 exploded, killing some men, and all the others wefe much burnt. 
 Unfortunately the fire communicated to the press house and 
 one of the counting-houses, at that time constructed of thin boards, 
 thus sadly increasing the effect of the disaster. 
 
 The friction of the corning house wheels at Ishapore has 
 twice caused explosion, which, considering their velocity, is not to 
 be wondered at. 
 
 The explosion constantly of either the mixing barrels or mills, 
 excited my curiosity, and I attempted to examine the cause. 
 This had been identified by several agents with friction with bits 
 of wood, or stone, or copper ; with wilful neglect or intention on 
 the part of the workmen, and to every cause but the correct 
 one, of concussion. 
 
 This having been denied at the commencement as a possible 
 cause by Colonel G-alloway, has since been disallowed by all ; 
 but I made the experiment, and found it was facile in the 
 extreme, with a very slight blow, to ignite gunpowder placed 
 between different substances. 
 
 To a committee sent up to Ishapore by Government, I proved 
 that, with gunpowder placed as follows, the results were, — 
 
 . f 5 misses 
 
 Iron upon iron < ., „, . „ 
 
 ^ (45 explosions 
 
 Brass on iron -f ". 
 
 '3 misses 
 47 explosions 
 , f 9 misses 
 
 Iron on brass 1 41 explosions 
 
 „ , r 20 misses 
 
 Brass on brass | 30 explosions 
 
 With a Tiammer about 4 lbs. 
 in weigbt. 
 
 I had previously tabulated all the mill explosions I could find 
 recorded, and had traced them to this cause of concussion on 
 heated dry composition. 
 
 * Or perhaps it was oyerbeated. — Editor. 
 
242 
 
 TABLE OF MILLS EXPLODED. 
 
 This cause also accounts for the firing of the mixing barrels in 
 the direct impingements of one brass ball on another. 
 
 Table of Mills Exploded. 
 
 Month and Date of 
 
 No. of Mill. 
 
 Time of Explosion. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Explosion. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1821. 
 
 May 9th . 
 
 No. 
 
 3 
 
 9 a.m. 
 
 By lightning. 
 
 1822. 
 
 Jan. 16th . 
 
 No. 
 
 2 
 
 10 a.m. 
 
 
 1823. 
 
 Nov. 17th. 
 
 No. 
 
 3 
 
 2 p.m. 
 
 
 1833. 
 
 „ 30th. 
 
 No. 
 
 3 
 
 12 noon. 
 
 Charge out. 
 
 1834. 
 
 April 5 th . 
 
 No. 
 
 2 
 
 8 p.m. 
 
 [dry. 
 
 1835. 
 
 April 3rd . 
 
 No. 
 
 2 
 
 10 a.m. 
 
 1836. Cylinders sent to foun- 
 
 1840. 
 
 Dec. 2nd . 
 
 No. 
 
 1 
 
 4 p.m. 
 
 Oharge just put in. 
 
 1842. 
 
 Dec. 6th . 
 
 No. 
 
 4 
 
 8 a.m. 
 
 Charge out. 
 
 1843. 
 
 March 1st . 
 
 No. 
 
 4 
 
 7 p.m. 
 
 
 1844. 
 
 April 3rd . 
 
 No. 
 
 2 
 
 1^ p.m. 
 
 
 1847. 
 
 Jan. 5th . 
 
 No. 
 
 3 
 
 4| p.m. 
 
 \Only thus far was com- 
 / mented upon. 
 
 1847. 
 
 Oct. 31st . 
 
 No. 
 
 5 
 
 12 noon. 
 
 1848. 
 
 Oct. 27th . 
 
 No. 
 
 5 
 
 4:1 p.m. 
 
 Charge just put in. 
 
 1848. 
 
 Nov. 23rd . 
 
 No. 
 
 5 
 
 3 p.m. 
 
 „ half worked off. 
 
 1848. 
 
 Nov. 25th . 
 
 No. 
 
 1 
 
 2i p.m. 
 
 15th revolution. 
 
 1849. 
 
 Feb. 24th . 
 
 No. 
 
 4 
 
 9 p.m. 
 
 Charge half worked off. 
 
 Abstract. 
 
 Tears and No. 
 
 Montis and No. of 
 
 Hours and No. of 
 
 Mills Exploded and No. of 
 
 of Hxplosions. 
 
 Explosions. 
 
 Explosions. 
 
 Explosions. 
 
 
 
 
 r 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 1821 
 
 
 January 2 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 1822 
 
 
 February 1 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 
 March 1 
 
 -i 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 
 April 3 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 1834 
 
 
 May 1 
 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 1—11 
 
 1835 
 
 
 June 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 2—4 
 
 1840 
 
 
 July 
 
 ( 
 
 12 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 1 
 1-1 
 
 3-4 
 
 1842 
 
 
 August 
 
 
 4—2-1 
 
 1843 
 
 
 Sept. 
 
 
 S 
 
 0-1 
 
 5-1-2 
 
 1844 
 
 
 October 1-1 
 
 
 4 
 
 2'1 
 
 6— 
 
 1847 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 7— 
 
 1848 
 
 0-3 
 
 November 2*2 
 
 ^ 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 R 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 1849 
 
 0-1 
 
 December 2 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 0-1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -s 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 12-4 
 
 
 
 1 12 
 
 0* 
 
 
 12-4 
 
 
 
 12-4 
 
 12-4 
 
 N.B. — There were only 4= mills working up to 1836 : 5 mills to 1846 ; 6 mills 
 to 1847. 
 
 * The second column are the additions after the report was submitted to 
 Military Board. 
 
EXAMINATION OF TIME OF EXPLOSION. 243 
 
 We will now proceed to examine these facts, and, if possible, 
 deduce from them gome cause of these explosions, and, perhaps, 
 eliminate their laws. 
 
 First, as regards the years, I believe, in 1820, that these 
 mills began to work. From 1823 to 1833, I can trace no ex- 
 plosion. During a portion of this period, from 1828 to 1832, the 
 works were closed, and for the whole period, my records are not 
 very complete. From 1835 to 1840, we miss the almost annual 
 explosion, for this reason, at the close of the season of 1835, the 
 whole of the cylinders, axles, washers, &c., &c., were sent down to 
 the foundry of Fort William to be refitted. The faces of the 
 cylinders from use, having become highly concave, were turned to 
 their original and proper form, of slightly convex. 
 
 As long as this new surface lasted, nearly five years, we have 
 no explosions, but in 1840 thej comm'ence to reappear in their 
 usual ratio. In 1844 I took much care, with my imperfect 
 means, to reduce the beds to a water level, but could not turn, 
 from want of power, the faces of the cylinders. For three 
 years we had no explosions, but now, in 1847, they are com- 
 mencing to reappear. 
 
 All this goes towards a proof, that a perfectly level bed, and 
 convex face of the cylinder, are to be desired, and that the 
 reverse are a cause of explosion, 
 
 . This is also in accordance with the best evidence I can 
 obtain on this subject, viz., the conversation in the hospital of 
 the men who had suffered from the explosions, as from time to 
 time gathered by our intelhgent native doctor, Gunga Saugor. 
 
 He states all the men to say, that explosions take place from 
 any sudden fall of the cylinder on the bed,* or any sudden contact 
 between the raised edges of the cylinders and the high edge of the 
 bed ; that this is their fear ; no danger being apprehended when 
 the cylinders are once fairly in motion, moving over a good deep 
 mass of damp composition. 
 
 * A singular accident is stated in the " Mechanics' Magazuie" of the explosion 
 
 of a cylinder mill at Hounslow, in confirmation of this cause of explosion, from a 
 
 cricket-hall having been struck from a distance, and falling into the trough of the 
 
 runners as they were moving. — Editor. 
 
 K 2 
 
244 DEDUCTIONS FROM T?HE TABLfi OF EXPLOSIOKS. 
 
 That a fear of explosion is always present in their minds during 
 the first transfer of the cylinders from the old mill charge to the 
 dry, fluffy, new composition ; that at this point, or near it, take 
 place all explosions, a fact proved here by a reference to the 
 abstract of mills and hours. 
 
 In regard to the months, we notice that the fewest explosions 
 are at the cooUow temperature of February and March ; while the 
 greatest number occur in the hot month of April ; hence may be 
 inferred that dryness of atmosphere and of composition are dis- 
 posing causes of explosion. 
 
 In regard to the hours, a most curious and highly interesting 
 feature is brought forward — that, of all these explosions, not one 
 has taken place during the night ;* all of them, but one, at the 
 hours of changing charges, and chiefly during the latter portions 
 of the day. Had negligence or want of care been a cause, 
 assuredly during the inefficient light and want of superintendence 
 during the night, more explosions would have taken place than 
 during the day, but for the dampness of the atmosphere. 
 
 Hence I again argue, that dryness of composition and the act 
 of changing charges, are truly predisposing causes. 
 
 In regard to the mills, Nos. 2 and 3 have exploded more than 
 three times often er than any other, because always used for the dust, 
 and hence, having the charge changed about three times as often 
 in them as in any other mill, dust only receiving one-sixth of the 
 revolutions of fresh composition. 
 
 The system of watering is to be considered, and runs thus : 
 
 First 
 
 At 30 
 
 At 100 
 
 At 150 
 
 At 200 
 
 At 250 
 
 starting. 
 
 revolutions. 
 
 revolutions. 
 
 revolutions. 
 
 revolutions. 
 
 revolutions. 
 
 
 
 1 seer. 
 
 ^ Beer. 
 
 '^ seer. 
 
 J seer. 
 
 J seer or more, ac- 
 cording to weather. 
 
 Hence the cylinders first start on perfectly dry composition, of 
 the most minute particles. 
 
 From these simple facts I deduce, that the heat of the atmo- 
 
 * The great discovery of Professor Schonbein, of BMe, of nascent oxygen, called 
 ozone, has awakened much inquiry in its relation to the phenomena of combus- 
 tion and explosion ; and as the quantity varies greatly in different months, and 
 is more diffused in the day than in the hours of night, it is very probable that 
 it is intimately connected with the explosions of gunpowder mills. — Editor. 
 
CAUSES 01" EXPLOSION. 245 
 
 sphere and dryness of composition are predisposing causes, and the 
 contact of the cylinders and bed the active cause of these explo- 
 sions ; that the latter again exists in the want of level in the beds 
 and convex face to the cylinder. 
 
 A further inspection of the table shovrs another feature illus- 
 trative of the correctness of the idea of the contact of the edge of 
 the cylinders being the cause of explosion ; viz., that we find the 
 same will continue to explode in succession. 
 
 I have no doubt it would do so week after week, as fast as 
 renewed, if some change was hot made in the bed or in the cylin- 
 ders. The bed and cylinders rub down into hollows, which con- 
 taining the mass of composition, allows the cylinder to drop from a 
 strata of composition on the bare bed, when the mill explodes. 
 
 This is believed to be caused by some accident, the mill is 
 rebuilt, and again explodes, when some change is made ; thus 1 
 am informed, after No. 2 had twice exploded, all the cylinders 
 for the eight mills were refaced at Cossipore. After No. 4 had 
 twice exploded, its cyhnders were changed for newly faced ones. 
 Now No. 5 has exploded thrice, I shall take it to pieces. 
 
 In 1836 all the cylinders for the eight mills were refaced. On 
 my arrival, in 1843, only one of these sets remained untouched ; 
 therefore, in seven years, although only working five mills, my 
 predecessors had used up the faces of cylinders for seven mills. 
 From 1836 to 1843, eight years, my predecessors appear to have 
 made 64,277 barrels of gunpowder, experienced three explosions, 
 and used up the faces of the two pair of spare cyhnders. 
 
 From 1844 to 1848, five years, I have made 52,397 barrels 
 of powder, and had six explosions, and used up no spare cylinders, 
 and this with machinery that, since its last re-setting up, had pre- 
 viously worked eight years, and is now thirteen years unset up. 
 
 Tables and drawings of the present state of the mills were 
 sent to the Mihtary Board. 
 
 No old copper or brass should ever be worked up in powder- 
 works (such always contain the points of steel files and grains of 
 filings, calculated to strike fire — I have seen a magnetic instru- 
 ment for extracting such steel), but only new metal should be used. 
 
246 MODERN IMPEOTEMBNTS IN ARTILLERY, ETC. 
 
 ON THE MODERN IMPROVEMENTS IN ARTILLERY 
 AND FIRE-ARMS. 
 
 It is a singular circumstance, that in the comparatively new 
 country of the American Union improvements in cannon and 
 fire-arms have preceded those of the old nations of Europe. 
 
 Thus in the last American war the successes against our troops 
 were greatly owing to the skill with which their countrymen used 
 the rifle, while our soldiers, generally, were only furnished with 
 the common musket. 
 
 We find also that ships covered with iron plates, to be impelled 
 as rams by steam power, and formidable floating batteries in 
 iron-plated steam vessels, in which the heavy guns were partly 
 worked by steam power, as Stevens's, originated, or, at any rate, 
 Avere first brought into practical use, by the Americans. 
 
 It is true, that proposals for iron-plated vessels had been made 
 by French officers of the navy, and by the celebrated General 
 Paixhans many years back to the French Government, which 
 were rejected by the official committee appointed to examine the 
 project ; and probably if we could ransack the old records in our 
 public military and naval departments, where many a good 
 principle or suggestion is now dwelhng in cobwebby existence, 
 we might perhaps claim precedence as to time ; but our Trans- 
 atlantic brethren were the first to bring them into useful form ; 
 and, notwithstanding the unhappy war which is now devastating 
 that fine country, the Americans are still proceeding with their 
 experiments and improvements ; and, perhaps, without wishing 
 to depreciate the many ingenious inventions and beautiful work- 
 manship of EngHsh and Scotch gunmakers, Storms's American 
 breech-loading rifle, lately invented and brought over to the 
 International Exhibition, may be considered as the simplest, 
 strongest, and most handy of any breech-loading fire-arm that 
 has yet been brought before the public,* and we must not be 
 
 * Since this was written, I find that the inventor has received a medal for this 
 arm from the Commissioners of the International Exhibition. 
 
MODERN IMPEOVEMENTS IN AETILLERY, ETC. 247 
 
 forgetful of the American improvements, both in machinery and 
 weapons, of the late Colonel Colt. 
 
 In France, under Napoleon I., there were no great or decided 
 improvements in the construction of artillery or fire-arms made, 
 if we except the Paixhans gun and the elongated mortars ; but in 
 the reign of Louis Philippe, under the Duke of Orleans, several 
 advances took place in 1837-38, and in the year 1848 the French 
 had at least 16,000 men of their numerous army provided with 
 improved rifles. In the year 1842, Monsieur Tamisier, who had 
 been formerly a captain of artillery in the French service, was in 
 charge of a course of instruction in musketry at Vincennes, and 
 he constructed a rifled mortar with cylindro-conical shells to be 
 propelled from it. The young Duke de Montpensier, then colonel 
 of artillery, at once saw the importance of the project, and 
 earnestly promoted it ; but it must not be allowed that this 
 Captain Tamisier was the first to propose rifled cannon, as has 
 been asserted by some writers, as in the records of our Patent 
 Office, amongst others, may be found a patent taken out by Mr. 
 James Bodmer, dated 23rd November, 1813, for a method of 
 loading cannon at the breech, rifled or plain bore, and a plate 
 showing the spirals in the bore for rifling, accompanies the 
 specification. 
 
 From Captain Tamisier's various improvements in introducing 
 elongated shot for rifles both for cannon and fire-arms, we may, 
 however, trace the progress of improvement in France ; and 
 much is due to the encouragement given him by the Duke de 
 Montpensier's causing many experiments to be made at his own 
 expense (in 1847) in the construction of Captain Tamisier's 
 elongated shot and shells, in which he satisfied himself of their 
 superior range and efficacy ; the project dropped for a time, but 
 in 1850, under Napoleon III., it was revived, and it was proved 
 at Vincennes, that with elongated projectiles, thrown from a 
 6-pounder rifled bore, extraordinary, accurate, and extended 
 ranges were made. Thus a 6-pounder rifled borcj with three 
 grooves, projected elongated shot to a range of 1500 metres, with 
 a charge of 700 grammes of powder; and so great was the success 
 
248 MODERN IMPEOVEMENTS IN ARTILLERY, ETC. 
 
 of the continued experiments there, and at other places in France, 
 that the Army of Italy brought into the field more than 200 
 rifled guns of a calibre of 84 millimetres, requiring, for service, 
 only two-thirds of the men and horses usually employed with 
 guns of the same calibre of the old construction, and these field 
 guns projected balls of 4 kilogrammes, 3500 metres, with such 
 precision as to fall at that range within the area of a rectangle 
 80 metres long and 40 broad. 
 
 Prussia, in 1848, had 60,000 men armed with the needle rifle, 
 which, though not a perfect weapon, was a great improvement on 
 their old fire-arms ; and rifled and breech-loading cannon are 
 now engaging the earnest attention of their Government. 
 
 The Austrians, Belgians, Germans, Danes, Russians, Spaniards, 
 Italians, &c., are all providing themselves with improved cannon 
 and fire-arms ; and it may be remarked, that in the International 
 Exhibition there is an extraordinary variety of construction from 
 almost all the States of continental Europe. 
 
 It is well known that Great Britain, of late years, has not been 
 behind other nations in this military display ; and as to work- 
 manship, it cannot be disputed that our experienced workmen, 
 under able and scientific directors, stand first in the list of 
 comparison. 
 
 It would bQ difficult, laborious, and, perhaps, considered an 
 invidious task, to search into and endeavour to explain the con- 
 struction and the merits of the varieties of military weapons now 
 placed before the public in the International Exhibition ; and it 
 wovild be impossible to state their relative values justly, without 
 the necessary trials under the action of gunpowder. 
 
 I may, however, remark in this place, that as an entire change 
 has been effected, or is now taking place, in almost every depart- 
 ment of the science of war, those nations that are neglectful, or 
 remain unprepared in this advance, — if unfortunately they become 
 involved in hostilities, — must suffer the evil consequences of such 
 neglect. Those who depend upon the traction of horses for 
 conveyance, cannot attempt to compete with the railroad speed 
 of the present day ; neither can the less powerful cannon and 
 
NECESSARY ALTERATION IN SHIPS, ORDNANCE, ETC. 249 
 
 fire-arms of comparatively very recent date, be now brought into 
 the field with any chance of success ; and, moreover, the stream 
 of advance and improvement is yet moving on ! 
 
 Only a few years ago, from the great improvements in the 
 rifle, it was supposed that field artillery would become of greatly 
 less importance, as the artillerymen could be struck down by the 
 certain aim and accuracy of the rifle ball, at distances where the 
 projectiles commonly used with cannon would be of little avail. 
 It was supposed that by building wooden ships of war of large 
 size (too large to enter most of our harbours), carrying formidable 
 batteries of numerous heavy guns, a few broadsides would eff"ect 
 the destruction of an enemy's ship or fort ; but the improvements 
 in the range and accuracy of cannon, as well as the projectiles 
 used with them, are now fully keeping pace with those of smaller 
 fire-arms ; and plated iron ships, steam rams, and a few, but 
 heavier, pieces of ordnance, will supersede the continuance of the 
 " wooden walls " which have been so long and so worthily our 
 national pride. 
 
 In naval and land battles, therefore, as well as in our system of 
 fortification, great changes must necessarily take place ; and it 
 requires no argument to prove, that to be effective against iron- 
 plated ships, we must have more powerful ordnance, and probably 
 abandon the old plan of placing guns on ramparts to fire through 
 embrasures, by which defective plan ships can run up close to 
 the batteries, exposed to the fire of only a fraction of the number 
 of guns planted upon them. The ramparts should be plain, and 
 the cannon defended by moving cupolas, or shields, with proper 
 traverses between each gun, to prevent the effects of enfilade, and 
 to protect the unemployed gunners and those that serve the 
 ammunition, and only high enough for those purposes. Thus the 
 guns will be " en barbette," and by having no limitation as to their 
 lateral range, can bring the whole force of the artillery into play 
 on any front attacked by land or sea. 
 
 A few powerful guns will then be able to effect all that can 
 now be expected from a great number of cannon firing through 
 embrasures. 
 
250 WHETHER SOLID OR BUILT-UP GUNS. 
 
 There are now at least four serious questions the sub- 
 jects of controversy and experiment relating to artillery and 
 fire-arms. 
 
 First.' — Whether cannon should be of solid metal, cast or other- 
 wise ; or whether they should be built up ; or a combination of 
 separate parts 1 
 
 Secondly. — Whether to be rifled or smooth bore ? 
 
 Thirdly. — Whether they shall be muzzle or breech-loading 1 
 
 Fourthly. ^The best form of projectile. 
 
 It is evident that experience, and trials with charges of fired 
 gunpowder, and suitable projectiles, can alone settle these ques- 
 tions satisfactorily, and as our Government authorities are now 
 directing such experiments to be made at Woolwich and Shoebury- 
 ness, with a hberal expenditure, and under able and scientific 
 artillery officers, there is no doubt the result will be satisfactory 
 to the nation ; and we trust that the several experiences gained 
 by such trials may be open to public inspection, or at any rate to 
 those who have the interests of the nation at heart, and are 
 engaged, mentally or experimentally, in such improvements. 
 
 It was the remark of Mr. Rennie, the celebrated engineer, in a 
 pubUc discourse relating to architecture, " that more useful lessons 
 were given hy failures in construction than by records of success- 
 ful inventions." And this truth is peculiarly applicable to mili- 
 tary science, both in theory or in practice. 
 
 As regards the first question, there can hardly be a doubt, that 
 from the great skill, science, and practical abilities of Sir William 
 Armstrong, Mr. Whitworth, Captain Blakeley, and the several 
 great practical metal working companies that have taken up the 
 subject of forming built-up cannon, all that can be accompHshed 
 has been, or will be, obtained ; but at present it must be consi- 
 dered as an unsettled question, while there is every reasonable 
 hope, from the great improvements in the manufacture of iron 
 and steel under the Mersey Steel and Iron Works, the Bessemer, 
 and other processes, that solid guns will be produced quite equal 
 to any service that can be required from them ; and though it is 
 true that built-up guns, carefully manufactured, have stood very 
 
WHETHER RIFLED OR SMOOTH BORE. 251 
 
 severe proofs, and admirable scientific theories have been advanced 
 by Captain Blakeley and others in their favour, yet from the very 
 nature of metal, there must be a want of perfect combination and 
 solidity in the different parts, which the vibration of large charges 
 of powder, constantly appUed, will tend to increase, so that the 
 question of durability, probably, may still rest with the soUd gun 
 after much service.''^ 
 
 The second question, whether they shall be rifled or smooth borel 
 The experiments made by Robins in the Charter House Garden 
 of London more than one hundred and twenty years ago, first 
 brought to public notice the true cause of the deflection of round 
 balls, from the looseness of their fitting, and consequent windage. 
 The friction and striking against the interior of the cylinder 
 through vrhich round shot are propelled, causing a motion of ro- 
 tation on their axes, at right angles to the hhe of flight ; and, by 
 chance, from the position of the last point of contact just before 
 quitting the muzzle of the piece, this axis of rotation may be 
 perpendicular, horizontal, or inclined ; and thus from the unequal 
 action of the air on the frontal surface of the ball, one side, or 
 half the hemisphere turning towards, and the other half turning 
 from the line of resistance, such shot are deflected, upwards, 
 downwards, or laterally from the proper or intentional line of 
 flight ; and although the experiments of Professor Magnus of 
 Berlin and others dispute this theory, yet it is sufl&ciently true to 
 stand. 
 
 * Although the practice of making buUt-up cannon is of very early date, yet 
 to Mr. Longridge, C.E., and to Captain Blakeley must be given the merit of 
 working out the theory, and putting on record the reasons for, and the possibility 
 of, forming strong cannon on the built-up principle of construction ; and as 
 Captain Blakeley's guns have stood the severest trials by fired gunpowder, and 
 are justly in repute and demand, both at home and abroad, in several of the 
 European continental nations, as well as in America, I am happy to find that the 
 Jury of the International Exhibition has awarded him a medal for investigating 
 the true relation between the sizes of the inner and the outer tubes, on which the 
 strength of the principle of construction depends ; and I am informed by Captain 
 Blakeley that a built-up gun of ? inches diameter can be made for less than half 
 the price of the solid forged one, and one of 13 inches diameter at less than a 
 quarter the price of one forged solid. 
 
252 FLIGHT -OF EIFLED BALLS. 
 
 It is true that this rotation might be prevented, as well as the 
 loose fitting of a round shot, by attaching an expanding bottom, 
 or sabot, preventing all windage, and the contact of the surface 
 of the shot with that of the bore, as has been done by Mr. 
 Bashley Britten and others ; but still this would not embrace all 
 the advantages of rifling, for by adopting this we are able to 
 use elongated shot, which having the same, or greater weight 
 than round shot, and being of less diameter, consequently 
 meet with less resistance than round shot in passing through 
 the air. 
 
 There are also other advantages in the extended ranges of 
 rifle balls, as well as their accuracy, which must be considered in 
 favour of using rifled barrels. 
 
 As the rifle ball in its flight rotates upon an axis coinciding 
 with its own elongated axis, and, if properly fitted, with the axis 
 of the bore of the piece from which it is discharged, this gyratory 
 motion, when the piece is fired at a low elevation, from the axis 
 of the projectile being inclined to the direct line of resistance, 
 will cause it to be partially supported, as long as the rotation is 
 sufficient, against the constant force of gravitation ; and thus its 
 range, although moving with less velocity than a round shot, will 
 be proportionally prolonged and extended. 
 
 It has also been found by experiment that the velocity and 
 consequent momentum of a projectile from a rifle increase for a 
 short distance after it has left the muzzle of the piece from which 
 it is discharged, which can only be accounted for by the resist- 
 ance it meets with in its passing along the bore preventing the 
 maximum of the propellant power of the fired powder being dis- 
 played for certain moments of time, till it has completed a part 
 of its couree. We have, besides the resistance offered by the 
 spirals of the rifling, to consider the great compression, and con- 
 sequent condensation of the column of air in a barrel as it is 
 driven before the shot until it escapes from the muzzle, so that, all 
 at once, it starts into a comparatively rarefied medium, and 
 escapes from a spring, as it were, which held it back. At least, I 
 thus attempt to explain this curious phenomenon, though I am not 
 
, WHETHER MUZZLE OR BREECH-LOADraG. 253 
 
 quite satisfied with the explanation, and the subject will, I hope, 
 be one of scientific investigation and experiment.* 
 
 The question of the advantages of rifled barrels over smooth 
 bores may be considered as settled, as far as fire-arms and the 
 smaller description of cannon ; but for heavier guns, from the loss of 
 velocity in the shot, and the violent additional strain which a large 
 gun with a heavy elongated shot receives when rifled, there is 
 every reason to suppose that the smooth bore will be preferred for 
 a portion at least of the heavy ordnance we now require. 
 
 Thirdly, whether they shall be muzzle or breech-loading ? 
 
 If we may judge from the patterns of our own country, and 
 those of foreign nations, in the International Exhibition, the ex- 
 cess in number of the breech-loading principle evinces a general 
 desire to form both small arms and cannon on this plan. 
 
 The advantages of breech-loading are eminent ; and if the 
 difficulties of construction, so as to ensure safety and durability 
 without a complication of parts, can be overcome with our larger 
 cannon, as they are already accomplished with fire-arms and 
 moderate-sized guns, the general adoption of breech-loading to 
 all fire-arms will be certain to follow. 
 
 The advantages of breech-loading are so great that its opposers 
 generally can only advance as the principal argument against it, 
 that the soldiers would be inclined to waste their ammunition 
 from firing too rapidly ; but discipline would soon overcome this, 
 and therefore the objection is not worth consideration. "We may 
 state as the advantages; first, with regard to cannon, greater safety 
 and protection to the artiUerymenf and guns, because there need be 
 
 * Another explanation of this phenomenon may be, that when a rifle projectUe 
 first leaves the barrel the greatest quantity of rotary motion which the spirals of 
 the bore cause is imparted to it : this will be the cause of violent friction on its 
 exterior by the air it is passing through, and its qtiickness of rotation is certain 
 from this cause to be diminished, and, with its diminution, also a certain quantity 
 of resistance to the velocity of the projectile ; and thus, until the shot has gained 
 the maximum of the momentum impressed upon it by the fired gunpowder 
 of the charge, its velocity and consequent momentum may be increased, to 
 a certain extent of range, after leaving the muzzle of the piece from which it is 
 projected. 
 
 t Such an unhappy and fatal accident as that which occurred at Blyth, the 
 
254 BEST FORM OF PROJECTILE, 
 
 less exposure, and protection by shields, &c., can be easily made ; 
 greater ease and facility in loading and firing ; fewer men are 
 required to keep up an effective fire and serve the gun than with 
 muzzle-loaders ; fewer loose implements are required ; and the 
 advantages of rifling in stopping the windage by an expanding 
 sabot or wadding more effectually and simply obtained. The 
 heating of the chamber of the piece, from successive quick dis- 
 charges, is comparatively trifling : and with cupola ships breech- 
 loading cannon can hardly be dispensed witL With small arms, 
 the facility of loading on horseback, the loss of the ramrod, or re- 
 versal of the cartridge, which in the hurry and confusion of the 
 battle-field often occurs — for a time disabling the piece — cannot 
 take place with a breech-loader. 
 
 Some objectors consider that heavy cannon cannot be made with 
 sufficient solidity to resist the powerful strain at the breech and 
 ■chamber of the exploding powder. I think this may be over- 
 come by taking the support of the breech-plug from the trunions, 
 by carrying a heavy and solid strap, embracing them behind the 
 breech. I imagined that this plan had not been tried, and sub- 
 mitted one of this description to the War Office, which was sent 
 to the Select Committee at Woolwich, whose reply was that the 
 plan had been tried and failed. After I had submitted that, I 
 found Captain Blakeley had one on a similar principle, and there 
 is a very beautiful small model of a gun so formed amongst the 
 Bessemer steel trophy in the International Exhibition. 
 
 With all deference to the Select Committee, I am of opinion 
 that it is the best plan of sustaining the recoil of the breech-plug, 
 and that if the cause of its failure, when tried, was explained, 
 perhaps a modification of it would ensure success. 
 Fourthly, the best form of projectile ? 
 This opens several important questions : 
 The nature of the rifling and closing of the windaga 
 The purpose for which the projectile is intended. 
 
 other day, by whioli two esteemed young men lost their lives, who belonged to 
 the 3rd Northumberland Volunteer Artillery, could not have taken place with a 
 breech-loading gun. 
 
^rAEIO^JS PLANS OF EIFLES. 255 
 
 The resistance of the air. 
 
 The position of the centre of gravity, &c. 
 
 It is evident that experiment can best decide these questions, 
 and from the wonderful accuracy which has attended the practice 
 at targets with rifled small arms at Hythe, Wimbledon, and other 
 places and with projectiles so differently shaped and formed as 
 the Enfield, the Jacob, the Lancaster, and the Whitworth shot, 
 it does not appear that there is cause for much difference 
 of choice, but from what I hear from the riflemen, for long dis- 
 tances, there is a leaning in favour of the Whitworth shape. 
 
 It is indeed a matter of wonder that such perfect accuracy at 
 ranges of 800 and 1000 yards should be obtained, that some of 
 the skilful marksmen could, at these distances, hit the centre of 
 the target, or the bull's-eye, several times in succession ; and 
 leaving out of the question the merit of the shooter, such accuracy 
 reflects the highest credit on our national and private manu- 
 facturers of rifles, and on the excellence and uniformity of the 
 propelling property of our gunpowder. 
 
 With the Jacob rifle, with four grooves cut rather deep, having 
 a shot formed with four projections to fit them, and with the 
 centre of gravity nearer the rear end of the shot than the point, 
 the most accurate ranges are obtained from 1200 to 1400 yards, 
 the pointed end of the shot still maintaining its true position in 
 striking the target ! This rifle has four-fifths of a turn in 24 
 inches, the length of the barrel. 
 
 The Enfield rifle, with the Pritchett ball, or, I believe, with a 
 ball slightly improved by General Hay, also makes excellent 
 practice. It has three grooves, cut slightly deeper at the breech 
 than at the muzzle, and the spiral makes one revolution in 78 
 inches, the barrel being 3 feet 3 inches long, and tltte shot of less 
 weight than General Jacob's, has its centre of gravity near the 
 middle of its length. 
 
 The Whitworth rifle is used with a hexagonal shot, well fitted 
 to his hexagonal shaped bore, and makes one turn in 20 inches, 
 and I believe Mr. Whitworth has lately introduced a quicker 
 spiral, even to one turn in 16 inches, which the solid form of his 
 
256 VARIOUS PLANS OF RIFLES. 
 
 shot, and its flat pressure upon the faces of the hexagon, enables 
 him to do, but such quickness of turn would probably be destruc- 
 tive to a soft metal shot with shallow or deep grooves. The 
 centre of gravity in Mr. Whitworth's shot is towards the head 
 of the shot, a little in advance of the centre. 
 
 Mr. Lancaster's plan is to use a slightly elliptic bore, with a 
 corresponding elongated shot to fit. He gives one turn in 32 
 inches ; and the most accurate practice and great length of range 
 have been obtained with his rifles. 
 
 Here, then, we have four different kinds of rifles, having dif- 
 ferent quicknesses of spiral, and shot of quite different forms, 
 yet all making excellent practice ; and therefore with small arms 
 it does not appear that any one has great superiority over the 
 other ; but when we approach the subject of rifling heavy guns 
 or cannon, the nature of the rifling, and the shape of the shot so 
 as to give the least resistance in moving through the air, and the 
 least strain upon the gun at starting, are circumstances of 
 serious consideration. 
 
 Mr. Whitworth, in the specification for his patent " for improve- 
 ments relating to elongated projectiles," states that according to 
 the purpose to which they are to be employed, the fore part may 
 be more or less pointed, or curved, or flat-fronted, having the 
 rear part of his shot, behind the centre of gravity, tapering to the 
 rear. And he states that compared with his projectiles formerly 
 used, which had pointed fronts, and non-taperimg rears, that the 
 former, that is tapering to the rear, give from one-fourth to 
 one-third greater ranges. He uses a flat end to the taper, as 
 >that shape, he asserts, gives greater steadiness to flight. 
 
 Now this tapering to the rear is a subject of serious considera- 
 tion when we want velocity of flight, and I advocated this prin- 
 ciple in a paper written in the " Mechanics' Magazine," in 
 August, 1855, and in a lecture at the United Service Institution, 
 as a form which the prime instructor, nature, teaches us, in the 
 shapes of birds and fish; and the idea was afterwards taken up 
 by Mr. Bridges Adams and others. From the great advan- 
 tage of this slaape, that by a proper non-metallic wadding, all the 
 
ADVANTAGES OF RIFLING. 257 
 
 advantages of rifling, and perfect protection to the bore of the 
 gun from injury by a solid hard metal shot, can be obtained, I con- 
 sider will only be a work of time to demonstrate ; and experience 
 alone is wanting to establish the superiority of rear-tapering shot. 
 
 The form and grooves of a rifled barrel, as well as slowness or 
 quickness of turn, though not of much importance in small 
 barrels having to propel but a moderate weight of projectile, are 
 of serious consideration when, in large cannon, that weight is 
 greatly increased. 
 
 With all rifles, however, it may be laid down as a rule, that 
 with increased quickness of turn the length of the barrel may be 
 reduced ; and that as the length of the projectile is increased, 
 the greater should be the quickness of the turn, to ensure its 
 most perfect direction. It is evident, however, that with this 
 increase of quickness of turn, whatever may be the shape of the 
 grooves, and whether numerous or few in number, the strain on 
 the metal of a large gun must be dangerously increased. 
 
 If the grooves, or mode of rifling in a large gun, also, are so 
 formed as to cause the action of the projectile to assume the lateral 
 force of a wedge, as it appears to me the projectile of the Lancaster 
 gun will do, then it must produce a dangerous strain, liable to burst 
 the metal open, in addition to the expanding force of the gun- 
 powder ; and all rifled cannon, having their grooves formed with 
 inclined planes, not perpendicular to the radii of the circle of 
 the bore, must have the sam'e dangerous tendency. 
 
 If rifling is continued to large guns, experiment alone can de- 
 termine that form which can be used with the greater safety, and 
 the best effect ; it is not yet a settled question, and it is evident 
 that different lengths of shot should be used — one kind if long, 
 another if short ranges are required. 
 
 The great variation in the rifled ordnance, and the forms of 
 the projectiles used, seem to determine that the question of 
 superiority is not yet decided. 
 
 The disparity in the proportions of the thickness of metal 
 about the breech end,* where the first and greatest strain 
 
 * Alluding to the cannon shown in the International Exhibition. 
 
258 QUESTION" OF BEST GUN NOT SETTLED, 
 
 of the exploding charge is sustained, is remarkable. In the 
 Whitworth and some other guns, in consequence of the small 
 quantity of metal about the breech, I should be inclined to think 
 there is a mistake in the construction ; for, leaving out of the ques- 
 tion the greater strength required in that part of the gun, it 
 is no longer doubted, I beUeve, that by throwing an excess of 
 weight of metal into the breech, the recoil is less violent, and the 
 precision of fire more certain; and General Jacob expressly states, 
 that if twice the usual quantity of metal is interposed between 
 the chamber and the false breech, the recoil of the most pon- 
 derous rifle need not exceed that of an ordinary fowling-piece. 
 
 The same jDrinciple applies to cannon, whatever their size 
 may be. 
 
 The question may well be asked. What have these improve- 
 ments achieved beyond those of former artillery and fire-arms 1 
 and it may be answered, that a few years back, from windage and 
 other causes, the length of range and accuracy of fire, both in 
 fire-arms and artillery, were quite inferior to those now obtained, 
 and there was, consequently, a greater waste of ammunition. 
 The arms now used are lighter and more compact, and the 
 quantity of gunpowder required for charges, from reduced 
 windage and the close fitting of all balls in rifle arms, is greatly 
 reduced, so that with the old musket at 200 yards the shooting 
 at a mark could hardly be depended upon, while with the 
 improved rifles, at distances from 600 to 1000 yards, a target of 
 6 feet by 4 can be, with tolerable certainty, hit ; and the same 
 comparative superiority in precision of fire and length of range 
 of cannon over those of former days has been fully established. 
 
 It is useless at the present time to enter upon a discussion as 
 to the rival merits of the various inventors of guns. Although 
 immense sums of national money have been spent, the question 
 of a fit gun for our army and navy is yet unsettled. It appears 
 that Sir William Armstrong's shimt gun, 140-pounder, with a 
 charge of 25 lbs. of powder and a 91 lb. flat-ended shot, has 
 given way — on the 14th of July, in an experimental trial at Shoe- 
 buryness. According to an answer to a question in Parliament 
 
COMPARATIVE TEIAL OF ARMSTRONG AND WHITWOBTH GUNS. 259 
 
 by Mr. Osborne, Sir G. 0. Lewis, the Minister of "War, states that 
 it was a 120-pouncier, and having been tried experimentally 
 with a charge of 25 lbs. of powder, which was double the ordinary 
 service charge, it cracked near the centre. If people will call the 
 guns by a wrong denomination, I cannot pretend to explain ; but 
 supposing a 120-pouuder, and a plain, smooth-bored gun, the 
 service charge for a round ball, according to the established custom, 
 should be one-fourth of the shot's weight, or 30 lbs. of powder, 
 — the nation, therefore, does not appear to be benefited by Sir 
 William Armstrong's labours at present. 
 
 In the Table below, it will appear that the ranges are in favour 
 of the Whitworth gun ; but I believe if Captain Blakeley's rifled 
 cannon, Mr. Lancaster's, and others, had been tried at the same 
 time, under equal circumstances, there would be very little 
 difference in ranges or accuracy. The report will, however, serve 
 to show the great improvement in accuracy of fire and length 
 of range, as well as in the reduction of the charge of gunpowder 
 with modern field artillery as compared with those in former use. 
 
 Results op Experiments made on the 2nd Apkil, 1861, at Shoeburyness, 
 under the Select Ordnance Committee, to ascertain the Range and Deflection 
 of WMfcworth's breech-loading 12-pounder Gun, in comparison with Sir 
 William Armstrong's breech-loading 12-pounder. 
 
 Names. 
 
 No. of 
 Rounds. 
 
 Charge of 
 Powder. 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Mean Range 
 in Yards. 
 
 Mean 
 difference in 
 
 Ranges 
 
 of tlie Five 
 
 Rounds. 
 
 Mean 
 
 Deflection 
 
 of the Five 
 
 Rounds. 
 
 
 
 lb, oz. 
 
 
 Tards. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Whitworth . . 
 
 6 
 
 1 8 
 
 2° 
 
 1198 
 
 19 
 
 If 
 
 Armstrong . 
 
 5 
 
 1 8 
 
 2° 
 
 1180 
 
 12 
 
 1: 
 
 4 
 
 Whitworth . . 
 
 5 
 
 1 12 
 
 2° 
 
 1289 
 
 28 
 
 If 
 
 Armstrong . 
 
 5 
 
 1 12 
 
 2° 
 
 1256 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 Whitworth . . 
 
 5 
 
 1 8 
 
 5° 
 
 2365 
 
 119 
 
 If 
 
 Armstrong . 
 
 5 
 
 1 8 
 
 5° 
 
 2146 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 Whitworth . . 
 
 5 
 
 1 12 
 
 5° 
 
 2471 
 
 91 
 
 If 
 
 Armstrong . 
 
 5 
 
 1 12 
 
 5° 
 
 2358 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 Whitworth . . 
 
 5 
 
 1 8 
 
 10° 
 
 4222 
 
 68 
 
 3 
 
 Armstrong . 
 
 5 
 
 1 8 
 
 10° 
 
 3668 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 Whitworth . . 
 
 5 
 
 1 12 
 
 10° 
 
 4399 
 
 25 
 
 H 
 
 Armstrong . 
 
 5 
 
 1 12 
 
 10° 
 
 3908 
 
 41 
 
 17 
 
 From this Table may be seen the extraordinary ranges of 
 
 s 2 
 
260 CAPTAIN BLAKELEYS GUN. 
 
 these new guns and the reduced charge of powder. The range 
 of a medium 12-pounder gun of old construction, with a charge 
 of 3 lbs. at 2° elevation, would be about 1000 yards. 
 
 It will appear that the Whitworth gun exceeded the Armstrong 
 in range ; the mean difference in ranges is in favour of the 
 Armstrong, the mean deflection of the shot greatly in favour of 
 the Whitworth gun. 
 
 Captain Blakeley's cannon have been highly approved of by 
 committees of Spanish officers in Spain, and the results of the 
 trials with high charges are stated to be most satisfactory ; the 
 aim was very certain, and the ranges with a 6^-inch cannon, 
 charged with 8 lb. 13 oz. of powder, with 17° elevation, 6600 
 yards. This was a rifled gun. Another 6^-inch smooth-bore, 
 with charges from 6 lbs. to 8 lbs. 13 oz., had been fired upwards 
 of 900 rounds without sustaining the slightest alteration, and the 
 hooped cast-iron guns on Captain Blakeley's plan had proved 
 perfectly satisfactory in Spain. 
 
 A rifled cannon, 6^-inch bore, weighing 62 cwt., fired with an 
 elongated shot weighing 61 lbs., had undergone the trial of 1366 
 rounds, with a charge of 6 lbs. 9 oz . of powder, the greater part of 
 the rounds fired in rapid succession. At Woolwich, also, an expe- 
 rimental trial was made, in 1855, by the Ordnance Select Com- 
 mittee of one of Captain Blakeley's guns, 9 -pounder, against a 
 cast-iron service 9-pounder and a brass ditto. The cast-iron gun 
 burst, the brass gun became unserviceable after standing 64 rounds 
 more than the cast-iron one, and Captain Blakeley's gun was con- 
 tinued 144 rounds after the brass gun had failed, and remained 
 perfectly uninjured. The firing continued for 158 rounds with a 
 charge of 6 lbs. of powder, and as many shot as the gun would 
 hold over the charge to the muzzle — a severity of proof, perhaps, 
 that no other gun ever sustained before this trial. 
 
 The improvements in the manufacture of iron and steel by the 
 Mersey Iron and Steel Company of Liverpool are such that we 
 may expect strong soUd guns from them f' and Sir G. C. Lewis 
 
 * Medals have been awarded for these improvements, in England, America, 
 France, and Holland, 
 
EXPERIMENTS WITH CANNON; WOOLWICH, 1651. 261 
 
 has stated in Parliament that Sir William Armstrong is making a 
 600-pounder gun, and Mr. Lynall Thomas a 400-pounder, 
 besides others by different makers, amongst whom is, I believe, 
 Mr. Whitworth. We may thus hope to see this decisive point of 
 heavy guns fit to cope with iron-clad ships in some fair way of 
 being settled to the satisfaction of the country. — Editor. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON THE FORCE AND PENETRATION 
 OP SHOT FIRED FROM CANNON MADE AT WOOL- 
 WICH IN THE YEAR 1651.— Phil. Transactions. 
 
 " At 200 yards distance from the platform for great ordnance 
 were raised three butts, one behind the other ; the space between 
 the first and the second butt was 14 yards, and the space between 
 the second and the third 8 yards. 
 
 "The thickness of each was 19 inches, whereof 13 inches was 
 of beams of massy oak fastened to the ground, and set so close 
 that they touched each other. On each side, front and rear, 
 were planks of oak 3 inches thick, jointed close, and fastened on 
 both sides with iron bolts and strong pins of wood ; and on the 
 back, at the ends, and on the middle, there were three crossing 
 braces of elm, a foot in breadth and 5 inches in thickness. 
 
 " The first gun was an iron demi-cannon of 3500 lbs. weight, 
 the shot 32 lbs., iron, the charge 10 lbs. ; the shot passed through 
 the two first butts and stuck in the third, so that the ball was 
 almost quite within the wood, but the timber was not shivered, 
 nor scarce split. When the charge was 9 lbs. the same results 
 as at the first discharge, and with 8 lbs. of powder the same. 
 
 " This demi-cannon was with a cylinder bore. 
 
 " The second experiment was with an iron demi-canno7t, having 
 a taper bore ; 3600 lbs. in weight, and 4 inches longer than the 
 first gun. The iron bullet 32 lbs., charge of powder 7 lbs., which 
 in three trials seemed to have the same force as the first. One 
 of the shots piercing through the first butt and lighting near the 
 edge of the middle butt of elm, tore it ; but, by its yielding, the 
 
262 EXPERIMENTS WITH CANNON ; WOOLWICH, 1651. 
 
 bullet glanced aside off the third butt and entered into the 
 earth. 
 
 "The third experiment was with a whole cuherin in brass, 
 5300 lbs. weight, 11 feet 1 inch long, with a taper bore, being 
 intended for a chase piece for the frigate called the ' Speaker ;' 
 the iron bullet was 18 lbs., the charge of powder, first. trial, 
 10 lbs. ; second trial, 9 lbs. ; third trial, 8 lbs. ; which last pro- 
 portion did the best execution, and passed through the two first 
 butts, entering gently into the third, which the two first shots 
 struck but did not enter. 
 
 " The fourth experiment was with a whole ctiherin in brass, 
 made at Amsterdam for the French, with this mark, 3580, being 
 10 feet long and not very thick at the breech; the first shot, 
 18 lbs. iron ; charge 9 lbs. of powder ; passed through the three 
 butts, and entered one foot into the ground ; it passed through 
 the joints of the timber, two planks having been beaten off 
 before. 
 
 "The second shot, with 8 lbs. of powder, passed through two 
 butts, and grazed between them. The third shot, with 8 lbs. of 
 powder, was much battered ; passed through two butts, and in 
 both butts through the middle of a massy strong beam that had 
 not been battered. 
 
 " The fifth experiment was with an iron Aevai-culverin, having 
 9 lbs. shot of iron, 4 lbs. of powder; this passed through one butt, 
 which was torn before, and entered the second butt. 
 
 " This half culverin was shot eight times, as fast as they could 
 charge it with powder and the iron bullet, and yet was scarce 
 luke-warm at the breech, a little more so in the middle, most at 
 the muzzle, and this last scarce so hot as my hand, and yet the 
 gunners in charging her wet not at all the scoop or sponge. 
 
 " The sixth experiment was with a brass d^Qvai-cidverin ; the 
 breech of her was 13f inches (tried with calliper compass), the 
 muzzle 9|. The first shot, 9 lbs. iron, with a charge 4 lbs. of 
 powder, passed two butts. The second shot, with 3 lbs. of 
 powder, passed almost two butts ; this proved to be the best shot, 
 because the timbers struck were the strongest." 
 
ALLAHABAD EXPERIMENTAL POWDER. 263 
 
 Remarks. — These guns must have been of good metal, for the 
 proportion of powder was very high compared with the weight of 
 the shots, and from the penetration of the shot, the gunpowder; 
 though probably not so quick of ignition as that now made, must 
 have been of good serviceable strength. The reader will observe 
 the great weight of the brass gun used in the third experiment : 
 it is to be regretted that the measurements and weights of all the 
 guns are not given, as well as the windage and nature of the 
 wads used. The penetration of the shot and the strength 
 of the gunpowder more than 200 years ago, as records, must 
 prove curious and interesting to the artillerist. — Editor. 
 
 & 
 
 ALLAHABAD EXPERIMENTAL POWDER DRIED BY 
 STEAM HEAT. 
 
 As there had been a' very fatal explosion just before I was 
 appointed to take charge of the works at Allahabad, which is 
 supposed to have originated from an accident on the drying 
 terrace, and knowing that in the dry season, at the time the 
 manufacture of gunpowder is carried on, the atmosphere is filled 
 with fine particles of dust or sand, more or less saline, I pro- 
 posed to the Military Board that I should be allowed to make 
 the experiment of drying by the heat of steam in a covered 
 building, and I was authorised to prepare 100 barrels for this 
 purpose. 
 
 There was an old overseer's house in the grounds of the mills, 
 which, not being required, I used for this purpose, setting up a 
 boiler outside the walls enclosing the powder works for the sake 
 of safety, and bringing two small copper pipes along the wall on 
 an incline to connect them with«rtie building in question. Inside 
 this building I placed two thin copper pipes, well soldered, and 
 suspended from the roof to allow for expansion and contraction ; 
 these were connected with the small pipes, and they were laid on 
 such an incline that the steam passed up one and the condensed 
 
264 ALLAHABAD EXPERIMENTAL POWDER. 
 
 water ran back to tlie boiler through the other.* I set up frames 
 in the house of the bottle-rack form, on which I placed shallow 
 trays having canvas bottoms, which were to receive the powder m 
 thin strata. When complete, I found I could easily regulate the 
 heat to about 140°, which I never allowed it to exceed, as I 
 thought the heat on the terraces exposed to the sun, often at 
 145° to 150°, had an injurious effect on the powder. It took 
 about two days to dry the loaded trays of powder, the powder 
 being gently stirred every day. The roof was very open tile- 
 work, and therefore did not require more ventilation. When the 
 drying was complete, the gunpowder was passed through a 
 glazing reel to take away all dust, and carefully barrelled up. 
 
 In preparing this powder I was exceedingly careful in taking 
 the best of urhur, or dhalwood, for charcoal; and although I con- 
 sider the advantage of drying without exposing the powder on 
 the terraces was very great, yet the powder proved so superior in 
 strength, as the following Table will show, that I must attribute 
 this greatly to the charcoal. I was of course very careful in 
 bringing all the ingredients to their proper state of purity ; the 
 saltpetre, in refining, was always passed through canvas filtering 
 bags, and was fused ; the proportions of the ingredients were 
 as usual, 75, 15, 10, and in all respects the milling was like 
 that pursued at Ishapore, the only difference being my care 
 in refining the saltpetre, and careful selection of the other 
 ingredients. 
 
 * The large copper pipes for the steam were suspended from the roof by ropes, 
 — so that they were near the floor. They were 5 inches in diameter, and the 
 boiler was sunk in the ground to allow the slight inclination of the pipes to carry 
 the condensed steam back to the boiler. There was also a small connecting pipe, 
 outside the building, which conveyed a portion of the distilled water from the 
 pipe running back to the boiler into a copper vessel ; and this distilled water was 
 used for watering the mill charges, a precaution quite necessary where the local 
 water obtaiaable is not quite free from ^aline impurities. The boiler, for safety, 
 was 100 feet from the drying-house ; and the small connecting pipes in the recess 
 in the wall rested upon friction-wheels, to allow for longitudinal expansion. On 
 such a plan a perfect drying-house may be made. An artificial draught of air, to 
 carry off the moisture, would be highly advantageous. 
 
TABLES OF PEOOF OF POWDERS. 
 
 265 
 
 Trial of Allahabad Powder, dried hy Steam Heat. 
 
 Extracts from a Report of Proof Trials made at Dum-Dum in 1828, by Order 
 of the Military Board, to ascertain the respective Qualities of Gunpowders 
 manufactured by the Agent at Allahabad, Captain Samuel Parlby ; the Agent, 
 Lieut. -Col. Galloway, at Ishapore ; and by the other Agents at Madras and 
 Bombay, respectively. The Allahabad powder, part of 100 barrels made for the 
 experiment, was dried by steam heat. 
 
 1 
 
 "4-1 
 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 II 
 
 11 
 
 .»=> OQ 
 02 
 
 Where and when 
 Manufactured. 
 
 Average Eange 
 
 of Five Rounds 
 
 in Yards. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 00 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 .s 
 
 6 
 
 
 i 
 
 § 
 
 o 
 
 § 
 
 iH 
 u1 
 
 lO 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 Allahabad, 1824-25 
 
 Ishapore, 1824-25 
 Madras, 1825 . . 
 Bombay, 1825 
 
 39f 
 
 32^ 
 
 28^ 
 
 5t 
 
 In favour of the Allahabad 
 powder, as compared with 
 the next best, the Ishapore, 
 6| yards. 
 
 1 
 
 in 
 
 O 
 
 6 
 .—1 
 
 
 6 
 o 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 N 
 
 O 
 CO 
 
 o5 
 
 00 
 
 Allahabad, 1824-25 
 
 Ishapore, 1824-25 
 Madras, 1824-25 . 
 Bombay, 1825 . . 
 
 3B42 
 
 255 
 253 
 68f 
 
 In favour of the Allahabad 
 powder, as compared with 
 the next best, the Ishapore, 
 99i yards. 
 
 1 
 lO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 I-l 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 §■ 
 
 r-i 
 
 lO 
 00 
 
 Allahabad, 1824-25 
 
 Ishapore, 1824-25 . 
 Madras, 1824-25 . 
 Bombay, 1824-25 . 
 
 eni- 
 
 46U 
 558|- 
 154| 
 
 In favour of the Allahabad 
 powder, as compared with 
 the next best, the Ishapore, 
 210i yards. 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 cq 
 
 i 
 -a 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 OS 
 
 02 
 
 Allahabad, 1824-25 
 
 Ishapore, 1824-25 . 
 Madras, 1825 . . 
 Bombay, 1825 . . 
 
 65 
 
 46 1 
 39^ 
 10.^ 
 
 In favour of Allahabad powder, 
 as compared with Ishapore, 
 18-^ yards. 
 With Madras . 25f „ 
 With Bombay . 54| „ 
 
266 
 
 TABLES OF PROOF OF POWDERS. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 S 
 
 3-^ 
 
 
 
 4s M 
 
 Where and when 
 
 § § » 
 
 5p=i s 
 
 Remarks, 
 
 
 
 |l 
 
 Jl 
 
 
 Manufactured. 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 
 
 eg 
 
 
 5-3 
 
 
 
 f^' 
 
 
 
 
 iUahabad, 1824-25 
 
 5571 
 
 In favour of Allahabad powder. 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1-1 
 5 
 
 [shapore, 1824-25 . 
 
 3184 
 
 as compared with 
 
 Ishapore, 239 yards. 
 
 ^ 
 
 tH 
 
 ->* 
 
 Madras, 1825 . . 
 
 419f 
 
 Madras, 137|- „ 
 
 tH 
 
 .3 
 
 CO 
 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 Bombay, 1825 
 
 97^ 
 
 Bombay, 460-| „ 
 
 
 i 
 
 N 
 
 
 rH 
 
 AUaliabad, 1824-25 
 
 1168f 
 
 In favour of Allahabad powder, 
 
 § 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 as compared with 
 
 r1 
 
 ,fel 
 
 >-l 
 
 rO 
 
 lahapore, 1824-25 . 
 
 T09J 
 
 Ishapore, 459 J yards. 
 
 ■s 
 
 -a 
 
 A 
 
 -s 
 
 -^ 
 
 Madras, 1825 . . 
 
 1148 
 
 Madras, 23f „ 
 
 r-t 
 
 .id 
 
 00 
 
 r^ 
 
 o 
 
 CD 
 
 Bombay, 1825 .; 371 Bombay, 7 97-§- „ | 
 
 i 1 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ^ .S 
 
 to lO 
 
 rt ,D 00 
 
 i' 
 Allahabad, 1824-25, 56^ 
 
 In favour of AUahabad powder, i 
 
 a 
 
 g 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 as compared with j 
 
 
 N 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 
 Ishapore, 1824-25 . 
 
 41-J 
 
 Ishapore, 14| yards. 
 
 5 
 
 -3 
 
 CI 
 
 I-' 
 
 Madras, 1824-25 . 
 
 42-1 
 
 Madras, 12 „ 
 
 rl 
 
 .H 
 
 
 O 
 
 Bombay, 1824-25 . 
 
 llf 
 
 Bombay, 43'- „ 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 .^ -3 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^"o 
 
 Allahabad, 1824-25 
 
 501f 
 
 In favour of Allahabad powder. 
 
 9 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 as compared with 
 
 
 ;2i 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 s:7^ 
 
 Ishapore, 1824-25 . 
 
 358^ 
 
 Ishapore, 1 42-^ yards. 
 
 i-H 
 
 
 
 •"l lO 
 
 Madras, 1824-25 . 
 
 449A 
 
 Madras, 5 2^1- „ 
 
 <M 
 
 00 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 Bombay, 1824-25 . 
 
 113| 
 
 Bombay, 388 „ 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 bq 
 
 
 =3 
 
 Allahabad, 1824-25 
 
 1142| 
 
 In favour of Allahabad powder, 
 
 o 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 as compared with 
 
 '5 
 
 s 
 
 i-t 
 
 s 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 Ishapore, 1824-25 . 
 
 721-1 
 
 Ishapore, 420| yards. 
 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 Madras, 1825 . . 
 Bombay, 1825 
 
 1135 
 
 407| 
 
 Madras, 7-J ,, 
 Bombay, 734 „ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 s 
 
 
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TABLES OF PROOF OF POWDERS. 
 
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 TABLES OF PROOF OF POWDERS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 141 
 
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 226 
 
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 184 
 
 42 yards. 
 
 
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 Allahabad, 1824-25 
 
 353 
 
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 254 
 
 
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 1102 
 
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 848| 
 
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 A.llahabad, 1824-25 
 
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TABLES OP PEOOF OP POWDERS. 
 
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 204- 
 
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 333 
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 ft 
 
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 1 
 
 
 
 
270 WAR ROCKETS. 
 
 WAR ROCKETS. 
 
 As an improver of this formidable weapon, which has of late 
 years greatly fallen in military estimation from causes which will 
 be stated below, I cannot omit to urge the infinite value which 
 good rockets, as an aid in military or naval operations, are cer- 
 tain generally to prove themselves to be ; and, on some special 
 cases, superior to any other. 
 
 In the preceding parts of this volume it will be seen that in 
 the most ancient times, long before the supposed introduction 
 of artillery and fire-arms, rockets appear amongst the eastern 
 nations to have formed an essential part of military offence and 
 defence. As an officer serving in the Bengal Artillery in India, 
 my attention was early drawn to the Indian rocket, with the con- 
 struction of which I became well acquainted. 
 
 Satisfied with the superiority of artillery, I never thought of 
 bringing forward a weapon which certainly in many points it can 
 never rival ; yet, after the public notoriety of the improvements 
 and employment of rockets in Europe by the late Sir William 
 Congreve, I earnestly pressed the use of them in our service ; 
 and in 1814, before the Congreve rocket had been sent for, or at 
 any rate before any supply arrived in India, I made a public 
 offer of my services to the Earl of Moira, then Commander-in- 
 Chief in India, to make war-rockets to be used in the Nepaul 
 war, if sent to any magazine with proper authority for that 
 purpose. As, however. Lord Moira had sent for a supply of the 
 Congreve rocket from Europe, my offer was at that time 
 declined. 
 
 Soon after this I returned to England on a short furlough to 
 recruit my health ; and believing that I could produce a superior 
 weapon to the Congreve, fresh and suited to the climate by being 
 made in India, I devoted a considerable sum of my own private 
 resources, encouraged by several members of the Hon. Court of 
 Directors of the late E. I. Company, to construct an apparatus, of 
 
GREAT VALUE OF GOOD ROCKETS, 271 
 
 my own plan and invention, for tlie purpose of making rockets on 
 my return to India, employing the late Mr. Galloway, then living 
 in Holborn, for this purpose ; the circumstances attending which I 
 shall allude to in this paper. 
 
 If we inquire. What is the principal value of a rocket as an aid 
 or substitute for artillery'? we must notice : — 
 
 First. Its extreme portability ; so that wherever man can go 
 by land or water, a supply of rockets can be carried. 
 
 Secondly. It is an arm requiring the aid of no gun or machine 
 to project it, and exposes no front for the enemy's artillery to 
 aim at.* 
 
 Thirdly. It can be constructed in such variety as to carry to a 
 greater distance a heading to discharge balls Avith far greater 
 
 ■■■ Although tubes of sheet iron, or angular troughs of irou or wood, which are 
 superior, may be used where greater accuracy of direction is required than usual, 
 yet rockets, when laid upon the even ground, in the proper direction, if on a 
 plain, will raoige with tremendous effect, and to equal distances of effective shot 
 of common field pieces ; yet if greater range and accuracy are required, a common 
 sloping bank of earth may be used, as that of a hedge and ditch, or one made for 
 the purpose, as occasion requires, in a few minutes. 
 
 An erroneous opinion as to the cause of the flight of a rocket has long been 
 maintained, and repeated in many of our Encyclopaedias, as in the former editions 
 of the Eucyclopsedia Britannica ; and I wrote to the publishers of that work and 
 to other journals, more than twenty years ago, to explain what is the true cause of 
 propulsion in this weapon ; but the error in some of these is still continued. 
 
 A rocket-case is loaded with a composition which generates, when fired, a 
 powerful expanding gas, as gunpowder does. This gas is allowed to escape only 
 at the vent or tail end of the rocket, and thus half of its pressure acts towards 
 the head end, where, not being allowed to escape, it forces the cylinder 
 forward, and as the interior of the composition is hollowed out to a certain length 
 longitudinally, the superficial area of the inflamed composition is thus constantly 
 increasing as it burns, and consequently the quantity of gaseous volume ; the 
 velocity of the flight of the rocket therefore increases as long as this 
 combustion continues. But in the construction of a rocket the whole area of the 
 vent or tail end is not left open, only a certcmi portion : this causes the inflamed 
 gas to be acted upon as if it were in a reverheratory furnace, — its heat and 
 expansion are greatly increased by this formation, and though, if the whole area 
 of the vent end was left open, the cylinder would still be forced forwards, its 
 flight and range wqjild be trifling in comparison. Thus the cause of a rocket's 
 flight is to be explained ; and the resistance of the air to the escape of the fluid at 
 the vent, which has been erroneously supposed to be the cause, has nothing to do 
 with it, 
 
272 GREAT VALUE OF GOOD ROCKETS. 
 
 force and precision than a Shrapnell shell ; a rocket having at 
 1200 or 1400 yards equal velocity and greater momentum than a 
 cannon ball of the same diameter ; or it can convey, as part of 
 itself, a greater quantity of explosive or combustible matter than 
 any projectile of equal diameter fired from a cannon. 
 
 Fourthly. If supplied in proper numbers, an instantaneous 
 development of projectile power can be exerted in its formidable 
 nature and appearance (carrying both flame and momentum) far 
 beyond that which a moderate battery of artillery is capable of 
 with any projectiles that can be used. 
 
 If anything is wanting to the above statement as to the value 
 of rockets, the following extract from " The Spirit of Military 
 Institutions," by Marshal Marmont, Duke of Ragusa, the cele- 
 brated aide-de-camp of Napoleon I. (chap, iii.. Artillery), may be 
 quoted : — 
 
 " But these projectiles acquire a vast importance under a 
 thousand circumstances where guns are perfectly useless. In the 
 mountains it is with the greatest difficulty that a small number of 
 light guns, which produce but inconsiderable effect, can be trans- 
 ported. But the rocket combines extended range with multiplied 
 fire. It may be established everywhere ; on the crests of the 
 highest peaks, or on the lower plateau of mountains. In the 
 plains it converts evei-y house into a fortress, and the roof of a 
 village church is rendered at will the platform of a formidable 
 battery. In one word, this invention, such as it now exists, and 
 susceptible as it is of further elaboration, adapts itself to every 
 variety of circumstance, to every possible combination, and must 
 exercise an immense influence on the destinies of armies." 
 
 How is it, then, that this formidable weapon has fallen into 
 such general contempt and dishonour 1 I will endeavour to 
 explain : — 
 
 The Congreve rockets have been and still are made with man^ 
 faults of construction atid combination ; ■'•" so that, in many cases, 
 
 * The specimens of the Congreve Rocket sent from the Royal Laboratory at 
 Woolwich, and shown in the International Exhibition, fully exhibit these defects 
 of construction, and I am prepared to state that rockets made on such a plan 
 
DEFECTS OP THE PRESENT SERVICE ROCKETS. 273 
 
 they have proved as dangerous to the men who have discharged 
 them as to the enemy towards whom they were projected, not 
 only from a general uncertainty of flight, but also from occasion- 
 ally turning completely round in the air and coming back towards 
 the place from which they were fired. 
 
 In consequence of this faulty construction, their general irregu- 
 larity and uncertainty of range has actually brought this really 
 formidable weapon into contempt. 
 
 To show the foundations for these statements, I give the 
 following extract from a book published by authority, " The 
 Course of Artillery and Fortification for the Use of the Royal 
 Military College, Sandhurst," by Captain (now Colonel) Boxer, 
 superintending the Royal Laboratory, Woolwich, 1860. 
 
 The notice of the war rocket is thus concluded in this 
 book : — 
 
 " The present service rocket has one serious defect — namely, 
 great irregularity of flight. If this be overcome, the rocket would 
 be a most formidable weapon, if used in large numbers." 
 
 Such, then, is the acknowledged defect of the Congreve 
 rocket of the present day by the head of the Royal Laboratory. 
 
 The following extract from the letter of a General Officer 
 serving in India will also show the utter and disgraceful failure of 
 the Congreve rocket in India during the late mutiny. 
 
 In the battle of Golowlie, the day before the action and the 
 capture of Calpee, in Bundelkund, the General writes : — 
 
 " At the moment of the advance of a dense mass of the enemy's 
 cavalry on the 22nd May, 1858, our rocket-firing was a perfect 
 failure. One or two rockets hissed off" from the tubes towards 
 the enemy, and then suddenly buried themselves in the ground, 
 and one or two others whizzed erratically in the sky and then 
 turned back upon their friends who had wished them good speed. 
 So the General, Sir Hugh Rose (now Commander-in-Chief in 
 India), ordered these dangerous things to the rear." 
 
 I could detail many other instances of this uncertainty of flight 
 
 cannot have the regular and accurate flight which they would obtain under another 
 formation. 
 
2174 EFFECT OF ROCKETS ON CAVALRY. 
 
 of the Congreve rockets, in Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, but it 
 is needless to allude to them now. 
 
 In the "Times," of Thursday, 15th May, page 5, giving an 
 account of an engagement between the combined French and 
 English troops and the Rebels (Taepings), part of the paragraph 
 runs thus : — 
 
 " The practice with Bradshaw's mountain howitzers was good 
 as soon as the range was obtained, but the rockets were a failure." 
 
 And in a late account in the military and naval column of the 
 review of the Eoyal Marine Artillery at Portsmouth, the practice 
 with the Armstrong and other guns was described as excellent, 
 but that of the rockets " wicertain as usual."* 
 
 It is well known that the nation has expended large sums of 
 money on the Congreve rocket, and if this is the result of the 
 state of the present manufacture of rockets, surely the subject 
 should be inquired into. Perhaps, in case of invasion, no weapon 
 would be found more serviceable in aiding the noble army of 
 patriotic volunteers with their accurate rifle fire than good rockets 
 in sufficient numbers ; and the use of a rocket is so simple that 
 every able man, in every village throughout the kingdom, could, 
 in a few hours, be taught how to use them with efiect against 
 an enemy. 
 
 To prove the intimidating effect of the fire of rockets upon 
 the horses of a body of cavalry, I may here mention 
 the following circumstance. About the year 1821 or 1822, 
 when that excellent officer, the late Colonel Charles Graham 
 (then captain) was commanding the Rocket Troop at Meerut, it 
 was his practice to make use of common peimy paper rockets to 
 accustom the horses and camels to the noise and fire pro-' 
 duced; and the colonel commanding the 11th Dragoons, then at 
 the station, with many other officers, having been in the habit of 
 speaking contemptuously of the war-rocket as a weapon, had 
 stated that if a field day took place, they would, at a charge, 
 ride over the Rocket Troop. It happened soon after, that this 
 
 * The italics are mine. — Editob. 
 
EFFECT OF ROCKETS ON CAVALRY. 275 
 
 fine regiment of cavalry was exercising on the plain at Meerut, 
 "when Sir Thomas Reynolds, then commanding offi.cer of the 
 district, rode up, and he intimated to the commanding officer that 
 he should like to see the regiment charge. On the inquiry, in 
 what direction it should be, Sir Thomas happened to cast his eye 
 upon Captain Graham's Rocket Troop (at a considerable distance 
 from the usual exercising ground, which that officer always chose 
 to prevent interference with other corps), and Sir Thomas said, 
 " Oh, there is the Rocket Troop, charge on that." Captain 
 Graham saw the Dragoons advancing towards him, heard the 
 usual trumpet sounds for preparing and charging, and having a 
 presentiment that the threat of riding over his troop was about 
 to be accomplished, he ordered his men to lay a number of these 
 paper rockets on the ground, ready to fire a volley when he gave 
 the command, should the Dragoons advance into too close 
 proximity. The charge, however, continued with undiminished 
 speed, and some of the horses' heads were nearly in line with the 
 rockets, when Captain Graham gave the command to fire : the 
 effect was such on the horses, that the whole regiment was thrown 
 into confusion, — one officer and several men were unhorsed, and 
 the charge was completely broken. As some arms and military 
 accoutrements of the Dragoons fell upon the ground. Captain 
 Graham ordered his men to run forward and secure them, and 
 had them brought to the lines as trophies of his victory, and a 
 memorandum was sent round in the station orderly-book, that 
 they might be recovered by sending to the main guard of the 
 Horse Artillery, where they would be delivered up. 
 
 Unfortunately, one of these small paper rockets struck a 
 dragoon horse in the soft part of the chest, and disabled it. 
 On a complaint, and reference to the Marquis of Hastings (then 
 Commander-in-Chief), on the subject, his lordship's reply was, that 
 while he regretted the accident, he was glad to find that the 
 Rocket Troop, if called into action, was likely to be so serviceable. 
 
 Here, then, is an instance of a fine regiment of Royal Dragoons, 
 in high discipline, being thrown into complete disorder by the 
 discharge of a few paper rockets, and from this we may judge 
 
 T 2 
 
276 COMPAEATIVE TRIAL OF EOCKETS IN INDIA. 
 
 the effect of real iron-cased rockets carrying shot and shells at 
 
 their heads. 
 
 I may proceed to state, that in consequence of the home 
 interest of Sir William Congreve with His Royal Highness the 
 Prince Regent, and its effect on the authorities in India, I was 
 not allowed to make any rockets, until the Congreve supplies 
 proved so uncertain and so useless, that the subject was pressed 
 upon the Government and the Military Board. Lord Hastings 
 having returned to England, the excellent Mr. Adam, of the 
 Bengal Civil Service (at the time acting as the head of the 
 Government), deemed it proper to authorise my being allowed to 
 prove what I could do in making rockets for the service in India. 
 I was therefore ordered to prepare 70 rockets of different sizes 
 to be tried against those of Sir William Congreve ; and although 
 I had no proper places to put up my apparatus, or any men who 
 had been accustomed to the work, I did not shrink from the 
 task, but with my own private native servants, and in the out- 
 houses of my private house, I prepared the number required. 
 
 The trial took place on the public practice ground of the 
 Artillery at Dum-Dum on the 31st of May, 1834, in the presence 
 of Lord Amherst, who had lately arrived as Governor-General, 
 Sir Edward Paget, the new Commander-in-Chief, and a large 
 concourse of miUtary and civil spectators. 
 
 The following was the report of Colonel A. McLeod, Com- 
 mandant of the Bengal Artillery : — 
 
 " To Captain Craigie, Secretary, Military Board. 
 " Sir, — I have now the honour to forward a report of the 
 experimental practice which took place here with Captain Parlby's 
 and General Congreve's rockets, on Monday, the 31st ultimo. 
 The detail of the report will sufficiently explain the nature of the 
 practice ; and it remains for me to add, that not only from the 
 result of the number of rockets, which were put into the curtain 
 by both parties, but also from the apparent flight of the missiles 
 of the two descriptions, I can have no hesitation in giving as my 
 opinion, that Captain Parlby's rockets had a decided advantage 
 in the correctness of fire over General Congreve's. 
 
ROCKETS. 277 
 
 " But it does not appear that Captain Parlby's rockets were 
 propelled with the same force which General Congreve's were, 
 although they had a considerable velocity, and sufficient to answer 
 good purposes for field service, or even in bombarding at distances 
 not exceeding 1800 or 2000 yards. 
 
 "With bombarding rockets General Congreve had a great 
 superiority of range : add to this also, it must be noted that- 
 Captain Parlby's 24-pounder rocket weighs about 14 lbs. more 
 than General Congreve's, which on some occasions, on service, 
 might be rather a disadvantage. It may be desirable to be 
 informed that Captain Parlby had nothing to do in directing 
 General Congreve's rockets : I had appointed Captain Graham 
 of the Rocket Troop for that duty, and they were managed by 
 him, assisted by Mr. Allen (who first brought them out), and the 
 officers and men of the troop. In fact, every justice was done in 
 the preparation and direction, and the practice with them was 
 extremely good, 
 
 " I have the honour to be, 
 
 (Signed) " McLeod, 
 
 " Lt.-Col.-Com., Commanding Artillery." 
 
 " t)um-Dum, June 2iid, 1824." 
 
 The following extract from the "John Bull" newspaper, of 
 Calcutta, June 1st, 1824, written by a spectator, quite unknown 
 to me at the time, on the subject of the experiment, is important, 
 as it estabhshes my claim as the first inventor and exhibitor of 
 rifle rockets : — 
 
 " First discharge, target distance 600 yards. Volley of nine 
 rockets, 3-pounders, Congreve and Parlby, separate. In this 
 discharge there was a complete failure of the Congreve rockets ; 
 six out of the nine burst within 100 yards of the car, another fell 
 about half-way, and the two remaining rockets went to a consi- 
 derable distance right and left of the target. Of the Parlby 
 rockets only one burst, two struck the target, and the remaining 
 six preserved the line, and passed over it within a few feet of the 
 top. Here, then, the superiority of the Parlby rocket is manifest, 
 as he forms his rockets so as to have a rotary motion." 
 
278 EEPOETS OP CAPTAINS GKAHAM AND BLAKE. 
 
 Soon after this I was appointed to the Allahabad Gunpowder 
 Manufactory as agent, and as all the Congreve rockets in the 
 country had become unserviceable, as was especially shown when 
 they were required for the siege of Bhurtpore, Government deter- 
 mined that I should establish a manufactory for war-rockets in 
 conjunction with the agency at Allahabad. I had only native 
 workmen, and those who know the heat of the climate at that 
 station will easily imagine the labour that fell upon me ; but that 
 success attended my exertions may be learnt from the following- 
 extracts of letters from Captain Graham, and from Captain 
 Blake, who succeeded him : — 
 
 "My deae Parley, 
 
 " I have sincere pleasure in acquainting you that I have 
 fired 24 of your 32-pounder rockets, and 12 18-pounder rockets 
 without a single failure. General Reynell was present the first 
 day, and expressed himself highly gratified with your success. 
 He lamented the want of such formidable auxiliaries at Bhurt- 
 pore. These rockets ranged beautifiilly, and far beyond my 
 expectations. On the whole, I cannot but repeat my hearty 
 congratulations on the success of your manufacture, so far as it 
 has fallen under my observation. 
 
 " Yours very sincerely, 
 
 "Meerut, Jan. 9tli, 1827." (Signed) " ChAELES GeAHAM.'' 
 
 Extract of a letter from Captain Blake, who succeeded Captain 
 Graham in command of the Eocket Troop : — 
 
 "My deae Sib, 
 
 "I commenced, on the 16th instant, with twelve of your 
 18-pounders, at an elevation of 20° : they all went with great 
 steadiness and precision ; and on the 18th I fired, at the same 
 elevation, twelve of your 12-pounders ; they went aU alike, and 
 were allowed by the numerous Artillery officers on the battery 
 to be, in precision, force, and continued length of horizontal flight, 
 quite unequalled by any kind of rocket they had yet seen, or 
 expected to see. " Yours very sincerely, 
 
 " Geoege Blake." 
 
ME. halb's patent. 279 
 
 Here, then, I proved that with only native workmen, and with 
 apparatus by no means equal to that I could make in England, 
 I produced rockets that ranged alike, and that were pronounced 
 to be, by numerous Artillery officers, in precision, force, and con- 
 tinued length of horizontal flight, quite unequalled by any kind 
 of rocket they had ever seen or expected to see. 
 
 Just at this time Lord William Bentinck arrived as Governor- 
 General, and as the aspect of affairs in India appeared peaceable, 
 and retrenchment of public expenditure was his determination, 
 both the powder works at Ishapore and Allahabad were closed 
 for a period, and the establishments, many individuals of which 
 at Allahabad had been employed for years at the dangerous work 
 of making gunpowder, were discharged at one month's notice ! 
 
 I had served my period of 24 years in India, and I soon after 
 returned to England, and retired on the pension of my rank as 
 major. 
 
 Since my return to Europe, about twenty years after I had 
 invented and adopted, as part of my principle of construction, 
 the mode of making rockets rotate in their flight, Mr. Hale took 
 out a patent, I think in 1844, for the same principle, and 
 proposed and carried into effect, through this principle of rifle 
 motion, the rockets without shafts known by his name ; but as 
 such rockets must be greatly inferior to a good rocket with a 
 proper shaft, in momentum and direction, I have little expecta- 
 tion that they will be generally adopted ; and, though I beheve 
 Mr. Hale has disposed of the right to use his patent in America, 
 I cannot observe that his rockets are in use on either side in that 
 unfortunate and deeply to be regretted war. 
 
 I have made several offers at various times to the Government 
 authorities in this country, to show, for a moderate pecuniary, 
 consideration, all the improvements which I have made in the 
 construction of rockets ; but the answer has generally been, that 
 I must make them at my own expense, and then a trial can be 
 made at Woolwich. 
 
 A similar answer was given me at the time Lord Vivian was 
 Master-General of the Ordnance, and when I went to Woolwich 
 
280 EEPBATBD OFFERS TO GOVERNMENT, 
 
 I was told by an old Artillery officer holding a high appointment, 
 and who had been a fellow cadet with me at the old Royal 
 Academy in the Warren (now Royal Arsenal), that if I showed 
 any improvements at Woolwich, without having a full understand- 
 ing as to my reward previously, in all probability all the good 
 points would be adopted, whilst any recompense to the inventor 
 would be out of the question. 
 
 Such has been the result of attempting for nearly forty years 
 to improve a most important weapon, the true value of .which, 
 from being so indifferently constructed, as it is at present, is 
 hardly known and estimated. 
 
 Vast sums of money are spending, or have been spent, in pro- 
 ducing monster guns and mortars ; as to the latter, rockets, 
 properly made, ought entirely to supersede their use for throwing 
 shells. Much heavier rockets, and with all the precision of shells in 
 their range, may be made, say from 500 to 1000 lbs. weight. Yet 
 no one would venture to make a gun to carry a projectile of 1000 lbs. 
 weight, and the economy in production, and the facility of using 
 such rockets would be greatly in favour of the latter. It is very 
 true that the principle of forming a large rocket is very different 
 from that adopted in making a moderate-sized one ; but from trials 
 I have made, I feel certain of success, if the means are afforded. 
 
 I think one writer on projectiles. Dr. Scoffern, some years back, 
 stated that a rocket of 500 lbs. would not move, but perhaps he 
 is by this time aware, that amongst a semi-barbarous people in 
 Asia much larger rockets than I have mentioned have been pro- 
 duced ; and if reference is made to the I73rd page, quarto 
 edition, of Major Symes's Embassy to Ava in 1795, the following 
 paragraph will be found. " The display of rockets was strikingly 
 grand. The cylinders of the rockets were the trunks of trees 
 hollowed, many of them 7 to 8 feet long, and from 2 to 3 feet 
 in circumference ; they were bound by strong ligatures to thick 
 bamboos, 18 or 20 feet in length ; they rose to a great height, 
 and in descending emitted various appearances of fire that were 
 very beautiful." 
 
 Now we have only to fancy the effect of such formidable 
 
LAEGE EOCKETS OP THE BIEMESE. 281 
 
 rockets, combined with exploding combustibles; or, which may be 
 easily done, having their head so formed as to discharge a volley 
 of heavy 4 or 8 oz. balls, not falling with the force of gravity, 
 but projected perpendicularly downwards with all the force and 
 velocity which they would obtain by being discharged from a 
 cannon or howitzer, and we can then imagine the destructive 
 effect of such a method of applying rockets — -for vertical fire of 
 such a formidable nature could be obtained from no other pro- 
 jectile than a rocket. But this is only one of their uses. 
 
 The first object to overcome is that of irregularity of flight — 
 this I have accomplished. 
 
 The next is that they shall be safe to discharge and free from 
 the vicious propensity of a Congreve rocket, of turning back 
 upon its friends — this can never happen with a rocket of my con- 
 struction, and I can fully explain the defect in that of the Con- 
 greve rocket which occasions it. 
 
 As an old Artillery officer, I cannot but express my opinion 
 again, that as an aid in defending our country against in- 
 vasion, considering the state of our population, and the facility 
 by which the most formidable number of rockets could be 
 rapidly accumulated, there is no artillery aid, to assist our noble 
 army of volunteers, that can be compared to that which good 
 rockets would afford on a sudden emergency. 
 
 There also is no kind of ammunition, if properly made, that can 
 be so safe in store, or so little injured by time as rockets. 
 
 They can be made perfectly secure against any exposure to fire 
 that would not heat them red hot, and rockets may be laid under 
 water for months, and yet, when required for service, will be 
 found free from all deterioration. 
 
 On the 3rd of March last I made an offer to the War Office 
 to produce rockets (under certain considerations, and on the 
 amount expended in preparing them being paid) with the follow- 
 ing characteristics : — 
 
 1st. — That they shall not deviate from the proper line of flight 
 more than a few feet at any time, at the usual ranges of Con- 
 greve rockets. 
 
282 PEOPOSAL TO MAKE GOOD KOCKETS. 
 
 2nd. — That they shall never return upon those that fire them, 
 as the Congreve rockets do. 
 
 3rd. — That made under the same circumstances, in a public 
 manufactory, they shall not cost more than the present Congreye 
 rockets. 
 
 4th. — That rockets of any large size shall be produced which 
 shall equal the regularity of flight of shells from mortars. 
 
 5th. — That there shall be other advantages, which I will bring 
 forward, rendering the war -rocket more applicable and formi- 
 dable, both at short and at long distances, and that this adapta- 
 tion can take place at will, in the shortest space of time in the 
 field of action. 
 
 After some delay in obtaining an answer, and some further 
 correspondence, I was finally informed that if I made my rockets 
 at my own expense, the Minister of War (Sir G. Cornewall Lewis) 
 would order a trial to be made at Woolwich. I then stated that 
 as I was informed from good authority that the rockets now 
 made at Woolwich are very irregular in their flight, if the 
 Minister of War would allow a few of the Royal Laboratory 
 rockets, and a few of Mr. Hale's, to be fired, and allow me to be 
 present to see them, I should then be able to judge if my 
 proposed services would be useful, or whether they had been 
 unjustly refused. 
 
 To this I have received a reply, that Sir Cornewall Lewis 
 regrets that he cannot comply with my request ; and thus the 
 matter rests. 
 
 Samuel Parley. 
 
 ON THE CAUSE OF THE GREAT INTENSITY OF HEAT 
 AND INCREASED VELOCITY OF THE GASEOUS PRO-. 
 DUCT IN LARGE CHARGES OF GUNPOWDER. 
 
 The heat required to melt malleable iron is about 3300° Fah- 
 renheit, yet I have often, with particular compositions in rockets, 
 caused the surfaces of malleable iron vents to be fused, presenting 
 
VELOCITY OF AIR RUSHING INTO VACUUM. 283 
 
 the same appearance as the points of iron or steel instruments 
 fused by the heat called into action by a current of lightning. 
 
 It is the reverberatory action (seldom if ever taken into 
 account by writers on the subject) caused in the flame of fired 
 gunpowder, which first impinges upon the surface of a heavy shot 
 placed before it and is then reverberated, that produces the great 
 intensity of heat, and consequently increased violence of the 
 gaseous product, in large charges of gunpowder ; especially 
 when used in guns of large calibre with heavy shot, which we 
 are now trying to introduce ; a strong ai'gument in favour 
 of using gunpowder very large in the grain, which will not permit 
 so quick an inflammation, and consequently that sudden intensity 
 of force and heat, before the shot is moved, as smaller grain, and 
 yet Avill have time to exhaust itself in the length of barrel before 
 the shot quits the muzzle, if properly proportioned. 
 
 ON THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH THE ATMOSPHERE, 
 OR COMMON AIR, RUSHES INTO A VACUUM. 
 
 This inquiry is a very interesting one to the artillerist, and is 
 deeply connected with the subject of the resistance to projectiles 
 in their flight or range ; and as many writers on this subject, 
 even to the present day, have fallen into the error of supposing 
 that a vacuum can take place behind \ shot at very high velocity, 
 which a little calm reasoning would have convinced them is an 
 impossibility, it may be as well to dwell a short time upon the 
 subject. 
 
 Our philosophers, at an early day, since the introduction of the 
 force of gunpowder gave higher velocities to projectiles than 
 mechanical force had been accustomed to produce, endeavoured 
 practically to bring out a satisfactory answer to the question by 
 experiment ; and I feel satisfied that my readers will excuse my 
 going back to the year 1686, wheii such experiments were made, 
 and describing the mode of conducting them, as they will 
 
284 DR. PAPIN's experiment in 1686. 
 
 admire the simple and truly philosophical spirit that guided the 
 inquiry, which will be found detailed in " The Philosophical Trans- 
 actions" of the year 1686, No. 184, p. 193, being the substance of 
 a paper read before the Royal Society by the celebrated Dr. Papin, 
 
 It appears that some time before this, members of the Royal 
 Academy of Paris had tried to demonstrate the problem in the 
 following way. A bladder was filled alternately with water and 
 air, and the experimenters found that when the weight used to 
 squeeze out the fluids was exactly the same, as well as the orifice 
 to let them escape from the neck of the bladder, the air was 
 emptied, or driven out, in one-25th of the time that was required 
 to drive out the water ; from hence they concluded that the 
 swiftness or velocity of the air in escaping was 25 times greater 
 than that of the water. 
 
 " This experiment," as Dr. Papin quaintly remarks, " was very 
 well thought on, and might serve till a better should be found 
 out ; but those gentlemen could not but know that this was not 
 perfect ; " and he reasons, " that the air yieldeth much, and so 
 the bladder, being filled with it, will become pretty flat as soon as 
 a considerable weight is laid upon it. It is plain, therefore, that 
 the weight bearing upon so large a space, doth not press every 
 part with the same force as it would do if the bladder did for a 
 while remain plump as it doth when full of water ; moreover, the 
 water itself being heavy in the bladder, makes some pressure, so 
 that it appears that the pressure in this experiment was not quite 
 so great upon the air as" upon the water. I have therefore 
 thought of another way which I think better to come to the same 
 knowledge, and I do humbly submit it to the Royal Society." 
 
 Dr. Papin then argues, that quicksilver being 13^ times heavier 
 than water, bears as much pressure when its spring is one foot 
 above the spout-hole, as water does when its spring is 13^ feet 
 high, and the height to which the water will ascend will be 13^ 
 times less than the height to which water will be driven by those 
 equal pressures.* 
 
 He then proceeds, "that different fluids, bearing the same 
 
 * The resistance of tlie air not being considered.-— Editor, 
 
DE. PAPIn's experiment IN 1686. 285 
 
 pressure, those tliat are the Hghtest must acquire the greatest 
 swiftness, and their velocities are to one another as the roots of 
 the specific gravities of the said fluids ; and as the velocities of 
 bodies are to one another as the square roots of the heights to 
 "which they may ascend, so, on this occasion, they are also as the 
 roots of the specific gravities." 
 
 " If, therefore," Dr. Papin says, " we would know the velocity 
 of air being driven, by any degree of pressure whatever, we have 
 but to find what would be the velocity of water under the same 
 pressure, and then take the square roots of the specific gravities 
 of the two fluids ; because as much as the square root of the 
 specific gravity of water doth exceed the square root of the specific 
 gravity of air, so much in proportion will the velocity of air 
 exceed the velocity of water. For example, when I would com- 
 pute what would be the velocity of a bullet shot by the pneumatic 
 engine, as described in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' No. 179, 
 I should first compute what was the velocity of the air itself that 
 drove that bullet. I did therefore take notice, that on this occa- 
 sion the air bears the pressure much about the same as that of the 
 water when its spring is 32 feet high. Now, such water would 
 spout out with a sufficient velocity to ascend 32 feet perpendicular, 
 and therefore such water has a velocity of 45 feet per second. 
 
 "It remains, therefore, but to know the proportion of the 
 gravity of the air to that of water, and we have found that it is 
 not always the same, because the height, the heat, and the 
 moisture of the atmosphere are variable ; nevertheless, we may 
 say in general, that the reason " (ratio) " between the specific 
 gravities of water and air to be much about 840 to 1. Taking, 
 then, their square roots, which are 29 and 1, we conclude that 
 the velocity of air must exceed that of water 29 times, and so by 
 multiplying 45 the velocity of water by 29, we shall find that 
 the velocity of air driven by the pressure of the atmosphere into 
 a vacuum is about 1305 feet in a second." 
 
 It will be perceived that Dr. Papin arrived at a perfect solution 
 of the question by his admirable mode of reasoning, and that he 
 was perfectly aware of the efiects of the variation in the calcula- 
 
286 NO VACUUM BEHIND A CANNON BALL. 
 
 tion, -which the varied differences of altitude, heat and moisture, 
 ■would occasion — circumstances that are not so much attended to 
 as they should be -when exactness is required in trying the 
 strength of gunpowder hj ranges, or by initial velocities. 
 
 It is generally allowed, now that we have arrived at greater 
 exactness by delicate instruments, that when the pressure of the 
 atmosphere is- such that the barometer will stand at 30 inches, 
 which is that of 2-| feet of mercury, the air will rush into a 
 vacuum at the velocity of about 1344 feet in a second ; but the 
 state of dryness or moisture will make a difference. 
 
 "We may also put down the density of air as that of the 825th 
 part of water, and mercury to Avater as 13'6 to 1, which will 
 differ from the estimates of Dr. Papin in a slight degree. The 
 column of water sustained by the pressure of the atmosphere 
 may be considered as 33 feet when barometer is 30°. 
 
 The determination of the velocity with which air will rush 
 into a vacuum has been an important element in calculating the 
 resistance it gives to the progressive motions of projectiles 
 passing through it, and has led many to suppose, that if a 
 shot is moving with greater velocity, there must be a vacuum 
 left behind it ; forgetting that, as air is a highly elastic medium, 
 the compression it receives from the front and sides of the shot 
 will quite alter the velocity with which it will move round it to 
 restore the disturbed equilibrium occasioned by the shot in its 
 passage. For let us consider that the atmosphere is supposed to 
 consist of gaseous atoms, so loose in combination as to yield to 
 the slightest pressure, and so perfectly elastic as to return 
 instantly that pressure is removed, and we find that with the 
 common pressure of the atmosphere — say nearly 1 5 lbs. on the 
 square inch — air will rush into a vacuum with a velocity of 
 1344 feet in a second ; surely then the air that rushes round 
 a shot, being highly compressed in front especially, must move 
 round the surface to restore its disturbed equilibrium with much 
 greater velocity than the natural pressure of the column of at- 
 mosphere gives. But if there was a vacuum caused behind a 
 shot moving with high velocity, the particles of air rushing 
 
POWER EBQUIEBD TO MOVE ISSAPOEE MILLS. 287 
 
 together and striking would cause violent detonation, and as long 
 as a shot, according to the vacuum theory, moved with a greater 
 velocity than 1344 feet in a second, its flight would be accom- 
 panied by the noise of thunder, which we know is not the case. 
 
 My opinion is, that -writers on the subject of the resistance of 
 the air on moving projectiles have not properly considered the 
 elements of the causes of resistance. I attribute this greatly to 
 the friction of the air on the surface of the ball, and as this 
 increases with the increase of velocity, we can thus account for 
 those phenomena of various resistances which appear to have 
 puzzled even great philosophers. 
 
 We know that when a gun is fired there is a loud report ; 
 this is caused by the atoms of the gaseous matter of the fired 
 powder striking upon the air with — as some have estimated — a 
 velocity of 7000 feet in a second ; and if we could project a shot 
 with that velocity, no doubt we should have the same sound 
 as long as the shot moved with it. There cannot be a vacuum 
 formed on the discharge of a gun, which some have supposed, 
 for the permanent gaseous matter of gunpowder is more than 
 half as heavy again as common air, and will thus strike with 
 greater force ; but there is a sudden and quick collapse of the 
 volume as it parts with its heat, which may give the appearance 
 of a vacuum. I do not now, as I once did believe, that there 
 is any vacuum formed even by the passage of lightning, from 
 its rapidity of motion ; but that the electric current strikes the 
 air in its course, and thus occasions the noise of thunder, and the 
 friction caused by its rapidity of motion produces the lightning, 
 which I believe a shot would do if it moved fast enough. 
 
 MEMORANDA BY COLONEL ANDERSON. 
 Power required to Start the Cylinder Mills. 
 
 The following experiments were made (with two single blocks, 
 with one end of the rope fastened to each arm, the other to the 
 weights) to ascertain the relative force required to start each mill 
 
288 HEATING PEOPEETIES OF WOOD AND GOAL. 
 
 with a charge of 95 lbs. of charcoal, which is supposed to be 
 
 equal to a charge of gunpowder. 
 
 No. 1 Mill, with cylinders that have not been new faced : — 
 1st Trial. The composition, being stirred xip as usual with the 
 
 turners, took 648 lbs. to start it. 
 
 2nd Trial. The composition, stirred up, 432 lbs. started it. 
 3rd Trial. The composition, not stirred up, took 528 lbs. to 
 
 start it. 
 
 No. 4 Mill, with cylinders new faced, and bed cut to a water 
 
 level : — 
 
 1st Trial. The composition, stirred up, took 852 lbs. to start it. 
 
 2nd Trial. Ditto Ditto . 336 
 
 3rd Trial. Ditto Ditto . . 392 
 
 4th Trial. The composition not stirred up 420 „ 
 
 5th Trial. Ditto Ditto . . 392 
 
 Experiments made as to the Heating Properties of Coal and 
 
 Firewood. 
 
 To evaporate a boiler of the mother waters, it takes 35 maunds 
 of firewood, which is sufi&cient to complete the process in 24 
 hours. 
 
 "With Burdwan coal, it was found that 1 7 maunds were expended, 
 and the time in completing the process the same as with firewood. 
 
 This may be owing to the way in which the furnaces are made 
 for the consumption of large logs of wood ; but, I think, if the 
 boilers were brought lower down, and a greater quantity of 
 draught given by raising the chimney about one-third, the weight 
 of coal to that of firewood would answer. 
 
 The next point to be taken into consideration is the relative 
 cost for firewood and coal. 
 
 The price of Soondry firewood supphed here this season is 
 16r. 6ffl. Qp. per 100 maunds, so allowing that one-third the quantity 
 of coal would answer in place of firewood, the rate per maund 
 should not exceed 8a. 7' 8^., to make it equal in price with fire- 
 wood ; but if coal can be purchased at anything below this rate. 
 
COMPARATIVE COST OP WOOD AND COAL, 289 
 
 and our furnaces altered so as to answer for coal, I think there 
 would be saving in using it in place of firewood ; as it is, the 
 experiment made with the fusing pots was found to be in favour 
 of the coal, and I think the same result would be found at the 
 charcoal furnaces, if we had better draught, which could be 
 easily effected by raising the chimneys. The following will show 
 the result obtained at the several places, viz. : — 
 
 For evaporating one boiler of mother waters containing 30 
 maunds of saltpetre — 
 
 n. A. p. 
 Firewood, 30 maunds, at 16r. 6a. 6^5. per 100 maunds 5 11 lOj 
 
 Burdwan coal, 17 maunds, at 8a. per maund ..880 
 
 DiflFerence in favour of firewood . . . 2 13 li 
 
 For fusing 8 pots, each pot containing 6 maunds of nitre^ 
 it required of 
 
 R. A. P. 
 
 Firewood, 20 maunds, at 16r. 6a. 6p. per maund . 3 4 6 
 Burdwan coal, 6 maunds, at 8a. per maund . .300 
 
 K. 
 
 A. 
 
 p. 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 91 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Difference in favour of coal . . ..046 
 
 In charring of cylinders of wood, each when charred contain- 
 ing from 22 to 25 seers of charcoal, it took — 
 
 12i maunds of wood, 16r. 6a. 6p. per 100 maunds 
 Burdwan coal, 4 J maunds, at 8a. per maund 
 
 Difference in favour of firewood . . . 3 2^ 
 
 It requires the same quantity of sea coal as that of Burdwan 
 to give the same proportion of heat, so that it would never answer 
 to use sea coal, unless it can be purchased for the same price as 
 the Burdwan. 
 
 Another thing to be considered is the quantity of charcoal 
 received from the using of wood, and which is issued to the 
 smiths and braziers, and amounts to about 100 ferrahs annually, 
 each ferrah * being worth one rupee, so that about 1000 rupees is 
 saved on this head alone ; therefore, allowing that one-third the 
 weight of coal to that of wood now expended would answer, we 
 
 * A Bengal ferrah measures 29 in. by 21j, and is 8^ in. deep. 
 
 V 
 
290 EXPLOSION EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 should require about 18,000 maunds of coal yearly, and from the 
 price of that, . deducting the value of the charcoal received, it 
 should not cost more than 6a. 9p. per maund, to equalise the 
 value of it with the wood— not taking into consideration the 
 expense that must be incurred in altering the furnaces, &c., to 
 adapt them for the use of coal, so that unless a great reduction 
 of the present price of coals (8a. per maund) could be made, no 
 saving need be expected by its use. 
 
 Trials to find the Cause of Explosions. 
 
 3rd April, 1844. 
 
 No. 2 Mill exploded, everybody certainly doing their duty ; 
 12^ P.M., Avind blowing very hard, much dust flying about. 
 
 Next day, on taking out the spindle of the cylinder, it was 
 found bent two inches out of the straight line, and cracked 
 half through, apparently the fracture of some standing, as the 
 cylinders had for some time been known to make an unusual 
 noise. This was the first of the cylinders turned from the concave 
 to the convex face. 
 
 The following different experiments were made in No. 2 Mill 
 with gunpowder, kunkur of bricks, and soorkee (brick pounded 
 into dust), to try and find out the cause of the explosion which 
 took place in this mill on the 3rd of this month. 
 
 Powder Works, Ishapore, 
 7th April, 1844. 
 
 1st Trial. With about 4 oz. of ordnance powder, mixed with 
 the kunkur and soorkee dust of the fallen roof, spread on the bed 
 in front of the cyUnders — mill working at the rate of 3\ revo- 
 lutions per minute — no explosion took place. 
 
 2nd Trial. The bed cleaned out, and two pieces of wood fths 
 of an inch thick were put in front of the cylinders to give them 
 a fall on the bed, with about the same quantity of powder as in 
 the first trial. Explosion took place, after a good many revo- 
 
EXPLOSION EXPERIMENTS. 291 
 
 lutions, the pieces of wood having been forced along the bed ; mill 
 working 3^ revolutions per minute. 
 
 3rd Trial. With the same quantity of powder only as before. 
 Bed cleaned out, and one of the safety leathers doubled was put 
 in front of the cylinders to give them a fall upon the bed ; mill 
 working about 4 revolutions per minute. No explosion took 
 place. 
 
 4th Trial. Two pieces of wood, -fths of an inch in thickness, 
 were put in front of the cylinders, with about 6 oz. of powder, 
 and a great quantity of kunkur and soorkee dust ; the pieces of 
 wood were broken into splinters, and were bruised very thin — 
 mill working at the rate of 4 revolutions per minute. No ex- 
 plosion took place. 
 
 Firewood — to try Loss of Weight by drying for a month. 
 
 23rd December, 1836, weighed 50 maunds of Soondry wood 
 that had been landed from the boats without being thrown into 
 the water, and 50 maunds that had been in the water two days, 
 and only that day brought to the bank to be weighed ; also 
 weighed one month afterwards, with the intent of ascertaining 
 the quantity of water that might be in the latter. 
 
 The dry wood was marked T, 38 pieces ; the wet M, 45 pieces. 
 
 "Weighed again, 21st January, 1837. 
 
 mnd. srs. mnd. srs. 
 The dry wood weighed . . . . . 48 3 \ 1 3T 
 The wet weighed 45 16/ 4 24 
 
 Experiments with Compositions. 
 
 Experiments in firing, in a portion cut from a musket barrel of 
 3 in. in length, the following compositions of nitre and charcoal, 
 each unit 15 grains. They were well mixed for 4 minutes in a 
 marble mortar, and dropped into the barrel through the same 
 funnel, then fired by a small piece of ignited charcoal— Urhur 
 charcoal. 
 
 u % 
 
292 EXPEKIMENTS WITH NITEE AND CHARCOAL MIXED. 
 
 Uehur Chaucoai.. 
 
 Charcoal. 
 
 Nitre. 
 
 Time of 
 burning. 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 37 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 C 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Eemarke, 
 
 A regular deposit of nitrite of potasli left 
 
 against the barrel. 
 A few beads thrown up, less potash left, and 
 
 not so regular. 
 
 As above. 
 
 Burnt fiercer ; less residue. 
 
 Burnt still fiercer, and less residue. 
 
 A little ash. 
 
 A little dust. 
 
 No residue. 
 
 No residue. 
 
 Willow Chakcoal. 
 
 & 
 
 Much potash left. 
 
 Saul Charcoal. 
 
 17 
 
 Less potash left. 
 
 The Willow charcoal was much more distinct and less friahle 
 than the Urhur, and of a more brilliant shining black, but was 
 not so finely pulverised. The Saul looked more like the Urhur. 
 The fire, more intense and settled at the larger proportions of 
 charcoal, say to ^, burnt with more noise and struggling as the 
 nitre was a shade less, as •§•. The smoke and gas was more, as the 
 fire appeared more settled and dominant. The residues de- 
 liquesced in the air, being nitrites and oxides of potash, the base 
 more or less prevalent having absorbed carbonic acid ; the next 
 day the whole residues had turned into liquids. 
 
PENDULUM GUN ilPEOUVETTE. 
 
 293 
 
 ON THE PENDULUM GUN EPROUVETTE. 
 
 QUADKANT, 
 
 rENDULUM GUN EPKOUVETTE. 
 
 A B 
 
 C A, CB 
 £ E 
 PG 
 
 H D 
 
 The Gun. 
 
 Suspending-rods. 
 
 The axis. 
 
 The graduated arc attached 
 
 to the rods. 
 An index fitted to the axis 
 
 at H. 
 The prolonged arm of the 
 
 index, to prevent it mov- 
 ing back with the recoil. 
 
 A small screw, to adjust the 
 index to zero before firing 
 the gun. 
 
 Pendulum to set the frame 
 horizontally in both di- 
 rections. 
 
 The pressure and friction of the index upon the head of the suspending-rods 
 is just sufficient to keep the index in its place on the quadrant after the gun has 
 recoiled, but not sufficient to check the recoil j and it thus shows the magnitude 
 of the greatest vibration. 
 
 The principle on which this instrument is constructed (a small 
 gun suspended by arms from an axis directly above the centre of 
 gravity, see plate) is, that when it is charged with gunpowder 
 and fired, the expanding fluid acting equally in all directions from 
 its centre, the fluid being resisted at the breech end of the gun 
 
294 PENDULUM GUN ^PEOUVETTE. 
 
 by impinging upon the -whole area of the base of the bore, and 
 escaping towards the muzzle in the opposite direction as it rushes 
 along, (where it is only met by the resistance of the air, and 
 the friction on the sides of the bore, no ball or wad being used,) 
 causes the gun to recoil or fly back, and up a part of the arc 
 of suspension of which the suspending anns are radii, the axis 
 of suspension being the centre of the circle. 
 
 The Chevaher D'Arcy, in his " Essai d'une Throne d'Artillerie," 
 printed in 1776, takes to himself the credit of this invention. 
 To the upper part of the framework is fitted an arc and graduated 
 scale, by which the measure of the greatest recoil or vibration is 
 obtained. 
 
 The weight of the gun, length of the arms, centre of gravity, 
 diameter of bore, and oscillation, are all elements in the calcu- 
 lation, and if these be not the same, no two eprouvettes wiU give 
 an equal arc with the same charge of powder. 
 
 As the circumstances under which the gun is discharged are 
 few and simple, I believe the same ^prouvette will constantly and 
 correctly give nearly the same results. The charge, accurately 
 weighed, is introduced by a long ladle reaching to the bottom of 
 the bore, which is pushed up to the end, and the muzzle being 
 then raised till the axis of the bore Hes at about 45°, the charge 
 falls into a compact space, and the successive charges are similarly 
 placed. 
 
 The friction and abrasion at the sockets with instruments so 
 little used, and carefuUy preserved, when well oiled, is so very 
 trifling as not to cause any variation. 
 
 As the gun has length of barrel, the proof by this instrument 
 calls into play relations different from those found in the mortar 
 proof. Combined, the two form an excellent measure of the 
 strength of powder. 
 
 The quickness of the inflammation of powder is perfectly 
 exhibited in the gun eprouvette ; while the results are more 
 certain than from a small charge, like two ounces, in the large 
 chamber of an 8 -in. mortar. 
 
 The arc of two difl'erent eprouvettes cannot be compared. 
 
TRIAL OF INCREASE OP CHARGE. 
 
 295 
 
 unless the variations of the elements above mentioned as entering 
 into the calculation are known. 
 
 To ascertain the result of increase of charge, the following 
 trial was made with musketry powder : — 
 
 Charge. 
 
 Arc of recoil. 
 
 1st difference. 
 
 2iid difference. 
 
 
 o / 
 
 
 o / 
 
 2 0^' 
 
 4 22 
 
 4 22 
 
 
 1 „ 
 
 10 18 
 
 5 56 
 
 1 34 
 
 H „ 
 
 16 44 
 
 6 26 
 
 30 
 
 2 „ 
 
 23 36 
 
 6 52 
 
 30 
 
 n „ 
 
 32 
 
 8 24 
 
 1 32 
 
 3 „ 
 
 39 
 
 7 
 
 1 24 
 
 10-5 „ 
 
 126 
 
 39 
 
 5 30 
 
 Average 
 
 21 
 
 6 30 
 
 55 
 
 The effect of size of grain on this instrument was ascertained 
 thus : — 
 
 Proof takek to ascertain the dipferencb of ebcoil of the Pendulum 
 Epkouvettb with large and small-sized grains op powder. 
 
 Ishapore, 20th Marcli, 1834. 
 
 Description of grain. 
 
 Pendulum Eprouvette. 
 
 Mean of scTeral rounds fired. 
 
 Very large grains, termed kunkur . 
 Ordnance . . . . . . 
 
 Musketry No. 1 . 
 
 Ditto 2 
 
 Rifle No. ] 
 
 Ditto 2 
 
 18 15 
 20 55 
 22 40 
 .24 30 
 25 22 
 25 23 
 
 As the small grain is the quickest inflamed, a larger quantity 
 of fluid is earlier brought to bear on the interior base of the gun, 
 hence the arc in each case is greater. 
 
 The Ishapore pendulum ^prouvette was not advantageously 
 placed or made ; it was not with a cast-iron frame and 
 wheels, as it ought to have been, and such as represented in the 
 plate. 
 
296 VARIOUS PATENTS. 
 
 The present gun dprouvette at Ishapore is of the following di- 
 mensions : — 
 
 Weight 90 lbs. 
 
 Length 29-25 inches. 
 
 Diameter of bore ..... 1'94 ,, 
 
 Length of arms . . . . . . 16 '50 „ 
 
 Note. — I believe the results from trials of the diflferent sized grains would not 
 differ so much if a heavy shot or weight is to be propelled through a long barrel, 
 especially if rifled ; and perhaps the largest grains then would be found most 
 advantageous. The circumstance of varying the size of the calibre of an ^prou- 
 vette to suit it for such trials seems never to have been thought of, yet with the 
 large guns we are now introducing this is essential for a right result. — ^Editor. 
 
 VARIOUS PATENTS FOR IMPROVEMENTS IN 
 GUNPOWDER. 
 
 In 1815, July 3, William Congreve (afterwards Sir William) 
 took out a patent for a new mode of manufacturing gun- 
 powder. 
 
 I. The proportions of the composition in fine powder are to 
 be introduced into three separate hoppers, having cylindrical 
 brushes working beneath each hopper, and as they revolve the 
 stream of materials fall on an endless band, by which they are 
 deposited in a semi-mixed state on a hopper, and are there mixed 
 by a revolving brush. 
 
 II. In the press-house the mixture is pressed, between gauged 
 plates, into flat cakes about ^ of an inch thick. 
 
 III. The cakes are broken to form grain in an improved 
 granulating machine, consisting of two pair of toothed rollers — 
 the upper one breaking the cake into coarser pieces ; and the 
 under ones, being closer, and with finer teeth, reducing the pieces 
 still smaller ; proper bands, hoppers, and sieves, being arranged to 
 separate the large and small grains and dust. The cake is passed 
 through the rollers by feeding apparatus. 
 
 Remaeks. — In this patent the process of mixing by brushes 
 seems useless, and probably injurious, by causing the lighter parts 
 to fly off" and be lost from the proper proportion. The second 
 and third improvements, however, were good, and in a greater 
 
VARIOUS PATENTS. 297 
 
 or less degree and modification are now used in most manu- 
 factories. 
 
 In 1853, August 13, a patent was taken out by John 
 Gwynne. 
 
 His improvement is to prepare a dust made from pulverising 
 solidified peat or coal, so as to use it instead of charcoal in 
 the manufacture of gunpo^Yder. 
 
 In 1853, Dec. 15, Edward Auguste Bellford took out a patent 
 for improving blasting powder for mining purposes. His pro- 
 portions were as follows : — 
 
 19 J lbs. of charcoal. 
 68 lbs. of saltpetre. 
 121 lbs. of sulphur. 
 
 100 
 
 The composition was to be mixed, pressed, granulated in the 
 usual way, and afterwards a quantity of chlorate of potash was to 
 be deposited in water to saturation, and the solution sprinkled 
 over the grains of the powder. Then it was to be dried in a 
 proper drying room heated to about 100° for four days. This 
 powder is to be used unglazed. 
 
 Remarks. — Although there would probably be an increase of 
 strength from this powder, yet there would be increased danger 
 in using it — by its readily exploding by friction, or percussion, 
 from the presence of the chlorate on the exterior of the grains. 
 By all means avoid the use of chlorate of potash in a gunpowder 
 manufactory. 
 
 In 1857, August 22, Henry Hodges took out a patent, his 
 proposal being to mix the usual ingredients, in their proper 
 proportions, in fine powder and in a suitable vessel, and then 
 injecting steam, so that the saltpetre is dissolved, and the in- 
 gredients are thoroughly incorporated by being stirred up. 
 
 Of late years there seems to have been much competition 
 amongst the manufacturers of gunpowder, and several patents 
 
298 VAEIOUS PATENTS. 
 
 have been taken out on the subject. It will not, therefore, be 
 objectionable to my readers to hare some of them alluded to. 
 
 A patent was taken out on the 9th July, 1855, by Mr. Edward 
 Hall, for such improvement. 
 
 It states that the improvement consists in regulating the 
 temperature of the mills in which the process of milling goes on, 
 by applying artificial heat to the beds — by means of hot water or 
 other heated fluids, through proper hollows or channels, supplied 
 from a boiler and properly-disposed cisterns, communicating by 
 proper pipes — so as to keep the temperature of the bed at a 
 higher temperature than the atmosphere. The water is pumped 
 up into cisterns, the upper cistern being kept at the temperature 
 of 212° by steam pipes when the atmospheric temperature is 
 at 50° ; and by carrying a current of hot water through the 
 hollows or channels in the mills to a lower cistern, the same 
 uniform temperature which the manufacturer desires in winter or 
 summer may be maintained at his discretion by means of stop- 
 cocks, &c. 
 
 Remarks. — The patentee observes that such mills should be 
 well ventilated above, in order that the moisture arising from 
 the water in the charge of the bed may evaporate freely. And 
 I understand from Mr. Hall that he derives much benefit from 
 this improvement. 
 
 By following such a plan the sulphur in the charge must be 
 brought to nearly a fusing heat, and thus its intimate mixture 
 with the other ingredients may be improved and facilitated in an 
 extraordinary degree, the warmed molecules of the sulphur at 
 this high temperature being laminated as it were over the 
 molecules of the two other ingredients. I have before alluded 
 to the great benefit which gunpowder derives from the small 
 portion of sulphur. 
 
 In 1855, July 26, a patent was applied for by Mr. Charles 
 Goodyear for improvement in gunpowder. 
 
 His object was to apply due proportions of India rubber, or 
 
YAKIOUS PATENTS. 299 
 
 gutta percha, with the usual proportions of saltpetre and sulphur 
 leaving out the charcoal altogether; but as his patent did not 
 proceed to the Great Seal, I suppose the projector found that the 
 proposed alteration would not answer in practice, if in theory. 
 
 In 1856, April 30, a patent was taken out by Mr. Henry 
 Edward Drayson, of the Maresfield Powder Works, Sussex, for 
 the following improvement : — 
 
 He first dissolves the saltpetre (weighed in proper proportions 
 with the other ingredients for a mill charge) in boiling water, 
 using about 50 per cent, of water, or the least possible quantity 
 to dissolve it, and then, mixing the sulphur and charcoal with the 
 solution of nitre, proceeds to grind the mixture under the mill as 
 usual. 
 
 He uses saltpetre that has not gone through the process of 
 fusion, and states that the requisite labour and time of milling 
 may be shortened by drying off part of the moisture by exposing 
 the charge to artificial heat, to bring it to a sufiicient state of 
 dryness to be put under the runners. 
 
 Remakks,^ — The only disadvantages of this proposed improvement 
 appear to be the excess of moisture, and the liabihty of the salt- 
 petre to re-crystallise when the temperature is reduced ; and that 
 in bringing the powder after being pressed and grained through the 
 process of drying, the grains may be left more or less porous ; not 
 that this would affect the strength of the powder when new, but 
 after it has been kept in store or exposed to the atmosphere. 
 
 In 1856, January 24, Mr. Edward Hall took out another patent, 
 in which he proposes a new mode of watering the mill charge. 
 He states that the charges of powder in a mill are moistened with 
 water at the commencement, and after milling some time, and as 
 often as the charge becomes partially dry, they are damped again 
 by sprinkling water over them by hand, with a small watering 
 pot, while the mill is in motion ; but in this way of watering, the 
 distribution of the water is not uniform, or limited precisely to the 
 quantity required, 
 
300 VAEIOUS PATENTS. 
 
 The patentee, therefore, brings forward an apparatus whereby 
 the exact quantity of water can be sprinkled over the charges 
 in a given time, and continued with little variation for an in- 
 definite period, by means of which the charges are better incor- 
 porated, the loss from dust diminished, and the chance of 
 explosion lessened. 
 
 The water is distributed by small pipes which lead from a 
 cistern above down to near the surface of the mill bed, where a 
 horizontal perforated pipe connects, which, being attached to the 
 mill shaft, revolves with the mill ; and being provided with cocks 
 capable of nice adjustment, and the water in the cistern being 
 heated by a steam pipe from the boiler, can be distributed at 
 any temperature that may be desired ; and thus the mill charge 
 is better watered and incorporated than by a man with a watering 
 pot, as is the common practice. 
 
 On the 10th June, 1857, Mr. Frederic Koehler appHed for 
 and proceeded in part with a patent, for a new kind of gun- 
 powder to be made, 
 
 I. Of a new discovered salt, whose chemical incorporation 
 
 is — 
 
 Oxygen 38 '51 
 
 Chloride ....... 29-76 
 
 Kalium 31-73 
 
 100- 
 
 or any Kaly-oxymuriaticum. 
 
 II. Sulphur. 
 
 III. Charcoal. 
 
 These ingredients are to be powdered fine, and mixed together 
 in the following proportions : — 
 
 70 parts of Salt ; 
 20 parts of Sulphur ; 
 10 parts of Charcoal ; 
 
 or in other proportions. The mixture produces instantly gun- 
 powder without further manufacturing. 
 
 Remarks.— As notice to proceed with this patent by applica- 
 tion for letters patent was not given within the time specified, it 
 
VABIOUS PATENTS. 301 
 
 was never completed, perhaps to the saving of the remainder of 
 the expenses. 
 
 For, first, as the newly discovered salt was not properly 
 described, the patent could not have stood. Secondly, the having 
 the material in fine powder would be so objectionable, that it 
 would never come into use for fire-arms or cannon at the present 
 day. 
 
 The inventor, however, states, the powder made on this inven- 
 tion has increased power and weight, and becomes better by 
 keeping, and that there is a further advantage, that it is not in- 
 flammable or likely to explode, as the single ingredients alone are 
 only inflammable and not explosive. 
 
 On the 19th of August, 1856, Mr. T. W. Willett, of 89, 
 Chancery Lane, C.E., took out a patent for improvement in gun- 
 powder. 
 
 His first plan is to supply a jet or jets of steam to the charge of 
 powder, instead of watering it, to give the requisite moisture to 
 the charge, by which it is more evenly and regularly moistened ; 
 the pipes to convey the steam are carried just over the surface of 
 the charge by proper pipes, and move round with the runners or 
 rollers. His second plan is to supply a current of air artificially 
 above the surface of the charge, to carry off the moisture, which 
 current is so contrived as to carry it just above the surface of the 
 mill charge, and not to impinge directly upon it. This current of 
 air may be caused by a fan or other suitable means, and may be 
 artificially heated if required, and must be a gentle current, so as 
 not to raise the dust of the powder ; and when it is desirable to 
 hasten the drying, his apparatus is so contrived that he can 
 reverse the current, and draw it inwards, just passing over the 
 mill charge, and thus creating a current passing into his appa- 
 ratus ; but as some particles of the dust of the composition might 
 be drawn in, the openings in the pipes for the air to pass in or out 
 must be covered with a thin woollen cloth. 
 
 Eemaeks.— In the moist climate of England, perhaps, a gentle 
 current of warm air passing over the mill charge might be bene- 
 
302 VAEIOUS PATENTS. 
 
 ficial, but the reversing the current seems of little practical use, 
 and difficult to be managed, for assuredly the moisture or vapour 
 from the mill charge would accumulate on the thin woollen cloth 
 proposed to cover the orifices of the pipes, and most probably, 
 assisted by the dust of the powder, would stop the passage of any 
 gentle current of air as proposed. 
 
 On December 8th, 1857, Mr. Thomas Willett took out a 
 patent. 
 
 His proposal is, — I. To cause the beds of the incorporating 
 mills to rotate in a horizontal direction, while the vertical wheels 
 or runners only revolved upon their main axle vertically, which 
 axle can move up and down vertically, so as to set the beds and 
 runners at a regulated distance as required. 
 
 II. To use press plates in the press mill, with raised surfaces or 
 ribs, so that the cakes when they come out of the press are in- 
 dented and easily broken up. 
 
 III. A drum-shaped rotating vessel, heated by a steam jacket, 
 is used for mixing the ingredients, and copper or hard wooden 
 balls are placed in the vessel. 
 
 IV. Saltpetre in a state of solution is heated and mixed with the 
 charcoal in a copper pan, and the sulphur is added to the 
 rest after it has cooled down to about 50° Pahr. 
 
 V. A new kind of granulating machine is proposed, the press 
 cake being placed upon a table having parallel metal ridges, and 
 is pressed down by suitably arranged pressing plates, furnished 
 with ridges also. 
 
 Remarks. — There may be some advantages in using such, a 
 granulating apparatus, especially when powder of large grain is 
 required. 
 
 It would be endless to enter largely on the notices of the various 
 new patents relating to gunpowder; no doubt many of them 
 are perfectly useless. Private manufacturers, having large 
 capital involved, are not communicative of their improvements, 
 and it would be well, therefore, that those who are about to enter 
 
IRON MILLS. 303 
 
 upon the manufacture should be cautious, and by inquiry ascertain 
 ■whose gunpowder bears the best character in the market, with 
 the view of making some agreement with tliat firm for the dis- 
 closure of their processes of manipulation. 
 
 I believe, iron mills will quite supersede stone or gun metal ; 
 will be cheaper, stronger, and more durable ; and even the 
 granulating rollers, when made of iron and steel, are quite as 
 safe, much stronger, and more durable, than brass ones, and, I 
 am informed, are used in one of the best and most flourishing 
 private manufactories in England. 
 
 Much economy in time and labour may be saved by taking 
 advantage of improvements which are the results of experience, 
 not only in the different processes of refinement and manipula- 
 tion, but also in the arrangement of the buildings, all of which 
 should be well considered in establishing new gunpowder 
 works. — Editor. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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