DATE DUE PRINTED IN U.S A aPCRTi.raMMLlPI^iT COIMCLmNWCIilTT STATE OF NEW JERSEY DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION TRENTON Improvement of Rural Schools By Means of Consolidation JULY 1916 Date Due SEP? 7 195r "ftr* •57« 'If y zi I ,^ - DECl 6 1976 H ^ g 4^-. 1 ■1 f ^^i^^^^a ■HHI Three small buildings closed and children transported to W. H. Laniling consolidated school, Ewing Township, Mercer County STATE OF NEW JERSEY DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION TRENTON Improvement of Rural Schools By Means of Consolidation JULY 1916 The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924081 073961 CONTENTS The rural school problem 5 Origin and purpose of the schools 5 Rural schools local undertakings 6 The movement toward the city 6 Effect of this movement toward city on rural schools 7 Lack of cooperation 8 Unequal opportunities in rural and city schools 8 Illustration of unequal opportunities 10 The teaching in the rural and city schools 11 Supervision 11 Rural school a means of preparation for rural life 12 Rural school must be related to life 13 Best only is good enough 13 New type of school needed 18 The consolidated school 15 Types of consolidated schools 15 The consolidated school as a community center 16 Relating the school to life .* 17 Increases t6rm of service of teachers 18 Health of pupils 18 School spirit. 19 Expense of maintaining consolidated schools 19 Corroborative testimony 19 Objections to consolidation 28 Depreciation of the value of property 28 Transportation 29 Origin of transportation 30 Supervision of transportation 30 Means of transportation 32 The school wagon 32 The automobile 32 The driver 33 Isolated pupils 33 Cost of transportation 33 Nummary of state laws on consolidation 34 Objections to transportation 36 The contract 37 Rules and recommendations of State Board of Education 40 The one-teacher school 40 Conclusion 41 ILLUSTRATIONS PACINS PAGE H. W. Lanning consolidated school and replaced buildings, Ewing Township, Mercer County Frontispiece Consolidated school and replaced buildings, Woodbridge Town- ship, Middlesex County 6 South Street consolidated school and replaced buildings, Morris Township, Morris County 8 Clementon consolidated school, Camden County 10 Hanover consolidated school, Morris County 10 Hightstown consolidated schools. East Windsor District, Mercer County 12 Cedar Bridge-Osbomsville consolidated school and replaced build- ings. Ocean County 14 Sewing and woodwork classes, Somerville school 16 Field Day. at Egg Harbor City school 18 Outdoor activities, Franklin Furnace School, Sussex County 20 Field Day at Asbury Park; orchestra; playground equipment 22 Lincroft, Belford and Leonardo schools, Middletown Township, Monmouth County 24 Jackson consolidated school, Randolph County, Indiana 26 Farmers' institutes and drinking fountains in schools in Randolph County, Indiana 28 Green Township, consolidated school and replaced buildings, Ran- dolph County, Indiana 30 Transportation wagons 32, 36, 40 Sewing and cooking in consolidated schools 84 Agricultural classes in consolidated schools 38 FOREWORD It is believed that consolidation of rural schools is necessary if they are to become as efficient as it is possible to make them. Of late years considerable progress has been made in such con- solidation throughout the state, as local communities have come to realize its advantages. These advantages are set forth in this pamphlet, which is issued for the use of school officials and the general public interested in one of the most serious problems today confronting educational authorities — the betterment of the rural school. It is realized that the small isolated school will continue to exist in some parts of the state where conditions are such as to make consolidation impracticable. Recognizing these conditions, it is the duty, of school officials to make these schools as good as possible. This pamphlet was prepared in the main by Dr. J. J. Savitz, for- merly Assistant Commissioner of Education in charge of Elementary Schools. Dr. Savitz has had, by reason of his long experience, unusual opportunities to study schools, both in this state and else- where. C. N. Kendall Commissioner of Education Improvement of Rural Schools By Means of Consolidation THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM Probably no phase of our existing educational system presents so many perplexing problems as the organization and management of our rural schools. Books, pamphlets, newspaper articles and educa- tional reports, almost without number, suggesting solutions for these problems, have been written during the last decade or two; laws have been passed to carry into effect these suggestions and school officials, supervisors, and teachers have earnestly striven to solve the problems, but progress in the improvement of rural schools has been slow. ORIGIN AND PURPOSE OP THE SCHOOLS The rural school was — as all schools were — called into existence to meet the educational needs of groups of settlers as they estab- lished themselves throughout the country. A settlement, in any sec- tion was usually followed by the erection of a church and a school, the two being frequently conducted in one building. Naturally, therefore, as communities increased in number, schools in- creased because the different settlements were too widely separated to maintain joint or union schools. These schools, whether main- tained in connection with the church or separately, filled a large place in the community because of an abiding faith in education. However, the busy life of the early settlers, the even more busy life of farmers in later periods, due to a lack of present day ma- chinery, the continued expansion of their work in bringing forest lands under the plow and harvesting their crops, and the lack of transportation facilities to market the crops and to bring supplies to the farm, made such demands on the farmer and his children that there was but little time for the latter to go to school. The curriculum, though narrow, was sufficiently broad to meet community needs, as the settlers were too busy with practical every- day affairs to demand more of the schools than the rudiments in spelling, reading, writing and arithmetic. Gradually, however, as the need became apparent, one subject after another was added to the curriculum. For instance, as the country became more thickly settled, as there was more to sell than could be readily disposed of near by, as newspapers became more numer- ous, as means of communication by post-office, railroad and steam- boat increased, as man became a citizen of a larger community, geography — largely locational — found its way into the course of study. Similarly, one by one, the other subjects, always because of some actual need, were introduced. RURAL SCHOOLS LOCAL UNDERTAKINGS The early rural schools, therefore, were purely local undertak- ings. The citizens of a community at a public meeting decided to build a schoolhouse, levied a tax for the maintenance of the school, determined the length of the school term, and often (see early his- tory of New Jersey) selected the teacher for the school. There was no outside supervision to govern the licensing of teachers, to compel children to attend school, or to regulate the school in any way. It was purely a community product without any regulations except such as the community prescribed in their meetings. Being a purely democratic institution suited to the temper of the people, conveniently situated and easily managed, it is small won- der that these schools multiplied in direct proportion to the number of settlements. Perhaps this explains in no small measure the strong hold these one-teacher schools had on the community and still have, even though the granting of state aid, following the or- gaiiization of the state system of education, has made regulation and supervision necessary. THE MOVEMENT TOWARD THE QTY The growth of the city, with its conveniences and its apparently easier means of earning a livelihood, set the life on the farm in sharp contrast with city life, much to the disadvantage of the former. So attractive had city life become in the eighties that MHHIH^^ -Ml fi.-'i'J'- '^^SsJi;';. -1 -f'^FB i.l;_''- jjp i "1 !',. ***-i I ■ 1 ; Piifi|9» ^iii LlJiillf ■ ._-, - ), LJ« w^m n"li ■; 1 tui 'KB !I'"'i, ImSI P- I'^-Jfei ajj^B whenever farmers who had lived in the country all their lives re- tired from active life they "moved to town." The opportunities for securing positions in the cities, with the attractiveness and con- veniences of city life, the hours of toil for young people on the farm, without motive and with few of the redeeming features which city life apparently affords, and the unpromising outlook for a farmer, due to the exhaustion of the soil, drew away .from the country many of its most promising young people. To such an extent did this movement grow that many country districts were greatly impoverished. The parents, deserted by the young people when they were most needed, and utterly discouraged by a condition which they themselves unconsciously had brought about, frequently followed their children to the city. EFFECT OF THIS MOVEMENT TOWARD CITY ON RURAL SCHOOLS The effect of this cityward tendency resulted not only in a great depreciation of farm values, but also in a less efficient school. Per- haps, however, no greater misfortune could have befallen the school than the decrease in the number of young men who became teachers. Business opportunities in the city proved too attractive to the young man on the farm to choose teaching as a vocation. Gradually, therefore, the number of young men preparing themselves for teaching in the academies and normal schools decreased, and gradu- ally male teachers disappeared from the schools. In New Jersey our young men, and even our young women, are attracted by busi- ness opportunities in the large cities within and near the borders of the state, so that comparatively few take up the work of teaching, and, as a result, large numbers of teachers from outside the state must be engaged annually. To teach these rural schools usually only young women without training are available, or, if these teachers are trained, many are looking forward to city positions. Frequently these young women are from the city and have no interest in or understanding of the needs and advantages of rural life. In addition, there is usually a lack of adequate supervision of the teaching, often no record of the grading and progress of pupils for the new teacher to follow. The pupils in the average school begin at the first page of the book at the beginning of each year or whenever a new teacher takes charge — and sometimes there are two or three teachers each year. Then, too, the gradually decreasing number of children in coun- try districts sometimes results in a school of lo to 15 pupils, rarely over 20, scattered through the eight grades. This necessitates an unusually large number of recitations daily, sometimes as many as 35, with one or two pupils in each class. So tedious a performance is this for the average teacher and pupil that they are sometimes heartily glad when the monotony of the recitation is over. As for enthusiasm and school spirit there is usually none. LACK OF COOPERATION This lack of enthusiasm, together with a lack of interest on the part of patrons, largely due to these untoward conditions, results in an irregularity of attendance that hinders progress. Pupils fall behind in their classes and many never form habits of study. In addition, there is often an utter lack of sympathy between teacher and school and between teacher and community. Sometimes there is open opposition, or such a hostile attitude toward the school iliat no effective work can be done. Under such conditions is it any wonder that the work in the rural schools is lagging? Even work in the formal subjects, reading, writi.ng, spelling, and arithmetic, cannot under such con- ditions be well done. Neither can people be expected to appro- priate the necessary funds to pay for efficient teachers, for build- ing modern schoolhouses, and for equipping them with neces- sary apparatus. Is it any wonder that communities are un- willing to tax themselves for the maintenance of an institution which fails to grip the young by arousing their interest and en- thusiasm? Can patrons be expected under these conditions to respond heartily to the suggestion to increase taxes ? UNEQUAL OPPORTUNITIES IN RURAL AND CITY SCHOOLS Even though some of the very best teaching in the state is done m these rural schools by teachers who are devoting their lives to a service which is greatly worth while, the best of these teachers realize the handicap under which they are laboring. A concrete case clearly sets forth the conditions -which prevail in many districts. In a certain township in this state there are three one-teacher schools, one with an enrollment of 9 pupils, another with an enrollment of 12, a third with an enrollment of 55 with not South Street Consolidated School in Morris Township, Morris County, and two of several one-room buildings abandoned less than 35 daily recitations. The teacher in the third school appreciates that she cannot do satisfactory work because of the number of recitations, and the other two are unable to arouse any enthusiasm because of the small number of pupils. If the number of pupils could be equalized in these schools all the teachers would do better work. To illustrate the disadvantages under which a pupil may labor in a one-teacher school, another case is presented. In the town- ship of X there are a number of one-teacher schools, and, in two of the villages, schools with one teacher for- each grade from the first to the eighth. In a one-teacher school in this town- ship, about a mile from one of the villages, there are 43 pupils enrolled, representing all the eight grades. There are 33 reci- tations daily. This makes possible an average of about four recitations daily for each grade with approximately nine minutes for each recitation. A pupil attending this school is therefore engaged in reciting during 36 of the 270 minutes in which the school is in session. The remainder of the time the pupil must devote to studying and to waiting for the recitation period to drag along. Many parents undoubtedly remember these weary waitings for the recitation period, which are enough to destroy all taste for knowledge. A. rural schoolboy whose statement as to what he did in school hours was, "I do my sums and study my lessons," replied to the further question, "What do you do then?" "Sit up straight and keep quiet," in a tone which indi- cated that he fully appreciated the long hours of waiting. Now compare the opportunities of a pupil in this school with those of a pupil in the village school in the same district. In the latter there are 27 pupils in the eighth grade with not more than 10 recitations as a maximum for each day. A pupil in the eighth grade of this school gets three times as much recitation time, that is, the teacher's time, as the pupil in the ungraded school. Moreover, the teacher in the village school will be in much better frame of mind to do effective work than the teacher who must hear 33 recitations daily. The very thought of having so many recitations shows how ridiculous it is to expect satisfac- tory work from such a school. It will readily be seen that country children do not have educa- tional advantages equal to those of city children. Is it fair and just in a state which by its constitution guarantees proper educational lO facilities to all between five and eighteen years of age, that a portion of the young people shall be placed at such a disadvantage? Can any reasonable- excuse be offered for this most unsatisfactory con- dition when equal opportunities may be provided without increased expenditure ? ILLUSTRATION OF UNEQUAL OPPORTUNITIES ONE-ROOM RURAI, SCHOOI. CONSOI,IDATED SCHOOI/ DAILY FKOGBAM— GRADES I TO VH NO. OP PU- PILS TIME 9:00- 9:10— Opening Exer- cises 9:10- 9:15— Word Study 9:15- 9:20— Word Study 9:20- 9:35— Arithmetic 9:35- 9:50— Arithmetic 9 :50-10 :00— Arithmetic 10 :00-10 :10— Arithmetic 10:10-10:20— Numbers 10 :20-10 :30— Numbers 10:30-10:45— Recess 10:45-11:00- 6RADE II I VI & VII V rv III II I ■Grammar and Composition 11:00-11:15— Grammar and Composition VI 11:15-11:25— Language III & IV 11:25-11:35— Geography and Reading II 11:45 — Reading I VII 2 All Grades I II III IV V VI & VII 11:35 „ 11:45-12:00— Writing 12:00- 1:00— Noon 1:00- 1:15— Word Study and Reading 1:15- 1:30— Reading 1:30- 1:45— Reading 1:45- 1:55— Reading 1:55- 2:05— Reading 2:05- 2:20— Reading 2:20- 2:30— Recess 2:30- 2:45— Geography (3)* and HJ^giene 2:45- 2:55-Hiary (3) '" ^ '^ ' and Physiology (2) V i 2:55- 3:10— History (2) Geography (2) 9. in Q.oiL f^yfl^losy (1) VI & VII 4 3:10- 3:20— Spelling m & TV 15 3:20- 3:30-Spellini V, VI & VII 8 DAILT PROGRAM— GRADE Vm TIME 9:00- 9:20 — Opening Exer- 9:20- 9:50— Arithmetic 9:50-10:20— Study Arith- metic 10 :20-10 :45— Geography 10 :45-ll :35— Reading 11:35-11:55— Writing 11:55-12:00— Prepare for dis- missal 12:00- 1:00— Noon 1:00- 1:50— Grammar 1:50- 2:00— Study Spelling 2:00- 2:40— Civics (2)* Physiology (3) 2:40- 2:50— Spelling 2:50- 3:30— History JStT"^^ '" parentheses indicate number of recitations in subject per Clementon Consolidated School, Camden County Hanover Consolidated School, Morris County II THE TEACHING IN THE RURAL AND CITY SCHOOLS Compare the city and the country school in respect to the teacher — the great factor essential to a good school — and the conditions under which the teacher's work generally is done. CITY TEACHERS Usually are experienced Usually are trained Often remain in same position year after year Understand city conditions Are generally well paid, with an increase in salary for satisfac- tory work Are usually helpfully supervised and guided Usually teach one grade with 8 or 10 recitations daily Are supplied with books and ap- paratus COUNTKT TEACHERS Are usually inexperienced Are often untrained or partially trained Rarely stay more than a year or two in the same school Are often city bred women with no knowledge of country conditions Are often poorly paid, with the same salary for all teachers, regardless of results and term of service Are irregularly supervised with little guidance Teach several grades with 25 or 30 recitations daily Rarely are well supplied with books and apparatus Frequently teachers are employed who do not understand the con- ditions under which they are laboring because they have been living in cities and attending city schools where conditions differ greatly from conditions in the country. Since not much supervision and help can be given them, their work the first year becomes purely experimental. If they succeed in finding their way the salary is so low they soon look forward to positions in a town or city. SUPERVISION As stated above, in town and city schools at the present time an untrained teacher is rarely engaged. In many city schools not only normal training is required but also some experience. Since there are not enough trained or experienced teachers to fill all the posi- 12 tions in both city and rural schools, it follows that practically all the untrained and inexperienced teachers find places in the rural schools. Usually no provision is made to help these untrained teachers to develop teaching power through supervision. Generally in town or city districts, a superintendent or supervising principal is employed who devotes all his time to supervision; in large buildings in these districts there is, in addition, a principal without teaching duties whose time is fully taken up with training his teachers for more effective work; frequently also there is a special supervisor of primary and grammar work and supervisors of special subjects — writing, sewing, manual training, drawing, and music. In rural schools there is no one to supervise the work and to help the teachers but the county superintendent. By law he is required to visit each teacher twice annually. In many of our larger coun- ties, with areas of from 300 to 400 square mil^, this is almost a physical impossibility even if the superintendent were to devote all his time to visiting schools. The many duties which the law requires the county superintendent to perform make the required number of visits in these large counties an impossibility. In coun- ties where it is possible to make the visits the superintendent can- not remain long enough with a teacher to give her the help she needs. Moreover, untrained teachers without experience need help at the very beginning of the term ; otherwise much valuable time is lost to the pupils, and the work of the year often is a total failure. RURAL SCHOOL A MEANS OF PREPARATION FOR RURAL LIFE Considerable emphasis has been placed in many quarters on the advantage of rural life, and the "back to the farm" movement has much to commend it. In itself this movement is not important, as rarely will the city bred man accomplish much as a farmer. But the movement will impress upon young men and women living in the country the importance of preparing themselves for rural life. It is here that the hope of the country school lies. A disposition on the part of these young people to prepare themselves to live an efficient life in the country rather than to desert the farm will lead to an investigation of the means available for such preparation. Among these means the country school is destined to become a large factor. Hightstown High and Grammar School, East Windsor District, Mercer County Hightstown Primary School, East Windsor District, Mercer County CONSOUDATION AND TRANSPORTATION 13 RURAL SCHOOL MUST BE RELATED TO LIFE If the country school is to serve its purpose its work must be re- lated to the life about the school. Until recent years there was nu fund of scientific knowledge on farming and rural life generally and the school work was so limited it could not influence the sur- rounding activities. With the present knowledge of farming the school may readily be used as a laboratory for the purpose of demonstrating to the farmer and his children proper farm practice. The principles of physics may be taught in their application to farm machinery, and practical botany may be taught through the testing of seeds and the planting and raising of farm crops. Arithmetic and other subjects may be taught by applying them to the solution of every-day problems on the farm. BEST ONLY IS GOOD ENOUGH Sometimes we are inclined to say that the one-room school which was good enough for the fathers and mothers is good enough for the children, forgetting that the best a community can provide for the education of children is only good enough. As parents responsi- ble for the existence and welfare of our children we cannot be satisfied with anything but the best we can afford. Moreover, the acceptance of the principle, "What was good enough for me, is good enough for my children," cannot be consistently applied to any phase of human activity. If any business man should conduct his business on this principle he would fail dismally. The school which is to fit boys and girls for life must change as conditions of living change. NEW TYPE OF SCHOOL NEEDED The dissatisfaction expressed in many rural communities with school conditions shows that a change is impending. Either the school must give up its place as the instrument to fit pupils to the conditions surrounding them — that is, to adjust them to their en- vironment — or else a new form of organization and method of con- ducting the school must be adopted. The content of the course of study will probably be much the same as it is now in our better rural schools, but its mode of presentation will be such as to make the work vital in all its aspects. The following letter from President Bebout of the Passaic Township (Morris County) Board of Educa- 14 tion to his teachers shows how fully those responsible for the con- duct of rural schools feel the need of a new type of school. To the Teachers of Passaic Tovmshvp: We have in our schools boys and girls whose interest in various ac- tivities outside of school could be utilized to bring the school work in touch with local needs and at the same time increase the interest of the pupil in the study of books. Some of the things in which boys in our community are interested are: the growing of corn or other farm products, gardening, fruit-rais- ing, poultry, study of birds, horses, milking, care of cows, machinery, electrical machinery, wireless telegraphy, wood-working, iron-working, printing. Girls are interested in cooking, dressmaking, embroidering, gardening, floriculture, the growing of strawberries, study of birds, poul- try, canning, nursing. A parent who wishes to have a child receive credit on his school record for work done in any such occupation as those mentioned may apply to the teacher or supervisor describing the work for which he wishes the pupil to be credited. If after investigation the teacher and super- visor are satisfied that the work will be seriously undertaken and will be to the advantage of the pupil this work will be entered as one of the subjects on which the progress of the pupil will be reported e^ch month in the same way as the other school subjects. Whenever pbs- sible some capable person, either the parent or someone especially in- terested, should be appointed to direct the pupil in this work. The teacher or supervisor will inspect the work often enough to see that it is done thoroughly and in a workmanlike manner, and will also see that the pupil and his director are supplied with such available scientific or expert information as may be helpful to them. This may be done by leading the pupil to state clearly the problems confronting him in his work and having him write to the proper sources for information. This can usually be made an exercise for the entire class. Most of these pupils would be glad to have such mathematics as may be involved in their work used as a class exercise. Care should be taken that written or printed matter received for the information of the pupil is correctly interpreted. Such matter will sometimes make an interesting reading lesson for the class. At the end of the year, when the standing of the pupils is being de- termined for promotion or graduation, for each ten points credited as the average for the special work, one point shall be added to the average for the subject in which the pupil has the lowest record. For instance, if the pupil has received 90 for his special work and his lowest average is 70 in arithmetic, his arithmetic average shall be made 79. Work of the character suggested in the above letter cannot be done in a one-teacher school as satisfactorily as it should be done. With the present rapid-fire system of dismissing a class every nine Cedar Bridge-Osbomsville Consolidated School, Ocean County, replaces the two one-room schools shown above 15 minutes, two or three of which are taken up in the change of classes, the teacher, as has been shown, cannot do justice to her pupils. Some plan of school organization must be devised which will give the teacher more time to devote to individual pupils. THE CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL Reference has been made to the fact that on account of the dis- tance it seemed necessary for each new settlement to establish a school of its own rather than unite in maintaining a joint school with a neighboring settlement. Since villages and homes in the country have now been brought closer together through good roads ; since the bicycle, automobile, trolley and railroad have taken the place of other and slower means of transportation and since the State furnishes a large proportion of the money paid for the trans- portation of pupils, as good school facilities as are provided in the cities and towns can now be provided in the country by means of the consolidated school. In a large number of our states great progress has been made in consolidating one-teacher schools into four, six or eight-teacher schools. Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Con- necticut, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, New- Hampshire, North Carolina, North Dakota, South Carolina, Tennes- see and Washington have taken up the movement to consolidate schools, and report a growing sentiment in favor of them. A num- ber of states require by statute that all schools in which the enroll- ment falls below a certain minimum must be closed and the pupils transported. New Jersey has made considerable progress in clos- ing one-teacher schools. A large number of consolidated buildings have been erected in the last few years. TYPES OF CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS There are, generally speaking, three types or methods of con- solidation. The simplest form of consolidation results when a single-teacher school is closed and the children are transported to another school of the same kind. There is no advantage in this method of combining schools unless the teachers of both schoo's are retained and the consolidated school is partially graded. The latter plan reduces the number of classes by one-half and enables the teacher to devote more of her time to individual pupils or to i6 emphasize certain phases of school work. Frequently two or more of such single teacher schools are closed and the pupils transported to a school centrally located. The second type or method of consolidation aims to provide school facilities in the way of one or two-teacher schools for pupils of the first three or four grades, with a central building — a gram- mar school — for pupils from the fifth grade up to and including the eighth grade, and sometimes even the high school. Usually, however, there is a central high school building accommodating the pupils who have graduated from the central grammar school, or schools. The advantages of this system are: (i) schools are pro- vided near the homes of the smaller children, and while there is not a teacher for each grade the teacher conducts less than one-third of the number of recitations of the ordinary one-teacher school; (2) pupils in the upper primary and grammar grades can, in many instances, walk to these centralized upper grade schools, thus doing away with the necessity of transportation for most of the pupils ; (3) the departmental system of instruction may be introduced in the upper grades as in town and city schools, and (4) it makes pos- sible the introduction of sewing, cooking, shopwork, agriculture and other extra school activities through a reduction in the number of classes per teacher. The third type or method of consolidation combines all the one- teacher schools — in fact, all schools — in a township or section so that there is but one grade for each teacher. A reduction of the number of grades in a room always means more of the teacher's time for individual pupils. Transportation may also be more eco- nomically efJected when all the pupils of a district attend the same school. In case a playground and a gymnasium are provided, and manual training and domestic science and art are taught, a single consolidated school avoids the necessity of duplicating school facilities. This form of consolidation offers the greatest possible opportunities at the least possible expense. THE CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY CENTER Perhaps the greatest advantage of the consolidated school is not merely to the pupils but to the pupils and parents collectively, as a community center. The one objection to rural life, now that the farmer is provided with good roads, automobiles and other facili- ties that put him in easy reach of his neighbors and enable him to Class in sewing, Somerville School Class in woodwork, Somerville school 17 transport his product to market, is its isolation. Often there seems to be no community feeling in a neighborhood; "everyone is for himself." It is frequently wholly impossible for a community to cooperate, a fact which militates strongly against securing good school facilities and other desirable public improvements. Without community cooperation, rural life becomes as anti-social as city life. What more satisfactory place for a community center than the assembly hall of a consolidated school? Here farmers may conduct their farmers' institutes ; here they and their families may gather to be entertained by the school glee club; here they may listen to lec- tures or be entertained by moving pictures; here they may gather to celebrate holidays; and here they may meet to discuss public matters pertaining to the community and state. This is the place where the community may take counsel together and where com- mon customs may grow under helpful censorship. RELATING THE SCHOOL TO LIFE From a school point of view perhaps the greatest advantage of the consolidated school is that it provides through its laboratories, shops, and domestic science and art departments opportunities for relating the school to the community life. In the laboratories soils may be analyzed and seeds may be tested for the whole community ; in the shops various labor-saving devices for the farm may be con- structed. In the domestic science and art departments young women may learn those things which the busy farmer's wife cannot take time to teach her daughters at the age at which they are most in- terested in them. The information thus gathered and the skill de- veloped in school find ready application in the home. In this way the school and the home become truly interdependent, and coopera- tion is easy. Moreover, these subjects afford an opportunity for the applica- tion of arithmetic, spelling and language. The young man who is required to calculate the cost of the lumber he uses, to keep a record of the time spent in completing his project, and to find the- value of the labor, gets a training in arithmetic vastly more valuable than that derived from solving imaginary problems found in a textbook on arithmetic. Similarly, young women will get their most prac- tical lessons in arithmetic in the cooking and sewing lessons by esti- mating the cost of material, recording the time consumed in making a dress and endeavoring to limit the cost. i8 INCREASES TERM OF SERVICE OF TEACHERS Instead of seeking new positions every year the teachers in those consolidated schools are working under such favorable conditions that they are happy and contented. Many a young woman would prefer to teach in the country if it were not for the discouraging conditions which the typical rural school presents. In a consoli- dated school there are opportunities for improvement, because the principal of the school usually has time to supervise the work and to promote the growth of teachers. With stich prospects young people in the country would prepare themselves for teaching in rural schools, which is most desirable. HEALTH OF PUPILS Not the least advantage of the consolidated school by any means is the opportunity to provide conditions which , promote the health ■ of pupils. An adequate water system may be provided, which is a decided iipprovement over carrying the water from a neighbor's well or pumping it from a school cistern or well in which the water is in danger of contamination. Then, too, provision may be made for the proper heating and ventilation of the building. Many rural schools are'poorly heated. Those sitting near the, stoves are usually over-heated, and those far away from the stoves suffer from the cold. One important feature of such a school is the playground be- cause of the opportunity it affords for recreation and sport. Young people brought up on the farm long to play but fre- quently they have no opportunity during the busy working season. Often they have no chance at all to learn to play. That they need to play and are eager to do so is beyond question. Moreover, play is so important for young people that a failure to provide op- portunity for it and to teach games may hinder very seriously their development. It has recently been demonstrated that an athletic team of farmers' boys with training can give a good account of themselves in a contest with a city school team. The organization and management of such teams afford means for the development of executive ability and furnish lessons in team work which will bear fruit in community cooperation later in life. The accompanying pictures show what has been done in small towns. Equally valuable playground activities can be carried on in the consolidated school. Mass drill, grades VI, VII and VIII Mass drill, grades VI, VII and VIII Mass drill, grades VI, VII and VIII f. ^ c • xu Urn l" ■-'.' '" •^sl ■mmi&r^ ■■■■II agj^L^^ Playground Roundel Summer Breeze, Ball relay race between feet, grades VI, VII and VIII grades III and IV FIELD DAY AT EGG HARBOR CITY SCHOOL 19 SCHOOL SPIRIT The large number of pupils attending a consolidated school, the various school activities in which students may engage, the interest of pupils in their work because of its relation to life and the pride of the community in their school, all conspire to make such an insti- tution a most vital factor in the community, and to arouse a school spirit, which is one of the chief assets of a good school. EXPENSE OF MAINTAINING CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS An important matter to be considered in connection with consolic dated schools is the cost of maintaining them. In most cases the expense has proved less than the total cost of one-teacher schools, and in a few cases they are reported as costing about the same. In New Jersey the cost of maintenance, including the gradual redemption of bonds, with the interest on the outstanding bonds issued for the erection of consolidated school buildings, is probably about the same or a trifle less than for the one-teacher schools. In districts with a small enrollment in the one-teacher schools, the number of teachers is reduced through consolidation and consequently the cost is less. There is also a saving in fuel, in janitor's service, and in such ap- paratus as each one-teacher school must have, because when such apparatus is provided for one class it may be used in other classes. Greater care can also be taken in a consolidated school of books, stationery and other supplies, and the cost of maintenance thus still further reduced. CORROBORATIVE TESTIMONY The following extracts from letters written by four school trus- tees of a rural county in a state in the Micjdle West indicate the value of consolidation: Since I have been trustee of this township we have built six consoli- dated schools and we are glad to say that these schools have been satis- factory from every standpoint. Our township is nine miles long and six miles wide. Originally it had 21 one-room schools. It now has three consolidated schools. We formerly had 21 teachers in these single one-room buildings teaching the elementary grades only. By employing but three additional teachers we are able to offer a four years' course in high school in addition to the regular elementary grades. I think each person in our township, after six years of complete consolidation, is in favor of consolidated schools. 20 We find children are better taught, and better cared for by attending these schools. We had 11 one-room schools in our township before we consolidated. We had from 10 to 15 pupils per school. We have created a new school spirit. Formerly when a pupil became 14 .years of age he would stop going to school. Now very few pupils leave school until they finish both the grades and the high school. Our consolidated schools bring children of the township together where they can have very valuable times socially. Our building is equipped with steam heat, running water, drinking fountains, gymnasium, baths and manual training shop. Consolidated schools are far superior to the one-room country school. One of the best advantages is that the teacher can divide the classes as in a city school. Better teaching can be done because the teacher has fewer gradefe. A pupil can graduate in a consolidated school with the same honor as he does in the city school. The University of Illinois in its Bulletin says that those who have studied the consolidation of schools must agree on the following points : 1. That many districts consist of but five or ten pupils, and the ex- pense for elementary schooling frequently rises to more than $50 per pupil, which is higher than the tuition for collegiate instruction. 2. That at least one-third of the country schools are too small to be even fairly successful. 3. That when the school is of fair size, consisting of many classes of few" each, with but one teacher to do the work, time is frittered away in a large number of short recitations, often but five minutes each. 4. That fully one-third of all the teachers have had less than one year's experience. 5. That the best teachers are taken for the graded schools; from 50 to 75 per cent are "young girls," who have had no more training than is given in the school they are to attempt to teach. 6. That when schools are established within walking distances of each other, the above-mentioned conditions are certain to follow, and that the only way ever tried or even proposed by which these schools can be made fully effective is to combine them with fewer and better teachers, whose work can then be better divided and better supervised. 7. That as conditions exist today little children walk long distances and suffer much discomfort and ill health by reason of exposure to storms and from sitting all day with wet feet and damp clothing after wading snow-drifts, slush and mud on the way to school. This is especially true of young girls. 8. That the only humane way of putting children of all ages and conditions into school through all kinds of weather is to transport them in wagons that are covered and, when necessary, warmed. o P( >, a ei 13 2 ^ ^91 "^ raK> o_ ■?° M m t3 o ^^ 4^ c3 3 a> PQ .33 are on the way to and from school, and in the majority of cases has proved less expensive. Moreover, since the time is reduced the automobile is enabled to meet the pupils at a greater number of centers, or even to call at the homes of the pupils. In New Jersey, with its excellent roads, the automobile is destined to become the favorite means of transportation in all but a few districts where the character of the roads forbids. THE DRIVER It is absolutely essential that the driver should be responsible and a man of good judgment and good character. In these matters he must be the equal of the teacher. Usually in farming communities it is possible to secure as driver a father whose own children are among those transported. This nearly always proves a satisfactory arrangement. In case of a group of pupils who have not developed the power of self-control, it has been found desirable for a teacher to board at the end of the route and to take charge of the pupils while on the transportation stage or train. In all cases where trans- portation has been conducted with proper care the conduct of the pupils while being transported has been much more satisfactory than the conduct of pupils who are not under observation on their way to and from school. ISOLATED PUPILS Generally when pupils live at very great distances from a con- solidated school and somewhat remote from other pupils who attend such a school, special arrangements should be made for transporta- tion. Young people on the farm are accustomed to drive horses, and often the older children of a family attending school can drive to school. In case this is not feasible, as may happen on farms where no horses are kept or where no one is available to do the driving, special arrangements may be made to board pupils near the school during the week, making but two trips necessary. This plan was followed by many rural children who were anxious to secure an education, before high school instruction and transportation was provided at public expense. COST OP TRANSPORTATION The cost of transportation varies with varying conditions in dif- ferent districts. Generally speaking, the time it takes to cover the 34 route, the number of pupils to be carried in one vehicle,^ the wages in different localities and the earning power of teams are deter- mining factors. Any condition which reduces the time it takes to cover the route reduces the per capita cost. Good, easily traveled roads reduce the time, and the wear and tear on horses, stages and other vehicles. Over good roads more pupils may also be carried in one vehicle, thus further reducing the cost. If the maximum number of pupils a conveyance will carry are transported the cost will, of course, be less per capita than if a lesser number are carried. For the guidance of members of boards of education the fol- lowing table, showing the per capita cost in a number of districts in New Jersey, representing all kinds of conditions, is given. For the purpose of an intelligent comparison, however, it is necessary to know the conditions under which transportation is carried on. AVERAGE COST AVERAGE COST PER PUPIL NEW JERSEY PER HIGH BELOW HIGH SCHOOL PUPIL SCHOOL Average for the 7 highest counties $51.86 $30-5i Average for the 7 middle counties 33-99 20.42 Average for the 7 lowest counties 19.23 i3-03 SUMMARY OF STATE LAWS ON CONSOLIDATION Taken from U. S. Bulletin No. jo, ipi4 (Consolidation of Rural Schools) by Monahan The word in parentheses (county, township, or district) given after the name of each, state indicates the unit of organization for the admin- istration of the rural school affairs in the state. Where "district" is used, it refers to the single district, usually the territory served by one school. Where two terms are used, it means that part of the state is on one basis, part on the other. California. (District) When a majority of the heads of families who reside in two or more contiguous school districts and who have children attending school unite in a petition to the county superintendent fqr the formation of a union school district the superintendent must call an election in each district, to be held' simultaneously. To effect the union the majority in each district must vote for it. If the vote is favorable to consolidation, each district elects one representative to a joint com- mittee that, with the county superintendent, determines the location of the new union school or schools. Idaho. (District) The board of county commissioners may unite two or more contiguous districts upon petition of a majority of the heads of families, provided that the plan for the consolidated district has first Sewing room in a consolidated school A department which should be represented in every rural school Domestic science class in a rural consolidated school A luncheon ready to be served 35 been indorsed by the state board of education. The school trustees of any consolidated district may provide, out of the regular school funds, for the conveyance of pupils. Other large districts maintaining central schools may provide transportation at public expense. Irvdioma. (Township) Whenever a majority of the legal voters of any school district petition the trustee or trustees for consolidation, it shall be the duty of the trustee to consolidate. No township trustee may abandon any district school in his township until he has procured the written consent of a majority of the legal voters in the school district. This does not apply to schools with an average daily attendance of 12 pupils or less. By State law a school whose average daily attendance during the year is 12 or fewer pupils is closed at the end of the year and the trustee must provide for the education of the pupils of the dis- trict in some other school. Minnesota. (District) Two or more school districts of any kind may be consolidated, either by the formation of a new district or by annexa- tion of one or more districts to an existing district in which is main- tained a state graded, semi-graded, or high school. The plan must be first approved by the state superintendent of public instruction; it is then voted upon by the freeholders of each district affected. The board of education of the consolidated district may provide for the transporta- tion of pupils or may expend a reasonable amount for room and board of pupils whose attendance at school can more economically and con- veniently be provided for by such means. Montama. (District) Two or more school districts may be consoli- dated, either by the formation of a new district or the annexation of one or more districts to an existing district. Whenever the county superin- tendent of schools receives a petition signed by a majority of the resident freeholders of each district affected, asking for consolidation, he holds an election in each district, to vote for or against consolidation. A ma- jority vote in each district is necessary to carry the measure. The trustees of any school district in the State of Montana, when they deem it to be for the best interests of all pupils, may expend school money for the transportation of children to public schools. Rhode Island. (Township) The school committee of any town (town- ship) may, with the approval of the state commissioner of public schools, consolidate any schools the average number of pupils belonging to each of which is less than 12. Each town in town meeting may determine to erect additional school buildings or to consolidate existing schools. Washington. (District) Upon a petition signed by five heads of fami- lies of two or more adjoining districts in the same county, the county superintendent may organize and establish a consolidated school district. Wisconsin. (County) Two or more school subdistricts may be con- solidated by a favorable vote of each district affected. State aid is given for assisting in providing suitable buildings, also for providing transportation. 36 OBJECTIONS TO TRANSPORTATION The only valid objections that could be urged against trans- portation would be those pertaining to the safety and health, physical and moral, of the children. Experience has proved that, with a proper driver, the children are physically and morally safer than in walking to school. Unsupervised and unattended on coun- try roads, there is opportunity for all kinds of irregularities among school children. With a responsible driver whom the pupils respect, and especially if there are children of his own on the transportation wagon, there is no chance for quarreling or for any other of the undesirable actions likely to occur when a miscellaneous group of young people of varying ages walk to and from school in the country. Frequently objection is made to transportation on the ground that it takes pupils, especially young ones, too far from home, and that during such transportation they undergo serious hardships. With a proper stage pupils are much better protected than in the average one-room school and vastly better off even when riding five miles in a modern and convenient stage than they are in walk- ing a mile or even a half mile to school through snow and slush. On account of the weather pupils in rural schools are often so ir- regular that they must remain in the first grade three years or more. Therefore in the average rural school the child who is up to grade is the exception. Many pupils in rural schools from 12 to 16 years of age have not advanced beyond the fourth grade. If they do at- tend school regularly they are often compelled to sit with wet feet and wet clothing all day long. The health of children transported on stages to rural schools is very much better than in rural schools to which pupils must walk. Provision can be made in the consolidated school through the domestic science department to furnish a warm luncheon for chil- dren. This is a great advantage to young and growing children and a great improvement over the cold luncheon carried in their dinner pails. Such a luncheon can be provided in rural districts at a very small expense and affords a means of training for the older girls. The serving of such a luncheon will, by making the work real, furnish a motive for the pupils in the domestic science department. Interior school car ^^^■^■^^VF *■'■' ' ■ " •■■■''Vi , i»» 1%^'SJ 'i fc»^ %3-- -V-D .[^i . \ 1^^ 1-'^ _J« ■zM^^^^ S* ■r*""^ ff/^W ■■■ -^ ■ w '-mi'^^^.^ "¥• " !-^ !l l:«i««;^^=lll : — I'l L ' ;'^'' .^ _ """a ■■/ ^ r, 1 ■BffiuSHK£^MBQK»liM\'NX/ /Vwfej i ^n^. '^^-^ '^'^^^^"^iiiiMI^^HiiPr ^-, .... Front view, school car Rear view, school car Combination used in Minnesota Transportation near Omaha, Nebraska Z7 THE CONTRACT The following contract has the approval of the State Department of Public Instruction. TKANgPORTATION CONTRACT This Agreement entered into this day between the Board of Educa- tion of the *.. of in the County of and State of New Jersey, party of the first part, and of the of in the County of and State of New Jersey, party of the second part, WITNESSETH: 1. That the said party of the second part for and in consideration of the sum of ; dollars to be well and truly paid to him by the party of the first part as is hereinafter set forth, agrees to transport such pupils, not to exceed in number , as shall be designated by the party of the first part, living along or ad- jacent to the route hereinafter described, to and from the places here- inafter specified, every day the public school shall be in session from the first day of July, 19 , to the thirtieth day of June, 19 2. Said party of the second part agrees to furnish a good to be approved by the party of the first (Describe vehicle) part, with sufficient seating capacity to accommodate, without crowding, pupils, unless such vehicle shall be provided by the party of the first part. 3. Said party of the second part agrees to provide all robes and blankets necessary to keep the pupils comfortably warm while being transported. 4. The party of the second part agrees that the vehicle, if furnished Ijy him, shall have a proper top, and shall have curtains or other means "by which the sides and ends may be closed on cold or stormy days, but so arranged that he shall have at all times an unobstructed view of the inside of the vehicle. 5. If a vehicle other than an automobile is used, the party of the second part agrees to furnish a good team of horses to haul said vehicle, said team to be gentle and kind and not afraid of automobiles or cars. 6. The party of the second part agrees that he, or the person driving the vehicle, who shall be approved by the party of the first part, shall absolutely abstain from the use of tobacco and intoxicating liquors and from the use of profane or improper language; to use every care and precaution for the protection of the pupils while in his care; to treat said pupils kindly and impartially and to report to the teacher the name of any pupil who refuses to obey him, or who shall be guilty of improper conduct or the use of profane or improper language. 38 7. The party of the second part agrees to transport said pupils over the following route: Beginning at thence ..!: to the public school, returning by the same route. 8. The party of the second part agrees to cause said vehicle to arrive at said public school not earlier than .'...-...o'clock and not later than o'clock in the nioming and be ready to leave said school promptly at the close of the afternoon session on each and every day said school is in session. 9. The party of the second part agrees that no persons, other than said pupils, except teachers employed by the party of the first part, and no freight whatever, shall be carried while the pupils are being trans- ported, and said. party further agrees that if the vehicle is furnished by the party of the first part, said vehicle shall not be used for any purpose other than the transportation of said pupils and teachers, except with the permission, in writing, of the party of the first part, and under such conditions as said party of the first part may prescribe. 10. The party of the first part agrees that if the party of the second part shall well and truly perform the service required by this agree- ment that it will pay or cause to be paid to the party of the second part said sum of dollars in ten equal monthly installments, the first installment to become due and payable on the last day of the month of , j. It is understood and agreed by the parties hereto that this agreement shall be without force or effect until it shall have been approved by the County Superintendent of Schools of the County of.._ In Witness Whereof the party of the second part has hereunto set his hand and seal and the party of the first part has caused the same to be signed by its President and attested by its District Clerk, and has affixed its official seal this day of , 19 - [seal! Contractor Signed and sealed in the presence of [SEAL] President, Board of Education of the of County of Attest : District Clerk Class in agriculture, Spmerville High School Judging cattle at a consolidated school, Montgomery County, Indiana Judging horses at the rural schools '•JK^^ .^»N-*':% , ja-iBg. 1 I T-f^sr An agricultural class in a modern rural school Poultry judging in a consolidated school 39 Approved this day of , 19.. County Superintendent of Schools of the County of KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS, That we, of the of in the County of ' and State of New Jersey, as principal, and and of the of in the County of and- State of New Jersey as sureties, are holden and firmly bound unto the Board of Education of the of, in the County of and State of New Jersey, in the penal sum of (At least half amount of contract) to which payment, well and truly to be made, we do bind ourselves, our and each of our heirs, executors, administrators and assigns, jointly and severally, firmly by these presents. Sealed with our seals and dated this day of one thousand, nine hundred and Whekeas, the above bounden :. has this day entered into a contract with the Board of Education of the of , for the transportation of children between and , NOW, THEREFORE, THE CONDITION OF THIS OBLIGATION IS SUCH, that if the above bounden shall faithfully perform and carry out all the terms and conditions of his said contract, then this obligation to be void, otherwise to be and remain in full force and virtue. Signed, sealed and delivered in the presence of: .: V ...[seal] As to (Bondsman) Bortdsman [seal] As to (BondsTnan) Bondsmam [seal] As to (Contructor) Contractor 40 RULES AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION At a meeting of the State Board of Education held June 3, 1916, the following rules and recommendations concerning transportation of pupils were adopted: I. It shall be the duty of the local board of education to report to the County Superintendent on or before August fifteenth in each year all such high school pupils and such other pupils of elementary grades as may be entitled to transportation; such report shall give the age and grade of each pupil, the name of parent or guardian; shall designate the school to be attended and the distance and method of proposed transportation, and said report shall be accompanied by a sketch of proposed route with the residence of each pupil to be provided for in- dicated thereon. II. In establishing or readjusting transportation routes, it is recom- mended that boards of education advertise for competitive bids. III. All contracts for transportation routes and agreements for in- dividual transportation shall be filed with the County Superintendent of Schools for approval on or before September first in each year, and shall be accompanied by a certified copy of the minute of the board of education authorizing same. All such contracts shall be accompanied by a suitable bond for at least the full amount of the contract signed by at least two responsible sureties. Of course it is understood, without action of the State Board of Education, that all transportation arrangements that contemplate the apportionment from state funds of 75 per cent of the cost must have the written approval of the County Superintendent of Schools. THE ONE-TEACHER SCHOOL Owing to conditions in the sparsely settled districts of the state where it is practically impossible to collect the children and to trans- port them to a consolidated school in a reasonable time, and for various other reasons — poor roads, disinclination of the people be- cause of the sentiment connected with many of these time-honored institutions — it will be impossible to do away entirely with the one-teacher schools and they will exist for years to come. If, therefore, the children in such districts are to enjoy equal educational advantages with city children — and who would dare deny these deserving young people their American birthright— rural school conditions must be improved. Experienced and trained teachers who understand rural conditions and appreciate the ad- o o o 00 o o ,a CI W bo bD m oj 13 ^W o o 41 vantages and possibilities, must be provided for them. Provision must be made to insure regular attendance, and some form of effi- cient supervision must be furnished that will give the necessary in- spiration and help to rural teachers carrying such a heavy load of re- sponsibility. Efforts must be made to secure the cooperation of the patrons of these schools through Parent-Teacher Associations and Home and School Leagues, so that teachers may work under the most favorable conditions. The school and its work must be mag- nified and dignified by making it a source of inspiration for the whole community. Surely every one who appreciates rural life and is interested in the upbuilding of sturdy rural manhood and woman- hood, which has been and should continue to be our national strength and stay, should give his best thought and effort to the improve- ment of the rural school. CONCLUSION The consolidated school has made such rapid strides in all sec- tions of the country and the results have been so gratifying, that all who share the responsibility of providing proper educational facili- ties for the young should make a serious study of its claims and achievements. The advantages of rural life must be made more apparent to our young people if they are to remain on the farm. They will not and cannot be expected to remain there unless the school makes them conscious of the power and stability of our rural citizenship, lays the foundation for those social relationships which will result in community cooperation, and furnishes the knowledge and develops the power which gives the mastery over nature. The consolidated school is an instrument of great power in helping the young people in rural communities to realize themselves. ?*«te, :/>.<