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 3 1924 032 714 291 
 
A School Building Program 
 For Cities 
 
 By N. L. Engelhardt 
 
 Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements 
 
 for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the 
 
 Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University 
 
 Published by 
 
 Wtatitttfi College, Colunriiia iHnliiertfitp 
 
 New York City 
 
 1918 
 
.^ Cornell University 
 'iM Library 
 
 The original of this bool< is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032714291 
 
A School Building Program 
 For Cities 
 
 By N. L. Engelhardt 
 
 Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements 
 
 for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the 
 
 Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University 
 
 Published by 
 
 Wtatf)tti CoIIei^e. Colnmbia Mnibetnit^ 
 
 New York City 
 
 1918 
 
 K5 
 
 OOUNI-I-I. 
 
 U 1'^ 1 V [ W -l '1 V 
 
 I M;|</\in' 
 
Copyright, 1918, by N. L. Engelharpt ^''S^r / 
 
 \M°1 
 
 \3 
 
 UNIVERSITY PRINTING OFFICE 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 J J 3 M )-! 
 ^' ■] I o )1 3 V 1 14 - 
 
 Yfir ■■■ ■ 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 *" I ""HE writer wishes to acknowledge here his indebtedness to the 
 ■*■ individuals who have assisted in making possible the completion 
 of this study. He wishes to acknowledge with especial gratitude his 
 indebtedness to Dr. George D. Strayer, professor of educational 
 administration in Teachers College. Dr. Strayer's advice, co- 
 operation, and encouragement have been of incalculable value 
 through every stage of the study. 
 
 N. L. E. 
 
CONTENTS 
 Introduction vii 
 
 Part I. Studies in Population ... i 
 
 1. The Measurement of Population. 
 
 2. The Measurement of School Population. 
 
 3. Geographical Distribution of Population. 
 
 Part II. Studies Involving the School Plant 50 
 
 Part III. Financing a Building Program 89 
 
 1 . The Ability to Pay for the Necessary Additions to a 
 
 School Building Plant. 
 
 2. Payment for New School Buildings. 
 
 Conclusions 125 
 
 Bibliography 129 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 That the city planning movement in this country is of compara- 
 tive recency may be judged from the available literature on this 
 subject. Of six hundred titles relating to city planning and allied 
 subjects appearing in a list compiled in 1913 by the New York Public 
 Library, the large majority were first issued within the present 
 century. Of these six hundred titles, none concerns itself com- 
 pletely or in large part with the problems connected with the out- 
 lining of school building programs. 
 
 A broader concept of what a city should be has gradually been 
 dawning on the American people. A city is now conceived as a 
 corporation working for the common good in a businesslike way. 
 This implies adapting for city development the methods employed 
 by the successful commercial and industrial corporations of the 
 country. Part of the program followed by such organizations has 
 been the study of the future needs of the people they expect to 
 serve, as well as an attempt to discover the increase in growth of 
 population in the communities in which they are doing business. 
 The business corporation serving a widely scattered public which 
 does not build in terms of the future development of the territory 
 which it serves soon fails to make adequate dividend returns to its 
 stockholders. 
 
 The development of the school systems of the majority of Ameri- 
 can cities has suffered much from a lack of continuity in plan or 
 program. Only recently has the practice been pursued of placing 
 the control and responsibility of management of school systems in 
 the hands of professionally trained executives. Where the responsi- 
 bility for the progress of school systems or the building of a school 
 plant has been vested in lay boards of education, whose interest in 
 educational matters has been secondary and temporary, one may not 
 expect to find school plants which are wisely planned, adequately 
 housed, and economically maintained. The pernicious policy of 
 appointing superintendents of schools for a term of one year or two 
 years that still prevails in many cities destroys all possibility of a 
 consecutive building program. Such a program involves the 
 
viii A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 adoption of standards, absolute and comparative measurement, 
 and the recognition of future as well as present needs. Complete 
 analyses of school plants in various cities have demonstrated the 
 universal need for periodic inventories or surveys. 
 
 A part of the findings reported in this work is the result of the 
 writer's personal participation in six extensive school building sur- 
 veys. The communities surveyed varied from the small New York 
 suburban community of Great Neck, Long Island, to St. Paul, 
 a city of 250,000 people. Omaha, Neb., Paterson, N. J., Framing- 
 ham, Mass., and Pelham, N. Y., were also included in the list. 
 These surveys have been drawn upon for much of the illustrative 
 material. 
 
 The development of a school building program involves three 
 distinct problems in measurement: First, the measurement of popu- 
 lation, second, the measurement of the school plant, and third, the 
 measurement of the ability of a community to pay for needed exten- 
 sions to its school plant. 
 
 Under the Measurement of Population have been treated such 
 essentials as the growth in American cities, the relationship between 
 adult and school population, the methods of measuring population 
 growth, and some of the methods that may be employed in measur- 
 ing school population. With the latter is coupled the consideration 
 of elements essential in the locating of school buildings. 
 
 Under the Measurement of the School Plant some of the possi- 
 bilities of measurement of a school plant with and without the aid 
 of a building score card are presented. 
 
 Part III has been devoted to the measurement of the ability 
 of a community to pay for school plant extensions. Financial tabu- 
 lations have been provided which will assist a superintendent of 
 schools in his presentation of arguments for additional school 
 funds. Discussions on types of bond issues, the prevailing rates 
 of interest on school bonds, and the present indebtedness of com- 
 munities incurred in the extension of school plants, are also em- 
 bodied in this section. 
 
 Throughout this study it has been the aim of the writer to sug- 
 gest and perfect ways and means of measurement which may be 
 utilized by superintendents of school systems in the development 
 of their school building programs. For the elevation of the pro- 
 fession of school superintendent much in the way of standardization 
 
Introdtiction ix 
 
 and scientific procedure remains to be done. Past failures in 
 accepting standards and adopting businesslike methods have 
 proven disastrous financially as well as educationally. With con- 
 stantly mounting costs in school maintenance, as well as in school 
 building construction, the need for economy in planning and for 
 systematic rather than haphazard development of a school building 
 program is for the first time becoming apparent to many local edu- 
 cational authorities. If this study assists in the solution of impor- 
 tant problems connected with this development, the aims of the 
 writer will have been achieved. 
 
PARTI 
 STUDIES IN POPULATION 
 
 I. THE MEASUREMENT OF POPULATION 
 
 The need for school building programs becomes evident only 
 as cities grow. That growth is hot identical in all cities, nor develop- 
 ing at any uniform rate, is quite certain. That growth in individual 
 cities and sections of cities can be predicted with the assurance of 
 a reasonable degree of reliability has been proved by the success 
 achieved by many of our public service corporations. It has been 
 apparent to the writer that all too frequently cities have been 
 saddled with school plants expensive in their maintenance and 
 even in original construction because of the lack of any population 
 prognosis in the development of the plant. It is quite evident that 
 a similar omission on the part of large private corporations might 
 result in financial disaster. 
 
 A close study of the growth of American cities brings to light 
 three distinct types which may be classified as follows : First, those 
 that are static or retrogressive as to their growth; second, those 
 that are exceptionally rapid in growth and have not as yet settled 
 down to what might be termed a normal pace; third, those whose 
 growth has a fair degree of regularity and may hence be classified 
 as normal. 
 
 Inspection of Table I will show only eight cities of the 1 890-1 900 
 decade and only three cities of the 1900-1910 decade falling into 
 the first group. Cities of this type may have passed through an 
 unnatural boom period. Others may have depended for their 
 growth upon a supposedly unlimited supply of natural resources 
 which has suddenly become exhausted. In some instances, a promis- 
 ing industrial development has collapsed because of the lack of 
 market, while in other cases remoteness from the more recently 
 developed highways of travel has prevented either a mercantile 
 or an industrial growth. 
 
 In the second group may be classed those cities in which predic- 
 tions concerning growth have been surpassed. It may be also 
 
2 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 evident in the cases of such cities that no reliable predictions for 
 future development can be made. Cities which have been develop- 
 ing normally may receive an unexpected impetus and thus be 
 thrown into this group. That relatively few cities have in the past 
 two decades had great variations in their rate of growth may be 
 seen from Table II. Cities which may be used as illustrations of 
 extraordinary growth are Birmingham, Ala., Los Angeles, Cal., 
 Flint, Mich., and Seattle, Wash., with percentages of increase of 
 245 per cent, 212 per cent, 194 per cent, and 194 per cent respec- 
 tively. In such cases as these extraordinary measures must be 
 taken to provide sufificient civic and educational advantages. 
 
 In the third category may be classed those cities in which a rea- 
 sonably regular and clearly explicable growth has been made over 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 Growth of Population in American Cities over Three Decades 
 Grouped According to Percentages 
 
 Based upon the United States Census Figures of 1880, i8po, igoo, igio 
 
 Percentages of 
 
 Number of cities which have grown according to percentages 
 
 growth during 
 
 indicated from 
 
 the decade 
 
 1880-1890 
 
 1890-igOO 
 
 igoo-igio 
 
 and below 
 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 to 20 
 
 15 
 
 54 
 
 59 
 
 21 to 40 
 
 50 
 
 93 
 
 80 
 
 41 to 60 
 
 24 
 
 33 
 
 38 
 
 61 to 80 
 
 25 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 81 to 100 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 loi to 120 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 121 to 140 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 141 to 160 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 161 to 180 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 181 to 200 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Over 200 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Total 
 
 157 
 
 224 
 
 22g 
 
 Median {on finer 
 
 
 
 
 distribution) 
 
 50.5 
 
 325 
 
 320 
 
 Range of middle 50 
 
 
 
 
 per cent 
 
 30.0S-Q2.I2 
 
 21 .50-49.00 
 
 ig. 62-56. 17 
 
Studies in Population 3 
 
 a period of years. The large majority of cities will fall into this 
 class. 
 
 In Table I are distributed the cities of the United States accord- 
 ing to their percentages of growth during the three decades from 
 1880-1910. 
 
 It will be seen that the median growth for cities during the 
 decades 1890-1900 and 1900-1910 has been approximately the 
 same, or 32.5 per cent and 32 per cent respectively. During the 
 decade 1 880-1 890 the median growth was somewhat larger, namely, 
 50.5 per cent. During the decade 1900-1910, the middle 50 per 
 cent of the 229 cities included in the study ranged in growth from 
 19.62 per cent to 56.17 per cent. Only 21 cities, or 9 per cent of the 
 total number of cities involved, had a growth of more than 100 per 
 cent in 1910 over the census figures of 1900. Evidently growth in 
 the majority of American cities is taking place at no phenomenal 
 rate. The forces instrumental in producing such growth, since 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 Variation in the Percentage of Growth in the 226 Largest Cities 
 IN the United States. Percentages of Growth, 1890-19CX) 
 and 1900-1910 Compared 
 
 Differences in the -percentages 
 
 in growth of i8go-igoo 
 
 and igoo-igio 
 
 Number of cities 
 having such differences 
 
 Percentage of cities 
 having such differences 
 
 O-IO 
 
 90 
 
 39 
 
 11-20 
 
 40 
 
 18 
 
 21-30 
 
 30 
 
 13 
 
 31-40 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 41-50 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 Sl-60 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 61-70 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 71-80 
 
 X 
 
 I 
 
 81-90 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 91-100 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 Over 100 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 Total 
 
 226 
 
 
 Median 
 
 15%% 
 
 
 7S percentile 
 
 37% 
 
 
4 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 they act over long periods, may be studied and the developing 
 needs anticipated and provided for. 
 
 That there is uniformity in the development of communities 
 after they have passed through what might be termed their period 
 of initial boom, may be seen from Table II. School authorities will 
 have little difficulty in adjusting their building programs where 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 Population Growth of the City of Rochester, N. Y. on 
 
 Various Census Bases 
 
 183&-1917 
 
 Year 
 
 United States 
 
 Federal 
 
 City 
 
 Stale 
 
 census 
 
 estimates 
 
 directory 
 
 census . 
 
 1830 
 
 9,207 
 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 20,191 
 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 36,403 
 
 
 
 
 i860 
 
 48,204 
 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 62,386 
 
 
 24,644 
 
 62,424 
 
 187s 
 
 
 
 
 81.673 
 
 1880 
 
 89,366 
 
 
 34.355 
 
 
 1890 
 
 133,896 
 
 
 57.046 
 
 144.834 
 
 1900 
 
 162,608 
 
 
 74,262 
 
 
 1905 
 
 
 
 
 181,666 
 
 1910 
 
 218,149 
 
 
 106,121 
 
 
 191 1 
 
 
 225,577 
 
 110,038 
 
 
 1912 
 
 
 230,967 
 
 112,667 
 
 
 1913 
 
 
 235,000 
 
 
 
 1914 
 
 
 241,000 
 
 
 
 19IS 
 
 
 249,067 
 
 
 248,465 
 
 1916 
 
 
 258,000 
 
 
 
 1917 
 
 
 260,000 
 
 
 
 differences of less than 25 per cent appear in the course of a decade. 
 Table II gives the variations in the percentages of growth between 
 the two decades 1 890-1 900 and 1900-1910 for 226 cities. The 
 median city of the group had a difference of percentages for the two 
 periods.of 15^^ per cent. Of the 226 cities, 39 per cent had a change 
 in percentage of growth in 1900-1910 of 10 per cent, or less, over the 
 percentage indicated for the previous decade. Seventy-five per 
 cent of the cities had a change of percentage of 37 per cent, or less, 
 
Studies in Population 5 
 
 for the same two decades. It appears from these tables that in- 
 crease of population in the majority of American cities permits of 
 forecast with a fair degree of reliability. 
 
 In measuring the increase of population in any one city, a dis- 
 tribution of the figures for total population over a reasonably long 
 period of years, as shown in Table III, may be considered the first 
 essential. This table gives figures for the past eighty-seven years 
 for the city of Rochester, N. Y. It includes the figures obtained by 
 each decennial census during these eighty-seven years, the figures 
 reported at certain five-year periods by the official state census, 
 as well as figures reported in the official city directory. It may be 
 
 TABLE IV 
 Growth of Population of the Town of Framingham, Mass. 
 
 
 
 Increase 
 
 Percentage of growth 
 over preceding date 
 
 1895 
 
 9.512 
 
 
 
 1900 
 
 11,302 
 
 1,790 
 
 19 
 
 1905 
 
 11.549 
 
 247 
 
 II 
 
 I9I0 
 
 12,984 
 
 1.435 
 
 9 
 
 I9I5 
 
 15,860 
 
 2,876 
 
 22 
 
 possible in some instances to secure census figures from other 
 sources which will also provide a check on accuracy. The post- 
 office authorities, as well as private agencies such as telephone com- 
 panies, street-car companies, and others, are concerned with mat- 
 ters of census, and frequently compile their own statistics. That 
 different agencies are responsible for the compilations in Table III 
 assures a check which would not exist if the data furnished by only 
 one of the agencies were considered. All figures listed under Federal 
 Estimates were obtained according to the methods employed by the 
 census authorities. A tenth of the increase of the preceding decade, 
 as recorded by the census, is the uniform estimate of increase for 
 each year of a passing decade. 
 
 The problem of measurement of population which school authori- 
 ties are required to face may be expressed best in terms of increase 
 in population as in Table IV, taken from the Framingham, Mass., 
 
6 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 survey of 1917.' In such a table the middle column, giving increases 
 in growth over each preceding period, becomes a significant measure 
 of the need for school building extension. 
 
 Growth in population may be shown by giving the increase over 
 a decade in terms of the number of newcomers added per day, per 
 week, or per month. This is done by Dr. Cubberley in the Salt 
 Lake City survey of 1915,^ where it is shown that the average 
 increase over the entire ten years from 1 900-1910 was equal to 11.2 
 persons per day. The rate toward the latter part of the decade, 
 it is stated, must have been as high as 15 persons per day. 
 
 In the survey of the community of Great Neck,' a suburb of New 
 York City, it was considered advisable to use as evidence of regu- 
 lar increases in population the percentage of increase in the number 
 of commuters passing to and from Great Neck to New York City. 
 The facts for the two years 191 1 and 1916, distributed by months, as 
 given in Table V are indeed significant. 
 
 TABLE V 
 
 Increase in the Number of Commuters from Great Neck Station 
 TO New York City, 1911-1916 
 
 
 
 
 
 Per cent 
 
 
 igii 
 
 igi6 
 
 Increase 
 
 increase 
 
 January 
 
 126 
 
 269 
 
 143 
 
 "3 
 
 February 
 
 132 
 
 263 
 
 131 
 
 99 
 
 March 
 
 127 
 
 263 
 
 136 
 
 108 
 
 April 
 
 138 
 
 261 
 
 123 
 
 90 
 
 May 
 
 151 
 
 296 
 
 145 
 
 91 
 
 June 
 
 146 
 
 305 
 
 159 
 
 109 
 
 July 
 
 139 
 
 297 
 
 158 
 
 114 
 
 August 
 
 140 
 
 292 
 
 152 
 
 109 
 
 September 
 
 140 
 
 281 
 
 141 
 
 lOI 
 
 October 
 
 152 
 
 312 
 
 160 
 
 105 
 
 November 
 
 140 
 
 286 
 
 146 
 
 104 
 
 December 
 
 140 
 
 299 
 
 159 
 
 114 
 
 Totals 
 
 1,671 
 
 3,424 
 
 1,753 
 
 105 
 
 ' Strayer, et al., Framingham, Mass., Survey, 1917. 
 
 ' Cubberley, School Organization and Administration, World Book Company 
 Yonkers, N. Y. 
 
 • Strayer and Neale, Great Neck Survey, Great Neck Association, Great Neck, L. I. 
 
Studies in Population 7 
 
 The increase or falling off in the number of dwelling building 
 permits issued over a period of years may be considered another 
 good, index of tendencies in growth of a city. In Table VI will 
 be found the distribution of dwelling building permits issued in the 
 city of St. Paul for the period 1910-1916. 
 
 In Volume I * of the 1910 United States Census the number of 
 persons per dwelling in St. Paul is given as 6.3 in 1890, 6.6 in 1900, 
 and 6.6 in 1910. Since no difference appears in the numbers as 
 given for 1900 and 1910, it may be considered reasonable to assume 
 
 TABLE VI 
 
 Distribution of Dwelling Building Permits Issued in the City 
 OF St. Paul, 1910-1916 
 
 
 IQIO 
 
 IQII 
 
 1Q12 
 
 1913 
 
 1Q14 
 
 1915 
 
 1Q16 
 
 Dwelling building permits 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 issued 
 
 1,416 
 
 1,265 
 
 1,237 
 
 1,308 
 
 1,306 
 
 1,379 
 
 1,275 
 
 Estimated number of persons 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 provided for in such new 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dwellings 
 
 9,345 
 
 8,349 
 
 8,164 
 
 8,633 
 
 8,620 
 
 9,101 
 
 8,415 
 
 that the average number for the years 1911-1916 does not vary 
 greatly from the 6.6 of the previous decade. Using this as the con- 
 stant multiplier for the first line of Table VI, the number of per- 
 sons for whom these dwellings would be provided would be approxi- 
 mately as shown in the table. In any use made of this table, other 
 facts affecting the validity of these data as a measure of growth, 
 such as the number of dwellings destroyed or removed, must be 
 given due consideration. 
 
 Table VII brings in the element of the land additions that have 
 been made to the territory which a city covers. The unit used in 
 this table, the population density per square mile, becomes an 
 especially desirable measure where no changes have been made in 
 a city's territory over a period of years. The composition of popu- 
 lation, changes in composition over an extended period, changes in 
 the number of persons per family and in the number of persons per 
 dwelling, are further elements which may throw light on population 
 tendencies. 
 
 • p. 1,289. 
 
8 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 Table VIII shows the situation in the United States as regards 
 the distribution of native whites, foreign born whites, and negroes 
 in all cities over 25,000, census of 1910.' The large percentage of 
 foreign born whites, which no doubt will be augmented considerably 
 after the World War, has a direct bearing upon a building program. 
 It emphasizes the need for buildings which are not only properly 
 equipped for academic work for the child and for social and recre- 
 
 TABLE VII 
 Population Density Per Square Mile, St. Paul, Minn., 1850-1916 
 
 Year 
 
 Square 
 miles 
 
 Year 
 
 Popula- 
 tion 
 
 Year 
 
 Density 
 
 per square 
 
 mile 
 
 1847 Town site laid out 
 
 .14 
 
 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 •35 
 
 1850 
 
 1,112 
 
 1850 
 
 3-177 
 
 1854 
 
 3-75 
 
 i860 
 
 10,401 
 
 r86o 
 
 2,773 
 
 1868 
 
 545 
 
 1870 
 
 20,030 
 
 1870 
 
 2,005 
 
 1873 
 
 15-56 
 
 1880 
 
 41,473 
 
 1885 
 
 2,028 
 
 1885 
 
 35-34 
 
 1890 
 
 113.156 
 
 
 
 1887 
 
 55-44 
 
 1900 
 
 163,065 
 
 1900 
 
 2,941 
 
 
 
 1910 
 
 214,744 
 
 1910 
 
 3,873 
 
 1916 Present area 
 
 55-44 
 
 1916 * 
 
 250,000 
 
 1916 ' 
 
 4,509 
 
 ational opportunities for both child and adult, but also for the 
 academic development of the adult. 
 
 A detailed study of composition of population in any one city 
 should involve a percentile distribution of the various elements of 
 population showing changes for three or four decades and compari- 
 son for those same periods with tendencies in all other cities of the 
 same class group. In this way it may be ascertained whether the 
 individual situation differs from that of the nation or of the specially 
 selected group with which comparisons seemed advisable. 
 
 In measuring population with the use of the number of persons 
 
 per family or per dwelling as a unit, the change that has taken place 
 
 in this unit over the period involved must be borne in mind. Table 
 
 ■■ Distribution made from Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910, Vol. I. 
 ' Estimated. 
 
Studies in Population 9 
 
 IX shows what this change has been for the United States as a 
 whole during the period 1890-1910. The median cities of the 
 '100,000 and over' and of the 25,000-100,000 classes in respect to 
 size of families were in 1910 cities whose averages for family groups 
 were 4.64 and 4.5 persons respectively. Table IX points out the 
 gradual dropping of the median in cities of the United States for 
 the past three decades on this item. 
 
 TABLE VIII 
 Number of Cities Having Various Percentages of Total Population 
 
 
 Native White 
 
 Foreign-born 
 white 
 
 
 
 
 Of native 
 
 Of foreign or 
 
 Neg 
 
 roes 
 
 Per cent 
 
 parentage 
 
 mixed parentage 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cities 
 
 over 
 
 100,000 
 
 25,000- 
 100,000 
 
 Cities 
 
 over 
 
 100,000 
 
 25,000- 
 100,000 
 
 Cities 
 
 over 
 
 100,000 
 
 25,000- 
 100,000 
 
 Cities 
 
 over 
 
 100,000 
 
 25,000- 
 100,000 
 
 0- 5 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 37 
 
 130 
 
 6-10 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 II 
 
 11-15 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 I 
 
 
 16-20 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 
 21-25 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 26-30 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 
 31-35 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 
 36-40 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 II 
 
 3 
 
 
 41-45 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 46-50 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 51-55 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 56-60 
 
 I 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 61-65 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 66-70 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 71-75 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 76-80 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 81-85 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 86-90 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 SO 
 
 178 
 
 50 
 
 180 
 
 SO 
 
 182 
 
 52 
 
 141 
 
 Median 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 percentage 
 
 37-5 
 
 45-5 
 
 36.5 
 
 2(>.8 
 
 2S-5 
 
 19 3 
 
 2-7 
 
 0.7 
 
 Census, igio 
 
lO 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 Comparative Statistics 
 
 With the determination of the tendencies in growth over certain 
 periods in a city is closely connected the question of whether the 
 rate of growth has any relationship to the rate shown to exist in 
 other cities which are struggling with similar problems, whether of 
 a geographical, social, economic, or industrial nature. In many of 
 the school surveys which have come from the press during recent 
 years, a statistical comparison of the growth in population between 
 the city under immediate consideration and a group of selected 
 cities has been made. In the survey of Salt Lake City made in 1916, 
 
 TABLE IX 
 
 Number of Persons to a Family and to a Dwelling, Cities of 
 25,000 AND Over, 1890-1910 ' 
 
 
 Cities 
 
 100,000 and over 
 
 Citiei 
 
 23,000-100,000 
 
 Number of persons 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to a family 
 
 1890 
 
 igoo 
 
 lOio 
 
 i8go 
 
 1900 
 
 I9I0 
 
 Median city 
 
 4-97 
 
 4.69 
 
 4.64 
 
 4-85 
 
 4.60 
 
 450 
 
 Number of persons 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to a dwelling 
 
 1890 
 
 igoo 
 
 IQIO 
 
 1890 
 
 1900 
 
 I9IO 
 
 Median city 
 
 6.29 
 
 6.05 
 
 4.89 
 
 5 23 
 
 5 29 
 
 5.22 
 
 Dr. Cubberley selected for purposes of comparison "every northern 
 and western city which in 1910 had between 75,000 and 125,000 
 inhabitants, and which had increased in population during the 
 previous decade." Salt Lake City was thus shown by this table 
 to have exceeded in rate of growth twenty-two of the twenty-five 
 other cities of the tabulation. Strayer and Engelhardt in the St. 
 Paul survey of 1917 selected as the group which would afford the 
 basis for comparative study "the twelve northern and western cities 
 that were just greater than St. Paul in population and the twelve 
 northern and western cities that were just below St. Paul in popu- 
 lation." Dr. Van Sickle in the Brookline, Mass., survey made in 
 19 1 7 selected two different groups of cities for purposes of compari- 
 son. The first group was "composed of all the fifty -one cities in the 
 United States, including Brookline, which had a population in 1910 
 
 'Calculations made from data on pp. 1,287 #•. Thirleenth Census of the United 
 States, Vol. I. 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 II 
 
 of 25,000 or over, and less than 31,000, Brookline being the twenty- 
 fifth city in point of size in the list. This first group was to furnish 
 a general measure, nation wide, with which Brookline is most 
 closely comparable. . . The second group was composed of 
 the cities most like Brookline as regards wealth, intelligence, proxim- 
 ity to urban centers, number of commercial and industrial estab- 
 
 TABLE X 
 
 Population of Certain Cities Used for Comparison in the 
 Brookline Survey, i 850-1910 
 
 
 J850 
 
 i860 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 IQOO 
 
 IQIO 
 
 Springfield, Mass. 
 
 11,766 
 
 15.199 
 
 26,703 
 
 33.340 
 
 44.179 
 
 62,059 
 
 88,926 
 
 Yonkers, N. Y. 
 
 
 
 
 18,892 
 
 32.033 
 
 47.931 
 
 79,803 
 
 Berkeley, Cal. 
 
 
 
 
 
 5.I0I 
 
 13.214 
 
 40,434 
 
 Newton, Mass. 
 
 5,258 
 
 8,382 
 
 12,825 
 
 16,995 
 
 24.379 
 
 33.587 
 
 39.806 
 
 San Diego, Cal. 
 
 
 731 
 
 2,300 
 
 2,637 
 
 16,159 
 
 17,700 
 
 39.578 
 
 East Orange, N. J. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21,506 
 
 34.371 
 
 Pasadena, Cal. 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,882 
 
 9,117 
 
 30.291 
 
 Colorado Springs 
 
 
 
 
 4.226 
 
 ii,J40 
 
 21,085 
 
 29,078 
 
 New Rochelle, N. Y. 
 
 2,458 
 
 3.519 
 
 3.915 
 
 5.276 
 
 9.057 
 
 14,720 
 
 28,867 
 
 Brookline, Mass. 
 
 2,516 
 
 5.164 
 
 6,650 
 
 8,057 
 
 12,103 
 
 19.935 
 
 27,792 
 
 Madison, Wis. 
 
 1.525 
 
 6,611 
 
 9.176 
 
 10,324 
 
 13.426 
 
 19,164 
 
 25.531 
 
 Evanston, 111. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19.259 
 
 24.978 
 
 Montclair, N. J. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13.962 
 
 21,550 
 
 Oak Park, 111. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19,444 
 
 White Plains, N. Y. 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.042 
 
 7,899 
 
 15.949 
 
 Milton, Mass. 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,278 
 
 6,578 
 
 7.924 
 
 Wellesley, Mass. 
 
 
 
 
 
 3.600 
 
 5.072 
 
 5.413 
 
 lishments, and the reputation of its schools. This group provides 
 a comparative measure for Brookline which is superior to the 
 former group in that cities contained in it are of more nearly identi- 
 cal condition." 
 
 Table X shows the population figures for the second group of 
 cities used in the Brookline comparisons. Fig. i represents this 
 table graphically. 
 
 An inspection of Fig. i will show that although the cities selected 
 may resemble Brookline in the particulars above named, the prob- 
 lems connected with increases in population, and hence with the 
 school building program, have during the past sixty years been 
 
12 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 very unlike those of Brookline in many cases. For instance, the 
 problems found to exist in Milton, Wellesley, Evanston, and Madi- 
 son would not be the problems of the cities of Springfield and Yon- 
 kers, which have grown with great rapidity. 
 
 Table XI and Fig. 2 represent a similar study for the cities uti- 
 lized in developing the building survey of St. Paul in 191 7. From 
 
 the graph it is clear that a better selective process might be em- 
 ployed where comparisons between cities are desired. 
 
 Table XII indicates rather clearly that in the selection of cities 
 from the '500,000 and above' group, the cities of Cleveland, Detroit, 
 Minneapolis, Pittsburgh, and Newark form a more suitable com- 
 bination than the entire ten cities included in Table XII. The 
 average deviations obtained from a consideration of the first five 
 cities mentioned are in every case less than the figures secured from 
 a consideration of the ten cities. 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 13 
 
 Since the increments in population for these five cities also em- 
 phasize the similarity existing between them, it appears that a 
 maximum of fairness has been secured for the purpose of compari- 
 son. No doubt only a slight effort would be necessary to secure on 
 
 TABLE XI 
 Population of Cities Used for Comparison in the St. Paul Survey, 1917 
 
 Years 
 
 1850 
 
 i860 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 i8qo 
 
 igoo 
 
 igio 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 "5.435 
 
 161,044 
 
 216,239 
 
 255,139 
 
 296,908 
 
 325,902 
 
 363,591 
 
 Newark 
 
 38,894 
 
 71.941 
 
 105,059 
 
 136,508 
 
 181,830 
 
 246,070 
 
 347,469 
 
 Washington 
 
 40,001 
 
 61,122 
 
 109,199 
 
 177,624 
 
 230,392 
 
 278,718 
 
 331,069 
 
 Minneapolis 
 
 
 2.564 
 
 13,066 
 
 46,887 
 
 164,738 
 
 202,718 
 
 301,408 
 
 Seattle 
 
 
 
 1,107 
 
 3,533 
 
 42,837 
 
 80,671 
 
 237,194 
 
 Jersey City 
 
 6,856 
 
 29,226 
 
 82,546 
 
 120,722 
 
 163,003 
 
 206,433 
 
 267,779 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 
 4,418 
 
 32,260 
 
 55,785 
 
 132,716 
 
 163,752 
 
 248,381 
 
 Indianapolis 
 
 8,091 
 
 18,611 
 
 48,244 
 
 75,056 
 
 105,436 
 
 169,164 
 
 233,650 
 
 Portland, Ore. 
 
 
 2,874 
 
 8,293 
 
 17,577 
 
 46,385 
 
 90.426 
 
 207,214 
 
 Denver 
 
 
 
 4.759 
 
 35,629 
 
 106,713 
 
 133.859 
 
 213,381 
 
 Rochester 
 
 36,403 
 
 48,204 
 
 62,386 
 
 89,366 
 
 133,896 
 
 162,608 
 
 218,149 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 1,112 
 
 10,401 
 
 20,030 
 
 41,473 
 
 133,156 
 
 163,065 
 
 214,744 
 
 Columbus 
 
 17,882 
 
 18,554 
 
 31.274 
 
 51,647 
 
 88,150 
 
 125,560 
 
 181,511 
 
 Oakland 
 
 
 1.543 
 
 10,500 
 
 34,555 
 
 48,682 
 
 66,960 
 
 150,174 
 
 Toledo 
 
 3.829 
 
 13,768 
 
 31.584 
 
 50,137 
 
 81,434 
 
 131.822 
 
 168,497 
 
 Worcester 
 
 17.049 
 
 24,960 
 
 41.105 
 
 58,291 
 
 84,655 
 
 118,421 
 
 145,986 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 22,271 
 
 28,119 
 
 43.051 
 
 51,792 
 
 88,143 
 
 108,374 
 
 137,249 
 
 New Haven 
 
 2o,345» 
 
 39,267« 
 
 50,840* 
 
 62,882^ 
 
 81,298 
 
 108,027 
 
 133,605 
 
 Scranton 
 
 
 9.233 
 
 35.092 
 
 45,850 
 
 75,215 
 
 102,026 
 
 129,867 
 
 Spokane 
 
 
 
 
 
 19,922 
 
 36,848 
 
 104,402 
 
 Paterson 
 
 
 19,586 
 
 33,579 
 
 51,031 
 
 78,347 
 
 105,171 
 
 125,600 
 
 Omaha 
 
 
 1,883 
 
 16,083 
 
 30,518 
 
 140,452 
 
 102,555 
 
 124,096 
 
 Fall River 
 
 11.524 
 
 14,026 
 
 26,766 
 
 48,961 
 
 74,398 
 
 104,863 
 
 119,295 
 
 Grand Rapids 
 
 2,686 
 
 8,085 
 
 16,507 
 
 32,016 
 
 60,278 
 
 87,565 
 
 112,571 
 
 these bases the companion cities for any city that was being sub- 
 jected to a critical study. 
 
 Cities selected on the basis of geographical location or of approxi- 
 mately equal size at a stated interval will, it is apparent, not furnish 
 the best comparisons when considerations involve a school building 
 program. Such cities, it may be pointed out, have many points 
 of similarity in common, and furnish a larger group than would be 
 available under a greater refinement of selection. It would seem 
 
 » Population of town; town and city not returned separately. 
 
14 
 
 Mr 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 3S» 
 
 3iir 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 Showing the growth in population of the cities 
 listed in Table XI 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 15 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
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 Detroit 
 
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 Pittsburgh 
 
 Newark 
 
 Average 
 
 Average devia 
 
 Milwaukee 
 
 SI 
 
 S.S 
 
 
 .2 
 
 
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 Average {id) 
 Average devia 
 
1 6 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 wise, however, to make a second comparison when the problems of 
 a school building program were being brought to light, on the basis 
 of approximate equality of numbers of persons added to the popu- 
 lation from decade to decade. 
 
 Figs. 3 and 4 show groups of cities selected on the basis of this 
 approximate equality in growth over extended periods. The build- 
 ing programs of each of the groups as they have segregated them- 
 selves in the figures may have problems which will have many 
 points in common. There is no doubt that the building problems 
 of the one group of each of these figures are not identical with those 
 of the other group, which has not been progressing in population at 
 the same rate. 
 
 It may be necessary for purposes of comparison to choose cities 
 which have similar problems as evidenced by the proportion of 
 inhabitants of native origin, of mixed origin, and of foreign origin. 
 The tendency in city surveys has been merely to point out the 
 relationship existing in composition of population in cities selected 
 on other bases, but not to use the likenesses in composition as the 
 basis for selection. It is conceivable that the group suggested in 
 Table XII, on the basis of composition of population, might furnish 
 the most significant comparative data. Similar composition may 
 signify similar needs in equipment as well as similar ability to pay. 
 
 Three other measures of population which at times may be of 
 extreme importance in a campaign for developing a sqhool building 
 program have received very little recognition in the available 
 literature on this subject. These measures are: 
 
 1. The percentage of males. 
 
 2. The percentage of married males. 
 
 3. The percentage of homes owned as contrasted with the percentage 
 rented. 
 
 Dr. Cubberley points out in the Portland survey the preponder- 
 ance of males and unmarried people as compared with the thirty- 
 seven other cities which he used in his comparisons. With the 
 number of elementary school children forming a low percentage, 
 of the total population it was pointed out that Portland was in a 
 position to provide any reasonable equipment for its schools. 
 
 The earning capacity of the male in the United States is on the 
 average higher than that of the female. It will be admitted, there- 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 17 
 
 S/>r,ngf,^ajM 
 
 /SfSo /^£c fS^& /ffo rSfo /yot? f^/o 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 Two groups of cities in each of which the school building programs 
 
 of a period of years have required consideration involving 
 
 approximately equal additions to population 
 
I8 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 (t 
 
 •at 
 
 iS, 
 
 I 
 
 I*' 
 
 //■/» /y«« /fpv 'Sgfi ffft *fco /v/a 
 Fig. 4 
 
 Showing two groups of cities selected for comparison on the basis of approximate 
 equality in growth over a period of years 
 
Studies in Population 19 
 
 fore, that in cities which have a great preponderance of males the 
 problems of financing public enterprises are considerably lessened. 
 Cities which have ratios of 130 to 138 males to 100 females have, 
 no doubt, other things being equal, relatively simpler problems of 
 financing than those cities which show ratios of 80 to 90 males for 
 each 100 females. 
 
 Two measures closely related to percentage of males are the 
 percentage of married males and the percentage of homes owned 
 as opposed to those rented by their tenants. Communities with 
 large percentages of encumbered homes have, it is to be expected, 
 relatively greater difiSculties in increasing the city tax burdens than 
 more fortunate communities. Cities with large percentages of 
 rented homes may also be conceived as having developed to a very 
 slight degree the spirit of financial sacrifice for the common good. 
 The inference may also be made that lower social groups, and hence 
 those groups least awakened to educational needs, made up large 
 percentages of the population where a majority of the homes is 
 merely rented. 
 
 2. THE MEASUREMENT OF SCHOOL POPULATION 
 
 In 1917 all but one state of the United States had enacted com- 
 pulsory education laws fixing the age limits for the attendance of 
 all children in school. These age limits varied from eight to twelve 
 years in North Carolina to seven to sixteen years in several states, 
 with special provisions or exemptions in the latter cases for children 
 between the ages of fourteen and sixteen. 
 
 The authorities responsible for the enforcement of the law vary. 
 In Connecticut,' political officials appoint truant officers; in Idaho, 
 the probate courts, though in the large majority of states boards of 
 education or equivalent bodies are charged with the selection of 
 truant officers, and thus directly with the enforcement of the 
 attendance law. It is presumably the intention of the law in all 
 cases where it is not otherwise specified, to hold boards and officers 
 charged with the enforcement of these laws responsible for the 
 attendance at school during the legal age limits of all children 
 residing within the respective communities, regardless of the type 
 of school which they may attend or may prefer to attend. In other 
 words, educational or other authorities obligated to enforce the 
 
 » Bulletin No. 47, 191S. United States Bureau of Education, pp. 527 Jf. 
 
20 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 law are concerned with the school attendance of all children, 
 whether attending public, private, or parochial schools, or having 
 instruction in the home. 
 
 Authorities responsible for the establishment of building pro- 
 grams, or any extension of the school plant, are therefore required 
 to think in terms of the entire number of school children for whom 
 it might be necessary to make provision at any time included within 
 the scope of the building program. Any policy which might sug- 
 gest a less comprehensive program is self-condemnatory. 
 
 It has been pointed out. in such school surveys as those of Butte, 
 Montana, Salt Lake City, Utah, St. Paiil, Minnesota, and others, 
 that the most satisfactory plan to be employed for the purpose of 
 securing the enforcement of the compulsory attendance law is the 
 installation of a permanent school census system. The apparent 
 inaccuracy of many of the school census reports sent yearly to the 
 United States Commissioner of Education emphasizes the need for 
 such service in all of our cities. In New York and Detroit it may 
 be pointed out that after such systems had been put into operation 
 26,836 and 8,660 children respectively are reported to have been 
 added to the school enrollment. In other words, in New York 
 City after the permanent census system was installed, it became 
 necessary for the school authorities to think in terms of school 
 housing for an additional group of 26,836 children. 
 
 Directly issuing from this responsibility for providing educa- 
 tional facilities for all children appear such questions as these: 
 What is the range of percentile relationships, as found in American 
 cities, between entire population and the school census population? 
 As cities grow in population can it be expected that the percentile 
 relationship between total and school census population can be 
 estimated with reasonable accuracy? Cannot standard percentile 
 relationships be found which will assist in the enforcement of the 
 compulsory attendance laws so that no children provided for by a 
 school building program may be denied the educational opportu- 
 nities offered, and the plant itself may function properly in the 
 lives of the children for whom it has been erected? 
 
 It appears, in answer to the first question, that though uniformity 
 and accuracy are apparently lacking in the determination of school 
 census lists, such data as are available may be of value, as compiled 
 
Studies in Population 21 
 
 in Table XIII, in establishing the range of such percentages as 
 might with reason be expected. 
 
 This table, giving the frequency of the occurrences of percentile 
 relations existing between school and total population, shows per- 
 centages higher than forty. Table XIII is compiled from a study of 
 two hundred and thirteen cities, the majority of these cities appear- 
 ing twice since their percentile ratios for both 1900 and 1910 were 
 taken. It was necessary to eliminate a number of cities for which no 
 data appeared in the reports of the Commissioner of Education. 
 Though the school census age period by which the school population 
 was determined may have differed in 1910 from that in 1900, both 
 relationships were recorded in this table. That there is need for a 
 uniform national basis for computing school census is evident from 
 the compilation. The reports of the Commissioner of Education 
 show that at least twenty-seven different age periods have been 
 utilized since 1900 in securing school census data in the various 
 cities of the United States. The figures of Table XIII are limited 
 to twenty-three of these age periods. 
 
 An examination of the age periods draws attention to the wide 
 range of percentages prevailing under each period. From an exam- 
 ination of the 6-21 year group a natural inference may be made that 
 school census figures are not always gathered with the utmost 
 accuracy. It seems incredible that in one city the 6-21 year group 
 should only represent 13 per cent of the total population, while in 
 other cities they form 39 per cent, 42 per cent, or even 52 per cent 
 of the entire population. The median percentage, 25.9 per cent, 
 obtained from the 103 cases under the 6-21 year group, may be 
 used as a fair measure for comparison with other school systems. 
 
 The report of the Bureau of the Census for the thirteenth census 
 of the United States, made in 1910, gives figures for the 5-14 year 
 group in cities of 25,000 and over, which do not show the wide 
 distribution which is indicated by the school census figures given 
 by the Commissioner of Education in his reports for 1900 and 1910. 
 Table XIV shows the percentile distribution of the 5-14 age group 
 in 229 cities. The median city for this group shows a percentage 
 of 17.06, while the middle 50 per cent of the cities runs between 
 16.19 per cent and 18.76 per cent. 
 
 Table XV gives a re-grouping of the cities reported by the Com- 
 missioner of Education, in the two reports mentioned, on the basis 
 
22 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 i ^ 
 
 - 8 
 
 « MS, 
 
 3:1 
 
 ^2 w -S 
 
 ■S 8 
 
 ■§ 
 
 ^ a 
 
 M 
 
 -^ a 
 •** o 
 
 il 
 II 
 
 ■ « ^ 
 i 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 .1 
 
 Co 
 
 § 
 
 =1= 
 
 § 
 
 H M H H ■* K 
 
 
 S 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 § 
 
 Pi 
 
 1 
 1^. 
 
 K 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 H HH -.J-N N MM WOO •*© Iflw aO r-lOM M ■*« M « N w 1-1 tH W J? tn 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 M HWHMr*)«MMMl-lMM HI ^O 
 
 ■5 
 
 HM MMMM MMM MOi^ 
 
 
 -^ ^ 
 
 I 
 
 MM 01 n^ 
 
 
 M « N H cs M ■«tTj-N (*)» (o roPOwr-srOM n. k. 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 M W N VO M f*300 »0 »fl W) M nHM M '^ N 
 
 
 MMMCSMMMMnM MM 'Oq 
 
 
 o 
 
 MMM C^ ^ 
 
 "I 
 
 
 H MMMW^O«0 ^O ■♦ M M « W "^ Vi 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 f, M MPtHMMMCirOMM 00° 
 
 
 to M M -O O. 
 
 H 
 
 4^ 
 
 MMMMNNfOMMM '^S 
 
 
 MHMMMMMMMM«NN««e>)M«N(Mr-5fOroror«5coc*j(«jcOfO'*-* ■^^ lo So « "« 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 TABLE XIV 
 
 Percentile Distribution by the 5-14 Age Groups of Population 
 IN CiTiE§ from 25,000 to 500,000 
 
 United States Census of igio 
 
 23 
 
 
 Age period 
 
 S-14 years 
 
 
 Fer cent 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Cities over 100,000 
 
 Cities zs.ooo- 
 100,000 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 II 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 33 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 40 
 
 54 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 36 
 
 44 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 23 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 SO 
 
 170 
 
 229 
 
 Median percentage 
 
 t6.79 
 
 17.16 
 
 17.06 
 
 of the number of years of age included in the age periods. For 
 instance, the 5-15, 6-16, 7-17, and 8-18 age periods are combined, 
 since each age period covers ten years. The other combinations 
 have been made in a like manner. This table thus permits of the 
 calculation of a median for each of the ten groups which result 
 from these combinations. The medians are as follows: 
 
 Groups representing Median 
 
 number of years percentages 
 
 7 1117 
 
 8 16. 
 
 9 17- 
 
 10 16.58 
 
24 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 Groups representing Median 
 
 number of years percentages 
 
 II l6. 
 
 12 .... . . .23.3 
 
 13 21.45 
 
 14 . . . 28.50 
 
 IS 25.58 
 
 16 27.94 
 
 The assumption may be made that these medians have a fair 
 degree of reliability, since there is a fairly continuous upward trend 
 in the table. The medians may be utilized as one means of judg- 
 ing the accuracy of any one group of census figures, with the limita- 
 tions that must result from any unusual local conditions. 
 
 Not only is the ratio existing between school and total population 
 of importance in its relationship to the school building program, but 
 it is highly desirable to know the relative constancy or lack of 
 constancy of such ratio. A distribution is made in Table XVI of 
 the differences found to exist in the percentages which the school- 
 census population bears to the total population at two different 
 periods. The percentages were determined from comparisons of 
 the school census population as found in the annual reports of the 
 Commissioner of Education for 1899-1900 and 1900-1910 with the 
 total population of the United States Decennial Census of those 
 two periods. 
 
 From this tabulation it is found that the median change that 
 took place in 124 cities in the percentile relationships existing be- 
 tween school population and total population in 1900 and 1910 was 
 3.17 per cent. In other words, as cities grow the change in many 
 instances that takes place in the proportion of the entire population 
 that are of school age is very slight. In nine cases the figures as 
 given in the annual reports of the United States Commissioner of 
 Education, from which this tabulation was made, show a difference 
 of over 10 per cent for the two decades. That error, either typo- 
 graphical or clerical, is responsible for extremely high percentages 
 may be inferred. It is also recognized that in some cases it has 
 been necessary for the local reporting officer, owing to the non- 
 existence of the necessary data, to base his 1910 report on the 1900 
 relationship. 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 25 
 
 TABLE XV: Frequency of Percentages Found to Exist between 
 School Population and Total Population 
 Involving 213 cities over 23,000 (United States Census of 1910). Compiled from reports 
 of United States Commissioner of Education, jSgo-igoo and igog-jgio. Arranged 
 according to the number of years included in the census-age-periods. 
 
 Number of 
 years 
 
 7-14 
 
 6-14 
 7~I5 
 
 8-17 
 
 5-15 
 6-16 
 7-17 
 8-18 
 
 5-16 
 8-ig 
 
 4-16 
 5-17 
 6-18 
 
 5-18 
 7-20 
 
 4-18 
 6-20 
 
 7-21 
 
 5-20 
 
 6-21 
 
 4-20 
 
 5-21 
 
 8% 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 310 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 S 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 S 
 
 7 
 
 
 S 
 
 I 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 S 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 S2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 ss 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 57 
 
 4 
 
 42 
 
 47 
 
 30 
 
 J24 
 
 i5j 
 
 Median ' 
 
 11.17 
 
 16.00 
 
 17.00 
 
 16.58 
 
 16.00 
 
 23-3 
 
 21.45 
 
 28.50 
 
 25.5S 
 
 27.g4 
 
 '" Read: Three cities with 7-14 years as census-age-periods reported school popu- 
 lations which were eleven per cent of the total population. 
 
26 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 How this relationship may be utilized as a basis for determining 
 approximate future school enrollment is shown in the following 
 excerpt from the Great Neck survey of 191 7." In this suburban 
 community, which was being newly developed in 1900-1915, the 
 possibility of considerable change in the percentile relationship was 
 due to the fact that many young people whose families had not 
 reached normal size were building homes there. Having already 
 
 TABLE XVI 
 
 Differences in the Percentages which the School Census 
 Population Bears to the Total Population as Cities Grow in Size 
 
 This tabulation includes only cities of 25,000 or over, as determined by the United 
 States Census figures of iqio. A uniform age basis for securing school census has 
 not been adopted in the United States. Therefore distributions have been made 
 on each of the prevailing bases. The figures for school census population and for 
 city population were taken from the annual reports of the United States Commis- 
 sioner of Education for 1899-igoo and 1909-1Q10. The city population figures 
 are the United States Decennial Census figures for igoo and igio. Cities which had 
 changed their age basis for securing school census in igio from that used in 1900 
 were necessarily excluded from the tabulation. 
 
 Differences 
 in -per- 
 
 Number of cities having differences listed according to the age basis used 
 for securing school census 
 
 centages 
 
 4- 
 
 4- 
 
 4- 
 
 5- 
 
 5- 
 
 5- 
 
 s- 
 
 s- 
 
 s- 
 
 6- 
 
 6- 
 
 6- 
 
 7- 
 
 7- 
 
 6- 
 
 Total 
 
 igoo-iQio 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 IS 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 ' 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ID 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Over 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Totals 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 39 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 124 
 
 Median for entire distribution — .0317 , 
 
 " Strayer and Neale, Great Neck School Survey, Great Neck Association, Great 
 Neck, L. I. 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 27 
 
 established the probable total population for a period of twenty 
 years in this community, Dr. Strayer in this survey utilizes this as 
 the basis for the determination of future school population. 
 
 At the present time 16.5 per cent of the population of the existing Great 
 Neck school district are enrolled in school. As the population increases, and 
 the percentage of relatively old population becomes larger, the percentage 
 of the population attending school will undoubtedly increase. In the part of 
 Queens County immediately adjacent to the Great Neck area the number of 
 persons between six and twenty years of age attending school in 1910 formed 
 19.8 per cent of the total population. 
 
 This statement is based on computations made from data in Statistical 
 Sources for Demographic Studies of Greater New York, Vol. I, pp. 647-686. 
 The following table gives a summary of the data: 
 
 Ages 
 
 6-14 
 
 i-S 
 
 6-g 
 
 10-14 
 
 15-17 
 
 J8-20 . 
 
 Over 20 
 
 All ages 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 population 
 
 6,405 
 
 4.463 
 
 2,799 
 
 3,604 
 
 1,920 
 
 2.194 
 
 22,181 
 
 37.171 
 
 Number in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 schools 
 
 5>933 
 
 
 
 2,509 
 
 3.474 
 
 1,006 
 
 295 
 
 
 
 7.364 
 
 Per cent in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 schools 
 
 81. 1 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 47 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 19.8 
 
 In the first assembly district of Queens County the percentage was 20.4; 
 in the second, 19.88; in the third, 20.3; in the fourth, 20.3; and for all of 
 Queens County, 20.3. In the Richmond Borough the number of persons 
 between six and twenty years of age in school was 20.5 per cent of the popu- 
 lation, in Yonkers, 19.2; and in Mount Vernon, 19.7. 
 
 It therefore seems reasonable to assume that by 1920 the total number of 
 persons between six and twenty years of age attending school in the Great 
 Neck area will form nineteen per cent of the total population. This figure 
 will in all probability be slightly exceeded before 1940, and may be considered 
 as safely conservative. On this basis the total number of school pupils to be 
 provided for will be as shown in Table XVII. 
 
 The basis for the determination of school building needs is the 
 relationship between growth in school attendance and in the 
 number of classrooms provided for children, expressed also in terms 
 of the total number of sittings furnished. As has been shown, the 
 measure for the determination of sufficiency in school attendance or 
 school enrollment should be the school census. As, in many of our 
 
28 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 American cities, private and parochial schools also draw upon the 
 school census figures for their enrollment, it is necessary to secure 
 accurate figures of enrollment and attendance from such schools 
 in order to develop the most satisfactory building program. 
 
 Table XVIII presents the initial comparison of school popula- 
 tion and city population for a school building program. The city 
 population figures should be the most accurate obtainable, prefera- 
 bly the figures of the United States decennial censuses and state or 
 otherwise officially authorized intermediate censuses. 
 
 TABLE XVII 
 
 Estimated Population and Probable Total School Enrollment 
 IN the Great Neck Village and Great Neck Station Areas 
 FROM I 920-1 940 
 
 
 Great Neck Village 
 
 Great Neck Station 
 
 Year 
 
 Total 
 population 
 
 Probable school 
 enrollment 
 
 Total 
 population 
 
 Probable school 
 enrollment 
 
 1920 
 
 1925 
 1930 
 
 1935 
 1940 
 
 3.141 
 3-641 
 4,241 
 
 4,941 
 5,741 
 
 597 
 692 
 806 
 
 939 
 1,091 
 
 2,250 
 3,650 
 5,550 
 7,750 
 10,100 
 
 427 
 
 693 
 1.054 
 1,472 
 1-919 
 
 The total population figures of this table are those of the Financial 
 Statistics of Cities. The school census-age-period is six to twenty- 
 one. Such data, as given in Table XVIII, should cover a period of 
 at least twenty years where a program is actually being developed. 
 
 Table XIX will give the proportion of children in public, private, 
 and parochial school enrollment with comparison of the total with 
 the school census figures. 
 
 Evidently the building program in Rockford does not involve 
 any great consideration of school enrollment outside of the public 
 schools. This situation may be contrasted with that found in many 
 other American cities where the problem of school building plan- 
 ning becomes much more involved because of the large percentage 
 of children in other than public schools. 
 
 Table XX points out clearly the need for full consideration of 
 the percentages of columns 6, 7, and 8. Column 6 indicates that 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 29 
 
 for Dunkirk, N. Y., the public school building policy has of necessity 
 involved an approximate average of 66 per cent of all children 
 enrolled in school during the period 1900-1916 and hence a smaller 
 percentage of the school census. 
 
 Unfortunately the articulation between public, private, and 
 parochial schools has in many cities not been such that accurate 
 figures for column four may be obtained. It is highly essential and 
 
 TABLE XVIII 
 
 Relationship Between Total Population and School Census, 
 RocKFORD, III. 
 
 
 
 
 Relationship between 
 
 
 
 
 school census 
 
 Year 
 
 Total 
 
 School 
 
 and total 
 
 
 population 
 
 census 
 
 population 
 Per cent 
 
 1910 
 
 45,401 
 
 10,959 
 
 24 
 
 1911 
 
 48,068 
 
 11.375 
 
 23-6 
 
 1912 
 
 49.491 
 
 11,904 
 
 24 
 
 1913 
 
 50,914 
 
 11,604 
 
 22.7 
 
 1914 
 
 51.337 
 
 12,148 
 
 23.6 
 
 TABLE XIX 
 
 Distribution of Children in Public and Other Schools 
 for i9io-i914, rockford, illinois '' 
 
 
 Children 
 of school 
 
 
 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Percentage 
 
 
 
 Children 
 
 Children 
 
 Total 
 
 of total 
 
 of total 
 
 Percentage 
 
 
 in 
 
 tn 
 
 school 
 
 school 
 
 school 
 
 of school 
 
 
 
 public 
 
 private 
 
 enroll- 
 
 enrollment 
 
 enrollment 
 
 census 
 
 
 age 
 6-21 
 
 schools 
 
 schools 
 
 ment 
 
 in public 
 
 in private 
 
 in school 
 
 
 
 
 
 schools 
 
 schools 
 
 
 I9I0 
 
 10,959 
 
 7,504 
 
 543 
 
 8,047 
 
 93 
 
 7 
 
 68 
 
 I9II 
 
 11.375 
 
 7,983 
 
 560 
 
 8,543 
 
 93 
 
 7 
 
 70 
 
 I9I2 
 
 11,904 
 
 8,091 
 
 712 
 
 8,803 
 
 92 
 
 8 
 
 68 
 
 I9I3 
 
 11,604 
 
 8,369 
 
 883 
 
 9,252 
 
 90 
 
 10 
 
 72 
 
 I9I4 
 
 12,148 
 
 8,645 
 
 820 
 
 9.465 
 
 91 
 
 9 
 
 71 
 
 " Data from the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1910-1914. 
 
30 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 no doubt economically advantageous to a dommunity to secure the 
 utmost of cooperation between all schools providing educational 
 opportunities for children. The figures given in Table XX should 
 be free from duplications due to transfers from one type of school 
 to the other. A central system of census registration for all chil- 
 dren with uniform child accounting methods employed in all types 
 of schools will alone produce dependable data. 
 
 A very desirable measurement which would naturally follow the 
 above distributions of children is the relationship existing between 
 total enrollment of all children and building accommodations of 
 public, private, and parochial schools as well as between average 
 daily attendance and building accommodations of the same schools. 
 In securing the figure for total school building accommodations 
 of the city much caution. is necessary. The following difficulties 
 must be met. Elementary classrooms must be uniformly counted 
 as accommodating forty children each unless used for special class 
 purposes. In the latter case these rooms must be included as 
 
 TABLE XX 
 
 Distribution of Children in Public and Non-Public Schools, 
 1900-1916, Dunkirk, N. Y. " 
 
 June 
 
 School census 
 of children 
 4-18 years 
 
 Chil- 
 dren 
 in 
 public 
 schools 
 
 Chil- 
 dren 
 in 
 paro- 
 chial 
 schools 
 
 Total 
 
 at- 
 tended 
 
 all 
 schools 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 
 enrollment 
 
 in 
 
 public 
 
 schools 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 
 enrollment 
 in 
 
 parochial 
 schools 
 
 Per- 
 centage 
 of census 
 in aU 
 schools 
 
 Col. 
 I 
 
 Column 
 
 2 
 
 Col. 
 3 
 
 Column 
 4 
 
 Column 
 
 5 
 
 Column 
 6 
 
 Column 
 7 
 
 Column 
 8 
 
 1900 
 
 1905 
 1910 
 191 1 
 1912 
 
 1913 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 1916 
 
 In 1897 — 2,916 
 
 In 1901 — 2,941 
 
 3,350 
 
 3,967 
 
 4,400 
 4,800 
 5,000 
 
 1,755 
 
 1.849 
 
 2,415 
 2,427 
 
 2,405 
 2,977 
 2,650 
 
 2,949 
 3,309 
 
 837 
 
 930 
 1,290 
 1,562 
 1,559 
 1,318 
 
 1,685 
 1,358 
 
 2,592 
 
 2,779 
 3,705 
 3,989 
 3,964 
 4,295 
 
 4,634 
 4,667 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 61 
 61 
 69 ' 
 
 63 
 71 
 
 32 
 
 34 
 35 
 39 
 39 
 31 
 
 37 
 29 
 
 85 
 
 80 
 93 
 
 97 
 93 
 
 " Triennial Report, Dunkirk, N. Y., Public Schools, 1916. 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 31 
 
 accommodating the maximum number of children desirable in such 
 special groups. The maximum kindergarten accommodations, 
 without duplication of morning and afternoon sessions, will form a 
 part of the total. The difficulty df ascertaining with exactness the 
 number of students for whom accommodations can be found in 
 the high schools, coupled with the lack of uniformity in reckoning 
 such data, must be recognized. It is wise to provide divisions in 
 the table by which the high school and elementary school elements 
 may be studied separately. 
 
 Having made comparisons of this nature between the school enroll- 
 ment and average daily attendance and seating accommodations 
 of all the schools of the city, it becomes necessary to show the rela- 
 tionships, on the same basis, for each set of schools, i. e., public, 
 parochial, and private. It no doubt will become clear in commu- 
 nities where the parochial enrollment is a large percentage of the 
 total enrollment that the public school system, in providing hous- 
 ing accommodations, has conformed more reasonably to the 'forty 
 pupils per room' standard than the parochial school. Parochial 
 schools with average enrollments of seventy pupils or more per 
 classroom will have brought to their attention the need for con- 
 formance with a better standard. 
 
 In order to provide the most complete analysis of school housing 
 needs involving all the schools of a city, a percentile classification 
 of all elementary classrooms, both parochial or private, arranged 
 according to the number of children housed therein, will show the 
 situation most clearly. Such a tabulation will take the following 
 form: 
 
 
 Number and percentage of all classrooms 
 
 
 Public 
 
 Parochial 
 
 Private 
 
 Total 
 
 Classrooms having 
 enrollments of 
 
 Number 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 Number 
 
 Per 
 cent 
 
 Number 
 
 Per 
 cent 
 
 Number 
 
 Per 
 cent 
 
 20 pupils or less 
 21-25 pupils 
 26-30 pupils 
 31-35 pupils 
 36-40 pupils 
 etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
32 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 Most frequently the attempt is made in reports of superinten- 
 dents of schools to express this information in terms of the average 
 number of pupils per teacher based on average daily attendance. 
 Table XXI, from the St. Paul Survey, is a sample of such compila- 
 tions, distributed by schools over a period of six years. The survey 
 states that "no statistics of this kind were available in the superin- 
 tendent's office, and they were only obtained after much effort. 
 It will be seen that the average for the city in the grade schools has 
 been very large for a period of years. There is no place for the 
 addition of pupils without seriously impairing the efficiency of in- 
 struction." It is quite true that enrollment or attendance distribu- 
 tions of this kind are unfortunately not always available in the 
 data collected in school offices. In the form given in Table XXI the 
 information may be misleading. 
 
 Table XXII " is far more illuminating. It becomes quite clear 
 why this table is vital in any building study. In the five-year period 
 the mode shifts from the 40-45 group of average number belonging 
 to the 35-40 group. In the same period this shift necessitated an 
 addition of 105 teachers to the elementary staff in spite of the fact 
 that the elementary school enrollment was practically at a stand- 
 still for this same period, as shown on page 17 of this report. The 
 addition of 105 teachers means, with possibly slight exceptions, the 
 provision of 105 more elementary classrooms. 
 
 If Louisville desired to reduce the burdens of the seventy teachers 
 having over forty-five pupils belonging on the average, the cost in 
 new building construction might easily be estimated. Seven thou- 
 sand dollars per classroom was a fair estimate of elementary building 
 costs previous to 1914. This amounts to approximately $155 for 
 each child for whom provisions would be necessary if the limit of 
 pupils per teacher were set at forty-five. 
 
 3. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 
 
 Dot maps illustrating densities of total population and of school 
 population show frequently no conformity in the distributions. In 
 other words, density of child population does not shift with density 
 of total population. This was borne out clearly in the school build- 
 ing program as laid out by Strayer and Trabue for the community 
 
 "Fifth Report of the Board of Education, Louisville, Ky., 1915-1916, p. 29. 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 TABLE XXI 
 
 Average Number of Pupils per Teacher, Based on 
 Average Daily Attendance 
 
 33 
 
 St. Paid, Minnesota 
 
 
 igio-igii 
 
 igii-igi2 
 
 igi2-igi3 
 
 igi3-igi4 
 
 tgi4-igi5 
 
 igi5-igi6 
 
 Adams 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 34 
 
 36 
 
 Ames 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 41 
 
 37 
 
 45 
 
 36 
 
 Baker 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 31 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 31 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 Crowley 
 
 38 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 35 
 
 Davis 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 Dean 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 Douglas 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 Drew 
 
 49 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 36 
 
 Edison 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 Ericson 
 
 38 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 Franklin 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 46 
 
 Gal tier 
 
 
 34 
 
 36 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 Garfield 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 47 
 
 
 Girls' Home 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 Gordon 
 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 Gorman 
 
 47 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 51 
 
 Grant 
 
 41 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 3S 
 
 37 
 
 Hancock 
 
 45 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 31 
 
 Harrison 
 
 45 
 
 37 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 Hawthorne 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 35 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 43 
 
 Hendricks 
 
 44 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 41 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 HiU 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 Homecroft 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 28. 
 
 32 
 
 Irving 
 
 42 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 38 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 Jackson 
 
 46 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 40 
 
 36 
 
 38 
 
 41 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 Lafayette 
 
 47 
 
 SO 
 
 41 
 
 45 
 
 36 
 
 39 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 31 
 
 Logan 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 33 
 
 21 
 
 Longfellow 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 McClellan 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 McKinley 
 
 43 
 
 40 
 
 38 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 42 
 
 Madison 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 32 
 
 38 
 
 Mattocks 
 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 Maxfield 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 
 37 
 
 Monroe 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 36 
 
 39 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 Mound Park 
 
 41 
 
 43 
 
 40 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 33 
 
 Murray 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 41 
 
 31 
 
 36 
 
 Neill 
 
 38 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 42 
 
 36 
 
34 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 TABLE XXI (.Continued) 
 
 
 igio-igii 
 
 igii-jgi2 
 
 igi2-igi3 
 
 igi3-igi4 
 
 igi4-igiS 
 
 igiS-tgid 
 
 Phalen Park 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 Quincy 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 38 
 
 Ramsey 
 
 37 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 40 
 
 34 
 
 39 
 
 Randolph 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 6l 
 
 41 
 
 Rice 
 
 27 
 
 32 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 52 
 
 38 
 
 Scheffer 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 42 
 
 Sheridan 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 Sibley 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 43 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 45 
 
 Smith 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 31 
 
 39 
 
 33 
 
 Taylor 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 Tilden 
 
 34 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 Van Buren 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 Webster 
 
 33 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 36 
 
 Whittier 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 37 
 
 44 
 
 38 
 
 Entire City 
 
 39-7 
 
 38.2 
 
 37 
 
 37-6 
 
 36.9 
 
 37-6 
 
 of Pelham, N. Y., in May, 1917. The following is an excerpt from 
 their report " to the Board of Education. 
 
 During the five-year period between the federal census of 1910 and the 
 state census of 1915, the population of the town of Pelham increased from 
 2,998 persons to 3,782 — an increase of twenty-six per cent. That section of 
 the town lying north of the New Haven Railroad, known as the village of 
 North Pelham, increased during this period from 1,311 to 1,874 persons — an 
 increase of forty-three per cent. The Pelham Heights section had a sixteen 
 per cent increase during this five-year period, while the Pelham Manor sec- 
 tion increased only eleven per cent. The best estimate we have been able 
 to make of the present distribution of population indicates that there are 
 very nearly 4,000 persons now living in the town, half of them living north 
 and half of them living south of the New Haven Railroad. It may reason- 
 ably be expected that the town of Pelham will contain 6,000 persons by the 
 year 1925. Under normal circumstances this would mean that school 
 accommodations would be necessary for at least 1,200 pupils by that time. 
 
 From information furnished by the pupils who attended school on Monday, 
 May 14, we find that the average family supplying children for the schools 
 from the Pelham Manor and Pelham Heights sections, contains 4.7 persons. 
 The average school family in that section of North Pelham, known as Pelham- 
 wood, contains 3.9 persons, while the average family supplying the schools 
 from the remainder of North Pelham contains 5.5 persons. The average 
 
 " Unpublished. 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 35 
 
 TABLE XXII 
 
 Pupils per Teacher in the Elementary Grades 
 
 The success of the Board of Education in so administering the school funds that 
 613 teachers are now employed in the regular elementary grades, as against 508 in 
 January, iQii, has resulted in greatly reducing the number of abnormally large 
 classes. This is shown in the following table. 
 
 Average number 
 
 January 
 
 October 
 
 October 
 
 October 
 
 October 
 
 October 
 
 belonging per teacher 
 
 IQII 
 
 I0I2 
 
 1913 
 
 1014 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 15- 20 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 20- 25 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 33 
 
 25- 30 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 34 
 
 72 
 
 63 
 
 56 
 
 30- 35 
 
 55 
 
 91 
 
 84 
 
 88 
 
 86 
 
 119 
 
 35- 40 
 
 72 
 
 122 
 
 119 
 
 133 
 
 146 
 
 202 
 
 40- 45 
 
 96 
 
 124 
 
 145 
 
 125 
 
 183 
 
 127 
 
 45- 50 
 
 90 
 
 87 
 
 91 
 
 88 
 
 71 
 
 51 
 
 50- 55 
 
 53 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 38 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 55- 60 
 
 40 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 II 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 6a- 65 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 65- 70 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 70- 75 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 75- 80 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 80- 85 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 85- 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 90- 95 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 95-100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100-105 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total number of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 teachers 
 
 508 
 
 544'' 
 
 558'' 
 
 sss'' 
 
 5p5» 
 
 613" 
 
 family in general throughout New York State and the United States as a 
 whole, was composed in 1910 of about 4.5 persons. The small size of the 
 Pelhamwood families is partly due to the fact that this section is being 
 developed just now, and that the great majority of those who are building 
 homes here are young people whose families may be expected to reach the 
 normal size during the next ten years. The problem of elementary school 
 accommodations for the children of Pelhamwood will probably become most 
 urgent in about five years. 
 
 ' See Louisville report for special teachers not included here. 
 
36 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 It becomes clear that a distribution of total city population by 
 school districts or by wards and years of a past decade on the basis 
 of the number of persons per family, coupled with a comparison 
 with national urban figures for the same period, will tend to show 
 the general trend of growth in the younger elements of population. 
 Such a distribution made by the Nebraska Telephone Company, 
 involving the years 1900 and 1910, with an estimate for the year 
 I933i is given in Table XXIII. 
 
 TABLE XXIII 
 Persons per Family Distributed by Wards, Omaha, Neb. 
 
 Years 
 
 igoo " 
 
 igio 
 
 IQ33 (estimated) 
 
 Ward I 
 
 4.86 
 
 4.71 
 
 4.6 
 
 2 
 
 4.62 
 
 4-75 
 
 4.6 
 
 3 
 
 6.02 
 
 703 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 5-53 
 
 6.61 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4.61 
 
 4.11 
 
 4-1 
 
 6 
 
 4.72 
 
 4.22 
 
 4-3 
 
 7 
 
 5-07 
 
 4-63 
 
 4-45 
 
 8 
 
 4.78 
 
 4-79 
 
 4-65 
 
 9 
 
 4-77 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-4 
 
 10 
 
 
 4-47 
 
 4-45 
 
 II 
 
 
 4-52 
 
 4-5 
 
 12 
 
 
 4-35 
 
 4-45 
 
 The estimates for 1933 are based on considerations of the urban 
 changes in the United States during the first part of the period, the 
 ages and characteristics of the families involved in the study when 
 made in 1913, as well as the nationalities included in the various 
 wards. 
 
 When Table XXIII is coupled with a tabulation showing the 
 number of families by wards, its value in prognosis becomes appar- 
 ent. Table XXIV presents the statistics for Omaha with the dis- 
 tribution by famihes for 1900-1910, with the estimate for 1933. 
 
 A critical study of these tables will bring to light many points of 
 value in schoolhouse planning. The following inferences may have 
 some validity. 
 
 " Wards 10, 11, and 12 were not included within city boundaries at this period. 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 37 
 
 Ward 3 may present for instruction more than the normal num- 
 ber of children per family, but the ward is becoming undesirable 
 from the standpoint of residence. Wards 5 and 7 will send to school 
 but few children per family, but are two of the most rapidly grow- 
 ing wards. Ward i contains more of the older families, and will see 
 few changes in the next few years. 
 
 If Tables XXIII and XXIV were to be studied in the light of 
 the ward areas, or in terms of density of square mile of available 
 
 TABLE XXIV 
 Omaha Families Distributed according to Wards 
 
 Years 
 
 IQOO " 
 
 igio 
 
 1933 (.estimated) 
 
 Ward I 
 
 2,083 
 
 1.937 
 
 2.390 
 
 2 
 
 3.2II 
 
 2,468 
 
 3,290 
 
 3 
 
 1,941 
 
 1,091 
 
 607 
 
 4 
 
 1.936 
 
 1,542 
 
 2,000 
 
 5 
 
 1,950 
 
 2,906 
 
 4.975 
 
 6 
 
 3,600 
 
 2,423 
 
 3.490 
 
 7 
 
 1,872 
 
 2,134 
 
 4.500 
 
 8 
 
 2,313 
 
 1,766 
 
 1.935 
 
 9 
 
 1,817 
 
 2,600 
 
 4,617 
 
 10 
 
 
 2,106 
 
 2,240 
 
 II 
 
 
 2,050 
 
 3,634 
 
 12 
 
 
 3,336 
 
 8,080 
 
 
 20,723 
 
 26,359 
 
 41,758- 
 
 area, with such omissions as parks, railroads, and other areas not 
 utilized in housing, the wide dispersion of population in certain wards 
 with a higher concentration in other wards, would appear as facts 
 of exceeding importance in school building planning. Ward 3 of 
 Tables XXIII and XXIV would change from a square mile density 
 of 87,000 in 1910 to an estimated density of 55,000 in 1933, while 
 Ward 9 would shift from a 9,600 square mile density in 1910 to an 
 estimated density of 16,700 per square mile in 1933. Such facts 
 might be best presented by dot maps for each period, thus provid- 
 ing means for a clear visualization of the contrast. 
 
 18 Wards 10, 11, and 12 were not included in city's boundaries at this period. 
 
38 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 The assumptions regarding nature of growth in various sections 
 of a city have been very clearly expressed in a map appearing m 
 A Constructive Survey of the Milwaukee School Buildings and Sites 
 of igi6. This map is reproduced in Fig. 5. 
 
 KEY 
 
 Fig. 5 
 
 The city is here divided into sections and marked B, G, S, or R, 
 according to the expected nature of the change '' in population for 
 a period of ten years, the letters being explained in the key connected 
 with the figure. The Milwaukee Committee followed this map in 
 their survey with a second map re-dividing the city into thirteen 
 other sections composed of groupings of school districts. ' This 
 rearrangement permitted of discussion and suggested solutions of 
 sectional problems. The assumptions regarding nature of popula- 
 tion growth appearing in Fig. 5 are of value in estimating growth of 
 school population and its geographic distribution only as the 
 
 " Data furnished by the Wisconsin Telephone Company. 
 
Studies in Population 39 
 
 assumed elements of growth that overlap existing school district 
 boundaries are given proportional consideration in the estimates of 
 future school population in such districts. 
 
 Utilizing a most conservative and thorough study of expected 
 increases in city population over the period 1913-1933, distributed 
 by wards, made by the Nebraska Telephone Company in Omaha, 
 Nebraska, the author found it possible to re-apportion population 
 on a basis of school districts rather than wards. This re-apportion- 
 ment is shown in Table XXV. The expected percentages of in- 
 crease by wards had been carefully estimated by the Telephone 
 Company after having made a study of housing conditions and 
 future housing possibilities. The author, with the aid of Mr. 
 Everts, of the Telephone Company, who had had an active part in 
 the original study of the Telephone Company, carefully covered 
 the entire city area and determined on the percentages of growth, 
 as indicated in the table, for the several school districts of the city. 
 The original study involved the period 1913-1933. The school 
 district study involved the period 1 91 7-1 933- 
 
 The expected percentage of growth in total population may be 
 utilized in determining estimates of growth in school population for 
 the same period. Table XXVI follows this suggestion. This table 
 gives the enrollment by school districts for the kindergarten and the 
 first six grades of the city of Omaha for 1917, the expected per- 
 centage in growt 1 in total population 1917-1933, and the estimated 
 enrollment for the kindergarten and, first six grades in 1933 based 
 upon this same expected percentage of growth. This table points 
 out that Omaha may expect an elementary enrollment of 29,254 
 in 1933, or an increase of 8,717 children from the figures of 1917. 
 At the time the Omaha survey was made, 4,156 children of Grades 
 VII and VIII were being housed in the elementary schools. It was 
 suggested that if the elementary buildings were relieved of the 
 necessity of housing children of these two grades, the elemen- 
 tary plant, with a few changes and with the present new build- 
 ings completed, might well be expected to provide sufficient accom- 
 modations for all children from the kindergarten through the sixth 
 grade for the next eight years. The conclusion was based upon the 
 assumption that the expected increase in the period 1917-1933 
 would be reasonably regular. 
 
40 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 TABLE XXV 
 
 The Population of the City of Omaha Distributed by School 
 Districts 
 
 Calculations based upon a house count made by the Nebraska Telephone Company 
 in I pi 3, and an estimated growth in the various districts from ipij to IQ33 
 
 Name of school 
 district 
 
 Estimated 
 population 
 
 Expected percentage 
 of increase between 
 
 Population 
 of 1033 
 
 
 in IQ17 
 
 igi7 and 1933 
 
 
 Bancroft 
 
 2,594 
 
 35-0 
 
 3,490 
 
 Beals 
 
 2,699 
 
 121.0 
 
 5,955 
 
 Brown Park 
 
 2,656 
 
 18.0 
 
 3,140 
 
 Cass 
 
 4.824 
 
 I.I 
 
 4,880 
 
 Castelar 
 
 3,486 
 
 25-9 
 
 4,390 
 
 Central 
 
 8,076 
 
 24.8 
 
 10,080 
 
 Central Park 
 
 3,420 
 
 1 193 
 
 7.500 
 
 Clifton Hill 
 
 2,770 
 
 1 10.5 
 
 5,830 
 
 Columbian 
 
 5,139 
 
 96.8 
 
 10,115 
 
 Comenius 
 
 3,950 
 
 51 
 
 4,150 
 
 Corrigan 
 
 2,134 
 
 32.6 
 
 2.830 
 
 Druid Hill 
 
 1.332 
 
 42.6 
 
 1,900 
 
 Dundee 
 
 3,360 
 
 108.3 
 
 7,000 
 
 Dupont 
 
 2,068 
 
 I3-I 
 
 2,340 
 
 Edward Rosewater 
 
 2,282 
 
 17.0 
 
 2,670 
 
 Farnam 
 
 3,896 
 
 35-5 
 
 5,280 
 
 Franklin 
 
 3,510 
 
 35-3 
 
 4.750 
 
 Garfiel(l 
 
 2,251 
 
 3-7 
 
 2,335 
 
 Hawthorne 
 
 1,860 
 
 12.9 
 
 2.100 
 
 Highland 
 
 2,180 
 
 330 
 
 2,900 
 
 Howard Kennedy 
 
 994 
 
 78.1 
 
 1,770 
 
 Jungmann 
 
 2,400 
 
 16.6 
 
 2,800 
 
 Kellom 
 
 7,878 
 
 14.6 
 
 9,030 
 
 Lake 
 
 5,006 
 
 14.9 
 
 5,750 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 3,214 
 
 10.5 
 
 3,550 
 
 Long 
 
 5,390 
 
 II. I 
 
 5,990 
 
 Lothrop 
 
 10,630 
 
 24.8 
 
 13.270 
 
 Lowell 
 
 1,080 
 
 1-9 
 
 1,100 
 
 Madison 
 
 1,380 
 
 23.2 
 
 1,700 
 
 Mason 
 
 8,160 
 
 25.2 
 
 10,220 
 
 Miller Park 
 
 3,440 
 
 152.9 
 
 8.700 
 
 Monmouth Park 
 
 2,996 
 
 99.6 
 
 5,980 
 
 Pacific 
 
 7,590 
 
 3-7 
 
 7,870 
 
 Park 
 
 4,593 
 
 19.6 
 
 5,925 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 TABLE XXV— (Continued) 
 
 41 
 
 Name of school 
 
 Estimated 
 
 Expected percentage 
 
 Population 
 
 district 
 
 population 
 
 of increase between 
 
 of 1933 
 
 
 in 1017 
 
 igiy and 1934 
 
 
 Saratoga 
 
 5,158 
 
 84.4 
 
 9,510 
 
 Saunders 
 
 4,583 
 
 56.1 
 
 7.155 
 
 Sherman 
 
 770 
 
 129.8 
 
 1,770 
 
 South Central 
 
 5,128 
 
 6.5 
 
 5,460 
 
 South Franklin 
 
 2,248 
 
 82.4 
 
 4,100 
 
 South Lincoln 
 
 2,906 
 
 7-7 
 
 3,130 
 
 Train 
 
 2,160 
 
 II. I 
 
 2,400 
 
 Vinton 
 
 3,696 
 
 16.8 
 
 4,320 
 
 Walnut Hill 
 
 3,250 
 
 43-6 
 
 4,670 
 
 Webster 
 
 7,926 
 
 35-6 
 
 10,750 
 
 West Side 
 
 3,352 
 
 32.5 
 
 4,440 
 
 Windsor 
 
 2,440 
 
 55-7 
 
 3,800 
 
 Total 
 
 170,765 
 
 
 238,795 
 
 The Trend of Population in a Large City 
 
 In making recommendations for the locations of buildings in the 
 survey conducted in St. Paul in 1917, consideration was given to 
 every possible means for determining the growth in the various 
 sections of the city. In order to show the trend of population, 
 the following data were utilized: (i) the numbers of voters by 
 wards in mayoralty campaigns; (2) the number of dwelling per- 
 mits officially issued from 1910 to 1917; (3) the present and pro- 
 spective location of factories; (4) the extension of lines planned 
 by the telephone companies ; (5) the desirable territory still avail- 
 able for home sites; (6) the increase in elementary school childrea 
 in the various wards; (7) growth of the city in land additions. It 
 will be noted that all of these data pointed to the 7th, loth, nth, 
 and I2th wards as the wards of greatest growth. 
 
 1. The returns in the mayoralty campaigns indicated substantial 
 growth in the numbers of voters in Wards i, 2, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, and 
 12. The last three showed the greatest development. 
 
 2. The dwelling building permits issued showed the greatest 
 increases in Wards i, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, and 12. In Table XXVIII 
 
42 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 TABLE XXVI 
 Estimated Enrollment in the Elementary Schools from the Kinder- 
 garten THROUGH THE SiXTH GrADE FOR THE YeAR 1 933 BASED UPON 
 
 THE Enrollment in 1917, and the Estimated Percentage 
 
 OF Increase in the Total Population of Each 
 
 School District for the Period 191 7 to 1933 
 
 Name of school 
 
 Pmj'oZZjm fiftt 
 
 Expected percentage 
 
 Estimated 
 
 
 district and 
 
 1^ nr xitiviU'CfUi 
 
 1917 
 
 of growth 
 
 enrollment 
 
 
 building 
 
 1917-1Q33 
 
 for 1033 
 
 
 Bancroft 
 
 354 
 
 350 
 
 478 
 
 
 Beals 
 
 239 
 
 121. 
 
 528 
 
 
 Belvidere 
 
 133 
 
 99.6 
 
 398 
 
 
 Brown Park 
 
 428 
 
 18.0 
 
 505 
 
 
 Cass 
 
 479 
 
 I.I 
 
 484 
 
 
 Castelar 
 
 508 
 
 25-9 
 
 640 
 
 
 Central 
 
 686 
 
 24.8 
 
 856 
 
 
 Central Park 
 
 386 
 
 1 19-3 
 
 847 
 
 
 Clifton Hill 
 
 480 
 
 iro.5 
 
 1,010 
 
 
 Columbian 
 
 413 
 
 96.8 
 
 813 
 
 
 Comenius 
 
 441 
 
 5-1 
 
 463 
 
 
 Corrigan 
 
 396 
 
 32.6 
 
 525 
 
 
 Druid Hill 
 
 249 
 
 42.6 
 
 355 
 
 
 Dundee 
 
 486 
 
 108.3 
 
 1,012 
 
 
 Dupont 
 
 104 
 
 13.1 
 
 118 
 
 
 Edward Rosewater 
 
 318 
 
 17.0 
 
 372 
 
 
 Farnam 
 
 594 
 
 35-5 
 
 805 
 
 
 Franklin 
 
 518 
 
 35-3 
 
 701 
 
 
 Garfield 
 
 192 
 
 3-7 
 
 199 
 
 
 Hawthorne 
 
 276 
 
 12.9 
 
 312 
 
 
 Highland 
 
 320 
 
 330 
 
 425 
 
 
 Howard Kennedy 
 
 587 
 
 78.1 
 
 I1O45 
 
 
 Jungmann 
 
 31S 
 
 16.6 
 
 367 
 
 
 Kellom 
 
 876 
 
 14.6 
 
 1,004 
 
 
 Lake 
 
 800 
 
 14.9 
 
 919 
 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 461 
 
 10.5 
 
 509 
 
 
 Long 
 
 805 
 
 II. I 
 
 894 
 
 
 Lothrop 
 
 816 
 
 24.8 
 
 1,108 
 
 
 Lowell 
 
 100 
 
 1-9 
 
 no 
 
 
 Madison 
 
 235 
 
 23.2 
 
 290 
 
 
 Mason 
 
 • 704 
 
 25.2 
 
 881 
 
 
 Miller Park 
 
 508 
 
 152.9 
 
 1.285 
 
 
 Monmouth Park 
 
 460 
 
 99-6 
 
 918 
 
 
 Pacific 
 
 388 
 
 3-7 
 
 402 
 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 TABLE XXVl~{Continued) 
 
 43 
 
 Name of school 
 
 Enrollment 
 
 Expected percentage 
 
 Estimated 
 
 district and 
 
 of growth 
 
 enrollment 
 
 building 
 
 1917 
 
 1917-1033 
 
 for 1933 
 
 Park 
 
 602 
 
 19.6 
 
 720 
 
 Saratoga 
 
 485 
 
 84.4 
 
 894 
 
 Saunders 
 
 354 
 
 56.1 
 
 553 
 
 Sherman 
 
 216 
 
 129.8 
 
 496 
 
 South Central 
 
 343 
 
 6.5 
 
 365 
 
 South Franklin 
 
 250 
 
 82.4 
 
 456 
 
 South Lincoln 
 
 365 
 
 7-7 
 
 393 
 
 Train 
 
 545 
 
 II. I 
 
 605 
 
 Vinton 
 
 365 
 
 16.8 
 
 416 
 
 Walnut Hill 
 
 387 
 
 43-6 
 
 556 
 
 Webster 
 
 463 
 
 35-6 
 
 628 
 
 Wsst Side 
 
 561 
 
 32.5 
 
 743 
 
 Windsor 
 
 546 
 
 55-7 
 
 850 
 
 Total 
 
 20,537 
 
 
 29,254 
 
 TABLE XXVII 
 Ward Increases in Voters in St. Paul City Elections for Mayor 
 
 Wards 
 
 igoo 
 
 1904 
 
 igo6 
 
 1908 
 
 1910 
 
 igi2 
 
 1914 
 
 I 
 
 ■ 2,547 
 
 2,638 
 
 2,762 
 
 3.270 
 
 3.148 
 
 3.561 
 
 3.425 
 
 2 
 
 2,164 
 
 2,379 
 
 2,674 
 
 3,037 
 
 3.053 
 
 3.408 
 
 3.344 
 
 3 
 
 1,114 
 
 1,249 
 
 1,149 
 
 1,114 
 
 1,129 
 
 1,028 
 
 779 
 
 4 
 
 2,220 
 
 2,485 
 
 2,313 
 
 2,321 
 
 2,369 
 
 2,069 
 
 1.935 
 
 5 
 
 2,529 
 
 2,664 
 
 2,830 
 
 3.248 
 
 3.236 
 
 3,581 
 
 3.315 
 
 6 
 
 2,395 
 
 2,717 
 
 2,702 
 
 3.152 
 
 3.057 
 
 3.321 
 
 3.236 
 
 7 
 
 2,288 
 
 2,602 
 
 2,814 
 
 3.650 
 
 3.605 
 
 4,106 
 
 4,312 
 
 8 
 
 3.795 
 
 4.173 
 
 4.590 
 
 4,016 
 
 3,855 
 
 4,064 
 
 4.031 
 
 9 
 
 2,348 
 
 2,602 
 
 2.434 
 
 2,701 
 
 2,447 
 
 2,572 
 
 2,490 
 
 10 
 
 815 
 
 1,137 
 
 1,127 
 
 1,489 
 
 1,588 
 
 1,972 
 
 2,151 
 
 II 
 
 651 
 
 853 
 
 1.095 
 
 1,662 
 
 1,888 
 
 2,691 
 
 2,875 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 1.472 
 
 1,586 
 
 2,040 
 
 2,157 
 
 Total 
 
 22,857 
 
 25,499 
 
 26,490 
 
 31,042 
 
 30,759 
 
 34,493 
 
 34,046 
 
44 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 are given the numbers of permits issued for each ward for the years 
 1910-1916. The number of dwellings erected was considered a 
 better index than total dwelling costs. 
 
 3. The industrial map of the city offered opportunity for noting 
 the dispersion of factories over the entire city area and the tendency 
 for workers to seek homes near their working centers. Prospective 
 developments in respect to railroad, belt lines, and possible factory 
 and packing-house sites, were considered through the agency of the 
 map. 
 
 4. The telephone companies were planning the greatest exten- 
 sion of their trunk lines in the iith, 5th, and 12th wards, in the 
 order given. 
 
 5. From Table XXIX, which gives the population of the city by 
 wards, it was observed that Wards 2, ID, and 11 have the lowest 
 density of population in the city. These wards have many available 
 home sites that are now vacant. 
 
 6. The tabulation of all children attending the elementary pub- 
 lic schools of the city showed the greatest growth in the 7th, loth, 
 and nth wards. 
 
 TABLE XXVIII 
 
 Numbers of Dwelling Building Permits Issued in St. Paul, 
 1910-1916. Distribution by Wards 
 
 Wards 
 
 igio 
 
 igii 
 
 1912 
 
 1013 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 igi6 
 
 Total 
 
 1 • 
 
 132 
 
 105 
 
 69 
 
 69 
 
 108 
 
 133 
 
 144 
 
 730 
 
 2 
 
 112 
 
 125 
 
 129 
 
 156 
 
 III 
 
 137 
 
 152 
 
 922 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 99 
 
 69 
 
 93 
 
 94 
 
 90 
 
 84 
 
 105 
 
 634 
 
 6 
 
 117 
 
 88 
 
 100 
 
 85 
 
 87 
 
 105 
 
 73 
 
 655 
 
 7 
 
 119 
 
 127 
 
 161 
 
 141 
 
 122 
 
 139 
 
 112 
 
 921 
 
 8 
 
 lOI 
 
 95 
 
 76 
 
 79 
 
 57 
 
 59 
 
 42 
 
 509 
 
 9 
 
 39 
 
 43 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 202 
 
 10 
 
 188 
 
 238 
 
 225 
 
 204 
 
 270 
 
 242 
 
 2X8 
 
 1,585 
 
 II 
 
 325 
 
 183 
 
 242 
 
 321 
 
 328 
 
 361 
 
 308 
 
 2,068 
 
 12 
 
 173 
 
 188 
 
 III 
 
 127 
 
 105 
 
 96 
 
 122 
 
 922 
 
 Total 
 
 1,416 
 
 1,265 
 
 1,237 
 
 1,308 
 
 1,306 
 
 1,379 
 
 1,275 
 
 g,i86 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 45 
 
 7. The map issued in the Annual Report of the City Commissioner 
 of Public Works, 191 5, showing the dates of land additions to the 
 city emphasized the fact that Wards 2, 10, and 11, being the most 
 recent and largest additions, offered most opportunity for growth. 
 
 In addition to the factors outlined above, the utilization of 
 numerous other elements which foretell trend of population is 
 desirable when data are available. Such additional factors may 
 include : already planned and prospective street railway extensions ; 
 complete data from the municipal water supply and sewer depart- 
 ments outlining their future programs; the program for street 
 paving, boulevarding, and extension of the park system; and 
 changes both present and future in types of residence ; for example, 
 from single dwelling houses to modern city apartments. 
 
 The Location of Junior High Schools and High Schools 
 
 The extensive changes that are being introduced into the curricu- 
 lum of the seventh, eighth, and ninth years of our public schools 
 are necessitating a differentiation in housing and equipment for 
 these years. Some progressive communities are already segregating 
 the children of the junior high school in buildings especially equipped 
 
 TABLE XXIX 
 Population of St. Paul by Wards ' 
 
 Wards 
 
 Total population 
 
 Per square mile 
 
 I 
 
 27,230 
 
 6,964 
 
 2 
 
 26,540 
 
 1,878 
 
 3 
 
 6,230 
 
 13-844 
 
 4 
 
 15.310 
 
 29,442 
 
 5 
 
 26,220 
 
 6,416 
 
 6 
 
 25.710 
 
 6,136 
 
 7 
 
 34.230 
 
 15.419 
 
 8 
 
 31,840 
 
 10,867 
 
 9 
 
 19,780 
 
 8,991 
 
 10 
 
 17,000 
 
 3.096 
 
 II 
 
 22,870 
 
 2.437 
 
 12 
 
 17,040 
 
 6,430 
 
 
 270,000 
 
 4,870 
 
 2»From 191S report. City Commissioner of Public Works. 
 
46 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 for this work and located with especial reference to the elementary 
 school districts from which the junior high school obtains its pupils. 
 
 For the location of junior high schools consideration must be 
 granted a number of highly important factors. In the smaller 
 sized cities proximity to the senior high school is desirable in order 
 to avoid duplication of equipment. In the larger cities it has been 
 found possible to select natural land divisions in each of which the 
 possible enrollment for the three years of the junior high school 
 would suffice for a reasonably sized school. Eight such divisions 
 were planned for St. Paul by the Survey Committee in 191 7 with 
 possible enrollments varying from 516 to 1,020 children. It was 
 estimated that the enrollments of the majority of these schools 
 would not exceed i ,200 in a period of ten years. 
 
 The method of location of proposed intermediate schools for 
 Omaha is shown in Table XXXI. It was suggested that these 
 schools be built in the order given in the table and that centraliza- 
 tion with respect to all the elementary buildings named in each 
 group should be a desirable criterion. Proximity to car lines was 
 also considered essential for each site. In the determination of 
 priority of construction certain standards prevailed, such as the 
 elimination of sectional favoritism, the relief from present conges- 
 tion of elementary schools in the order of their needs, the hope of 
 
 TABLE XXX 
 Children Attending Elementary Public Schools 
 
 Wards 
 
 igo5-igo6 
 
 1915-1916 
 
 Gain 
 
 Loss 
 
 Per cent 
 
 I 
 
 4,856 
 
 4,265 
 
 
 591 
 
 — 12.2 
 
 2 
 
 2,615 
 
 2,543 
 
 
 72 
 
 - 2.8 
 
 3 
 
 1.350 
 
 991 
 
 
 359 
 
 - 26.6 
 
 4 
 
 1,100 
 
 938 
 
 
 162 
 
 - 14-7 
 
 5 
 
 3,783 
 
 3,380 
 
 
 403 
 
 - 10.7 
 
 6 
 
 3,365 
 
 3,581 
 
 216 
 
 
 -t- 6.4 
 
 7 
 
 1,883 
 
 2,41s 
 
 532 
 
 
 + 28.3 
 
 8 
 
 3,069 
 
 2,684 
 
 
 385 
 
 - 12.5 
 
 9 
 
 1,017 
 
 683 
 
 
 334 
 
 - 32.8 
 
 10 
 
 1,366 
 
 2.512 
 
 1,146 
 
 
 + 83.9 
 
 II 
 
 1,020 
 
 2,315 
 
 1,295 
 
 
 + 127.0 
 
 12 
 
 1,181 
 
 1,358 
 
 177 
 
 
 + 15-0 
 
Studies in Population 
 
 47 
 
 providing immediate assistance to certain types of homes in segre- 
 gated sections where the practical education of the junior high 
 school might be utilized in making the home more sanitary and 
 habitable, and the need for parks and playgrounds. The 1933 
 
 TABLE XXXI 
 Proposed Intermediate Schools for Omaha, Nebr. 
 
 To be erected in the order named and centrally located 
 to the schools of each group 
 
 r Providing for children from Long, Kel- 
 \ lorn, Cass, one-half of Lake. 
 
 f Providing for children from Vinton, 
 Bancroft, Lincoln, Castelar, Comen- 
 [ ius. Pacific, and Train. 
 
 (Providing for children from Central,] 
 two-thirds of Columbian, Farnam, ( 
 one-half of Franklin, one-half of { 
 Saunders, Webster. J 
 
 (Providing for children from one-half] 
 of Monmouth Park, Lothrop, Sara- \ 
 toga, one-half of Lake, Kennedy, [ 
 and Druid Hill. J 
 
 Providing for children from Garfield, 
 South Lincoln, South Central, Haw- 
 thorne, Jungmann, Madison, Brown 
 Park. It is suggested that this school 
 form the first three years of a six- 
 year South High School, and be 
 housed in the same building. 
 
 {Proposed for children from one-half of [ 
 Farnam, Park, Mason, Windsor, 
 one-third of Columbian. J 
 
 First school 
 
 Second school 
 
 Third school 
 
 Fourth school 
 
 Fifth school 
 
 Seventh school 
 
 Eighth school 
 
 Ninth school 
 
 Providing for children from Lowell, | 
 South Franklin, Highland, West 
 Side, Corrigan. J 
 
 Providing for children from Walnut, 
 Hill, Clifton Hill, one-third of Frank- 
 lin, one-half of Saunders and Dundee. 
 
 Providing for children from Miller^ 
 Park, Belvidere, Central Park, Sher- | 
 man,and one-half of MbnmouthPark. J 
 
 Possible attendance 
 
 from seventh, eighth 
 
 and ninth grades in 
 
 September, 1917 
 
 Estimated 
 
 attendance 
 in September, 1933 
 
 837 
 
 692 
 
 - I.2SS 
 
 671 
 
 439 
 
 ^0 
 
 g6o 
 
48 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 figures for Table XXXI were determined by utilizing the expected 
 percentage of increase in total population of each school district of 
 the city for the period 1917-1933. It was estimated that these 
 grades would increase at approximately the same rate. 
 
 If any uniform practice has developed in the location of the senior 
 high school in our smaller cities it has emphasized the idea of 
 centrality alone without due regard to the advisability of securing 
 a site adequate for extensions to the plant as well as for play 
 purposes. Centrality of site frequently offers many obstacles to 
 the proper location of the second and third high school as cities grow. 
 It is obvious that such elements as environment, adequacy of site, 
 opportunity for proper architectural setting, and proximity to street 
 car lines, are far more important than centrality. The location of 
 any new high school building involves such considerations as : the 
 
 TABLE XXXII 
 
 A Comparison between Location of High School Population and 
 City Population of Omaha, Nebr. 
 
 Central High School and High School of Commerce only are included, and only 
 that part of city population located north of F Street 
 
 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Percentage of high 
 
 
 igir 
 
 of city 
 
 school population 
 
 Population living 
 
 city popu- 
 lation 
 
 population 
 involved 
 
 
 
 
 Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 Total 
 
 I . Between Leavenworth and Cuming 
 
 40,173 
 
 27.6 
 
 27.6 
 
 27.0 
 
 27-3 
 
 2. North of Cuming, including Lake 
 
 24,701 
 
 17.0 
 
 20.1 
 
 20.8 
 
 20.5 
 
 3. North of Lake, including Pratt 
 
 11,021 
 
 7.6 
 
 II.2 
 
 II. I 
 
 II. I 
 
 4. North of Pratt, including Grand 
 
 12,733 
 
 8.8 
 
 8.0 
 
 8.8 
 
 8.5 
 
 Avenue 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. North of Grand Avenue to North 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 boundary 
 
 9,881 
 
 6.8 
 
 5-6 
 
 5-9 
 
 5-7 
 
 6. South of Leavenworth, including 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Center 
 
 18,828 
 
 12.9 
 
 15-2 
 
 14.6 
 
 14.9 
 
 7. South of Center, including Spring 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Street 
 
 17,754 
 
 12.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 8.6 
 
 8.5 
 
 8. South of Spring, including F Street 
 
 10,378 
 
 7.1 
 
 2.3 
 
 1-9 
 
 2.0 
 
 9. South of F to southern boundary 
 
 
 
 1.6 
 
 14 
 
 1-5 
 
 Total city population involved 
 
 145,469 
 
 
 
 
 
Studies in Population 49 
 
 percentages of total school enrollment in high school over a period 
 of years and comparisons with other cities of similar size; the with- 
 drawals and eliminations from the elementary grades and high 
 school by city land sections ; and the distribution of the high school 
 population over a period of four or five years according to the sections 
 of the city in which the students live. A tabulation of the last-named 
 factor for the one year 1916-1917 for the city of Omaha is given in 
 Table XXXII. There is indication that the two high schools of 
 the table have drawn equally well from all sections of the city for 
 their student body. The falling off in sections 7 and 8 necessitates 
 an explanation from the school authorities, though part of the 
 difference may be due to the proximity of the South High School, 
 which is not included in the tabulation. 
 
PART II 
 STUDIES INVOLVING THE SCHOOL PLANT 
 
 THE MEASUREMENT OF THE BUILDING PLANT 
 OF A SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 Any program for school buildings covering a period of years pre- 
 supposes a complete detailed analysis of the existing school plant. 
 Such an analysis involves, among other matters, a study of the life 
 and types of existing buildings, their adequacy as measured with a 
 building score card, their accessibility expressed in terms of dis- 
 tances travelled by the children attending, the present utilization 
 and possible capacity of the buildings, and comparisons with the 
 commonly accepted standards of school building construction. 
 
 The Life of the Existing School Plant 
 
 From studies made of the school plants of St. Paul, Minn., 
 Omaha, Neb., and Paterson,. N. J., Table XXXIII was constructed. 
 Close inspection of this table brings to light certain clearly defined 
 facts about these three school plants. The distribution is made 
 after 1865 in five-year periods. In St. Paul the period of greatest 
 activity in school construction seems to have been the decade 1885- 
 
 1889, or, in a larger sense, 1 880-1 890. Seventy-five per cent of the 
 elementary buildings found in St. Paul in 191 7 had their origin pre- 
 vious to 1890. Eighty-five per cent were built previous to 1900, 
 while forty-six per cent of additions were made previous to 1900. 
 For comparison in building capacities the classroom is a desirable 
 measure. Four hundred thirteen out of six hundred twenty-three 
 classrooms, or sixty-six per cent of the elementary school housing 
 in St. Paul, including additions, were constructed previous to 
 
 1890. In Omaha, it will be noted from Table XXXIII, 310 of 733 
 classrooms, or forty- two per cent, were built previous to 1900. 
 In Paterson fully fifty per cent of the classrooms were constructed 
 previous to 1900. These classrooms cannot be expected to meet 
 the standards set up in modern classroom architecture. Wherein 
 they lack greatly in meeting modern standards may be readily 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 
 
 51 
 
 pointed out through the use of such a scoring device as the Strayer 
 Score Card for Measuring School Buildings. Too much stress 
 cannot be placed upon the necessity for constantly bearing in mind 
 the possibility of making old schoolrooms more habitable. Any 
 school building program must necessarily include a program for 
 modernization or rehabilitation of the older structures, in order that 
 
 TABLE XXXIII 
 
 Distribution of Elementary School Buildings According to Years 
 OF Original Erection and Years When Additions Were Made 
 
 Additions for two cities expressed in number of rooms 
 
 
 Number of buildings erected 
 
 Number of buildings to which 
 additions were made 
 
 Years 
 
 St. 
 Paul 
 
 Omaha 
 
 Palerson 
 
 St. 
 Paul 
 
 Omaha 
 
 Paterson 
 
 
 Build- 
 ings 
 
 Build- 
 ings 
 
 Rooms 
 
 Build- 
 ings 
 
 Rooms 
 
 Build- 
 ings 
 
 Build- 
 ings 
 
 Rooms 
 
 Build- 
 ings 
 
 Rooms 
 
 Previous 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 1865 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 865-1 869 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1870-1874 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 875-1 879 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1880-1884 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 1885-1889 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 82 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 I 890-1 894 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 126 
 
 4 
 
 67 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1895-1899 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 86 
 
 4 
 
 52 
 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 1900-1904 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 1905-1909 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 57 
 
 4 
 
 74 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 45 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 1910-1914 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 66 
 
 2 
 
 58 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 48 
 
 I 
 
 22 
 
 1915-1917 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 66 
 
 I 
 
 41 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 48 
 
 I 
 
 14 
 
 children occupying them may be provided with advantages that 
 are commensurate with those provided in the newer buildings. 
 
 Table XXXIII may well be supplemented with more detailed 
 tables of the contrasts found in buildings erected in the early and 
 later decades of the past fifty years. For instance, it seems quite 
 obvious from this table that St. Paul's emphasis in educational 
 matters had not been placed upon ftiodern school construction dur- 
 ing the past thirty years. During this same period there was added. 
 
52 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 however, approximately fifty per cent of the present population of 
 the city. A definite program for the supplanting of old structures 
 by modern buildings seems desirable in every city. Schoolhouses 
 like other houses in which people live become antiquated and unin- 
 habitable. There no doubt comes a time when their use is actually 
 a hindrance to the intellectual and social progress of a community. 
 Before this point is reached it would seem the duty of school author- 
 ities to provide for their replacement. 
 
 School Buildings Classified According to Size 
 When school buildings are classified according to their size, as 
 has been done for the school buildings of St. Paul and Paterson 
 in Table XXXV, the school plant is again brought, as a whole, in 
 review. Buildings with small numbers of rooms may be considered, 
 as a rule, as lacking in equipment of special rooms, such as gymna- 
 sium, manual training, domestic science, library, and the like. 
 Such buildings have also invariably a minimum of supervision and 
 a relatively high cost of maintenance, while they lack in opportu- 
 nities for the social mingling of children. A merit to be found in a 
 good building program is the selection of sites so centralized that 
 buildings with a small number of rooms are eliminated except in the 
 more recently developing sections of a city. 
 
 A vital consideration when locating building sites is the reason- 
 able maximum distance to be traversed by children going from home 
 to school. Opinion will vary as to the distances that children of 
 various ages may be required to walk. The unfortunate tendency 
 in many cities has been to reduce the distances to an absurd mini- 
 mum for the children. This has resulted in having eight, ten, and 
 twelve-room buildings within three and four blocks of one another 
 in many of our cities. Were one to draw circles about the small 
 elementary schools of Omaha and St. Paul, using the schools as 
 centers and a radius of three-eighths of a mile, the amount of over- 
 lapping would be astonishing in both cases. No better example 
 could be found of the lack of planning for additions to school build- 
 ing plants. The distances that Superintendent Spaulding^^ set 
 up in Minneapolis as standard distances that children might be ex- 
 pected to cover in their daily trips to school have met with favor. 
 These suggested standards are given below. 
 
 " A Million a Year, Board of Education, Minneapolis, Minn., 1916. 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 
 
 TABLE XXXIV 
 Distances fkom Home to School 
 
 53 
 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Desirable 
 
 For children of kindergar- 
 
 Not more than one mile 
 
 Not more than three- 
 
 ten and first six grades 
 
 
 quarters of a mile 
 
 For junior high school 
 
 Not more than one and 
 
 Not more than one mile 
 
 children 
 
 one-half miles 
 
 
 For high school children 
 
 Not more than two miles 
 
 Not more than one and 
 one-half miles 
 
 If these standards are not too high in Minneapolis, where the 
 winters are extremely severe, they should be readily accepted in 
 the majority of our cities. It is quite possible that in warmer cli- 
 mates a slight increase in the figures given would not seriously in- 
 convenience many children. 
 
 The classification of St. Paul's buildings shows forty-eight per 
 cent of elementary buildings with eight classrooms or less, and 
 sixty and two-thirds per cent with less than sixteen classrooms. 
 Paterson's situation contrasts strikingly with no buildings of less 
 than eight classrooms and with only thirty-three per cent of her 
 buildings having sixteen classrooms or less. 
 
 TABLE XXXV 
 
 Sizes of Elementary Schools in Two Cities, St. Paul and Paterson, 
 
 Arranged According to Number of Classrooms 
 
 Type of building 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 Paterson 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 1-4 rooms 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 5- 7 rooms 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 8-1 1 rooms 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 12-15 rooms 
 
 II 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 16-19 rooms 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 20-23 rooms 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 24-27 rooms 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 28-31 rooms 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 32-36 rooms 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 Above 36 rooms 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 Total 
 
 61 
 
 
 24 
 
 
54 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 The following facts will bear out the statement made regarding 
 the lack of special rooms in small buildings. Superintendents in 
 twenty-eight cities generously cooperated in listing the number of 
 regular classrooms for each of their school buildings as well as the 
 types of special rooms provided. Capacity of special rooms was 
 also given so that it was possible to eliminate any special rooms with 
 a capacity of fifteen or less. Of the two hundred and twenty-one 
 elementary buildings being used in these twenty-eight cities, seven- 
 teen per cent had sixteen or more regular classrooms. To this seven- 
 teen per cent of buildings was allotted thirty-eight per cent of all 
 manual training rooms for the entire two hundred and twenty-one 
 buildings, forty-five per cent of all domestic science rooms, seventy- 
 five per cent of all gymnasiums, fifty per cent of all auditoriiims, 
 seventy-five per cent of all study halls, fifty per cent of all lunch 
 rooms, twenty-six per cent of all libraries, and fifteen per cent of all 
 play-rooms. The distribution of these special rooms in the entire 
 two hundred and twenty-one buildings according to the size of 
 buildings is given in Table XXXVI. 
 
 These same 221 buildings were distributed on the basis of the 
 cost of janitorial service per pupil in average daily attendance 
 in 1917 and the cost of principals' service per pupil in average 
 daily attendance in 1917. The medians on each cost basis are 
 given according to size of building in Table XXXVII. Because of 
 the small number of buildings having more than twenty-eight 
 rooms, the medians above that point were omitted. 
 
 The tendency toward a very definite lowering of costs on these 
 two items as the number of rooms increases emphasizes the need 
 for school-building planning which will eliminate the small building. 
 
 The Score Card Method of Measuring a School Plant 
 
 In determining the adequacy of any school plant it seems nec- 
 essary to study every detail of construction and equipment in the 
 light of the standards which are commonly being accepted to-day 
 in the construction of school buildings. For the facilitation of such 
 comparisons, the Strayer School Building Score Card ^^ has been 
 found to be particularly effective. This score card is constructed 
 on the same plan as those utilized during past years in the work of 
 
 22 G. D. Strayer, Score Card for City School Buildings, Bureau of Publications, 
 Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 
 
 55 
 
 TABLE XXXVI 
 
 Ratio between Number of Regular Classrooms and Special Class- 
 rooms^ IN 221 Elementary School Buildings 
 
 Special Classrooms Provided 
 
 School build- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ings having 
 
 
 Domes- 
 
 Gym- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 regular class- 
 
 Manual 
 
 tic 
 
 na- 
 
 Audi- 
 
 Play- 
 
 Study 
 
 Lunch- 
 
 Lib- 
 
 of school 
 
 rooms to the 
 
 training 
 
 Science 
 
 sium 
 
 torium 
 
 room 
 
 hall 
 
 room 
 
 rary 
 
 build- 
 
 number of: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ings 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ir 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 2 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 I 24 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 II 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 IS 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 6 
 
 i6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 i8 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 3.6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Total 
 
 7J 
 
 JS 
 
 12 
 
 J5 
 
 20 
 
 4: 
 
 10 
 
 ^P 
 
 221 
 
 ^' A room is considered to be a regular classroom when it is the home room for a 
 group of pupils under a regular full-time teacher. Kindergarten rooms, first grade 
 rooms, and second grade rooms are examples of regular classrooms. 
 
 2* Also used as auditorium. 
 
 2' Combined with playroom. 
 
 " Shops. 
 
56 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 agricultural colleges. The decided advantage that follows from the 
 use of the score card, on which are included nearly all the details 
 that go to make up a perfect building, is that all such details are 
 given separate consideration. 
 
 In utilizing the score card each of the eighty-eight main divisions 
 of the score card is given separate consideration and a proportional 
 allowance of the full possible score for that division. When the 
 ratings of a number of school buildings, either in the same locality 
 or in different communities are compared, the fact that the score 
 card listings have necessitated that the same relative weight be 
 given to similar items of construction or equipment in each build- 
 ing insures a degree of fairness and accuracy not obtainable under 
 any other method now employed in judging school buildings. 
 
 The score card is accompanied with a set of detailed standards 
 for each of the eighty-eight subdivisions, in the light of which the 
 score for each item is obtained. A school building which meets all 
 the standards set up in the score card is rated at i ,000 points. The 
 score card has been utilized in the following school surveys: Nassau 
 County, N. Y.; Framingham, Mass.; St. Paul, Minn.; Omaha, 
 Neb.; Pelham, N. Y.; Great Neck, N. Y.; Paterson, N. J.; Bing- 
 hamton, N. Y. ; '" 4nd Utica, N. Y. In these intensive studies school 
 
 TABLE XXXVII 
 
 Costs of Janitorial Service and Principals' Service in 220 Schools 
 OF 28 Cities on the Basis of Child in Average Daily Attendance 
 
 
 
 Median cost of jani- 
 
 Median cost of prin- 
 
 Buildings 
 
 Number of 
 
 torial service per 
 
 cipals' salary per 
 
 having 
 
 cases 
 
 child in average 
 
 child in average 
 
 
 
 daily attendance 
 
 daily attendance 
 
 I- 4 rooms 
 
 57 
 
 $2,562 
 
 $8.50 
 
 5- 8 rooms 
 
 39 
 
 3.000 
 
 5.06 
 
 9-12 rooms 
 
 62 
 
 2.464 
 
 3-75 
 
 13-16 rooms 
 
 34 
 
 2.107 
 
 3.05 
 
 17-20 rooms 
 
 17 
 
 2. 131 
 
 2.94 
 
 21-24 rooms 
 
 8 
 
 1-675 
 
 2.40 
 
 25-28 rooms ^ 
 
 3 
 
 2.125 
 
 2.77 
 
 " Surveys of Binghamton and Utica made by the State Education Department, 
 Albany, N. Y. 
 
 2' Too few cases at this level. 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 57 
 
 buildings were found which rated as low as 274 points and as high 
 as 927 points on the score card. Experience resulting from these 
 applications of the score card, involving approximately 225 build- 
 ings, suggests that a score of 900-1,000 indicates a highly satisfac- 
 tory degree of construction and equipment. In fact, in only a few 
 minor respects does such a building deviate from acceptable 
 standards. A rating between 700 and 900 points is fairly satisfac- 
 tory'. It should be studied in the light of its component parts. 
 Slight building alterations, the need for which will be indicated by 
 the low percentages of the possible maximal allowances on various 
 of the eighty-eight subdivisions, will tend to raise considerably 
 the score of a building of this group. A score of 600 to 700 points 
 has meant, as experience in these surveys points out, that con- 
 siderable alteration was needed before buildings could be brought 
 to a satisfactory standard of efficiency. Buildings that have scored 
 500 to 600 points have proved to be highly unsatisfactory and yet 
 not so far gone but that extensive repairs and replacements could 
 make them reasonably habitable. When the scores of buildings 
 have fallen below 500 points, it has been the universal judgment 
 of those who have applied the score card that speedy abandonment 
 of the building for school purposes was the only justifiable course 
 to be followed. In all instances where scores of 500 or less have 
 resulted, it has seemed that expenditures for repairs would be 
 highly excessive. It has also seemed that there was little possi- 
 bility, even with the expenditure of relatively large sums of money, 
 to secure as a result of such repairs a building which was suitable 
 for school purposes in the modern sense. 
 
 The scores that have been allotted in certain of the surveys men- 
 tioned are tabulated in Table XXXVIII. These scores may give 
 a conception of the adequacy of school buildings as found in various 
 types of cities. 
 
 An indication of the ease with which one may discover the points 
 of defect in buildings which have been gauged with the score card 
 may be seen by studying the final scores allotted to school buildings 
 in Omaha in June 1917. These scores are given in Table XXXIX. 
 The first eleven from an alphabetical list of the Omaha schools are 
 included here. The maximum number of points possible for each 
 of the five main divisions and the twenty-two major subdivisions 
 of the score card is given in the first column. The scores as given 
 
58 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 TABLE XXXVIII 
 
 Scores Allotted to School Buildings in Five Surveys by 
 Judges Using the Strayer Score Card 
 
 Elementary Schools 
 
 Nassau 
 County 
 
 Framingham 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 Omaha 
 
 Paterson 
 
 300 or below 
 
 301-500 
 
 501-600 
 
 601-700 
 
 701-800 
 
 801-900 
 
 901-1,000 
 
 Total 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 7 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 39 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 
 iP 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 10 
 
 52 
 
 12 
 6 
 
 3 
 3 
 I 
 
 25 
 
 High Schools 
 
 300 or below 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 301-500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 501-600 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 601-700 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 701-800 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 801-900 
 
 7 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 901-1,000 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 IS 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 by the judges for each of the items are Hsted under the names of 
 the various schools. An inspection of the scores points out Cass 
 and Clifton Hill as being particularly deficient in the item 'Site'; 
 Belvidere and Clifton Hill as being judged as poor examples of 
 housing from the standpoint of 'Internal and Gross Structure', 
 ■while the Central Park and the Castelar are ranked as best of the 
 list; that the service systems of five of the ten buildings rank par- 
 ticularly lovsr; and that the classrooms of three buildings are rated 
 high while seven buildings stand out as clearly lacking in special 
 room facilities. 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 
 
 59 
 
 It must be understood that the final score as allotted on each 
 subdivision in the table below is the composite of individual ratings 
 by different judges. This composition of the ratings of a number 
 
 TABLE XXXIX 
 Final Scores on Eleven Omaha School Buildings 
 
 Names of buildings 
 score card items 
 
 It 
 1^ 
 
 % 
 
 0) 
 
 J2 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 a, 
 g 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 "3 
 
 a 
 
 •5 
 ft, 
 
 1 
 a 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 I Site 
 
 125 
 
 112 
 
 93 
 
 117 
 
 83 
 
 68 
 
 108 
 
 95 
 
 103 
 
 68 
 
 70 
 
 83 
 
 A. Location 
 
 55 
 
 45 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 SO 
 
 so 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 B. Drainage 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 C. Size and form 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 IS 
 
 II Building 
 
 i65 
 
 144 
 
 119 
 
 68 
 
 96 
 
 105 
 
 149 
 
 120 
 
 151 
 
 49 
 
 94 
 
 96 
 
 A. Placement 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 IS 
 
 18 
 
 B. Gross structure 
 
 6o 
 
 S9 
 
 41 
 
 21 
 
 38 
 
 46 
 
 59 
 
 43 
 
 59 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 C. Internal structure 
 
 8o 
 
 60 
 
 56 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 44 
 
 68 
 
 55 
 
 70 
 
 14 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 
 III Service systems 
 
 280 
 
 159 
 
 153 
 
 81 
 
 104 
 
 106 
 
 179 
 
 94 
 
 190 
 
 54 
 
 147 
 
 103 
 
 A. Heating and ventilation 
 
 70 
 
 53 
 
 47 
 
 II 
 
 18 
 
 31 
 
 52 
 
 26 
 
 55 
 
 16 
 
 S3 
 
 21 
 
 B. Fire protection 
 
 65 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 IS 
 
 53 
 
 8 
 
 54 
 
 I 
 
 29 
 
 7 
 
 C. Cleaning system 
 
 20 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 D. Artificial lighting 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 II 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 E. Electric service 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 F. Water supply 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 S 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 G. Toilet facilities 
 
 50 
 
 43 
 
 39 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 H Mechanical service 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 IV Classrooms 
 
 290 
 
 250 
 
 235 
 
 133 
 
 172 
 
 216 
 
 235 
 
 200 
 
 253 
 
 138 
 
 210 
 
 22s 
 
 A. Location and connections 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 IS 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 B. Construction and finish 
 
 95 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 53 
 
 63 
 
 68 
 
 85 
 
 58 
 
 85 
 
 47 
 
 72 
 
 67 
 
 C. Illumination 
 
 85 
 
 65 
 
 78 
 
 42 
 
 55 
 
 68 
 
 65 
 
 68 
 
 73 
 
 52 
 
 68 
 
 71 
 
 D. Cloakrooms and wardrobes 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 IS 
 
 IS 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 E. Equipment 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 34 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 38 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 V Special rooms 
 
 140 
 
 105 
 
 53 
 
 37 
 
 29 
 
 39 
 
 80 
 
 47 
 
 86 
 
 25 
 
 SO 
 
 46 
 
 A. Special rooms for general use 
 
 65 
 
 50 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 35 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 
 B. Rooms for school officials 
 
 35 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 C. Other special service rooms 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 Total 
 
 1,000 
 
 770 
 
 653 
 
 436 
 
 484 
 
 534 
 
 751 
 
 556 
 
 783 
 
 334 
 
 571 
 
 553 
 
6o A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 of judges on each subdivision eliminates a single erratic score on any 
 item. This method of scoring is an acknowledgment of the fact 
 that the final rating cannot be considered as an absolute ranking, 
 but that it merely tends to locate buildings within certain groups, 
 i. e., to locate buildings in the 900-1,000 group, the 800-900 group, 
 etc. The detailed method for securing the final score on buildings 
 may be illustrated from Table XL, which gives the scores on each 
 of two buildings as reckoned by five different judges. As a rule, 
 three scores on each building will suffice for the final composite. 
 In judging the Paterson, N. J., buildings in March, 1918, five judges 
 scored each building. Each judge made his entire ratings without 
 collusion with other judges. A high coefficient of correlation, 
 + .98 by the Pearson method, was found between the ratings of the 
 buildings based on the composite scores as obtained from the first 
 three scorings made for each building and the ratings based on the 
 composite scores from the entire five scorings. 
 
 The agreement in the scores given by the five judges of Table XL 
 is quite remarkable when it is borne in mind that each total and 
 each sub-item represents the unbiased score of one individual. 
 The final medians on the main items I, II, III, IV, and V are used 
 to produce the final score on each building. The final median on 
 any main item is the total of the medians on each literal sub-item. 
 Thus erratic scores are eliminated. 
 
 Five judges, 'Hm', 'T', 'B', 'E', and 'Ha', rated each of these 
 buildings. The individual ratings given by the judges on Building 
 No. I were 436, 445, 443, 438, and 448. The composite and final 
 rating was 437. In a similar manner, the five individual ratings 
 that were recorded on Building No. 2 were 738, 735, 753, 728, 741, 
 while the composite or final score was 744- 
 
 As Dr. Strayer points out in the score card : 
 
 It will be found particularly worth while to score old buildings, in order to 
 call attention to the necesssity for reconstruction which is always to be found 
 in a city in which buildings have been in use over a considerable number of 
 years. As one studies the problem of school buildings in the United States, 
 he is impressed by the accidental or occasional repair or reconstruction which 
 is provided. A careful study and scoring of buildings will often indicate 
 common deficiencies of very great importance which should receive immedi- 
 ate attention, and others which are of relatively less significance which may 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 
 
 6i 
 
 be postponed for a time. In the same school system it may be found as well 
 that one building is so remarkably more deficient than another that it is 
 manifestly good public policy to spend whatever money is available in recon- 
 
 TABLE XL 
 Scores on Two Paterson School Buildings as Rated by Five Different 
 
 Judges 
 
 Scorer's 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Initial 
 
 Hm 
 
 T 
 
 B 
 
 E 
 
 Ha 
 
 Median 
 
 Hm 
 
 T 
 
 B 
 
 E 
 
 Ha 
 
 Median 
 
 Item I 
 
 7* 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 68 
 
 
 115 
 
 107 
 
 112 
 
 no 
 
 100 
 
 
 A 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 
 B 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 -30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 C 
 
 S 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 67 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 25 
 
 32 
 log 
 
 Item II 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 93 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 
 ISO 
 
 142 
 
 152 
 
 143 
 
 153 
 
 
 A 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 B 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 58 
 
 51 
 
 56 
 
 S3 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 C 
 
 40 
 
 38 
 
 43 
 
 38 
 
 31 
 
 38 
 go 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 74 
 
 70 
 
 74 
 
 71 
 149 
 
 Item III 
 
 86 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 93 
 
 66 
 
 
 165 
 
 174 
 
 168 
 
 175 
 
 191 
 
 
 A 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 34 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 44 
 
 52 
 
 47 
 
 SI 
 
 55 
 
 51 
 
 B 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 55 
 
 42 
 
 C 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 II 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 IS 
 
 15 
 
 D 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 IS 
 
 12 
 
 IS 
 
 E 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 5 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 II 
 
 F 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 G 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 31 
 
 40 
 
 36 
 
 26 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 H 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 78 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 178 
 
 Item IV 
 
 137 
 
 155 
 
 162 
 
 165 
 
 162 
 
 
 269 
 
 268 
 
 277 
 
 254 
 
 251 
 
 
 A 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 B 
 
 48 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 86 
 
 83 
 
 91 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 83 
 
 C 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 SI 
 
 57 
 
 SI 
 
 75 
 
 78 
 
 78 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 75 
 
 D 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 E 
 
 29 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 29 
 164 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 265 
 
 Item V 
 
 46 
 
 48 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 62 
 
 
 39 
 
 44' 
 
 44 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 
 A 
 
 16 
 
 27 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 IS 
 
 28 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 B 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 C 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 38 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 43 
 
 Totals 
 
 436 
 
 445 
 
 443 
 
 438 
 
 448 
 
 437 
 
 738 
 
 735 
 
 753 
 
 72S 
 
 741 
 
 744 
 
 Final score for first building, 437. 
 Final score for second building, 744. 
 
62 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 structing the building which scores lowest before undertaking the work which 
 may not be anything like so important in other buildings. 
 
 In the case of scoring school buildings, as with any other instrument of 
 measurement, the result should suggest problems, and in some measure indi- 
 cate the direction in which reforms are to be brought about. Any person 
 using the score card should supplement the mere scoring of the several items 
 with a report upon any notable deficiency which renders the building unfit 
 for use. It is entirely conceivable that a building on most counts might stand 
 high, but in some one particular, say, with respect to fire protection or sani- 
 tation, might rate extremely low. In this case, the notation after the build- 
 ing was scored would call attention to the fact that measures should be taken 
 immediately to remedy particular defects, in which case the building would, 
 possibly with a minimum of expense, be brought up to a very high standard 
 of excellency. 
 
 Having secured the ratings for each school building in the manner 
 indicated in the last table, it is possible that definite conclusions may 
 be drawn from them for the purpose of providing this comprehensive 
 
 TABLE XLI 
 
 General View of Deficiencies Pointed Out in Four School Systems 
 ON Nine Important Items of the Strayer Score Card 
 
 Range of percen- 
 tages of the maxi- 
 
 0-2S per cent 
 
 26-so per cent 
 
 51- 
 
 75 ter cent 
 
 6S-100 per cent 
 
 mum scores 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 possible 
 
 S. P. 
 
 0. 
 
 F. 
 
 P. 
 
 S. P. 
 
 0. 
 
 F. 
 
 p. 
 
 S. P. 
 
 0. 
 
 F. 
 
 P. 
 
 S. P. 
 
 0. 
 
 F. 
 
 P. 
 
 Gross structure 
 
 in 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 IS 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 Internal struc- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ture 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 IS 
 
 12 
 
 S 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 II 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 Heating and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ventilating 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 5 
 
 36 
 
 24 
 
 I 
 
 13 
 
 II 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 Fire protection 
 
 29 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 I 
 
 Cleaning system 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 IS 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 S 
 
 Artificial lighting 
 
 28 
 
 17 
 
 S 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 Water supply 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 
 13 
 
 22 
 
 28- 
 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 Toilet facilities 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 s 
 
 12 
 
 29 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 Large rooms for 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 general use 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 41 
 
 8 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 St. Paul, S3. Framingham, 10; Paterson, 26. 
 
 Number of buildings — Omaha, 52; 
 
 S. P. — St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 0. — Omaha, Nebr. 
 
 F. — Framingham, Mass. 
 
 P.— Paterson, N. J. 
 
 " Read: One building in St. Paul was allotted by the judges a score on gross struc- 
 ture which fell within the range 0-25 per cent of the maximum possible score on this 
 item, etc. 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant ■ 63 
 
 bird's-eye view of the good qualities and faults of the entire school 
 plant. Table XLI illustrates the tabulation that may be necessary 
 for this purpose. The first step necessary in making this tabulation 
 is the reduction to percentages of the maximum possible scores of 
 each item of the score allowed by the judges. The percentages are 
 then distributed under the ranges 0-25 per cent of efficiency, 26-50 
 per cent of efficiency, 51-75 per cent of efficiency, and 76-100 per 
 cent of efficiency. Table XLI carries such a percentile distribution 
 for four school systems and nine important items from the score 
 card. The number of buildings found to fall under the various per- 
 centile ranges is given under the name of each of the four cities. 
 
 Table XLI I repeats the preceding table except that the number of 
 buildings under each percentile range has been expressed in terms of 
 percentages of the total number of buildings studied in each system. 
 This affords a better comparison between the systems included 
 in the table. 
 
 Little difficulty is found in picking out from Tables XLI and 
 XLI I certain points of great deficiency in the school plants that 
 have been measured. The items 'fire protection', 'artificial lighting', 
 and 'water supply' seem to have fallen far below the standards set 
 up in the score card. All four school plants are apparently almost 
 entirely lacking in such large rooms as gymnasiums, auditoriums, 
 playrooms, libraries, and the like, which are very essential for the 
 development of the social nature of the child. It is clear that from 
 a very careful inspection of a table of this sort, school authorities 
 may readily pick out the deficiencies in their school plants which 
 need stressing when the question of repairs and replacements arises. 
 It would seem that the tendency of such a table would be to permit 
 of equal consideration to all phases of the building needs and to pre- 
 vent such ill-advised and unbalanced expenditures as might and do 
 occur when no systematic plan of rehabilitation of school buildings 
 is followed. 
 
 From a table giving the rankings of school buildings similar to 
 those of Table XLIII, it is also possible to offset the influences of 
 sectional politics when the razing of old buildings and the erection 
 of new structures are matters of consideration. Table XLIII 
 lists the school buildings of four cities by the final ratings given them 
 on the Strayer Score Card according to the method described above. 
 When replacements are being made it is quite obvious that the build- 
 
64 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 
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Studies Involving the School Plant 65 
 
 ings ranking low according to this impartial method of selection 
 are those which should first be supplanted. The procedure recom- 
 mended in the cases of St. Paul and Omaha was approximately the 
 rapid abandonment and replacement of the buildings below 500, 
 beginning with the lowest ratings; the adoption of a definite pro- 
 gram of modernization for the 601-900 buildings, which might be 
 expected to make all these buildings conform with reasonable degree 
 to the standards set up; provision for the more vital needs in the 
 501-600 class without the definite hope of ever making these build- 
 ings completely satisfactory but with the aim of having them at 
 least conform to the standards which involved the questions of 
 safety, sanitation, and health. 
 
 Supplementing the Score Card 
 
 In studying a school plant in order to supplement the scoring done 
 by means of the Strayer Score Card, detailed studies of the entire 
 situation in respect to playgrounds, building economy, classroom 
 lighting, special room equipment, lavatory facilities, fire protection 
 equipment, and the like, should be made. These studies may in- 
 volve comparisons with situations as found to exist in other cities, 
 as well as contrasts with the more commonly accepted standards. 
 
 The School Playgrounds 
 
 Measurement of the playgrounds provided by a school system in 
 terms of the percentages of schools and school children provided 
 with the various allotments of playground area per child has been 
 a form frequently used in surveys. The enrollment of children in 
 the schools is frequently taken as one of the factors in this compu- 
 tation. Where the future building program is being considered, it 
 seems that the pupil capacity of buildings is a more equitable basis 
 than enrollment, except in such cases where the enrollment is found 
 to exceed what should be considered to be the capacity of the plant. 
 It is reasonable to expect that any changes that are to be made in 
 playgrounds after the assembling of data should be considered from 
 the viewpoint of the total number of children who might be expected 
 at any time or other to attend the schools in question. 
 
 Table XLIV shows the situation as it has been found to exist in 
 six cities on the basis of children enrolled at the time the studies 
 were made. 
 
66 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 TABLE XLIII : The School Buildings of Four Cities Arranged According 
 TO Ratings Allotted Them on the Strayer Score Card 
 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 Omaha 
 
 Framingham 
 
 Faterson 
 
 I 
 
 Lafayette 
 
 313 
 
 H. S. of Commerce 
 
 274 
 
 Lincoln Grammar 
 
 390 
 
 No. 2 
 
 318 
 
 2 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 358 
 
 Central Benson 
 
 308 
 
 Lincoln Primary 
 
 485 
 
 No. 25 
 
 319 
 
 3 
 
 Monroe 
 
 404 
 
 Druid Hill 
 
 313 
 
 Washington Street 
 
 S03 
 
 No. 6 
 
 376 
 
 4 
 
 Adams 
 
 409 
 
 Park 
 
 334 
 
 Apple Street 
 
 503 
 
 No. 7 
 
 376 
 
 S 
 
 Jackson 
 
 427 
 
 Clifton Hill 
 
 334 
 
 Saxonville Grammai 
 
 594 
 
 No. II 
 
 391 
 
 6 
 
 Franklin 
 
 452 
 
 Dupont 
 
 343 
 
 Hollis 
 
 600 
 
 No. 8 
 
 42s 
 
 7 
 
 Webster 
 
 491 
 
 Kellom 
 
 408 
 
 Franklin 
 
 60s 
 
 No. I 
 
 437 
 
 8 
 
 Rice 
 
 Soo 
 
 Train 
 
 412 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 703 
 
 No. 13 
 
 444 
 
 9 
 
 Crowley 
 
 Soo 
 
 Sherman 
 
 413 
 
 High school 
 
 764 
 
 No. 4 
 
 450 
 
 10 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Sii 
 
 Fort 
 
 422 
 
 Maynard 
 
 876 
 
 No. 16 
 
 470 
 
 ir 
 
 Hendricks 
 
 S16 
 
 Florence 
 
 425 
 
 
 
 No. s 
 
 477 
 
 12 
 
 Irving 
 
 521 
 
 Belvidere 
 
 436 
 
 
 
 No. IS 
 
 497 
 
 13 
 
 Murray 
 
 524 
 
 Old Long 
 
 439 
 
 
 
 No. 18 
 
 519 
 
 14 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 530 
 
 Walnut Hill 
 
 454 
 
 
 
 No. 19 
 
 528 
 
 IS 
 
 Edison 
 
 531 
 
 Saratoga 
 
 470 
 
 
 
 No. 14 
 
 548 
 
 l6 
 
 McClellan 
 
 535 
 
 Brown Park 
 
 484 
 
 
 
 No. 17 
 
 552 
 
 17 
 
 Maxfield 
 
 538 
 
 Farnam 
 
 495 
 
 \ 
 
 
 No. 20 
 
 589 
 
 I8 
 
 Neill 
 
 538 
 
 Mason 
 
 505 
 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 591 
 
 19 
 
 Hancock 
 
 S4I 
 
 Lowell 
 
 514 
 
 
 
 No. 9 
 
 703 
 
 20 
 
 Drew 
 
 543 
 
 Lake 
 
 SIS 
 
 
 
 No. 23 
 
 744 
 
 21 
 
 Sibley 
 
 549 
 
 Cass 
 
 534 
 
 
 
 No. 26 H. S. 
 
 763 
 
 22 
 
 Gorman 
 
 550 
 
 Pacific 
 
 537 
 
 
 
 No. 12 
 
 775 
 
 23 
 
 Ericsson 
 
 558 
 
 Monmouth Park 
 
 539 
 
 
 
 No. 22 
 
 820 
 
 24 
 
 Madison 
 
 S63 
 
 Corrigan 
 
 552 
 
 
 
 No. 24 
 
 829 
 
 2S 
 
 Van Buren 
 
 569 
 
 Comenius 
 
 553 
 
 
 
 No. 21 
 
 847 
 
 26 
 
 Hawthorne 
 
 573 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 SS6 
 
 
 
 No. 10 
 
 919 
 
 27 
 
 Garfield 
 
 576 
 
 Central 
 
 SS6 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 Douglas 
 
 580 
 
 Webster 
 
 558 
 
 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 Davis 
 
 S82 
 
 South Lincoln 
 
 559 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 Scheffer 
 
 S82 
 
 West Side 
 
 S61 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 Longfellow 
 
 586 
 
 New Long 
 
 S6l 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 Washington 
 
 S87 
 
 Benson High 
 
 565 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 Harrison 
 
 607 
 
 Columbian 
 
 571 
 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 Deane 
 
 608 
 
 Madison 
 
 586 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 Smith 
 
 613 
 
 Highland 
 
 587 
 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 Whittier 
 
 613 
 
 South High 
 
 597 
 
 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 Sheridan 
 
 61S 
 
 Windsor 
 
 601 
 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 Grant 
 
 617 
 
 Saunders 
 
 615 
 
 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 Ramsey 
 
 627 
 
 Franklin 
 
 618 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 Tilden 
 
 627 
 
 Hawthorne 
 
 619 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 Baker 
 
 643 
 
 Central High 
 
 621 
 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 HUl 
 
 661 
 
 Garfield 
 
 628 
 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 Galtier 
 
 681 
 
 Lothrop 
 
 646 
 
 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 Phalen Park 
 
 687 
 
 Rosehill 
 
 648 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 McKinley 
 
 700 
 
 Beals 
 
 6S3 
 
 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 Mound Park 
 
 710 
 
 Jungman 
 
 655 
 
 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 Gordon 
 
 712 
 
 South Central 
 
 672 
 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 Ames 
 
 792 
 
 Miller Park 
 
 730 
 
 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 Mech.Arts.H.S.793 
 
 South Franklin 
 
 739 
 
 
 
 
 
 SO 
 
 Humboldt H.S 
 
 80s 
 
 Vinton 
 
 743 
 
 
 
 
 
 SI 
 
 Central H.S. 
 
 809 
 
 Castelar 
 
 751 
 
 
 
 
 
 S2 
 
 Johnson H.S. 
 
 811 
 
 Bancroft 
 
 770 
 
 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 Finch 
 
 927 
 
 Central Park 
 
 783 
 
 
 
 
 
 S4 
 
 
 
 Kennedy 
 
 787 
 
 
 
 
 
 SS 
 
 
 
 Rosewater 
 
 796 
 
 
 
 
 
 S6 
 
 
 Dundee 
 
 817 
 
 
 
 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 
 
 TABLE XLIV 
 The Playgrounds of Six Cities 
 
 67 
 
 Percentages of school 
 children enrolled 
 who were allotted 
 
 30 sq. ft. 
 or less 
 
 30-100 
 sq. ft. 
 
 100 sq.ft. 
 or less 
 
 100-200 
 sq.ft. 
 
 200 sq.ft. 
 or over 
 
 St. Paul, February, 191 7 " 
 
 29.1 
 
 S6.I 
 
 8S.2 
 
 9-9 
 
 4.9 
 
 Denver, 1916 '^ 
 
 
 
 82.0 
 
 12.S 
 
 S-S 
 
 Salt Lake City, June, 191 S '' 
 
 
 
 37-0 
 
 32.0 
 
 31.0 
 
 Milwaukee, March, 1916 ^ 
 
 39-3 
 
 49-7 
 
 89.0 
 
 9-5 
 
 i-S 
 
 Omaha, June, 1917 '" 
 
 9.0 
 
 49.0 
 
 ss.o 
 
 32.0 
 
 II.O 
 
 Paterson, March, 1918 " 
 
 78.8 
 
 21.2 
 
 100. 
 
 
 
 
 Lowest number of 
 
 Median number of 
 
 Highest number of 
 
 Playgrounds " 
 
 square feet 
 
 square feet 
 
 square feet 
 
 showing 
 
 per child 
 
 ■per child 
 
 per child 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 4 sq. ft. 
 
 60 sq. ft. 
 
 1,889 sq. ft. 
 
 Denver 
 
 40 sq. ft. 
 
 130 sq. ft. 
 
 1,037 sq.ft. 
 
 Salt Lake City 
 
 4.1 sq. ft. 
 
 62 sq. ft. 
 
 2,560 sq. ft. 
 
 Omaha 
 
 23 sq. ft. 
 
 97-3 sq. ft. 
 
 964 sq. ft. 
 
 Milwaukee 
 
 8 sq. ft. 
 
 38.9 sq. ft. 
 
 598 sq. ft. 
 
 Paterson 
 
 .4 sq. ft. 
 
 15.2 sq. ft. 
 
 49.4 sq. ft. 
 
 The following quotations from recent school surveys will indicate 
 the disregard for any standard in providing adequate playgrounds 
 in some of our larger cities. 
 
 Considering the fact that Denver has grown to its present size mainly 
 within the last three or four decades, it is astonishing to find such a large pro- 
 portion of cramped school grounds. In a very old city one expects to find 
 schools without adequate playgrounds. That thousands of school children 
 in Denver should be deprived of room for wholesome recreation can only 
 
 " St. Paul Survey, Commissioner of Education, St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 M Denver Survey, Board of Education, Denver, Colo. 
 
 ^^ School Organization and Administration, World Book Co., Yonkers, N. Y. 
 
 M Milwaukee Building Survey, Board of Education, Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 '=■ Omaha Building Survey, Omaha, Neb. (not published). 
 
 3' Paterson Survey, Paterson, N. J. (in press). 
 
 *' Dates as above. 
 
68 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 be explained by the short-sighted policy of her earlier school boards. — Denver 
 Survey. 
 
 Nowhere else in the school system is forethought more important than in 
 the selection of well-located and ample sites, in anticipation of future needs. 
 Blessings or tragedy hang upon the choice. Some of the cramped sites listed 
 above could not now be enlarged except at prohibitive cost. In the case of 
 others, additions are still feasible and ought to be made at the earliest possible 
 moment. — Salt Lake City Survey. ^ 
 
 The problems involved are much more difificult than appears at first 
 thought. Cleveland has shown wise generosity in purchasing large plots of 
 ground for schools even where land is very expensive. Nevertheless, the area 
 is never large enough to provide all the playground space that could be de- 
 sired and at the same time ample space for landscape gardening. The prob- 
 lems have been met by setting aside most of the space for the children's use 
 and providing a suitable surfacing for the playgrounds. — Cleveland Survey. 
 
 It is unfortunate that the school sites which have heretofore beenpur- 
 chased have been so small. — Butte Survey. 
 
 The school lots for nearly all the school buildings in the city are too small. 
 This deficiency is partly due to the fact that the regulation block of Port- 
 land is much smaller than that in most cities, and, instead of insisting on two 
 or four blocks and condemning the inclosed streets, the Board of School 
 Directors has in the past been compelled, either from lack of money or lack 
 of the support of public opinion, or both, to depend often on a single block, 
 sometimes less, for school lots. — Portland Survey. 
 
 Apparently the failure to provide adequate playgrounds seems 
 to have been a common oversight on the part of those who have 
 been entrusted with the purchase of school sites. Part of this 
 failure may be due to the great diversity in opinion regarding what 
 the minimum allowance in square feet per child should actually be. 
 It is recognized that schools administered on a work-study-play 
 program, which provides for a constant use of the playground, need 
 smaller allowances per child of enrollment, as only a proportion of 
 the children are required to be on the playground at one time. 
 
 The following are minimum allowances that have been set up by 
 students of the playground problem, or that have been accepted by 
 local authorities as desirable for their communities. 
 
 Terman: Denver Survey lOO square feet for child enrolled. 
 
 Jones: Rockford, 1915-1916 Report . loo square feet per capita. 
 
 Terman: Salt Lake City Survey . . 200 square feet for each child in 
 
 cities no more crowded than Salt 
 
 Lake City. 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 
 
 69 
 
 Strayer: Building Score Card . . 
 
 Strayer: Building Score Card . . . 
 
 Strayer: Score Card for Rural School Plant 
 Ayres: Cleveland Survey . . . 
 
 Spaulding: Minneapolis, A Million a Year 
 
 Strayer, Engelhardt, and Hart : Omaha 
 
 Survey 
 Cubberley: Portland Survey 
 
 Harbach and Hart: Milwaukee lo-year 
 building program . . 
 
 Bobbitt: Grand Rapids Survey 
 
 Schoolhouse Department, Report, 1913- 
 1914, Boston 
 
 Department of Education, Minnesota 
 
 Curtis: Reorganized School Playground, 
 United States Bureau of Education, 
 Bulletin No. 40, 1913 . . 
 
 Curtis: Reorganized School Playground, 
 United States Bureau of Education, 
 Bulletin No. 40, 1913 
 
 Toronto Playground Association . 
 
 100 square feet per child of possible 
 enrollment. 
 
 5-12 acres for high school and junior 
 high school. 
 
 3 acres. 
 
 35 to 50 square feet for each child 
 is a fair allowance. 50-60 good, 
 65 and above very good. 
 
 40-50 square feet per pupil of build- 
 ing capacity. 40 pupils to the 
 room is fair, 50-100 is good. 
 
 100 square feet per child of maxi- 
 mum enrollment. 
 
 51 square feet free space per pupil 
 insufficient. 40,000 square feet (a 
 typical Portland city block) too 
 meagre for ordinary city school 
 lot. 
 
 30 square feet insufficient but a min- 
 imum sought for 20 schools which 
 were below this amount in March, 
 1916. 
 
 100 square feet per child in average 
 daily attendance. 
 
 Approximately 30 square feet per 
 child. 
 
 50 square feet per pupil as a mini- 
 mum, 100 square feet desirable 
 (presumably of capacity enroll- 
 ment). 
 
 10 acres for a city high school. 
 
 Each school should have one block 
 of ground in most cities. (Two 
 acre blocks insufficient). 
 
 An acre for each 150 children as a 
 minimum for effective play. 
 
 Mr. Rowland Haynes, in making a recreation survey of Milwau- 
 kee, decided that 300 was the number of children who could play 
 to advantage on an acre. Thirty square feet per child, the minimum 
 set down by the English Board of Education, allows only room 
 
70 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 enough for children to stand and swing their arms about, but pupils 
 are taken to large playing fields for athletic games needing more 
 space. Mr. Haynes found that 120 children per acre can play basket- 
 ball, and that 200 per acre can play indoor baseball. Averaging 
 these as typical active games requiring a small amount of space, 
 and filling in the chinks with ring games which occupy less space, 
 the figure of 300 children per acre was reached. It was felt, however, 
 that even this figure of 300 per acre was a high saturation point 
 for play space. With more than that figure some of the children 
 must stand around, crowded out of a chance to join in the fun. 
 
 In Mind and Body of January, 1915, Mr. William A. Stecher 
 outlined the space needed for school games and the areas desirable 
 for various types of schools as indicated below: 
 
 1. Ring games (Cat and Mouse type). Circle 20 feet — for 30-40 players. 
 
 Square needed 25 x 25-625 feet; 18 square feet per player. 
 
 2. Tag-games. Field needed 35 x 40 feet — for 30-40 players. 1,400 square 
 
 feet; 40 square feet per player. 
 
 3. Play-apparatus, like Giant Strides, Swings, Ladders, Bars, etc., employ 
 
 15-20 players. These need about 700 square feet; 40 square feet per 
 player. 
 
 4. Dodge-ball. Circle 40 feet for 30-40 players. Square needed 45 x 45- 
 
 2,000 square feet; 50 square feet per player. 
 
 5. Volley-ball. Court 25 x 50 feet for 20 players. Oblong needed 30 x 55- 
 
 1,650 square feet; 80 square feet per player. 
 
 6. Captain ball. Court 30 x 60 feet for 20 players. Oblong space needed 
 
 35 X 65 feet-2,275 square feet; 113 square feet per player. 
 
 7. Playground-ball. Court 60x70 feet for 20 players. Oblong needed 
 
 65 X 75-4,900 square feet; 245 square feet per player. 
 
 8. Basketball. Court 40 x 70 feet for 10 placers. Oblong needed 55 x 75- 
 
 4,000 square feet; 400 square feet per player. 
 
 9. Football. Field 160x330 feet for 22 players. 52,800 square feet; 
 
 2,400 square feet per player. 
 10. Baseball. Field 250x250 feet for 18 players. 62,500 square feet; 
 3,472 square feet per player. 
 
 I. A recess in a primary school that brings 8 rooms of 45 pupils into the 
 yard (360 pupils). 
 
 Two- thirds of the children play, one- third stand or simply move about; 
 that is, 240 are active players and 120 are non-players. 
 
 Of the players one-third play ring-games, one-third tag-games, and one- 
 third ball games of the dodge-ball type. The play space needed for these 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 71 
 
 three types of activity would average 36 square feet per player. This would 
 mean 8,640 square feet for 240 players. 
 
 For the non-players a space 3x3 feet — 9 square feet would be needed. 
 This would mean an additional 1,080 square feet. 
 
 Total minimum unobstructed play space for 360 pupils would be 9,720 
 square feet; say, 27 square feet per primary pupil. 
 
 The space, therefore, for a primary school of 360 pupils should be no less 
 than 100 X 100 feet. If such play-space were to be used by older children 
 or by more children during the summer time, the area would be insufificient. 
 
 2. A recess in a grammar school that brings 8 rooms of 40 pupils into the 
 yard (320 pupils). 
 
 It would be assumed that as in the primary grades two-thirds play and 
 the rest walk or stand about. 
 
 If one-fourth of the players play tag-games, one-fourth use some of the 
 apparatus located in the yards, one-fourth play ball games like dodge-bail, 
 and one-fourth play ball games like volley-ball, these four types of activity 
 would average 52^^ square feet per player. If basketball were one of the 
 games, the space needed would be at least 100 square feet per player. This 
 would mean 214 grammar pupils need 11,235 square feet of play space. For 
 the non-players a space of 3 x 5-15 square feet would make an additional 
 1,590 square feet, giving a total of 12,825 square feet — 40 square feet per 
 grammar pupil. 
 
 The unobstructed play space for a school bringing 320 grammar pupils 
 into the yard to play should be no less than 100 x 130 feet. If games like 
 basketball, or modified forms of play-ground ball are to be played by part 
 of the pupils, the area should be at least 100 x 350 feet for each 320 pupils, 
 that is, no square feet per grammar pupil. 
 
 Keeping in mind the foregoing standards which have been found 
 acceptable to students of the playground problem, it does not seem 
 unreasonable to ask boards of education to adopt a policy of gradu- 
 ally increasing the allotments of playground area per child of maxi- 
 mum building capacity in elementary schools until no school has 
 less than fifty square feet per child, with the ultimate aim of pro- 
 viding one hundred square feet per child. Coupled with this pro- 
 gram should be a policy of purchasing sufficiently adequate and 
 properly located sites in newly developing sections of the city be- 
 fore the price of land has become excessive. 
 
 It is recognized that in many of our cities where the density of 
 population is relatively small, there will be comparatively little 
 difficulty in securing sufficient land to meet the minimal standards 
 
72 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 designated above. In cities with comparatively small areas and 
 relatively large density of population, the problem of meeting the 
 suggested standards becomes more difificult. The city of Paterson, 
 N. J., falls in this second group. With a population of approxi- 
 mately 125,000 people, this city covers an area of only a trifle more 
 than six square miles. Only meagre attempts were made to pro- 
 vide school sites sufficiently large to meet the playground needs 
 when additions to buildings became necessary. Even on the out- 
 skirts of the city, where unoccupied land is at present available, 
 the school buildings occupy the larger part of the school grounds. 
 Purchases of land in these latter cases to the extent of whole city 
 blocks may be made at present at fairly reasonable prices. These 
 conditions are duplicated in many other of our American cities. 
 It is safe to assume that greater and greater demand for more ade- 
 quate playground facilities will be made on boards of education as 
 years pass. 
 
 It no doubt would be a far-sighted policy on the part of school 
 boards to begin early in bringing their situations up to the pro- 
 posed standards. In making extensions to school grounds, the fol- 
 lowing elements must be considered. 
 
 1. The desirability of the use of the present grounds for school 
 purposes: environment, accessibility, present and future proximity 
 to annoyances, unsanitary or undesirable conditions. 
 
 2. The type of school building, its adaptability to future school 
 needs, the possibility of modernization, or the need for abandonment. 
 
 3. The possibility of the elimination of small buildings with 
 centralization in buildings where better facilities may be concen- 
 trated. 
 
 4. The changes in school enrollment in a building must be noted 
 as a gradual decrease may eliminate the need for extensions to 
 grounds. 
 
 5. Cooperation with other civic organizations should be estab- 
 lished whereby city playgrounds are placed in close proximity to 
 school buildings, thus preventing a duplication of playground pro- 
 visions. 
 
 6. Plans should provide for adequate playgrounds in connection 
 with all buildings. Where land costs are prohibitive, playgrounds, 
 provided even at a short distance from the schools themselves, 
 could be utilized. 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 
 
 73 
 
 7. High school playgrounds will preferably be located in immedi- 
 ate vicinity of the school building. Duplication of dressing and 
 bathing facilities will in such cases not be necessary. The probabili- 
 ties are that compulsory military drill will form a part of all future 
 high school programs. This further stresses the need for an ade- 
 quate athletic or drill field. 
 
 TABLE XLV 
 
 Land Needed to Bring All School Grounds Up to Thirty Square 
 Feet per Child Ten Years Hence in Milwaukee, Wis., 1916 '* 
 
 School 
 
 Estimated 
 
 enrollment 
 
 10 years 
 
 hence 
 
 30 sq.ft. 
 par 
 child 
 
 Present 
 area 
 
 Net amount 
 
 needed 
 to meet the 
 
 30 sq. ft. 
 
 standard 
 
 Additional 
 
 amount 
 
 needed 
 
 to meet the 
 
 SO sq. ft. 
 
 standard 
 
 Detroit 
 
 800 
 
 24,000 
 
 7.300 
 
 16,700 
 
 16,000 
 
 Ninth 
 
 1,200 
 
 36,000 
 
 16,620 
 
 19.380 
 
 24,000 
 
 Bartlett 
 
 63s 
 
 19,050 
 
 12,080 
 
 6,970_ 
 
 12,700 
 
 Eighteenth Avenue 
 
 1,200 
 
 36,000 
 
 21,680 
 
 14,320'" 
 
 24,000 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 652 
 
 19,560 
 
 12,500 
 
 7,060 
 
 13,040 
 
 Second 
 
 590 
 
 17.700 
 
 13,210 
 
 4.490 
 
 11,800 
 
 Dover 
 
 990 
 
 29,700 
 
 21,840 
 
 7,860 
 
 19,800 
 
 Twentieth Street 
 
 750 
 
 22,S00 
 
 17.300 
 
 5,200 
 
 15,000 
 
 Ring 
 
 1,090 
 
 32,700 
 
 25,000 
 
 7.700 
 
 21,800 
 
 Eighth Street 
 
 650 
 
 19.500 
 
 15.500 
 
 4,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 Island 
 
 670 
 
 20,100 
 
 16,700 
 
 3,400 
 
 13.400 
 
 Mineral 
 
 764 
 
 22,920 
 
 17.830 
 
 5.090 
 
 15,280 
 
 Brown 
 
 880 
 
 26,400 
 
 21,930 
 
 4.470 
 
 17,600 
 
 Walker 
 
 435 
 
 13.050 
 
 9.805 
 
 3.245 
 
 8,700 
 
 Prairie 
 
 700 
 
 21,000 
 
 17.050 
 
 3.950 
 
 14,000 
 
 Twenty-first Street 
 
 891 
 
 26,730 
 
 21,930 
 
 4,800 
 
 17,820 
 
 Fifth Street 
 
 76s 
 
 22,950 
 
 19,930 
 
 3.020 
 
 1S.300 
 
 Sixteenth Avenue 
 
 1,050 
 
 31.500 
 
 25.700 
 
 5,800 
 
 21,000 
 
 Windlake 
 
 900 
 
 27,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 
 18,000 
 
 Fourteenth Street 
 
 950 
 
 28,500 
 
 27,100 
 
 1,400 
 
 19,000 
 
 Totals 
 
 16,562 
 
 406,860 
 
 369,005 
 
 128,855 
 
 330,240 
 
 Total number needed for 50 sq. ft. standard — 459.095 sq. ft. 
 38 Survey of Milwaukee School Buildings and Sites, 1916. 
 
74 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 In presenting the needs for additional playground areas in 
 Milwaukee in 1916, the survey committee utilized the very accepta- 
 ble tabulation of Table XLV in showing the amounts of land 
 needed to bring some particularly inadequate playgrounds up to 
 the standard of thirty as well as fifty square feet per pupil of the 
 estimated enrollment for ten years hence. 
 
 Economy in School Building Planning 
 
 In the formation of judgments regarding the efficiency of a 
 school plant, the elements of economy of planning and the percentile 
 allotments of space for the various educational activities should be 
 given great consideration. The Committee on Standardization of 
 School Buildings of the Department of Educational Administration 
 of the N. E. A. has determined for fifty-four school buildings the 
 percentages of floor areas that have been devoted to the various 
 purposes for which space is provided in school buildings. The per- 
 centages under the five major purposes, administration, instruction, 
 social activities, general use, and construction, as distributed for 
 twenty elementary schools, twenty-one high schools, four technical 
 high schools, and nine junior high schools, are shown in Table 
 XLVI. These buildings are representative of types that are being 
 constructed in various parts of the United States. They represent 
 the plans of various architects. 
 
 The wide variations in the percentages of space found to have 
 been devoted to each of these major purposes indicate the need for 
 the full consideration of such percentages in the measurement of a 
 school plant as well as in the planning of new structures. The mid- 
 dle fifty per cent for each item may be considered a fair range for 
 purposes of comparison. That high percentages of space are desira- 
 ble for instructional and social activities, low percentages for 
 construction, and reasonable percentages for administration and gen- 
 eral purposes, will be admitted. 
 
 Table XLVI I shows a distribution of the percentages of floor 
 area in each set of schools mentioned on the basis of educational 
 and social activities combined. Such a wide range as is shown in 
 the grade school column, where are found 82.5 per cent at one ex- 
 treme, and 32.5 per cent at the other extreme of the distribution, in- 
 dicates the need for a careful consideration of the complete ultimate 
 utilization of a building before building plans are approved. 
 
Sttidies Invohingthe School Plant 75 
 
 TABLE XLVI 
 Percentages of Entire Floor Areas Devoted to Various Purposes 
 
 In twenty elementary, twenty-one high, four technical high, and nine junior 
 
 high schools 
 
 Grade sclwols 
 
 Academic high schools 
 
 Admin- 
 istration 
 
 Instruc- 
 tion 
 
 Social 
 activi- 
 ties 
 
 General 
 
 Con- 
 struc- 
 tion 
 
 AdTnin- 
 istra- 
 tion 
 
 Instruc- 
 tion 
 
 Social 
 activi- 
 ties 
 
 General 
 
 Con- 
 struc- 
 tion 
 
 36.-65 
 
 54-17 
 
 24-53 
 
 43-03 
 
 12.58 
 
 17-935 
 
 48.18 
 
 30.69 
 
 29.76 
 
 13.40 
 
 22.60 
 
 49.70 
 
 23.06 
 
 27.70 
 
 12.58 
 
 17.66 
 
 47.907 
 
 27.723 
 
 26.82 
 
 12.37 
 
 20:65 
 
 49.67 
 
 22.21 
 
 27-437 
 
 12.093 
 
 17.64 
 
 44.07 
 
 27.07 
 
 25-37 
 
 12.10 
 
 20.43 
 
 48.29 
 
 21.00 
 
 26.663 
 
 11-57 
 
 16.64 
 
 42.50 
 
 25-45 
 
 24-99 
 
 10.93 
 
 20.21 
 
 47.16 
 
 19-57 
 
 24.01 
 
 11.18 
 
 16.34 
 
 41.964 
 
 24.88 
 
 24.29 
 
 10.91 
 
 19-77 
 
 44.60 
 
 19.49 
 
 23.69 
 
 10.97 
 
 16.01 
 
 40.667 
 
 23-88 
 
 24.08 
 
 10.821 
 
 1945 
 
 44.60 
 
 18.16 
 
 22.36 
 
 10.83 
 
 15-67 
 
 39-88 
 
 23.42 
 
 24.06 
 
 10.70 
 
 18.43 
 
 44-43 
 
 14.809 
 
 22.34 
 
 10.71 
 
 15-58 
 
 35-52 
 
 22.25 
 
 23.96 
 
 10.69 
 
 17.68 
 
 42.97 
 
 14.44 
 
 22.16 
 
 10.27 
 
 15-48 
 
 34-98 
 
 22.14 
 
 23.64 
 
 10-55 
 
 17.66 
 
 40-57 
 
 13-86 
 
 21.13 
 
 10.26 
 
 13-75 
 
 34-52 
 
 20.13 
 
 22.288 
 
 10.44 
 
 16.84" 
 
 '40.48 
 
 13-45 
 
 20.80 
 
 10.09 
 
 ,13-24 
 
 34.08 
 
 19.097 
 
 21.74 
 
 10.22 
 
 15.64 
 
 38.34 
 
 12.37 
 
 19.77 
 
 9.08 
 
 12.99 
 
 33-34 
 
 18.43 
 
 21.441 
 
 10.15 
 
 I5-37 
 
 38.305 
 
 11.97 
 
 18.83 
 
 8.30 
 
 12.63 
 
 32.84 
 
 18.25 
 
 20.51 
 
 9-83 
 
 13^86 
 
 37-702 
 
 9463 
 
 16.53 
 
 8.07 
 
 12.17 
 
 31-98 
 
 17-75 
 
 19.61 
 
 9-75 
 
 13-045 
 
 37-31 
 
 6.46 
 
 16.50 
 
 8.07 
 
 11.79 
 
 31.119 
 
 17.61 
 
 19-34 
 
 958 
 
 12:82 
 
 36-65 
 
 6-33 
 
 13-67 
 
 7-776 
 
 11.449 
 
 30.58 
 
 16.61 
 
 18.315 
 
 8.89 
 
 12.67 
 
 36-40 
 
 5-64 
 
 11.66 
 
 7-44 
 
 10.87 
 
 30-33 
 
 14.14 
 
 18.30 
 
 8.67 
 
 10.75 
 
 33-48 
 
 
 11.16 
 
 7.42 
 
 10.67 
 
 29.70 
 
 13-73 
 
 18.00 
 
 8.59 
 
 10.39 
 
 27.77 
 
 
 10-33 
 
 7-36 
 
 9.50 
 
 28.37 
 
 13.608 
 
 17.604 
 
 8. 161 
 
 9.41 
 
 26.09 
 
 
 10.13 
 
 5-69 
 
 9-37 
 
 27.64 
 
 9.42 
 
 17.19 
 
 7-44 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7.216 
 
 25-57 
 
 .46 
 
 14.14 
 
 7.04 
 
 17.25'^ 
 
 40-525 
 
 13-652 
 
 20.065 
 
 10.175 
 
 13-745 
 
 34.30 
 
 19.613 
 
 22.014 
 
 10.33 
 
 10.00*0 
 
 46.52 
 
 45-88 
 
 23-85 
 
 11.075 
 
 16.007 
 
 40.70 
 
 24-197 
 
 24.008 
 
 10.786 
 
 12.032*^ 
 
 36.080 
 
 6.362 
 
 15.085 
 
 7-923 
 
 11-275 
 
 30.512 
 
 16.076 
 
 18.437 
 
 0.121 
 
 " Median. 
 
 "' Seventy-five percentile. 
 
 " Twenty-five percentile. 
 
 Note. Under Administration are included offices, faculty rooms, janitor's quarters, 
 clinics, wardrobes, storage, toilets, boiler, coal and fan rooms, and elevators. 
 
 Under Instruction are included classrooms, laboratories, manual training and 
 domestic science rooms, music and art studios, study halls, shops, and libraries. 
 
 Under Social Activities are included assembly halls, gymnasium, recreation rooms 
 and lunchrooms. 
 
 Under General Purposes are classified stairways, corridors, flues, vestibules, and 
 dead space. 
 
 Under Construction are included interior and exterior walls. 
 
76 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 TABLE XLVl— (Continued) 
 
 Technical high schools 
 
 Junior high schools 
 
 Admin- 
 istration 
 
 Instruc- 
 tion 
 
 Social 
 activi- 
 ties 
 
 General 
 
 Con- 
 struc- 
 tion 
 
 Admin- 
 istra- 
 tion 
 
 Instruc- 
 tion 
 
 Social 
 activi- 
 ties 
 
 General 
 
 Con- 
 struc- 
 tion 
 
 24.82 
 
 43-94 
 
 22.13 
 
 24.20 
 
 14.14 
 
 21.78 
 
 44.91 
 
 27.61 
 
 27.72 
 
 12.92 
 
 19.41 
 
 37-73 
 
 20.357 
 
 23-453 
 
 11.06 
 
 18.25 
 
 43-75 
 
 20.11 
 
 21-55 
 
 10.95 
 
 12.083 
 
 35-109 
 
 20.11 
 
 17.10 
 
 9.62 
 
 17-74 
 
 43-37 
 
 18.52 
 
 21.25 
 
 9-35 
 
 7.69 
 
 34-92 
 
 17.48 
 
 15.81 
 
 9-57 
 
 16.32 
 
 42.88 
 
 18.01 
 
 20.88 
 
 8.69 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 153^ 
 
 41. II 
 
 15.84 
 
 20.56^ 
 
 -J5;2I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15-35 
 
 40.29' 
 
 14.82 
 
 20.24 
 
 7^79 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11-25 
 
 36.52 
 
 12.97 
 
 19-73 
 
 6.94 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10.86 
 
 32-59 
 
 11-95 
 
 14.42 
 
 6.71 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9-95 
 
 32.11 
 
 8.07 
 
 13-85 
 
 6.68 
 
 15-746'^ 
 
 36.419 
 
 20.233 
 
 20.276 
 
 10.34 
 
 15-56 
 
 41.11 
 
 15.84 
 
 20.56 
 
 8.21 
 
 22.1 IS *^ 
 
 40.835 
 
 21.243 
 
 23.826 
 
 12.60 
 
 17-753 
 
 43-451 
 
 18.80 
 
 21.06 
 
 9-585 
 
 Q.886» 
 
 35-014 
 
 18.795 
 
 16.455 
 
 9-595 
 
 11.616 
 
 35-517 
 
 12.818 
 
 17.03 
 
 6.96 
 
 « Median. 
 
 *' Seventy-five percentile. 
 
 " Twenty-five percentile. 
 
 Note. Under administration are included offices, faculty rooms, janitor's quarters 
 clinics, wardrobes, storage, toilets, boiler, coal and fan rooms, and elevators. 
 
 Under Instruction are included classrooms, laboratories, manual training and 
 domestic science rooms, music and art studios, study halls, shops, and libraries. 
 
 Under Social Activities are included assembly halls, gymnasium, recreation rooms, 
 and lunchrooms. 
 
 Under General Purposes are classified stairways, corridors, flues, vestibules, and 
 dead space. 
 
 Under Construction are included interior and exterior walls. 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 77 
 
 TABLE XLVII 
 
 Percentages of Entire Floor Areas in Fifty-four School Buildings 
 Devoted to Instructional and Social Activities Combined 
 
 Grade 
 
 High 
 
 Technical 
 
 Junior 
 
 Schools 
 
 Schools 
 
 H.S. 
 
 H.S. 
 
 82.511 
 
 67-95 
 
 64.05 
 
 61.89 
 
 66.64 
 
 67.104 
 
 57.05 
 
 61.76 
 
 65-31 
 
 58.842 
 
 55.466 
 
 60.20 
 
 61.57 
 
 58.33 
 
 55.21 
 
 56.63 
 
 58.43 
 
 57.80 
 
 
 55.11 
 
 58.05 
 
 57-49 
 
 
 54.83 
 
 57-81 
 
 56.77 
 
 
 54.08 
 
 56-97 
 
 56.71 
 
 
 52.98 
 
 55-97 
 
 55-86 
 
 
 47.95 
 
 55-94 
 
 54-275 
 
 
 
 55-83 
 
 54-00 
 
 
 
 54-17 
 
 53-27 
 
 
 
 51-75 
 
 53-25 
 
 
 
 50-83 
 
 52.97 
 
 
 
 49.70 
 
 51-59 
 
 
 
 48.62 
 
 51-59 
 
 
 
 48.29 
 
 51.384 
 
 
 
 47-768 
 
 48.76 
 
 
 
 46.12 
 
 48.64 
 
 
 
 32.55 
 
 48.22 
 47.71 
 
 
 
 Median 55-S8S 
 
 S4-00 
 
 56-258 
 
 55.11 
 
 7S percentile sS.24 
 
 57-725 
 
 60.55 
 
 57.522 
 
 25 percentile 49.16 
 
 51-435 
 
 55-338 
 
 53-255 
 
 Full consideration given the question of economy of school 
 planning should prevent much useless expenditure for fuel, mainte- 
 nance, and janitorial service. With constantly increasing school 
 costs, such savings are of the utmost importance. That extremely 
 wide variations in such costs may be found in school systems is 
 amply illustrated from the situation found to exist in the schools of 
 St. Paul in 1913-1916.*^ The ranges, both on the basis of each pupil 
 in average daily attendance and of each i ,000 cubic feet of classroom 
 space, as given in Table XLVIII, indicate disparities within a 
 school system, the avoidance of which is desirable in future con- 
 struction. 
 
 ^' St. Paul Survey, 1917. PP- i27Jf. 
 
78 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 TABLE XLVIII 
 Cost of Fuel in St. Paul, Minn., Average for the Four Years, 1913-1916 
 
 Per pupil in average 
 
 Per 1000 cubic feet 
 
 daily attendance 
 
 classroom space 
 
 Average per 
 
 Number of 
 
 Average per 
 
 Number of 
 
 building 
 
 buildings 
 
 building 
 
 buildings 
 
 I0.73-I0.99 
 
 4 
 
 $3.oo-$3.99 
 
 6 
 
 1. 00- 1.24 
 
 IS 
 
 4.00- 4.99 
 
 18 
 
 1. 25- 1.49 
 
 II 
 
 5.00- S.99 
 
 7 
 
 1.50- 1.74 
 
 6 
 
 6.00- 6.99 
 
 6 
 
 I -75- 1-99 
 
 S 
 
 7.00- 7.99 
 
 5 
 
 2.00- 2.24 
 
 I 
 
 8.00- 8.99 
 
 2 
 
 2.2s- 2.49 
 
 I 
 
 9.00- 9.99 
 
 3 
 
 2.50- 2.74 
 
 3 
 
 10.00 and over 
 
 4 
 
 2.75- 2.99 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 Over 3.00 
 
 4 
 
 Total 
 
 SI 
 
 Total 
 
 51 
 
 
 
 The Measurement of Classroom Facilities 
 
 When one considers the extreme importance to the child of class- 
 rooms that are properly lighted, of such a size as to give the child 
 the maximum of opportunity for profiting from his school work, 
 and so equipped as to eliminate all obstacles to this same end, the 
 persistence of boards of education in building and equipping class- 
 rooms which fail to conform with accepted standards, and the 
 omission of any program for modernization of especially defective 
 classrooms, appear criminal. Among students of educational 
 needs considerable unanimity of opinion prevails concerning the 
 desirable dimensions, lighting, and equipment of elementary class- 
 rooms. The degree of agreement on the size of elementary class- 
 rooms is evident in Table XLIX. 
 
 The situation in respect to the minimum per pupil allowance in 
 floor area and air space, as it appears on the statute books of several 
 states, is shown in Table L. 
 
 From the above proposed standards it may be seen that the 
 acceptable classroom may vary in its dimensions from 23 x 28 to 
 24 X 32 feet, with a height of 12 to 12K feet. Such a room should 
 accommodate not more than 40 children. The situations found to 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 
 
 TABLE XLIX 
 
 Dimensions of Elementary Classrooms Acceptable to Various 
 Authorities 
 
 79 
 
 Authority 
 
 Width 
 feel 
 
 Length 
 feet 
 
 Height 
 feet 
 
 Portland, Oregon, Survey 
 
 23 or 24 
 
 30 
 
 Not more than 12 K 
 
 Butte, Montana, Survey 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 Not more than 12 to 13 
 
 Salt Lake City, Survey 
 
 
 
 
 Best 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 Permissible 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 13 
 
 St. Paul, Minnesota, Survey 
 
 
 
 
 Minimum 
 
 23 
 
 28 
 
 12 
 
 Maximum 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 12 
 
 Dresslar's American Schoolhouses 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 12;^ 
 
 North Dakota state law 
 
 
 
 12 at least 
 
 New Jersey state law 
 
 
 
 12 at least 
 
 Ohio state law 
 
 
 
 At least yi width of 
 room 
 
 TABLE L 
 
 Minimal per Pupil Allowance in Floor Area and Air Space 
 Permitted Under Various State Laws *' 
 
 State laws of 
 
 Minimum number of 
 
 Minimum number of 
 
 square feet per pupil 
 
 cubic feet per pupil 
 
 Indiana 
 
 
 225 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 18 
 
 216 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 18 
 
 200 
 
 New York 
 
 15 
 
 200 
 
 Primary 
 
 16 
 
 200 
 
 OhioS Grammar 
 
 18 
 
 225 
 
 High School 
 
 20 
 
 250 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 15 
 
 200 
 
 Utah 
 
 15 
 
 200 
 
 Virginia 
 
 15 
 
 200 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 
 200 
 
 " Compiled from Bulletin No. 47, 191S, United States Bureau of Education. 
 
8o 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 exist in respect to elementary classroom areas and cubitures in three 
 typical cities clearly point out the great possibilities of waste in 
 child and teacher energy as well as in money costs. In St. Paul, 
 the twenty classrooms of one school building have cubitures of 
 20,000 cubic feet, when the desirable maximum is less than 10,000. 
 In Omaha ten classrooms have less than 550 square feet of floor 
 area available for forty children, while the desirable minimum is 
 616. These are situations that can be duplicated frequently. If 
 the standard number of square feet per elementary classrooms were 
 to be considered as ranging from 616 to 768 square feet and the 
 standard range of cubiture were to be considered as ranging from 
 7,392 to 9,984 cubic feet, the three cities, St. Paul, Omaha, and 
 Paterson would rank as follows : 
 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 Omaha 
 
 Paterson 
 
 Number of square feet in the median-sized 
 
 
 
 
 classroom 
 
 840 
 
 897 
 
 702 
 
 Percentage of rooms below standard in floor area 
 
 2-5 
 
 3-4 
 
 39-5 
 
 Percentage of rooms at standard in floor area 
 
 27.0 
 
 37-6 
 
 49.0 
 
 Percentage of rooms above standard in floor area 
 
 70.4 
 
 590 
 
 II. 6 
 
 Number of cubic feet in median classroom 
 
 10,700 
 
 9,521 
 
 8,448 
 
 Percentage of rooms below standard in air space 
 
 1 .2 
 
 4.2 
 
 36.8 
 
 Percentage of rooms at standard in air space 
 
 27.4 
 
 70.1 
 
 55-9 
 
 Percentage of rooms above standard in air space 
 
 71.2 
 
 26.1 
 
 7-3 
 
 Number of elementary classrooms in this distribu- 
 
 
 
 
 tion 
 
 489 
 
 625 
 
 481 
 
 The Lighting of Classrooms 
 
 The necessity foi' the modernization of old school buildings is 
 often easily proved by the great defects in the natural lighting 
 system of the classrooms. Various states have already established 
 standards in the ratio between window and floor areas in class- 
 rooms and in other lighting factors. This ratio varies from i to 7 
 in Louisiana to i to 4 in Virginia. Five of the eight states which 
 have written a ratio into their laws have selected the i to 5 standard. 
 Five of seven states still permit by law the construction of class- 
 rooms lighted on two sides. The faults of bilateral lighting are so 
 evident that no defense of unilateral lighting seems necessary here. 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 8i 
 
 Tables containing such data for each building in the school sys- 
 tem, as the highest ratio between window and floor area in any 
 room, the median ratio in the building, and the lowest ratio in any 
 room, will point out buildings which are most defective in respect 
 to the amount of light provided for children. Such tables may well 
 be supplemented with photometric readings of the amounts of light 
 available from day to day on various desks in each classroom. The 
 percentage of elementary classrooms in five large school systems 
 having less than the 20 per cent ratio of window area to floor space 
 is as follows: St. Paul 67.2 per cent, Omaha 47.1 per cent, Paterson, 
 64.8 per cent, Salt Lake City 52 per cent, and Denver 96.7 per cent. 
 
 The program for modernization of a school plant may, with 
 a not overburdening expenditure, include such minor changes in the 
 lighting of classrooms as will prevent glare on blackboards and the 
 necessity for children looking constantly into strong sky light. The 
 aim of every board of education and superintendent of schools 
 should be the gradual elimination of all lighting except from the 
 left and in conformance with the standards set up in the Strayer 
 Building Score Card. To-day large school plants may be found 
 where even as few as 25 to 30 per cent of all elementary classrooms 
 are lighted from the left only. Only 31 per cent of Omaha's 623 
 elementary rooms were so lighted in June, 1917. Classrooms had 
 even been added to this school system during the year 1916-1917 
 which were being lighted largely from the rear of the pupils and only 
 partially from the left. 
 
 Drinking, Washing, and Toilet Facilities for Children in 
 an Elementary School Plant 
 
 Since the advent of the sanitary drinking fountain, the standard 
 installation suggested for an elementary school building has been 
 one fountain for every seventy-five children of possible building 
 enrollment. Other factors affecting this standard have been : height 
 for each fountain adjusted to size of child utilizing it; the selection 
 of a fountain which does not permit of contact between the metal 
 and the child's lips; the placement of fountains where they are most 
 accessible ; the elimination of all fountains from toilet rooms. 
 
 School systems are failing to accept even this lenient standard for 
 drinking fountains. A comparison of the drinking facilities pro- 
 vided in the schools of five large cities points out the great variation 
 
82 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 in practice. The percentage of buildings below the standard of one 
 fountain for every seventy-five children was, at the time the sur- 
 veys were made, for St. Paul sixty-seven per cent, Denver thirty- 
 one per cent, Omaha twenty-eight per cent. Any program for 
 rehabilitation of old buildings should include the acceptance of the 
 standards given above and a rigid adherence to them. The demand 
 for the elimination of fountains from toilet rooms and their place- 
 ment where they are accessible to children when they wish to drink, 
 is based on principles too evident to require restatement. School 
 systems still exist in the United States where no drinking facilities 
 are provided children except in dark, unsanitary, foul-smelling toilet 
 rooms. 
 
 The building program of a board of education which fails to 
 include proper consideration for bathing and washing facilities in 
 old, poorly equipped buildings, as well as in buildings under con- 
 struction, is ostensibly antagonistic to any program of medical 
 inspection or insistence upon child welfare for the promotion of 
 which this board of education is no doubt paying trained physi- 
 cians and nurses. 
 
 It is surprising to find in such school systems as Omaha, Neb., 
 and Paterson, N. J., that no provision is made for hundreds of 
 children for washing their hands during the hours they spend at 
 school. It would seem that money spent for one wash bowl for 
 every loo children would not be classified as an extravagant expendi- 
 ture, since it is a matter of common knowledge among physicians 
 that failure to wash the hands at obviously necessary times results 
 in infection and the carrying of disease. The situation in regard to 
 washing facilities as it exists in these two cities may be reduced to 
 these simple terms. In Omaha i,o8o children and in Paterson 320 
 children are provided with no washing facilities. Here is the per- 
 centage of children who share washbowls at school with 
 
 Omaha 
 Paterson 
 
 100 more 
 children 
 
 47- % 
 86.6 
 
 More than 
 ISO children 
 
 25. % 
 71.8 
 
 With 200 or 
 more children 
 
 8.2% 
 57-3 
 
 With 300 or 
 more children 
 
 35-9% 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 83 
 
 Facilities for bathing that are provided in large school systems, 
 expressed in terms similar to those giving the situation in respect 
 to washing facilities, would appear ridiculous. Such facilities 
 are lacking in large degree in most school systems. Where members 
 of boards of education are reluctant to include shower bath facilities 
 in their school building programs, it may be illuminating to institute 
 a social survey for the purpose of discovering the opportunities 
 for bathing offered many of our school children in our densely popu- 
 lated sections both during the winter and summer. 
 
 Any measurement of a school building plant will include a sur- 
 vey of the toilet accommodations provided in the schools. The 
 adequacy of such provisions may easily be reduced to a numerical 
 basis, but unfortunately the problem of sanitation is not as easily 
 presented. Any study of the deficiencies in toilet accommodations 
 in school systems will be followed by a program of additions to 
 facilities provided, as well as modernization of fixtures and further 
 rehabilitation to conform at least to the minimum standards. Few 
 of the school surveys that have been made in the past few years 
 have reported finding toilet provisions which were in moderate 
 degree acceptable. 
 
 From a study of the conditions in the Omaha schools in 1917 
 it was evident that forty-five per cent of all buildings needed addi- 
 tions to their toilet accommodations for boys; that twenty-eight 
 per cent required additional accommodations in the girls' sanitaries ; 
 that approximately 100 per cent of all the buildings needed better 
 lighting provisions, both natural and artificial, for their toilet rooms. 
 A program of betterment covering a period of five to ten years 
 should in such cases as this be inaugurated with the purpose of 
 having ultimately a hundred per cent score. 
 
 Protection Against Fire and Fire Hazards 
 From Table XLII the reader is able to ascertain the percentage 
 of buildings in four school systems that were seriously lacking in 
 fire protection facilities and in fireproofness. That only within a 
 comparatively short period has fireproof construction been given 
 consideration in the erection of school buildings is evident from the 
 studies that have been made of the school plants of many of our 
 large cities. All of these studies emphasize in more or less degree 
 
 The lack of fire-escapes and fireproofed stairwells; 
 
84 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 The failure to provide wire glass for windows abutting upon fire-escapes; 
 
 The presence of combustible materials under wooden stairways; 
 
 The absence of fire doors and partitions at danger points; 
 
 The absence of extinguishers and other fire apparatus; 
 
 The failure to recharge extinguishers according to directions; 
 
 The absence of exit lights and signs ; 
 
 The unprotected nature of ceilings and walls in boiler-rooms; 
 
 and many other serious deficiencies that should be cared for through 
 a definite and continuous program for the removal of fire hazards. 
 One of the most comprehensive programs possible for the removal 
 of fire hazards is the one laid down by Superintendent Spaulding, 
 of Minneapolis, in 191 6. His program listed thirty-six items of 
 major importance from additional fire extinguisher apparatus to 
 metal self-closing waste cans. A school executive may well follow 
 the example set by Superintendent Spaulding in ferreting out the 
 danger points in his schools and recommending to his board and 
 community action for their removal or diminution. Spaulding's 
 thirty-six items for protection were: Separating fuel rooms from 
 boiler rooms; fireproofing boiler room ceilings; fireproof boiler 
 room doors; wire glass in boiler room windows; metal window 
 frames; iron ladders in boiler rooms; iron scaffolds to reach boiler 
 valves; fireproof stairs in boiler rooms; removing woodwork from 
 boiler rooms; patching holes in boiler room walls and ceiling; iron 
 ash platforms in boiler rooms; remodeling heating plant; outside 
 exit from boiler rooms ; fireproofing space under stairways ; improv- 
 ing present fire-escapes ; fire walls or curtains between old and new 
 parts of buildings; improving fire alarm system; eliminating de- 
 fects in electrical systems ; repairing or removing gas equipment and 
 extending electric lighting; installing red exit lights and signs in 
 gymnasium-assembly rooms; fire extinguisher equipment; gas shut- 
 off valves; extension of gas stove vents through roof; widening 
 and otherwise improving stairways and additional stairways; 
 replacing wood partitions between classrooms and corridors with 
 fireproof material; protecting wood from steam pipes; repairing 
 and fireproofing foul air duct; changing and adding doors other 
 than those in boiler and engine rooms; alterations and repairs of 
 motion picture booth; metal lining for dry kiln and fireproofing 
 dry heat boxes in high schools; self-closing metal waste cans; 
 metal sawdust boxes; metal-covered shelves in manual training 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 85 
 
 rooms ; oil containers for engine rooms ; equipping wood shop 
 with dust collectors ; installing a sprinkler system in the basements 
 of sixty-three non-fireproof buildings, as a protection to life and 
 property, mainly the latter, at an average cost of $2,500 per building. 
 
 A summary of the provisions against fire dangers as found in the 
 Omaha schools in June, 1917, is indicative of what may be found 
 in many other school systems. 
 
 In Omaha, of the possible sixty-five points to which a perfect 
 building is entitled on the Strayer Building Score Card under the 
 item of fire protection, only thirteen per cent of the elementary 
 buildings were allotted thirty-three points or more. Eighty-seven 
 per cent of the buildings secured less than fifty per cent of the 
 possible score. Only thirty fire extinguishers were installed in the 
 fifty-five elementary schools. This is less than one extinguisher 
 to a school. It is considerably less than the standard of one ex- 
 tinguisher to each 5,000 square feet of floor area. Most of these 
 extinguishers are of the type that require recharging annually. 
 Twenty were found which had not been recharged since 1912. 
 Four had been recharged since December, 191 5, while two were 
 recharged shortly after the visit of the committee. Some ex- 
 tinguishers did not bear the necessary tag. One janitor gave as 
 his reason for failure to recharge his extinguisher that he had asked 
 for the chemicals but could not get them from the supply office. 
 
 Standpipes and fire hose, in a few instances garden hose, were 
 provided in nineteen elementary schools. Twenty-one buildings 
 had neither fire hose nor extinguisher. These same buildings were 
 in most cases not fireproof; their boiler-rooms were not surrounded 
 by fire-proof partitions; fire escapes were lacking. 
 
 Of the fifty two-story or more elementary school buildings in use 
 in 1917, eight were equipped with fire-escapes. These eight build- 
 ings had eighteen fire-escapes, of which four on the old Clifton Hill 
 School were made entirely of wood. Twelve of the remaining thir- 
 teen fire-escapes might easily have been rendered useless because 
 all the windows facing upon them or underneath them were fitted 
 with plain glass, which offers no resistance to fire. 
 
 Many of the facts quoted concerning the Omaha schools will 
 on investigation be found to be equally true of other school sys- 
 tems. They determine the value of adoption in the school build- 
 ing program of a fixed policy for guarding against fire dangers. 
 
86 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 The Measurement of Special Room Provision 
 
 The percentile distribution of buildings according to the per- 
 centage of all possible points allotted to each building for special 
 rooms and special room equipment, as given in Table XLII, 
 affords one means of measurement of the opportunities offered 
 children outside of the regular classrooms. All four cities in- 
 cluded in the table stand out as woefully lacking in the special 
 rooms that may be considered to-day essential in a modern school 
 building. 
 
 From Table XXXVI it appears that the tendency has prevailed 
 in the past to provide special room facilities in the larger buildings 
 only. With only 214 special rooms listed for the 221 buildings of 
 this table, it is evident that the average per building is exceedingly 
 low. Of these 214 special rooms, thirty-four per cent were devoted 
 to manual training, eighteen per cent to domestic science, five per 
 cent were gymnasiums, eighteen per cent were auditoriums, nine 
 per cent were playrooms, five per cent were lunchrooms, and nine 
 per cent were libraries. 
 
 The Report on the Boston Public Schools ^' lists the special room 
 equipment of fifty-six school buildings divided as follows among 
 five large cities — Boston, nineteen; Cleveland, eleven; Detroit, 
 ten; Newark, nine; St. Louis, seven. As special rooms were in- 
 cluded only those that possessed "a direct educational value for the 
 children," while those were omitted "which are necessary for 
 administrative purposes but which must be included in every 
 modern school building." 
 
 The frequency of the occurrence of each type of special room 
 mentioned in these lists, as arranged in Table LI, will tend to 
 show on what elements of special room equipment emphasis has 
 been placed in these five large cities. Ninety-three per cent of 
 these buildings were erected in the period 1910-1915. 
 
 If the situation in these fifty-six school buildings may be accepted 
 as partially indicative of the tendency* in school building construc- 
 tion during this period of 1910-1915, it is clear that playrooms, 
 auditoriums, teachers' rooms, manual training rooms and domestic 
 science or cooking rooms, are the special room equipment that 
 have been given greatest stress. Rest rooms, dispensaries or 
 
 *' City Document No. 87, 1916. 
 
Studies Involving the School Plant 
 
 87 
 
 TABLE LI 
 
 Frequency of the Occurrence of Various Types of Special Rooms 
 
 IN Fifty-six School Buildings of Five Large Cities 
 
 
 City and number of buildings 
 
 TYPE OF special ROOMS 
 
 Boston 
 
 Cleve- 
 land 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Newark 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 Total 
 
 
 19 
 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 56 
 
 . Auditorium or assembly hall 
 
 10 
 
 ID 
 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 34 
 
 Domestic science or cooking 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 room 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 
 I 
 
 27 
 
 Dispensary or clinic 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 Elevator 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Filter room 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Handball court 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Housekeeping suite 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Doctor's room and waiting 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 room 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 8 
 
 ' 'Gymnasium 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 S 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 Kitchenette 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Kitchens 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Dining room 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 /Library 
 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 
 16 
 
 b^anual training 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 
 I 
 
 28 
 
 Nurses' room 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 % Playrooms 
 
 17 
 
 S 
 
 10 
 
 
 6 
 
 68 
 
 ,Open-air cot rooms 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 .Natatorium 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Physical instructor 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 Medical inspection and rest 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 room 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 Kindergarten 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 • 
 
 5 
 
 Medical inspection 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Rest rooms 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 6 
 
 
 I 
 
 19 
 
 Room for blind 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 *^Sewing room 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Lunch room 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Recitation 
 
 
 
 ID 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Cot rooms 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Sun room 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Teacher room or rooms 
 
 18 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 Teacher lunch 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 ^'Shower and locker rooms 
 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 Waiting room 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Unassigned 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Warming room 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
88 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 clinics, nurses' rooms, libraries, and shower and locker rooms, are 
 next in the order of emphasis. The Boston Report shows the varia- 
 tion in special rooms for each twenty regular classrooms in each 
 of the five cities. The number varies from 4.7 in Newark to 13.5 
 in Cleveland. 
 
PART III 
 FINANCING A BUILDING PROGRAM 
 
 I. THE ABILITY TO PAY FOR THE NECESSARY ADDITIONS 
 TO A SCHOOL BUILDING PLANT 
 
 In the determination of the abihty of a community to pay for 
 necessary extensions to a school building plant, such elements as 
 the actual per capita wealth, per capita net debt, tax rate per Ji,ooo 
 of actual valuation, actual wealth per child in average daily atten- 
 dance, the cost of maintenance of the schools on various bases, the 
 expenditures for school outlays over a period of years, and the pro- 
 portion of municipal expenditures devoted to educational pur- 
 poses, form the basis for any conclusions. 
 
 Where considerations involving the expenditures of moneys for 
 school building extensions arise, intelligent action requires that 
 such essential facts should be available as the amount of taxable 
 wealth expressed in terms of a single inhabitant, in terms of a 
 child of school census, or even in average daily attendance, as well 
 as the city's outstanding indebtedness expressed in the same 
 terms. Accurate figures involving the wealth of a community are 
 extremely difficult to obtain, due to our varied systems of assess- 
 ment and our proportional scheme of taxation. The United States 
 Bureau of the Census, in presenting wealth data for American 
 cities in its annual issue of Financial Statistics of Cities, takes care to 
 point out the many difficulties encountered as well as the inaccura- 
 cies that may affect the most painstakingly gathered data. It is 
 safe to state that these data presented in these volumes are the 
 most accurate obtainable at the present time. 
 
 From the facts presented in the Financial Statistics of Cities for 
 1916, Table LII was formulated. Here is given the estimated true 
 value of assessed wealth of all cities above 30,000 for the year 
 1916. The location of any individual city in this table will assist 
 in the determination of its 'ability to pay'. It may be assumed that 
 cities falling below the median are not as capable of providing 
 school building facilities as those above the median. West Hoboken, 
 
90 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 N. J., with an estimated true per capita assessment of $596.80, may 
 be required to weigh more carefully its expenditures for school pur- 
 poses than Brookline, Mass., with its estimated assessment of 
 $3,883.07 per capita. A city like Paterson, N. J., falling in the 
 $70i-$8oo group, or in the lowest quartile, may have justification 
 for the poor rating which it secures from a measurement of its 
 school plant. On the other hand, St. Paul, classified in the $1,401- 
 $1,500 group, or in the fourth quartile, is inexcusably culpable in 
 maintaining a school plant which has nine out of fifty-two build- 
 ings rating at 500 points or less on the Strayer Building Score Card. 
 The tendency in many city surveys has been to locate the city 
 being surveyed in a group of selected cities. If the basis of selec- 
 
 TABLE LII' 
 
 Estimated True Value of Per Capita Assessment in All Cities of the 
 United States Having a Population of 30,000 or Over In 1916^' 
 
 Estimated true value of 
 per capita assessment 
 
 501- 600 
 
 601- 700 
 
 701- 800 
 
 801- 900 
 
 901-1,000 
 
 ' 1,001-1,100 
 
 1,101-1,200 
 
 1,201-1,300 
 
 1,301-1,400 
 
 1,401-1,500 
 
 1,501-1,600 
 
 1,601-1,700 
 
 i,7oi-l»,8oo 
 1,801-1,900 
 1,901-2,000 
 2,001-2,100 
 2,101-2,200 
 2,301-2,400 
 3,101-3,200 
 3,801-3,900 
 
 Number of 
 cities 
 
 ■ ■ 3 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 • 23 
 
 • 37 
 19 
 20 
 22 
 II 
 
 13 
 12 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 Total number of cities 
 
 213 
 
 Median . . . $1^087 
 
 '* Compiled from Financial Statistics of Cities, 1916, pp. 342 #. 
 
Financing a Building Program 
 
 91 
 
 tion of cities is acceptable, such comparisons may be profitable. 
 Such a comparison with the city of St. Paul as the median city, 
 as shown in Table LIII, gives the data for the two consecutive years 
 1915 and 19 1 6 and also for 191 1. The correlations between the 
 rankings for the years 191 1 and 1916 and 1915 and 1916, estab- 
 lished according to the Spearman formula, are +.88 and +.84 
 respectively. It is reasonably fair in this instance to take the 
 assessments for the one year 1916 only as the basis for comparison. 
 
 TABLE LIII 
 
 Estimated Real Wealth Per Capita of St. Paul and Twenty-four 
 Other Cities for the Three Years 191 i, 1915 and 1916 
 
 
 Estimated true 
 
 
 Kstimated true 
 
 
 Estimated true 
 
 
 
 values of per 
 
 Rank 
 
 values of per 
 
 Rank 
 
 values of per 
 
 Rank 
 
 
 capita assess- 
 
 tn 
 list 
 
 capita assess- 
 
 tn 
 list 
 
 capita assess- 
 
 tn 
 list 
 
 
 ment for igii 
 
 ment for 1 91 5 
 
 ment for igi6 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 1,339-55 
 
 9 
 
 1,489.22 
 
 9 
 
 1,461.49 
 
 10 
 
 Newark 
 
 1,001.56 
 
 18 
 
 1,036.22 
 
 20 
 
 1,053-41 
 
 20 
 
 Washington 
 
 1,358.57 
 
 8 
 
 1. 740-39 
 
 4 
 
 1,733-48 
 
 2 
 
 Minneapolis 
 
 1,568.54 
 
 5 
 
 2,126.57 
 
 I 
 
 1,682.58 
 
 3 
 
 Seattle 
 
 1,813.66 
 
 3 
 
 1,558-78 
 
 6 
 
 1,428.91 
 
 12 
 
 Jersey City 
 
 921.16 
 
 22 
 
 938-08 
 
 21 
 
 975-28 
 
 21 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 1,297.40 
 
 10 
 
 1,513.60 
 
 8 
 
 1,656.78 
 
 5 
 
 Indianapolis 
 
 1. 47 1 -75 
 
 6 
 
 1,542-43 
 
 7 
 
 1,543-64 
 
 6 
 
 Portland, Ore. 
 
 2,054.96 
 
 I 
 
 1,800.39 
 
 3 
 
 1,775.02 
 
 I 
 
 Denver 
 
 1,206.24 
 
 13 
 
 1,644.32 
 
 5 
 
 1,415-56 
 
 13 
 
 Rochester 
 
 1 ,043-33 
 
 17 
 
 1,231.19 
 
 16 
 
 1,086.94 
 
 18 
 
 Providence 
 
 1,152.72 
 
 15 
 
 1,411.51 
 
 10 
 
 1,404.29 
 
 14 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 1,454.16 
 
 7 
 
 2,055.12 
 
 2 
 
 1,461.80 
 
 9 
 
 Columbus 
 
 1,255-69 
 
 12 
 
 1,348-31 
 
 13 
 
 1,345-36 
 
 15 
 
 Oakland 
 
 1,590.48 
 
 4 
 
 1,268.07 
 
 15 
 
 1,528.74 
 
 7 
 
 Toledo 
 
 1,256.69 
 
 II 
 
 1,356.60 
 
 12 
 
 1,430-53 
 
 II 
 
 Worcester 
 
 98.-?-73 
 
 19 
 
 1,103.65 
 
 18 
 
 1,117-75 
 
 17 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 923.88 
 
 21 
 
 1,150.79 
 
 17 
 
 926.26 
 
 22 
 
 New Haven 
 
 962.88 
 
 20 
 
 1,067.72 
 
 19 
 
 1,058.34 
 
 19 
 
 Scranton 
 
 697.97 
 
 25 
 
 746.41 
 
 25 
 
 730.32 
 
 25 
 
 Spokane 
 
 1,925.81 
 
 2 
 
 1,310.83 
 
 14 
 
 1,512.04 
 
 8 
 
 Paterson 
 
 75969 
 
 24 
 
 812.35 
 
 24 
 
 786.04 
 
 24 
 
 Omaha 
 
 1,201.20 
 
 14 
 
 1,410.65 
 
 II 
 
 1,673-91 
 
 4 
 
 Fall River 
 
 843-33 
 
 23 
 
 817.28 
 
 23 
 
 833-85 
 
 23 
 
 Grand Rapids 
 
 1,050.61 
 
 16 
 
 918.71 
 
 22 
 
 1,289.85 
 
 16 
 
92 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 as was done by Strayer and Engelhardt in the St. Paul Survey.*^ 
 The one year basis may not be fair where other groups of cities 
 are involved. The inference may follow that if serious error has 
 crept into the estimates of the per capita assessments, it remains 
 constant for the years 1911-1916. 
 
 Another index of the abih'ty of a community to pay for exten- 
 sions to the school plant is the tax rate on each $1,000 of the esti- 
 
 TABLE LIV 
 
 Distribution Showing Changes in Ranks of Twenty-five Cities 
 Compared on the Basis of the Average Rate of Taxation Per 
 $1,000 of Estimated Real Value of Property for the Years 1909, 
 1910, 1911, 1913, 1915, and the Rate for One Year Only, i. e., 1915 
 
 
 igog 
 
 igio 
 
 igii 
 
 jgij 
 
 igis 
 
 Aver- 
 age for 
 five 
 years 
 
 Rank 
 for 
 igis 
 
 Rank 
 in 
 
 aver- 
 age 
 
 Differ- 
 ence in 
 rank 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 17.90 
 
 17.21 
 
 14-55 
 
 14-39 
 
 15.01 
 
 15.81 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 Newark 
 
 16.64 
 
 16.72 
 
 17.18 
 
 17.84 
 
 18.15 
 
 17-31 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Washington 
 
 10.31 
 
 10.28 
 
 10.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 10.28 
 
 10.17 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 I 
 
 Minneapolis 
 
 9.86 
 
 11.50 
 
 12.41 
 
 12.28 
 
 9.08 
 
 11.03 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 Seattle 
 
 9-49 
 
 9.96 
 
 8.55- 
 
 9.08 
 
 15.42 
 
 10.50 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 Jersey City 
 
 12.09 
 
 12.60 
 
 12.43 
 
 13-86 
 
 13-47 
 
 12.89 
 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 11-33 
 
 11.30 
 
 11.24 
 
 11.70 
 
 12.60 
 
 11.63 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 
 Indianapolis 
 
 S-39 
 
 9.24 
 
 9.18 
 
 9-54 
 
 9-99 
 
 9.27 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 
 Portland, Ore. 
 
 8.87 
 
 6.71 
 
 7.92 
 
 8.58 
 
 11.46 
 
 8.71 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 Denver 
 
 15.80 
 
 16.63 
 
 15.62 
 
 15-38 
 
 10.96 
 
 14.88 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 Rochester 
 
 16.36 
 
 16.06 
 
 15.81 
 
 16.28 
 
 16.35 
 
 16.17 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Providence 
 
 14.70 
 
 14.70 
 
 14.70 
 
 12.69 
 
 12.80 
 
 13.92 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 10.34 
 
 10.68 
 
 10.88 
 
 10.32 
 
 7-56 
 
 9-96 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 Columbus 
 
 16.02 
 
 15-09 
 
 10.92 
 
 10.82 
 
 10.93 
 
 12.78 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 Oakland 
 
 6.94 
 
 7.69 
 
 9.16 
 
 10.30 
 
 16.65 
 
 10.15 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 Toledo 
 
 16.73 
 
 16.70 
 
 11-59 
 
 7-50 
 
 10.74 
 
 12.65 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 Worcester 
 
 14.14 
 
 14.01 
 
 14.72 
 
 14.80 
 
 16.87 
 
 14.91 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 18.02 
 
 17.58 
 
 16.53 
 
 14.14 
 
 16.57 
 
 16.57 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 New Haven 
 
 14.88 
 
 16.00 
 
 16.09 
 
 14-51 
 
 17.23 
 
 15-74 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 Scranton 
 
 10.45 
 
 11-34 
 
 11. II 
 
 12.33 
 
 12.66 
 
 11-58 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 Spokane 
 
 9.62 
 
 7.18 
 
 7-35 
 
 7-35 
 
 10.00 
 
 8.30 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 Paterson 
 
 12.19 
 
 11-33 
 
 11.27 
 
 11.00 
 
 12.83 
 
 11.72 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 Omaha 
 
 10.73 
 
 9-32 
 
 12.96 
 
 13.12 
 
 11.29 
 
 11.48 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 
 Fall River 
 
 16.25 
 
 15.84 
 
 16.41 
 
 16.48 
 
 20.06 
 
 17.01 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 Grand Rapids 
 
 12.40 
 
 11.31 
 
 II.OI 
 
 12.76 
 
 16.58 
 
 12.81 
 
 6 
 
 II 
 
 5 
 
 *'5<. Paul Survey, 1917, p. 196. 
 
Financing a Building Program 
 
 93 
 
 mated true value of property. The average of the tax rates on $ i ,000 
 of estimated value of property for a period of years probably fur- 
 nishes a fairer basis for ranking cities of a given group than simply 
 the rate per $1,000 of estimated value for one year. It is quite 
 clear that a lean year in the matter of municipal expenditures may 
 
 TABLE LV 
 Distribution of Tax Rates Per $1,000 of Estimated True Value 
 OF Property — Cities 30,000 and Over *" 
 
 Tax rate per $1,000 of 
 estimated true value 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 igii 
 
 1912 
 
 1913 
 
 1915 
 
 igi6 
 
 3.01- 4.00 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 4.01- 5.00 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 5.01- 6.00 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 6.01- 7.00 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 7.01- 8.00 
 
 7 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 ■ 9 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 8.01- 9.00 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 9.01-10.00 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 19 
 
 lO.OI-II.OO 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 II 
 
 21 
 
 11. 01-12.00 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 12.01-13.00 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 13.01-14.00 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 14.01-15.00 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 15.01-16.OO 
 
 II 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 16.01-17.00 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 17.01-18.00 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 II 
 
 7 
 
 II 
 
 9 
 
 II 
 
 18.01-19.00 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 19.01-20.00 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 20.01-21.00 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 21.01-22.00 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 22.01-23.00 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 23.01-24.00 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 24.01-25.00 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 25.01-26.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 26.01-27.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27.01-28.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 Total number of cities 
 
 IS8 
 
 183 
 
 194 
 
 195 
 
 199 
 
 204 
 
 212 
 
 Medians 
 
 J2.14 
 
 12.01 
 
 12.42 
 
 12-35 
 
 12.04 
 
 12.90 
 
 13-23 
 
 25 percentiles 
 
 10.19 
 
 10.52 
 
 10.16 
 
 lo.os 
 
 JO.23 
 
 10.19 
 
 10.58 
 
 7S percentiles 
 
 15-51 
 
 15-80 
 
 15-39 
 
 14-97 
 
 14.79 
 
 16.93 
 
 16.00 
 
 ' Compiled from Financial Statistics of Cities. 
 
94 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 follow a period of generous self- taxation for the common good. 
 An average for a period of years, therefore, seems a more desirable 
 measure. The group of cities of Table LIV has been ranked for 
 the one year 191 5 and also on the basis of the average for five years. 
 The correlation between the two rankings as determined by the 
 Spearman formula is +.71, a rather significant relationship. The 
 correlations by the Spearman formula of the rankings of the year 
 1915 with the rankings of each of the years 1909, 1910, 191 1, and 
 1913 are +.38, +.40, +.56, and +.64 respectively. It will be 
 concluded that greater justice will be done a community by rank- 
 ing them according to their payments for a period rather than for 
 one year. 
 
 Table LV permits of a more complete orientation as regards the 
 tax rates per $1,000 of estimated true values than would any com- 
 parisons in selected groups. • 
 
 This frequency distribution contains all cities with a population 
 over 30,000 for the years recorded arranged in relationship to 
 the tax rate per $1,000 of estimated true value. Where a city is 
 found to be constantly in the two lower quartiles of the distribu- 
 tion given in Table LV, it may be considered as evidence of a 
 failure to contribute bountifully to community enterprises. Four 
 school systems which have had intensive studies made of their 
 school building plants have their tax rates per $1,000 of estimated 
 true values given below. 
 
 
 igoQ 
 
 jgii 
 
 1913 
 
 1915 
 
 IQ16 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 10.34 
 
 10.88 
 
 10.32 
 
 7.56 
 
 11-33 
 
 Omaha 
 
 IO-73 
 
 12.96 
 
 13-12 
 
 11.29 
 
 12-33 
 
 Brookline *' 
 
 
 
 
 
 10-95 
 
 Pater.son 
 
 12.19 
 
 11.27 
 
 11.00 
 
 12.83 
 
 14.19 
 
 There is evidence, if these tax rates per $1,000 of estimated true 
 value of property are compared with the medians for all cities as 
 found in Table LV, that these cities cannot be classified as being 
 overtaxed for the support of public enterprises. In the case of 
 each of these cities, the survey committees criticized severely the 
 failure to provide in all instances adequate school housing for the 
 
 " Data not given in Financial Statistics of Cities. 
 
Financing a Building Program 
 
 95 
 
 children of the city. The slight increase in tax rate per $i,ooo in 
 any of these cities necessary to provide proper school housing facili- 
 ties would not single out any one of them as over-generous, if the 
 tax rates of the cities of the third and fourth quartiles are to be 
 taken as criteria. Where the validity of utilizing estimated real 
 values for comparative purposes is questioned, one may turn to 
 distributions of per capita tax levies for the purpose of pointing 
 out the taxing tendencies in all cities. It is realized, however, that 
 wealth and not population is utilized almost exclusively as the 
 base for taxation in the United States. Were the four cities above 
 
 TABLE LVI 
 
 Comparison of the Per Capita Tax Levies of Four Cities with Certain 
 
 Percentiles of a Per Capita Tax Levy Distribution of All Cities 
 
 Above 30,000 
 
 
 igog 
 
 igio 
 
 igii 
 
 igi2 
 
 igi3 
 
 igi5 
 
 igi6 
 
 Number of cities '^ 
 
 158 
 
 184 
 
 194 
 
 195 
 
 199 
 
 204 
 
 213 
 
 Median 
 
 JI.60 
 
 12.00 
 
 11-95 
 
 12.50 
 
 1.2-53 
 
 14.11 
 
 14.18 
 
 25 percentile 
 
 9.21 
 
 9.40 
 
 9.78 
 
 9-94 
 
 9-75 
 
 10.82 
 
 11.27 
 
 75 percentile 
 
 13-85 
 
 14.71 
 
 14-97 
 
 15-58 
 
 15-35 
 
 17-89 
 
 17-73 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 13.10 
 
 12.98 
 
 12.60 
 
 12.17 
 
 11.90 
 
 14.86 
 
 16.57 
 
 Omaha 
 
 16.05 
 
 14.60 
 
 15.40 
 
 16.67 
 
 16.39 
 
 15-93 
 
 20.32 
 
 Brookline 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 42-53 
 
 Paterson 
 
 9.16 
 
 8.59 
 
 8.56 
 
 8.78 
 
 8.48 
 
 10.20 
 
 II. 16 
 
 mentioned to be compared with the percentiles of the per capita 
 tax levies for all cities for the period 1909-1916, the conclusions 
 drawn would vary only slightly from those deduced from Table LV. 
 Table LVI presents such comparisons. 
 
 Paterson does not rise above the twenty-five percentile for any 
 year. Omaha is above the seventy-five percentile, while St. Paul 
 has taken an intermediate place between the median and seventy- 
 five percentile. Brookline has an exceedingly high per capita 
 levy for the one year 1916. A high rate should be expected, since 
 Brookline's wealth per capita is also exceedingly high. 
 
 '^ Data from Financial Statistics of Cities. 
 
96 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 The Per Capita Net Debt of a City 
 
 It is conceivable that a city might compare most favorably 
 with other cities in its per capita wealth and still feel unwilling to 
 increase its expenditures on account of the large debt already in- 
 curred. Of course, if this debt were very large it would appear in 
 the tax rate. It seems wise, however, to compare the total net debt 
 and the per capita net debt when considering increases in school 
 outlays. The per capita net debt for American cities varied in 1916 
 from $2.40 in Butte, Montana, to $212.48 in San Diego, California. 
 The median city had a per capita net debt of $42.65, as shown in 
 Table LVII. The four cities St. Paul, Omaha, Paterson, and Brook- 
 line were recorded as having net debts of $43-33. $106.75, l37-Oo, 
 and $50.76 respectively for the year 1916. Omaha alone of the 
 four stands at the higher end of the distribution. That Omaha has 
 accumulated this large debt per capita and still lacks in school 
 housing facilities is a serious reflection on the past educational 
 leadership of that city. The school system should have been per- 
 mitted to have had its just proportional part in the accumulation of 
 this debt. St. Paul had in 1916 a net debt slightly above the 
 median of the '30,000 and over' cities, Brookline fell into the third 
 quartile, and Paterson into the second. On the basis of net debt 
 alone, it would seem that these three cities might be considered as 
 being in positions to build, without serious financial strain, modern 
 buildings to supplant at least four or five of the structures which 
 were so severely condemned in the surveys. 
 
 The proportion devoted to school purposes of the entire amounts 
 . appropriated by a community for the support of municipal activi- 
 ties requires very important consideration when increases for school 
 outlays are being proposed. In Table LVIII will be found a dis- 
 tribution of the per cents of total expenditures for city maintenance 
 devoted to schools as arranged for all cities over 30,000 in popula- 
 tion for each. one of the years 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912, 1913, 1915, 
 1916. There has been a rather consistent increase in the median 
 ratio from 1909 to 1916. The seventy-five percentile also shows a 
 splendid increase. Cities which find their percentages static or 
 retrogressive for this same period of years have in the results of 
 this table an additional argument for additions to available school 
 funds. In using this table it will be borne in mind that cities like 
 
Financing a Building Program 97 
 
 Paterson, N. J., with 125,000 inhabitants concentrated in approxi- 
 mately seven square miles, will in all probability not be required to 
 contribute as heavily to such items as street, sewer, fire, and police 
 maintenance as will cities that have larger acreages and much 
 lower population densities. 
 
 It may be said that this increase in the ratio of moneys devoted 
 to school purposes was to be expected during the period 1909-1916, 
 since this period was a period of increasing salaries and since nor- 
 mally sixty to seventy-five per cent of school appropriations is 
 
 TABLE LVII 5' 
 
 Distribution of Cities Over 30,000 According to Per Catita Net Debt " 
 
 Per capita Number of 
 
 net debt | cities 
 
 $5.00 and less 3 
 
 5.oi-$io.oo 4 
 
 10.01- 15.00 7 
 
 15.01- 20.00 18 
 
 20.01- 25.00 18 
 
 25.01- 30.00 15 
 
 30.01- 35.00 19 
 
 35.01- 40.00 15 
 
 40.01- 45.00 14 
 
 45.01- 50.00 13 
 
 50.01- 55.00 19 
 
 55.01- 60.00 9 
 
 ' 60.01- 65.00 15 
 
 65.01- 70.00 7 
 
 70.01- 75.00 6 
 
 75.01- 80.00 2 
 
 80.01- 85.00 .... 3 
 
 85.01- 90.00 3 
 
 90.01- 95.00 6 
 
 95.01-100.00 5 
 
 100.01-105.00 I 
 
 105.0 i-i 10.00 2 
 
 110.01-115.00 3 
 
 115.01-120.00 2 
 
 120.00 and over 4 
 
 Median $42 -65 
 
 " Financial Statistics of Cities, 1916, pp. 321 #• 
 
 " Net debt is funded and floating debt less sinking fund assets. 
 
98 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 devoted to the payment of salaries. That communities have been 
 gradually increasing the ratio devoted to schools, irrespective of the 
 fact that salaries have been increasing, may be seen in the following 
 tables, where the per capita governmental cost payments for edu- 
 cation are compared with those of the other two city departments 
 involving the employment of the greatest number of individuals: 
 i. e., the fire and the police departments. That salaries have in- 
 creased in these two departments during this same period has been 
 also true. The fire and police departments have, however, as these 
 figures show, fallen back very perceptibly in their competition for 
 financial favor. In other words, superintendents of schools may 
 find in these fa'cts rather conclusive arguments to back any reason- 
 able increase which they may demand in the percentage of total 
 municipal expenditures locally allowed for education, should they 
 find their cities ranking low on Table LVIII. 
 
 TABLE LVIII 
 
 Per Cent of City Expenses Devoted to Schools '* 
 IN All Cities of 30,000 or Over (1909-1916) 
 
 Number of Cities Devoting Specified Per Cent of Expenses to Schools 
 
 Per cent 
 
 igog 
 
 igio 
 
 igii 
 
 igi2 
 
 igi3 
 
 igis 
 
 igi6 
 
 IO.O-14.9 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 15.0-19.9 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 20.0-24.9 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 25.0-29.9 
 
 18 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 30.0-34.9 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 
 49 
 
 44 
 
 43 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 3S-0-39-9 
 
 31 
 
 43 
 
 37 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 38 
 
 40.0-44.9 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 39 
 
 45.0-49.^9 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 50.0-54.9 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 55-0-59-9 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 60.0-64.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 Total 
 
 153 
 
 ns 
 
 193 
 
 193 
 
 199 
 
 204 
 
 213 
 
 25 percentile 
 
 30.2 
 
 30-3 
 
 29.9 
 
 29.4 
 
 2Q.2 
 
 29.4 
 
 29.8 
 
 75 percentile 
 
 39-2 
 
 41.2 
 
 40.8 
 
 41.1 
 
 41.2 
 
 42.6 
 
 43-9 
 
 Median 
 
 34-6 
 
 35-4 
 
 34-S. 
 
 35-2 
 
 35-2 
 
 35-9 
 
 36.9 
 
 " Compiled from Financial Statistics of Cities. 
 
Financing a Building Program 
 
 99 
 
 It has been a common practice in making financial comparisons 
 of cities in surveys to use the figures for one year only in the com- 
 parisons. In pointing out the difTerences in the per cents of gov- 
 ernmental cost payments devoted to schools in groups of selected 
 cities, the relationships existing during a one-year period have been 
 utilized as the basis of argument. The Brookline, Butte, Salt Lake 
 City, Denver, and other surveys have followed this plan. Table 
 LX presents data for a period of five years for a group of cities show- 
 ing the shifting of rank for each city during this period. Fig. 6 
 shows the shifting still more clearly. The cities utilized in this 
 comparison compose the list used by Strayer and Engelhardt in the 
 building survey of St. Paul, Minn., in 1917. It will be noted that 
 comparatively few cities of the list maintain their rankings over 
 this period. Very oddly, the first and last cities in the list are most 
 uniform as to ranking. Illustrations of the injustice of using merely 
 
 TABLE LIX 
 
 Comparison of Per Capita Governmental Cost Payments for 
 Education, Police Department and Fire Department 
 
 Cities 30,000 and, Over, IQOQ-IQ16 '^ 
 
 Ratio of the median per capita governmental cost payments for educational, 
 police, and fire departments of the years 1909-1916 to the median per capita ex- 
 penditures for 1909. 
 
 Year 
 
 iQog 
 
 igio 
 
 IQII 
 
 IQI2 
 
 I9I3 
 
 I915 
 
 igi6 
 
 Education 
 
 Policy 
 
 Fire 
 
 1. 00 
 i.cfo 
 1. 00 
 
 1.009 
 
 1.008 
 
 .972 
 
 1.042 
 
 1.006 
 
 .965 
 
 1.074 
 1.008 
 I.OI3 
 
 1. 07 1 
 
 .991 
 
 1.006 
 
 1. 198 
 
 1-033 
 1.062 
 
 1.267 
 1.076 
 1.068 
 
 Ratio of the seventy-five percentile of per capita governmental cost payments for 
 educational, police and fire departments of the years 1909-1916 to the seventy-five 
 percentile per capita expenditures for 1909. 
 
 Year 
 
 igog 
 
 igio 
 
 igii 
 
 igi2 
 
 igi3 
 
 igis 
 
 igi6 
 
 Education 
 
 1. 00 
 
 1. 02 1 
 
 1.090 
 
 1. 105 
 
 1. 109 
 
 1.213 
 
 1.308 
 
 Police 
 
 1. 00 
 
 .968 
 
 .987 
 
 •950 
 
 ■944 
 
 1.043 
 
 1.018 
 
 Fire 
 
 1. 00 
 
 1.005 
 
 ■977 
 
 •977 
 
 •971 
 
 1.062 
 
 1.028 
 
 *° Basic data from Financial Statistics of Cities, 1909-1916 (1914 lacking). 
 
100 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 one year's rankings are seen in the other three cities which have been 
 charted in Fig. 6. Omaha's position varies from fifth to eighteenth, 
 Seattle from eleventh to twenty-third, while Syracuse varies only 
 slightly each year. It is ostensibly fair to rank Syracuse as twenty- 
 first in the list. It is surely not fair, on the other hand, to designate 
 Seattle's rank as twenty-third on the basis of the last year only. 
 
 TABLE LX 
 
 Distribution of the Per Cent of Entire Expenses for 
 Municipal Purposes Devoted to Schools 
 
 Comparison of St. 
 
 Paul with 
 
 Twenty-four Selected Cities " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 igoo 
 
 igio 
 
 igii 
 
 igi2 
 
 igis 
 
 per cent 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 24.6 
 
 24.6 
 
 24.9 
 
 26.1 
 
 26.3 
 
 25-3 
 
 Newark 
 
 30.2 
 
 30-4 
 
 29.7 
 
 31-3 
 
 30-6 
 
 30.4 
 
 Washington 
 
 25.6 
 
 254 
 
 26.3 
 
 26 
 
 25.8 
 
 25.8 
 
 Minneapolis 
 
 37-2 
 
 34-1 
 
 35 
 
 33-7 
 
 34-6 
 
 34-9 
 
 Seattle 
 
 35-2 
 
 34-4 
 
 33-7 
 
 31-5 
 
 26.9 
 
 32.3 
 
 Jersey City 
 
 35-5 
 
 35-2 
 
 35-1 
 
 37-1 
 
 37.4 
 
 36.1 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 34-3 
 
 30 
 
 25.8 
 
 29.2 
 
 35-3 
 
 30.9 
 
 Indianapolis 
 
 34-5 
 
 34-5 
 
 33-6 
 
 33-8 
 
 32.7 
 
 33.8 
 
 Portland, Ore. 
 
 38.5 
 
 38.6 
 
 37-1 
 
 38 
 
 36 
 
 37-6 
 
 Denver 
 
 29.5 
 
 28.6 
 
 30.5 
 
 29.4 
 
 29.6 
 
 295 
 
 Rochester 
 
 28.9 
 
 27-5 
 
 27-5 
 
 26.1 
 
 27.8 
 
 27.6 
 
 Providence 
 
 31-6 
 
 30.4 
 
 295 
 
 29.1 
 
 29.4 
 
 30 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 30.5 
 
 31 
 
 31.6 
 
 3^6 
 
 29.8 
 
 30-9 
 
 Columbus 
 
 39-2 
 
 39-1 
 
 33-5 
 
 34-2 
 
 37-3 
 
 36.7 
 
 Oakland 
 
 33-4 
 
 33 
 
 37-7 
 
 35-8 
 
 40.7 
 
 36.1 
 
 Toledo 
 
 40.7 
 
 38.3 
 
 39-7 
 
 38.4 
 
 38.9 
 
 39-2 
 
 Worcester 
 
 34-5 
 
 33-7 
 
 31-7 
 
 32.9 
 
 34-5 
 
 33-5 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 30 
 
 30.3 
 
 28.9 
 
 28.1 
 
 28 
 
 29.1 
 
 New Haven 
 
 33-9 
 
 35-7 
 
 35-2 
 
 35-2 
 
 38.4 
 
 35-7 
 
 Scranton 
 
 48.6 
 
 45-7 
 
 47-2 
 
 46 
 
 44-5 
 
 46.4 
 
 Spokane 
 
 40.9 
 
 38.3 
 
 38 
 
 39-1 
 
 37-2 
 
 38.7 
 
 Paterson 
 
 39-4 
 
 38.9 
 
 36.3 
 
 38.7 
 
 39-3 
 
 38.5 
 
 Omaha 
 
 397 
 
 33 
 
 32.9 
 
 31 
 
 37-8 
 
 34-9 
 
 Fall River 
 
 32.1 
 
 30.9 
 
 34-4 
 
 33 
 
 36.3 
 
 33-3 
 
 Grand Rapids 
 
 40.9 
 
 39-5 
 
 39-9 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 40-3 
 
 "For basis of selection, see St. Paul Survey, 1917. 
 
Financing a Building Program 
 
 lOI 
 
 Fig. 6 
 
 chart showing the rankings for five years of the cities of 
 
 table lx on the basis of the percentage of all moneys 
 
 raised for municipal purposes devoted to schools 
 
 'iank in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Group 
 
 igoQ 
 
 igio 
 
 IQII 
 
 igi2 
 
 1915 
 
 T 
 
 ©— 
 
 -® 
 
 —/0\ 
 
 /TS 
 
 — © 
 
 1 
 
 — ^ 
 
 \^ 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 Sp-G 
 
 G 
 Co 
 
 G 
 T 
 
 Sp 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 
 4 
 
 T 
 
 Pa 
 
 Sp 
 
 Pa 
 
 Pa 
 
 5 
 
 © 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 cA 
 
 T-Sp 
 
 P 
 
 Pa 
 
 P 
 
 J 
 
 NH 
 
 8 
 
 p \ 
 
 NH 
 
 NH 
 
 
 
 /j 
 
 9 
 
 M \ 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 NH 
 
 / Co 
 
 ID 
 
 J ^ 
 
 I I 
 
 M 
 
 Co 
 
 / Sp 
 
 II 
 
 0— 
 
 x®"-*^ 
 
 F 
 
 I 
 
 / ^ 
 
 12 
 13 
 
 I-Wo 
 
 \m 
 
 Wo 
 
 A 
 
 M j 
 F 1 
 
 K 
 
 14 
 15 
 
 K 
 
 NH 
 
 
 Co\ 
 
 Wo / 
 \ SP / 
 
 M 
 Wo 
 
 i6 
 
 
 
 SP 
 
 Wo\ 
 
 XiXl 
 
 I 
 
 17 
 
 F 
 
 F 
 
 SP 
 
 \ nV 
 
 N 
 
 18 
 19 
 
 Pr 
 SP 
 
 N-Pr 
 
 D 
 
 N 
 
 D \ 
 
 SP 
 D 
 
 20 
 
 N 
 
 --©-^ 
 
 Pr 
 
 K 
 
 V ^^ 
 
 21 
 
 (B^ 
 
 K 
 
 ■~€)^ 
 
 Pr 
 
 v@ 
 
 22 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 R 
 
 '^-^•gK 
 
 \5: 
 
 23 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 W 
 
 Rj^ 
 
 © 
 
 24 
 
 W 
 
 VV 
 
 K 
 
 3KJ^ 
 
 "SD 
 
 
 ©— 
 
 -JT\ 
 
 -/rV^ 
 
 VV 
 
 w 
 
 25 
 
 ^3 
 
 -icjr 
 
 VV 
 
102 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 Governmental Cost Payments for Expenses of Schools 
 
 Another measure of a community's tendency toward the support 
 of education is its per capita expenditure for schools. The distribu- 
 tion of this item for cities over 30,000 in 1916 is given in Table LXI. 
 Any individual city may readily be placed on this distribution and 
 comparisons made with the median city or the city at the seventy- 
 five percentile. 
 
 When governmental cost payments for schools expressed in 
 terms of the single inhabitant of a city are utilized as the bases for 
 comparisons, valuable factors of community composition not 
 brought to the fore in the tabulations already mentioned are forced 
 into play. Cities having large parochial or private school enroll- 
 ments will tend to rate higher in such comparisons than cities where 
 the public schools are attended by larger percentages of the chil- 
 dren. High percentages of unmarried adults will tend to rank 
 cities low in this particular table. 
 
 When the relationship between per capita expenditures for schools 
 in various school systems is utilized for the purpose of ranking the 
 cities involved, it may be wise to base the ranking on an average for 
 a period of years rather than upon one year only. The cities of 
 Table LXI I are those utilized on page 375 of the Grand Rapids 
 Survey (1916). Fig. 7 presents the variations in rankings of these 
 eighteen cities for a period of seven years. In that time Nashville 
 dropped from the upper half to the lower half of the table. New 
 Bedford rose from thirteenth to sixth place and then dropped back 
 to eighth, and Dayton changed from third place to eleventh. In 
 putting before the public tables and charts giving data for one 
 year only, the selection of the year for which data are shown may 
 make much difference in the conclusions that may be drawn. Grand 
 Rapids, the city being surveyed, retained approximately the same 
 position for the seven-year period. Only five, or sixteen per cent 
 of a maximum of thirty possible rankings in the lowest quartile 
 (including ranks 15, 16, 17, 18, 19), have fallen to cities north of the 
 Mason and Dixon's line. One city, Bridgeport, is responsible for 
 these five ratings. This grouping emphasizes the fact that cities 
 south of the Mason and Dixon's line have not begun to assess 
 themselves for educational purposes as northern cities have done, 
 
Financing a Building Program 
 
 103 
 
 TABLE LXI 
 Distribution of the Per Capita Governmental Cost Payments of 
 Expenses for Schools — Cities Over 30,000 (1909-1916) " 
 
 Per capita payments 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 igii 
 
 1 91 2 
 
 1913 
 
 1915 
 
 igi6 
 
 Less than S2.01 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 < 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 
 2.0I-$2.25 
 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2.26- 2.50 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 2.51- 2.75 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2.76- 3.00 
 
 8 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3.01- 3.25 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 3.26- 3.50 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 II 
 
 3-51- 3-75 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 II 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3.76- 4.00 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 4.01- 4.25 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 4.26- 4.50 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 4-51- 475 
 
 II 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 4.76- 5.00 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 5-01- 5-25 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 5.26- 5.50 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 5-51- 5-75 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 5.76- 6.00 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 6.01- 6.25 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 6.26- 6.50 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 6.51- 6.75 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 6.76- 7.00 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 7.01- 7.25 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7.26- 7.50 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 7-51- 7-75 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 7.76- 8.00 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 8.01- 8.25 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 8.26- 8.50 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 8.51- 8.75 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 8.76- 9.00 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 9.01- 9.25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 9.26- 9.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 9-51- 9-75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 9.76-10.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 10.01-10.25 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 10.26-10.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Total 
 
 153 
 
 178 
 
 193 
 
 19s 
 
 199 
 
 204 
 
 2JJ 
 
 75 percentile 
 
 $4-65 
 
 $4-74 
 
 $5.01 
 
 $5.16 
 
 $5-15 
 
 $5.69 
 
 J(5.04 
 
 Median 
 
 4.04 
 
 409 
 
 4.19 
 
 4-34 
 
 4-33 
 
 4.86 
 
 5-14 
 
 " CompUed from Financial Statistics of Cities. 
 
104 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 and hence do not offer an adequate basis for comparisons with 
 northern cities. 
 
 By taking the per capita expenditures for six years for three 
 cities, the school buildings of which are rated in Table XLIII and 
 
 TABLE LXII 
 
 Per Capita Expenditures" for All School Purposes of 
 Grand Rapids and Eighteen Selected Cities '" 
 
 
 1 900 
 
 igio 
 
 igii 
 
 igi2 
 
 I0I3 
 
 igis 
 
 Des Moines 
 
 fc-82 
 
 $6.41 
 
 $7.16 
 
 $6.71 
 
 J57.26 
 
 f7.62 
 
 Scranton 
 
 4.21 
 
 4.27 
 
 4-45 
 
 4-58 
 
 449 
 
 4.69 
 
 Paterson 
 
 4.24 
 
 4.09 
 
 3.76 
 
 4-13 
 
 4-38 
 
 4-57 
 
 Fall River 
 
 3-57 
 
 3-95 
 
 4.06 
 
 4.21 
 
 4.16 
 
 5.18 
 
 Lowell 
 
 4.00 
 
 3-89 
 
 3-94 
 
 4-03 
 
 3-98 
 
 4-30 
 
 Grand Rapids 
 
 4.90 
 
 4.48 
 
 4.71 
 
 5-34 
 
 5.21 
 
 5.89 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 4.86 
 
 5.01 
 
 4.92 
 
 503 
 
 5-14 
 
 572 
 
 Lynn 
 
 3.76 
 
 3.89' 
 
 396 
 
 4.11 
 
 4.02 
 
 449 
 
 New Bedford 
 
 3.67 
 
 3.96 
 
 4.14 
 
 4-56 
 
 4.41 
 
 4.70 
 
 Springfield, Mass. 
 
 6.15 
 
 6.43 
 
 6.86 
 
 7.27 
 
 7.07 
 
 8.24 
 
 Kansas City 
 
 444 
 
 5-29 
 
 4.28 
 
 4.66 
 
 4.22 
 
 6.18 
 
 Nashville 
 
 4.28 
 
 2.62 
 
 3-21 
 
 3-44 
 
 340 
 
 3.89 
 
 Albany 
 
 3.84 
 
 3-98 
 
 4.07 
 
 4.19 
 
 4.17 
 
 4.80 
 
 Bridgeport 
 
 3-07 
 
 3-01 
 
 2.96 
 
 3.26 
 
 329 
 
 3 99 
 
 Dayton 
 
 4-97 
 
 4-32 
 
 4-51 
 
 4.21 
 
 415 
 
 449 
 
 San Antonio 
 
 2.74 
 
 2.76 
 
 2.96 
 
 3-08 
 
 3-31 
 
 4-13 
 
 Memphis 
 
 2.49 
 
 2.88 
 
 3-13 
 
 346 
 
 3.39 
 
 3-74 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 2.32 
 
 2.07 
 
 2.96 
 
 2.80 
 
 2.66 
 
 309 
 
 Richmond 
 
 2-34 
 
 2.34 
 
 2.54 
 
 2.93 
 
 2.89 
 
 4.09 
 
 comparing with the medians of Table LXI, we find that Paterson 
 varies only slightly from the medians of the six years, that St. Paul 
 has fallen below the median for all years except 1909, and that 
 Omaha varies between the seventy-five percentile and the median. 
 In 1916 Omaha was only a trifle above the median, though above 
 the seventy-five percentile in 1914 and 1915. In other words, rea- 
 sonable additional sums paid for school purposes in these three 
 cities would tend to place them among cities of the fourth quartile, 
 
 " Data from Financial Statistics of Cities. 
 
 " Cities used in the Grand Rapids Survey, 1916. 
 
Financing a Building Program 
 
 105 
 
 or those most generous in their appropriations for schools on a basis 
 of the amounts spent for each city inhabitant. 
 
 Cost Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance 
 
 It is conceivable that a city might devote a relatively small pro- 
 portion of its available revenue for schools and still maintain them 
 
 Fig. 7 
 
 variations in rankings of eighteen cities for a period of six 
 
 years, obtained on the basis of the expenditures 
 
 per inhabitant for all school purposes 
 
 Rank in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Group 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 1913 
 
 1915 
 
 I 
 
 Sp 
 
 Sp 
 
 De 
 
 Sp 
 
 De 
 
 Sp 
 
 2 
 
 De 
 
 De 
 
 Sp 
 
 De 
 
 Sp 
 
 De 
 
 3 
 
 @ 
 
 (k) 
 
 c 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 ® 
 
 4 
 
 ^> 
 
 /c\ 
 
 G 
 
 C 
 
 C 
 
 F 
 
 5 
 
 c/ 
 
 \g > 
 
 viQ 
 
 j(kX 
 
 Sc 1 
 
 / c 
 
 6 
 
 ® 
 
 
 vO^ 
 
 ^ ScV 
 
 
 F 
 
 7 
 
 © 
 
 Sc 
 
 ©^ 
 
 ^^^r> 
 
 \Zj 
 
 \A. 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 Sc\ 
 
 P 
 
 ^ K 
 
 F@ 
 
 A 
 
 Sc 
 
 10 
 
 L \ 
 
 M 
 
 F 
 
 A 
 
 \f 
 
 P 
 
 IT 
 
 I^ 
 13 
 14 
 
 i5 
 J6 
 
 17 
 IS 
 
 i9 
 
 Ly 
 
 L-Ly 
 
 Br 
 
 M 
 
 iSa. 
 
 Br-Sa 
 
 Ly 
 
 M 
 
 Br 
 
 Sa 
 
 Ly 
 
 Sa 
 Br 
 R 
 
 LyH 
 
 M 
 
 -©— ® 
 
io6 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 adequately by virtue of the very large amount of money raised 
 by taxation. The possibility of maintaining an adequate system 
 of schools is, however, determined in large measure by the amount 
 of money spent per pupil in average daily attendance. 
 
 The distribution of cities in the United States during the years 
 1909 and 1916, as given in Table LXIV according to the amounts 
 spent per pupil in average daily attendance, might well furnish a 
 basis for establishing the position of any individual city in its 
 tendency to pay for educational advantages. 
 
 The basic data used in the compilation of this table were the 
 expenditures for maintenance as listed in the annual reports of the 
 United States Commissioner of Education for the years repre- 
 sented in the table and the average daily attendance as given for 
 each year in these same reports. 
 
 TABLE LXIII 
 
 Per Capita Expenditures for All School Purposes of Three 
 
 Cities — Paterson, St. Paul, and Omaha 
 
 Years 
 
 iQog 
 
 IQIO 
 
 igii 
 
 1012 
 
 1013 
 
 1915 
 
 igid 
 
 Paterson 
 St. Paul 
 Omaha 
 
 $4.24 
 5-32 
 4.81 
 
 $4.09 
 4.04 
 
 4-74 
 
 fe-76 
 398 
 4.92 
 
 14-13 
 4.12 
 
 5-07 
 
 $4-38 
 4.02 
 4-99 
 
 I54-57 
 4.72 
 
 5-93 
 
 $4-76 
 4-43 
 5-29 
 
 An analysis of the original data clearly indicated that if the 
 cities in the United States were separated into three groups accord- 
 ing to their geographic location, three distinctly different tenden- 
 cies in expenditures for public education would become evident. 
 These tendencies are shown clearly in Table LXV, which gives the 
 medians for each of the three groups as well as the number of cities 
 for each group upon whose data the medians are based. Cities in 
 Group A are those north of the Mason and Dixon's line and the Ohio 
 River and east of the Mississippi River. Group B includes all cities 
 above 25,000 west of the Mississippi except those of the four states 
 specifically mentioned in C. Group C includes all cities south of 
 the Ohio River and Mason and Dixon's line and in the states 
 of Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Louisiana. 
 
 The medians of Group B are the highest for each year, those of 
 Group A occupy an intermediary position, while those of Group C 
 are exceedingly low. 
 
Financing a Building Program 
 
 107 
 
 > 
 
 X 
 
 J 
 
 w 
 
 CQ 
 < 
 
 H 
 O vo 
 
 OS 
 
 H 
 
 
 Da 
 
 Id 
 » 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 K 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 O w 
 ° S 
 
 >0 >H 
 
 Q 
 
 !d 
 O 
 
 < 
 
 
 U 
 
 a: 
 u 
 S - 
 
 o 
 w 
 u 
 en 
 
 a 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 -a 
 a 
 
 ^ -^ vo re 
 
 CO O CO 10 -^ 0\ ^ 
 
 rDVD^O O ^00 row 
 
 00 lOM fOO i-t OCOVO 
 
 r^t^ioc* uDt^t^ro»o 
 
 00 00 f-t 0) co-^mvD 
 
 0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^ 
 
 1-H l-l 
 
 >» CO 
 
 k 
 
 ^ 
 
 T 
 
 T T 
 
 4 
 
 1-1 
 1 
 10 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 t-1 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 ON 
 
 
 
 On 
 
 OS ON 
 
 ON 
 H-l 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 a a 
 •S ^ 
 
 ■a m 
 
 ft) m 
 
 O M 
 
 S >< .3 ■ 
 
 S 5 8 s 
 
 £ S 
 S « 
 
 
 3 5 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 T3 
 
 tc o , 
 
 
 15 >. a 
 
 •Q o S 
 
 
 93 — t. *2 . 
 
 i C 
 
 4) > 
 XJ Jh 
 
 o . 
 
 ™ O £ 
 
 <u k; $ 
 
 OJ C OJ 
 
 >, ■" g 
 
 C K P 
 
 O W) Ti 
 
 2 ° 
 
 ^ m 
 
 G 
 
 u O 
 
 -a a : 
 o cu 
 
 II 
 
 = O'S 
 
 o ■*-* nJ 
 
 +J OJ 
 
 CO 
 
 0) 
 
 rj ^ en 
 
 
io8 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 The trend throughout the United States has been markedly up- 
 ward in the cost per pupil in average daily attendance for the years 
 represented. A city which occupies a relatively low position on the 
 distribution in Table LXV, because of either false or true economy, 
 should have no difficulty in raising funds for any needed extension 
 to its school plant. A city which has been generous in its expendi- 
 tures or has failed to economize properly, and hence ranks high in 
 this distribution, should not penalize its children by failing to 
 provide the necessary school building extensions. Possible econ- 
 omies in school maintenance may be found where the high cost of 
 maintenance is presented as an argument against provisions for 
 proper building additions. Further analyses of how the money 
 spent for school maintenance has been distributed among the 
 several items of the school budget as compared with other cities 
 will throw light on the points of wastage within the system. It 
 may be stated, however, that school maintenance costs may be 
 expected to continue on the increase. 
 
 TABLE LXV 
 
 Medians of the Amount Spent for School Maintenance Per Pupil in 
 
 Average Daily Attendance for the Years 1907-1916 for all 
 
 Cities Having a Popui-ation of 25,000 or Over '^ 
 
 
 Total number of cities 
 
 in 
 
 Median city in 
 
 Years 
 
 Group 
 
 A 
 
 Group 
 B 
 
 Group 
 C 
 
 Total 
 
 Group 
 A 
 
 Group 
 B 
 
 Group 
 C 
 
 Total 
 
 I 907-1 908 
 
 125 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 188 
 
 133-44 
 
 .$37-94 
 
 $24.89 
 
 $33-12 
 
 I 908-1 909 
 
 131 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 189 
 
 33-44 
 
 , 37-67; 
 
 25.29 
 
 33-31 
 
 1909-1910 
 
 118 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 173 
 
 34-78 
 
 ] 40-38, 
 
 26.71 
 
 34-46 
 
 1910-19H 
 
 98 
 
 28 
 
 19 
 
 145 
 
 36.00 
 
 f42.25 
 
 28.50 
 
 35-94 
 
 1911-1912 
 
 120 
 
 33 
 
 27 
 
 180 
 
 37-82 
 
 I45.06 
 
 28.92 
 
 37.45 
 
 1912-1913 
 
 124 
 
 38 
 
 32 
 
 194 
 
 38.70 
 
 45-38 
 
 28.00 
 
 38.64 
 
 1913-1914 
 
 131 
 
 35 
 
 28 
 
 194 
 
 39-4° 
 
 49.21 
 
 31-56 
 
 39-3^ 
 
 1914-1915 
 
 125 
 
 36 
 
 28 
 
 189 
 
 40.79 
 
 51.42 
 
 30.00 
 
 40.95 
 
 1915-1916 
 
 136 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 205 
 
 43-21 
 
 52-25 
 
 31-31 
 
 42.76 
 
 »2 Group A includes cities north of the Ohio River and Mason and Dixon's line, but 
 east of the Mississippi River. 
 
 Group B includes cities west of the Mississippi River, except those of Texas, Arkan- 
 sas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma. 
 
 Group C includes all southern cities east of the Mississippi River and the cities of 
 Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma. 
 
Financing a Building Program 109 
 
 Expenditures for Capital Outlays in Cities of the United States 
 for the Period i8gQ-igi6 
 
 In an effort to show the expenditures for school outlays in cities 
 of the United States on a comparable basis, Table LXVI has been 
 formed. The term school outlays covers "the costs of properties, 
 including land, buildings and equipment, and improvements more 
 or less permanent in character." ^' The cost data were taken from 
 
 TABLE LXVI 
 
 Distribution of Per Capita Expenditures for School Outlays 
 FOR 206 Cities for Total Period, 1899-1916 
 
 Amount No. of Cities 
 
 $o-fi.99 6 
 
 2- 3-99 II 
 
 4- 5-99 II 
 
 6- 7-99 9 
 
 8- 9.99 .... 21 
 
 10-11.99 15 
 
 12-13.99 . . • • 20 
 
 14-15.99 29 
 
 16-17.99 12 
 
 18-19.99 18 
 
 20-21.99 17 
 
 22-23.99 ^ 
 
 24-25-99 12 
 
 26-27.99 • • ■ 5 
 
 28-29.99 4 
 
 30-31.99 3 
 
 32-33-99 2 
 
 34-35-99 2 
 
 36-37-99 ° 
 
 38-39.99 o 
 
 40-41.99 I 
 
 Total zo6 
 
 25 Percentile . . ■ ■ $9-33 
 
 Median 14-68 
 
 75 Percentile 20.24 
 
 «s Financial Statistics of Cities, 1916, p. 28. 
 
no 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 the annual reports of the Commissioner of Education from columns 
 headed 'permanent investments and lasting improvements', 'build- 
 ings and other permanent improvements, sites and grounds' as tlfey 
 appeared for various years, and 'outlays, new buildings, grounds 
 and equipment', which is the more recently used heading for this 
 item of expenditure. The United States Census figures for the 
 years 1900-1910 were utilized in securing the per capita costs. 
 The population for the years between census periods was reckoned 
 for each city by adding a proportional amount of the growth of the 
 passing decade to the figures obtained by the census enumerators 
 at the beginning of each decade. 
 
 The total per capita expenditure for the period involved in the 
 table is considered a fair* index of the provisions that have been 
 made for that period in adequate school housing. Such a tabulation 
 made for the city of St. Paul showed St. Paul ranking twenty-third 
 out of twenty-five cities of her class in the per capita expenditures 
 for school outlays over a period of fifteen years. This failure to 
 build new school buildings was again evidenced in the low scores 
 assigned by the judges to the existing school buildings of that city, 
 as shown in Table XLIII. 
 
 TABLE LXVII 
 
 Total Per Capita Expenditures for School Outlays from if 
 IN St. Paul and Twenty-four Other Cities 
 
 I TO 1915 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 $20.29 
 
 Oakland 
 
 $33-14 
 
 Newark 
 
 26.34 
 
 Toledo 
 
 19.49 
 
 Washington 
 
 22.10 
 
 Worcester 
 
 12.61 
 
 Minneapolis 
 
 23-50 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 12.57 
 
 Seattle 
 
 3247 
 
 New Haven 
 
 15.46 
 
 Jersey City 
 
 21.65 
 
 Scranton 
 
 12.69 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 28.64 
 
 Spokane 
 
 35-15 
 
 Indianapolis 
 
 15-59 
 
 Paterson 
 
 15-28 
 
 Portland, Ore. 
 
 35-40 
 
 Omaha 
 
 20.11 
 
 Denver 
 
 19.24 
 
 Fall River 
 
 10.65 
 
 Rochester 
 
 15-24 
 
 Grand Rapids 
 
 17.60 
 
 Providence 
 
 9.68 
 
 Highest 
 
 35-40 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 11.09 
 
 Lowest 
 
 9.68 
 
 Columbus 
 
 11-35 
 
 Average 
 
 19.89 
 
Financing a Building Program in 
 
 2. PAYMENT FOR NEW SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 The cost of permanent improvements in American school sys- 
 tems has been chiefly met in the past by four diflerent plans: 
 
 1. By cash payment made possible by taxation additional to that 
 
 required for maintenance purposes. 
 
 2. By the issuance of bonds maturing at the end of a stated period 
 
 of years, payment being made by a refunding of such bonds. 
 
 3. By the issuance of bonds falling due at a stated interval, pay- 
 
 ment to be met through the establishment of a sinking fund. 
 
 4. By the issuance of serial bonds, the last payment falling due in 
 
 from ten to forty years. 
 
 The plan of pajang cash for school buildings is not readily ac- 
 cepted by communities, since the opinion prevails that in the case 
 of permanent improvements, the life of which will extend over a 
 period of years, not only the generation that builds but also the 
 generations that utilize such structures should be required to pay 
 their fair share of the initial cost. Ithaca, New York, may be cited 
 as a splendid example of communities that have been found willing 
 to pay for new school buildings by special taxation covering a period 
 of five years, thus obviating the necessity for bond issues and the 
 annual interest item for inclusion in the budget. Through a series 
 of misfortunes, Ithaca found herself in need of new school accommo- 
 dations. The plan of payment pursued is here given as outlined by 
 Superintendent Boynton. 
 
 After one month's public discussion in the press and otherwise, it was 
 voted two to one at a public tax election to build a new high and grammar 
 school building to cost $300,000, $250,000 of which was to be raised by direct 
 taxation in a single assessment, the other $50,000 being insurance money. 
 
 By a special act of the legislature affecting this city, the individual tax 
 might be paid in five equal annual installments, the four deferred payments to 
 bear interest at five per cent. Any person not desiring to avail himself of the 
 deferred payments might pay his entire tax in a single payment without such 
 penalty. The rate for this special tax was $25 per thousand. This $25 per 
 thousand was the total increase required for the $250,000 tax and was dis- 
 tributed over the five years for those who took the deferred payments but was 
 included in one year for those who paid the tax at one time. 
 
 It cannot be expected that many communities will follow such 
 a splendid example as has been set by cities like Ithaca. The ten- 
 dency of postponing payments for municipal improvements has 
 
112 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 developed with so little opposition in our cities that the change to 
 a cash basis or a complete "pay as you go' policy will only come 
 gradually. Cities which are growing with extreme rapidity can 
 be assured that the 'pay as you go' policy is the only fair one to 
 adopt toward future generations. Where the life of a city has been 
 short and the needs in the way of permanent improvements are 
 becoming, because of the rapidly increasing population, more and 
 more acute, obviously the 'pay as you go' policy is the only busi- 
 nesslike procedure to adopt. 
 
 Superintendent R. G. Jones in his Review of the Rockford, Illinois 
 Schools of iQi5-igi6,^^ presents a tabulation showing the differ- 
 ence in costs when paying for five schools on a cash basis and a 
 twenty-year serial bond basis. These figures are "based upon these 
 assumptions: (i) that the city of Rockford will grow as rapidly 
 during the next fifteen years as it has in the past fifteen ; (2) that 
 the assessed valuation will increase as much during the next fifteen 
 years as it has in the past fifteen; (3) that the school population 
 will increase in the same ratio during the next fifteen years as it 
 has during the past." 
 
 Mr. Jones estimates that on this basis the total cost of these five 
 buildings for each $100 of assessed valuation will be $2.3394 if the 
 bond plan is followed, and $2.3248, or a trifle less, if the cash basis 
 is utilized. 
 
 The second of the plans utiHzed in the past in the payment for 
 new school buildings has nothing to commend it. It is an extremely 
 unbusinesslike practice to refund when school bonds become due, 
 and leads to a multitude of schemes and expedients for concealment 
 of the real purpose for refunding. 
 
 The provisions covering the payment of bonded indebtedness 
 in Massachusetts cities are "based upon the theory that municipali- 
 ties should be required to pay their debts as soon as possible. 
 Failure to recognize the wisdom of this policy is certain to spell 
 financial disaster sooner or later for a city or town, for experience 
 has proven that the taxpayers of each generation have sufficient 
 burdens of their own without being obliged to carry those of their 
 predecessors." ^^ The 'pay as you go' policy is being recognized as 
 
 " p. 19. 
 
 '5 Report of a Special Investigation Relative to the Indebtedness of the Cities and Towns 
 of the Commonwealth, Wright & Potter Printing Co., Boston, 1912, p. 21. 
 
Financing a Building Program 113 
 
 necessary for the future solvency and progress of a city. Portland, 
 Ore., Denver, Washington, Louisville, and New Orleans have 
 resorted to this plan in the payment for new school buildings. 
 
 The practice of amortizing the bonded obligations of school 
 systems by means of a sinking fund has been rather common. The 
 two types ^' of sinking funds found in American cities are those with 
 and those without investments. Judging from studies that have 
 been made of the administration of sinking funds, it appears that 
 neither type of fund is satisfactory in providing payment for bonds. 
 The prevailing criticisms against the sinking fund plan are (i) the 
 misuse of sinking fund moneys on the part of public officials, (2) 
 the unscientific basis employed in the calculation of sinking fund 
 requirements, (3) the difficulty of instructing the public in the 
 complex nature of sinking fund plans, (4) the failure to provide for 
 proper investment of funds, (5) the inability of a democracy to 
 constantly provide the financial leadership necessary for the 
 proper maintenance of the fund, (6) the failure to establish a 
 proper fund and to make adequate annual contributions thereto 
 so that there would be a sufficient amount in the fund to meet the 
 debt at maturity, (7) the failure of proper audits by others than 
 the governing parties, (8) the success of the serial payment plan 
 of bonding and its ease of comprehension by the public, (9) the lack 
 of appreciation on the part of governing bodies of the importance 
 of sinking fund obligations — the primal security of the bond holder. 
 
 The following quotations show the general attitude toward the 
 sinking fund plan : 
 
 Even when the greatest care is exercised in the conduct of sinking funds, 
 the best measures that can be followed either fall short of meeting the require- 
 ments or overshoot the mark. This is inevitably consequent upon the uneven 
 amounts and periods in which the funds lie uninvested and at best yield only 
 bank interest on idle deposits. Sinking funds conducted upon scientific 
 principles and taking advantage of all established mathematical laws of annui- 
 ties and averages invariably come very close to providing the required 
 amount. They are never exact, however, and only by the exercise of extreme 
 care and watchfulness by experts in such matters can a close approximation 
 be secured. Moreover, there are being constantly uncovered in the revision 
 of public accounting methods and procedure sinking fund schemes con- 
 ducted so irrationally and with such disregard of mathematical rudiments 
 
 *' Financial Statistics of Cities, 1916, p. 100. 
 
114 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 as to lose all value and significance. They are merely spasmodic and wild 
 guesses at the requirements and reflect no coordinate provision whatever.*' 
 
 A sinking fund, however well it may be administered, is at best a cumber- 
 some means of accomplishing the desired end, since it involves not only the 
 obligation to keep the funds properly invested, but complicated mathematical 
 computations to insure equitable assessments upon the taxpayers during the 
 period of the loan in order that the debt may be paid at maturity ; and the 
 evidence is abundant of the establishment of sinking funds by our Massa- 
 chusetts cities and towns, doubtless in good faith, to which proper contribu- 
 tions have not been made from year to year, with the result that upon the 
 maturity of the loans these funds are found to be far short of the amount 
 necessary to pay the debt, with extension by refunding as the inevitable 
 result. The serial method of paying debt, on the other hand, not only obvi- 
 ates the administrative requirements of the sinking fund method, but it has 
 been demonstrated to be cheaper than the latter and it, therefore, imposes 
 a lighter burden upon the taxpayers, in the long run; not the least of its 
 advantages also is the fact that its operation is so simple as to be easily 
 understood by the ordinary citizen.^ 
 
 Investors have come to realize the uncertainty of the sinking fund, as 
 administered by public officials, to provide a stable means for the payment 
 of bonds they hold, and consequently are demanding a more positive form 
 of payment.*' 
 
 Officials are becoming convinced that it is financially inadvisable to main- 
 tain sinking funds with investments and are advocating funds of the second 
 class or the issue of serial bonds so maturing as to obviate the necessity of 
 any kind of sinking fund. It is to be noted in this connection that of the 
 twenty-five cities with no sinking funds in 1916 the majority reported no 
 funded obligations other than serial bonds.™ 
 
 Table LXVIII '^ shows the importance that must be attached to 
 the proper administration of the educational debt problem. Of 
 ail total non-productive debts Hsted in the table, it will be seen that 
 the most reiriarkable increase during the period 1880-1912 occurred 
 in the debt for educational purposes. This increase was from two 
 per cent to eleven per cent of the total debt. The increase on no 
 other single item approaches this amount. 
 
 " The Daily Bond Buyer, March 26, 191 7. 
 
 ^ A Special Investigation Relative to the Indebtedness of the Cities and Towns of the 
 Commonwealth, Boston, 1912, p. 23. 
 
 " Report of the Commission for the Survey of Municipal Financing, Trenton, N. J. 
 
 '"Financial Statistics of Cities, 1916, p. loi. 
 
 " The Purposes of Indebtedness of American Cities, 1880-1917, Bureau of Municipal 
 Research, New York. 
 
Financing a Building Program 
 
 115 
 
 The serial bond plan overcomes most of the objections already 
 enumerated. The short-term serial bond method is being more 
 generally accepted as the best plan for financing school buildings 
 which cannot be paid for by immediate taxation. The data of 
 Table LXIX show clearly the method of payment for a ten-year 
 serial bond issue of $3,000,000. 
 
 TABLE LXVIII 
 Changes in the Total Debt for Specific Purposes (1880 to 1912) 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Per capita 
 
 Per cent of 
 
 
 cities 
 
 burden 
 
 total debt 
 
 Purpose 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 igi2 
 
 1880 
 
 IQ12 
 
 1880 
 
 IQ12 
 
 1880 
 
 Total indebtedness 
 
 195 
 
 59 
 
 90.58 
 
 69.21 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 Total productive debt 
 
 159 
 
 43 
 
 28.63 
 
 16.99 
 
 31-6 
 
 24-5 
 
 Water-works 
 
 145 
 
 39 
 
 16.22 
 
 14.48 
 
 17.9 
 
 20.9 
 
 Improvement of waterways 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 4-15 
 
 1.81 
 
 4.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 Electric and gas 
 
 23 
 
 I* 
 
 ■52 
 
 .68 
 
 .6 
 
 i.o 
 
 Cemeteries 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 
 
 All other 
 
 68 
 
 22 
 
 11.89 
 
 1.83 
 
 I3-I 
 
 2.6 
 
 Total nonproductive debt 
 
 195 
 
 57 
 
 61.95 
 
 52.22 
 
 68.4 
 
 75-5 
 
 Educational 
 
 187 
 
 28 
 
 10.76 
 
 1-39 
 
 11.9 
 
 2.0 
 
 Recreation 
 
 123 
 
 19 
 
 5-36 
 
 4.98 
 
 5-9 
 
 7.2 
 
 Highways 
 
 168 
 
 31 
 
 10.20 
 
 9.07 
 
 11.2 
 
 12.9 
 
 Sewers 
 
 161 
 
 30 
 
 596 
 
 2.30 
 
 6.6 
 
 3-5 
 
 Bridges 
 
 104 
 
 18 
 
 3-43 
 
 2.40 
 
 3-8 
 
 3-5 
 
 Buildings 
 
 86 
 
 36 
 
 2.34 
 
 2.74 
 
 2.6 
 
 4.0 
 
 Protection 
 
 113 
 
 13 
 
 1.25 
 
 .26 
 
 1.4 
 
 ■4 
 
 War 
 
 * 
 
 24 
 
 * 
 
 3-31 
 
 4- 
 
 4.8 
 
 Railroads and other aid 
 
 * 
 
 30 
 
 * 
 
 571 
 
 * 
 
 8.3 
 
 Funding 
 
 82 
 
 39 
 
 7-15 
 
 11-45 
 
 8.0 
 
 16.5 
 
 Refunding 
 
 85 
 
 30 
 
 3-8i 
 
 6.36 
 
 4.2 
 
 9.2 
 
 Miscellaneous (all purposes) 
 
 * 
 
 19 
 
 * 
 
 2.25 
 
 * 
 
 3-2 
 
 Combined and unreported : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Funded 
 
 123 
 
 * 
 
 4-25 
 
 * 
 
 4-7 
 
 * 
 
 Special assessment 
 
 41 
 
 * 
 
 3-14 
 
 * 
 
 3-4 
 
 * 
 
 Miscellaneous (general) 
 
 115 
 
 * 
 
 3-99 
 
 * 
 
 4.6 
 
 * 
 
 Municipal industries 
 
 18 
 
 * 
 
 •30 
 
 % 
 
 •3 
 
 * 
 
 ■^ Items not included among separate items in the year indicated. 
 
Ii6 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 The serial bond plan causes the heaviest payments to be made 
 in the early years. If the heavier payments are made early, it will 
 permit of greater improvements in the years to come. The serial 
 bond plan is simple, is easily understood by all citizens, and offers 
 no administrative difficulties. 
 
 The recommendation made by the Director of the Bureau of 
 Statistics of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in his special 
 investigation above mentioned that cities be authorized to incur 
 debt for the acquiring of land and the building of schools within a 
 twenfy-year period only and that towns be required hereafter to 
 provide for the payment of funded debt by the serial method, so 
 called, is a recommendation that may be followed with profit by 
 any board of education in paying for its building program. In 
 Sections 5, 13, and 14 of the Municipal Indebtedness Act of 1913 of 
 Massachusetts, these suggestions have become law. 
 
 Section 5. Cities and towns may incur debt, within the limit of indebted- 
 ness prescribed in this act, for the following purposes, and payable within 
 the periods . . . specified. 
 
 3. For acquiring land for any purpose . . . and for the construction 
 of buildings . . . including the cost of original equipment and furnishing, 
 twenty years. 
 
 LXIX 
 
 Cost of a Bond Issue of $3,ooo,ooo-Serial Ten- Year 
 Bonds with Interest at four Per Cent 
 
 
 Annual payments 
 
 Annual interest 
 at 4 per cent 
 
 Amount to he raised by 
 
 Year 
 
 on a lo-year 4 per cent 
 basis 
 
 taxation each year 
 plus interest 
 
 1919 
 
 $300,000 
 
 $120,000 
 
 $420,000 
 
 1920 
 
 300,000 
 
 108,000 
 
 408,000 
 
 1921 
 
 300,000 
 
 96,000 
 
 396,000 
 
 1922 
 
 300,000 
 
 84,000 
 
 384,000 
 
 1923 
 
 300,000 
 
 72,000 
 
 372,000 
 
 1924 
 
 300,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 360,000 
 
 1925 
 
 300,000 
 
 48,000 
 
 348,000 
 
 1926 
 
 300,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 336,000 
 
 1927 
 
 300,000 
 
 24,000 
 
 324,000 
 
 1928 
 
 300,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 312,000 
 
 Total 
 
 $3,000,000 
 
 $660,000 
 
 $3,660,000 
 
Financing a Building Program 117 
 
 4. For the construction of additions to schoolhouses . . . including 
 the cost of original equipment and furnishings, where such additions increase 
 the floor space of said buildings to which such additions are made, twenty 
 years. 
 
 Section 13. No further sinking funds for the payment of debt shall be 
 established by any city or town. . . 
 
 Section 14. Cities and towns shall not issue any notes payable on demand, 
 and they shall provide for the payment of all debts ... by such annual 
 payments as will extinguish the same at maturity, and so that the first of such 
 annual payments on account of any loan shall be made not later than one 
 year after the date of the bonds or notes issued therefor, and so that the 
 amount of such annual payments in any year on account of such debts, so 
 far as issued, shall not be less than the amount of principal payable in any 
 subsequent year, and such annual amount, together with the interest on all 
 debts, shall, without further vote, be assessed until the debt is extin- 
 guished. . . . 
 
 The New Jersey Commission for the Survey of Municipal Finan- 
 cing reported in 1915 strongly in favor of the serial bond. They 
 found: 
 
 From an exhaustive investigation that the installment payment bond, 
 commonly known as the 'Serial Bond', is invariably displacing the term bond, 
 with sinking fund provisions for payment. The operation of this plan is 
 simple and yet most positive, and will prove a more economical and efficient 
 means of financing public requirements. 
 
 Bond houses, investors and the officials of municipalities who have given 
 this matter serious thought, recommend serial bonds for financing debt 
 obligations. 
 
 The favorable price at which serial bonds have sold in the past year proves 
 their economic market value, and adds conclusive proof to the favor that this 
 form of bond has with the buyers of municipal securities. 
 
 The serial plan does away with all the perplexities and risks of collecting, 
 investing, and safeguarding the sinking fund. It eliminates the long chain 
 of 'ifs' that are present in the sinking fund plan. It provides a means of 
 financing public obligations, with constantly decreasing carrying charges, 
 and will go a long way toward putting municipalities on a 'Pay as you go' 
 basis. . . 
 
 The serial bond embodies all the principles of sound financing, simplifies 
 the administration of public affairs, and will prove a most efficient means of 
 doing away with the refunding bond. 
 
 Table LXX shows the annual payments and total cost of an issue of 
 30-year $100,000 bonds bearing 4>^ per cent interest, under the sinking fund 
 and serial plans of payment. The comparisons are analyzed as follows: 
 
ii8 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 Difference in total cash outlay on t,)4 per cent sinking fund basis is 
 $23,363.90 equal to $8,323.45 compounded at ^J/i per cent, i. e., Term Bonds 
 should sell at $1.08323, to make the outlay cost on equal terms with serial 
 bonds at par. 
 
 Difference in total cash outlay on 4 per cent sinking fund basis is $17,740.30 
 equal to $5,777.54 compounded at 4 per cent, i. e.. Term Bonds should sell 
 at $1.05777 to make the outlay cost on equal terms with serial bonds at par. 
 
 There is no difficulty in discovering abuses of the serial plan form 
 of payment for school housing. When bonds have been issued for 
 too long a period such abuses may occur. Even though the last of 
 a bond issue still remains to be paid, the chief executive frequently 
 finds it necessary to recommend the complete abandonment or 
 rehabilitation of the building for which the bonds were originally 
 issued. This is one reason why short term issues preferably for ten 
 years or less, never above fifteen years, seem the wisest. 
 
 No bond issue should be permitted which will outlive the im- 
 provement or building itself. The need for such a policy is recog- 
 nized by at least one state in its state laws relating to public edu- 
 cation. Texas permits bonds issued for school building purposes 
 to run forty years, but where the school-house is built of wood the 
 bonds may not run longer than twenty years. Of forty-five states 
 twenty-five '^ had in January, 1913, laws on their statute books 
 determining the maximum life of bonds that might be issued by 
 school district, town, or city. Of the twenty-five cases noted, the 
 maximum life in three instances was forty years. In one case 
 thirty-four years, in two cases thirty years, in three cases twenty- 
 five years, in ten cases twenty years, in five cases fifteen years, and 
 in one case ten years. The minimum life was also established in 
 some of these laws. In one case, i. e., New Mexico, directors of 
 school districts may not issue bonds for erecting and completing 
 school-houses to run "not less than twenty years nor more than 
 thirty years." In two cases, ten years is set as the minimum life 
 of bonds, while in school districts in South Dakota "no bond shall 
 be payable in less than three nor more than fifteen years." 
 
 The actual practice which communities in the United States have 
 followed during this past year 191 7 in regard to the life of school 
 bond issues is presented in Table LXXI. This table includes 
 
 " Hood's Digest of State Laws Relating to Public Education, United States Bureau 
 of Education, Bulletin No. 47, 1915, p. 325 ff. 
 
Financing a Building Program 
 
 119 
 
 bonds issued for all educational purposes. Straight bonds are those 
 falling due at the end of a period of years. In reading the serial 
 bond section of the table it must be borne in mind that the period 
 
 TABLE LXX" 
 
 Comparisons of $100,000 30- Year 4>^ per Cent Bonds Under the 
 Sinking Fund and Serial Plans of Payment 
 
 End 
 of year 
 
 Annual payments with 
 jM P^ ^^^^ sinking fund 
 
 Annual -payment with 
 4 per cent sinking fund 
 
 Annual payment for 
 serial bonds 
 
 basis for term bonds 
 
 basis for term bonds 
 
 I 
 
 $6,437-13 
 
 $6,283.01 
 
 $7,833-33 
 
 2 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 7,683.33 
 
 3 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 7,533-33 
 
 4 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 7,383-33 
 
 5 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 7,233-33 
 
 6 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 7,083-33 
 
 7 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 6,933-33 
 
 8 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 6,783.33 
 
 9 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 6,633-33 
 
 10 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 6,48333 
 
 II 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283,01 
 
 6,333-33 
 
 12 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 6,183.33 
 
 13 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 6,033-33 
 
 14 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 5,883.33 
 
 15 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 5,733-33 
 
 16 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 5,583-33 
 
 17 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 5,433-33 
 
 18 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.of 
 
 5,283.33 
 
 19 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 5,133-33 
 
 20 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 4,983-33 
 
 21 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 4,833-33 
 
 22 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 4,683.33 
 
 23 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 4,533-33 
 
 24 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 4,383-33 
 
 25 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 4,233-33 
 
 ~ 26 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 4,083.33 
 
 27 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 3,933-33 
 
 28 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 •6,283.01 
 
 3,783-33 
 
 29 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 3,633-33 
 
 30 
 
 6,437-13 
 
 6,283.01 
 
 3,483-33 
 
 
 $193,113.90 
 
 $188,490.30 
 
 $169,750.00 
 
 " Report of the New Jersey Commission for the Survey of Municipal Financing, 1915- 
 
120 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 i-io includes serial bonds running from 3-8 years, 4-9 years, etc. 
 The period 1-20 years would in like manner include 5-15 years, 6-18 
 years, etc., serial issues. The table points out that many school 
 systems are still issuing bonds running for periods of upwards of 
 fifteen years. 
 
 State laws, have also attempted to regulate the rate of interest 
 at which bonds may be sold, decreeing at the same time that no 
 bonds should be sold at less than par. The maximum interest rate 
 determined upon by statute varies from four per cent in our eastern 
 states to eight per cent in the western states. The actual rates of 
 interest designated on 1,560 issues of school bonds of the year 19 17 
 varied, as is seen in Table LXXII from 3^ per cent to 6 per cent. 
 The average for all 1917 issues was 4.973 per cent; the median was 5 
 per cent. Of these bonds, a very large majority were sold at par or 
 slightly above. The distribution is given in this table according to 
 
 TABLE LXXI 
 School Bond Issues of 1917 — Distributed by Terms of Years 
 
 
 Term of years 
 
 Amount of issue 
 
 Straight bonds 
 
 Serial bonds 
 
 Total 
 
 
 o-S 
 
 6-10 
 
 I1-15 
 
 16-20 
 
 2I-2S 
 
 26-30 
 
 31-35 
 
 36-40 
 
 Total 
 
 l-io 
 
 1-20 
 
 1-30 
 
 1-40 
 
 Less than J4.999 
 $5,000-j9,999 
 
 58 
 29 
 
 61 
 36 
 
 38 
 32 
 
 27 
 33 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 S 
 
 
 I 
 
 188 
 143 
 
 20 
 8 
 
 10 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 219 
 1 75 
 
 10,000-19,999 
 
 19 
 
 43 
 
 35 
 
 51 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 168 
 
 11 
 
 35 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 222 
 
 20,000-29,999 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 123 
 
 
 16 
 
 S 
 
 
 144 
 
 30.000-49,999 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 36 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 136 
 
 50,000-99,999 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 3 , 
 
 117 
 
 I 
 
 IS 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 147 
 
 100,000-199,999 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 
 70 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 85 
 
 200,000-299,999 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 300,000-399,999 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 7 
 
 400,000-499,999 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 500,000-599,999 
 600,000-699,999 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 700,000-799,999 
 800,000-899,999 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 900,000-999,999 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 1,000,000- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,499,999 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,500,000- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,999,999 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 131 
 
 234 
 
 137 
 
 234 
 
 515 
 
 SO 
 
 3 
 
 « 
 
 057 
 
 46 
 
 iig 
 
 33 
 
 20 
 
 I.I75 
 
 Average term of years for all except serial bonds, 13.15. 
 Median term of years for all except serial bonds, 13.31. 
 Compiled from Municipal Bond Sales, 1917, New York City. 
 
Financing a Building Program 
 
 121 
 
 TABLE LXXII: School Bonds Issued in 1917 — Distributed by Amounts of 
 Issue and Rates of Interest 
 
 Amount 
 of issue 
 
 Rate of interest 
 
 3-65 4 
 
 Total 
 
 Less than 
 J4.999 
 
 5,000 
 9,999 
 
 10,000 
 19,999 
 
 20,000 
 29,999 
 
 30,000 
 49,999 
 
 50,000 
 99,999 
 
 100,000 
 199,999 
 
 200,000 
 299,999 
 
 300,000 
 399,999 
 
 400,000 
 499,999 
 
 500,000 
 599,999 
 
 600,000 
 699,999 
 
 700,000 
 799,999 
 
 800,000 
 899,999 
 
 900,000 
 999,999 
 
 1,000,000 
 1,499,999 
 
 1,500,000 
 1,999,999 
 
 Total 
 
 16 
 
 36 
 
 78 
 
 4 I 
 
 2? 
 
 873 
 
 148 
 
 208 
 
 1,560 
 
122 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 the amounts of issue. Evidently issues of small amounts carry 
 higher interest rates. 
 
 Table LXXIII brings out clearly the sectional variations in 
 these rates throughout the United States. 
 
 TABLE LXXIII" 
 Sectional Rates of Interest on School Bond Issues 
 
 
 Numhey of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average rate 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Highest 
 
 
 reported 
 
 of interest 
 
 rate of interest 
 
 rate of interest 
 
 New England States 
 
 36 
 
 4.27 
 
 4 
 
 \y2 
 
 Middle Atlantic States 
 
 158 
 
 4-58 
 
 3'A 
 
 6 
 
 South Eastern States 
 
 106 
 
 540 
 
 3% 
 
 6 
 
 Central States 
 
 308 
 
 4.80 
 
 3-65 
 
 6 
 
 West of Mississippi 
 
 939 
 
 5-09 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 United States 
 
 1,560 
 
 4-973 
 
 3K 
 
 6 
 
 Where legal statute provides certain limitations as to the amount 
 of educational debt permissible, serious difficulties may be en- 
 countered in the financing of a school building program. 
 
 The Commonwealth of Massachusetts has found that where 
 restrictions have been placed upon the incurring of funded debt of 
 cities through general statute, the number of special acts demanded 
 by communities for exemption from the burden of the statute has 
 practically vitiated the restriction.'^ Where the limitation is ex- 
 pressed in terms of percentages of total valuations, the remedy is 
 clear where one hundred per cent valuations are not the practice. 
 That limitations on a local debt are desirable will not be denied. 
 If the limitation is reasonable and already reached the 'pay as you 
 go' policy might be a possible solution where no general or special 
 per capita tax limit has been written upon the statute books. 
 
 From Table LXXIV it seems reasonable to infer that American 
 communities are not burdening themselves with too excessive debt 
 burdens for school buildings. The funded debts for American cities 
 incurred in the erection of school buildings ranged at the end of 
 
 '• Compiled from Municipal Bond Sales, 191 7, New York. 
 
 " Report of a Special Investigation Relative to the Indebtedness of the Cities and Towns 
 of the Commonwealth, Boston, 1912, p. 19 #. 
 
Financing a Building Program 123 
 
 the calendar year 1916 from $23,000 in Charleston, S. C, to $121,- 
 110,894 in New York City. The median point on this distribution 
 is approximately $610,000. The medians of this table may rightly 
 
 TABLE LXXIV 
 
 Funded Debt Incurred in the Erection of School Buildings 
 AS Existing in 1916 " 
 
 
 In cities whose population in igi6 was 
 
 
 
 500,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 Dates of 
 
 and 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 Total 
 
 
 over 
 
 500,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 
 Less than $100,000 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 II 
 
 $100,001- 300,000 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 33 
 
 41 
 
 300,001- 500,000 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 500,001- 700,000 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 27 
 
 700,001- 900,000 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 900,001- 1,100,000 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 1,100,001- 1,300,000 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 1,300,001- 1,500,000 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 
 14 
 
 1,500,001- 1,700,000 
 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 
 9 
 
 1,700,001- 1,900,000 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 1,900,001- 2,100,000 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 4 
 
 2,100,001- 2,300,000 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 2 
 
 2,300,001- 2,500,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,500,001- 2,700,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,700,001- 2,900,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,900,001- 3,100,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,100,001- 4,000,000 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 4,000,001- 5,000,000 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 5,000,001- 6,000,000 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6,000,001- 7,000,000 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 7,000,001- 8,000,000 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 8,000,001- 9,000,000 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 9,000,001-10,000,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Over 10,000,000 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ToUil No. of Cities 
 
 7 
 
 P 
 
 44 
 
 62 
 
 84 
 
 206 
 
 Median Points " 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 5,500,000 
 
 1,225,000 
 
 633,000 
 
 333,000 
 
 610,000 
 
 "Compiled from Financial Statistics of Cities, 1916, 326/". 
 "Approximate 
 
124 
 
 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 be used as- measures in determining the advisability of extending a 
 school building program by increasing the educational debt. 
 
 In the final analysis of the ability of any community to pay, the 
 following medians may be utilized as measures. A superintendent 
 of schools who locates his own city in reference to the medians given 
 on this table will find it profitable to use the rating obtained in pre- 
 senting to his public the expenditures and financial needs of the 
 school system which has been put into his charge. 
 
 TABLE LXXV 
 
 Medians of All Cities of 30,000 Population and Over on Various 
 Financial Distributions, 1909-1916 
 
 Year 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 igii 
 
 1912 
 
 1013 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 ipi6 
 
 Estimated true value of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 per capita assessment 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $1,087 
 
 Tax rate per $1,000 of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 estimated true value 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of property 
 
 $12.14 
 
 $i2.gi 
 
 $12.42 
 
 $12.35 
 
 $12.04 
 
 
 $12.90 
 
 $13.23 
 
 Per capita tax levies 
 
 $11.60 
 
 $12.00 
 
 $11.95 
 
 $12.50 
 
 $12.53 
 
 
 $14.11 
 
 $14.18 
 
 Per capita net debt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $42.65 
 
 Per cent of city expenses 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 devoted to schools 
 
 34-6 
 
 3S-4 
 
 34-8 
 
 35-2 
 
 3S-2 
 
 
 35-9 
 
 36.9 
 
 Per capita governmental 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cost payments of ex- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 penses for schools 
 
 $4.04 
 
 $4.09 
 
 $4-19 
 
 J4.34 
 
 J4.33 
 
 
 $4.86 
 
 *S.I4 
 
 Cost for school mainte- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nance per pupil in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 average daily atten- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dance 
 
 J33-3I 
 
 $33-46 
 
 J35.94 
 
 J37-4S 
 
 $38.64 
 
 *39-39 
 
 $40.95 
 
 $42.76 
 
 Per capita expenditure 
 
 For 
 
 entire 
 
 period 
 
 $14.84 
 
 For 
 
 entire 
 
 period 
 
 
 for capital outlays 
 
 
 1899- 
 
 1916 
 
 
 
 1899- 
 
 1916 
 
 
 Average rate of interest 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 on school bonds 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.973% 
 
 Bonded indebtedness in- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 curred for school build- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ings 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $610,000 
 
CONCLUSIONS 
 
 Some of the underlying principles involved in developing school 
 building programs have been reviewed in the foregoing pages. 
 Public service corporations have in the past found it necessary to 
 couple prognostications of population growth with far-sighted plan- 
 ning in order that they might provide a maximum of service at a 
 minimum of expenditure. The telephone companies of our large 
 cities have been notable examples of such procedure. It has been 
 the writer's experience that relatively few school systems, however, 
 give consideration to their building needs except as the immediate 
 demand for more accommodations occurs. 
 
 Detailed studies of large school systems like those of St. Paul, 
 Omaha, and Paterson, have pointed out that such a lack of planning 
 has prevailed over the entire period during which the school plants 
 were actually being constructed. The failure to recognize accepta- 
 ble standards, the location of buildings without direct reference to 
 future population or school needs, the failure to purchase adequate 
 sites so that sufficient playground space could be provided for 
 children, and especially the failure to purchase sites in advance, are 
 evidences of the lack of any systematic building programs in these 
 cities. 
 
 The available literature on school building programs is very 
 limited. The programs as outlined for Minneapolis, Milwaukee, 
 St. Paul, Omaha, Framingham, and a few minor places, as men- 
 tioned in the bibliography, are, as far as the writer has been able 
 to ascertain, the only definite attempts to put into tangible form 
 the anticipated building needs of school systems. The constantly 
 increasing costs of school building construction, combined with the 
 growing demand for economy and efficiency in education, have 
 emphasized the need for the development of school building pro- 
 grams in all of our cities. In this way only will unnecessary dupli- 
 cation be avoided, building faults resulting from ignorance or 
 haste be reduced to a minimum, and educational needs anticipated 
 so that suitable and economical structures will be built. 
 
126 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 The writer has conceived a school building program as being 
 divided into three major parts: first, the measurement of popula- 
 tion; second, the measurement of the school plant; and third, the 
 measurement of the ability of the community to pay for extensions 
 to the school plant. It has been pointed out that the majority of 
 American cities develop with such a degree of regularity that popu- 
 lation growth may be anticipated with a fair degree of reliability 
 over a period of years to come. The studies that have been made 
 by the telephone companies in Milwaukee and Omaha show what 
 may be done in the way of prognostication. The relationship 
 between total population and school population vitally affects the 
 school building program. In order that school administrators may 
 check the accuracy of their own school census this relationship be- 
 tween school and total population for cities has been shown. Where 
 the addition of one child to the school enrollment means an expendi- 
 ture of one hundred and fifty to two hundred dollars for housing 
 and equipment, the reason for knowing the exact number of chil- 
 dren who are entitled to the care and attention of the school system 
 is evident. 
 
 That the problem of securing an accurate school census has not 
 been given very serious consideration by many school executives is 
 evident from the tables showing the relationship claimed between 
 total population and school population. The school executive who 
 finds his school system ranking in the first and fourth quartiles of 
 these distributions may indeed find it profitable to inquire into the 
 accuracy and reliability of his census figures. It would seem that 
 every community, in order to anticipate school needs, must have a 
 thorough system of registration for all children within the com- 
 munity. The individual who is compelled to serve the state should 
 be compelled to secure that education which will permit him to 
 serve the state according to the best of his abilities. 
 
 In Part I have also been presented methods utilized in develop- 
 ing building programs in various localities. When selection is being 
 made of cities for purposes of comparison, it has been pointed out 
 that such a selection should be made not on the basis of total popu- 
 lation as it exists at the time of selection, but on the basis of approxi- 
 mately equal increments to population over a period of two or three 
 decades. Thus is provided a list of cities whose school building 
 problems have presented somewhat similar difficulties. 
 
Conclusions 12^ 
 
 The measurement of the school building plant with and without 
 the aid of a score card forms the substance of Part II. The results 
 of such measurement in four school systems — St. Paul, Omaha, 
 Paterson, and Framingham — are given in part with the hope of 
 showing school executives the advantages that may be gained from 
 such a close scrutiny of the school plant. 
 
 Part III has been devoted to financial considerations involved in 
 providing additional school accommodations in any city. Tabula- 
 tions of per capita wealth, indebtedness, and expenditures on 
 various bases have been presented which will furnish boards of 
 education and school executive means for comparison of their own 
 situation with that of cities of twenty-five to thirty thousand and 
 over. It is hoped that the day will not be far distant when these 
 tabulations are extended to all cities of five thousand and above, 
 since it is frequently through such financial comparisons that tax- 
 payers are influenced to make appropriations for educational 
 development above what they had previously considered sufficient. 
 Table LXXV may be utilized as a final means of measurement of 
 what a community is able to do and has done in the way of appro- 
 priating money for educational needs. 
 
 Through the adoption of a program as above outlined, it is 
 hoped the following may be among the aims secured. 
 ^ I. That boards of education and school superintendents may 
 include in their building policy programs of modernization of old 
 buildings, as well as a program of abandonment of old buildings 
 which are no longer adequate in the light of present educational 
 demands. 
 
 2. That boards of education may adopt minimum standards, 
 above and beyond the requirements laid down by state departments, 
 according to which future school buildings must be built. The 
 adoption of such standards, and the exaction from architects of a 
 close adherence to them, will eliminate many of the defects which 
 can be found in buildings of even recent construction. 
 
 3. That communities which have adopted a building program 
 over a period of years will not find it necessary to indulge in strenu- 
 ous campaigns for building every time that a separate building 
 unit must be built. 
 
 4. That land to be used ultimately for school sites will be pur- 
 chased in advance of actual need in newly developing sections of 
 
128 A School Building Program jor Cities 
 
 cities in such amounts that the children of the next generation will 
 have adequate play and breathing space. Such land may be 
 utilized for various purposes, such as school gardens, parks, and 
 athletic fields, until it becomes necessary to build. 
 
 5. That such sites be chosen only after a most thorough study 
 of population trend and future industrial and commercial devel- 
 opments. 
 
 6. That in the purchase of such lands rigid standards as to 
 environment be considered and city ordinances passed insuring per- 
 manently a satisfactory environment for any school building built 
 subsequently upon this land. 
 
 7. That communities will realize that efficient management of 
 school business, as of any other business, includes the formulation 
 of future educational policies. The adoption of an educational 
 platform becomes necessary when the administration begins to 
 think in terms of future building construction. 
 
 8. That in the development of school building programs no 
 section of any community may receive consideration above and 
 beyond that received by all sections. 
 
 9. That sections not adequately aroused to needs be influenced 
 to think in terms of educational developments. 
 
 10. That educational financial needs may be properly emphasized 
 when other demands are being made upon the public treasury. 
 
 1 1 . That no community be permitted to lull itself into believing 
 that only immediate needs require consideration. The issuance 
 of long-time bonds will not be permitted where communities realize 
 the burdens that the next generation must assume. 
 
 Finally, it is hoped that superintendents of schools may find 
 within the program as outlined suggestions which will assist them 
 in presenting their arguments for building extensions before boards 
 of education and patrons who are not yet alive to the educational 
 needs of their communities. If this volume becomes in this way 
 of only slight assistance to superintendents of schools, the writer 
 will feel that his work has been of some avail. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Annual Report, City Commissioner of Public Works, St. Paul, Minn., 1915. 
 Annual Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1899-1917. 
 Annual Report, School-house Department, Public School System, Boston. 
 
 Mass., 1913-1914. 
 Daily Bond Buyer, March 26, 1917. 
 Cubberley: School Organization and Administration. World Book Co., 
 
 Yonkers, N. Y. 
 Curtis: The Reorganized School Program, Bulletin, No. 40, 1913, United 
 
 States Bureau of Education. 
 Dressler: American School-houses, Bulletin No. 5, 1910, United States 
 
 Bureau of Education. 
 Engelhardt: Triennial Report of the School System, Dunkirk, N. Y., ipij- 
 
 IQ16. 
 Financial Statistics of Cities. Department of Commerce.Bureau of the Census, 
 
 Washington, D. C, 1904-1916. 
 Harbach and Hart: A Constructive Survey of the -Milwaukee School Build- 
 ings and Sites of igi6. Board of Education, Milwaukee, Wis. 
 Haynes: The Milwaukee Recreation Survey. Milwaukee Bureau of Economy 
 
 and Efficiency, No. 15, 1912. 
 Hood, et al. : State Laws Relating to Public Education, Bulletin No. 47, 1915, 
 
 United States Bureau of Education. 
 Jones: A Review of the Rockford Public Schools. Rockford, 111., 1915-1916. 
 JUDD, et al. : Grand Rapids Survey. Board of Education, Grand Rapids, Mich. 
 "Municipal Bond Sales," The Bond Buyer, New York City, 1917. 
 Purposes of Indebtedness of American Cities, 1880-1917, Bureau of Municipal 
 
 Research, New York, 1917. 
 Reid: Fifth Report of the Board of Education, Louisville, Ky., igi 3-1916. 
 Report of the Commission for the Survey of Municipal Financing, Trenton, 
 
 N. J., 1915- 
 
 Report of a Special Investigation Relative to the Indebtedness of the Cities and 
 Towns of the Commonwealth. Wright & Potter Printing Co., Boston, 1912. 
 
 Selected List of Works Relating to City Planning and Allied Topics. New York 
 Public Library, New York City, 1913. 
 
 Stecher: "A Guide to Determining the Minimum Size of School Play- 
 grounds," Mind and Body. Mind & Body Publishing Co., New Ulm, Minn. 
 
 Spaulding: A Million a Year. Board of Education, Minneapolis, Minn.,1916. 
 
 Strayer: Score Card for City School Buildings. Bureau of Publications, 
 Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. 
 
130 A School Building Program for Cities 
 
 Strayer, et al.: Framingham, Mass., Building Survey. Board of Education, 
 Framingham, Mass., 1917. 
 
 Strayer, et al.: Some Problems in City School Administration. World Book 
 Co., Yonkers, N. Y., 1916. 
 
 Strayer and Engelhardt: BfAlding Survey, St. Paul Public Schools. St. 
 Paul, Minn., 1917. 
 
 Strayer and Neale: Great Neck Survey. Great Neck Association, Great 
 Neck, Long Island, N. Y. 
 
 Strayer, Engelhardt and Hart : A School Building Program for the City 
 of Omaha, Neb., 1917. 
 
 Strayer and Trabue: School Building Survey, Pelham, N. Y., 1917. (Un- 
 published.) 
 
 Terman: School Building Survey, Denver, Colo., 1916. 
 
 Van Sickle, et al.: Educational Survey of the Public Schools, Brookline, Mass., 
 
 1917- 
 Van Sickle, et al.: Report of the Boston School Department. The Finance 
 
 Commission of the City of Boston, Mass., 1916. 
 United States Census Reports. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the 
 
 Census, Washington, D. C, 1890, 1900, 1910. 
 
VITA 
 
 The author of this dissertation, Nickolaus Louis Engelhardt, 
 was born at Naugatuck, Conn., October 8, 1882. He received his 
 early education in the public schools of Connecticut, graduating 
 from the Naugatuck High School, Naugatuck, Conn., in 1899. His 
 undergraduate collegiate work was done at Yale University, New 
 Haven, Conn., where he received the degree of Bachelor of Arts 
 in 1903. His career as a teacher and administrator includes three 
 years' teaching in private schools, three years as a teacher in the 
 Auburn (N. Y.) High School, three and one-half years as principal 
 of the Dunkirk (N. Y.) High School, and three and one-half years 
 as superintendent of schools at Dunkirk, N. Y. The author was a 
 student at Columbia University summer school in 1914-1915-1916. 
 He was associate in educational administration. Teachers College, 
 Columbia University, 1916-1918. 
 
"^Mf^"^