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O u < 3 w s H > a: u S O Q ►J H T HE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE: AN OUTLINE OF THE STYLES IN ALL COUNTRIES • « « * BY CHARLES THOMPSON MATHEWS, M. A. FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS AUTHOR OF THE RENAISSANCE UNDER THE VALOIS NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1896 Copyright, 1896, By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. INTRODUCTORY. Architecture, like philosophy, dates from the morning of the mind's history. Primitive man found Nature beautiful to look at, wet and uncomfortable to live in; a shelter became the first desideratum; and hence arose " the most useful of the fine arts, and the finest of the useful arts." Its history, however, does not begin until the thought of beauty had insinuated itself into the mind of the builder. All the previous unfolding of the craft belongs under the head of archaeology. Roughly defined, architecture is the art of orna- mental construction ; not ornamental in the sense of decorated, but in the harmonious distribution of mass, in the convincing beauty of proportion. The entire subject is based on three simple constructive princi- ples — that of the lintel, in which two uprights support a crosspiece, as seen in the austere temples of Egypt and the beautiful tranquil art of Greece ; that of the arch or vault, especially characteristic of Roman and Romanesque work when large spaces required to be spanned ; and that of the truss, or compound beam, composed of several subordinate pieces of wood or vi THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the Gothic gradually gave place to the Renaissance or revival of Roman forms. A brief period of servile classicism intervened, and then followed the general eclecticism of the present day. Hence it will be seen that the temples of Egypt, Assyria, Greece, and Rome, the mosques of Byzantium, Cairo, and Granada, the Gothic cathedrals, and the Renaissance palaces — all belong to one huge architectural family, each having its own peculiar charm of line and colour. Four other schools matured in Asia, namely, the Brahman and Buddhist styles of India, and the evo- lutions from tent and hut in China and Japan re- spectively ; while the local phases of lintel construc- tion in the early architecture of Mexico, Central America, and Peru complete the entire syllabus of styles. Thus it only remains to mention what is known as character and its requirements before be- ginning analysis. Character in architecture means the expression of an emotion or feeling, as solemnity, grandeur, gayety, or repose, for "art is the ability to create a mood." In its higher forms, character can only be obtained through beauty of proportion and distribution of mass, for mere embellishment seldom dignifies ; in- deed, it rather dwarfs and degrades. To conceive grandly is the first requisite in every architect, and a requirement in the communication of character; for in art the thought ever outstrips its possible embodi- ment, and the hand can only reproduce the thought in a diminished way. Many a young artist, delicately organized and tremulously sensitive to art, finds himself utterly in- INTROD UCTOR Y. vii capable of thus musing in a monumental way. Such a one should seek the simple and severe, not pursue the picturesque and pretty, which, after all, has little in common with the best architecture. Thus a church should never be pretty, for prettiness is the province of chapels or cottages, while a cathedral should be grand, serious, and solemn as a requiem, and palaces should always be imposing. Overrefinement is often admissible in the sister arts. Sculptors welcome the orfivrerie of Cellini, the figurines of Tanagra ; literati delight in the felicitous phrasing of Gautier, Villon, and Walter Pater ; paint- ers revel in the exquisite gems of Watteau, Boucher, Vanloo, and Petitot; but no one admires the archi- tecture of Fontana, Borromini, and Maderno. Elle^st trop travailUe. From this it will be seen that character, dependent on proportion or constructive beauty, determines the real architectural value of a work. But constructive beauty depends on the principles involved in the va- rious historic styles. Hence the utility of the follow- ing sketch. Q r^ jyj_ New York, September, i8g6. THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE. mestic architecture. Japan : History — Dwellings — Furni- ture — Palaces — Castles — Temples and pagodas. Bibliography. — Lamprey : Chinese Architecture. Gutzlaff : History of China. W. Simpson : Architecture of China. Lowell : Land of the Morning Calm. Lowell : Occult Japan. Chamberlain : Things Japanese. Morse : Japanese Homes. Ichi Keikichi ; Lec- tures. Tsumaki : Treatise on Japanese Architecture. Dyer Bell : Things Chinese. Chamberlain : Handbook. Satow : Handbook. Mitford : Tales of Old Japan. Conder : Japanese Architecture, printed in Transactions of Royal Institute of B. A., i8S6-'87. Mc- Clatchie : Feudal Mansions of Veddo. CHAPTER IV. Mexico, Central America, and Peru . . . .100 Aztec palaces and temples — Cholula, Palenque, and Uxmal — Sculpture in Guatemala — Peruvian houses — Fortificat ens, caravansaries, etc. Bibliography.— Prescott : Conquest of Peru. Acosta : Naturall and Morall Historic of the East and West Indies. R. Dunlop : Travels in Central America. Prescott : Conquest of Mexico. Ban- delier : Mexico. Chamay : Ancient Cities of the New World. CHAPTER V. The Assyrian style and Western Asia . . .117 General characteristics — Birs Nimroud — The splendours of Nineveh — Palace of Assurbanipal — Assyrian roofs — Temple of Jerusalem — Babylon — Persepolis — The Sassanian kings. Bibliography.— Layard : Nineveh and Babylon. Benoni : Nin- eveh and its Palaces. Loftus : Travels in Chaldasa and Susiana. Wright : Ancient Cities. Colomb : Habitations et Edifices. Mas- pero : Histoire Ancienne. Perrot et Chipiez : History of Art in Persia. CHAPTER VI. Greece 141 The Pelasgic period — Mycenae — The Periclean period — The Doric order — Temple at Corinth — Aids to evolution — The Parthenon — The Ionic order — The Erectheion — The Corin- thian order — Monument of Lysicrates — Theatre, circus, gym- nasium, and market — Private dwellings, etc. — Fruits of Greek art. Bibliography.— Beule: L'Acropole d'Ath^nes. Dr. Smith: History of Greece. Van Brunt; Greek Lines. Plutarch: Lives. CONTENTS. XI „ PAGE Stuart and Revett : Antiquities of Athens. Tuckerman : Short His- tory of Architecture. Homer : Iliad and Odyssey. Fergiisson : History of Architecture. Mahaffy : Old Greek Life. Fyffe : History of Greece. CHAPTER VII. Etruria and Rome 182 The Tuscan order — Roman orders — Roman buildings and furniture — Palace at Spalato — Temples — The Pantheon — Arches and columns — Aqueducts, baths, and theatres — Tombs and basilicas. Bibliography. — Tuckerman : Vignola. Vitruvius : Works. Wil- kins : Roman Antiquities. Bullock : History of Architecture. Batis- sier : Histoire de I'Art Monumental. Smith : Synopsis of the Origin and Progress of Architecture. Elmes : Architecture. Lesueur : His- toire de 1' Architecture. Nichols : The Marvels of Rome. De Bus- sidre : Les Sept Basiliques de Rome. Donovan : Rome Ancient and Modern. Vedute di Roma. M. P. : Rome, Histoire de Ses Monu- ments Anciens et Modernes. Descrizione di Roma Antica. CHAPTER VIII. The Byzantine style 219 City of Constantine — Santa Sophia — Splendour of the style — Byzantine mosaics — Byzantine churches in France. Bibliography.— Bayet : Precis de I'Histoire de I'Art. Osten : Die Bauwerke in der Lombardei. Lenoir : Architecture Monastique. Theophile Gautier ; Constantinople. Sante-Simone : L'Architettura Bisantina. Salzenberg : Alt-christliche Bau-denkmale von Constan- tinopel. Bayet: L'Art ByEantin. Grosvenor: The Hippodrome of Constantinople. Choisy : L'Art de B&tir Chez les Byzantins. D'An- vers : Elementary History of Art. VioUet-le-Duc : L'Art Russe. Theophile Gautier : Voyage en Russie. CHAPTER IX. . Early Christian architecture 241 Seating arrangement — General characteristics — Architecture after Theodosius — Baptisteries and tombs^Lombard archi- tecture. BiBLlOGRAPHY.^Canina : Tempii Cristiani Roma. Schulz : Denkmaler der Kunst des Mittelalters in Unteritalien. Bunsen : Die Basiliken des christlichen Roms. Seroux d'Agincourt : Histoire de I'Art par les Monuments. Knapp : Monumenti dell' Antico Culto Cristiano. Robert Stuart : Dictionary of Architecture. Perate : Archeologie Chretienne. Lanciani : Pagan and Christian Rome. xii THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER X. PAGE The Mahometan or Saracenic style .... 256 The Kaabali — Important features in mosques — The house of Al Abbas — Dwellings at Cairo — Indian mosques and gate- ways — The Western style — Mosque of Cordova woodwork — The Turkish phase — The Ahmediye. Bibliography. — Coste : Monuments Modernes de la Perse. Owen Jones : Grammar of Ornament. Gayet : L'Art Arabe. Goury and Jones : Plans, Elevations, etc., of the Alhambra. Coste : Monu- ments du Kaire. Girault de Prang^ey : Monuments Arabes et Mau- resques, etc. Parvillee-i Architecture, etc., Turques. Girault de Prangey: Choix d'Ornements Moresques de 1' Alhambra. Guide to Constantinople. Gayet : L'Art Persan. Bourgoin : Precis de I'Art Arabe. CHAPTER XI. The Romanesque style, sometimes called round- arched Gothic 290 History — The basilica the basis — Notre-Dame-la-Grande at Poitiers — Cathedral at Pisa — Development of schools — Archi- tecture of Caen — Norman architecture — Spread of the Ro- manesque — Romanesque in Italy. Bibliography.— Anthyme St. Paul : Histoire Monumentale de la France. Peyre : Histoire Generale des Beaux Arts. Reber : His- tory of Medieval Architecture. De Caumont : Histoire de I'Arehi- tecture Religieuse au Moyen Age. Corroyer : Architecture Romane. Gailhabaud : Monuments Anciens et Modernes. Katissier : Histoire de I'Art Monumental, etc. Norton : Historical Studies of the Build- ings of the Middle Ages. CHAPTER XII. The Gothic si yle— Ecclesiastical . . . .319 France— Secular uses of cathedrals— The pointed arch— The Gothic style— Uses of Gothic ornament— The early French period— Second and third periods— Exuberance of ornament —English Gothic— Early English— Masonic influence— Salis- bury Cathedral— Perpendicular style. CHAPTER XIII. The Gothic style— Secular Castles, chateaus, and manor houses— Italian and Venetian architecture — Dwelling houses. V n7,"'n Bibliography -Corroyer: Architecture Gothique. Viollet-le-Duc ; Dictionnaire Raisonne. Brandon : Analysis of Gothic 363 CONTENTS. xiii PAGE Architecture. Pettit : Architectural Studies. Murray : Handbook of English Cathedrals. Davies : Architectural Studies. Rickman : Gothic Architecture. Ramee : Histoire de I'Architecture. Johnson : Early French Architecture. T. Roger Smith : Gothic and Renaissance Architecture. Nesfield ; Specimens of Medi£eval Architecture. Willis : Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral. Parker: Introduction to Gothic Architecture. Liibke : Ecclesiastical Art in Germany during the Middle Ages. Street : Gothic Architecture in Spain. Strack-Letaronilly : Baudenkmaeler Roms. CHAPTER XIV. The Renaissance 377 Italy — The cinque cento — Brunelleschi and others— The sec- ond period — Bramante and his associates — Michel Angelo — Vignola — Barocco style — Early French Renaissance — Renais- sance of Henry II — Under the Bourbons — The Rococo — The late Renaissance. CHAPTER XV. The Renaissance— fo«/z««^^ 403 England — Elizabethan characteristics — The Jacobean style — The Wren period — The eighteenth century — Vanbrugh and others — German Renaissance — The seventeenth century — Spain — The Plateresco style — The Griego-Romano — The Chur- rigueresco. Renaissance Bibliography.— Fergusson : History of Modem Architecture. Burckhardt : The Civilisation of the Renaissance. Palustre: L' Architecture de la Renaissance. Symonds: The Re- naissance of the Fine Arts in Italy. Walter Pater : The Renais- sance. Palladio : Works. Du Cerceau : Les Plus Excellents Basti- ments de France. Lady Dilke : The Renaissance of the Fine Arts in France. Sauvageot : Choix de Palais, etc. Berty : La Renaissance Monumental. Daly : Motifs Historiques d' Architecture. De la Sausraye : Blois et ces Environs. Roussel : Chdteau d'Anet. Pfnor : ChUteau d'.\net. Mathews: The Renaissance under the Valois. Nash : Mansions of England. Gotch : Architecture of the Renais- sance in England. Richardson : Architectural Remains of the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I. Britton : Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain. Lubke : Geschichte der Renaissance in Deutsch- land. Fritsch ; Denkmaeler der deutschen Renaissance. Robert : Spanish Sketches. Verdier et Cattois : Architecture Civile et Do- mestique. CHAPTER XVI. American architecture .... . . 428 Early influences — Colonial characteristics — Virginia and Mary- land — Early ecclesiastical architecture — The Gothic revival — T THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Richard Upjohn — Richardson and Hunt — Adaptation of Euro- pean buildings — Business buildings — Influence of the World's Fair. Bibliography.— Chandler : Colonial Architecture of Maryland, etc. Westcott : Historic Mansions of Philadelphia. Goforth and McAuley : Old Colonial Architectural Details. Cleaveland and Camp- bell : American Landmarks. Wallis : American Architectural Deco- ration and Furniture. Everett (editor) : Historic Churches of Amer- ica. Architectural Record, iSgi-'gz. Long : Ancient Architecture of America. Perkins : Old Houses, etc., of Norwich. Schuyler : American Architecture. Shinn ; Handbook of Notable Epiicopal Churches. Publishers' Note. — While this bibliography is not exhaustive it will be found helpful, and its usefulness will be increased by the plan of topical division, which has been introduced as an aid to the student and adhered to, although several works belong to more than one chapter. LIST OF FULL-PAGE PLATES. The Field Museum, formerly the Fine Arts Building, Jackson Park, Chicago . . ... Frontispiece Examples of Egyptian capitals . . 14 Ruins at Karnak ... .20 Entrance to the Temple of Karli ... . 39 A gopura or gate pyramid . . .45 The choultry at Chillumbaram ... 47 Palace at Bangkok . . . . 58 The towers of Angcor-Baion . . ... 60 The Temple of Heaven . ... 73 Castle of Nagoya . . .88 Torii at Nikko . . . ... 92 Shinto temple of Izumo . . 94 Gateway of Tokugawa temple at Nikko . ... 96 House of the Nuns .... , .107 .Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad, re.':tored . . . 124 The Greek Orders 149 Greek Doric Order from the Temple of Theseus . . 154 Front elevation of the Parthenon, restored by Stuart and Revett. 157 The pediments of the Parthenon ._ . 159 Ionic Order. From the Erectheion at Athens . . 1C2 Doorway from the Erectheion at Athens . . 169 The Corinthian Order . . . . .172 Roman Ionic, Roman Corinthian, and Composite Orders . igo Portion of arcaded street in the palace at Spalato . . . 194 Southern portion of palace at Spalato . . 196 Arch of Titus . . . 201 Church of Sta. Sophia 224 Interior of San Vitale at Ravenna 235 xvi THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE. PAGE 268 273 278 281 The Church of St. Basil at Moscow Mosque of Kaitbey at Cairo . Great Mosque at Delhi . Mosque of Corilova Plan of the Alhambra from Le Nomiancl Romanesque construction ; longitudinal section . 295 Romanesque construction ; transverse section . . . 297 Fa9ade of Notre-Dame-Ia-Grande at Poitiers 299 Cathedral at Pisa ....... . 303 Comparative series showing Greek and Roman methods of support. 306 Comparative series showing Romanesque and Gothic methods of support . . ... Section showing construction in the Church of St. -Denis Plan of Rheims Cathedral Fafade and towers at Notre Dame, Paris . Interior of Cathedral of Amiens Church of St.-Pierre, at Caen Church of St.-Ouen, at Rouen Iffley Church, Oxfordshire Plan of an English Cathedral West front of York Minster . Chancel showing panelling in the peipendicular style . King's College Chapel, Cambridge Cathedral at Sienna Palaces on the Grand Canal, Venice Half-timbered houses of Lisieux Hotel de Ville at Ypres Palais de Justice at Rouen . Loggia of the Vatican .... Pandolfini Palace at p-lorence St. Paul's Cathedral, London . I'atio Casa de la Infanta, Saragossa ... . 422 The Giralda, Seville . . . 425 Office building in Milwaukee .... . 455 There are also 175 illustrations in the text. 307 325 329 333 335 337 339 346 348 353 355 357 360 368 370 372 374 385 388 409 THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER I: EGYPT AND NUBIA. Egypt, geologicall}' the youngest of all coun- tries, contains, curiously enough, our oldest well- preserved monuments. For over a thousand miles on either bank of the Nile rise temples, pyramids, and gigantic monoliths, older than the cave-dwellings of Tartary, the palaces of Nineveh, or the venerable temples on the Ganges, and existing thousands of years before the hanging gardens of Semiramis were even conceived. The history of these great monuments divides naturall)' into four distinct periods : the Memphite, extending from about 4000-3000 B. c, and devoted mainly to the building of pyramids; the Theban (3000-1 100 B. c), to which belong the finest obelisks, temples, and palaces; and the ^rtzV^ (i 100-400), dur- ing which occurred an era of decline ; while the fourth period, or Ptolemaic age, is marked mainly by a revival, in which, while architecture lost some of its majesty and dignity, it gained a certain elegance and refinement, due to Greek influence. But among the glorious despotisms which bore architectural fruit before the date ascribed to the Flood, those of Cheops, Chephren, and Mycerinus in the fourth dynasty deserve special attention. Not that 2 EGYPT AND NUBIA. the oldest monuments were built during the reigns of these kings (for the pyramids of Sakkarah, Dashour, and Medoun all date hundreds of years before this royal trio were born ; while Menes, the founder of Memphis, built dikes and the Temple of Ptah some four thousand years before the Christian era) ; but to Cheops, Chephren, and Mycerinus we owe the prin- Fig. I. — Pyramid of Cheops. cipal pyramids of the group of Gizeh (Fig. i), which are held the most important typical and instructive creations of their kind throughout the land. These great masses of masonry, fifteen in number, lie on the west bank of the Nile near Cairo, with faces turned to the four cardinal points of the compass. The three largest bear the names of the kings mentioned, and like all pyramids were intended as mausolea. THE PYRAMIDS. 3 Their style of architecture was either an evolu- tion from, or at least a prefigurement of, the earth mounds raised by primitive races in various parts of Europe, some of which may still be seen near Sardis and among the tombs of the Scythian kings on the banks of the Borysthenes. In construction they consisted of a series of step- like platforms, diminishing from base to summit, and furnished with a casing of limestone or red granite, to fill the angles, and present four polished surfaces against the attacks of time and weather. The Great Pyramid has lost its entire casing, but a part of the casing of Mycerinus is still intact, a thing of perma- nent attractiveness, and with joints scarcely thicker than a sheet of paper. Nevertheless the Great Pj-ra- mid, or pyramid of Cheops (Fig. i), is the more im- portant, and ranks as the largest building in the world. It covers an area of thirteen acres, has a solid contents of three million cubic yards, and rises over a hundred feet higher than the dome of St. Paul's. According to Pliny, three hundred and sixty thou- sand men were employed to build it; while Herodo- tus, with customary exaggeration, estimates the num- ber at forty thousand more. All pyramids except those of Sakkarah have their doorways on the northern fagade, from which lead stone galleries and subterranean passages in various directions, most of which terminate in mortuary chambers containing sarcophagi. These having been explored with much digging and some difficulty,* it * Doors leading into the pyramids or their inner chambers are closed, as a rule, with portcullises made of large blocks of stone, often weighing , EGYPT AND NUBIA. was discovered that only one chamber ever held the veritable remains of the king or founder, the others being designed simply to throw plunderers and dese- crators off the scent. From the doorway of the Great Pyramid, which is pierced some fifty feet above the base, a passage leads downward at an angle of twenty-six degrees (from which theorists have urged that it was designed for taking observations of the polar star ; but the fact that the angles in no two pyramids are alike, renders the idea untenable). This passage pursues its way farther downward to the so- called Queen's Chamber and a ■ .«. subterranean well; while an- '' '' ^'^ ' other passage leads upward to the King's Chamber. Until 1837 it was the mar- vel of the engineers how the ceiling of the King's Chamber '**^T*^ (which was formed of slabs of I j-_ ^ syenite) could sustain the thou- sands of tons superimposed. But the explorations of Col. Fig. 2.-Section of King's y developed the fact that Chamber in the pyramid , . . ... . ^ , of Cheops above this ceihng existed a series of compartments also ceiled with granite slabs (which of course greatly relieved the stress), while the top compartment dis- charged its portion of the weight by means of a gable. Should anything happen to destroy this upper gable, fifty or sixty tons. These had often to be tunnelled or cut around by ex- plorers in order to effect an entrance. PYRAMIDS OF CHEPHREN AND MYCERINUS. 5 the tendency of the slab below would be to break and form another (see Fig. 2). The pyramid of King Chephren is somewhat smaller than that of his brother, Cheops, but even so, covers an area of over ten acres and stands one hundred and fifty feet higher than the tallest twenty- story building in New York. Like the Great Pyramid, it is intersected with galleries lined with polished granite and vaulted by means of corbels approaching one another at the top. These passages lead to mortuary chambers. In one of them, which was partly above ground and partly excavated from the native rock, Belzoni discovered the bones of a bull, which gave rise to much discus- sion as to whether the pyramids were not originally intended as sepulchres for the animal gods of the Egyptians, especially the bull of Apis ; but the bur- den of proof now discountenances this theory. The pyramid of Mycerinus is smaller than either of the other two, its dimensions being exactly half those of Chephren. Nevertheless it occupies more ground than the largest Gothic cathedral in the world, ■and is high in proportion. The Greeks wrongly at- tributed this monument to the courtesan Rhodopis,* but, as Herodotus points out, this lady lived in the time of Amasis, who, as near as can be judged, reigned three thousand years later. From an aesthetic point of view it is the most beau- tiful of all, on account of its casing of polished red granite from the quarries of Syene, the others having * Rhodopis was a Thracian by birth, and servant to Isedmon. She was also a fellow-servant of ^sop, the writer of fables, and was ransomed by Charaxus of Mitylene, a brother of Sappho, the poetess. EGYPT AND NUBIA. only limestone coverings, whitened by eternal sum- mer suns. But beauty was the quality least aimed at during the Memphite period, grandeur, eternity, in- destructibility, awe, and mystery being the attributes mainly sought and successfully achieved. Thus all the pyramids are really less architecture than great feats of masonry, but they form an inter- esting link between mechanical and architectural con- FiG. 3.— The Sphinx. struction ; between building as a matter of engineer- ing and building as a matter of taste. Another monument near Cairo should not be passed over in silence — namely, the Sphinx (Fig. 3). This colossal statue, fashioned half human, half lion, is the oldest and largest of all sphinxes, and was begun at the order of a king whose name has not come down to us, though we know Chephren to have completed it. The length of the body is one hundred and forty feet, while the face measures thirty by fourteen feet. Hor-em-Khoo, or "The Sun in his Resting Place," THE SPHINX. MASTABAHS. 7 was the name given by the ancients, and that the Sphinx was worshipped as typifying a god is proved by the slab carved with hieroglyphics upon the breast. This relates that King Thotmes IV was wont, after hunting lions in the vicinity, to pay his devoirs to this " Great Watcher of the Desert" and built a temple between the paws to offer incense to the nostrils, sixty feet above. The face of this great mystery in stone has been so mutilated * by vandal conquerors that little of its original beauty now remains, but from the descrip- tions of travellers in the fourteenth and sixteenth cen- turies we know that it must have delighted the eye as well as the imagination. Before leaving the Memphite period the kind of tombs known under the name of mastabahs warrant interest, since to these, as germs, we owe the evolu- tion of the Doric style. All mastabahs were shaped like frustums of ob- long pyramids and composed of either stone or sun- dried brick. Each was divided into three principal parts — namely, the chamber or temple, the serdab, and the well. The chamber was (as Chipiez puts it) " a neutral ground where the quick and the dead could meet, the former to present, the latter to receive funeral offerings." Friends and relatives also used this cheerful spot as a family rendezvous. The serdab or corridor, on the other hand, served * The head was originally surmounterl by a red cap or helmet, which has been recently excavated by Col. G. E. Raum, of San Francisco ; while fragments of a beard have also been unearthed. 8 EGYPT AND NUBIA. exclusively to hold statues of the deceased, which simulacra were believed to guarantee his future existence. The well was simply a vertical passage leading down to the mummy chamber hewed out of the bed of rock. Both serdab and well were walled up with masonry to guard against thieves and desecrators. However, architectural interest centres chiefly in the chamber or temple, for within, the walls were brilliantly painted with allegorical pictures, and with- out, at the entrance, stood two square piers, often capped with a quadrangular slab or abacus. In process of time these square piers were made oc- tagonal by cutting off the corners, then sixteen sided and grooved, until under the Theban monarchy we find in a tomb of the necropolis at Beni-Hassan Fig. 4. — Tomb at Beni-Hassan. (Fig. 4) the fluted columns and moulded lintel called Proto-Doric, from which the Greek Doric order* was eventually evolved. * " Order ' is a comprehensive term in classical architecture for a column, pedestal, and entablature. THE THEBAN PERIOD. CHARACTERISTICS. g From the Memphite rigime, which ended with the tenth dynasty, we now pass to THE THEBAN PERIOD OF EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. With the Theban monarchy opens a new archi- tectural era for Egypt. In place of pyramids rose Fig. 5. — A temple of the Theban period. From Colomb. obelisks, temples, and palaces above broad brick ter- races (Fig. 5), while colossal statues etched them- selves against the sky, like those of Amenophis, which could be seen twenty miles away, and were said to cast their shadows as far as the Libyan chain. During this period, however, building activity was by no means continuous. True, under Osirtasu I and Amenemhat I arose a second golden age more lO EGYPT AND NUBIA. splendid than the Memphite period, and to these kings and their subjects we owe the temple and obe- lisk of Heliopolis, the tombs of Beni-Hassan, the Temple of Karnak, and probably Lake Moeris and the Labyrinth. But after the invasion of the Hyksos, about 2200 B. c, there followed an interregnum, last- ing six hundred years, during which absolutely nothing architectural occurred ; and thus it is neces- sary to pass to the eighteenth dynasty before finding another great art revival. But, with the Hyksos driven out by Ahmes (Amosis) and the Pharaohs once more upon the throne, Theban architecture rose to greater power and splendour than ever before, and its enthusiasm spread in the shape of monuments all over Egypt and the vassal states of Nubia and Abyssinia. The Temple of Ammon was enlarged by Thot- mes I, obelisks reared their points everywhere, Sesos- tris founded the Rhamesseum, and built the temple of Ipsamboul ; while Rhameses III erected Medinet- Abou. Having this historic outline in mind, we can now return and briefly analyze some of those great monu- ments which punctuate the monotony of ancient his- tory and give it new meaning and clearness. The obelisks first claim attention, as being the simplest, and as being especially characteristic of the Theban period. All follow one rule, namely, a four-sided prism of stone set up on end, tapering toward the top, which latter is shaped like a small pyramid, while its sides are covered with sculptured hieroglyphics, often of great historic value. OBELISKS. EXAMPLES OF HELIOPOLIS, ETC. \ i The horizontal section is either oblong or square, and careful examination has shown the sides to be slightly convex, in order not to appear concave. This mode of giving a slight curvature to lines and yet apparently leaving them straight was after- ward used b}' the Greeks in the greatest of all build- ings cresting the Acropolis, for the Parthenon contains not a single straight line throughout its composition, and much of the subtle beauty and re- finement which characterizes it is undoubtedly due to this expedient. The first obelisk set up as a monument in Egypt was that of Heliopolis, quarried and erected at the order of Osirtasu I. This great monolith stands over sixty-seven feet in height, and now adorns the Central Park of New York. It is composed of the granite of Syene, a valuable material when one remembers that it has resisted time and weather from at least six hundred years before the Flood. Another fine obelisk of the same material stood at Luxor and now decorates the Place de la Concorde in Paris. The two grandest of all, however, are those erect- ed by Thotmes I and Thotmes III of the eighteenth dynasty. The first is at Karnak, and measures ninety- three feet six inches in height. The second (one hundred and five feet in height) was carried to Rome by Constantius in 357 for the Circus Maximus, and forms the piice de rhistance of the Piazza di San Gio- vanni in Laterano. Obelisks as a rule were disposed in pairs, and gen- erally on either side of a temple door ; but so little 12 EGYPT AND NUBIA. was symmetry regarded that the monoliths forming the same pair were often of different sizes. From obelisks to temples the transition is easy, but here the subject divides into two parts, namely : Hypsethral (or under-air) temples (so called from be- ing built above ground), and spea or grottq temples, hollowed in the mountain rock. To the former be- longs such fanes as those of Karnak, Luxor, Medi- net-Abou, Ammon re, and the Rhamesseum ; to the latter, those of Ipsam- boul, Dandour, and Der, in Nubia. All h3'p3ethral temples were composed of three principal features : A col- onnaded court ; a pillared portico of stately columns gorgeously tapestried with colour called the hypo- style hall ; and the temple proper, containing the sanctuary, which none but kings and priests might enter (Fig. 6). All were girt about by a brick wall Hned with a temenos or sacred grove, and entered by means of a great pylon rimmed by a cornice, and set with iron stocks for gleaming cressets in the night or flaunting banners in the day. Fig. 6.— Plan of the Hypaethral temple. PROPYL^A AND COLOSSI. 13 Between the colonnaded court and the hypostyle hall rose the so-called propylaea (two large towers joined by a gate) furnished with staircases and ter- races, and flanked with obelisks ; and another propy- Isea frequently divided the hypostyle hall from the sanctuary. Before the gateways colossal statues of Fig. 7.— Statues of Amenophis. kings or gods towered on either hand, the most fa- mous being those of Amenophis (Fig. 7), above men- tioned, called incorrectly Mcmnon by the Greeks, after the son of Aurora. All walls inclined inward at an angle of about Plate I. — Examples of Egyptian capitals. COLUMNS, CAPITALS, ROCK-CUT TOMBS. 15 seventy degrees on the outside, but remained vertical on the inside. Columns were generally round and tapered toward the top, having shafts sculptured with lotus leaves or fashioned in the form of bundles of rods bound together with grasses, while capitals assumed various forms (Plate 1), as the conventionalized calyx of a flower, a bunch of water reeds surmounted by an abacus (Fig. 8), caryatid heads of Isis and Osiris, and other shapes more or less fantastic. Such were the principal com- ponent parts of hypaethral tem- ples. The grotto or rock-cut tem- ples of Nubia were much the same in arrangement, though as a rule simpler, having only a portico, temple proper, and sanc- tuary en suite. But there are some, like the Temple of Wady Sabooah, equipped with all the gorgeous approaches which often distinguished their more im- posing neighbours. The most stupendous example of hypaethral archi- tecture in Africa was the great temple of Karnak. This temple was to the Egyptian architecture what St. Peter's was to the Renaissance, namely, a comprehensive expression of all that was best in the art of its own period. But the former was even more comprehensive than the latter, for while St. Peter's required nineteen pontiffs and one hundred and twenty-six years to bring it to completion, Kar- nak employed the best energies of twenty-one kings Fig. 8. — Egyptian capital. 1 6 EGYPT AND NUBIA. at various intervals through a cycle of over two thousand years, during which time Egyptian, and especially Theban art, reached its highest point of development. To Osirtasu 1 we owe the foundation of this col- lection of buildings, though little now remains of his portion of the work. From the inscriptions of the walls it is evident that the ancient name was Apetu ; but the Temple of Karnak is the universal appellation at present. Twelve entrances originally gave access to the main inclosure. One of the most important was that facing toward the south, for a double row of sphinxes a mile and a half in length joined it to the Temple of Luxor, forming an imposing roadway for the festal parades of priests, which played a prominent part in Egyptian ceremonial. This entrance, however, is by no means the most imposing, the grandest approach of all being that facing northwest, and at right angles to the Nile. Here devotees sailing down the river were wont to land, and after traversing an avenue of sphinxes- half a mile long in this case— enter the first court by means of a propylasa one hundred and eighty feet in height. Within the court rows of columns and a second propylasa led into the great hypostyle hall of Seti and Rhameses II (Fig. 9), the masterpiece of Thebes, which had an area of fifty-nine thousand five hundred square feet. Figs. 10 and 11 show the general arrangement and distribution of the apartment as well as the scheme of lighting by making the middle row of columns higher KARNAK. THE CLERESTORY. 17 than those of the wings, technically termed a clere- story, a mode of illumination followed later in all great Gothic cathedrals. This mighty hall, with its floods of yellow light softly distilled into violet by diffusion through the Fig. g. — Hall of Rhameses II restored. interrupted spaces ; its one hundred and fifty col- umns, eight to eleven feet in diameter, flowering into lotuses at the top and gay with Oriental col- our, must have been the grandest and most superb antechamber of antiquity. It is the last building 3 1 8 EGYPT AND NUBIA. of the Nile approach, for here it joins the sphinx avenue from Luxor, being linked at the point of contact by a court (once decked with four obelisks Fig. 10. — Section of Hypostyle hall at Kamak. and colossi of the king), and together proceeding to the temple proper. As to the great temple itself, it was simply a gigantic mosaic of propylsea, peristyles, chapels, sanctuaries, and hypostyle halls, with scores on scores of minor apartments jewelled with colour, filled with statues of gold, silver, ivory, and precious marbles, and incrusted with finely chiselled bas- reliefs and hieroglyphics of priceless value to the historian. Thotmes III {circa 1650 B. c.) founded the larger part of this exquisite milange, though certain por- tions date from Thotmes I, and even earlier. Back of the Holy of Holies were three other sanctuaries, built for royalty alone. KARNAK. THE SANCTUARIES. 19 In one the kingly founder worshipped the shades of his ancestors ; in another he made offerings to the gods on an altar of red granite (a ceremonial insti- tuted in the twenty-fifth year of his reign, on the oc- casion of certain great victories in battle) ; while the third was devoted to the adoration of the sparrow- hawk, emblem of the sun and mighty Amnion, the god of creative force. Such was the Temple of Karnak, the grandest of Fig. II. — Plan of Hypostyle hall at Karnak. Egypt, the richest of Africa, and to-day, alas! the most pillaged and despoiled of all (Plate II). Of the spca or grotto fanes of Nubia, the great and small temples of Ipsamboul challenge most atten- Plate II.— Ruins at Kamak. THE SPEA. IPSAMBOUL. 21 tion. They were built by Rhameses the Great, set like jewels in a matrix of rock, and dedicated to Ra and Athor, the Phoebus and Aphrodite of Egypt. The Great Temple is the more important of the two. When first discovered by Belzoni it was so choked up by the dibris and sand of centuries, that only the head and shoulders of one colossal figure could be seen. Patient excavation, however, revealed a fagade of one hundred feet in length (subdivided Fig. 12. — Temple of Ipsamboul. vertically by four colossi of the king, each sixty-one feet in height, seated on thrones) and surmounted by a cornice crested with sitting monkeys — the symbols of Thoth, god of the intellect. In the great hall of assembly (Fig. 12) are piers embossed with great statues of Osiris, each figure 22 EGYPT AND NUBIA. fashioned in the form and features of Rhameses the Great, while all the walls are graven with bas-reliefs and hieroglyphics recounting the conquests of that king. The only light in the apartment comes through the doorway, from which results a most fantastic dis- cord of light and shade — a tour de force in colour — a nocturne in purple and gold. Several smaller chambers, linked by passages, con- nect with the main hall, the most important being the sanctuary. Here deep in the bowels of the earth four great statues of Ammon, Phre, Ptah, and Rhameses II are enthroned in a rock-cut chamber, which when lit b.)' the fitful flare of flambeaux still reveal the faint gold and fading crimson of primeval ages lingering on the walls in mystic souvenir of remote magnificence. TOMBS. While there are no rock-cut temples of importance in Egypt, there are numerous examples of rock-cut tombs, many of which lie in the valley of Biban-el- Melouk or "the Gates of the Kings," west of the plain of Thebes. Most of these were the last resting places of ro)'^- alty or court dignitaries, commoners being buried in catacombs, subterranean vaults, or mummy pits in the necropolis. As tombs they are much more valuable historic- ally than architecturally. For no sooner did a The- ban ruler ascend the throne than he began work upon his last earthly home, which labour continued till the day of death. TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN. 23 The most important tomb in Egypt is the tomb at Beni-Hassan. It is extremely simple in comparison to those of the kings of Thebes, consisting, as it does, of only three apartments. But, as Goethe says, " it is in working within limits that the master reveals himself," and the unknown architect who hewed this grotto has thus previously proved the poet's epi- gram. From the inscriptions graven on either side of the door we know that this was the last home of Ameni- Amenemha ; that he was a general of infantry, and led two campaigns, one against the Arou and an- other against the Ethiopians ; that he lived in the reign of Osirtasu I, or about 3000 B. c, and marched into battle with the son of that great Pharaoh. As regards his political successes, we are furthermore informed that he was appointed governor of the province of Sah, which trust he administered most meritoriously. This hero of nearly five thousand years ago may have had many other great qualities, but the clever architect considered these few good deeds which adorned his character sufficient to adorn his tomb, and thus avoided both ostentation and epitaph hy- perbole. In the vestibule columns support a lintel wrought with imitations of projecting rafters, while above the hall of assembly bends a ceiling springing from fluted columns and hollowed in the shape of a vault. These constructive features go far to prove that the grottoes of Egypt were quarried and chis- elled in imitation of the buildings, and not that the buildings were an evolution from the grottoes, as certain theorists at one time advanced. 24 EGYPT AND NUBIA. Within the hall of assembly the walls are elab- orately painted and sculptured in low relief with hunting and battle sc'enes and other kindred sub- jects appropriate to the rank and personality of the occupant. This was not always done, for the tombs were often built by the priests and sold, after much bargaining and haggling, to the relatives of the deceased, who, if they had not provided for the contingency, were usually compelled through haste to accept whatever unfair terms the priests might offer. Not that Egyptians were oversensitive about hav- ing a mummy about the house. Indeed, we know from Lucien* and other early writers that they sometimes had the mummy brought out and placed at the table as one of the guests during a feast. But a social stigma attached to people not having a con- secrated place of burial for their dead, as well as a religious fear respecting the repose of a departed soul if the body remained unburied. THE LABYRINTH. Before leaving the earlier periods of Egyptian architecture, the building feat known as the labyrinth warrants consideration, it being the original from which the Labyrinth of Crete was afterward copied by Dasdalus. Herodotus, Pliny, Strabo, and Diodorus all men- tion this architectural jungle, as do most of the fables of antiquity, but from none of them do we know the builder. It may have been one of the three hundred * See Lucien's Essay on Grief, THE LABYRINTH. 25 and twenty sovereigns concerning whom Herodotus maintains such mysterious silence ; possibly the fair Queen Nitocris, who performed that picturesque re- venge upon her brother's murderers by inviting them all to dinner in a subterranean chamber, and then turning in the Nile upon the company through a se- cret canal. As a rule, however, modern investigation at- tributes it to Amenemhat on account of certain in- scriptions discovered near the site, But whatever the parentage of the labyrinth, it must have been cer- tainly interesting. Half above and half below the earth it wound its complicated way about three sides of an open court, embroidered all over with twisting intricate passages, like petrified lace, dishevelled, chaotic, and confused — a turmoil of architecture running riot and gone mad, a study of inconsistency, beauty, and dis- array. Huge square monoliths of granite supported the ceiling and broke the monotony of the tortuous galleries, all of which were enamelled with rosy syenite and Oriental alabaster ; but throughout the entire building not a moulding, not a scroll, not a hieroglyph distracted the eye ; nothing but the naked beauty of material, the grandeur imposed by mass. Sixteen chapels or temples corresponding to the sixteen nomes of Egypt were scattered at intervals throughout this wilderness, but now nothing of the kind remains ; and save the broken portion of a pyra- mid there is naught by which to discriminate the destiny of the whole. 26 EGYPT AND NUBIA. THIRD AND FOURTH PERIODS, OR THE DECADENCE AND REVIVAL. During the twenty-first dynasty an era of de- cline began, which continued with unimportant in- terruptions till the reigns of the Ptolemies. Much of the decay was due to the political fer- mentation consequent upon foreign wars, which af- forded little opportunity for aesthetic thought and development. For under Sheshonk (the Shishak of the Bible) occurred the taking of Jerusalem in the fifth year of Rhehoboam (971 B. c), and under Pianki burst forth the Ethiopian conquests ; while the reigns of nearl}' all the others were involved in doing battle with either the Assyrians or Persians and in quelling insurrections of a military kind. However, two periods of comparative peace broke the continuity of war, one under Tahraka, the other under Psammeticus I. These kings removed the court to Sais, where it remained so long that the period of decadence is sometimes called the Saite period. To Tahraka we owe some of the beautiful propy- lasas at Karnak, while Psammeticus added to the tem- ple of Ptah and did much good work as a rebuilder. In 529 B. c. the Persian invasion of Cambyses in- terposed. Temples and tombs were violated and destroyed, private property was pillaged, and quan- tities of beaten gold and silver were carried away across the sea in the triremes of the satraps to adorn the palaces of Persepolis and Susa. Thus destruction, not creation, became the order of the day, and under the Persian yoke architecture HISTORY. THE PTOLEMAIC AGE. 27 sank to the lowest point of production since the days of Menes and the Memphite rigime. After the great revolt Nectanebo I made a spas- modic effort at creating a Renaissance, and strewed the land from Philas to the delta of the Nile with temples, terraces, tombs, and public works ; but the attempt proved abortive, and architectural history passes almost directly to the Ptolemaic age. Under the descendants of the Macedonian gen- eral, Egypt once more awoke to the necessity of art. Peace procured plenty, and the harbours of Arsinoe, Berenice, and Alexandria were choked by Phoenician galleys with their purple embroidered sails, all laden with gold, silver, ivory, ________ textile work of Tyre, and * ' 1 graven gems ; while tri- remes, with brazen prows ji of green and gold, thronged the inlets of the Red Sea, bearing rare woods, gems, perfumes, porcelains, and spices froni the sovereigns of the East, with silks, wrought metal, and filigree from far-away fountain- filled Damascus. Besides all these, the revenues of the state were enormous, and even under Ptolemy Auletes, the fa- ther of Cleopatra, "the most careless of all monarchs," amounted to twelve thousand five hundred talents, or twenty million dol- FlG. 13. — Temple at Philae. 28 EGYPT AND NUBIA. lars in gold per year. Hence the material require- ment was not wanting lor architecture, and temples began to rear their sculptured beauty on every hand. Under the Ptolemaic rule temples differed quite materially from the palaces of worship of the Theban kings. The plans show much greater irregularity as at Philse (Fig. 13), but also less originality, and cover a smaller area of surface. The purpose, whether they are ecclesiastical or palatial, is no longer problemat- FiG. 14. — Temple at Denderah. ical, and each shrine asserts itself frankly as the house of a god. A portico often takes the place of the hypostyle hall, and is lighted from the front over a partition placed between the columns as at Denderah (Fig. 14). A peristyle court and richly sculptured propylaea always stood before each temple, that of Edfou being especially imposing. Ptolemaic temples had greater unity than those of earlier times, for each was usually completed within a single reign. Another advantage was the elegance and refinement displayed in the distribution of mass. But, on the other hand, the sculpture and detail was PTOLEMAIC COLUMNS. TYPHOXIA. 29 SO inferior in comparison to that of Karnak, Beni- Hassan, and the like as to appear almost frivolous at times. This is especially notice- able in the capitals of the columns, for in place of the papyrus cup and simple lotus of Theban days one fitnds a female head of Isis surmounted by a fussy little tem- ple trivial in the extreme, as at Denderah (Fig. 15). Space will not permit further analysis of the temples of the Ptolemies, but before leaving the subject the buildings of a certain class claim consideration. These buildings existed in Egypt from the eighteenth dynasty to Cleo- patra and the Roman conquest, and were called T)'phonia or Mammeisi, according as they were employed. Both were sup- plementary chapels to larger tem- ples. The first were dedicated to Typhon, the personification of evil, probably in a spirit of re- ligious hedging. The Mammeisi chapels, on the other hand, were vowed to the offspring of the god and goddess to which the larger adjacent temples were accred- ited, and a representation of the birth of Horus, son of Isis and Osiris, was frequently emblazoned on the walls within. Fig. 15. — Column and capital at Denderah. 30 EGYPT AND NUBIA. Architecturally, the Typhonia and Mammeisi much resembled one another, but with the essential differ- ence that whereas Typhonia were small adaptations of the larger Egyptian houses of worship, Mammeisi were analogous to the peripteral temples of Greece. A beautiful example of a Mammeisi chapel stood on the island of Elephantine near Assouan, but was destroyed in 1822 by Mohammed Ali in order to make room for his palace. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. The most striking peculiarity of Egyptian domes- tic architecture was its transitory and ephemeral character, a thing even more surprising when one has studied the temples and monuments of the coun- try, all of which were built to defy eternity. The reason of this transient quality was mainly due to the priests, who taught that it was a sin to ex- pend time, labour, and money upon the homes of this probation state, and that all energies should rather be concentrated upon their " eternal habitations," as they loved to call their tombs. Thus all the domes- tic architecture of the land, so far as we know, was composed of sun-dried brick and wood. And hence all material testimony thereon has been swept away by time, so that with the important exception of the pavilion of Medinet-habou, built by Rhameses III, all data must be sought among the pictured representa- tions and hieroglyphics on the walls of more enduring monuments. These, however, are so abundant and complete as to enable one to form a pretty accurate idea of the every-day life and history of the nation, and especially the setting and mise en seine thereof. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. 31 Wherefore, the most casual research soon brings to light the fact that the philosophy preached by the priesthood was only followed in a very half-hearted way as regards asceticism of life, and that love of luxury was just as strong among this death-contem- plating race as among the epicurean inhabitants of Cumse, Baise, and Tarentum ; but with this difference that, whereas the latter built eternal monuments for the pleasure of a day, digging seas to keep fresh their fish and Lucrinian oysters, the Egyptians reared their abodes entirely in accordance with the temporal qual- ity of their pleasures and life. Their houses, though of base material, were beau- tiful, and their streets were laid out symmetrically in cool, shady avenues, with groves of crimson and gold pomegranates, surrounded by embattled walls. The houses themselves were not huge conserva- tories, all window, like certain modern structures of New York ; nor did they rise twenty stories into the sky, and shut out the air and light. The usual height of a dweUing was three stories, surmounted by a terrace and hanging gardens, like those of rose- girt Damascus or Ispahan " the garden city of the sun," and each was relieved in colour by brilliant wall fresco, and gaily decked awnings of cadmium and vermilion. The entrances were pillared porticoes, interspersed with statues of the king, and the rooms were grouped about an open court, with dark-green foliage and cool fountains on either hand, like the atria of the Ro- mans. Within the court was a small building sup- ported on columns, used as a reception room for vis- itors, but otherwise the plan and distribution of the 32 EGYPT AND NUBIA. apartments followed the method pursued later in Rome. Such was the average town house of an Egyptian gentleman, while the country villas and royal hunting lodges differed from it mainly in ex- tent rather than in kind. Before leaving the subject of Egyptian architec- ture a word must be said concerning THE INVENTION OF THE ARCH. For years the principle of the arch was attributed to the Etruscans, principally because the Greeks, who preceded them in architectural evolution, made no use of it ; but recent exploration has proved that neither the Assyrians nor Egyptians were strangers to this device, whether in its semicircular or pointed form. At Sakkarah there still stands a stone arch dating from the time of Psammeticus, or 650 B. c, while drawings made at Beni-Hassan show that the principle was known as early as the commencement of the eighteenth dynasty, and even as far back as Osirtasu I, a contemporary of Joseph. Arches nevertheless played a comparativelj- un- important part in Egyptian architecture, and were emplo}'ed as a rule in underground vaults or in the secondary portions of a building, the rigid calm and solemnity of straight Hnes — vertical and horizontal — appealing more to the severe taste of the nation, who sought first of all stability in their monuments, and disdained the employment of all pressures in con- struction, save those warring against gravity. " The arch never sleeps," says the Oriental proverb, hence its unpopularity in the Land of the Pyramids and Eternal " Miracles in Stone." TABLE OF EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY. 33 a. e OJ ■a 3 K _4J o J3 en ^" 1 "5 J2 a . ^ en en .J3 1 u C Q X 1 E h. Sakkara id of Giz O X iS en E ^ ""^ "g In-g g - : i^ S .id ■a c Ifs^ ^ s i*^ en -w T3 ^ E U1 ?H - M CO '^ 'rt § s E tn a; to en 1 c 0. -en) erin ^ § o Q t-H I-H heop; heplii (Muk > 1 •y-y^K (ii I- -I nl rt t^j ^ 1— 1 en Senef Khufi Shafr; Menk s K C 1 »— t I-H d ■q. c o E W -a Q 1 d o o 8 So ■hh ■* m h (L> J3 d W H m Oi c E (U H tn ■^" J5 ^ H rt W tn x" ui . in X "3^5 1 I-H )-H les Hop yrin o > X lan. Temp ;lisk of He ris and lab ) TJ S 1 e H •a en s H H > c E ni-Hass Ob( ke Moe Hyksos. a, 11 '3 X o lU eti s — o E 1 H m yA en H > tuC XX & c X s ( .en 2M "H X t/0 g-^ en C (U D. s. > i 1^?^ 1 X "^^'^ c to. ^-•cr> ttJ Q c E W u 1st. mhat 1st *n of the \ en 'S. E M en § rtas lene asio 'E Z (U 4J OJ (U j; S e > &*-a f H O <^ . , Q l-H Q O HI Pi W I-H >^ I-H II. V-XVI ^ a. X > X X X 1 Q HH >^ I-H § 8 HH > o X CO M X [I] 34 EGYPT AND NUBIA. XI en ■a "S, s -• c o g s < 3 ■3 J2 c D .3 'S C (U 6 H 3 X! < a OJ 3 a" D. >< •5 OJ g > — ' c :3 3 XJ g U n M N fO 1 c 1 OHO If " c J3 c . ^1 c .5 !2 u 11 E tn 3 •o "o a; "B. E 4J o QW OOUQfe PhOP^ W H ?=i ^ A 1 -^ G ^ ■3 fe; c C ci! ^ 3 c g E en t-i ^ o< (U u l-H ?- 2 T) in n S , •5 >< ^1 hmes (Amo; otmes 1st. otmes 2d ai 3 o 11 g CO-* .— .2 Ic ^ CD. C C lU lU g E 1-1 u: -0" N g rt en 1 x; c . 1 OJ (U g E n ^ j^ J= -G 1 -C -, K, ^ >. > X! Q 8 >^ B X B >< X X E X" XI 3 X ffl X ^ 1 X X X X s Ul 3 c o o T3 C 1 5 CO c Q j:^' 1 c > X H X 1 '0 > Q X x: X H (A 'c d h2 »-i ^ Oi ^ X U) X X a. X X Q 1 1 P< X X 1-4 X X H TABLE OF EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY. 35 •3 = X! c c •T3 C lii nl P-.S a. o o en .£ O 4J rt . M en « o t3 c S "! O J3 (U -o o " a. . D 4i ni -Q b£-=Xi °£0 W ii £ ^ C rt H rt ^ XI f> ji .12 -Si ifi ^ rt ~-^J3 j^ mU >-• § *n ■ — ' ■£ ?! c Kt« Oncqw n! .ill 2 x: CO H cr jj ID S "m o (u > cr ;> CmrtoSinS .S-O in C o ■> T-,"— < O O fl. aC PL, < hJ Ul c 3 o o Is ■o .0 K O Ei-i TO iS £ S T3 O tu c u ,i: ": 1 Darius Alexan Ptolem Cleopa Romar Arab c xxxxx > .X >>x XXX XXX 0^ "^ Q O a, K H Pi o en CO O vo m CO CO fO en ^ CHAPTER II: INDIA, INDO-CHINA, AND ' JAVA. INDIA. Hindu architecture is less congenial to the aver- age student than that of many other lands from the fact that it has played no part in the development of the European styles. The Indian people, like the inhabitants of China, were in no sense a migratory race, and cared little for propagandism either in lit- erature or art ; hence their architecture, naive and unperplexed in execution, is distinctly sui generis, un- affecting and unaffected by other countries ; the only exceptions to the rule being Indo-China, Java, and a few adjacent islands, in which the Buddhist cult holds almost universal sway. The dryness of the Indian climate and the enor- mous antiquity of the race would lead one to expect monuments older than those of Egypt ; but the most patient investigation has hitherto failed to discover any existent building antedating the third century before Christ. From that date, however, the archi- tectural history of India unfolds with tolerable clear- ness, and may be classified into three separate styles, which though partially contemporary are quite dis- tinct. They are : 36 SAA-VA MUNI AND THE BUDDHIST STYLE. 37 The Buddhist style, The Dravidian style, and The Indo-Aryan style. The name of the first explains its own origin ; while the two latter are the result of Brahmanism, the name Dravidian being given to that which ob- tained in the south of the peninsula, and Indo-Aryan to that flourishing in the north. A fourth style, somewhat resembling Dravidian, is to be found in the vales of Kashmir and the Punjab, but this is a mongrel one at best, which, being much influ- enced by Western art, should be studied separately in order to avoid confusion of the purer Hindu forms. The Buddliist Style. The history of Buddhist architecture in India be- gins with the birth of Sakya Muni, in 623 B. c, a prince of the house of Solar kings, who for two thousand years ruled over the dominions of Oude and the val- ley of the Ganges. The early years of Sakya Muni's life were spent after the manner of most young Oriental princes of the blood ; but, at the age of thirty-five, a reaction " wrought itself in his soul," and he retired from the world to a life of asceticism and peripatetic preach- ing, which resulted in the foundation of Buddhism. It is sometimes a disputed point whether Sakya Muni (who is believed to have been the ninth incar- nation of the Deity) was the original inventor of Buddhism, and as he has twelve hundred different names, the possibility of an error may pardonably be credited. However this may be, certain it is that he introduced the forms and modes of worship peculiar 38 INDIA, INDO-CHINA, AND J A VA. to Buddhism, to which Buddhist architecture owes its existence. Of the three forms of building belonging to Bud- dhist architecture, topes, temples, and monasteries mo- nopolize our interest. Topes. — The topes of India are classified by the na- tives into sthambas and dagobas, which simplifies a somewhat ambiguous use of the term tope as em- ployed by foreigners. The sthambas are commemorative pillars corre- sponding to the obelisks of Eg3'pt, and may be either built or carved from a single stone, with much delicacy of thought and feeling. In form they are cylindrical, a circumstance which led a British officer to convert a valuable one discovered at Delhi into a steam-roller for the Benares road. A lion often crests the sum- mit, and inscriptions and doctrines of the Buddhist creed ornament the shaft. Dagobas are topes containing relic chambers (the name being derived from dhatu a relic, and garba a shrine), and are square, tumular, or cylindrical, sur- mounted by a dome. No buildings are held in greater veneration by the faithful than the dagobas of India, since many con- tain a portion of the mortal remains of Sakya Muni or Buddha. But architecturally they are only interesting from their peculiarity of arrangement, which consists of a series of mammoth cups laid one over the other, the intervening spaces being appropriated for gifts and sacred treasures, or festal pageants and parades of priests. Temples or Chaityas. — Of the temples peculiar to ■sf ^ 40 INDIA, INDO-CHINA, AND JAVA. Buddhist architecture in India, all are rock cut like those of Ipsamboul, in Nubia (see page 21). The old- est and most celebrated is the Temple of Karli (Plate III), and a complete understanding of this cave of wor- ship comprehends all the others. It lies forty miles to the east of Bombay, perforat- ing a precipice of amygdaloid trap rock containing agates, and burrows its way to a depth and width of one hundred and twenty by forty feet, thus covering a greater area than the Temple of Theseus at Athens. The plan decomposes into a vestibule and large chamber. The chamber is trisected into a nave and adjacent aisles by means of carved columns crowned with capitals of kneeling elephants bearing sculp- tured figures on their backs, and the whole interior terminates in a semicircular apse. Floods on floods of yellow light, previously distilled through three windows of the fagade, pour through an opening over the vestibule door, and break over the shrine stand- ing at the back, which aureoled with trembling light gleams and glows like tissued gold. A roof serai- circular in section bends above, ribbed with a deco- ration of wooden beams in pseudo-support (going far to prove that wooden construction preceded that of stone in India), and though somewhat low as a roof, still detracts but little from the solemnity of the whole. Viharas or Monasteries. — The Viharas or homes of Buddhist anchorites are to be found in large num- bers all over India, for the monks of Buddhism in early days far outnumbered those of Europe during the Middle Ages. The Viharas, like the temples, are hewn from the living rock, but differ more widely among themselves as regards architectural value. THE VIHARAS OF BENGAL AND THE WEST. 41 This is especially noticeable when one compares the elaborate monasteries of the West with their hypo- style halls, their creamy carved columns, their treas- ures of painted ivory, moonstones, and jade ; and the simple single cell of the ascetic in Bengal hollowed out of granite, and devoid of decoration save a slope- jambed door flanked by rude pilasters. One of the more ambitious examples of the latter is in the Udyagiri. It is called the " tiger cave," from the fact that the rock fagade is wrought in imita- tion of the head of that animal, the entrance being through the throat (see Fig. 16). With- in all is sober sim- plicity, with never a trinket to turn the mind from abstract contemplation. The caves of Ajunta best typify the Viharas of the West. All are excavated to admit a veranda, hall of columns, and ambulatory, round which are grouped the cells of the anchorites. At the back stands the shrine guard- ing some holy relic inclosed in sandalwood, or lacquer of powdered and mosaiced gold ; while wall, column, and ceiling glow throughout with fresco or distem- per of a warm contralto tone. In later times the figures painted on the columns were carved in high relief, and these columns with Fig. 16.— The Tiger Cave. 42 INDIA, INDO-CHINA, AND J A VA. their bracket capitals and sculptured shafts (all simi- lar, yet no two alike) became the feature of the whole, and lent to all the magic and the charm which belongs to beautiful things. The Dravidian Style. Dravidian (as before remarked) is the name given to that style developed solely by the Hindu religions in the southern part of the peninsula. For, during the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries, great disputes arose between the Buddhist and Hindu or Brahmanical religions, which ended in the entire expulsion of the Buddhists from the country, the sect of Jains being alone allowed to remain in certain districts, as the Mysore, probably on account of the similarity between their creed and that of the Vishnu sect. Indeed, during the middle of the four- teenth century these two became almost the same ; the ninth Avator or incarnation of Vishnu being con- sidered identical with Buddha himself. On the other hand, the two sects of Siva and Vishnu are quite distinct, and, in a sense, antago- nistic, for though the Puranas hold that Rama, Siva, and Vishnu are but different attributes of one god, the popular belief is that they are rival gods, and they are treated accordingly. The forms of their temples, nevertheless, are ex- actly the same, with the exception of certain emblems and bas-reliefs of allegorical sculpture, wherefore they may be architecturally studied together with- out fear of confusion. Every complete Dravidian temple consists of four principal parts : DRAVIDIAN TEMPLE AND ITS DIVISIONS. 43 1. The pagoda or vimana, coniaming t\ie shnne in which the image of the god is placed. 2. The mantapa or porch leading into the shrine. 3. The gopuras or gate pyramids. 4. The choultries or pillared halls. Besides these there are supplementary buildings for the use of the priests, also chapels, sanctuaries, ^5^**^! ^"^^p ^»*3 Fig. 17. — The pagoda or vimana of Tanjore. water tanks and colonnades, which add a certain character and individuality to each. The pagoda or vimana is the most important part of the temple, and consists of a granite cube without windows, surmounted by a mighty pyramid of stuc- 44 INDIA, INDO-CHINA, AND JAVA. coed brick crested with a crown, the whole being covered with pilasters, niches, and statuary ranged in horizontal lines, together with bands of embossed copper. The vimanas of Madura and Tanjore (Fig. 17) are the best known, the latter rising two hundred feet into the air and dominating the landscape for miles around. Though the words vimana and pagoda are inter- changeable, the former term is the more distinctive, pagoda being sometimes used to designate an entire temple. The mantapa or porch is a square building with either flat or pyramidal roof standing before the vimana, and perforated on each side by a door, one being used for entering the shrine and the other three for admitting light. The roof when large is sometimes supported by columns ; but the Hindu architects seem to have been singularly averse to using this simple and convenient method of support, preferring the employment of complicated brackets, cornices, and long beams of iron and wood. The reason of this is probably due to some rule laid down in the sacred books ; for all Hindu architecture is guided by certain canons of art which are believed to have been handed down from the eight sons of Visvarkarma, the heavenly architect. The vimana, with its porch, is usually surrounded by one or more cloistered colonnades, and the en- trances to the courts thus formed are through the third division of this subject — namely, the gopuras or gate pyramids (Plate IV), which, though often of ill proportion, are in many cases the most striking Plate IV.— A gopura or gate pyramid. 46 INDIA, INDO-CHINA, AND JA VA. feature of the whole. The bases of these Indian arcs de triomphe are invariably oblong in plan, and like the vimanas support brick and stucco pyramids, originally intended as fortifications over the door, but so incrusted are they with fantastic ornamenta- tion that they appear rather like huge masses of white coral filigree. The Hindus, like the Eg3'ptians, delight in impos- ing hypostyle halls, which they cajl cJioultries. Of their various uses, Mr. Fergusson tells that " in an- cient times the)'' served as porches to temples ; some- times as halls of ceremony, where the dancing girls attached to the temples dance and sing ; sometimes they are cloisters surrounding the whole area of the temple, at others swinging porches, where the gods enjoy at stated seasons that intellectual amusement. But by far the most important application is when used as nuptial halls, in which the m)'stic union of the male and female divinities is celebrated once a year." One of the finest choultries of India is the pillared Hall of Chillumbaram (Plate V). It is distributed into five aisles by means of nearly a thousand col- umns, twenty feet in height, ostentatiously orna- mented with sculptured gods and their animal incar- nations or representatives, for every Hindu divinity has its representative (as the cow of Lakshmi, god- dess of fortune, love, and temporal happiness ; the elephant head of Ganeca, god of wisdom and cun- ning ; or the fish of Vishnu) ; and this arrangement is of great artistic value to the ecclesiastical architec- ture of the country, from a decorative point of view. All the aisles of the choultry at Chillumbaram are Plate V. — The choultry at Chillumbaram. 48 INDIA, ly DO-CHIN A, AND J A VA. roofed with flat slabs of granite, a simple matter in the case of the side aisles, none of which are over six feet wide ; but, in order to accomplish the same thing in the middle aisle, which measures over twenty feet in width, a complicated system of bracketing is re- sorted to ; a clumsy expedient at best, but still more awkward when one thinks how easily the difficulty might have been overcome by a light springing arch. Having examined the vimanas, porches, gate pyramids, and choultries we know the principal fea- tures of every Dravidian temple ; but, besides these, each temple is usually supplied with numerous sup- plementary buildings and minor temples dedicated to various gods : as Indra, god of the air and the thun- der, who rides in a golden chariot drawn by blood- red horses with golden manes, " and hath hair like the plumes of the peacock " ; or Agni, god of fire, " who was found concealed in wood, and by friction induced to come out"; or others of the three hun- dred and thirty million deities of the Hindu pan- theon. And thus the general appearance of a large temple in southern India calls to mind Karnak, the Rhamesseum, and other great Egyptian fanes of the Theban period. But, on the other hand, it must be acknowledged that the comparison is not a flattering one to Egypt, for it requires little more than a glance at any Dravidian temple except Tanjore to perceive that there is no such thing as climax either in the dis- tribution of the buildings or in their decorative treat- ment. Indeed, the gate pyramids are made so large and striking that they eliminate all dignity and im- portance from the pagodas, which contain the holy shrines ; while every fragment of surface is so fretted TEMPLES TIRUVALUR AND MAHAVELLIPORE. 49 and tormented with carving and stucco frippery as to give no rest whatever to the wearied eye. One of the best examples of a complete southern temple stands at Tiruvalur, a plan of which (taken Fig. 18.— Temple at Tiruvalur. from the essay of Ram Raz, the Hindu archaeologist) appears in Fig. 18. Before leaving the Dravidian style the rock-cut temples claim attention. At Mahavellipore stands a collection of buildings which hold a sort of artistic transitional relation be- tween the Buddhist rock-cut sanctuaries and the Dra- vidian fanes. These are monolithic temples in which an entiris edifice, is hewn out of a granite mountain 5 50 INDIA, INDO-CHINA, AND J A VA. and left standing isolated. Each building is hollowed out within and sumptuously decorated without, a miracle of even Oriental patience. But of all the temples of India the most astonishing and unique are those at Ellora (Fig. 19), as containing all the glories Fig. 19. — Temple at Ellora. of Karli, Tanjore, and Mahavellipore in one. Here the entire main edifice has been carved from a single block of red granite by cutting a rectangular trench down through the slope of a mountain to a depth of one hundred feet and leaving a large mass of stone standing in the middle. This mass was then fash- ioned into a temple richly sculptured within and THE TEMPLE OF ELLORA. 51 without, and adorned with porticoes, chapels, and colonnades composed of piers representing lions, elephants, and other creatures more fantastic. Around the perimeter of the encircling court formed by the trench (which is two hundred and seventy by one hundred and fifty feet) runs a clois- tered peristyle, also excavated vivo saxo, from which extend many spurlike cells and six miles of subterra- nean galleries winding through the adjacent moun- tain side, which is well-nigh honeycombed with the windows and sculptured fagades of countless sanctu- aries. But the main feature of EUora is the Kylasa or Paradise of Siva in the middle of the court. Its approach is through a propylasa, two bridges, a chapel, and a grand hall, the last leading into the sanctuary of the god. All about the sanctuary are terraces and minor chapels, and the whole is em- broidered over within with a wealth of ■ sculptured magnificence quite bewildering to the eye. Exter- nally the same exuberance obtains, but more artistic- ally distributed, and in a manner worthy of great praise in a country where a riot of carving without plain spaces to enhance it is held to be a true form of art. Perhaps the greatest peculiarity of Ellora from an architectural point of view is the unity of conception prevailing throughout, as though one master mind had mapped out the whole stupendous idea in all its details before setting chisel to the work. But in our admiration for this tour de force we must not imagine that it is, or ever can be, of prac- tical value to the architect, for, as Tuckerman says : " Such methods are not possible in our day, nor if so 52 INDIA, INDO-CHINA, AND JAVA. would they be desirable. . . . Architecture of this kind is scarcely more than wholesale sculpture, and as such can in no sense compare favourably with the grace of form and scientific construction which we see in the works of the Greek and Gothic artists." The Iiido-Aryan Style. In northern India, just as in the south, the best specimens of Hindu architecture are among the temples. These are much simpler, since they dis- pense with the gate pyramids and choultries, substi- tuting only an additional portico. They furthermore differ from the pagodas of the south in their profile and adornment ; for, though both externally are py- ramidal in shape, all Dravidian surfaces are flat and broken with horizontal lines of decoration ; while the Indo-Aryan sanctuaries have convex surfaces, with vertical bands of ornament and perpendicular divis- ions. No northern Hindu temple dates back further than the seventh century, and very few earlier than the year 1250, among which may be mentioned the temples of Juggernath, Barolli, Jajepur, and the Black Pagoda. Of these, the most perfect gem of the collection is the little Temple of Barolli (Fig. 20), situated in the silver silence and solitude of the Chumbul valley. Here, unlike so many of the south- ern temples, the sanctuary holds the climax and lifts high its graceful fretted dome over a pleasingly plain base, the latter being only broken to emphasize the lines above. A pure white portico claims the middle distance, having simple shafts and bracket caps, yet flaming TEMPLE OF BAROLLI. 53 all dishevelled above, in a riot of co.mplex sculpture ; while before all in the foreground stands another portico of the same (yet somewhat soberer) style, supplied with strong corners and well-distributed shadow, the two qualities so rare in modern architec- FlG. 20. — Temple of BaroUi. ture. But the most successful feature of the whole is the arrangement of contrast between plainness and elaboration, without which neither is ever of the slightest value. This seems to have been the most difficult truth for all Orientals to grasp, and the 54 INDIA, INDO-CHINA, AAD J A VA. straightforward announcement of it at Barolli places this temple on a high plane of criticism among its fellows. Cave temples were not so popular among the Brahmanists as among the Buddhists, and yet the Brahmanic fane in northern India, most widely talked of by foreigners, belongs to this class — namely, Ele- phanta. This temple lies in the harbour of Bombay on the Island of Elephanta, so called from the discov- ery of a huge elephant hewn from a single rock stand- ing near the landing place. Deep into the bowels of the earth it tunnels to a depth of one hundred and thirty feet, having a breadth of one hundred and twenty-three, and is divided into three aisles by colonnades, thus resembling a Roman basilica. The columns are somewhat squat and thick; but this is to be expected when one bears in mind that they support the weight of an entire superincumbent mountain. Round about the walls are pilasters and huge niches containing mythological sculpture of various kinds, notably representations of Rama, Siva and Vishnu, and Viraj, the double deity, half male, half female, all well carved and of decorative value. Having been much mutilated by the Portuguese, the Temple of Garapori or Elephanta has long ago ceased to be used by the priests for holding religious services; but it is still popular with childless young wives, who repair thither in large numbers to pray for offspring. From the critical point of view, it is a feat of engineering r?iX\\&r than an architectural v^c\\\^\^. ment ; and, as such, should be estimated from the engineering standpoint; but when contrasted with ARCHITECTURE OF INDO-CHINA. 55 Ellora, which is both, it must be acknowledged that the northern temple loses by comparison. During the Middle Ages, Mohammedan architec- ture found its way into India with the conquerors, and many beautiful buildings were the direct result. But these belong rather to Saracenic art, and may be more profitably studied in a subsequent chapter. INDO-CHINA. Indo-China is the next country which naturally presents itself for architectural study after India ; not from the point of view of evolution, but from that of collateral development. For no building of India has yet been discovered antedating the year 250 B. c, and Buddhism (with its usual architectural incubation) was introduced into Indo-China only seven years after that date by Rahaman, the son of Asoka. From the above it must not be inferred that Indo- China was at all destitute of native architecture be- fore the arrival of Rahaman ; for of this there was probably an abundance; but none of it was ever framed in more enduring material than wood, and hence (with the exception of Buddhist temples and topes) there is no proof to-day of a distinct style having existed at a remote period save by inference from modern work. Turning, therefore, to the Buddhist monuments of the country, one finds a number of sthambas and dagobas (called indiscriminately pagodas by the for- eigners) scattered in many places through Burmah and Siam. All follow pretty much the same pattern, and consist of a conelike structure rising from two or more terraces, and terminating in a sort of spire S6 INDIA, INDO-CHINA, AND JA VA. technically termed a tee. Many are polygonal in plan at the base and become circular in the ascent, as the Shoemadoo pagoda (Fig. 2 1) (the greatest in Burmah), Fig. 21. — The pagoda of Shoemadoo. and many are surrounded by a double row of either sthambas or miniature pagodas. Shoedagong, at Rangoon, and Khomado, on the Irrawaddy, are the best known after the above men- tioned. All three are of stone, and with others of their kind are the only structures in Burmah of that material, it having been enforced by law that no building be erected either in brick or stone, save for religious purposes or royal palaces. SIAMESE EXTRAVAGANCE. 57 In Siam, where the taste is more extravagant than in Burmah, the dagoba spires are incrusted with bright bits of broken pottery set in plaster which at a distance do duty for sculpture. Domestic dwellings are built upon bamboo piles or floating rafts, with siding of teak wood or atap- leaf, and, as a rule, are of one story only, since it is held an indignity to allow a man to walk over one's head. Palaces are composed of brick and stucco osten- tatiously painted and gilded. But European taste and ideas have now begun greatly to prevail, and the three-story royal palace at Bangkok, designed by an Englishman, has elicited the admiration and imita- tion it so richly' deserves. In it the French Renais- sance style has been followed and a beautiful loggia has been drawn through the centre, while a bit of local colour is woven over the whole by means of a roof, treated after the gay Siamese fashion (Plate VI). Extravagance of taste in Siam reaches its culmi- nation in the wais or temples, which consist of peri- style buildings smeared over with gilded plaster, and corruscated with bits of coloured crystal. The floors are tapestried with silver wire or paved with chiselled brass ; and the doors, inlaid with mother-of- pearl, glow like heated opal, while from the gold and crimson rafters of the ceiling often hang a stalactite forest of floral foliage worked in porcelain. There is a certain efficient effrontery about all this medley of glare, but it is not architecture ; it is rather wholesale jewelry, and imitation jewelry at that ; nor can it claim the archaeological interest at- TEMPLES OF ANGCOR. 59 taching to antiquity, there being few buildings in Siam dating more than a hundred years ago. In Cambodia, however, one finds the remnants of a civilization which can claim both antiquity and a certain amount of architectural interest. Of these remnants nothing but ruins now remain, yet among the temples of Angcor (circa 5 A. D.) the residuum is sufficient wherewith to form a fair idea. The material employed was sun-dried brick baked in blocks fifteen feet long and nine feet wide. Terraces, covering several acres, rose above the river bed, and, octopuslike, stretched forth bridges to either shore. These bridges were many hundred yards in length and were bordered with parapets of hydra-headed dragons, supported at intervals by grotesque statues. Scores of domical towers, terminating in tees, bristled into an eccentric sky line, sculptured all over, and frequently embossed with colossal human heads, as in the forty-two towers of Angcor-Baion (Plate VII). A long line of loggias usually ran round the ex- terior, belting in an entire collection of temple build- ings, all of which were linked together by stone pas- sages accentuated at intervals by lions and Laernian monsters. Windows were square, crossbarred with stone, and doors were triumphal arches topped with fan- tastic towers; while piers, tall, lithe, and straight, curved into capitals plumed with petrified leafage, wedding a certain dignity with grace. And yet with all this patient pursuance after effect, the Western mind instinctively balks at accepting so much elaboration without adequate cause, and it must JAVANESE ARCHITECTURE. 6 1 be acknowledged that the multiplicity of spiky towers suggests a circus where it should suggest a temple, and advertisement rather than magnificence. JAVA. With Brahmanism and Buddhism Javanese archi- tecture began, and with Brahmanism and Buddhism it ended. For after the Moslem invasion in the fifteenth century architecture practically ceased, and little or nothing remains save ruins, and they are com- paratively few. These ruins are divided into three principal groups situated at Gumong Prau, Brabanum, and Boro-Bud- dor, and as monuments of patience may almost be. compared to those of Egypt. Boro-Buddor (or Great Buddha) is the most im- portant of the three. It is also the most extraordi- nary building in Java, and, so far as is generally known, the most elaboratel}' decorated in the world. Not that this need give it a very high place in archi- tecture, for decoration brings the responsibility of distribution, one of the most difficult problems of the profession ; but it holds the foremost position in Javanese art, and so warrants a word of descrip- tion. Here eight tiers of terraces rise one above the other pyramidally, the lower five being bound round the edges with endless chains of buildings and bas- reliefs— the buildings flaming into fantastic spires — and cupolas. The principal cupolas cover four hun- dred and thirty-six niches, and each niche encircles a contemplative statue of Buddha facing outward. The backs of all these buildings are even more elab- 62 INDIA, INDO-CHINA, AND J A VA. orately sculptured than their fagades, and are fairly incrusted with tangles of elaboration ; while the three upper terraces bubble all around with domes which bend above some seventy-two more statues of the divinity. A long bracelet of bas-reliefs clasps the whole collection of buildings at the base, which is sixteen hundred feet in circumference, and the whole bewil- dering mass is surmounted by a pagoda rising alto- gether one hundred feet into the air. With all this patient preparation, however, the re- sult is neither felicitous nor effectual. Smothered in carving and fortuitous frippery it loses the calm dig- .nity and stability which its size and shape might otherwise command, and, eschewing the purity of outline which makes Greek art the precious posses- sion of all ages, indulges instead in a filigree fussi- ness at variance with all sound judgment and pure taste. CHAPTER III: EASTERN ASIA. INTRODUCTION. China, Corea, and Japan form not only an art group distinct from the rest of the world, but also an art sequence. For China taught Corea, and Corea Japan, with the result that in each case the pupil out- stripped the master. It must not be understood, however, that Corea and Japan are without native styles of their own. But the introduction of Buddhism successively into the Hermit Kingdom and Mikado's empire brought with it a vast quantity of Chinese architectural ma- terial, which became more and more refined and ideal- ized in its progress eastward, until it reached peri- helion in Japan. CHINA. That the Chinese are better engineers than archi- tects is shown in the ramparts' surrounding their ■cities, their bridges, and the Great Wall, which con- tains sufficient material (it is said) to span the world twice with a bulwark six feet high and two feet in thickness. Indeed, no nation understands the quarrying, cut- ting, and adjustment of granite- more thoroughly than the Chinese, and in this they bear agreeable com- 64 EASTERN ASIA. parison with the Russians of to-day and the Egyp- tians of ancient time. This facility is doubtless the result of long, des- potic, and vigorous training, for a legend relates that a mason employed upon the Great Wall was put to death, because certain joints between the stones of his portion of the work were left wide enough to admit the insertion of a nail. Notwithstanding the Chinese facility in handling stone, the majority of Mongolian buildings are of wood, on account of the well-founded fear of earth- quakes ; and, after wood, brick (often overlaid with porcelain) is the most popular material. Owing to the perishable quality and brittleness of these substances China has few of those great his- toric monuments by which one may read the tale of a nation's evolution ; a condition further aggravated by the Emperor Tsin-Chi-Hoang-Ti, who in 246 B. c. wilfully ordered the destruction of all important buildings constructed before his ascent of the throne, thus cutting off all connection with the early archi- tectural past of the country, save that of tradition.- But fortunately tradition is stronger in China than in any other country on the globe, save Corea and Japan, and so rigid and unbending are the laws and rules of Celestial architecture, that to study the Chinese building art of to-day is to study that of all time. The primitive type from which all houses of the Flowery Kingdom must have sprung was the tent ; and the most cursory glance at a Chinese city sup- plies the ocular proof. Even palaces are little more than an agglomera- RELICIO^^. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. 65 tion of wooden tents ; while the pagodas resemble a series of tents piled one upon the other. Besides the generative tent, religion has helped to mould the building art in China, as it has in all other countries. The beliefs most generally accepted are Buddhism, Confucianism, and that of the follow- ers of Laou-Tse or Tauism (from Tao — Supreme Wis- dom). Of these religions or philosophies, Buddhism has most affected the architecture by introducing pagodas, the finest monumental objects of the land. Christianity also exists to a certain extent, but has not impressed the architecture, save in certain missionary churches of the interior, where the stained glass windows represent the Saviour dressed in Chi- nese costume and wearing a pigtail. For the aver- age Chinaman can never bring himself to worship one whose image recalls a foreign devil, which com- plimentary epithet he applies to all Europeans and Americans indiscriminately. Domestic Architecture and Palaces. The domestic dwellings of Ta-Tsing-Kwo, or the Empire of Great Purity, as the reigning family love to call their land, are, externally, dingy in the ex- treme ; but the interior walls and courtyards are much gayer, and are illumined by brightly coloured tiles and painted and gilded woods ; while the inner portions of the houses of the wealthy are often en- crusted with ivory, copper, and mother-of-pearl. But this kind of elegance is confined to the houses of the Mandarins and rich retired pawnbrokers, and is rather the exception than the rule. All Chinese houses, however, share in simplicity 6 66 EASTERN ASIA. of construction and certain other features which may be enumerated as follows : Shops and dwellings are seldom over one or two stories ; extent being consid- ered of more importance than height ; roofs are sus- tained by wooden or granite posts, and strengthened by transverse beams ; friezes are filled with open- work carving, and all framework and roofing are completed before the sides are filled in. Plate glass has been only recently introduced into China, and is almost unknown in the south. Hence windows do not play the same important part as in our own exteriors. Their duty is performed by window-doors, two or three feet wide, glazed with oiled paper and extending from ground to roof in one-story dwellings, or the height of each story in houses of greater pretension. These buildings are likewise provided with verandas or loggias of the kind familiar to every traveller who drives along the Nan- king road toward the Bubbling Well in Shanghai. The most imposing features of every Chinese house are the doorway and roof. The doorway is chiefly noticeable for its brilliant tinctures of illumination and elaborate carving of dragons or other monstrosities upon lintel and jamb ; but to its roofs, the architecture of the Middle King- dom owes almost its entire claim to beauty. Nearly all roofs are composed of tile, are hipped and concave in shape, and bent up at the corners in the manner peculiar to eastern Asia. Sometimes this folding up of the edge is carried out in the middle of the side as well, giving an impression of festooned eaves. Chimneys being a rarity, and practically unknown in the south, the roof depends for its ornamental CHINESE PECULIARITIES. Cj decoration on the treatment of the ridge and ribs, which are therefore elaborately carved, to an extent uncouth to the Western eye ; but, on the whole, Chi- nese roofs are pleasing, and do much to relieve mo- notony in the landscape. No attempt is ever made to crown the posts or columns with capitals, and the other beams are rarely squared or carved, but left round. Most northern Chinese houses are heated by means of a kang or bench of stone masonry, beneath which is a tortuous ffue from the kitchen fire-place. On this warm bench the family sits by day and sleeps at night, thus making one fire supply heat for the whole household, and economizing fuel. In southern China braziers are popularly used for cooking, and are sometimes employed instead of a kang in the north during the summer months. Such are the principal features of domestic dwell- ings in the Celestial Empire, while the palaces are simply a collection of such buildings, interspersed with gateways, and courtyards adorned with mazy labyrinths of rock-work. Even the " Great Unseen," the Emperor of China, and " Heaven's Vicegerent here below," before whose very clothes and furniture the Mandarins prostrate themselves as before some- thing holy — even he dwells in a collection of sheds of this kind, with little to distinguish it save area and extent. How great a boon a large extent of space and breathing room is, can only be appreciated by those who have lived in the filth and squalor of a Chinese city like Canton, Shanghai, or Peking, where the ma- jority of streets never exceed seven feet in width, 68 EASTERN ASIA. and where a reeking, seething mass of humanity, in- fested with noisome vermin, herd together in ill- smelling kraals, and drag out lives of dull torture, re- lieved only by occasional drunkenness on opium. Pagodas. The most characteristic features of every Chinese landscape are the -pagodas, so called from the Hin- dustani word Poutkhoda, meaning the " house of idols," or the "abode of God." Superstitious natives believe that pagodas exert a fertilizing influence upon the surrounding soil, and affect the fall of rain for as far as the eye can discern their pointed tops. Hence, tall pagodas are in great requisition. These minarets of old Cathay consist of octagonal towers three to nine stories in height, tapering toward the top and terminating in a point. Each story is provided with a veranda and each veranda with a tiled roof. Red is the prevailing colour of all religious build- ings, and hence of pagodas. The use of red as a re- ligious colour was doubtless derived from India, where to this day the natives sprinkle their clothes with vermilion powder or paint at certain religious festivals. In some cases the materials composing pagodas are of such richness that paint is practically dispensed with. A good example of this is the porcelain tower of Nanking (Fig. 22), erected between 141 2 and 143 1 to an empress of the Ming dynasty, but destroyed during the Taiping rebellion. This pagoda is said to have been the finest ever erected in China ; it rose two hundred and thirty-six PORCELAIN TOWER OF NANKING. 69 feet in height, was divided into nine stories, and was covered entirely with porcelain. From each angle of the several roofs depended a bell ; while chains fes- tooned from the spire, and embellished in like man- Fig. 22. — Porcelain tower of Nanking. ner, made a chime of twelve dozen in all, which tinkled pleasantly in the soft breezes that spring up after sunset in those latitudes. Besides octagonal pagodas there are some few 70 EASTERN ASIA. square in shape, as the one at Tsing-Poo ; but these are only interesting from having furnished the model for the minarets of Corea and Japan. Pai-Loos and Pai-Fongs. After pagodas the most purely national architec- tural objects in China are the pai-loos. They consist of four uprights with one or more horizontal beams mortised into them, and surmounted by a tiled roof, thus forming a species of triumphal arch. Foreigners have been criticised for calling pai-loos "triumphal arches," since they are used for the most part as memorials to statesmen, public benefactors, or other persons of distinction. Nevertheless, pai-loos are sometimes employed to record a military triumph, as the one erected at Canton commemorating the great defeat of the English by the Chinese. Most pai-loos are made of granite, though marble is used in the north, and all are elaborately carved and adorned with tablets setting forth their raison detre in the decorative Chinese characters. A fine specimen, bold in execution, spans the highway of Amoy (Fig. 23). Roof tiles are emblazoned with almost every colour save yellow, which is the imperial shade ; its use on the house of a private citizen or any other than the emperor being a capital offence. Indeed, there is a species of architectural police over all buildings, who regulate the size and appointments according as the owner is a royalty or prince of the first, second, or third degree, a mandarin, grandee, citizen, or coolie. PAI-FONGS AND PAI-LOOS. 71 Pai-fongs a.re pai-loos dedicated to women of noble character, or to show respect to the memory of one's mother. They are also erected to widows who have not married a second time, or virgins who have died without entering the matrimonial state. Pai-fongs differ from pai-loos in having only one arch instead of Fig. 23. — Pai-loo at Amoy. three, and are less elaborately adorned. Both are probably evolutions from the Tartar " red-arrow gates" found in their most primitive form in Corea; though an effort has been made to trace their origin to Indo-China and India. 72 EASTERN ASIA. Temples and Tombs. The temples of China, whether Buddhist, Tauist, or Confucian, differ little from the palaces and pri- vate dwellings of the rich, and for the most part dis- play little magnificence ; but there are some notable exceptions to the rule, as the VVan-Sheu-Shan near the Peking Summer Palace, which is composed almost entirely of coloured majolica and loaded with Bud- dhist sculptures, while another near it is cast in bronze of exquisite workmanship. A labyrinthine rockery like those of Mandarin clubs and palaces adorns the temple gardens ; but otherwise little effort is made toward landscape gardening or other- wise providing a suitable setting. Besides the orthodox temples, there is another species known as imperial temples, where the Emperor officiates in his role of high pontiff. Their services are neither Buddhist, Confucian, nor Tauist, and are not held oftener than once or twice a year. There is also a more esoteric purity in their ritual, since prayer and sacrifice are offered to thoughts and ideals expressed upon printed tablets hanging round about instead of to images, lest the worship degenerate into material idolatry. The shang-ti or tablet to the Supreme Lord, and the tablets dedicated to the deceased emperors, are among the most popular ; and to these the Lord of Cathay offers incense and fire. " To Heaven alone is offered a piece of blue jade, a thing formerly used as a symbol of authority." Of all imperial temples the one known as the Temple of Heaven (Plate VIII) has acquired the Plate VIII.— The Temple of Heaven. 74 EASTERN ASIA. greatest modern repute. Though recently burned, its ruins may still be seen near Peking, enclosed in a beautiful garden four miles in circumference. Unlike other Chinese temples it is composed of only two buildings, called the South Altar and the North Altar. The first rests upon three circular terraces, each ascended by four flights of steps, and is hj'pgethral or left open to fhe sky for purposes of sacrifice. The North Altar, as though to make up for the lack of covering in its neighbour, has two roofs, one above the other, each encrusted with tiles of ultra- marine blue. Its shape is circular, and (before the fire) the walls were fretted with carvings and the win- dows were webbed with eccentric latticework. Ter- races and imposing stairwa3-s afforded opportunities for the processions, dancing, and music which ac- companied the ceremonies, and the whole building rose ninety-nine feet in the air, a stupendous height in China. Within there was little save the altar to Shang-ti and a certain reckless use of red ; but the general effect \yas brilliant in the extreme. Tombs. — We have now touched upon all the vari- ous kinds of buildings in Cathay except the China- man's last habitation, and in this he shows himself both more and less architectural than in any other direction. The more important of the tombs consist of horseshoe-shaped walls of granite or marble set upon terraces, approached by flights of steps, and pierced with a door leading into a vault (Fig. 24). The Vault is underground, as a rule, for the entire affair TOMBS OF THE MING EMPERORS. 75 is usually cut into the slope of a hill. But when this is not the case and the tomb is reared upon the plain, the whole conception becomes illogical, and an other- ■'//""!'(.'' Fig. 24. — Chinese tomb. wise dignified architectural object appears awkward and insignificant. The tombs of the Ming emperors are preceded by temples, altars, triumphal arches, and long avenues flanked by statues of men and animals ; but the last resting places of the lower orders of society can scarcely be classed under the head of architecture, and consist of huge stone masses resembling palan- quins and moulded into eccentric shapes, which, if allegorical to the Oriental mind, convey nothing to the Westerner or European. COREA.* Corea, like China, has, properly speaking, little architectural history, but is interesting as the ar- * In compiling the present sketch the writer is greatly indebted to. Mr. Perciva] Lowell, whose thorough knowledge of Corean matters is so well known throughout the far East. 76 EASTERN ASIA. tistic hyphen between the Flower}' Kingdom and Japan. This lack of history is partly due to the perishable quality of her building materials, and partly to the want of a religion, the prime factor in the creation of monumental work. Corea lost its religion through a caprice. During the Japanese invasion of 1598 a number of the Mi- kado's forces disguised themselves in the broad- brimmed hats of Buddhist priests and so obtained admission to the city. After which the Corean king decreed that no priest should ever set foot within the gates of a walled city again. Buddhism, being thus banished from the towns, took refuge in the country monasteries ; but these, from their remoteness, soon lost popularity with the rich, and fell gradually into disfavour, until to-day they are indeed few ; and what still remains of re- ligion for the Corean has dwindled into a few super- stitions and a mild form of Confucian philosophy. Hence nearly all traces of religious architecture have vanished, and to-day there is only one single pagoda throughout the entire capital of Seoul, and that is left neglected in the back yard of an irreverent citizen. Investigation is thus reduced to palaces and dwellings, and these, being of wood and paper, must be further limited to dwellings of the present day. But Corea, like China, has been very careful to preserve the traditions of her building art, and so one is quite safe in assuming the present houses of Seoul, Chemulpo, Gensan, and other cities to be almost identical with those of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, or even earlier. RESTRTCTJOAS IN COREA. 77 Domestic Architecture. The domestic architecture of the Hermit King- dom is exactly what one would expect in a country, spiritless and unambitious, which has devoted its entire time to scraping together sufficient tribute in order to be let alone. That is to say, the king and Government officials are decently lodged and the poor live in hovels. Indeed, the law allows no man save the king to expend over one thousand dollars upon his house. In royal palaces alone is paint permitted to be em- ployed, and the use of round columns instead of square posts is a privilege likewise arrogated by royalty, the circle being considered the more perfect form. The last consideration is forgot when it be- comes a question of the rafters, all of which in the king's palace are square, while in the houses of the people they are round. These and myriad other restrictions binding all non-royal architecture, magnificence is perforce not denoted so much by artistic beauty and extent as by multiplicity of approaches. The first feature to be met in the residence of an ordinary high-class official is the red-arrow gate, a sort of rude triumphal arch, which, as hinted before, is of purely Tartar origin and little changed from its primitive form. It consists of two tall uprights bound together by two horizontal crosspieces, pierced ver- tically by a number of slim shafts or arrows. Two spirals so twined together as to fill the area of a circle and placed at the middle of the upper crosspiece form the only decoration, a thing held in great veneration, 78 EASTERN ASIA. first, as representing the positive and negative essences of Confucian philosophy, and, second, as the device or armorial bearing of the nation. After the red-arrow gate, the visitor approaches the gate proper or mun (called mon in Japanese), which glories in some fanciful name, as " Gate of Ex- tensive Wisdom," " Gate of Virtuous Contentment," etc. This portal resembles the walled entrances of Tien-Tsin and other Chinese cities, and, like them, consists of a doorway piercing a wall and sur- mounted by a house, looking as though the lodger objected to the rez-de-chaussee, and had hoisted his entire house higher up and well out of the damp. This pavilion or kiosk, which is used for a band of music when the owner can afford such luxuries, is open on four sides and surmounted by a beautiful roof of tiles, festooned at the corners and sides and graceful in the exti-eme. It is in these roofs that the Coreans far excel their teachers the Chinese, and it is to. Corean taste in this direction that we owe so much that is beautiful in Japan. The gate or mun opens on an enclosure, which contains another enclosure, which encircles still a third, and so on to any number, according to the wealth of the owner, until at last one arrives at the house. Three steps lead to the top of the sill or founda- tion, which is of stone and girt about with a veran- da, the use of any more than three steps by any mortal not royal being a cause for decapitation. • This stone foundation is more than it appears at first sight, as it is used for warming the house. A fire is built in an outdoor fireplace at the side, and the THE RANG AXD OTHER FEATURES. 79 smoke and hot air, passing through a series of tortu- ous flues, warms the floor of the building. The theory of this arrangement is that the feet will thus be kept warm while the head remains cool. But unfortunately the practical working is not so felicitous, for it requires a long time to properly heat the slab, and when once this has been accom- plished the temperature often rises so quickly that the occupant of the room is well-nigh roasted. How- ever, layers of earth and oiled paper somewhat tem- per the severity. The whole is an invention of the Chinese, and was introduced into the Hermit Kingdom about 1736 A. D. Above the veranda and furnace rises the house, one story in height, and composed entirely of wood and paper. The bones of the structure, so to speak, are a number of strong posts supporting the plate and roof rafters. Between the posts are folding doors panelled with ornate lattice work, which in summer may be unhinged and triced up to the ceiling. This arrangement is usually confined to tea houses, restaurants, and dining rooms. Inside of the outer walls or doors are two rows of oiled-paper sliding screens, a green one for night, and a white one for day. Over all stretches the many- gabled and tiled roof, laid in black mud planted with seeds. The seeds take root and spring up in summer, covering the whole with splashes of warm green verdure. The interiors of Corean dwellings are always de- clared by their exterior, as in the Gothic style. Thus, if there are two rooms in a house, the fact is duly 8o EASTERN ASIA. registered on the outside by two separate roofs, so that a large mansion is simply a collection of small houses, each having one room, and joined to one an- other by covered corridors ; while a palace suggests a complicated city interspersed with beautiful gar- dens. This especially is true of the old palace of Seoul, built about 1386 A. D., and still in good preser- vation, and even more true of the so-called new pal- ace, erected one hundred years later, whose beautiful grounds, spangled with lotus ponds, cover an area of one thousand acres. The similarity to a city is still further accentuated by the fact that several hun- dred court ladies reside within the palace enclosure, each having her own house with its many ceremonial approaches. Such is the architecture of Qor&2L en gros, while as regards furniture, there is little throughout the country which is worthy of the name. A wadded quilt to sit upon, a table one foot high, a cupboard, a screen, a picture or painted panel — these constitute the entire furniture and decoration of a room, whether in city or country, in palace or in hovel. On the walls, floor, and ceiling one never sees any- thing but oiled paper. True, now and again appear one of those rare bits of pottery for which during the sixteenth century the Coreans were famous through- out all the Eastern World, and then these monoto- nous surroundings seem the only fit settings for such ceramic jewels ; but for the most part interior beauty and elegance are neglected, taste is forgotten, and ambition is lulled to slumber in the "Land of the Morning Calm." THE WOODEN ORIGIN. THE AINOS. 8 1 JAPAN. History. — The official records concerning Japanese architecture, dating before 700 B. c, are so meagre that little can be said authoritatively concerning the origin of the native style. Nevertheless everything seems to point to that origin having been a wooden one. Thus, the oldest chronicle so far unearthed tells how Tsokina Hono-Mikkoto and his younger brother cut dovi^n trees and built themselves a wooden palace in the reign of Amatsu Hikkodate-no-Mikkoto, and other records of somewhat later date treat the matter of house building as though the wooden method were the only one. But whatever the origin oi prehistoric arch.iteci\ire among the Japanese, certain it is that the native style * of to-day, as well as that of all historical times, has been derived from the huts of the Ainos, or half- savage aboriginal race, who now only inhabit the island of Yezo. This nation bears very much the same political relation to the Japanese as the North American In- dians do to the people of the United States. In civilization, however, they have made even less ad- vancement, save in politeness, and their dwellings of to-day are almost identical with those of twenty-five hundred years ago. These dwellings or huts in early times resembled a triangular prism, being built with- out vertical walls. They consisted of two pairs of * The expression native style in used here in contradistinction to the Buddhist style, brought into the country by the Coreans. 7 82 EASTERN ASIA. young trees with ends crossed and tied firmly at their intersections to a horizontal beam or ridge pole, bj' strong wistaria roots {fugi). The ends rested on the ground, and the whole was thatched with reeds or straw. Later this hut was used only as a roof and vertical walls were added by means of uprights, the interspaces being filled in with coarse matting. Reliable information concerning Japanese building art begins with the reign of Jimmu Tenno, who as- cended the throne in 660 B. c, and is believed to have been the first human ruler of Nippon, which, accord- ing to tradition, had formerly been governed by Shinto gods. During his reign an imperial palace was built as well as a Shinto shrine, and these gave the mode until about 201 A. D., when the Empress- Dowager Jingo-Kogo, the Semiramis or Catharine of the far East, donned male attire and conquered Corea. From this time Corea became to Japan what Greece was to Rome both in science and in art ; but its real influence did not begin until 522 A. D., vvrhen Buddhism was first introduced into the country. From that date began the great fusion not only of the Buddhist religion with the Shinto cult, but also of the Buddhist architecture with the Japanese native style, which mingling continued until the end of the sixth century. During the early part of the succeeding century a perfect furore for everything Corean swept over the land, and artists, architects, artisans, workers in metal and textile fabrics, wood carvers, and ceramic experts from the Hermit Kingdom swarmed over the empire. But in the period from 673 to 689 A. D., under the Em- HISTORY. DOMESTIC DWELLINGS. 83 peror Temmii, a pause ensued, in which importation ceased and assimilation continued. Architectural features which had entered the country uncompro- misingly Chinese or Corean in character lost their original appearance and, being amalgamated, took on a refinement and elegance quite new and entirely their own; Hida-no-Takumi introduced symmetry, and a steady advance toward purity of taste fol- lowed. This continued, with some slight interrup- tions, until 1616 A. D., when the climax was reached in the temples of the Tokugawa at Nikko, the mas- terpieces of Japan (see Plate XII). Since 1870 the inroad of Europeans and Western travellers has begun to tell architecturally upon the Land of the Rising Sun by introducing what is locally termed the " foreign style," doubtless, as some one has remarked, " because foreign to all known styles of architecture." But, as Mr. Cham- berlain put it, " we can not, with any grace, blame a nation whom we ourselves have misled," and " if Japan's contemporary efforts in architecture are worse even than ours, it is chiefly because her peo- ple have less money to dispose of." Domestic Dwellings. Japanese buildings may be broadly divided into domestic dwellings, palaces, castles, yashiki, and ecclesiastical edifices. Of these, the domestic dwellings are the simplest, being derived directly from the hut of the Ainos, and consist for the most part of vertical beams resting upon stones and mortised to horizontal beams, carry- ing a heavy roof, thatched, shingled, or tiled. There 84 EASTERN ASIA. are no permanent walls, as a rule, the sides being com- posed in winter of amado, or wooden sliding screens, capable of being folded up and packed away, and in summer of shoji, or oiled-paper slides, translucent, but not transparent. Thus in warm weather all the sides of the house may be removed, and the whole thrown open for air and ventilation. Houses of the better class have both wooden and oiled-paper slides all the year round, the former for night, the latter for day ; and the intermediate space is employed as a veranda or vestibule, called genka. No permanent partitions cut up the interior, but paper screens sliding in grooves divide the space ac- cording to the number of rooms required. If a house has a second floor, it generally covers only a portion of the lower story, and is reached by a flight of very steep steps. The most striking feature of all Japa- nese interiors is the total absence of furniture. Neither tables, chairs, beds, nor washing stands ap- pear, the reasons being that tables and chairs are scarcely ever used ; that the futan, or bed, consists of a thick soft quilt, which is always rolled up and stowed away in a cupboard during the day ; while the washing stand is almost superfluous in a country where the commonest laborer often takes five baths in a day, and would die of shame if he bathed less than three times /^r diem. Ewers, it is true, are used for the hands and head if there is no time for a whole bath, but, like the bed, are concealed in a cupboard, so that the general appearance of a bedroom is some- what bare. To counterbalance the lack of furniture, however, it is only fair to say that all the interior woodwork is exquisitely grained, that the floors are FURNITURE AND PALACES. 85 either finely polished or beauiifull}' lacquered, that soft silken cushions supply the need of chairs, and that ramtna, or carved ornamental friezes, recalling the work of Squarcione, of Padua, give a refined finish to the whole. In every house an alcove is built as a seat for the Mikado should he ever deign to visit the house. Such a visit naturally does not occur in more than one case out of a million, but the alcove nevertheless is always built, and in it is placed a rare bit of pottery or a painted screen, which is usually the one ornamental feature of the room. This one adornment is changed by the owner every day when he can afford such luxury ; but the mass of his treasures is kept out of sight in a fireproof building at the back, known as a godown* for it is considered the height of vulgarity to spread one's valuables ostentatiouslj' about the room as we do. In this respect, as well as in many others, all Western nations might learn from this refined little people of the East, who never mistake extravagance for greatness, nor ostentation for beauty. Palaces. A palace, as understood by the Japanese, means not only the home of the Mikado, but also a garden filled with residences of the kuge, or court nobles, sur- rounded by a high-roofed wall. In old days the residence of the Mikado or palace consisted of a simple domestic dwelling of the kind described above, thatched with straw, and but little * Godown from the Malay word gadong, a warehouse. 86 EASTERN ASIA. superior in decoration to that of the humblest vil- lager, for the emperor, being of divine origin, needed no earthly pomp and circumstance to give him dig- nity in the eyes of his subjects. But in later years the examples of luxurious living set by the shoguns had their effect, so that in the present day the Mikado's palaces are more elaborate. In their construction, however, they resemble the domestic dwellings de- scribed above, save that they contain more permanent walls and are surmounted by roofs of a more orna- mental type; while as regards decoration, they have borrowed from the resources of the Church, and many beautiful forms which adorn Buddhist tem- ples find their way into the abodes sacred onl}' to royalty. The screens between the rooms are of silk, painted with wild geese, chrysanthemums, Chinese saints, and ladies who were not saints ; or they are embroid-. ered with exquisite copies of old masters like Mitsuno- bu and Mitsushige of the Tosa school. The friezes are gems of glyptic art, and are often (as in the Nijo palace) from the hand of Hidari-Jingoro, the Pheidias of Japan, while ceilings, handsomely coffered in black lacquer with gold enrichments, dispute the prestige of beauty with the rest. In the new palace at Tokio the shoji, or sliding screens, are of plate glass, which is undoubtedly a- mistake in a land so prone to earthquakes, and the furniture, having been manufactured in Germany, seems out of place in its Eastern home. But the walls are hung with rich brocades exquisitely woven, and the three million dollars lavished upon the palace seem, on the whole, to have been well expended. CASTLES AND YASHIKI. %y Castles. The castles are lofty, dignified, wooden struc- tures, capable of accommodating a number of men at arms and of resisting spears and arrows ; and are proportioned in a manner to obtain a certain effect of grandeur and harmony. Each story is placed a little within the one below, the projections being roofed with tiles (a fashion imported in the eleventh cen- tury), while dignity and an appearance of height are gained by carrying up an embankment of huge stones fitted without cement, which in mediaeval times alone afforded sufficient protection from all civil disturbances.* Most of the castles now extant date from the six- teenth century, though some have been completed at a somewhat later period, as the Castle of Nagoya (Plate IX), built about 1610 by twenty feudal lords for the son of lyeyasu, and held to be the finest ex- ample in Japan. Yashiki, or Homes of the Territorial Nobility. The yashiki, or spread-out house, is a form of build- ing which found much favour in the days of feudal- ism, but which is now fast dying out. It is said to have been an evolution from the military encamp- ments of early days, in which the general's pavilion stood high among its fellows, and was surrounded-on all sides (at a respectful distance) by the tents of those of lower degree. * In the stone embankment of the Castle Osaka, erected by Hideyo- shi in 1583, several single blocks measure from thirty to thirty-six feet in length and fifteen in height. u I H YASHIKI CONTINUED. 89 The noun yashiki is collective, and stands for a hollow square, often inclosing some hundred thousand square feet ; lined with the barracks of the soldiery ; and bounding beautiful gardens, the latter inter- spersed with silvery fish ponds, filled with fat carp. Among these accessories of luxury rise the residences of the daimio and his ministers. The whole is girt about by a roofed wall of mud plaster and tiles set high upon an embankment of masonry, and outside runs a broad deep moat, affording a home for the hardy lotus, as well as countless herons, swans, ducks, geese, and storks. A huge roofed gateway gives access to the enclo- sure, and here all save those of the very highest rank, like the Abbot of Zozoji, must descend from their palanquins, rikishas, or other conveyances before ap- proaching his lordship's abode. The residence itself differs but little from the palaces and castles just described ; but the barracks have a certain individu- ality, and it is to these that foreigners usually refer when they employ the word yashiki. They consist of long rows of two-storied buildings with projecting eaves, barred windows, hanging bays, tiled roofs, and stone foundations, and they frequently form a part of the wall of circumvallation. The doorways are splendidly adorned with nail heads, heavy bolts, and iron straps ; but these are only employed to give an air of solidity to the structure, a quality which is sadly lacking in reality, the straps, etc., being for the most part wrought in thin sheet copper. Both within and without the wood is left un- painted, showing the exquisite graining of the cam- phor tree, which resembles fine watered silk. This 90 EASTERN ASIA. simplicity of treatment not only wins its own mead of admiration, but also greatly enhances the splendour of the daimio's palace with its gorgeous enrichments of lacquer and gold. In the old books yashiki are often referred to as miya, the origin of which word gave rise at one time to much discussion ; but it has now been definitely decided that the 'ax^t yasliiki or miya tv^x built was occupied by Jimmu Tenno in Kashiwara-no-Miya, which fact is believed to fix not only the origin of the word, but also the approximate date of the first build- ing of the kind, which must have been about 6io B. c. Ecclesiastical Architecture. All ecclesiastical buildings in Japan may be di- vided into two distinct styles — namely, Shinto * and Buddhist. Shinto temples are simply developments of the primeval hut or the domestic homes of the Ainos in Yezo, while Buddhist temples are evolutions of Corean architecture on Japanese soil. The purest specimens of Shinto temples are built of plain white pine, surmounted by thatched roofs. In them the coarse matting forming the sides of the Aino hut has given place to ordinary boarding, the * Shinto is a Chinese word meaning " the way of the gods," and is used in contradistinction to Butsudo, or the " way of Buddlia." But though the word Shinto was not used in Japan until after the introduction of Buddhism, the faith which it represents was the indigenous religion of the country, and is to-day the national creed. It is a combination of Nature worship, hero worship, and ancestor worship, and numbers eighty myriad deities in its calendar. Its moral teaching is usually summed up in the words " Follow your impulses and obey the Mikado," and as a faith it is practised in its greatest purity in the province of Satsuma. SHINTO TEMPLES. 91 earthen floor to a raised wooden one surrounded by a veranda, and the rough logs used anciently as weights upon the Muna-osce or " roof presser " (a beam to hold the thatch in place) are replaced by cigar- shaped pieces of timber neatly turned. At either end of the roof the rafters project so as to form a letter X above the ridgepole. This treat- ment always stamps a temple as belonging to the Shinto faith, a fact further emphasized by the pres- ence of a torii (Plate X), a sort of Japanese pro- pylaea composed of two columns, a lintel with pro- jecting ends and a tie beam ; a form of gateway always standing before temple inclosures devoted to the Shinto cult. The torii (as the name implies)* was used in old times as a bird rest, whereon perched fowls offered to the shrine ; but this custom having fallen into disuse, it now only serves the purpose of an arc de triomphe, like the red-arrow gates of Corea. Types of isolated temples, like that above de- scribed, are every day becoming rarer in Japan, the introduction of Buddhism having affected the archi- tecture even of the rival faith. Thus the average Shinto temple is no longer a single building preceded by a torii, but a collection of buildings (Plate XI). The temple just mentioned is still retained as the honden, or main shrine, but a number of roofed fences enclose it, and a series of approaches lend it the same dignity and aspect as the official residences of high dignitaries in Corea. Besides these, there are sec- ondary shrines scattered about the grounds, temple offices, a theatre for sacred dances, a library, a treas- * Torii from tori, meaning a fowl. o o H X P4 BUDDHIST TEMPLES. 93 ure house, an assembly hall, a stable for the sacred white pony, and a number of other buildings, all of which may be seen in the great temples of Ize or Izu- mo (Plate XI). Buddhism, unlike Shintoism, has no hereditary or traditional law to bind it to simplicity save the law of good taste. But this faculty has always been so inherent in every Japanese that few sins of excess have as yet been perpetrated, still less perpetuated. In the Buddhist temple one sees not only a marvel- lous artistic instinct for grouping and colour, but a still more wonderful power of assimilation. For whatever is imported from China or Corea becomes recreated the moment it passes through the refined alembic of the Japanese mind, and in no case has this purifying process been exerted more successfully than in Buddhist temples. To judge these temples, however, one must lay aside previous prejudice, and look at them rather from the painter's standpoint than the architect's point of view. For the Japanese are essentially im- pressionists in art, and, like all impressionists, their power lies more in colour effects than in form and outline. Hence, a temple is never designed as an iso- lated object, but always as a feature of the surround- ing landscape, and thus appears 'like great splashes of crimson lacquer and gold down a mountain side rather than a symmetrical distribution of columns, windows, and wall spaces, and if the background is such as to require a still higher note of colour a gateway or supplementary building is generally en- amelled over with a luminous white. Notwithstanding this splendour of conception. eS V ,: .■s I H I 1 ►yi o ja §■ :§ -s .^ a "b- I ^ ^ 1 as ;ajji H H H S H •a S t^ i «£ ^-c— x'^rt^K eg 94 BUDDHIST TEMPLES. 95 which uses the whole landscape as a canvas, it is in detail that the Japanese most excels ; for if he con- ceives like a giant, he invariably finishes like a jeweller. The first building in a Buddhist shrine which asserts itself is the saminon, or two-storied gateway, which somewhat resembles the "gates of extensive wisdom," etc., in Corea. The framing of the lower story, however, is arranged so as to form niches, in which stand the god of thunder and the wind deity, grotesquely painted, the face of the one a livid green, that of the other a varicose red, as though congested. The roof, as in all gateways of eastern Asia, is the most artistic feature, having broad overhanging eaves, festooned in the centre and bent upward and backward at the corners, thereby disclosing a vision of complicated corbelling. Tiles are the most popular form of covering eniployed, though copper embossed with armorial crests has been much used since the seventeenth century. Passing through the saminon, the visitor or wor- shipper finds himself in the first terraced court only to encounter another gateway more imposing than the last (Plate XII), leading to the second court, and so on to a third, until, by traversing terrace after terrace, he at last reaches the Oratory and chapel. These courtyards are usually filled with concom- mitant buildings of the Buddhist cult, as well as a number of bronze and stone lanterns presented by the daimios in token of repentance for past sins. Belfries, priests' apartments, a rinzo or revolving library, a kitchen, a treasure house, a pavilion con- taining the holy-water cistern, and pagodas rise on 4jM# ^^u ! t*^-"-- - - SEE Rf'-.-j- e H o X r-l PAGODAS AND TEMPLE. gj either hand throughout — all crowned with festooned roofs and clothed in crimson lacquer laid over the finest silk instead of cloth, as is the case with valuable curios of Echizen. Among the most imposing of these supplementary buildings are the gojin-no-to or pagodas, which are invariably square, like those of Corea. Within each stands what at first sight appears to be a column passing through the centre as a support ; a careful examination, however, reveals it to be no column at all, but a heavy beam hung from the apex of the roof, like the tongue of a bell, so that in case of typhoons or earthquakes the centre of gravity is automatically altered according to the deflection of the building from the vertical, thereby preserving the whole in equilibrium. Externally the pagoda is usu- ally designed in five or seven stories, each set a little within the one below and girt about with balconies and overhanging eaves, as in China. The whole is usually lacquered in dull red, save the lowest story, in which a bewildering mass of painted carving dis- tracts the eye, and, high above all, a twisted spire of bronze forms the culmination. Pagodas are not held in quite the same esteem in Japan as in China, being valued for their ornamental qualities rather than as sacred retreats for private prayers. These, as well as all the services of the Church, are held in the oratory, which, with the sanc- tuary or chapel, forms the temple proper. The temple, like the domestic buildings of the better class, is provided with a veranda and columns shaded by a gabled roof and boasts a bracketed cornice in common with other ecclesiastical architec- 8 98 EASTERN ASIA. ture, but, though all the wall spaces are covered with lacquer, the carving is used sparingly in comparison with some of the gateways (see Plate XII), and thus the temple acquires an added charm of dignified simplicity. Perhaps the real cause of this simplicity is to em- phasize through contrast the splendour of the in- terior, the dwelling place of Amida (the ideal of boundless light), which is as magnificent as painting, sculpture, lacquer, and precious metals can make it, while the haiden or oratory before it is hardly less imposing. The finest of these oratories in Japan is that of the temple lyeyasu at Nikko, which, though lately con- verted by a decree of the Mikado into a Shinto place of worship, is still essentially Buddhist in all archi- tectural distribution, decoration, and detail. Gold is the neutral of the walls, on which kirin (painted by Motonobu, the Raphael of Japan) per- form graceful gambols. Two bands of inlay and two of open-work carving form the frieze, which is pierced at intervals by columns gold-lacquered and capped with embossed bronze. Japanese brackets support a covered and coffered ceiling, with dragons mag- nificently involved posing in each compartment on a blue ground, and the whole room is reflected like a monochrome in the black floor of polished lacquer. Soft silk-bordered mats, about three by six feet, protect the latter on ordinary occasions, and by their number declare the size of the room, for the mat is the unit of square measure in Japanese architecture, it being customary to speak of a room of six, eight, or four mats, according to its square contents. CONCLUSION. REFINEMENT. 99 Such, in brief, is the architecture of Nippon. From the purely classic point of view, in which form and outline play so important a part, it may not rank very high in the scale, but to the eye of the Oriental it fulfils all that is required. The roofs, like festooned jewelled mantles, are certainly as graceful in curve and sweep as any in the world, and as regards .colour effects the temples of Shiba and Nikko stand pre-eminent throughout the East. Besides, the Japanese never mistake bigness for greatness, nor ostentation for splendour, and throughout their designs they always exhibit that exquisite re- finement and reserve which contribute so much to the beauty of the " white ideals " of Greece. CHAPTER IV: MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND PERU. MEXICO. In the chronicles of the conquest of Mexico, the Spaniards display so mudi enthusiasm over their own exploits that they overlook the deeds of their adversaries, which are quite as interesting to the world at large. But, thanks to the researches of the Jesuits, Humboldt, Charnay, and Lord Kingsborough, to say nothing of the garrulous Prescott, and thanks yet more to Messrs. Stephens and Catherwood, we know definitel}' that the Spaniards, instead of creat- ing a new world, simply destro3'ed an old civiliza- tion, which in turn had superseded others still more remote, all possessing a certain historic value and architectural interest. The history of Mexico begins with its invasion by a race called the Toltecs from an unknown region farther north, at about the fifth century A. D., or the time of the Roman occupation of Great Britain. This race, ruled by their own successive sovereigns, held the country four hundred years, left numerous monuments of their civilization, and then disap- peared from history (save in the small town of Col- huacan) through the combined agency of drought, 100 AZTECS. PALACES AND TEMPLES. loi pestilence, famine, and the induction of a barbarous nation called the Chichimecas. The Chichimeca supremacy continued strong un- til the end of the twelfth century, when in turn it was forced to give place to the Aztecs, who swept down from the coasts of California, Oregon, or other north- ern regions more remote. The origin of these new invaders has been vari- ously attributed to the Japanese, Chinese, Jews, Poly, nesian Islanders, and others, but with little logical evidence, though a number of Japanese words, like waraji (shoes or sandals), are still used in Mexico to- day. It is generally agreed, however, that the Aztecs originally found their way over from Asia via Behring Strait, and gradually worked their course southward till they arrived at the " land of flowery Anhuacan." Under Guatemozin, son of Montezuma, the most enlightened of the Aztec princes, the dynasty fell in 1 52 1, and from that date Mexican art and civilization became a Spanish one. General Characterization. — Palaces and temples are the main survivals of the native art. The palaces, as a rule, were low one-story buildings, without win- dows, rising above one or more terraces. Each was composed of a stone basement surmounted by a spe- cies of attic carved in imitation of reeds, and deco- rated in high relief with scrolls, monsters, and masks, such as are used on the prows of battle ships among the Polynesian Islanders. The roofs, so far as can be ascertained, were flat, and the rooms were only lighted from the doorways, which were square and in rare instances widened by means of columns, as at Zayi, Fig. 25. I02 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND PERU. The temples play a more conspicuous part than any other buildings among the monuments. Indeed, forty thousand teocallis or " houses of God " graced the an- cient cities of Mexico, and many, though ruined, are still extant. Like the Chaldean temples, they consisted, when whole, of huge platforms piled one above the other, ^^^^^kitilk mmiimim «;ii.... temple of Solomon at Jerusalem may be I included. (Principally Babylonian and Persian, in which the new Babylon, Passargadse, Persepolis, and Susa take foremost rank. Nevertheless, all classifications of Assyrian archi- tecture are purely arbitrary, since it is more homo- geneous than almost any other known style. This is less surprising when we remember that the Chaldeans, Assyrians, Babj'lonians, Elamites (or peo- ple of Susa), Armenians, Medes, and Persians all used the same writing, though they spoke different dia- lects, and that, though Chaldea fell from political power in the fifteenth century B. c, the Chaldeans still retained control of the priestly caste in Assyria and other countries of western Asia, and stood high in the councils of the king. Hence it was they who governed ecclesiastical art and doubtless influenced secular architecture as well. Little now remains of the gorgeous palaces and temples of these old civilizations save heaps of rub- bish and ruins ; and in many instances one may say with the poet Lucan, when speaking of Troy, that "the very ruins themselves have perished." But ex- cavations, history, and cuneiform inscriptions have combined so successfully that we can now by intelli- gent restoration form a very fair idea of Assyrian cities, and in consequence more clearly comprehend certain portions of Greek art. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. ug All important buildings of the Assyrian style were built upon great mounds or terraces some fif- teen feet in height, strengthened by massive walls, and mounted by means of broad imposing staircases, and inclined planes for horses and chariots. All with one exception * had a corner turned to- ward the north, instead of sides facing the four car- dinal points, as in Egypt. The materials employed were bituminous bricks cemented with what in the Bible is called " slime," f now known to be bituminous clay, and casings of enamelled tile were used at Babylon; while sculp- tured slabs of stone and alabaster banded with cop- per found favour at Nineveh. Wood played an important part, especially cy- press and cedar ; for roofs were composed of huge beams carrying layers of earth, when simple vaults were not employed. Doorways were often of ebony encrusted with silver, flanked with colossal statues having human heads and bodies of winged lions or bulls, and symbolizing wisdom, power, and ubiquity, while the bas-reliefs surpassed in number and extent those of any other country in the world, often stretch- ing unbrokenly for miles. Besides these materials, the inhabitants were by no means strangers to luxurious furnishings of every description, especially in Persia. For in the palace of Xerxes (Ahasuerus) at Susa (Shushan) we are told that there " were white, green, and blue hang- ings, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and pillars of marble ; the beds were of * Birs Nimroud, f Genesis, xi, 3. I20 ASSYRIAN STYLE AND WESTERN ASIA. gold and silver, upon a pavement of red, and blue, and white, and black marble. And they gave them drink in vessels of gold (the vessels being diverse one from another)." * iMiliilEMMiWMiiMlil Fig. 30. — Elevation of Birs Nimroud. What is true of Persia is true also of Nineveh and Babylon, where luxury hardly diflered in quantity or kind. All Chaldean temples were used as observatories, and here astronomical investigations were nightly car- ried on and traced upon soft-clay tablets, afterward to be burnt in permanently and handed down to pos- terity. Birs Nimroud, at Borsippa (Figs. 30 and 3 1), is generally considered the most interesting, from being probably identical with the Tower of Babel. It com- prehended a sanctuary rising above seven rectangu- lar terraces set one upon the other. The lowest meas- ured two hundred and seventy-two feet at the side, and each of the others scaled forty-two feet less than the one directly below it. Steps led up to the sum- mit, and the walls of the platforms were gorgeously glazed with vitrified brick. * Esther, i, 6 and 7. BIRS NIMROUD. 121 The lowest story was jet black, the colour of Sat- urn ; the second and third, orange and blood red, for Jupiter and Mars respectively ; the fourth was em- bossed with plates of gold, representing the sun, above which gleamed the topaz yellow of Venus ; while the sixth and seventh took on the sapphire of Mercury and white tint of the pallid moon, the last being wrought with polished plates of silver. Nearly all the bricks belonging to this edifice bear the name of Nebuchadonosor (or Nebuchadnezzar), Fig. 31. — Plan of Birs Nimroud. the son of Nabopolassar ; but that he only restored and remodelled what had already existed in an un- finished state from a remote period is shown by an inscription found upon the site. 122 ASSYRIAN STYLE AND WESTERN ASIA. In this inscription, after describing the ravages of "the earthquake and thunder," the king announces: " The great god Mirodach put it in my heart to re- build it. I did not change the site. I did not alter the foundations. In the month of salvation I pierced the unburnt brick of the footings and the tile of the revetments with rows of arches. I reset the circular ramps ; I inscribed the glory of my name upon the frieze of the arcades. I turned my hand to rebuild the tower and the summit ; as it must have been in former time, so did I remodel and restore it. — Imi- tate, O Mirodach ! king of heaven and earth, the father that brought thee forth ; bless my labours, up- hold my dominion. — May Nebuchadonosor, the king who raises the ruins, dwell ever before thy face." Of the palace at Tell-Loh exhumed by M. de Sar- zec little need here be said, since it follows the gen- eral plan and distribution of the Assyrian palaces, which may be better studied at Nineveh. But in this particular fact lies its primary value, since it accu- rately indicates the place where sprang the Assyrian style. THE SECOND PERIOD. Only in comparatively recent times has any- thing definite been known concerning the architec- tural history of Nineveh, the latter having remained in oblivion for over two thousand years. In 1843, however, M. Botta, the French consul at Mosul, dis- covered at the little village of Khorsabad the ruins of the palace of Sargon standing on what must have been either a suburb or part of the ancient Assyrian capital. This find, having been followed up by the THE SPLENDOURS OF NINEVEH. 123 French, English, and Turkish Governments, soon brought to light the palaces of Nimroud, Koyunjik, and a quantity of other data, with which to re- construct the great civilizations of ancient Meso- potamia. Thanks to these researches, we now know that Nineveh was a vast metropolis covering an area greater than London, filled with gorgeous palaces, towers and fortresses, gay shops, parks, and botan- ical gardens, and intersected by streets thronged with chariots and horsemen, archers, merchants, men at arms, and glittering nobles clad in steel and cloaks of embroidered purple. No indications of middle-class dwellings appear, save among the inscriptions, which are endless ; but from these it may be positively asserted that they were many, and of wood ; also that they were prob- ably built inexpensively, for a bill of sale drawn up on a clay tile was excavated among the ruins, from which we know that "a house was sold on the i6th of May, 692 B. c, in Nineveh, for forty-five dollars." Other evidences show that most of the wealth and artistic energy of the nation were expended upon for- tresses, palaces, and parks. Nowhere do any temples appear, and possibly this warlike nation considered that they best honoured their god Nin (the Heracles of the Greeks) by fight- ing in the field ; but the general opinion is that the palaces contained all the shrines, and were in reality palace-temples. These palaces were always placed high upon artificial terraces, and so situated that the great city wall (tower broken and pierced with mass- ive gateways) formed the fortification of one or more J3 Id THE PALACE OF ASSURBANIPAL. 125 sides (Plate XIV), while similar defences guarded the other approaches. In order to render the external aspect more forbidding-, the ramparts were frequently festooned after battle with the heads of those slain or taken captive. Indeed, one of the cylinders of Sen- nacherib, found at Nineveh, describes him as having the heads of his enemies salted and packed away in baskets probably for this very purpose. Within, the scene changed from one of war to one of luxurious peace, and sculpture, marble-inlay, bas-reliefs of ala- baster, textile fabrics, and enamelled walls vied with one another throughout. The oldest palace of Nineveh is that of Assur- banipal, or Sardanapalus, erected at Nimroud during the early part of the ninth century B. c. A broad flight of steps mounted to the terrace and throne room, which latter had two doors, each flanked by winged bulls with human heads decked with long hair and curling beards. These were held to be the guardian deities of the house. Back of the throne room spread a series of apartments grouped about a large central court, the whole " being divided into three principal parts, after the manner of mod- ern mansions at Bagdad and Bassora " — namely, the seraglio (containing the reception rooms and men's apartments), the harem for the women, and the khan or servants' quarters. This general arrangement ob- tained in nearly all Assyrian palaces. The mode of interior decoration previously de- scribed was used here also, making it a veritable mu- seum of art ; and it may not be superfluous to add that this palace included the great public circulat- ing library of Nineveh ; for quantities of clay checks, 126 ASSYRIAN STYLE AND WESTERN ASIA. used by the people in taking out books, have been found among the ruins. But though this palace contains so much to gratify the mind, the explorer is never allowed to forget that the real business, as well as pleasure, of the Ninevites was war; for externally the building is little more than a huge fortress, and internally the thoughts are again_ occasionally recalled to his fact by the bas-reliefs, one of which, according to Wright, portrays Assurbanipal quietly dining with his queen while the head of a conquered king dangles from a neighbouring tree. On the same mound of Nimroud stands the palace of Esarhaddon, but of more importance is the great imperial abode of Sargon at Khorsabad .(Plate XIV), erected in 704 b. c, and the best preserved of all. This great building stood within a fortified in- closure measuring some four miles each way, with ramparts broken by embattled towers and pierced with eight gates, while the palace proper with its annexed village covered an area of about one square mile. The seraglio or harem alone contained two hun- dred and nine rooms, having walls from four to eight yards in thickness, and hence in many cases exceeding the dimensions of the rooms themselves, the only reasons which have been advanced for this excessive thickness being a desire for coolness and a need for strong abutments to withstand the thrust of the vaults. This brings us to the much discussed point of how Assyrian buildings were roofed. One school claims ASSYRIAN ROOFS. 127 mvA m that wooden beams supported on wooden columns were used, and cites in evidence the modern houses of the country, which resemble their predecessors in so many respects. The other asserts that the build- ings were vaulted, since only one column has ever been found among the ruins, while a bas-relief discovered at Koyunjik por- trays a group of houses nearly all of which are roofed with domes. Both schools are probably right, for while a majority of critics accept the column theory, it is also certain that the peo- ple of Nineveh thoroughly understood vaults and arches. Indeed, M. Place has discovered all kinds of vaults, point- ed, semicircular, elliptical, and the rest, as well as a beautiful round arch, span- ning eighteen feet, at the city gate. Within the palace the walls were decorated in the usual Assyrian fash- ion, with alabaster bas-reliefs and in- scriptions reaching to a height of about ten feet, while the space above blazed with enamelled tiles, multiplying the sunlight a thousandfold after the manner of graven gems. But all this beauty was somewhat impaired by the disproportionate figures flanking the doorways, for the species of Assyrian sphinx mentioned above guarded nearly every portal and towered to such a height as to throw the rest of the room quite out of scale. On the other hand, these monsters must have been very effective when used on the outside of an Fig. 32. — An Assyrian sphinx. 128 ASSYRIAN STYLE AND WESTERN ASIA. edifice, and are more typical of Assyrian work than almost any other form of decoration. A peculiarity to be noticed concerning them is that the forefeet are always placed side by side, which would natu- rally give the creature an appearance of having only three legs when viewed laterally. Hence, the enter- Fig. 33. — An Assyiian sphinx. prising sculptor has added another leg for the sake of the side view, making five legs in all (see Figs. 32 and 33). The palace of Sennacherib, Sargon's son, was situated in the oldest part of Nineveh, corresponding to La Cits in Paris, and called to-day Koyunjik. It was the largest of all the palaces, requiring the work of twenty thousand men during a period of six years to raise the mound alone. Nevertheless there PALACE OF KOYUNJIK. 129 is little architectural interest connected with it after Khorsabad, though the interior wall decorations were very elaborate, and the floor shone with mar- ble, inlaid with metal arabesques. The historical value of Koyunjik is well-nigh priceless, since its walls bear a continuous and beau- tifully illustrated chronicle of Assyrian history from the earliest times. How bloody that history was may be judged by the bas-reliefs, one of which rep- resents the king poking out the eyes of captives held before him by hooks fastened in their lips — a per- formance, by the way, considered in the light of an honour, since unimportant prisoners were tortured by a deputy. Other sculptures portray men being impaled, tortured, and flayed alive, having their tongues plucked out by the roots, or their necks hung round with the dripping heads of their de- capitated friends before receiving some extra refine- ment of torture for themselves. Syria. In Syria all the best architecture was represented at Jerusalem, save the Temple of the Sun at Palmyra, which belongs properly to the Roman style ; and all the best art of Jerusalem was epitomized in the tem- ple of Solomon, which stood on Mount Moriah, over- looking the Vale of Kedron. This temple belongs chronologically to the second period of the Ass3'rian style, but artistically to the third. The site was purchased by King David from a wealthy Jebusite named Araunah for fifty shekels of silver, or a trifle over twenty-seven dollars. Work did 130 ASSYRIAN STYLE AND WESTERN ASIA. not begin upon the building until the fourth year of the reign of Solomon, 1013 B. c, but in that year (the support of Hiram, King of Tyre, having been obtained for a consideration) Phoenician architects, artists, ar- tisans, and workers in gold, silver, and textile fabrics thronged in on every side, and soon arose a temple sixty cubits long, twenty cubits broad, and thirty cubits high,* belted round with supplementary rooms and preceded by a portico extending the width of the building. All materials were prepared before being brought to the building, " so that there was neither hammer nor axe nor any tool of iron heard in the house " (I Kings, vi, 7); and soon columns, cornices, and walls flashed with bronze, gold, silver, ivory, and precious stones throughout the whole. Of the more decorative appareil, all was essentially Phoenician — that is, a compromise between Assyrian and Egyptian art ; and carved cedar of Lebanon played an important part both in the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies. Between these hung the veil,- stained with azure, crimson, and purple (to represent air, fire, and water) and embroidered over with the cherubim. " King Solomon only lived to finish the first court and the east wall of the second," which last was com- pleted long after in the reign of, Manasseh. Under the kings of Judah many restorations and additions took place, but at the taking of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, in the reign of Zedekiah, 588 B. c, all was destroyed. * A cubit is equivalent to about one foot ten inches. TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM. 131 Fifty-two years later Zerubbabel (the Jews having been freed by Cyrus) began the second temple on a less elaborate scale than that of Solomon, and which, being hindered in building by the Samaritans, was not completed until 516 B. c. Of the external appearance little is known, save that it followed the general plan of the first temple ; but the interior decoration was very elaborate, ac- cording to Josephus, who tells of doors overlaid with gold and silver ; carven leafage tipped with tremu- lous gold ; lilies and pomegranates ; embroidered hangings of hyacinth, purple, and scarlet ; and ceil- ings spanned with polished cedar ; so that under suc- cessive generations it became a species of museum representative of Syrian art. For the next four generations little occurred save the erection of a fortress at the northeast corner in the time of the Maccabees, after the profanation and pillage by Antiochus Epiphanes. But with this ex- ception Jerusalem seemed to miraculously escape the systematic plunder performed by Rome in other por- tions of the East, and if she did not advance archi- tecturally, she did not retrograde. In the year 40 B. c. Herod of Idumaea was crowned king, and, wishing to popularize himself with the Jews, whom he had offended in various ways, began, in 18 B. c, the rebuilding of the temple in marble (only preserving the eastern wall of Solo- mon). This he carried out on a scale of gorgeous splendour sufficient to awe the world even in that imperial day (Fig. 34). Not until the reign of Nero was the work com- pleted, and then onlj enjoyed six years of life before 132 ASSYRIAN STYLE AND WESTERN ASIA. it was entirely razed to the ground by Titus, as our Lord foretold (Mark, xiii, 2). " In that terrible siege in which famine-stricken parents murdered and devoured their children, fight- ing and tearing at one another for the foul fragments Fig. 34. — Temple at Jerusalem. of the feast," the spirit of Judsea was broken, and with it perished Syrian art ; for the slight plucking up of courage in the time of the Emperor Julian had no effect upon architecture, and when building art re- vived again it was in a new form and under the Mo- hammedan dispensation. THE THIRD PERIOD. The political history of Babylon extends back- ward to a period more remote than the foundation of Nineveh, but its architectural history begins only with the new Babylon, or rebuilt city of Nebuchad- nezzar. This city was a huge square, measuring four- teen miles each way, bisected diagonally by the Euphrates River, and parcelled out into rectangles by broad streets, like New York, Mannheim, and many German cities. THE METROPOLIS OF BABYLON. 133 Gardens, orchards, and even farms were inter- spersed throughout, irrigated so admirably that they yielded two or three crops in the year (a thing of in- estimable value in case of a siege), while broad brick quays, bordering the river and canals, lent an air of civic splendour. The city wall, according to the lowest estimate, was forty-one miles in length. A hundred brazen gates pierced the masonry and two hundred and fifty towers broke its embattled top. The towers were placed on the outer and inner edges, aflording room for a four-horse chariot to turn, as well as an agreeable driveway around the town. Some twenty-three hundred years ago Darius Hystaspes destroyed this wall, fulfilling the prophecy of Jeremiah : " The walls of Babylon shall fall. The broad walls of Babylon shall be utterly broken," * and to-day nothing whatever remains to mark the place. The water ways of the city were spanned by great drawbridges, which were employed only by day and left open by night. Ordinary houses were three and four stories high, but the great show mansions which delighted the Assyrian sightseer in 600 B. c. were taller, and much resembled those of Nineveh. The three most important monuments were the Palace, the Temple of Belus, and the Hanging Gar- dens. Little is definitely known of the palace save that it was similar to the royal abodes of Nineveh, while the Temple of Belus was simply a reproduction of Birs Nimroud. But the Hanging Gardens remain as yet * Jeremiah, li. 134 ASSYRIAN STYLE AND WESTERN ASIA. unparalleled in ancient history, and, according to Strabo, were held to be one of the Seven Wonders of the World. This airy paradise was due to the whim of a woman ; not the mythical Semiramis (for Berosus, the Chaldean historian, has now corrected that im- pression), nor a relative of Cyrus, but Amytis, the fair Median princess, whom Nebuchadnezzar made his queen, and who pined for the vine-clad hills and lordly forests of her fatherland till the king com- manded that the mountains be brought thither. And so it came to pass that terrace on terrace and tier on tier of arches were piled up one upon the other, above which were high hills covered with wild flowers and verdure, olive groves, and even forests from the Median mountains. Cool fountains, crystal brooks, and foaming water courses dashed over mossy crags, supplied by water screws over three hundred years before Archimedes invented them at Syracuse, and shady retreats between the arches lay transformed into spacious royal apartments, equipped with all the luxury and splendour of the despotic East. The resources of Babylon for decorative purposes were well-nigh stupendous. Wealth poured in from every vassal state, and treasuries of conquered king- doms drained into the golden city. Sidonian ships brought beaten gold and ivory from the Pharaohs and pearls and jades and dark-veined onyx from India and Ceylon. Caravans bore precious woods and perfumes from Arabia, and emeralds and agates from the Median mountaineers ; while Tyrian webs which caught the sunset rays were bartered for Lydian lutes and Babylonian protection. SUSA, PASSARGAD^, AND PERSEPOLIS. 135 But wealth wrought weakness and luxury lan- guor, and soon the profligate nobles pulled the Per- sian yoke about their necks. Babylon fell ! and art passed away to Susa, Passargadae, and Persepolis. PERSIA. Persian art, as before suggested, belongs essen- tially to the Assyro-Chaldean style, and is indeed a highly developed form of the same, the only impor- FlG. 35. — The Ruins of Persepolis. tant difference between Persian palaces and those of Babylon and Nineveh being the use of stone columns and a somewhat greater lightness and elegance of treatment in the masonry. At Passargadae, the capital of Cyrus and Cam- byses, and at Susa, where stood the winter palaces of the Persian kings, the ruin is too great to offer interest to any one save the archaeologist. But at Persepolis much that is interesting is still preserved, and there the style reveals its purest form. 136 ASSYRIAN STYLE AND WESTERN ASIA. Persepolis is situated in the midst of a vast natu- ral amphitheatre of jasperlike marble, known as the plain of Nardacht, and stands upon a terrace, part masonry and part cut into the adjoining hills. Un- like Babylon and Nineveh, the materials employed were huge blocks of gray marble laid up dry, with- out cement, but so deftly adjusted that" the joints can with difficulty be de- tected. Three principal ruins (Fig. 35) mark the site of the city — namely, Chehil Minar (Iranian for forty columns), the palace of Xerxes, and the palace of Darius. Splendid broad stair- cases, like those of As- syria, led up to the first mentioned — not at right angles, but by double turns, so as to allow proces- sions and royal pageants to wind back and forth before the throne of the king, situated at the top. These stairs, though of easy grade, must have been more imposing than convenient, for the same fashion Fig. 36. — Persian columns. THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS. ^17 obtained at the temple of Solomon, and it will be remembered that when the Queen of Sheba saw the "ascent by which he [Solomon] went up into the house of the Lord, there was no more spirit in her." Two great human-headed bulls flanked a propy- Isum at the top of the stairs at Chehil Minar, and here, within the pil- ^_ lared precinct of the portico, all public busi- ness was transacted by the king. Behind Che- hil Minar, and reached by another staircase covered with bas-re- liefs, rose the great hall of Xerxes (three hun- dred by three hun- dred and eighty feet) with central throne room and lateral por- ticoes. Here occurs the principal difference be- tween the Assyrian and Persian styles — namely, the use of stone columns. All are formed with fluted shafts, some with forked capi- tals composed of double-headed bulls or horses, some with volutes set vertically (Fig. 36), and others with both (Fig. 37). It has been suggested that the Greek Ionic capi- tals were derived from these volutes, but it seems to Fig. 37. — Persian capital. 138 ASSYRIAN STYLE AND WESTERN ASIA. be more probable that they came indirectly from the colonettes used at Nineveh (Fig. 40). With the conquest of Alexander ended the Assyr- ian style, though during succeeding centuries it was not without a certain influence upon the architecture of Greece, Rome, and Byzantium, not to mention several subdivisions of western Asia. Fig. 38. — Rock-cut Lycian tomb. Under the Sassanian kings, however, an Assyrian renaissance took place, the most important elements of which were Roman details and Assyrian construction. UNDER THE SASSANIAN KINGS. 139 The palaces Darbekr, Al Hadhr, Firouzabad, and Tak Kesra are the best examples, and very likely had an effect upon Saracenic art. Fig. 3g. — Isolated Lycian tomb. Of the Assyrian offshoots which flourished in Phoenicia, Cyprus, Carthage, and Asia Minor, so little now remains that true restoration is at best problem- I40 ASSYRIAN STYLE AND WESTERN ASIA. atical. Even the majority of Greek temples in the Ionian cities can only tell their stories by means of coins and historical descriptions, and so may best be studied in their purer and more refined form at Athens. In Lycia, however, occur several tombs which should not be passed over while treating of western Asia, since they show more clearly the transition from wood to stone than any other remnants of the country. For, whether rock cut or standing isolated on the plain (Figs. 38 and 39), all their constructive and orna- mental features imitate a species of carpentry in stone, even to the panelling of doors, where the wooden original is faithfully executed in the same permanent material. When in later times Ionic fagades were substi- tuted in these tombs, they betrayed their wooden origin more frankly than in Greece, and hence ac- quired an added value in the eyes of the antiquary. Fig. 40. — Bas-reliefs found at Nineveh, showing colonettes. CHAPTER VI: GREECE. INTRODUCTION. Greek architecture may be abstractly character- ized as pure, tranquil, solemn, and reserved ; full of exquisite balance and delicate poise, of refinement and simplicity ; never feverish, unbridled, or transient ; never dependent on tricks of picturesque irregu- larity of which one tires after frequent contempla- tion ; but eternal, deep-rooted in the wellsprings of human sympathy and feeling ; in lines sensitive to lofty moods and emotions, in persuasive, dreamlike " white ideals." Its history, however, is more concrete and simple, and, while dealing with causes as well as results, makes gradually clearer the secret of its success. Nearly all the abstract qualities enumerated above apply to Greek architecture after it had developed into a fine art. But this art, like all things having a touch of the beautiful and divine, was evolved, not created, and so had necessarily to pass through the crude forms which ever precede perfection. This evolution from crude art to fine art does not become really evident until at least four hundred years after the Dorian invasion in 1 104 B. c. ; a species of Hellenic "dark ages," during which so little per- 141 142 GREECE. manent building occurred that the interval automat- ically divides the whole subject into two very dis- tinct divisions, namely, the Pelasgic Period, and, what may for convenience be styled, the Periclean Period, since its architecture arrived at perihelion during the censorship of that greatest of all art patrons, Pericles. THE PELASGIC PERIOD. The first era ta'kes its name from the Pelasgi, a people originally inhabiting either Lycia or the country round about the confines of the Caspian, whence have ever sprung the fairest of the human race. Moving gradu- ally westward, they swarmed successively over Asia Minor, the Archipelago, Pelopon- nesus, Sicily, Italy, and Sardinia, and left monuments built of such huge blocks that the Greeks attributed them to the Cyclopes or mythical giants of Proteus. Hence the term Cyclo- pean has now come to be applied to all massive masonry of similar character. The cities and strongholds of this race in Greece were usually well fortified citadels occupying lofty rocky eminences for security against the wild tribes round about. Their dwellings were mainly of wood and metal, which time and plunder have long since removed, but the city walls and certain beehive shaped struc- FlG. 41. — Doorway of Cyclopean period. CYCLOPEAN MASONRY. 143 tures called treasuries still exist, and are built of the huge stones above mentioned. The walls average twenty-five feet in thickness, are laid up dry without cement, and are pierced at intervals with triangular Fig. 42. — Cyclopean masonry. windows and doors. These were arched by making each course slightly overlap the other until they met in a point, or (to speak more technically) by corbel- ling ; while the ridges were chiselled off to present a smooth surface on the inside (Fig. 41). Henry Schliemann divides Cyclopean masonry into three distinct epochs, according to its arrange- FlG. 43. — Cyclopean masonry. ment or construction. That of the first or earliest period consists of immense rough-hewn lumps, hav- ing interstices filled with smaller stones. (Fig. 42); 144 GREECE. that of the second is composed of huge polygonal blocks so exquisitely jointed that the lines of divis- ion are scarcely visible at a distance (Fig 43) ; while to the third divis- ion are ascribed the viralls formed of quadrangular stones laid in hori- zontal courses, but with joints only more or less verti- cal (Fig. 44). Spec- FlG. 44. — Cyclopean masonry. imens of all three styles may be still seen in Phocis, Attica, Boeotia, and in Lemnos, Lesbos, Chios, and other ^gean islands. But the most remarkable re- mains are at Tiryns and Mycenae in the province of Argolis, the whilom home of Agamemnon, "tamer of steeds," " king of men," and leader of all at Ilion. At Tiryns single stones measure over nine feet in length and the ramparts in certain places exceed forty feet in thickness. Homer and Pausanias both refer in complimentary terms to Tiryns the ancient heritage of Hercules, the Lydian writer enthusias- tically comparing it with the Pj'ramids of Egypt. But the modern archaeologist finds the walls of Mycenae the more interesting and comprehensive, since they contain examples of all three eras. In Mycenge also may be seen the triangular open- ings mentioned above, whose shape being obviously awkward for the fitting of doors eventually brought about the insertion of a lintel and a straightening of the door jambs, while the open space thus left above was filled with sculpture, as in the citadel entrance GATE OF LIONS AT MYCENjE. 145 called the " Gate of Lions " (Fig. 45). In this gate- way the lintel is a single stone, over fourteen feet in length, above which, framed in the masonry, is a great triangle of basalt, having two lions (the royal insignia of the Pelopidas) sculptured thereon, each Fig. 45. — Gate of Lions at Mycenae. facing the other, their forefeet resting on an altar. Between them stands a colonnette, the symbol of Apollo 146 GREECE. Agyieus, "guardian deity of streets," a favourite fea- ture of later Greek porticoes. Another more primitive gate, without sculpture, opens into a subterranean gallery leading to the so- called Treasury of Atreus, a building pf-beehive shape, corbel-vaulted, and underground (Figs. 46 and 47.) Brazen plates apparently adorned and lined the inside surface of the walls. For each stone is perfo- rated with two small holes in which bronze nails were inserted and (in certain cases) still remain, while ^ - 1 Fig. 46. — Plan of Treasury Fig. 47. — Section of the Treasury of Atreus. of Atreus. many such nails have been found scattered about upon the floor. Thus may one accept literally Homer's descrip- tion in the Odyssey (vii, pp. 84-87) of the house of Alcinoiis, as well as "the brazen chamber," prison of Danae, cited by Pausanias, and the " room lined with bronze plates," mentioned hy Sophocles. All of which goes to show that metal plating was by no means an uncommon decoration of Pelasgic times. Another building, almost the counterpart of the THE PERICLEAN PERIOD. 147 Treasury of Atreus, is the Thesauros of Minyas at Orchomenos, in Bceotia, but its main room covers a much larger area and is vaulted with blocks of fine white marble. All these buildings are principally in- teresting on account of the corbel system of vault- ing employed, which would probably not have been used had vaulting by wedged stones, embodying the principle of the arch, been thoroughly understood. That the latter was not entirely unknown, however, has been proved by M. Heuzey, who found some rude examples of the kind in Acarnania. The Dorian invasion closes this comparatively un- interesting chapter of Greek architectural history, and the tale is not again resumed until about the mid- dle of the seventh century B. c, when architecture gradually awoke to beauty and reached perfection. THE PERICLEAN PERIOD. All Greek architecture from the time that it be- comes a fine art may be divided principally into temples, theatres, circuses, gymnasia, markets, private dwellings, and tombs. Of these, the temples are the most important. Each consisted mainly of a cella or oblong building, divided into a pronaos or porch, a naos or shrine, and an opisthodomos or treasury behind the shrine (Fig. 48). These were generally sur- rounded by a broad covered colonnade, surmounted at either end by a gable ; or they were simply pre- ceded by a portico crested in like manner. It has been conjectured that the shrine was only roofed over the statue of the god, the rest being left open for the ascent of smoke and incense, and also on account of a prejudice among the Greeks that 148 GREECE. prayer should be offered up under an open sky. But the majority of modern writers concur in stating that the whole temple was roofed over with wood, and cov>..ed with tiles of terra-cotta or marble (Fig. 49). In the Parthenon a narrow colonnade lined the sides Fig. 48. — Plan of the Parthenon. of the shrine parallel to the outer peristyle, but this was confined to large-sized temples. All houses of worship were divided according to three principal systems or orders — namely, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, and each order consisted briefly of a column, a pedestal (on which in Roman times the column rested), and an entablature or top member. These were furthermore subdivided : the column into base, shaft, and capital or top (Plate XV j; the pedestal into base, body, and plinth; and the entabla- ture into an architrave or beam resting direcUy on the column, a frieze or space occupied by the ends of OOmC. IONIC CORINTHIAN. Plate XV.— The Greek Orders. I50 GREECE. the cross beams, and a cornice or line of projecting mouldings above the latter (see Plate XV). These members, variously proportioned and dec- orated, form (with the arch introduced later b}' the Fig. 49. — Roof of marble tiles in a Greek Doric temple. Romans, but unemployed by the Greeks) the basis of all classical design. THE DORIC ORDER. The Doric takes chronological precedence of the other two orders ; for among the ruins now remain- ing is an example whose date can not be assigned later than 650 B. c. It occurs in the Doric Temple of Corinth, a building very far from realizing in its de- sign the beauty and elegance of proportion to be found in the' later developments of the style. In- TEMPLE AT CORINTH. 151 deed, its air^ters* eniij^ ot bers throughout. But this very mas- siveness, not to say clumsiness, is a real advantage from an archaeological point of view, by pointing out and emphasiz- ing its Egyptian origin, and so recall- ing the rock-cut tomb at Beni-Has- san (chap, i, Fig. 4), its probable proto- type. Neither frieze nor cornice sur- mounts thp simple architrave of this ruin and link be- tween rudeness and refinement, and an- other glance at Beni- Hassan makes the theory by no means untenable that the temple at Corinth contained neither jlumns, though tapering, are only four di- 1 height (Fig. 50), causing a general thick- le mem- FlG. 50. — From Pa& thenon at Athens. From Temple of Corinth. * Diameter whei. used as a measurement always refers to the diam- eter of the column in its lowest or broadest part. 152 GREECE. frieze nor cornice. The next step of the Doric order toward perfection may be seen in the Temple of Zeus Fig. 51. — Temple of Zeus at ^gina. at .^gina (Fig. 51), dating about one hundred years later (circa 550 B. c). Here the columns are over five and a half diame- ters in height, the entablature is provided with both frieze and cornice in graceful proportion, and tri- glyphs (Greek for three grooves) appear at intervals along the frieze. These, while emphasizing the wooden origin of the order by showing where the ends of the cross beams would project, give also a pleasing punctuation to the horizontal monotony of moulding, and a delicate convexity on the sides of each col- umn softens the severity of the vertical lines. The pediment, shown in the restoration (Fig. 51), no longer exists, which is not surprising, since Cicero refers to the building as being in ruins even in his THE TEMPLE OF THESEUS. 153 time; but it was probably filled with sculpture in high relief portraying the exploits of the ^acidae, the heroes of ^gina in the Trojan war, and thus ac- quired a beauty of detail, which beauty increased in- stead of diminished in other temples as the evolution of the order proceeded. The last link welded into the Doric chain before it could reach to the perfected beauty of the Par- thenon was the Temple of Theseus (Plate XVI) "at Athens, built under Cimon, son of Miltiades, after his return from Scyros with the ashes of the hero and flushed with victory over the Dolopian pirates. Its date must therefore have been between 469 and 465 B. c, or something less than eighty-five years after the building of the temple at -^gina. Like the Parthenoii, it is peripteral (Greek, winged around) — that is to say, surrounded on all sides by a Fig. 52. — Plan of the Temple of Theseus. colonnade (Fig. 52)— the columns being 5.7 diame- ters in height, and here for the first time (so far as we know) the metopes, or spaces between the tri- glyphs, were carved with bas-reliefs. Yet so great Stylobate Plate XVI. — Greek Doric Order from the Temple of Theseus, wilh the names of its divisions. AIDS TO EVOLUTION, ETC. 155 was the fear of ostentation at the expense of purity and elegance that all sculpture has been omitted from the pediment of the western portico and confined to the eastern or main entrance. Under Pericles the Doric reached its most sub- lime expression. Yet it was by no means the influ- ence of a single individual which wrought the vic- tory, but simply the natural sequence of events in an extraordinary age. Every great revival in art has always been preceded by a revival in literature, and Greece was no exception to the rule. Under the skilful guidance of -^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides dramatic writing had risen to a point scarcely since surpassed ; history had been moulded into graceful form by Herodotus and Thucydi^es ; and Socrates, Democritus, and Anaxagoras had star- tled the world with strange new thoughts and theo- ries ; while Plato whispered the truths of immortality in the gardens bequeathed by Ciraon. In the year 458 the Athenians were victoriously fighting in Egypt, Megara, Cyprus, .^gina, Phoenicia, and Peloponnesus, and the spoils of success were flowing in on every side. Hence with the material requirement arose the ambition not only to restore the temples which had been destroyed by the Per- sians, but to rebuild them and others on an infinitely grander and more beautiful scale. High above the valley of Illysus, backed by the mountains of Pentfilicus and Hymettus, rose the Acropolis or rock city of Athens, beautiful and calm, proudly overlooking the Bay of Phalerum and the ^ginetan Gulf, and approached through a propylcea so exquisite and refined that the Greeks believed 156 GREECE. Mnesicles, its architect, to have been divinely in- spired, while above all, like a coronal of glory, stood the Temple of the Parthenon, or virgin (Plate XVII), the most perfect building in design and execution the world has ever seen. Even Mr. Fergusson, a would-be enemy of the classic style, forgets all rancour when analyzing the Parthenon, and frankly asserts : " For intellectual beauty, for perfection of proportion, for beauty of detail, and for the exquisite perception of the highest and most recondite principles of art ever applied to architecture, it stands utterly and entirely alone and unrivalled — the glory of Greece and the shame of the rest of the world." * The architects were Ictinus and Callicrates under the general supervision of Phidias, who designed and carved with his own hand the great gold and ivory statue of Pallas Athenae within, and likewise had charge of all the sculptural decoration. The architectural forms were simple as they were beautiful, consisting, like nearly all Doric temples, of a stylobate or platform divided into three steps and surmounted by a cella girt by columns, eight (carry- ing a gable or pediment) on each front, and seventeen on each side, every column being nearly six diameters in height. A vestibule at either end within the peri- style afforded a cool retreat for the faithful, and the whole interior of the temple was divided into two chambers (Fig. 48). The roof was covered with marble tiles (see Fig. 49), and each pediment was filled with sculpture in * Fergusson's Handbook of Architecture, book vi, p. 264. 158 GREECE. high relief, one portraying Zeus presenting his daughter to the dwellers on Olympus, the other a contest between the virgin goddess and Poseidon for the naming of the city (Plate XVIII). Ninety-two bas-reliefs, delicate as cameo carvings, filled the metopes or sjjaces between the triglyphs, and a frieze graven with the well-known Panathenseic pit)cession extended all around the cella and vesti- bule, a distance of five hundred feet. With these simple but eminently precious ma- terials, wrought in Pentelic marble and grouped in a space two hundred and twenty-seven feet long by one hundred and one feet wide and sixty-one feet high, the Athenian architects composed the Parthenon. Yet it was not the grouping alone which gave the building its charm, but certain peculiarities generally invisible to the naked eye. Thus every vertical line in the building was slightly inclined toward an im- aginary point, at which, if the end columns were pro- duced, they would intersect — an expedient used not only to bind the whole firmly together and defy earth- quakes, but also to subtilely suggest stability to the eye. Again, each horizontal line or surface was some- what curved or bowed, the lines of the ground plan slightly outward, those of the entablature slightly upward, and so on. A favourite instance of this cur- vature usually cited is when one of the measurers placed his hat upon one end of the upper step, and his eye on a level at the other, whereupon the hat entirely disappeared from view, on account of the convexity between. These and other peculiarities, by no means con- I > X l6o GREECE. fined entirely to the Parthenon, soon brought the Doric style great popularity throughout Italy, Sicily, Peloponnesus, and the islands of the ^gean, and beautiful specimens sprang up at Passtum, Agrigen- tum, Bassae, Delos, and other places. But none ever surpassed Athene's temple, which with Athens al- ways remained the point of departure, from which emanated nearly all the good and the beautiful in Greek art. From the year 432 B. c. (the date of completion) until 1687 A. D. the building remained comparatively Fig. 53. — Group from the pediment of the Parthenon in the British Museum. intact, notwithstanding that the Moslems built a small mosque within it. But in the latter year a shell from the Venetian artillery of Morosini ignited the powder magazine which had been conveyed into the sanctuary, and serious destruction resulted. In the early part of the present century, under the Turkish rule, all the best sculpture was torn from the pediments and other portions, and Lord Elgin THE IONIC ORDER. i6l gained permission to remove it to the British Mu- seum (Fig. 53). One shipload was lost in the Medi- terranean ; the others arrived safely in London. Yet, bombarded, mutilated, and despoiled, this ruin is still the most magnificent in the world, and no traveller to day can ascend the Acropolis at sunrise and gaze at its soft, pink, beautiful lines inlaid against the blue Ionian air, and not. feel their calm majesty and power, as well as the truth which underlay the prophecy of Pericles, namely, that " when the edi- fices of rival states would be mouldering in oblivion the splendour of this city would ever be paramount and triumphant." THE IONIC ORDER. The Ionic order (Plates XV and XIX) was so named on account of its almost exclusive use by the people of Ionia in their temples and other buildings. Its most salient features were : Greater height and slenderness in the columns, an employment of spirals called volutes in the capitals, and the use of bases, a feature never seen in the Greek Doric, though frequent in the Doric of the Romans. Furthermore, the frieze was usually banded with sculpture in low relief, and the architrave with flat mouldings (Plate XIX), while an egg-and-dart decoration or a honey- suckle ornament, and occasionally a row of square projections, called dentals, mainly characterized the cornice. Though it may be fairly inferred that the idea of the Ionic order was first suggested by the Assyrians, its course of evolution is less clear than that of the Doric ; and though many critics date its first temple immBWimmsm:?m'i^mmmmmimmimK!mmii Cyma recta with honeysuckle ornament Dentil band. Frieze. Architrave with facias. ^^Sl Capita.. Shaft. Base. Stylobate. Plate XIX. — Ionic Order. From the Erechtheion at Athens, with the names of its divisions. IONIC ORDER AND NIK A APTEROS. 163 as far back as 560 B. c, the date of the oldest exist- ing example, namely, Nik6 Apteros (Fig. 54), can not be set down earlier than 469 B. c. But whether the colonnettes of Nineveh (Fig. 40) or the clumsy capitals of Persepolis (before mentioned) supplied the model for the first Ionic order, and wheth- er that order be old or young, certain it is that after the primary forms had passed through the alembic of the Greek mind the result was a thing as full of elegance and grace as the Doric was of majesty and refinement. Of the splendid examples at Miletus, Teos, Priene, Samos, and in Magnesia, and of the great Temple of Diana at Ephesus by Ctesiphon (which covered more space than any Gothic cathedral at present in the world, except those of Milan and Cologne), nothing now remains but formless ruins, the Persian wars having very nearly exterminated the ruins them- selves. But from the few specimens at Athens thd style may still be studied from an architectural view almost as intelligently as though its prototype$ in Ionia still existed. Let us pass therefore to the Temple of Nik^ Apteros or Wingless Victory (Fig; 54), which formed the right wing of the Propylaea ^nA pendant to the Painted Chamber, a small building so called because of its adornment by the painter Polygnotus (the Hans Makart of his time), to whom even the daughter of Miltiades thought it no disgrace to sit as a model. This temple, according to some authorities, was erected as a memorial on the spot where .^geus com- mitted suicide on seeifl^; his son's ship return with black sails after the victory over the Minotaur. Ac- cording to others it was designed without reference 164 GREECE. to that site, and derived its name from the theory that victory had now come to remain vi^ith the Athenians, and so had no longer need of wings. ^— -1- 3. \ r « f tiJ^ Fig. 54.— Temple of Nike Apteros or Wingless Victory at Athens. Kcella and two porches of four columns each are the principal component parts, forming a beautiful specimen of the Ionic order, though time has robbed NIKE APTEROS CONTINUED. 165 it of its cornice. But a band of bas-reliefs upon the frieze (a model of the sculptor's art) * makes one for- get the deficiency ; and the tall slender grace of the Fig. 55. — The Erectheion at Athens. columns with their nine diameters of height is quite as attractive in its own way as the splendid strength and inertia of the Doric supports, of six. Here also, as in all Athenian work, may be seen the admirable manner in which the Greeks composed with sunlight and all the enchantment contained, in the play of light and shade. Every moulding pencils its own black line of contrast with sharp distinctness, * This- band of bas-reliefs has now been removed to the British Museum. 1 66 GREECE. and the luminous lines of light along the shafts stand out boldly against the dark shadow painted by the portico. All this and more may be likewise seen to advan- tage in the Erectheion or Temple of Erectheus (Fig. 55 and Plate XIX), the masterpiece of the Ionic style. O '"g to the triple arrangement of this temple (Fig. 50), and a rather obscure and discursive sentence in Pausanias, it was believed for a long time by Mr. Fig. 56. — Plan of the Erectheion at Athens. Fer^usson and others that the Erectheion was in reality three temples united under one head and dedi- cated to Erectheus, Pandrosus, and Minerva; but recent investigation has disclosed this to be only par- tially correct. The truth is that the Temple of Erec- theus, which once occupied this site, was entirely de- stroyed during the Persian wars, and that at the dedi- cation of the present building it was only twofold ; THE ERECTHEION. 167 the western portion (including the northern and south- ern porticoes) being sacred to the nymph Pandrosus, the deified daughter of Cecrops, while the eastern portion was consecrated to Minerva Polias, the guar- dian of the city, as always assumed. The Erectheion (which, however, for convenience we shall still continue to call it) held all the holiest and most deeply venerated relics of Athens. Here were kept the sacred Palladium or wooden statue of Pallas believed to have fallen from heaven ; the sacred fountain and olive tree which sprang up at the com- mand of Poseidon and Athene after their contention ; likewise a folding chair fashioned by Daedalus, the scimitar of Mardonius, and the armour of Maesistius, who died charging the Athenian cavalry. The general plan of the building is a prostyle* temple flanked at the rear by two irregular-sized porticoes. Qf this the Temple of Minerva Polias oc- cupies only one chamber, entered at the east by an Ionic porch resting on a stylobate or platform having fiieze and cornice emphasized in Eleusinian stone, a kind of black marble now turned gray with time. The Temple of Pandrosus occupies the rest of the structure, and contains the rare feature of windows.f An exquisite example of the Ionic order frames the front porch, yet even this is slightly inferior in pro- portion to that of the western fagade, where the spacing of the columns hy two and a quarter diam- eters is held to be the ideal. But the gem of the * Prostyle temple=temple with columns on the front but not on the sides. f These windows arc generally held to be an addition of later date. 1 68 GREECE. whole in the minds of many, though rather from a sculptural view, is the south or caryatid portico. In it the entablature is carried on the heads of six fair- ir — "— > B Section of shaft in Ionic column. Ionic capital ; side elevation. Ionic comer capital ; front elevation. Fig. 57. — Details from the Erectheion. faced women, wrought in Parian marble and called caryatidae, a name derived from the Arcadian town of Caryas, whose inhabitants sided with the Persians during the war. On them the Athenians took re- venge, killing all their men and carrying the women Plate XX. — Doorway from the Erectheion at Athens. I70 GREECE. into slavery, which latter, in a sort of grim humour, they were fond of reproducing in their public build- ings as bearing eternal burdens. As regards the detail of the Erectheion (Fig. 57), Stuart justly says : " Nothing can go beyond the workmanship of this temple. The ornaments throughout are of the most finished execution, and the sculptors seeni to have derived all possible ad- vantage that was afforded them by a material which Honeysuckle orna- ment. Egg and dart orna- ment. Fig. 58. — Details from the doorway of the Erectheion. admitted of being wrought with the delicacy of an ivory cabinet." (See door, Plate XX, Fig. 58.) •To compare the Erectheion with the Parthenon would be as absurd as to compare the Venus of Melos with the Hermes of Praxiteles or an exquisite soprano with a sonorous basso. Their types of beauty are as far apart as those of the sexes ; and it was a happy inspiration of Philibert de L'Orme when he called the Doric the masculine order and the Ionic the femi- THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. i;i nine order, and cited the fact that, with the exception of the Parthenon, all Doric temples were dedicated to \}s\& gods, while the Ionic shrines reared their slen- der beauty in honour of the goddesses. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER (Plates XXI and XV). The most striking characteristics of the Corinthian order are richness and magnificence. And hence it be- came more popular with the Romans than with the Greeks, among whom comparatively few specimens still remain. Vitruvius attributes the invention of the style to Callicrates, an architect, painter, and sculptor, who lived, according to him, during the middle of the fifth century B. c, but whose date history has since corrected to one hundred years later. The fanciful tale of its invention is as follows, and relates how once a maid of Corinth loved a lithe- limbed Grecian lad of Sicyon or Argolis or other neighbouring state, but died before the wedding day could dawn upon her life ; and how for weeks within the halls her tire-women wept, especially the helot nurse, who loved her as a babe. And she it was who wrapped her round and laid her in the grave, with lovelocks looped in tissued gold and lilies on her breast, yet placed no myrtles on the tomb, but gathered osiers from a stream and wove in gilded tapestry a basket such as holds the figs in purple harvest time. Within some pictured pottery was placed like that the maid had loved in life, and over all a crimson tile to fend it from the rain. All these were laid upon the tomb, unheeding an acanthus root which pushed and fought its way be- Plate XXI.— The Corinthian Order. THE CORINTHIAN CAPITAL. 1 73 neath, and wove about the basket sides an intricate design of dark-green fretted foliage and evanescent gold. Reaching, it clambered till it touched the pari- etal top.then, curv- ing downward ^ ^ /||( ^ ,^ l!^ from the tile, four graceful volutes formed. Which seeing, Callicrates (the sculptor of his age) did marvel and admire and so heartily approve. That, running to his studio, with skilled- inspired hand, He forged the fairest capital in all the Dor- ian land. This capital consisted of two rows of acanthus leaves and one of volutes, surmount- ed by a square abacus or slab with slightly concave sides (Fig. 59). The column rose a di- ameter higher than in the Ionic order, and the cornice increased its mouldings and almost invariably carried dentals. Fig. 59. — Detail from the Choragic monument of Lysicrates. 174 GREECE. The most perfect expression of the Greek Co- rinthian order is to be seen in the Choragic monument of Lysicrates at Athens (Fig. 60). It formed part of a street composed entirely of temples dedicated to Dio- nysus by various victorious Choragi or patrons of dra- matic art. Each shrine or temple was surmounted by a finial, on which stood a bronze tripod ; hence the street was popular- ly known as the Street of Tri- pods, and, if we may judge from the specimen handed down to us, it must have been one of the most beautiful highways of the ancient world. The monument of Lysi- crates (Fig. 60, Plate XXI) is a small circular building of the Corinthian order, resting on a high platform composed entirely of pure Pentelic mar- ble. The slabs between the columns as well as the col- umns themselves are each hewn from a single block, and the architrave and frieze are also together of one piece. A tholos or cupola, adorned with scales, forms the roof, which likewise supports a finial for the tripod, and an inscription gives the lir-i- J Fig. 60. — The Choragic monu- ment of Lysicrates at Athens. THE THEATRE OF DIONYSUS. 175 raison d'etre of the whole structure by telling that it was dedicated after the success of the choir of Lysi- crates at the Olympian contest of 375 B. c. It is customary to accuse the Corinthian order of being rather more sumptuous than elegant when compared with the Doric and Ionic. This is un- doubtedly true. But it may also be said truly that the particular monument just described stands, in comparison to others of its kind, alone and quite un- rivalled in any order or any age, the whole composi- tion, execution, and detail being in most refined and exquisite taste. The Tower of the Winds at Athens is another well-known example of the Corinthian order, though of later date. It is inferior both in design and exe- cution, and so adds little to a comprehension of the style, while the other examples belong for the most part to Roman times. THEATRE, CIRCUS, GYMNASIUM, AND MARKET. A short distance from the monument of Lysi- crates stands the theatre of Dionysus. This, like all Greek theatres, was placed on the northern slope of a hill in order that the hot rays of the sun might in- terfere as little as possible with the audience, all plays being performed during the daytime. Like other Greek theatres, it consisted of concentric tiers cut into the rock, provided with marble chairs, and ranged round an orchestra, where stood the chorus. Opposite rose the stage, elaborately decorated and provided with a promenade portico ox foyer. The secret of the acoustic properties has never been clearly explained, but they were well-nigh marvel- 176 GREECE. lous. Even to-day, as proved in experiments by the writer, the most ordinary conversational tone can be heard in any part of the building when uttered from the stage. "* A more elaborate place of amusement was the stadium, or circus, an institution in almost every large Greek city where the public games and chariot races took place. Its shape was similar to that of the the- atre, being circular at one end, where the judges sat, and square at the other ; but the longitudinal axis was considerably longer* in proportion to the width. Gaily coloured awnings probably protected the spectators from the sun, but the Greek stadia were by no means as luxurious as the Roman amphithea- tres, where canopies of silk were stretched on Vene- tian masts, garlanded and joined by festoons of flowers, and where the air was made cool with sprays of perfumed water from concealed tubes, while the seats of the patricians and wealthy were cushioned in silk or cloth of gold. All Greek cities likewise possessed a palcsstra for the youth and gymnasia for those arrived at man's estate. The latter were provided with hot and cold baths and rooms for anointing the athletes, who smeared themselves with oil and sand before their contests. A colonnaded portico surrounded the buildings, about which was a pleasance. Here rac- ing, throwing the discus and dart, wrestling, box- ing, and the pankration were indulged in, the last be- * A stadium was a unit of length measuring six hundred Greek feet, or about six hundred and three English feet. Hence the name given to the Greek circuses, nearly all of which were about six hundred feet long. AGORA AND PRIVATE DWELLINGS. 177 ing a combination of kicking, biting, boxing, butting, gouging, and wrestling all in one. But of all the buildings in a Hellenic town, the most striking structure after the temples was the agora, market or bazaar. It consisted of an enor- mous public square, surrounded by a marble peri- style beautifully frescoed and adorned with statu- ary from the hands of the best masters. Here besides the native products were the webs of Tyre and cost- ly stuffs sold by merchants from Miletus ; ivorj' and spices from Cyrene and the south ; slaves and timber from Macedonia and Thrace ; Samian pottery, Egyp- tian glass, and corn from the shores of the Euxine ; while lamps, jewelry, scimitars, musical instruments, and even groceries, were all bartered and sold within a mighty marble court worthy of an emperor. PRIVATE DWELLINGS. The external simplicity of Greek private dwell- ings contrasted most efficiently with the imposing appearance of public works by affording an admira- ble foil. While public buildings had columns on the outside, and seldom within, private houses exactly reversed the arrangement and confined their columns to the inside courts. So universal was this cOstom that it was deemed vulgar and ostentatious in a private citizen to do otherwise, and Demosthenes points with scorn to an individual who used columns on the outside of his home. However, prejudice permitted a porch before the houses of the rich, thereby giving a somewhat more hospitable character to the street side, which other- 13 178 GREECE. wise would have been almost a blank, for thurides, or windows, were only used on the second story, when such ' existed, most city dwellings being only one story, surmounted by a terrace. The plan was composed of a colonnaded court surrounded by the men's apartments. The women's quarters were placed at the back, as in Assyria, so also was the bedchamber of the master and mistress. All rooms after 400 B. c. were frescoed in the manner made familiar to us in Pompeii. The furniture con- sisted of couches with movable cushions, tables with movable tops, rich Oriental carpets and bronze tri- pods, braziers, lamps, and candelabra, the last being especially important, since the ground-floor rooms were only lighted by the doorways opening on the court. Large city houses boasted a second courtyard, round which the women's apartments were grouped like those of the men, and banqueting halls afforded accommodation for singers and musicians. The men reclined on couches and the women sat on chairs while eating, as in Nineveh and other Oriental-qities. Such was the city house of a Greek gentleman, and the country villas differed little from this, [in- deed, there was small chance for evolution in that direction, for country life was very unpopular in most Hellenic provinces on account of disturbances by in- vasions and pirates, the only exceptions being in At- tica and Elis ; Attica, on account of its splendid for- tifications and fleet, which guarded against sudden attack and so afforded time to escape to the cities; and Elis, because it was held sacred and hence free from attack by the other states. SEPULCHRAL BUILDINGS. i;9 It was in Elis that Xenophon retired after his fighting days were over and lived and fought his battles again on paper to puzzle the young and de- light the old of later generations, and here many another Athenian found immunity from care and public life and dreamed the rest of life away in this the ancient home of Endymion. But, as might be expected, conservatism ruled among these gentry and no architectural innovations were attempted. Be- fore leaving the subject of Greek architecture a word should be said concerning the sepulchral buildings. In primitive days dead bodies were thrust into the ground near the house of the deceased ; this disposi- tion of the remains was manifestly unhealthy, supply- ing, as it did, a solution of the departed in the drink- ing water of the family, and hence a law was soon passed forbidding burial inside the city walls, except in the case of heroes like Theseus, when a temple or shrine was erected to receive them. Therefore most people were interred in tombs placed along some road leading to a populous suburb, a fashion followed by the Romans in the Appian Way. The earliest examples of these tombs were simply earth mounds, then a circle of stones was added as a decoration ; later, subterranean pa-ssages were cut, and family vaults were introduced ; and finally splen- did memorials of marble, having a high architectural value, were erected. Of these, the monument raised by Queen Arte- misia to her husband, Mausolus, at Halicarnassus, was the finest of the ancient world, and gave the name of mausoleum to all tombs and monuments of like character down to the present day. l8o GREECE. In early days it was customar)' to kill and bury a number of slaves with their master, but in later times this was discontinued, and offerings were confined to figurines, vases, pottery, and things loved in life by the absent one, as cited on page 171. If a Greek died in foreign lands his body was burned and the ashes conveyed home to be interred with ceremony ; but the corpses of criiYiinals were thrown carelessly into a natural ravine, called the Barathrum, near which dwelt the executioner. In looking back over the history of Greek archi- tecture one cannot help being struck by the entire absence of self-glorification and the loftiness of pur- pose silently displayed. As Mr. Van Brunt says : " Erostratus, the fool who burnt the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, is far better remembered in history than Ctesiphon, the architect who built it." The artist never sought advertisement, but vowed himself to his task with all the unselfishness attendant on an act of worship. To look at Nature, see only the best, and make it immortal. This may justly be called the mainspring of all Hellenic thought, taste, and feeling. When the Greek sought inspiration he did so with a mind attuned to all the harmonies of form, colour, motion, sound, and poetry in Nature, and interpreted the latter not literally, but ideally. Limit- less perspectives of beauty opened out before him, and life sprang up a warm, joyous, vibrant thing, alluring to the love of man, impossible to the dullard doctrinaire, whose morbid analysis only betrays life's mistakes and encourages imitative ugliness rather than creative loveliness. THE TRUTH OF GREEK ART. i8l Yet this very loveliness has caused those in high places to call Greek art untrue, and even immoral. But surely " the real immorality of art is ugliness," and if we eschew that, the artistic conscience will not suffer much. On the other hand, to see noble straightness in the lithe-limbed athlete, tender graceful lines in the foli- age of trees, folded ivory in the petals of a flower, and warm purple tones in the swift, elusive shadows, are not these fairest truths? The Greek at least thought so, and held them but the commonplace in a land teeming with nymphs, naiads, Dorian music and soft Ionian laughter — a land in which to create was simply to curb the restless rush of lofty inspi- ration and to subdue all into dignity with simple he- roic lines. CHAPTER VII: ETRURIA AND ROME. ETRURIA. Etrurian architecture owes its origin to the abo- riginal inhabitants of the country and to enterprising colonists from Asia and Greece : a precious, though Fig. 6i. — Elevation of Tuscan temple, restored from descriptions. imperfect, product of art, confined (as we know it) to city walls, temples, and tombs. The first resemble the ramparts of Mycenae, and may still be seen at Cortona, Volterra, and Fiesole. The second exist only in literature, while the tombs 183 THE TUSCAN ORDER. 183 3 ^ ■A cc i 1: WASk OVOLO. ASTBAGAt- CORONA ASTRAGAL. CYMA REVERSA ABACUS. OVOLO. NECK. ASTRAGAU have been rifled of their bronzes, jewels, and pictured pottery, and now only arrest the attention of the anti- quarian. But Etruria taught Rome, and hence commands consideration. Though no temples have been preserved, we know from Vitruvius that they consisted of y^ a cella or chamber di- 1 O vided into three parts, g ° preceded b)' a por- tico of the Tuscan order (Fig. 61). From the same source we learn that the origin of the Tuscan order was as follows : " The Greek colo- nists, having brought to Etruria their ac- quaintance with the proportions of the Doric order, . . . em- ployed this order dur- ing a long period in the same manner as in the country where it originated. But after a time they changed it in several respects ; they length- ened the column, add- ed a base, altered the capital, and simplified the en- , FILLET. _) TORUS. Fig. 62. — The Tuscan Order, its divisions and the Dames of its mouldings. 1 84 ETRURIA AND ROME. tablature ; and, thus changed, it was adopted by the Romans under the name of the Tuscan order " (see Fig. 62). The tombs of Etruria are of two kinds, rock-cut and tumular. The first consist of stone chambers cut into the cliff, like the tombs at Beni-Hassan (Fig. 4), in Egypt ; or they are similar chambers entirely excavated so as to stand free (Fig. 63), like the temples of EUora, in India (Fig. 19). Each is entered by means of a doorway of Egyptian character adorned with a Greek architrave, and those standing free were presumably surmounted by p)'ramidal roofs. The finest examples Fig. 63. — Etruscan tomb at Castel d'Asso. are in and about the honey-combed cliffs of Castel d'Asso, with walls richly decorated internally with painting and sculpture. Pliny has left us an account of the tomb of Lars TUSCAN TUMULI. 185 Porsena, of Clusium, carved in this manner about 500 B. c, but the verbiage of the description is so in- volved that no antiquarian has yet identified the origi- nal. The tumuli are mounds erected on circular founda- tions of masonry above one or more receiving vaults. Fig. 64. — The Cloaca Maxima. All are earthern cones like those found among the Tartars and the primitive nations of northern Europe. Large numbers are to be found near Vulci, where stands the tumulus of Cocumella, the largest yet dis- covered. The interior chambers of those belonging to an early date are vaulted on 'the horizontal prin- ciple, like the Treasury of Atreus and that at Orcho- menos, in Greece, and in them were deposited a quantity of gold and bronze ornaments and utensils, most of which have now fallen into the hands of plunderers and greedy collectors. After a time the Etrurians relinquished the use of vaulting on the horizontal principle and adopted the 1 86 ETRURIA AND ROME. semicircular vault of wedge-shaped stones called voussoirs, in which all the joints converge to a com- mon centre. This early use of the true principle of the arch led subsequent nations to attribute its invention to the Etruscans ; but recent investigations, as before stated, have proved it to have been ernployed both in Egypt and Assyria long before. What the Etruscans did do, however, was to teach the principle of the arch to the Romans, thereby leav- ing a legacy which has become the mainspring of all modern European architecture. The finest example of Etruscan vaulting extant is the Cloaca Maxima at Rome (Fig. 64), built in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus ; it is composed of three tiers of concentric arches, all of which are laid up dry without cement, and stands as one of the greatest feats of engineering handed down to us from the an- cient world. ROME. Introduction. Roman building art was the architectural off- spring of Etruria and Greece. To Etruria, Rome owed the arch, vault, and Tuscan order ; to Greece, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders ; and the adaptation and amalgamation of these elements re- sulted in the Roman style. Having little creative genius, the Romans ac- quired their art in much the same way that they ac- quired their provinces — that is, b)' conquest. In addi- tion to the architectural heritage from Etruria and Greece, all tributary nations were despoiled of their artistic treasures, and the riches of the world poured GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 187 into the Eternal City to enhance and embellish her palaces, temples, circuses, and public baths. Peace at home and power abroad resulted in a love of splendour and ostentation, rather than in the refinement and simplicity which were the main char- acteristics of the Greek taste. Hence the Doric and Ionic orders were used but little, while the sumptu- ous Corinthian order not only found favour through- out the empire, but was usually proportioned on a vastly larger scale than its Greek prototype. In a word, the Romans mistook mass for majesty and or- namentation for richness. To obtain the greatest ef- fect at least cost became the primary object. Hence the walls of their palaces and baths were constructed by building exterior faces only, and filling up the in- tervening space with broken stone, cement, and mor- tar, while the whole exterior was veneered with thin slabs of marble in order to present an imposing and glittering fagade. Love of display caused further the erection of thousands of buildings throughout Rome and the Campagna in an incredibly short period of time, the natural result of which was a mechanical stiffness of design, a sure product when art is guided by geome- try and rule rather than the combined forces of taste, spontaneity, and reserve. Thus while the profile of Greek mouldings were segments of ellipses of delicate flexure and executed to a certain extent free hand, the Roman mouldings were always segments of circles, having the painful exactitude that suggests the compass. It must not be imagined, however, that the Ro- mans were not an architectural people, as they were 1 88 ETRURIA AND ROME. extremely skilled in all matters pertaining to construc- tion. Their aqueducts, which extended for miles, \}&Tt, executed in a manner never since surpassed, their vaulting spanned the most prodigious spaces, and their buildings exceeded in scale and number anything hitherto recorded in the annals of architec- ture. They excelled also in their cements, which not only possessed the .quality of extreme adhesiveness, but also that of adamantine hardening with time, and to such an extent that many Roman buildings, when it became necessary to destroy them, were found to be practically monolithic. To this slight introduction it is only necessary to add that Roman architecture contains the germs of all the building arts of the Middle Ages ; that to it we owe the style of nearly all our public buildings ; End \hzX.from it we may learn the great lesson, that though all the wealth and riches of civilization be ready to our hand, the noblest designs are not evolved from splendour and magnificence, but«from purity, re- finement, simplicity, and good taste. The Orders. From 753 B. c. to the expulsion of the kings Rome was practically Etruscan, and for five hundred years thereafter, under -the consular rigime, little architec- ture worthy of the name was erected. But with Car- thage conquered, Egypt subdued, and Greece a Ro- man province, the old order changed. Architects, sculptors, painters, and artificers of every description, fired by ambition, flocked to Rome as to a fountain of gold, glory, and greatness ; and soon the Eternal City set the fashion to all countries belting the Levant, and THE ROMAN ORDERS. 189 codified her architectural laws, as she did her politi- cal decrees, into forms or orders easy of adaptation abroad. The Roman orders are five in number — i. e., Tus- can, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. The Tuscan (Fig. 62) has been already described. Its severe simplicity found little favour in Rome under the emperors. The Doric (Fig. 65) resembled the Doric of Greece save for the addition of a base, supplementary mouldings upon the capital, and certain slight changes in the ornament of the frieze. Its use was mainly confined to arcades in forums and court-yards, purposes which it fulfilled very acceptably ; but that it was vastly infe- rior to its Hellenic prototype seems to have been recog- nised by the Romans them- selves, since they used it but sparingly. The Ionic and Corinthian orders (Plate XXII, Figs, a and ^) were merely modifica- tions of the corresponding or- ders in Greece. Both lost a certain amount of refine- ment under Roman manipulation ; but with this dif- FlG. 65. — The Roman Doric Order. Fig. a. — Roman Ionic Order. Fig. b. — Roman Corin- Fig. c. — The Composite Order. thian Order. Plate XXII. ROMAN BUILDINGS. 191 ference, that whereas the Corinthian made good the loss, to a certain extent, by a development of strength and magnificence, the Ionic gradually deteriorated into a somewhat characterless imitation of the origi- nal, until it reached its nadir in the Temple of Saturn, in the Forum. In the Composite order (Plate XXII, Fig. c) the Romans retained the proportions of the Corinthian, and composed the capital by combining Ionic volutes and Corinthian acanthus leaves. As a style it never achieved much popularity, and from its union of forms, so dissimilar as Ionic and Corinthian details, it has been generally adjudged illogical. Yet it is only by comparison with their Greek prototypes that the Roman orders suffer. They have stood well the test of time, and a thorough knowledge of their de- tails and proportions is indispensable to every de- signer. Roman Buildings. Roman buildings consist generally of temples, baths, palaces, amphitheatres, aqueducts, theatres, triumphal arches, tombs, basilicas, and private dwell- ings. Of these, the last mentioned claim first atten- tion. A Roman dwelling of the middle class resembled that of the Greeks in having a number of apartments grouped about an interior colonnaded court called the atrium, in the centre of which stood an impluvium or water basin to receive the rain (Fig. 66). The apartments consisted mainly of bedrooms, banquet- ing rooms, vestibules, and halls. The women's quar- ters were not separated from those of the men, as in Greece. 192 ETRURIA AND ROME. Externally, the architectural treatment was ex- tremely simple, for the Roman regarded his home as a place to be lived in, and not to be looked at from the outside ; and hence it consisted only of a portico and bare walls pierced with an occasional window. Internally, however, the mural portions were richly frescoed and the floors were adorned with elaborate pictorial mosaics, squares, or polished poly- FiG. 66. — Atrium of a Fompeiian house. gons of precious marble. Statues of gods, ances- tors, and heroes were grouped about the rooms and halls ; and masks (imagines) of distinguished members of the family decorated the frieze, and peered from amaria or open presses on the walls. The best ex- amples of Roman dwellings remaining to us are those of Pompeii (Fig. 66) and the " house of Livia," on the Palatine. It only remains to mention the furniture, which ROMAN FURNITURE. 193 included tables, chairs, couches, lamps, tripods, and alcove beds not unlike our own. The dining tables were of two kinds, square and round. The first was surrounded on three sides by the cushioned couches {lecti) of the guests, leaving the fourth side free for the operation of serving. Each couch accommodated three persons. Round tables, resting on a single column, did not come into vogue until toward the end of the repub- lic, and, being made of rare and costly woods, were extremely expensive. Indeed, Cicero, who was no spendthrift, thought it proper to expend twenty-five thousand dollars on his own, which in that day was a fortune. Chairs were of various shapes, from the simple three-legged stool to the elaborately carved high- backed solium of the paterfamilias with its foot rest. Then there was the ivory-plated curule chair of magistrates, with carved crossed legs, and the softly cushioned cathedra, with its rounded back, reserved originally for women, but afterward used by all lovers of luxury ; while other forms and adaptations of these in stone, metal, and wood, contributed to do- mestic comfort. Of Roman palaces only two specimens remain to us : that of the Caesars on the Palatine hill, now com- pletely ruined, and the abode of Diocletian at Spalato, in Dalmatia, to which the emperor retired to spend the autumn of his life. Both must have been classed among the most gorgeous abodes of early civilization, and though architecturally inferior to some of the baths, were certainly among the wonders of the Roman world. 14 '. ■£ x: H THE PALACE AT SPALATO. '95 The palace at Spalato (Fig. 67) was a great for- tified building, rectangular in shape, covering nine acres of ground. Sixteen towers flanked the sides, which were plain externally save the southern por- tion, facing the sea, as that quarter was less liable to attack. The Golden Gate, or principal entrance, opened upon a great arcaded street (Plate XXIII), which Fig. 67. — Palace of Diocletian at Spalato. was crossed at right angles by another similar street leading from the brazen and iron gates, thus divid- ing the whole edifice in four equal parts (Fig. tf). The northern portion has been so mutilated that the truth of restoration becomes problematical ; but the whole southern portion (Plate XXIV) is still fairly Plate XXIV. — Southern portion of palace at Spalato. ROMAN TEMPLES. 197 intact. This section was devoted to the palace, and contained a magnificent suite of state apartments overlooking the water, the Temples of Vesta and ^s. culapius, the great baths and private rooms of the emperor, and a superb seaward gallery extending five hundred and fifteen feet in length. Ostentatious though Spalato must have been, it was certainly vast, strong, and splendid ; and its very size and treatment give us " a most exalted idea of what the splendour of the imperial palace at Rome must have been." Temples. Roman temples were by no means confined to the Latin capital, nor indeed to Italy itself. Numberless examples were scattered over south- ern Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa ; and the ruins of many splendid specimens still exist at Baalbec, Palmyra, Nimes, Athens, and other foreign cities that came under the Roman yoke. The temples in the city of Rome, however, are sufficiently typical to illustrate the beauties and pe- culiarities of all, and so we will confine our discussion and description to the examples in the Eternal City alone. Nearly all these temples resembled those of Greece in consisting of a vestibule and cella raised upon a stylobate and preceded and surrounded wholly or in part by columns. Among the most beautiful was the octostyle Tem- ple of Jupiter Stator, in the Forum, only three col- umns of which now remain. Its style was Corinthian and peripteral (Greek, winged around), i. e., the cella was surrounded on all sides by a colonnade. The 198 ETRURIA AND ROME. height of the building from the base to the apex of the pediment was about equal to the extreme width, and Fig. 68. — Elevation of the Pantheon at Rome. the columns measured about ten of their own diam- eters, which is held to be the ideal proportion for the Corinthian column. Another temple of the same style, though of smaller dimensions and less pretension, was the hexa- style Temple of Jupiter Tonans, erected by Augustus in commemoration of his escape from lightning when a slave was struck dead at his side. A third fane of the same class was the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, one of the purest of Rome as regards taste and distribution of ornament. All these belong to the Corinthian order, the THE PANTHEON. 199 most popular in Rome, though the Ionic style was not without representation as well. The great Roman masterpiece of temple archi- tecture, however, was, so far as w^ know, the Pan- theon (Figs. 68 and f^ >), and certainly it is the most important Roman building still extant. It was dedi- cated to all the gcds, and is supposed to have been built by Mar -'US Agrippa. Its composition includes a circular cella preceded by a pronaos of sixteen Corinthian columns, eight being on the front, like the Te • pie of Jupiter Stator (Fig. 70). The roof is an immense dome, having an aperture at the apex for fmemmmm HBBB Fig. 69. — Section of the Pantheon at Rome. light, and as the building has no windows, this one i.?par f illumination is shared by seven chapels as V U as Lie efftire; edifice. 'i'l-ou^h the Pantheon is suppostu have been buii I'- ^h' reign of Augustus, it was restored after 2CO ETRURIA AND ROME. the conflagration by Hadrian, and later, in 202 A. u., bv Septimius Severus; nevertheless it stands as one ot Fig. 70. — Ground plan of the Pantheon at Rome. tl.; s^reat legacies of the ancient world and still pei- ic; (lis its duty as a house of God. Triumphal Arches and Columns. VN^'her. 3ver a triumph was decreed, it was the - " torn nf tb.. whole Senate to march forth to the Porta Capena, or entrance to Rome by the Appian Way, and from thence to escort the conqueror, beneath sss5m««t:iS-'3^*-rsrr-/,-:?'',ir.:<- Plate XXV.— Arch of Titus. 202 ETRURIA AND ROME. triumphal arches through the city, and if the hero chanced to be an emperor or sufficiently influential, a special arch was dedicated to him. Tile Romans were the first people to erect this form of monument, unless we consider the red-arrow Fig. 71. — Arch of Constantine. gates of the Tartars, and their earlier examples were very simple, consisting only of an arch surmounted by a statue of the victor ; but after a time the ornamen- tation became more and more elaborate and all detail was designed with the aim of glorifying the hero. TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. 203 This means of advertising posterity to futurity soon made triumphal arches not only popular, but plentiful ; and most of the important cities of Latium, who could gestate a great general, erected a monument of this description. Among the more impor- tant are those of Titus (Plate XXV), Constantine (Fig. 71), and Septimus Severus at Rome, of Augustus at Rimi- ni, and of Trajan at Bene- vento. The two first are the best known ; that of Titus was erected in commemoration of the emperor's conquest of Jerusalem and Syria, and hence no Jew ever passes under it. In composition it consists- of one opening framed by the Composite order, and is said to have been the first arch ever erected in which that order was employed. The bas-re- liefs show the ark and seven-branched golden can- dlestick and the emperor in his quadriga, while the attic bears a fine apotheosis embossed upon its front. Another mode of doing Fig. 72. — Column of Trajan at Rome. ■ 204 ETRURIA AND ROME. honour to heroes and emperors (who of course were heroes so long as they lived) was by erecting votive columns. The most celebrated columns of Rome were those of Trajan (Fig. 72) and Marcus Aurelius ; both were of the Doric order, and both are still extant. The column of Trajan is particularly interesting as having furnished the model for the Colonne Vendome at Paris. It was erected in honour of the emperor's conquests in Dacia. A ribbon of sculpture winds round the entire shaft, setting forth the principal events of the campaign. A wreath replaces the torus at the base of the column ; trophies- decorate the ped- estal, and four eagles at the corners carry garlands of laurel ; while high above all upon the top once stood the statue of. Trajan, now replaced by one of St. Peter. Besides their votive uses, columns were also em- ployed by the Romans as military boundaries and for the inscribing of legal notices. Aqueducts. Aqueducts de natura belong to the province of engineering, but the Roman aqueducts easily rise to the dignity of architecture. Their ofiSce was to convey large quantities of water over unequal ground from great distances, and thus to supply the public baths and countless resi- dences of the rich. Mountains w^ere tunnelled by cylinders of masonry punctuated at intervals by man. holes ; and plains were spanned by endless arcades, built often two and three stories in height in order to preserve a constant grade. AQUEDUCTS AND BATHS. 205 According to some authors the first Roman aque- duct was built in the reign of Ancus Martius, while others attribute the first to Appius Claudius. One of the most remarkable, however, was constructed in 312 B. c. It began thirty-three miles from Rome, carried large quantities of water on a series of ar- cades, and for a straight stretch of thirty miles aver- aged seventy feet in height. This great conduit had three different channels, one above the other, and drew its water from as many separate sources. Under Nerva the aqueducts of Rome numbered nine, and carried 1,320,520 cubic metres of water into the city per day, which is considerably more than the amount supplied to New York at present. Baths. From aqueducts to baths the transition is easy ; but the leap artistically is great, as the baths hold architectural rank second only to the amphitheatres. At the eighth hour of the Roman day the bell of the public baths was rung in token that all was pre- pared, and a general rush ensued among the popula- tion in order to enjoy their passive luxury. In the early days these baths consisted only of two rooms, one for a warm bath, and another for a cold plunge; and like those of Japan 'to-day were many, but simple, and intended solely for the practical pur- pose of getting clean. As time wore on, however, and the spoils of a conquered world flowed into Rome, these resorts grew more and more luxurious until, under the em- perors, we find them not only containing all the ap- pointments of modern Turkish and Russian baths, 2o6 LTRIKJA AND ROME. but libraries, picture galleries, gymnasia, administra- tive rooms, gardens with lawns and shady trees, and frescoed halls of sculpture whose value may be gauged by the fact that in them the groups of the Laocoon, Farnese Bull, Gladiators, and similar masterpieces Fig. 73. — The Pantheon, restored by Palladio. held the subordinate position of decoration. Yet the price of admission to all these deligiits was only a trifle over a quarrer of a cent in our mone---, and so within the reach 01 every one. Concerning the external architecture of the Roman baths, we know but little save that it was of brick THE THERMS OF THE EMPERORS. 207 overlaid with stucco, and had walls supporting cross and barrel vaults of prodigious span. But with re- gard to the plan, interior, and content of the baths, our information is more precise, and it is not too much' to say that " no group of state apartments in such dimensions, and wholly devoted to the purposes of display and recreation, were ever before or since grouped together under one roof." The number of these baths was almost legion, and Agrippa alone is said to have added' one hundred and seventy to those already in use. According to Pal- ladio, the Pantheon formed the entrance hall to one, and in his drawing of that temple he has treated it as such (Fig. 73). More stupendous, however, than the monuments of the Augustan Age were the therifKZ of the later emperors. Those of Nero, Vespasian, Titus, and Constantine are too ruined to permit of intelligent restoration, but the remains of the baths of Dio- cletian and of Caracalla are less mutilated and suffi- ciently suggestive to admit of truthful translation on paper. The similarity of plan between the two latter -is sufficiently marked to make the description of both unnecessary for purposes of illustration, and so we will confine ourselves to the Thermae of Diocletian (Fig. 74), the main hall of which is now the Church of St a. Maria degli Angeli. These baths were scattered over an area of thirty acres, and consisted of a square of buildings, some eleven hundred and fifty feet each way, inclosing a garden. From the sides of the square were two curved projections containing porticoes, lecture 208 ETRURIA AND ROME. rooms, gymnasia, etc., and before it ran a porch and peristyle belting nearly half of the structure. Round about the inclosed court an arcade pur- sued its way, interrupted with temples, a theatre, and marble alcoves with sculpture, while in the centre of Fig. 74. — The Thermae of Diocletian. the garden rose the main architectural mass, more magnificent in size than the English Houses of Par- liament. It was occupied by the principal plunges and baths, by cool courts adorned with fresco and mosaic, and by marble galleries with purple embroid- BATHS AND THEATRES. 209 ered couches for drowsy repose after exercise or the enervating sudatorium. Besides the ordinary bathing rooms there was the hypocaustum or furnace room for heating the water. This water flowed first from reservoirs into iki&frigi- darium, then into the tepidarium, where it was warmed merely, then into the calidarium, where it was super- heated, and finally was drawn from each of the three into the numerous baths. To these were annexed the apodyteria or undressing rooms, the unctuaria or places for anointing the body, and the gymnasia, arena, and open-air palaestra for games and athletic contests. Concerning the actual architectural handling in de- tail of this great collection (aside from the plan and general distribution) our knowledge is rather more that of conjecture than absolute fact. And so, though M. Narrien is probably quite right in his statement, that these baths seem to want the good taste which characterized the works of Greece, Mr. Fergusson is none the less correct when he says, " There is noth- ing in the world which for size and grandeur can compare with these places of recreation. Theatres, Circuses, and Amphitheatres. The first company of players which ever per- formed at Rome was a band brought from Etruria in 364 B. c. But their performances were confined to pantomime and dancing, and it was not until 244 B. c. that the first regular drama was produced under the management of Livius Adronicus, and not until the year 54 B. c. that the first permanent theatre was built by Pompey. In general, the Roman theatres resembled those of Greece. They were designed in 15 210 ETRURIA AND ROME. two parts — namely, the stage, with its adjuncts, and the auditorium. The stage was a rectangle, the longer side of which was equal to the diameter of the semi- circle, forming the auditorium. The actors' dressing rooms opened directly on the stage, which was raised above the orchestra and adorned with various or- ders. The auditoriuni, like that of the Greeks, consisted of an orchestra surrounded by concentric semicircles raised one above the other. It was reached by a flight of steps radiating from the centre to an outer upper gallery, which was treated as a colonnade and used as a foyer or promenade. The whole was open to the sk}' save for a great embroidered sail or velarium stretched across the top during the heat of the day, and the back wall of the stage was usually carried up to a level with that forming the perimeter of the auditorium. The orchestra (Greek, dancing place) was reserved for the senators, and the fourteen lowest rows for the knights ; but the rest of the house was free to ordi- nary citizens. That there was plenty of room, however, goes without saying, since the smallest theatre in Rome accommodated twenty thousand spectators. But the Romans never held theatrical entertainments in the same estimation as the Greeks, preferring the races and gladiatorial contests of the circus and amphithe- atre. Among the most important theatres of Roman manufacture are those of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Orange (Fig. 75), and that of Marcellus at Rome, the ruins of which are still extant and admit of restora- tion. THE ROMAN CIRCUS. 211 ^' ' • -t^ The Roman circus resembled that of the Greeks in most respects, and served as the home for horse races, animal hunts, chariot races, and contests in pugilism, jumping, wrestling, and throwing the discus. The course consisted of an oblong terminated at one end by a semicircle, and at the other by a segment of a cir- cle. The whole was belted round by tiers of seats one above the other. A portico decorated with statuary crested the entire top, save the segmen- tal end, which was made up of a number of buildings, and so gained the name of oppidum or town. Within the oppidum were the carceres, whence issued the horses and various con- testants. All straight lines drawn normal to the curve of the segment met at a common point, so that all horses and chariots should have the same distance to travel in a race, and down the middle of the course ran a low wall, terminated at either end by a meta or goal, round which the racers had to pass. The wall was called the spina or spine, on account of its position and a decoration of obelisks, statues, columns, chapels, and altars, whose irregular outline suggested the vertebrje of some great mammal. Fig. 75. — Plan of theatre at Orange. 212 ETRURIA AND ROME. Rome boasted many of these racing resorts, as did the other cities of Latium ; but the most important was the Circus Maximus, begun rudely by Rom- ulus, rebuilt by Tarquinius Priscus, and resuscitated and restored at various intervals under the republic- an and imperial sediles. Its dimensions were two thousand by five hundred feet, and its seating capacity in the days of Julius Caesar was quoted at one hundred and fifty thousand, while at a later date we read of two hundred and fifty thousand people enjoying the games held there at one time. The Naumachias exactly resembled the circuses, save that they were flooded with water and used for naval contests, as the name implies. In the time of Nero the amphitheatres were used for this purpose, and the building of Naumachias was gradually discon- tinued. In the amphitheatre Roman architecture achieved one of its most original successes. These buildings held an intermediate relation between the theatre and the circus. From the times of the kings gladiatorial contests had always their place in the public life of Rome, and the ruins of arenas at Capua, Verona, Alba, and Pozzuoli in Italy, at Aries, Nimes, Nice, Saintes and Autun in France, and in various towns and prov- inces of Spain and Africa, prove the popularity of these heroic abattoirs throughout the empire. Paoli attributes the first gladiatorial contest to the Etruscans, and asserts that they were held in a valley with the spectators seated about upon surrounding hills ; later an arena was dug on a level piece of AMPHITHEA TRES. 213 ground and the thro\vn-up earth was used for seats. But it was not until the days of the emperors that permanent stone amphitheatres were built for gladia- torial games alone. Under the republic, the contests were held in the Forum, with a temporary scaffolding of wood for seating the spectators. The name amphitheatre was probably derived from an ingenious plan devised by Scribonius Curio Fig. 76. — Plan of the Colosseum at Rome. in 59 B. c. Two wooden theatres were erected side by side, and after the performances were finished, and while the audiences still remained seated, both buildings were swung round until the tiers of seats 214 ETRURIA AND ROME. united and formed an oval surrounding an arena, when gladiatorial games began. Shortly after this invention Julius Caesar, finding the double theatre more appropriate for animal hunts than the circus, built a permanent stationary one of wood. The most celebrated amphitheatre ever erected at Rome, or in the world, was the Colosseum (Fig. 76) or Flavian Amphitheatre, begun by Vespasian, dedicated by Titus, and completed by Domitian. According to Lepsius, it held eighty-seven thou- sand ; but this was only its ordinary seating capacity, and additional wooden tiers of seats could be added for the accommodation of half as many more. The shape of the building both externally and in- ternally was elliptical, having a transverse axis of six hundred and fifteen feet, a conjugate axis of five hun- dred and ten feet, and covering an area of about six acres. A white marble wall crested by a species of gilded chevaux de /rise rimmed the arena, the top por- tion of which revolved at the slightest touch, so that if any of the wild beasts, driven mad by terror or rage, leaped into the air and clutched at the bars, they im- mediately fell back harmlessly into the sand. Round this encircling rampart stretched i\\e podi- um, and behind it sloped terraces, usually crowded with human faces. The podium was reserved for the emperor, nobles, and vestal virgins, and was wrought in white marble picked out in colour by cushions of purple, vermilion, and cloth of gold. Gay tapestried awnings, Venetian masts, garlands of roses, also lent colour to the scene, while fair young girls and Bi- AMPHITHEATRES CONTINUED. 215 thynian boys dressed as Ganymedes, Hermeae, nymphs, and' hamadryads, according to their sex, served ices and cool Falernian wine during the inter- ludes of indolence. The oppressive heat of noon was likewise tem- pered by cooling sprays of perfumed water, which Fig. 77. — The Colosseum. Section and elevation. exhaled a pleasing /rrt^r^rw/- and purified the tainted air, while over all brooded the great velarium or sail, which in the case of Nero's amphitheatre was pow- dered with golden constellations and bore the chariot of Phoebus embroidered thereon. All this, however, was but the frill and furbelow. 2l6 ETRURIA AND ROME. Beneath bent a series of vaulted passages (Fig. "jf) of great constructive cleverness, with staircases leading to the auditorium and vomitoria or exits, while cages and prisons for beasts and men defied all ingenuity of escape by massive masonry of Cyclopean thickness. Three tiers of arcades and superimposed orders with engaged columns defined the three lower stories in the usual sequence of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, while the fourth and top story carried pilasters. Brick, travertine, and marble were the materials employed, but notwithstanding their strength and durability the building has been very much damaged, not only by earth- quakes, but the pilfer- ings of the popes and nobles of the Middle Ages. Thanks, how- ever, to Pope Bene- dict XIV, the portion which is now standing was rescued from fur- ther spoliation. Tombs and Basilicas. Tombs hold a posi- tion in Roman archi- tecture to a large ex- tent on account of their dissimilarity. Thus we have the Tuscan tumulus, like that of Horatius Codes, the Tower of Cecilia Metella (Fig. 78), the Pyramid of Carus Cestius, and the Greek tombs, always graceful and simple in composition, yet ever in good taste ; while family vaults, called Fig. 78. — Tomb of Cecilia Metella. TOMBS AND BASILICAS. 217 columbaria, from their resemblance to dovecotes, were also employed. Tombs, as a rule, were erected on the borders of long avenues outside the city, as may be seen in Pom- L ^lti HU ii i j^ f l jg rtm I V| * J-^ Tfc* *0$* ~ ""^^ «- ' Fig. 79. — The Mausoleum of Hadrian. peii and the Via Appia at Rome, but occasionally a great mausoleum occupied a more imposing site. The Mausoleum of Hadrian (now the castle of St. Angelo) was one of these, and its ruins still dominate the right bank of the Tiber. Its architecture is best explained by the accompanying restoration (Fig. 79), which of many is held to be the most intelligent. It only remains to mention the basilicas, which were the law courts of Rome, and in time came to be 2i8 ETRURIA AND ROME. looked upon as bourses or stock exchanges as well, since every such building was provided with courts and porticoes where important business transactions were carried on, and where clientes and freedmen awaited their lords. The basilica itself consisted of a lofty oblong chamber, divided into a nave and side aisles by means of columns, and followed by a transept terminating in a semicircular apse. This contained the chair of the qu(2stor (magistrate or judge). The ceilings were either flat or semicircular, and coffered, like the vaulting of the baths. But the most important part played by the Roman basilica in architectural history is that it acted as the amoeba from which all the Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals of mediaeval times were eventually evolved, as well as the churches of the Renaissance, the age of awakened learning and enlightenment. CHAPTER VIII: THE BYZANTINE STYLE. As long as Rome remained mistress of the world so long did she remain mistress of its art ; hence, the laws which governed her architecture ruled that of all countries, from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, and from Great Britain and the Danube to the Tigris and deserts of northern Africa. But with the division of the empire in 395 A. D., and the removal of the capital to the site of the old Greek town of Byzantium, the ties of taste, which had bound tributary provinces to the old capital, fell slowly away, and a new style rose triumphantly in the East, and spread itself over the continent of Eu- rope. Westward it pursued its way to France and the shores of the Adriatic; northward to the Krem- lin of Moscow; and, finally, after the inroads of the Arabs, it even entered the mosques of the Moslems, and, in Saracenic disguise, penetrated western and southern Asia as far as the plateau of the Himalayas and the golden river of the Ganges. All styles of architecture are the result of evolution, and the Byzantine style is no exception to the rule. But since it did not forcibly assert its individuality until the time of Constantine, we will begin investi- gation with that period, and, passing over its inheri- 219 220 THE BYZANTINE STYLE. tances from the Greeks, the Romans, the Persians, or their Parthian predecessors, confine description to the history of the new style alone, leaving archae- ology to more pretentious works. The subject naturally divides into two periods : The first begins with Constantine and finishes with Justinian, and deals with the development of the Pendentive System, the underlying principle of all Byzantine architecture. The second or Neo-Byzantine epoch extends from the death of Justinian to the end of the empire, and covers the subsequent development of the Byzantine style, both at home and abroad. FIRST PERIOD. The imperial edict which caused the early Chris- tian style to emerge from the catacombs affected the East in no less vigorous a manner, and religious enthusiasm found quick architectural expression in numerous basilicas and conventual buildings. But a still more potent factor was the example and conduct of Constantine and his mother, St. Helena, who built churches in Antioch, Thessalonica, Bethlehem, and Jerusalem, and embellished Byzantium with a vast number of splendid buildings, which greatly encour- aged Eastern handicraft and taste. Under the stimulus of imperial patronage a huge concourse of architects, sculptors, painters, mosaic cutters, workers in gold, silver, ivory, and filigree, tessellators, gold embroiderers, marble masons, pot- ters, fullers, furriers, and, indeed, artisans of almost every trade, thronged into the new city, and plied their several callings with such industry that in six THE CITY OF CONSTANTIWE. 221 years the new Byzantium, well-named Constanti- nople or city of Constantine, was entirely remodelled. A forum, a circus, a hippodrome, public baths, pal- aces, and triumphal arches arose, sometimes mas- querading- in exquisite fragments plundered from Greek or Roman master- ^ ^ pieces, sometimes blazing with the green and gold and sapphire of Oriental mosaics. Not satisfied with this, Constantine drained the public treasuries and ex- empted master artificers from taxation if they would come and live at Constantinople and teach their sons their handi- crafts, while Gibbon says that " magistrates of the most distant provinces were . . . directed to insti- tute schools, to appoint professors, and, by the hopes of rewards and privileges, to engage in the study and practice of architecture a sufiBcient number of ingenious youths who had received a liberal edu- cation." But, alas for all this magnificent misdirected en- ergy ! Of all the churches and palaces built by Con- stantine and his immediate successors at Constanti- nople not a single example remains to-day except the little Church of Sergius and Bacchus (Fig. 80), resem- bling San Vitale in plan, and the mosque of Sta. Sophia, now sadly altered. For aside from the destruction Fig. 80.— Church of Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople. 222 THE BYZANTINE STYLE. '■ue to Moslem inroads and the Tartar invasions under Tamerlane, we know from Zosimus that many of the buildings erected under Constantine were so hastily and carelessly constructed that they had to be taken down almost immediately after completion; while the earthquake in 413 A. D. swept away all the good work of Theodosius II, in whose reign baths, forti- fications, and palaces had been erected on a scale, number, and magnificence to win for the emperor the title of "second found- er of the Golden City of the East." But, notwithstand- ing Moslems, Tar- tars, mismanagement, and the enmity of Na- ture, the Byzantines have left one of the finest constructive in- ventions recorded in architectural history — namely, the Penden- tive system. Being great, it is also simple, and merely consists in placing a circular dome upon a square, the diameter of the circle being equal to the side of the square (Fig. 81). The sides of this square are surmounted by arches, and the spherical triangles thus formed at the corners are filled with masonry and called pendentives. Fig. 81. ■ -Pendentive system in Byzan- tine domes. SANTA SOPHIA. 223 The best example of. this, and the most compre- hensive of the Byzantine style, is in the Church of Sta. Sophia or Divine Wisdom (Plate XXVI), be- gun by Justinian in 532 A. D. on the site of a basilica of the same name erected by Constantine. This ba- silica had been burned down in 404 A. D., restored by Theodosius, and then destroyed a second time during the riots of Venetus and Prasinus, or by the partisans of the Green and Blue parties. In Sta. Sophia Justinian announced his intention of creating " the grandest monument ever erected by the hand of man," and to this end he commanded the governors of even the most distant provinces to ran- sack all the ancient buildings for sculptures, precious marbles, and works of art. Eight columns of white marble were brought from the Temple of the Sun at Palm)'ra, eight of green marble from the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, and shiploads of costly relics of every description thronged the Bosporus and Golden Horn. A gallery was constructed between the palace and the church in order that the emperor might" pass to and fro at will and superintend the work ; ten thousand workmen toiled night and day, being paid, stone by stone, as each was set in place, and additional payments were given to those who ex- hibited exceptional skill. This continued for six years at prodigious expense. The royal treasury, the pri- vate purse of Justinian, and the voluntary offerings of the people were exhausted to the last farthing ; conquered nations were despoiled, provinces were laid under tribute, taxes were increased, "and even leaden pipes from the city fountains were put into requisition to supply either money or material." 1 I 'if t e 1. ''' '^' *' r ■*■'■ ' ■;' ' ■.•idfi ' '' '^i^;^i^.j^'^3f^:gi. Plate XXVI.— Church of Sta. Sophia. PLAN OF STA. SOPHIA. 225 Anthemius of Tralles was the architect, assisted by Isidorus of Miletus, and though Anthemius can not be said to have invented the pendentive system, he was the first to de- velop and use penden- tives on so large a scale. The distribution of Sta. Sophia (Fig. 82) is very simple in plan though complicated in appearance. It consists of a square 229 X 243 feet, in the centre of which four great piers, car- rying semicircular arches, form another square. Pendentives or triangular vaultings fill the corner spaces Fig. 82.— Plan of Sta. Sophia, Constantinople. between the arches and carry a huge, flat, central dome, thereby bringing the climax of the design in the middle instead of at the east end (Plate XXVI). Concerning this dome Procopius wrote : " From its lightness ... it does not appear to rest upon a solid foundation, but tn cover the place beneath as though it were suspended from heaven by the fabled golden chain."* Right and left of. the central square rise four pil- * Procopius on the buildings of Justinian. Translated by Prof. Aitchison. 16 226 THE BYZANTINE STYLE. lars surmounted by arches carrying the women's gal- lery, and on the other two sides are semicircles vaulted with half domes. Each half dome is penetrated by three supplemen- tary vaults, the middle one in each case being a tunnel vault. The tunnel vault toward the west terminates at the entrance, that toward the east ends in the apse. The narthex was divided into two parts, called exonarthex and esonarthex, or outer and inner vesti- bule, the doors of which were of cedar enriched with amber, ivory, and silver. Externally Sta. Sophia has little to attract, but in the interior this is not the case, and iu the time of Justinian the decorative scheme must have beggared description. The walls were incased with precious marbles or with scales of green and gold mosaics, and the vaulted roofs of the side aisles were painted in en- caustic. Forty columns with capitals of solid gold separated the various divisions of the cathedral. Above the green marble of the nave rose the giant bubble of the dome, pierced by forty-four windows and constructed of bricks imported from the island of Rhodes on account of their extreme lightness. These were likewise mosaiced in gold and opales- cent colour, while pictures on flat gold grounds ap- peared wherever appropriate. Throughout the building, candelabra, amphoras, and crosses of chased metal blazed in the yellow light; bands of bas-reliefs carved like cameos caught the eye and carried it toward the gold and silver thrones of the bishop and clergy ; and there, above all, in the apsis rose the climax, and pride of Justin- SPLENDOUR OF THE STYLE. 227 ian — namely, the altar. For the emperor, wishing the holy table to be more valuable intrinsically than gold, took gold, pearls, diamonds, and silver, and melted and mixed them together so as to form a mass. This was fashioned into a box-shaped altar, set upon golden pillars, and lined with precious gems. In all this gorgeousness — in whose description the word gold can not but enter tautologically — one sees little or nothing of the purity and simplicity which characterized Hellenic art ; indeed, none of its re- pose and contemplation of the ideal, and, in many cases, the taste of Oupravda, the slave, has super- seded that of Justinian, the emperor. But splendour and magnificence were the objects aimed at ; and, whatever excesses were committed in exuberant decoration, "a purely logical arched and domed construction was evolved, thereby forming a new and distinct architectural style, and one well worthy of imitation in large or public works." Before leaving the first period, it would be well to recapitulate and point out constructive features and details which afterward became typical of the Byzantine style wherever it flourished. Among these may be mentioned the use of vault- ing on the pendentive sj'stem ; the employment of the Greek-cross plan instead of the Latin-cross plan, so popular at Rome ; and the covering with domes and semi-domes of all places which in earlier times were spanned with ordinary roofs. Again, the use of arches within arches was first adopted by the By- zantines — as in the side recesses of Sta. Sophia (Plate XXVI) — and great liberties were taken with their shapes. Thus at times the arches would be less than 228 THE BYZANTINE STYLE. half a circle ; then, again, they would be " stilted" i. e., elongated beyond the semicircle, as in cases where spaces of different widths had to be covered while the columns remained the same in height. The capitals resembled inverted truncated pyra- mids ornamented with basket work or foliage in low Fig. 83. — Capital in Sta. Sophia. relief (Fig. 83) ; and though they lacked the elegance and refinement of Grecian work, they were singularly appropriate to the arched and domical construction in which they were used ; for by their very stability these sturdy supports created an impression of light- ness in the superstructures. It only remains to mention the ornaments. Thus opus GrcBcum, or mosaic composed of porphyry and THE NEO-BYZANTIKE STYLE. 229 serpentine set in white marble, covered the floors ; large slabs of precious marbles with borders of mo- saics lined the walls ; and the frontals and spandrels of arches, the interiors of cupolas and apses, and the upper portions of side walls were coated with glit- tering mosaics of enamel or coloured glass. Even the subordinate members of columns were often picked out with ribbons of purple and gold, and thus gaily asserted their individuality. But of more importance were the paintings of religious subjects in the form of panels filled with conventional figures of great se- riousness and dignity of treatment on gold grounds. Similar austere conventional figures appeared again nine centuries later, chastened and softened by the divine symbolism of Fra Angelico, Filippo Lippi, and Bernardo Gozzoli. THE SECOND PERIOD, OR NEO-BYZANTINE EPOCH. Nearly all the salient characteristics of Neo-By- zantine architecture had their origin under the first period, but they did not come into general usage until after the death of Justinian. The two most popular forms of construction were, first, a Greek-cross plan with a vault system of five domes (one dome being placed at the intersection of the nave and transept, the others at the extremity of each arm) ; and, secondly, a square having a large cupola over the centre, and a dome at each corner to withstand the thrusts of the pendentives. Other characteristics of the second period were a preference in many places for the Latin-cross instead of the Greek-cross arrangement within a square ; the use of barrel vaults ; and the multiplication of minor 230 THE BYZANTINE STYLE. domes ; while the most important change of all was the treatment and external aspect of the great brick bubble or dome spanning the central space. Fig. 84. — Elevation of Church of Theotocos. From Lenoir's Architecture Monastique. Hitherto the vaulting of this feature had been somewhat flat, and had frankl)' asserted its shape on the outside with no screen whatsoever, save a cover- ing of copper or other metal ; now, on the contrary, the dome was made hemispherical, placed on a drum pierced with windows, and covered in such a way as to give an appearance, on the outside, of being a flat vault on a perpendicular structure. This may be seen in the Church of Theotocos (Mother of God), erected at Byzantium in the tenth century (Fig. 84); the Church of St. Irene, built shortly after the NEO-BYZANTINE VAULTING. 231 death of Justinian in the same city; and, above all, in the Church of St. Nicodemus, at Athens (Fig. 85)— edifices which afterward set the fashion for many churches of the Greek ritual both in the Middle Ages and in modern times. Occasionally the arms of the cross, forming the plan of a church, were simply spanned by barrel Fig. 85. — Church of St. Nicodemus at Athens. vaults, whose ends were afterward treated as semi- circular pediments, as in the Church of Monetes- 232 THE BYZANTINE STYLE. Koras (Home of the Virgin) in Armenia, whose fagade probably suggested that of the sumptuous Cathedral of St. Mark at Venice. Fig. 86.— Church of St. Theodore at Athens. The interior decorations of the second period were much the same as those of the first, and included BYZANTINE MOSAICS. 233 costly marbles, frescoes, and mosaics of small precious stones or cubes of crystal. The manner of making gold mosaic was peculiarly economical and successful, for each disk was merely covered with a bit of gold leaf, over which was laid a film of glass, thus preserving the gold from dirt and injury. All the gold mosaics of St. Mark's at Venice are of this kind, as well as those of Sta. Sophia, and these have stood the test of time for thirteen cen- turies. Greece boasts a large number of Neo- Byzantine buildings, there being some- thing over a hundred on Mount Athos alone, while Misitra (the ancient Sparta) and Athens still re- tain typical examples of the style. One of the most beautiful specimens is the Church of St. Theodore (Fig. 86), which was erected in hon- our of a general of the Achaeans who saved Greece from pillage during the invasion of the Goths in 380 A. D. The Emperor Theodosius is said to have founded the building, but the architectural treatment as it stands to-day is of much later date and belongs dis- tinctly to the second period of the Byzantine style. Fig. 87.— Plan of St. Vitale at Ravenna. 234 THE BYZANTINE STYLE. It is composed of yellow tufa and brick, and though the whole edifice is not much larger than a fair-sized chapel, the general effect, as shown in Fig. 86, is im- posing. The treatment of the cupola is particularly happy, the drum being carried up to the height of the windows without marring the graceful outline of the dome. Ravenna was the capital of the viceroyalty or exarchate of the Eastern Empire in Italy, and so was naturally much influenced by Eastern art, an art which found satisfactory outcome in the Church of San Vitale, referred to in the last chapter (Fig. 87). Many archaeologists are unwilling to class San Vitale as a Byzantine building because the penden- tive system is not employed in it. But, on the other hand, it contains stilted arches, square capitals, arches within arches, and is coated in the interior with elabo- rate mosaics and revetments of precious marbles (Plate XXVII). The most gorgeous example of Byzantine art built in the West was the Cathedral of St. Mark in Venice (Fig. 89), begun in the year 979 A. D. under the doge Fietro Orseolo. Though erected at a time when the Eastern Empire had greatly declined, the friendly in- tercourse and maritime relations between Venice and the Orient were such that the architects had every opportunity to study Sta. Sophia during the period of its integrity and magnificence and before Vandal conquerors had rifled its treasures. This building has the usual form of a Greek cross (Fig. 88). The central square is spanned with a large cupola, and each of the four lateral naves is crowned Plate XXVII.— Interior of San Vitale at Ravenna. 236 THE BYZANTINE STYLE. with a cupola of smaller size, necklaced with a row of small, round-headed windows. A vaulted atrium or nartkex crested by a balus- trade precedes the building and is entered by five doorways orna- mented with col- umns of cipolin, jasper, and mar- ble, and flanked by two lateral ar- cades (Fig. 89). Five arches break up the portion of the fagade appear- ing above the nartkex, " causing a curious inter- change of light and shade," their outline strongly defined by a crest- ing of elaborate sculpture. All the arches above and below are en- riched with mo- saics of exquisite workmanship. The interior is incrusted with orna- ments like those of Sta. Sophia, and in this respect is equal to any example of the Byzantine style in the East; but the builders of the pendentives did not ap- parently understand that these supports should be treated as parts of a sphere, and their joints converge Fig. 88.- -Plan of Cathedral of St. Mark, Venice. BYZANTINE CHURCHES IN FRANCE. 237 to a centre. Hence, the spaces between the arches are filled with a collection of small superimposed arches, which lack the dignity of the bold curving sweeps in Sta. Sophia. In the second half of the eleventh century a col- ony of Venetian artists and handicraftsmen emigrated to France and settled in Limoges, and it is to them Fig. 89. — Cathedral of St. Mark, Venice. that the French owe the examples of Byzantine archi- tecture which appear in the very centre of their country, such as the Church of St.-Front, at Peri- gueux, and St.-Pierre, at Angoul6me, which stand as connecting links between Byzantine and Romanesque architecture in France. The most important feature in St.-Front is the use of the pointed or ogival arch, a form never pre- viously employed in France. In other respects the 238 THE BYZANTINE STYLE. church much resembles that of St. Mark both in plan and dimensions. At Fontevrault, Souliac, and other places of Aqui- taine are examples of Byzantine architecture, but, as Tuckerman says, " all of them show the want of a clear comprehension of. the principles involved, and are evidently foreign to the taste of the people," while " the introduction of this style in France offers a parallel to the introduction of Gothic architecture in Italy a century or two later, for in neither case were the styles in accordance with native inspira- tion." Numerous specimens of Byzantine architecture are scattered over Armenia and Asia Minor : and Salonica boasts some thirtj'-seven buildings of this style ; but none added to nor developed anything from it. Hence it only remains to speak concern- ing the Byzantine style of Russia, where, modified by certain native forms, it remained in use longer than in any other countr}'. At the time when the Eastern Empire was at the height of its prosperity, the Sarmatians, who dwelt to the northeast of the Black Sea, came under the do- minion of the Tsar, whose capital was at Kieff. These Sarmatians or Muscovites were Christians of the Greek Church, and when in the middle of the tenth century one of their princesses, named Olga, returned from a visit to Constantinople, where she had been baptized, she celebrated the event by erecting a church at Kieff on true Byzantine principles. In 988 A. D. the Grand-Due Vladimir followed her example and built another at Novgorod in the Neo- Byzantine style with five golden cupolas like the =^ — ^■ Plate XXVIII.— The Church of St. Basil at Moscow. 240 THE BYZANTINE STYLE. cathedral of St. Mark, and dedicated to Divine Wis- dom. From that time Byzantine buildings increased enormously throughout the country, and continued to do so until the fifteenth century, though large num- bers were destroyed in the thirteenth century during the irruptions of the Tartars. In the year 1453 Constantinople and the Eastern Empire fell, Mohammed II entered Sta. Sophia on horseback, and Byzantine architecture was at an end. The Gothic style controlled the West, the Saracenic the East, and even Russia, who hitherto had employed only Greek artists, was overrun with Italian and other architects, who, though they retained the main fea- tures of the Byzantine school, introduced new forms detrimental both to the beauty and to the purity of the style. The cupolas took on the bulbous form of Moorish mosques and the belfries would have been more ap- propriate as minarets in Cairo or Ispahan. Archi- tecture became the work of the jeweller rather than the architect ; and exteriors were tortured with carv- ing, leaving no relief or rest for the eye. One of the best examples of this period is the Church of St. Basil, on the Kremlin at Moscow (Plate XXVIII), built at the order of Ivan the Terrible. This church so pleased the emperor on completion that he commanded the architect's eyes to be put out, lest he should ever design anything finer for an- other potentate. CHAPTER IX : EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHI- TECTURE. Early Christian architecture began with the con- version of Constantine in the early part of the fourth century and ended in the year looo. Before this conversion of the emperor, Christian places of worship and burial were confined to the cata- combs or subterranean stone quarries of the Romans, and were simply caves hewn out and decorated with the rude symbolic art grown popular at the time. The tombs of the saints and martyrs were held in especial favour by the faithful, and it was deemed a privilege to be buried near the last resting places of these holy men. Hence those who could afford the luxury, excavated family vaults and chapels near these sacred spots, and later, when politics permitted the building of Christian churches in the open air, they were usually erected over the tombs of the saints to whom they were dedicated. Thus arose the custom of having crypts to contain the bones and relics of a tutelary saint, and these crypts became a constant feature in all early Christian churches. As a style, early Christian architecture was con- fined almost entirely to churches, baptisteries, and se- 17 841 242 EARLY CHRIST/ AN ARCHITECTURE. pulchral monuments, and, like all styles, was a de- velopment rather than a spontaneous creation. The churches were developed from the Roman basilica, the baptisteries from round or polygonal Roman tombs, while a circular church, built by the Empress Helena over the holy sepulchre at Jerusale'm, set the fashion, for all sepul- chral-monuments. The first step in early Christian archi- tecture was made when Constantine gave over to Pope Sylvester his palace of the Lateran, which doubtless contained an old Roman basilica and added a baptis- tery ; :but the first ac- tual church was the basilica built over the tomb ofSt. Peter (Fig. 90), on the-'sitb of the presentchurch of that name. This basilica differed from most Fig. 90.— Basilica of St. Peter. Roman law courts in having double aisles flanking the nave, and in the lengthening of the transept or trans- verse aisle so as to form a Latin cross, a name given to distinguish it from the Greek cross, used in the churches of Constantinople ; while a narthex or spe- SEATING ARRANGEMENT. 243 cies of vestibule and a large atrium preceded the whole. As churches increased in wealth and prosperity, the line of demarcation between the laity and the several orders of ecclesiastics became more marked. The platform seats for the judges (ranged in a semi- circle around the apse when basilicas were courts of justice), now became the stalls of the church digni- taries or higher clergy, with the cathedra or principal seat in the middle for the bishop's throne. Before them rose the altar surmounted by a baldachin, which stood over the tomb of the saint to whom the church was dedicated. The seats of the choir, and deacons or ministers who simply read the Scriptures, extended in rows on either side of the altar, and occupied also a pon ion of the nave. All this portion was in later times raided, and railed off, and a species of triumphal arch ':iso divided it from the rest of the church. The women occupied the galleries, the men the side aisles, while catechumens or neophytes, who had not yet received the rite of baptism, were seated in the nave. The narthex accommodated the penitents, who were required to flagellate themselves from time to time, the name narthex being derived from the ferule used for the purpose. Outside of the church in a colonnaded atrium prayed those who were not even deemed worthy to enter the narthex, so that the whole seating arrange- ment was a gradual diminuendo of rank and impor- tance, from the bishop on his throne to the pariah in the outer court. Such was the general plan arrangement of a typical 244 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. early Christian church, save that in later times two of the side aisles were eliminated. In regard to the exterior and interior designs, early Christian ideas were directly opposed to Roman theories. For while the Romans devoted their at- tention to the external effect of their basilicas and left the inside comparatively.. pl^in, the early Chris- tians did exact-ly.the 'e^ii^^^.^i::'(;'}'■^•■:\■ ■•'•■■■■; " ''''The cross-siection of 'St. Peter's (;F'ig.'9i') 'shows the u,,general shape adopted by the Christians, and from Fig. gi.— Section of the Basilica of St. Peter. it all subsequent churches, whether Romanesque, Gothic, or Renaissance, took their model. During the first few hundred years, the typical basilicas were of plain brick, pierced by round-headed windows at the sides ; a portico reached about half way up the front, and a bull's e)-e above the portico, afterward developed into the ornate rose windows familiar to GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 245 US all on the fagades of Gothic cathedrals. The ; )rtals were square, and decorated with sculptured architraves and mouldings taken from ruined tem- ples or other Roman build- ings, and the wooden doors were richly embossed with plates of chased bronze. Inside, long lines of col- umns, of either the Corin- thinian or Ionic orders, and usually carrying arches, formed the principal archi- tectural feature. The walls of the transept and apse were incrusted with mosaics of green and gold, purple and deep blue, while sacred em- blems, figures of saints, and representations of the head of o ir Lord, all executed in glass or precious marbles, were skilfully inlaid at well- chosen intervals. The roofs were either open trusses or flat, with sunken panels framed in gilded mouldings, and the floors were tessellated in marble, having nearly always a huge circle of crim- son porphyry, called the rota, near the entrance, on which certain of the worshippers knelt for prayer. Sometimes the walls above the arches of a nave were carried up unbroken to the roof, but more often there were galleries for the women over the side aisles which had their outlook into the body of Fig. 92. — Plan of the Basilica of St. Paul beyond the walls. 246 EARL Y CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. the church through windows. These windows, per- haps because they were grouped in threes by the later Gothic architects, gained the sobriquet of tri- forium. Other openings above these (Fig. 91) formed the clerestory for additional light. One of the most beautiful basilicas of the early Christian style was the Old Basilica of St. Paul be- yond the Walls (Fig. 92), founded in 388 A. D. by Theodosius and Valentinian II, completed by Hono- rius, and restored, elaborated, and enriched by vari- ous Popes, especially Leo III. It is also interesting in being the last five-aisled basilica built in Italy, save that of St. John Lateran, which belongs to the tenth century and the time of Sergius III and so may be counted as practically a member of the next archi- tectural period. A marble colonnade formed the approach from the Tiber to this basilica, and in mediaeval times a covered arcade joined it to the city. The interior was held the chef d'ceuvre of its time, and counted rare frescoes, mosaics, and bronze doors, among its treasures. But the principal feature was the Corin- thian colonnade, wrought in polished pavonazzetto and Parian marbles which were plundered from earlier masterpieces of pagan art. In 1823 the Basilica of St. Paul was ravaged by fire (Fig. 93), but it has since been intelligently restored in the sumptuous fashion in which it appears to-day, with its malachite altar, carved and gilded ceilings, and mosaics. But though rich in treatment, it must be confessed that the beauty of simplicity is somewhat lacking. A more successful example still remaining is that of Sta. Maria Maggiore, 432 a. d., where good ARCHITECTURE AFTER THEODOSIUS. 247 proportion and unity of treatment are the most sali- ent features. During the troublous times which followed the reign of Theodosius due to the constant invasions of Goths, Vandals, Alani, Burgundians, Suevi, etc., archi- tecture had little opportunity for development. But Fig. 93.-TBasilica of St. Paul after the fire of 1823. we still have the Church of San Nazario, at Ravenna, built by the daughter of Theodosius, and, curiously enough, a number of architectural contributions in various parts of Italy from Theodoric the Goth. The most important of these is a palace at Ravenna, some of whose details found favour under the Renais- 248 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. sance, and a mausoleum called La Rotonda in the same city has won renown for its domical roof, cut from a single piece of stone thirty-six feet in di- FlG. 94. — Basilica of San ApoUinare in Classe, Ravenna. ameter. During the early part of the sixth century Justinian gained the imperial purple and built at Ra- venna the Church of San Vitale and the beautiful Basilica of San ApoUinare in Classe (Fig. 94), which, BAPTISTERIES AND TOMBS. 249 in addition to its great magnificence, holds the dis- tinction of being the first to introduce windows into the apse, a fashion followed throughout all subse- quent Gothic art. Before examining the Christian architecture of the seventh century, which is mainly Lombard, it would be well to glance at the baptisteries and tombs, which are principally Roman. The tombs, as a rule, were round, while the bap- tisteries were either octagonal or round. Yet the words tomb and baptistery are often interchange- M Fig. 95. — Sti. Angeli, Perugia. able, for a baptistery frequently covered a sepulchre and a tomb often contained a font. Hence the term circular churches has generally been applied to this class of architecture. These buildings were severely simple in their ex- ternal treatment, and in this regard had much in common with the Roman tombs on the Appian Way, especially that of Cecilia Metella (Fig. 78). But with- in the design was much more elaborate, and fresco 250 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. and mosaic warmed and jewelled the ceilings, floors, and walls. A row of columns usually carried a circular vault, beneath which stood the font, and the same columns supported a wall pierced by clearstory windows, thereby forming a lantern for lighting the upper portion of the interior. The earliest ex- amples are the tomb built by Constantine for his mother, Hel- ena, in 328, the tomb of Honorius and his wives, and the Church of St. An- drew. Of these, the two latter were ad- juncts to St. Peter's basilica, and stood on the axis or spina of the old cir- cus of Nero, where the good St. Andrew suffered martyrdom (Fig. 90). The next in chronological se- quence was the tomb of Sta. Costanza, daughter of Constantine, called at present the Baptistery of Sta. Agnese, after which were built the more elaborate types of San Stephano Rotondo, Sti. Angeli in Peru- gia (Fig. 95), and gorgeous San Vitale at Ravenna (Plate XXVTI), modelled on the idea of the temple of Minerva Medica at Rome, and held to be the most beautiful of all. Charlemagne is said to have copied this building in his tomb at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the architects of Fig. 96. — Specimen of Lombard archi- tecture. LOMBARD ARCHITECTURE. 251 many other baptisteries of the time felt it no dis- grace to imitate this gem of early Christian art. During the seventh century the Lombards, having made their way through Germany from the shores of the Baltic, overran the whole of Italy, so that the emperors were forced to confine their encourage- ment of art to Constantinople, where the Byzantine style was developing, and though Christian archi- tecture still continued to increase at Rome under the Popes, no radical steps in advance were taken. But at Pavia, the town chosen by the conquerors for their capital, and in other subjugated cities, architecture received a new impulse and so many innovations that it is sometimes classified separately, and called the Lom- bard style. The Lombards were great church builders and their architecture is main- ly confined to that branch. These churches combined the plan of the Ro- man basilica with the cupola of the By- zantines, and crypts were invariably added, and donated with saintly bones plundered or bought from the catacombs of the Eternal City. The most salient architectural features have been briefly summed up by Mr. Gaily Knight, and, still more brief!)', are as follows : Fig. 97.- -Specimen of Lombard archi- tecture. 252 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. Externally appeared, a greater increase of ornamen- tation ; the carrying up of compound piers or but- tresses from the ground to the eaves ; small open or Fig. 98.— Church of San Michele, Pavia. closed arcades following the outline of the gable (Fig. 96) or crowning the semicircular apse ; and a mul- tiplication of mouldings and sinkings enriched with carven imagery. INTERIOR OF LOMBARD CHURCHES. 253 The inside usually showed total neglect of clas- sical proportion in the columns, the substitution of compound piers for single pillars, the omission of pedestals and architraves, and great dissimilarity in the capitals (Fig. 97), which for the first time bore a profusion of images and grotesques. This sculptural imagery was the most original and striking feature of the style, and found its way f.l II 1 II 11 I II .m—rTTil I .1 ^ .1 .T-iT-ii-w-c- Fig. 99. — Elevation of Sta. Maria Toscanella. especially in bands along the front, in modillions let into the wall, and in the decorations which filled and covered the heads and lintels of the doorways. It was made up of a heterogeneous collection of pagan, Christian, and Scandinavian symbols. In the same church one might see wrought in elaborate sculp- ture, the four beasts of the Apocalypse, Theseus, the Minotaur, the Paschal Lamb, Lazarus, sirens, the 254 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. Zodiac, the peacock, the fish, the goat, the vine, Daniel, Jonas, David and Goliath, and hundreds of Scandinavian dragons, eagles, dogs, and sea ser- pents ; all of which evidently affected later Gothic art, as shown in the gargoyles, monsters, and gro- tesques in the cathedrals of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. The Church of San Michele was at one time con- sidered the most beautiful of the Lombard style. It was almost entirely altered and rebuilt in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, but the apse (Fig. 98) and inte- rior still show a number of the features enumerated above. Sta. Maria Toscanella (Fig. 99) is a later develop- ment of the same style. In 770 Pope Adri- an consecrated the first belfry at Rome. It was built detached from the church, and all belfries for sever- al generations were treated in this way, and not considered as an integral part of ecclesiastical edifices. In 774 Charlemagne put an end to the Lombard dynasty, but supplied little to Italy in the shape of art; and from 875 to the year 1000 the struggles of rival ecclesiastics and rival princes blocked all architectural advance, save in a few cities like Genoa and Venice, where the inhabitants kept in Fig. 100. — ^Apse of Basilica at Torcello. CONCLUSION. 255 touch with Constantinople and the civilizations of the East. A few exceptions, however, kept the arts alive — such as San Clemente, at Rome ; San Ambrogio, at Milan; and San Giovanni Laterno, 910; while the Basilica of Torcello, though Byzantine in decoration, retained much of the best early Christian architec- tural treatment, especially in the apse (Fig. 100), which has been rendered famous in the picture by Jean Paul Laurens in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York. In the year 1000 early Christian architecture maybe said practically to end, and all further discussion of the subject is usually carried on under the names of round-arched Gothic or Ro- manesque. CHAPTER X: THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. INTRODUCTORY. Mahometan architecture properly begins with Mahomet, as the name implies, and the date of the hegira or flight of the prophet (622) is generally assumed as the point of departure for its history. Before that date the Arabians possessed little knowledge of the fine arts, even in the fair Province of Yemen, where dwelt the people of Sanna, or Merab, "greatest of Arabia's forty cities." For, though history refers casually to artists and archi- tects living long before the hegira, none of their works have come down to us ; and even Sennamar, the most celebrated of these men, is better remem- bered for the picturesqueness of his death than the achievements of his life. Sennamar was a Chaldean by birth, and built the castles and towers of Sedir, in the reign of Noman al Aouar, tenth king of Hira. Tradition tells us that " each building was entirely bound together by a single stone"; and, what was more miraculous, " the walls changed colour, chameleonlike, several times during the course of a day." These things so pleased the king that he • re- SENNAMAR. THE KAABAH. 257 warded Sennamar with many splendid gifts ; but, being fearful lest the architect might erect similar towers for his enemies, he commanded that the un- fortunate man be thrown headlong from the summit of his masterpiece. Hence arose the Arabian prov- erb " the reward of Sennamar." The Kaabah (square house), built by Mahomet at Mecca, is said to have been the first mosque. It consisted of little more than a rude tower without ornamentation, and is chiefly revered for being " the hub of the wheel of Islam," since it is the " kibla" or fixed point in the horizon toward which all the faith- ful turn when prayer is offered. This edifice was subsequently much enlarged and provided with col- onnaded courts according to requirement. Another " building of bricks and palm sticks " was erected at Medina ; but these two temples seem to have supplied all the religious needs of the Arabs during the early part of the seventh century, and had Mahometanism been confined to Arabia, it is doubt- ful whether the so-called Saracenic style would ever have existed. But the architecture of Islam, like its faith, was not destined to be local, and as Syria, Eg)'pt, and Asia Minor succumbed to the arms and belief of the Mos- lems, the caliphs converted the Byzantine churches into mosques, and built others according to the laws embodied in the Koran ; and when finally the Crescent cut its way wfestward, through northern Africa, and into the Iberian peninsula, the Moors displayed an even greater degree of energy and architectural en- thusiasm. Twelve thousand towns sprang into life along the shores of the Guadalquivir ; and before the IS 258 THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. ninth century Cordova alone boasted six hundred mosques, nine hundred baths, and ten miles of lighted streets. Thus throughout Arabic civilization arose a bril- liant architectural life, full of colour and warm- blooded imagination, and fertile in expedients for decoration and display ; while from the Tigris to the Orontes, from the Nile to the Guadalquivir dis- mantled towns and temples were transmuted into golden cities and arid plains blossomed into Hespe- rian gardens with cool fountains and fragrant foliage pictorially pleasant. The constructive principles of Saracenic art were chiefly borrowed from the Romans and Byzantines ; but the scheme of decoration was acquired from the Persians, mainly in the reigns of the Abassides and Sassanides. Thus nearly all Mahometan mosques have barrel vaults, domes, and pendentives, like the basilicas and cathedrals of Rome and Byzantium, but the fact that representations of living beings were prohibited by the Koran threw the Saracens back upon their own resources for decoration or compelled them to seek elsewhere, and the ceramic skill of Persia was tempt- ingl)' close at hand. Hence Arabic inscriptions, artistically lettered and jewelled with wonderful words, graceful inter- laces of vines and plants called arabesques, and dainty damasquina designs of kindred themes were lavishly used, while everything was gemmed with brilliant colour distributed with the exquisite tact (as regards high notes and neutral tints) which we still see in the manufacture of Oriental rugs to-day. SARACENIC CHARACTERISTICS. 259 Enamelled mosaics played a very important part in the colour combinations of ancient Arabic art, but these were later replaced by the cheaper, though ef- fective, expedient of glazed bricks of variegated col- our and polygonal shape, a popular product in Bag- dad from the earliest times. Another peculiarity, especially in Spain, was the employment of a series of superimposed niches, well named medias naranjas (half oranges), which not only filled the re-entrant angles of the pendentives, but often formed a species of stalactite entablature at the crown of an edifice. Other architectural features to be noted are oval domes ; arches, round, pointed, stilted, or horseshoe shaped ; graceful minarets or towers (from the Arabic minareh, meaning point of light) ; and large surfaces stitched over in stucco with infinite patience and skill. In a word, constructively the Arabs were little more than copyists ; as decorators, they were almost second to none. For nothing can be less inspiring than an Arab house shorn of its ornament ; few sights more moving than a mosque or alcazar tricked out in all the exuberance and splendour of Saracenic carving and colour. THE EASTERN STYLE. Mosques play by far the most important part in the history of Eastern Saracenic architecture, just as temples and cathedrals take the lead in the story of Greek and Gothic art ; and therefore it is here in ' order to point out the salient features of these, the greatest products of Islam, and in so doing clarify 26o THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. the terminology necessarily employed in a descrip- tion of the rise and progress of the style. One of the first characteristics to be noticed in the mosques of Arabia, Persia, India, and Asia Minor is their resemblance to Byzantine churches in being ^ vaulted by a large ~^^?-^- wmmm Fig. ioi. — A Saracenic window. cupola flanked by smaller domes, all constructed on the pendentive system. The atrium, how- ever, becomes a col- onnaded court with accessory buildings containing schools, colleges, libraries, asylums, etc. The heads of doorways are round, horseshoe shaped, or pointed, as are also those of the win- dows, which, being used only for light and not to be looked out of, are closely filled with geometrical tracery (see Fig. loi), thereby imparting within an atmosphere of solitude mingled with the conscious- ness of neighbourhood. Exterior walls are crowned with crenellated gal- leries and the corbelled or stalactite cornices men- tioned above, while tall, slim minarets (garlanded with balconies from which the muezzin calls the faith- ful to prayer) prolong the pencilling of the sk3fline agreeably. Only djamis (great mosques) founded by an em- peror are allowed four minarets. All others must con- tent themselves with two; and these graceful belfries, IMPORTANT FEATURES IN MOSQUES. 261 sometimes round, sometimes polygonal, form one of the most beautiful and characteristic features of a Mahometan city. In Egypt and Syria the mosque is often an open court surrounded by a covered colonnade and con- taining a sanctuary facing toward Mecca, while a second court preceding it embraces public baths, rooms for travellers, and stabling for horses and camels belonging to the caravans ; but in Turkey, where St. Sophia controlled the canons of taste, one finds none of these accessories and the atrium again makes its appearance. Every mosque has its mihrab or sacred niche, adorned with columns of jasper, agate, or precious marbles, and many contain three. On one side of the mihrab stands the menber or pulpit, on the other the tribune of the Sultan or Seikh, while frequentlj' in front rises a second dais and canopy where the iman makes his prayer. But these, with the exception of rugs and hanging lamps, constitute the entire furniture and thus emphasize the complex beauty of the wall decoration. HISTORY. During the period succeeding Mahomet the ten years of the reign of Omar (634-644) were by far the most energetic. Thirty-six thousand cities or castles were subdued, four thousand Christian churches were destroyed, and fourteen hundred mosques were erected on a scale of increasing splendour. The first of these, popularly known as the " Mosque of Omar," was a comparatively simple place of wor- 262 THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. ship, built by the great caliph in 637, on the spot where Julian the Apostate attempted to reconstruct the Temple of Jerusalem. It now stands near the more pretentious Mosque of Aksah, erected by Abd-el- Malek, his successor, and is still in tolerable preser- vation. Under Abd-el-Malek and other caliphs of the Om- iad dynasty the cultivation of art continued with like energy but less violence. Mosques, palaces, and gardens jewelled desert places like Greek gems set in pale gold, and cool fountains refreshed the hot, parched, and tarnished land. The capital was re- moved from Medina to Damascus, which was en- larged and made beautiful on a scale of magnificence only found among the absolute rulers of the East. Many a king's ransom was lavished upon the Mosque of Aksah, and the Caliph Wallid pulled down Jus- tinian's old church of St. John and erected the great mosque bearing his own name, using the same ma- terials. The example thus set by the commanders of the faithful was quickly followed by the governors of even the most distant provinces, and artificers of Chalcis, Heliopolis, Tyre and Caesarea, Antioch, and Jerusalem thronged every city of the realm till each gained something of that delicate distinction which characterizes the arcades of Damascus and the bal- conies of Cairo. El Aksah stands first among the monurpents of the period. Its circomference, according to Amrecy, measured nearly a Roman mile or two hundred and fifteen toises in length by one hundred and seventy- two in breadth. These dimensions were accepted for a long time as authentic, but the discovery of THE HOUSE OF AL ABBAS. 263 an old manuscript written by Arculphus (a Christian monk who saw the building about a century after its completion) has corrected these figures, and shows the mosque to have been about the same size as that Fig. 102. — ^View of the tomb at Sultaneiah. of to-day, i. e., covering fifty thousand square feet, while the description of its appearance bespeaks little subsequent alteration. Even more propitious to art than the Omiad dynasty were the caliphs of the Persian house of Al Abbas. The capital, which had been removed from Medina to Damascus, was now transferred a second time ; and 264 THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. Bagdad, founded by Almansur, soon set the mode in architecture to all Islam. Little now remains of the glories of Bagdad under the Abassides and the Seljukian monarchs ; for though the mosques and palaces were overlaid with gold and silver, and we are told that " no Moorish court ever reached a higher pitch of enlightenment and magnifi- cence than that of Haroun al Raschid," still the con- structive portions of the buildings could have been little more than wood, sun-dried brick, or other per- ishable materials, and we must depend almost entire- ly upon history for the generally accepted fact that Bagdad outstripped the splendours of Nineveh and Persepolis. But of the period succeeding Genghis Khan, the imaret or hospital of Erzeroum, the mosques of Ani and Tabreez, and the tomb of Khodabendah, at Sul- taneiah (Fig. 102), still remain in part to confound the sceptical, having walls incrusted in intricate interlaces of glazed tile (Fig. 103), far surpassing the painted plaster plaques of the Alhambra. Meanwhile Akbar had carried his victorious arms into Egypt, and the Saracenic architecture of that country advanced steadily toward originality and perfection, until under the Fatimite caliphs a re- newed civilization sprang up along the Valley of the Nile, and Cairo became at once the seat of empire and learning, and the successful rival of Bagdad. Granite, porphyry, and Numidian marble con- tributed largely to the material splendour of the buildings, for the monuments of the Pharaohs, Ptole- mies, and Caesars were ruthlessly plundered. But the plans of the mosques, with their open courts and cov- DWELLINGS AT CAIRO. 265 ered colonnades, showed a noteworthy emancipation from Roman and early Christian models, and the ordi- nary dwelling houses bore also a distinctive char- acter. In the dwellings the upper floors, occupied by the women, were marked externally by projecting Fig. 103. — Section of the tomb of Sultan Khodabendah, at Sultaneiah. balconies of latticed woodwork, which lent a pic- turesque aspect to the narrow streets and doubtless set the fashion to parts of India and to modern Turkey ; while the reception rooms, on the ground floor, often boasted elaborate mural decorations, vari- ous as tulip beds agreeably confused, as well as the 266 THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. divans, carpets, and hanging lamps common in Ori- ental homes. Fig. 104.— Mosque of Ebn Touloun at Cairo. The oldest mosque in Cairo is that erected by Amrou in 642, and rebuilt by Abd-el-Malek and MOSQUES AT CAIRO. 267 Wallid with materials from the older temples. A more impressive example in the same city is the Mosque of Ebn Touloun (Fig. 104), 876, conspicuous for the rugged grandeur and massive splendour char- acteristic of early work. The architect, according to Macrisi, was a Chris- tian, and refused to build the mosque of materials plundered from desecrated churches — a fact which his rivals were quick to use as a weapon against him. He was thrown into prison and grievously mal- treated, but finally released when it was found im- possible to dispense with his services, and his original design was carried out. Other mosques of prominence are El Azhar (the Splendid), 989, those of Sultans Barkook and Hassan (built in the twelfth and fourteenth centuries respec- tively), Kaloun, and, above all, the little Mosque of Kaitbey (Plate XXIX), the purest gem of refinement and elegance in Cairo and the culmination of the Egyptian Saracenic style. INDIA. During the latter part of the tenth century, as Bagdad declined in art, India suddenly rose. This renaissance began at Ghazni, where Subak- tagin, formerly a Turkish slave, had made himself independent governor and founder of the Ghazni- vides. His successor, the great Mahmoud (977-1030), conquered all India ; but, being a man of taste as well as of war, devoted much of the spoil to embellishing his capital, and soon Ghazni was transfigured into a fairyland of mosques, palaces, gardens, fountains, aque- ducts, and reservoirs equal to any city east of the Nile. Plate XXIX.— Mosque of Kailbey at Cairo. AFTER THE GHAZXIVIDES. 269 After the decaj' of the Ghaznivide dynasty India passed successively under the rule of the Ghorians, Fig. 105. — Minar at Ghazni. 2;o THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. Pathans, and Moguls ; and Mahometan architecture continued to be the ruling style down to the year Fig. io6. — Gateway of Jumma Mesjid, Jaunpore. 1707, when, after a period of anarchy, the country fell into the hands of the English, and art of every kind, being elbowed out of the way by commerce, came to an abrupt stop. Of the splendours of Ghazni only two sturdy, old IMPOSING EXAMPLES. 271 Minars remain in good preservation (Fig. 105), which, though striking, are rendered even more impressive by the ruin and desolation surrounding them. The cities of later dynasties have been more fortunate, as may be seen in the ruins of Kootub, tiic mosques of Jaunpore with their splendid gateways (Figs. 106 an.. Fig. 107. — Gateway, Lall Durwaza Mosque, Jaunpore. 107), and the Mogul places of worship at Delhi and Agra (Plate XXX), which, as regards design and dis- 272 THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. tribution, are by far the most imposing specimens in Saracenic architecture. All the Moslem hordes which swept over India were from first to last of purely Tartar origin, and hence great tomb builders, so that it is among this class of buildings that one finds their most character- istic work ; and though in Egypt, Persia, and other Mahometan countries the tombs are alttached tim- orously, almost apologetically, to the mosques, in India the mosques are more often attached to the tombs. The intrinsic beauty of even the simplest of these last resting places may be understood by examining Fig. io8. True, this is but a poor reproduction of a name- less tomb on the plain of Delhi, while Agra, Beeja- pore, Golconda, Mando, and indeed the whole Valley of the Ganges abound in examples which surpass it as substance surpasses shadow ; but this modest little tomb is cited to show how high was the average merit in this branch of art. Indian tombs reached their highest form of ex- pression under the Mogul emperors. They were usually situated in spacious gardens surrounded by high crenellated walls and entered by one or more splendid gateways. The building itself was either square or octagonal, with four imposing entrances, and crowned by a large central dome and smaller supplementary domes. The whole mass stood upon a lofty terrace, from which four marble-paved alleys bordered with foun- tains, fruit trees, and cypresses usually radiated. During the lifetime of the future occupant the 2;4 THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. building was used as a festal hall, or place of general recreation, but at his death it was handed over to the care of priests, and assumed the serious attitude of its original intention. One of the best examples of this class of edifices is the celebrated Tage Mehal, built by Shah Jehan at Agra for his favourite wife Moomtaza Mehal. Concerning the ornamentation Mr. Fergusson writes : " It is in this building that we first find that Fig. io8. — Nameless tomb at old Delhi. system of inlaying with precious stones, such as agates, bloodstones, jaspers, and the like. These are combined in wreaths, scrolls, and frets, as exquisite in design as they are beautiful in colour, and relieved THE WESTERN STYLE. 275 by the pure white marble in which they are inlaid, they form the most beautiful and precious style of ornament ever adopted in architecture. Though of course it is npt to be compared with the intellectual beauty of Greek ornament, it certainly stands first among the purely decorative forms of architectural design." THE WESTERN STYLE. While the Eastern Arabs were embroidering Syria, Persia, Egypt, and India with fabrics of archi- tectural beauty, the Western Arabs displayed no less energy and enlightenment. War and conquest were the foundation stones of their civilization just as in the Moslem countries of the East, and the older monuments of Barbary and Spain had first to suffer death before they could be born again in Saracenic splendour. Five hundred episcopal churches were destroyed on the march from Tripoli to the Atlantic, and their fragments form parts of the houses of Algeria and Tunis to-day ; while Carthage was ruthlessly rifled to adorn the imperial Mosque of Cordova. In Spain the instances are innumerable in which the foundations of Roman ruins are surmounted by Saracenic superstructures, and in this respect the Western Arabs were, in a sense, unique, for " no people ever constructed so many superb buildi?igs who extracted fewer materials from the quarry. "' But whatever the method employed, and without considering whether the end justified the means, the effort o,n the part of the Omiad caliphs in Spain to rival the buildings of Cairo, Bagdad, and Damas- cus was successful; and from the handful of Moorish 276 THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. ,n1; f :l adventurers who invaded the peninsula in the eighth century arose a nation instinct with intellectual sub- tlety in art, full of warm, fervid imagination, and en- dowed with the delicate organization of the Asiatic, to whom exuberance of or- nament may be safely en- trusted with the certainty that it will never be allowed to degenerate into vulgarity. Laborde divides Moorish architecture into three dis- tinct periods. The first ex- tends from the conquest to the ninth century, and shows frankly the Roman and By- zantine influence ; the sec- ond and purest lies between the ninth and the thirteenth centuries, during which all foreign characteristics disappear; while the third or era of decadence bridges over the time between the thirteenth century and the fall of the empire. The most characteristic building of the first period was the Mosque of Cordova; that of the second, the Alhambra, with its crescent arches and airy lightness of treatment ; while Segovia, Benevente, and the like abound in examples of the decadent or Mudejar era, in which the new ideas of the Italian Renaissance were badly assimilated by the native style. The Mosque of Cordova was begun in 770 by Abd-el-Rahman on the site of an ancient temple of Janus (which in the time of the Goths had been consecrated to St. George), and was finished by his son Hescham in 795. VjOj .'I , j- i .m -■ ■ ■ ' • Fig. 109.— Plan of Mosque at Cordova. MOSQUE OF CORDOVA. 277 The portion built by these two includes the eleven western aisles of the present mosque (Fig. 109), which at the time completed the building. El Mansor, however, added eight more aisles to the east, making a superficies of one hundred and sixty thousand square feet, an area considerably larger than that of any Christian cathedral except St. Peter's. In the interior (Plate XXXI) columns of por- phyry, jasper, green and violet breccia, and other costly materials, crowned with wide Corinthian capi- tals, spring into the air, forming endless perspectives of marble forestry. Above bend two tiers of arches, which in the mihrab intersect, the upper tiers spring- ing from the keystones of the lower. The old Arab ceiling with its richly carved cais- sons and lozenges has been replaced by brick vaults, and the. rare species of larch composing it has now been sold and made into violins and guitars. This brings us to the question of the extraordi- nary ability of the Moors to preserve wood, concern- ing which facts speak for themselves, for though his- tory tells us that the gate of cypress belonging to the Temple of Diana at Ephesus lasted nearly four hun- dred years, and that the gate of old St. Peter's re- mained undecayed for five hundred and fifty years, a more extraordinary example may be cited in the ceiling of the Mosque of Cordova, which on removal showed no signs of decomposition whatever, although it had been in use eleven centuries.* The sanctuary, built by Hescham, is justly held the masterpiece of the mosque. The vestibule is * See Voyage Pitloresque en Espagne. Plate XXXI.— Mosque of Cordova. MOSQUE OF CORDOVA. 279 vaulted with intersecting beams elaborately carved and powdered with golden stars ; the windows are traceried with golden filigree ; and the surfaces blaze with broken-tinted mosaics, in which verses from the Koran in gilded crystals wind gracefully among in- tricate arabesques; while above the mihrab bends a vault composed of a single block of marble chiselled with infinite charm, adorned with niello work, and carried on jasper columns. When Ferdinand took Cordova, in 1236, the mosque was consecrated to the Catholic cult, and since then it has undergone architectural changes too severe to be successful. Fifty-two chapels have been added, the mihrab and vestibule are converted into a sacristy and chapel to San Pedro, and in the sixteenth century a space was cleared in the centre, a Latin cross was made, and a choir of rococo design was thrust into an impor- tant position. Charles V, who visited the mosque after these questionable improvements, rated the monks soundly for their iconoclasm, but the mischief was done and the ruin past redemption. No treatise on Moorish art is complete without a reference to the Alhambra, yet history asserts that if the Palace of Zahra still existed we might afford to despise this chef-d' ceuvre of the second period. But Zahra. is dead, while the Alhambra still lives in art, song, and reality — an ever-present joy to the dilettante of things delightful. Medinet Alhamra, or the Red City, was at once the citadel and architectural climax of Granada — a metropolis in which every private house and public 28o THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. edifice had its own garden, set thick with orange, lemon, and citron groves or laurels and myrtles in- terspersed with cooling fountains, the gifts of mu- nificent sovereigns. It was begun by Mahomet ben Alhamar and continued uninterruptedly by his suc- cessors for over half a century. Fortress, palace, and Persian paradeisos though it was, all nevertheless showed logical consistence in the highest degree. Thus, while the fortification walls are eighteen feet in thickness and still impreg- nable, the domes and arcades of the pavilions, courts, and residential portions are formed of casts light as wood. These casts, however, have become as hard as marble, and though a thousand years have passed away, many still remain perfect to prove the Arabs' intimate acquaintance with the properties of carbonate of selenite. The principal rooms are (Plate XXXII) the Hall of the Ambassadors, " arched so high that giants may keep their turbans on"; the Hall of the Sisters, with ingeniously constructed domes; the Court of the Lions, so named from its exquisite foun- tain resting on lions' backs ; the Hall of Abencerrages ; and the Court of the Alberca, in which a pool of crys- tal water was fed by a continuous stream that kept it at a constant level with the surface of the marble floor. To describe these individually would exceed the limits of this sketch ; but a few facts common to the majority of them should be here enumerated. Thus while the halls and turret chambers'of contemporarv kings and queens of other countries were strewn with rushes and skirted by rough mats, the walls, columns, and ceilings of the Alhambra were sheathed in por- 282 THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. celain mosaics or plaques with intricate interlaces of gold, silver, purple, and azure in relief. Each tile was doubtless executed separately with infinite patience and care, but the settings are so skilfully contrived that few of the joints appear. The doorways are large, the windows small, and the friezes and architraves richly illumined with Cufic or Asiatic inscrip- tions, such as " There is no God but God," " There is no Con- queror but God," and the like ; while an apologetic sentence inserted by the architect reads : " My windows admit the light, and exclude the view of exter- nal objects, lest the beauties of Nature should divert your at- tention from the beauties of my work." Other forms of decoration are knots, crockets, arabesques, and, above all, the key, which is held in m'uch the same rever- ence by the Mahometan as the cross by the Christian. Little furniture now re- mains, but formerly it was par- ticularly elaborate throughout and composed of citron, aloe, and sandal wood, picked out with blue and inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl ; while curious vases Fig. no. — Giralda Tower. From a drawing by Gi- rault de Prangey. DURABILITY OF WOODWORK. 283 of sardonyx, rock crystal, porcelain, and mosaic filled the corners. Flowery carpets and softly cushioned couches encouraged drowsy repose, and filtered foun- tains, kept at a constant temperature, perfumed the atmosphere with the fresh clean smell of washed air after a storm. But the most astonishing fact concerning the Al- hambra is the durability of the woodwork, which was Fig. III. — Screen of the Chapel of Villa Viciosa in the Mosque of Cordova. so treated that all worms, spiders, and other insects invariably shun it, and now, though six hundred years have passed, there still appear no signs of dry rot or decay. Woodwork added by later sov- ereigns is frequently found covered with cobwebs, but that of the thirteenth century ever remains 284 ^-^^ MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. unclouded and bright as the day on which it was set up. Spain boasts no minarets save one, the Giralda Tower, at Seville, said to have been designed by El Gebir, the inventor of algebra. Its vaulting is ac- complished by thickening the walls gradually, as they rise from the ground, until they meet; a very inferior method, and quite unworthy of the great mathematician. This tower is now surmounted by a Renaissance top designed by Fernan Ruiz, which, though exquisite in itself, is quite out of keeping with the substructure. The restoration suggested by Girault de Prangey would doubtless be much more appropriate, even if less beautiful (Fig. i lo). The third period of Moorish architecture has been barely touched on above, but more elaboration of de- tail is scarcely necessary. The Chapel of Villa Viciosa in the Mosque of Cordova belongs to this style, and from the illus- tration (Fig. in) it will readily be seen how ill- adapted are the fussy crooked lines of its arches to the sweet severity and simple elegance of the sup- porting Corinthian columns. Inconsistencies of this kind are characteristic of the entire period. TURKEY. It only remains to mention the Turkish phase of Mahometan architecture, which of all the Saracenic styles shows the least originality and skill. Here are few light piers, pointed arches, and airy domes hanging in space, and no warm internal colour- ing comparable to Moorish or Egyptian handicraft. THE TURKISH PHASE. 285 On the contrary, one usually finds the piers heavy, the arches round, and the domes often supported on columns instead of springing lightly from penden- tives alone, while all the blazonry of colour peculiar to Saracenic art is lavished on the interiors, leaving the exteriors cold, dull, and meaningless. The fountains, however (Fig. 112), are often full of playful fancy and delicate, fictile form, and flash with Fig. 112. — Fountain at Constantinople. iridescent colour, like the broken flame of an opal. But here originality ceases, and in the building of mosques the Turk has preferred making poor adap- tations of Sta. Sophia to evolving new forms out of the beautiful Arabic art lying ready to his hand. 286 THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. The mosques of Ayoub, Suleiman, and Achmet are the finest. The first was erected by Mohammed II in memory of the standard bearer of the Prophet who fell fight- ing for the cause. It is held the most sacred of all mosques, and no Christian has ever penetrated its hallowed precincts. The author, however, was for- tunate enough to obtain a glimpse of this forbidden sanctuary, which nevertheless ill repaid the trouble, since it exactly resembles all the others, save in sim- plicity and the fact that it contains the sword of the Prophet, which every Sultan must have belted upon him before he can be proclaimed king. In this mosque the atrium, so popular among the old Roman basilicas, has been retained or rather re- vived, and the later mosques of Constantinople have followed the fashion thus enforced. The most characteristic example of all the Turk- ish mosques is that designed by the great architect Sinan for Suleiman the Magnificent in 1550 (Fig. 113). Here we find the plan and domical arrangement of Sta. Sophia frankly copied (compare Figs. 82 and 1 1 3) and the atrium retained, while a mausoleum in a gar- den at the back recalls the Tartar origin of the builders. Blue and white are the dominant notes of the inte- rior, which combine to form a very striking ensemble ; but the tomb at the back with its walls incrusted with precious stones is even more effective. In this great jewel box lies the founder, companioned by Suleiman II, the "Stupid," and Achmet II, the eccentric Sultan who died from dosing himself with distilled water. Forty-five million piasters are said to have been THE AH MED I YE. 287 lavished upon this mosque by Suleiman, who in his enthusiasm worked personally among the labourers in order to encourage them. The Ahmediye or Mosque of Achmet I is a pleasing pyramid of bubbles built out of the remains of the Hippo- drome, and is the only Mahometan place of worship save the mosque at Mecca which boasts six minarets. The inte- rior effect has been much injured by the use of columns supporting the dome; but this is" some- what counterbalanced by the beauty of the ex- terior, which is sheathed in tiles belonging to a lost ceramic art. The sky line of the Ahmediye is very effect- ive viewed by any one sailing down the Sea of Marmora, and it is the last thing visible before the Golden Horn melts into the Bosporus or fades away into heliotrope against the eastern sky. Of the Fa/z'fl^/ mosques (or Sultan's mother mosques) Fig. 113. — Mosque of Suleiman. 288 THE MAHOMETAN OR SARACENIC STYLE. little need be said save that they are generally small, picturesque, and plentiful. The palaces have been correctly characterized by Lamartine as "gardens filled with tents of gilded wood," while the ordinary dwelling houses demand hardly more considera- tion. The latter are painted red, yellow, or green, are all built the same in height to prevent people from looking in at one another, and are perfor- ated irregularly by windows filled with trellis-work tracery. During the last fifty years a species of Turkish renaissance has asserted itself, and with no small degree of success. To this style belong the royal palaces of Dolma Baktch6 (1853) and Beyler Bey, built by Abdul Aziz (1865); but they can scarcely be said to come under the head of Saracenic art, and are only cited to show, that though Mahometan architecture relapsed into a serious state of decay under Turkish thraldom, it may yet rise again, and under a new name and new aim achieve a new triumph under the glorious guid- ance of the Renaissance. CONCLUSION. In summing up judicially the various values of Mahometan architecture, it can not be said to rank very high as a style ; the reason being that through- out its evolution no new constructive principle was gen- erated, such as the column and lintel of the Greeks and Egyptians, the arched construction of the Romans, or the pendentive system of the Byzantines. Without a new constructive principle any architectural style is invertebrate, and, at best, can only be a sviperior CONCLUSION. 289 scheme of decoration applied to the constructive in- ventions of others. Not even the horseshoe arch can be classed as a new principle, since the true arch begins at the level of the centre of each side, the lovi^er portions of the curve being simply a form of bracket with the sole purpose of pleasing the eye. But as regards ornamental exuberance controlled by good taste, the Saracenic style stands second to none, and for this, the wrorld owes it a debt of grati- tude. CHAPTER XI: THE ROMANESQUE STYLE, SOMETIMES CALLED ROUND-ARCHED GOTHIC. Romanesque is a term invented by M. de Ger- ville in 1825 to denote the first great period of Chris- tian architecture belonging to the Middle Ages. As a style it has been comprehensively defined as "the outgrowth of a debased form of Roman architecture which, influenced by Byzantine and Arabic art, formed a distinct method of building throughout the West for nearly two centuries after the year 1000 A. D.," having " the alternate name of Norman in Normandy and in England." Unlike the Moorish architecture described in the last chapter, the Romanesque can quite fairly lay claim to the title of a " style," for in it was devel- oped a new constructive feature, an original theme, on which nearly all the later harmonies of form in Gothic art were built. This was the " vault." "Before discussing this technical point, it will be well to glance at the conditions attending the birth of the new movement. Civil war had ceased ; the Norman invaders had retired, and the monasteries were filled with those HISTORY. 291 who, preferring art to war, had taken refuge therein in order to pursue their peaceful callings. Again feudalism was established, chivalry aroused with its attendant cultivation, and a renaissance in learning, which is ever followed by a revival in art, had made itself felt under the guidance of the scholastics. Above all, the material requirement was at hand and abundant, for the great fear that the day of judgment would occur in the year 1000 had swept over all Europe with a more than beneficial effect upon the treasuries of the Church, and king and baron, lord and villein, prince and pedestrian, all turned over their lands or possessions to the abbeys and monasteries. There in tranquil retirement dwelt the most culti- vated portion of the community, cultivated not only morally and intellectually, but secularly as well. Thus " it was one of the first duties of an abbot, prior, or dean to be able to lay out the plan of a church and direct its construction." Tutilo, a modest monk of St. Gall, was a poet, architect, orator, singer, carver, musician, and worker in chased silver; and it was a law and requirement of the Order of St. Bene- dict that every brother learn "some fair handicraft or trade," for this was before that inadvertent day when friars merely fattened or devoted their lives to the arts of distillation and the refectory. Here in the dreamy quiet and contemplation of the cloister these good brethren thought and worked sincerely, honestly, and for a purpose — solely for the glory of God, and in all humility. Hence, though the chief architect was often nothing more than a simple monk, priests sprung from princely houses 292 THE ROMANESQUE STYLE. held it no disgrace to work under his direction, and willingly shared in the manual toil of the masons and ordinary labourers. It is doubtless owing to this humility and single- ness of purpose that so few names have come down to us, for aside from Jean de Vendome, architect of the Cathedral of Le Mans, Gondulphus, Bishop of Rochester and builder of St.-fitienne at Caen, Hade- FiG. 114. — Saint-Front, at Perigueux, showing cupolas. Ion of Li6ge, and a few others, the Romanesque ar- tists preferred leaving monuments to names. As may be gathered from the above, Romanesque architecture was essentially a monastic style, just as the later Gothic or pointed architecture was domi- nated by the laity. Abbeys and their churches, not cathedrals, are the important examples for study, ex- cept among the free towns of Germany and along the THE BASILICA THE BASIS. 293 Fig. 115. — Buttresses. banks of the Rhine ; but even among these the monas- teries of Fulda, Hildesheim, and Ratisbon hold well their own as arbiters in the affairs of art ; while in France, the cradle of the style, all the art of every province was gov- erned by the monks, and Burgun- dy, Anjou, Auvergne, Poictou, Normandy, Perigord, and Isle-de- France had each its monastic school, identical in aim, but differing in detail. As the Byzantine architects of the East had chosen the Roman basilica for their point of departure, so also did the Romanesque archi- tects of the West choose it as their basis of evolution. The nave, aisles, transept, and apse were all retained, and, for a time, the fiat wooden ceihng as well, a beautiful example of which has been preserved in Peterborough Cathedral, but the simplicity with which Saracens, Hungarians, and Normans had de- stroyed thousands of churches by merely setting fire to the roofs had taught a practical lesson, and hence to invent a vault and avoid the use of wood in ceil- ings was the first great problem. In Anjou, P6rigord, and Poictou all advance toward an original solution of the problem was hin- dered by Byzantine influence, for, aside from the in- timate communication ever maintained between these provinces and the East, hoards of pilgrims and Tem- plars had returned full of enthusiasm for the Orien- tal monuments which they had seen ; and, as these gentry contributed largely toward the erection of 294 THE ROMANESQUE STYLE. churches, we find cupolas on pendentives used almost exclusively in servile imitation of St. Sepulchre, and exhibited triumphantly in St.-Front, at P6rigueux (Fig. 114), St.-Pierre, at Angoul^me, and the monas- tery at Fontevrault. But the builders of eastern and central France showed greater independence, and to the patient monks of Cluny, Clermont, and Toulouse we owe the Fig. 116. — Norman groined roof. final solution of the problem and the success of the style. The first effort was naturally made with a cir- cular tunnel vault, or barrel vault, as it is sometimes called, but when this was placed over a nave its nat- ural tendency was to push outward the walls on which it rested. To place buttresses at isolated points on the outside (Fig. 115) was obviously of no avail ; to place innumerable buttresses side by side, or, in other Plate XXXIII. — Romanesque construction ; longitudinal section. From Tuckerman. 296 THE ROMANESQUE STYLE. words, to thicken the walls to an enormous extent, would be at best a clumsy expedient, occupying much valuable ground and converting the windows into small ill-lighted tunnels. Finally, after many fruitless attempts, the solution of the problem was dis- covered at the Clunisian monastery of Vezelay, in Burgundy, the result being a groined roof or vault (Fig. 1 16), in which " two diagonal ribs or cross spring- ers were framed in between semicircular arch ribs, thereby transferring the whole weight to the four points at the angles where stood the piers." The strain on these piers being very great, it was deemed advisable to strengthen them by external buttresses, which were connected with the nave piers by means of arches called flying buttresses, while a weight in the form of a pinnacle was placed over each buttress to counteract the pressure (Plates XXXIII and XXXIV). The practical common sense of this arrangement was so evident that it soon became very popular, and the wealth of the monasteries increased its ad- vertisement. Thus Cluny alone possessed two thou- sand abbeys, scattered over all Europe, and Cler- mont, Toulouse, and other schools had their foreign evangelical centres as well. Therefore throughout Normandy, England, Germany, Italy, Spain, Flan- ders, and even in Scandinavia, the vault and flying buttress became the basis of building, the bones or framework of every structure which would admit of their use. Every Romanesque, church was "oriented " — i. e., had its apse pointing toward the east, which was treated more elaborately than in the Latin or early Plate XXXIV. — Romanesque construction ; transverse section, showing flying buttress. From Tuckerman. 298 THE ROMANESQUE STYLE. Christian period, being often surrounded by radiating chapels, as in Notre Dame du Port, at Clermont (Fig. 1 1 7). But as the principal entrance was on the western side, this fagade became the most elaborate, as may be seen in the Church of Notre Dame at Poitiers (Plate XXXV). The fagade was usually surmounted by a triangu- lar gable, and often flanked by sturdy towers. Blind arcades and bands of interlacing arches called " arcatures" bas-reliefs of reli- gious subjects, and symbolical carvings incrusted the wall spaces, while deep round-headed win- dows and doors broke the gray complexity with misty purple inter- ruptions. A large circular window or ceil-de-bceuf ir&- quently held a prominent position, and this afterward developed into the beautiful rose windows so popular during the Gothic period. In Italy and many parts of France the porch be- came a tribunal, where the abbot or bishop sat as judge on certain questions of crime or dispute, espe- cially when plaintiff and defendant were unwilling to carry the case before a feudal lord, where such mat- ters were settled by force of arms. In these porches the columns and their archivolts were often sup- ported on either side by couchant lions, as in St. Zeno, at Verona, and St. Trophyme, at Aries (Fig. 118), from which arose the expression of " inter leones " Fig. 117. — Apse of Notre Dame du Port at Clermont. From Chapuy. Plate XXXV.— Fa9ade of Notre-Dame-la-Grande at Poitiers. 300 THE ROMANESQUE, STYLE. (between the lions), found in nearly all legal docu- ments of the Middle Ages. The mouldings surmounting the doorways played a pleasing ornamental part, being generally decorated ROMANESQUE DOORWAYS. 30 1 with bands of zigzagged and twisted adornment, flow- ers, grimacing heads, billets, and stars, doubtless due to Byzantine influence. Each band rested on a colon- nette, and the tympana were masked by bold bas- reliefs of well-distributed sculpture. These fair portals, full of delicate and delightful distinction, have been charmingly described by Mr. Van Brunt in the following verses : !' The narrowing arch is deep and wide ; Niched in its jambs on either side. Shaft beyond shaft in ordered state Stand on their solid stylobate, Their lofty capitals upholding Archivolt and fretted moulding ; Arch within arch, with lessening leap. From shaft to shaft concentric sweep. Echoing inward o'er and o'er. Inward to the vaulted door. Every arch by subtle hand Wrought with roll or bead or band. Wrought with fillet or with fret. Dentil, billet, or rosette. While between the sculptured rings Angel choirs spread their wings. And soaring as the arches soar With viol and with voice adore. For, the happy masons said. As the radial stones they laid. Truly wedged with every joint. Loyal to the central point. And by touch of chisel taught Utterance of human thought, Let the choral arches sing Joyfully a welcoming." A doorway of this kind may be seen in the abbey Church of St.-Gilles, in Languedoc (Fig. 119), immor- 302 THE ROMANESQUE STYLE. talized by Prosper Merini6e and frequently cited by Viollet-le-Duc. In towns subjected to Arabic influence, the alter- nate voussoirs of arches were of different coloured stones, while the piers and walls were banded. This treatment was very popular among the Italians, to Fig. 119. — Church of St.-Gilles, in Languedoc. whom also we owe the introduction of the blind ar- cades mentioned - above and well represented in the Cathedral at Pisa (Plate XXXVI). No cornice ever beetled above Romanesque build- ings, but a plain parapet, with often a row of blocks beneath, stretched its way along the top (Fig. 120). 3 P. llf Ph I. > X X X 304 THE ROMANESQUE STYLE. Sometimes these blocks supported small arches (Fig. 12 1). These features were called tablets or corbel tables. In early Christian times the basilicas had de- pended upon the columns plundered or copied from Fig. I20.— Corbel table, Iffley, Oxfordshire. old Roman temples to sustain the light brick masonry composing them ; but the heavy stone walls and vaults of Romanesque buildings required strdhger support, and hence were evolved the piers and short squat columns generally characteristic of the style (Plate XXXVIII, Fig. e). Of these, some were square, some octagonal, and some round, the shafts Fig. 121.— Corbel table, Iffley, Oxfordshire. being ornamented in England by fiutings or zigzags, as in the crypt of Canterbury, Waltham Abbey, and Lindisfarne ; but after a time the shape of the pier or column became subservient to that of the arches and ribs of the vault above, and square piers CAPITALS AND BASES. 305 with rectangular projections, pilasters, or engaged columns were used (Plate XXXVIII, Fig./). These were employed with such profusion that only a step was required to pass to the clustered columns of later Gothic cathedrals (Plate XXXVIII, Fig.^) and the petrified forestry of Rheims, Ameins, Chartres, or Westminster. Most abbey churches boasted crypts or under- ground chambers, heavily vaulted with massive ma- sonry to sustain the floor above, and employed, as a rule, for purposes of interment. Richard, Prior of Hexham, however, invariably speaks of Anglo-Saxon crypts as "chapels and oratories subterraneous," from which it is evident that in England they were used as sanctuaries. Canterbury cathedral contains the finest example, to which may be added the crypt of St.-Eu- trope, at Saintes, in France. It only remains to mention capitals and bases to complete the main characteristics of a Romanesque church, for windows were generally small reproduc- tions of the doors. Primarily, the capitals imitated those of the Ro- mans in a debased way, but later acquired a new inter- est by becoming constructively useful, for the inner moulding of the arch now sprang from the edge of the capital (Plate XXXVIII, Fig. e), instead of being on a line with the shaft, as in classic work, thereby converting it into a specie of corbel or bracket. During the twelfth century the capitals were carved with astonishing diversity and barbaric splen- dour, being garlanded with religious reliefs, symbolic and fantastic animals, geometrical patterns, flutings, chevrons, and vegetable forms of such curious dis- Fig. c. — ^Vault springing from entablature. Fig. ..- A'.?7"'.'^^ k.^b^^7 Fig. 133. — Rose window of the thirteenth century in the northern transept of Notre Dame, Paris. carried the arches, some of whose shafts shot sheer into the air, then burst into slender stalks supporting the pointed vault. A long arcaded gallery, with closely neighboured openings, filled the second story, each arch often con- Plate XLI. — Fajade and towers of Notre Dame, Paris. 334 THE GOTHIC STYLE. Fig. 134.— Cathedral of Chartres. tainiiig- three apertures in its parenthesis, from which arose the name of triformm. Above this gallery or V^-'» Plate XLII.— Interior of Cathedral of Amiens. 336 THE GOTHIC STYLE. triforium ran the clearstory, jewelled with stained glass such as the world has never since rivalled. The capitals no longer bore eccentric allegorical subjects. Each bloomed with conventionaliized foli- age, resembling the flora of no region under heaven, but nevertheless of great decorative value. Finally, the walls were diapered with a wealth of curious colour, comprising black and silver, gold and vivid scarlet, Prussian blue and purple-lake. The Second Period or " Rayonnant " {ijoo-J^oo). The principal effort of the fourteenth century was directed toward a greater degree of elegance and lightness, which effort, pusbed to its extremity in the nex£ period, became a de- fect. As the strains and stresses of the vaulting became more developed and better under- stood, the constructive por- tions were reduced to exactly the sizes needed for stabil- ity ; towers and spires shot higher into the air, and the sharp-pointed arches (char- acteristic of the lancet pe- riod) were modified to such comely proportions (Fig. 135) as to lead certain arch geologists into granting the Rayonnant first place. But, as a whole, what was gained in elegance was lost in power — splendour neutralized poetical expression, and one misses the depth and earnestness, the serious solemnity of Fig. 135. — Window of the Rayonnant period. Plate XLIII.— Church of St.-Pierre, at Caen. 23 338 THE GOTHIC STYLE. Amiens, Chartres, Notre Dame, and other cathedrals of the thirteenth centuj-y. Monuments of the second period are not very numerous, for the English wars and party strifes of the nobility had converted France into a theatre of bloodshed ill adapted to architectural production. Moreover, the power of the Church had come to be regarded with disquietude by the king and discon- tent by the people, and was no longer able to display itself in the construction of new buildings. Nevertheless, good specimens are to be found in the additions to buildings already begun by the pre- ceding century, r^ r\^ in the Church of C ) CO St.-Pierre,atCaen ^ , ., ^ , ., ^. , ., and in St.-Ouen, Trefoil. Quatrefoil. Cinquefou. _ , ', ^ at Rouen (Plate Fig. 136. VT nr\ XLIV), com- menced and almost completed within the century, and in whose chevet we behold the grandest expres- sion of climbing aspiration revealed in Gothic art. The main characteristics by which one distin- guishes the second period are as follows : Arches are less pointed, piers are more slender, windows are widened, and take the place of walls. Vertical lines become as narrow as possible, foliage is more realis- tic, mouldings are multiplied, and each set has its distinct shaft in the division of the pier. Above all, the heads of the doors and of the many mullioned windows are filled with tracery composed of trefoils, quatrefoils, cinquefoils, etc. (Figs. 135 and 136), of radial arrangement, from which the style obtains its Plate XLIV.— Church of St.-Ouen, at Rouen. 340 THE GOTHIC STYLE. name of " Le Rayotinant." Inside, additional ribs are added to the vaulting, not so much for strength as for ornament, and bosses of carven foliage hide the points of intersection. But, when everything is said, the Rayonnant is really a transitional style, connect- ing the first and third periods of mediaeval archi- tecture. The Third Period or Flamboyant. With the Flamboyant began the era of carving, and ended the period of architecture and constructive beauty. Elegance pushed to extremity became ex- travagance, and the rage for richness resulted in de- cadence. " Architecture had apparently said all that it had to say," and whatever impressions of pleasure we may derive from the taste of this period are sculp- tural, not architecturah But though this sculpture may excite a certain admiration by its fanciful form or delicate filigree finish, it can never replace the con- structive beauty and larger breadth of interpretation peculiar to the thir- teenth century. No more grand old giants of griz- zled masonry towered pallid and still against the sky ; all now was restless, Fig. 137.— Flam- nervous, excessive. Piers, buttresses, boyant window ^^j ^^^^^ features, intended to offer tracery. an aspect of resistant force, were smothered in mouldings and capricious carving ; meaningless mullions masked supporting walls, and window tracery assumed the flame-like form (Fig. 137) from which the style derives its name. EXUBERANCE OF ORNAMENT. 341 " A form which admits of no explanation or which is mere caprice can not be beautiful," says the master,* but the architects of the fifteenth cen- tury knew not this truth, and toward the end of the period all the bolder lines became fused in the heated imagination of these spend- thrifts in art, resulting in a meaningless mass, with- out character, without pur- pose, and with none of the exultant vigour of early days. Meanwhile, carved foli- age had been growing more and more realistic and less decorative in value, until after a time it was tortured into forms entirely inconsistent, with stone as a material. The leaves were crumpled, twisted, and undercut (Fig. 138), crockets often resem- bled cabbages, and capitals took on the shape of digage wreaths bound loosely around the attenuated piers. Occasionally the arch mouldings were carried di- rectly down the shafts, unbroken by any capital whatsoever, for the sake of greater apparent height ; but, as a rule, this arrangement was too simple for popularity. Fig. 138. — Flamboyant doorway. * Viollet-Leduc. 342 THE GOTHIC STYLE. Fig. 139. — Flamboyant gable. Pointed arches (the special insignia of Gothic art) lost all their innocent naiveti, and became more and more obtuse, elliptical, or flat, crowned high with concave gables surcharged with ornament (Figs. 138 and 139). Finally, vaulting be- gan to decline on account of the multiplication of ribs tasselled with long hanging keystones embroidered in fanciful forms. These pendent keystones, which tend to pull down rather than support, reached their ex- treme development in the fan vaulting of England, as shown in the chapel of Henry VII at Westminster (Fig. 140), but though one may feel admiration for the daring and enrichment of this form of ceiling, one must also agree with M. Colomb, when he says : " Cette ad- miration est bien un peu m616e d'inquietude." Throughout the fifteenth century much attention was directed toward the fashioning and elaboration of rood-screens and choir inclosures, and these, being essentially sculpture, achieved genuine success. The most beautiful examples are at Brou and in La Madeleine, at Troyes (Fig. 141). But what is ap- propriate for furniture is not necessarily architectural, and the exterior of the cathedral at Troyes (Fig. 142), which is a pure example of Flamboyant, suggests the cabinetmaker more than the architect. Not but what the constructive features are all correct beneath their mask of elaboration, but the effort to lighten the general effect by over-relinement FLAMBOYANT EXCESSES. 343 of detail has resulted in an awkward heaviness of the masses. In this church we have a typical exam- ple of the period, with all the superficial excesses and irresponsibility of composition. Finally, in a word, the Flamboyant was a style destitute of self-control ; composed of cusped arches. KV. Fig. 140. — Chapel of Henry VII at Westminister. canopied niches, diapered walls, traceried apertures, pinnacles, and embroidered buttresses ; of sky lines fretted with finials, of gables crested with crockets, of strange animals chasing one another through tangled leafage, and of mouldings enriched with 344 THE GOTHIC STYLE. beads, billets, chevrons, and ropes. All is anarchy and all confusion. ENGLAND. In the year 1174 Guillaume de Sens introduced Gothic architecture into England by winning the Fig. 141. — Rood-screen in the Church of La Madeleine at Troyes. ENGLISH GOTHIC. 345 competition for rebuilding Canterbury Cathedral after the fire. Fig. 142. — ra9ade of Cathedral at Troyes. Previous to this introduction isolated examples of pointed arches or other Gothic details had ap- peared in connection with Norman buildings, as in THE EARLY ENGLISH. 347 Iffley Church, Oxfordshire (Plate XLV) (i i6o), Laner- cost Priory (1169), and other churches and abbeys of later date. But these initiatory outbreaks effected little change, and Canterbury led the actual van of Gothic insurrection. English Gothic, like that of France, is divided into three periods, called : Early English or Lancet (i 175- 1300) ; Decorated (\iQO-i->,T^) ; and Perpendicular (1375- 1537)- These divisions are merely approximate, as a transitional period always intervened, but they are sufficiently accurate to identify differences and clas- sify successive styles. Throughout England the cathedral plans were somewhat more varied than those of France, as is shown in the accompanjing illustration from Rick- man (Plate XLVI) ; but this may have been due to a more intimate association of monks, abbots, and priors with the episcopal clergy and the lack of rivalry and suspicion which existed between these two bodies in France. Early English. Early English shares the distinction with early French of having greater masculinity, force, and sim- plicity than shows in the succeeding styles. Its rich- ness arises from the number of parts rather than from details, and but for this artistic distribution it might appear plain after the forests of flying but- tresses on the Continent. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries many members of licensed guilds or Freemasons found their way into England. As their power grew, ab- bots, prelates, and bishops were ranked among their a, a. Towers at west end. by b. Porches. c. The nave. dy d. Side aisles of the nave. e. The cloisters. f. Library. g. North transept. h. South transept. t, 2. Side aisles of south transept. ky ky k. Chapels. /. Chapter house with passage from the cloisters. m. Central tower, cross or lantern, n. Screen^ over which the organ is usually placed. o. Choir, at the east end of which the altar is usually placed. /, /. Side aisles of the choir. g. Lady chapel. Plate XLVI.— Plan of an English Cathedral. From Rickman. MASONIC INFLUENCE. 349 number, and it was they who determined the style of a church, and not the people who paid for it. Their meetings were usually held in private, to guard ajgainst outside interference, and gradually assumed that air of secrecy associated with such orders.* (T ¥ iii 1 ■ i 11 J i f^ " i, \ '1 f= — — == — mm ■ ' ■ — = Jll ' ^^ ==■ Fig. 143. — Early English piers. The practical result of these artistic conclaves was unity of action, and this accounts for the extraordi- nary uniformity in the value of early English work- manship. Uniformity may also be said to characterize the salient features of the style. Arches are pointed and generally lancet-shaped ; piers are often composed of a central shaft surrounded by smaller ones, almost or * During the reign of Henry VI the township of Suffolk entered into contract with the Freemasons for a church, in which it was agreed that a lodge should be erected at the expense of the parish for the pur- pose of Masonic meetings. 350 THE GOTHIC STYLE. entirely detached (Fig. 143) ; capitals are carved with horizontal lines or conventional foliage of dispirited character (Figs. 143 and 144) ; and all mouldings are bold, round, and deeply cut, or pear-profiled tipped with a fillet (Fig. 145). The rugged mouldings of Norman days were hewn into shape with ^m axe ; but the English artists chiselled theirs till they fell into folds of drapery. Windows rose taller than in France (Fig. 146), and by their long vertical lines corrected the lack of height in the main and resilient masses ; for no attempt at grandeur was made through lofty adjustment, though roofs were open and high Fig. 144. — Early English cap. Fig, 145. — Early English mouldings. when the spaces were spanned without vaulting. Toward the end of the period all windows expanded to let in the breeze and brightness, with less acute arches, and webbed with millions and delicate tracery. SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. 351 All other features, however, followed the fashion of France, informed with the fanciful beauty of Rheims or pictorial Chartres. Salisbury stands as the archetype of the early English style, the only British cathedral begun, con- tinued, and ended in one and the same period — a thing full of rhythmic lines and deep-toned shade, and once glorious with stained glass, fresco, green-bordered tap- estries, and mediaeval metal work. It was erected * during the great building reign of Henry III, in which one hundred and fifty- seven abbeys and priories, includ- ing Westminster, had their begin- nings. The principal feature to be noticed outside of style character- istics is the bold breaking out of double transepts interrupting the length, whose dark-green shadows streaked with golden sunlight form colour antitheses rarely found in the feeble light of the north. Portions of the cathedrals of Lincoln, York, Wells, Rochester, Durham, and Ely are in the early English style, as are also the minsters of Beverley and Ripon, but none emulate the unmixed ele- gance of Salisbury, a purity that has led the critics to hail this Gothic temple as the Parthenon of Eng- lish art. Fig. 146. Salisbury, 1220-1258. 352 THE GOTHIC STYLE. Fig. 147. — Base decorated pier. The Decorated Style. The decorated period has been so predicated from the great increase of ornamentation, which began under the second Edward and continued through the reign of the third. In it the proportions were less lofty than in the previous period, though often corrected to the eye by continuing the arch mouldings down the piers, and while doorways were circumflexed with rich pediments and canopied with gables the mouldings were simpler than before. Thus England's second period was free from the motiveless unconcern .of French Flamboyant design, being merely a frank effort after elegance without the errors of excess. Piers were dia- mond-shaped, with shafts attached or en- gaged{¥\.g.\\^)\ cap- itals were composed of oak, vine, and ivy leaves, realistic or conventional (Fig. 148) ; vaulting mul- tiplied its ribs and elaborate pendent bosses ; and the cen- Fig. 148.— Decorated capitals. Plate XLVII. — West front of York Minster. Decorated English gothic. 24 354 THE GOTHIC STYLE. tral tower, characteristic of English work, continued to form a pyramidal climax. York Minster (Plate XLVII) is the pride and boast of the style, and bears much the same relation to Decorated work as Salisbury to Early English. It contains all the characteristics enumerated above, as well as large mullioned windows filled with stained glass, like clustered enamels or polished gems, and beautiful specimens of plate tracery or piercings through fiat stones. This latter feature, being first introduced at Westminster Abbey, rapidly became the principal distinguishing mark of the style, and from circles and segments of circles developed into complex labyrinths of form, like loops of lace from the in- dustrious looms of Bruges and Valenciennes. Lichfield, Exeter, Wells, Norwich, and Ely cathe- drals all bear witness to the beauty of this tracery, a beauty which carried the decorated style into the van of English successes. The Perpendicular Style. The most salient feature of perpendicular archi- tecture was panelling : panelled doors, panelled walls, panelled perforated parapets — indeed, everything was panelled (Plate XLVII I), both inside and out, and fre- quently the whole front of a house was little more than a panelled screen, as in the George Inn, at Glastonbury (see Fig. 149). Arches assumed all the various degrees of poign- ancy, but the Tudor or four-centred arch was the most characteristic kind (see Fig. 149, doorway). Next to panelling fan vaulting (see Fig. 140) was Plate XLVIII. — Chancel showing panelling in the perpendicular style. Designed by the author. 356 THE GOTHIC STYLE. the most important peculiarity. It was an English invention. In it the ribs are spread out fanlike Fig. 149. — George Inn, Glastonbury. from the sheaf of mouldings in the pier, tracing a perfect semicircle on the ceiling. Each semicircle above the four piers is tangent to a central circle, Plate XLIX. — King's College Chapel, Cambridge. 358 THE GOTHIC STYLE. from which hangs a pendent keystone adorned with sculpture ; and all interstices are filled up with the inevitable panel. The finest examples of fan vaulting are to be seen in the chapels of St. George, at Windsor, King's Col- FiG. 150.— Roof at Truhch Hall, Norfolk. lege, at Cambridge (Plate XLIX), and Henry VII, Westminster (Fig. 140). PERPENDICULAR PECULIARITIES. 359 The chapel of Henry VII was begun in 1502 and completed in fourteen years. During the religious changes it suffered much damage and desecration, and under the Common- wealth the " Commissioners for gathering Ecclesiastical Goods" carried away most of the plate and furniture contained therein. Later the chapel became the prop- erty of the Dean and Chap- ter of Westminster, who have since expended much revenue keeping it in re- pair. All the mouldings of the perpendicular style are coarse, whether used for capitals or for fluting piers (in which latter case they are continued from the oases through the arches), and the same lack of refinement often cheapens the foli- age. But open timber roofs reached the highest pitch of perfection, and, richly carved with tracery, angels, and armorial bearin/is, show a scale and felic- ity of workmanship beyond rival in Europe. The roof of Westminster Hall, designed by Mas- ter Henry Zeneley, and Trunch Hall, Norfolk (Fig. 150), are justly held the masterpieces. Other perpendicular peculiarities are diamond- sectioned piers (Fig. 151), flattened roofs, project- ing porches, embattled parapets, and transoms or cross-bars to stiffen the panelled tracery of the windows, to which may be added a square label Fig. 151. — Base of perpen- dicular pier. Plate L.— Cathedral at Sienna. COyCLUSION. 361 or moulding over every door unless the latter be canopied. Beverley Minster, Melrose Abbey, Winchester Cathedral, and Beau ^ champ Chapel are the conventional quotations for the style. Each has a certain charm of line, though frequently little more than a capricious form ot cabinet work. But when every- thing is said, perpen- dicular architecture sur- passed in many ways the restless, overbur- dened Flamboyant, though it never ap- proached tliat abstract disembodied beauty which one ever associ- ates with the early fres- coed fanes of France. CONCLUSION. A study of ecclesias- tical Gothic in France and England practical- ly covers the whole sub- ject, for though Ger- many and Spain raised up 'Worthy rivals in the cathedrals of Cologne, Fig. 152 —Portion of the Cathedral at Florence. 362 THE GOTHIC STYLE. Burgos, or Toledo, all these and others were but local adaptations of French and English principles. Italy's adaptation was perhaps the most original, but by far the least Gothic. Throughout, it was informed with classic feeling arranged in Gothic form and adorned with inlay of precious marbles and Oriental colour — facts clearly exemplified in the cathedrals of Orvieto, Sienna, and Florence (Plate L and Fig. 1 52). The only exception to the rule is the Duomo, of Milan, on which German architects were primarily employed ; but when a long time later Pellegrini took command a changed fagade was added in the newborn classic style. CHAPTER XIII: THE GOTHIC STYLE- SECULAR. Shortly after the death of Charlemagne poor ex- amples of military architecture greatly increased and every height bristled with some species of fortifica- tion, generally tenanted by robber lords or barons, who fought, quarrelled, or pertinaciously plundered the territories of one another. These depredations were so continuous that in 864 Charles the Bald ordered the demolition of most of these strongholds throughout his domain, and so unconsciously paved the way toward a newer and nobler style of feudal architecture. For as these fortresses began, one by one, to be rebuilt their aspect improved; so much so, indeed, that those lords who had evaded the edict were com- pelled, through pride or shame, to make complete -remodelments. Before the decree a feudal castle was composed merely of a palisaded inclosure, with a fosse or ditch, a few interior dwellings, and a high donjon tower, generally of wood. After the decree everything was of stone ; and, as the abbots and bishops had planned and directed the construction of monasteries and cathedrals, so it 364 THE GOTHIC STYLE. pleased the warrior kings and great baronial lords themselves to enhance and perfect their abodes. Thus Richard Coeur de Lion personally directed the building of the Chateau-Gailkird, the Vty to Normandy ; William the Conqueror superintended a great portion of the work on Windsor Castle; and Enguerrand III de Coucy was architect of the cel- ebrated chateau (Fig. 153) bearing his name, whose, mighty strength probably inspired the arrogant de- vice : Roi ne suis, ni Prince aussi ; Je suis le sire de Coucy. All mediceval castles followed the same general principles. The favourite site was a scarped height over- hanging a river or chasm. To gain this an armed host had first to pass ; -.- ; the barbican or outer work, composed of a bridge fortified with towers (Fig. 154) or merely palisades; next the drawbridge over the moat; then another pali- sade ; and finally the first embattled wall of the castle, often many yards in thickness. The castle itself was composed of two walled inclosures called the inner and outer bailey, ezch filled with dwellings, while from the centre rose the high donjon tower, some two hun- dred feet in air. P"IG. 153.— Chateau de Coucy. KEEPS, SECRET PASSAGES, ETC. 365 In England the donjon was usually square, and called a keep, good examples of which may still be seen in Rochester Castle and the White Tower of the Tower of London ; but later the square shape was generally abandoned. Much ingenuity was expended on secret passages and closets in the thickness of the walls, concealed Fig. 154. — The barbican. doorways, dungeons, and subterranean exits, the knowledge of which was more than jealously guard- ed. Indeed, on one occasion, Alberade, Countess of Bayeux, ordered the architect Lanfroi to be put to death lest he might divulge the constructive secrets created by him in her chateau at Ivry. Beneath the tower often stretched dungeon after dungeon, into the very bowels of the earth. Some were square and set side by side, others beehive shaped and placed one below the other, and these soon acquired the appropriate name of oubliettes. Into these a prisoner was lowered through a hole 366 THE GOTHIC STYLE. at the top ; and through the same orifice his jailer dropped his food, when such a thing- was deemed necessary. The oubliettes of Pierrefonds still stand to illus- trate the pressing hospitality of mediaeval barons ; and those of Losches, where Sforza's sable locks turned white in a night, still continue to delight the hearts of morbid tourists in Touraine. Castles erected at the close of the thirteenth cen- tury show progress in comfort and convenience ; and in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries assume more and more the shape of modern dwelling houses, es- pecially in England — a thing best exemplified in Penshurst, the home of the Sidneys, and Haddon Hall, each one of which contains a grand baronial hall, finely panelled, with its raised dais, minstrels' gallery, giant fireplace, and mullioned windows. Manor houses or castellated mansions of this de- scription comprehended state apartments, kitchens, butteries, lodgings for retainers, and (throughout England) exquisite open-timber roofs of the perpen- dicular period, carved with tracery and angels hugging escutcheons to their breasts. A large apartment lighted by bay or oriel win- dows, adorned with rare tapestries and cushions embroidered by (presumably) fair chatelaines, was used to receive the guests, and distinguished as the presence or privy chamber ; while a similar- room, exclusively for ladies, was called " my lady's bower " or boudoir. But while the English surpassed all nations in their country homes, the Italians and French ex- celled in civil architecture. ITALIAN FEUDAL ARCHITECTURE. 367 In Italy the party struggles of the nobles were so fierce and desperate even in one and the same city that palaces and dwellings of lords or people of im- portance assumed the air of small fortress- es ; and even the gov- ernment buildings with certain adjacent streets could be con- verted into strong- holds at a moment's notice and garrisoned for a siege. (See neighbourhood of the Piazza del Campo at Sienna — Fig. 155). Each palace rose grim, sombre, and threatening, crowned with crenellated para- pets and guarded by a truculent tower, which, like a giant sentinel, lifted its head high into the 'purple air, as in the case of the Palazzo Vecchio, at Florence. But though sever- ity was the dominant characteristic, the proportions were exquisite. In most cases the pointed windows were muUioned and the walls were inlayed with rare Carrara marble. Fig. 155. — Neighbourhood of the Piazza del Campo at Sienna. Plate LI. — Palaces on the Grand Canal, Venice. VENETIAN ARCHITECTURE. 369 At the approach of the Renaissance the interior courts expanded into smiling parterre gardens, foun- tain filled and joyous, like spaces of sunlight in the cold, and sober arcades forgot to frown when bend- ing above the frescoes of the cinquccento. Venice created a fairy Gothic style, well adapted to the flat elevations of her water palaces. Many of these congruous buildings rose opposite to St. Mark's, with its crusts of marble and gold and chance interchanges of light and shade, and echoed in a measure its half-barbaric splendour. The finest examples are the palace of the Doge and the palaces of the Grand Canal, which after a glance at the accompanying illustration (Plate LI) scarcely require further explanation. In France, civil architecture was less fantastic but none the less elegant. During the Romanesque period the secular build- ings of the better class were little more than diminu- tive editions of monastic architecture. Those of the bourgeoisie were generally composed of stone in the lower stories and wood in the upper part; but as the power of the laity increased, all gradually assumed a more distinctive character, with certain differences contingent on location. In the south, stone construction continued to hold sway, while in the north wood was the more popular, for in Champagne, Burgundy, and the royal domain, forests abounded, and forests no longer protected by feudal law. Peaceful southern cities occupied larger surfaces, and did not need to increase the number of floors in their houses, but the warlike villages of the north 25 Plate Lll. — Half-timbered houses of Lisieux. OVERHANGING STORIES. 371 were hemmed in by fortified walls, which compelled a multiplication of stories as the population increased. To gain further space, each story overhung the one below, narrowing the street more and more and shutting off the light; but this was somewhat allevi- ated by increasing enormously the size and number of the windows, which, picturesquely filled with Fig. 156. — House of Jacques Coeur at Bourges. leaded glass, lent the fagades that singular charm pe- culiar to the Middle Ages. Often the exterior woodwork was chamfered, and chiselled into graceful bas-relief; but this treatment was mostly confined to the fifteenth century, or period just preceding the Renaissance. a HOUSE OF JACQUES CCEUR, ETC. 373 In England we find much the same style of dwell- ing, and the half-timbered houses of Shrewsbury and Chester resemble those of Lisieux (Plate LII), while in Germany this form of building became almost a craze. The houses of rich burgesses hold an important position in French civil architecture, and frequently outstrip the seigneurial abodes of city noblemen. Such a one may be seen at Bourges, in the house of Jacques Coeur (Fig. 156), the silversmith of Charles VII. Few royal palaces of the time surpass this beautiful building, and those which do, excel it only in extent. Influential citizens like Jacques Coeur soon dis- covered their need of a town hall, a need apparently universal, for soon hdtels de ville, or town halls, sprang up all over Europe, especially in Flanders and north- ern France. Ghent, Bruges, Brussels, Oudenarde, Louvain, and Ypres (Plate LII I) all contain fine exam- ples, splendid in extent, splendid in execution, each crowned by a giant belfry tower, a sort of municipal donjon, dominating the whole. The finest of these is at Ypres (Plate LI 1 1), whose' foundation stone was laid by Count Baldwin, who three years later was hailed Emperor of Constanti- nople. Other beautiful buildings in the secular Gothic style still extant are : Westminster Hall, the H&tel Cluny at Paris, the Chateau de Langeais, the HStel Bourtheroulde, and the Palais de Justice at Rouen (Plate LIV). The last building is one of the most interesting and anomalous. It was designed in the very worst 3 O I > TUDOR ARCHITECTURE. 375 period of Gothic art, when a dangerous perfection of craftsmanship had tempted the most conservative into exuberance and over-elaboration ; yet even a purist can scarce w^eary of its gorgeous versatility. &^z te\'" fc"*'^, ^ Fig. 157.— Carved Roof of Wolsey's Hall, Hampton Court. For though one portion is somewhat crowded with conventional carving, it is merely a concession to the fashion of the day, and, while so doing, the archi- tect has chastened the whole to the very last de- 376 THE GOTHIC STYLE. gree of refinement — chiselling and engraving with the delicacy of filigree, and subduing all to the proper degree of relationship between ornament and mass. No treatise on secular Gothic is complete without referring to the Tudor architecture of England, a domestic style which sprung up under Henry VII and Henry VIII, and composed of "perpendicular" forms applied to the castellated class of buildings de- scribed in the early part of this chapter. In it were certain innovations, however, such as battlemented transoms, multiplied windows, Tudor lowers, Jleur-de-lis, and over-elaborated roofs, most of which were wrought into the palaces of Sheen (Rich- mond), Beaulieu (Essex), Hampton Court (Fig. 157), and Nonsuch House, while occasionally there ap- peared isolated classic elements, which caught the attention, and paved the way to the English renais- sance. With this style all distinctions between castellated mansions and domestic architecture cease to exist ; mediaeval architecture ends and modern architecture begins. But though it merely marks a transition between two kinds of civilization, still it contains a certain charm. CHAPTER XIV: THE RENAISSANCE. ITALY, The term Renaissance means more to the archi- tect than a rebirth of the classics. It denotes the gradual abandonment of picturesque irregularity for symmetrical elegance ; the subordination of Gothic precedent to classic precept; and a preference for monumental splendour to constructive tours de force ; in a word, the genesis of modern art and its creative principle. In the year 1403 Filippo Brunelleschi, fired by the works of Vitruvius, made his first pilgrimage to Rome, there to study classic antiquities and hammer away at an idea which eventually shook the world, earning for himself as much as any other single in- dividual the title of father of Renaissance architec- ture. But no one man ever invented a style. Though Brunelleschi pointed the way, he was not a creator ; other causes, other influences much more powerful, were at work — the same causes and influences which gave European civilization its chief impetus. These were the general collapse of the feudal sys- tem after the retirement of Charles V, whereby men thought more for themselves, fought less for their 877 378 THE RENAISSANCE. lord, and discovered for the first time that they pos- sessed an individuality ; the progress of physical sci- ence, with Galileo pointing the way and Guttenberg's printing press to record it ; the decline of ecclesias- tical power and the Reformation, which taught men the right of private judgment ; while the fall of Con- stantinople, with its scattering of scholars, aroused new interest in Greek and Latin literature and in- stilled a love and reverence for all things classic. And so as we examine .the campanile of Giotto, the sculptures of the Pisani, the Palazzo Vecchio of Arnolfo, and Orcagna's famous work, we see that the Renaissance did not leap into existence like Pallas Athene, full grown and mentally equipped, but rather struggled through adolescence, having its roots far back in the fourteenth century, but unable to impress its individuality as a style until about 1430, when it compelled recognition under the name of " The Cinque Cento or First Period" {14.^0-1^1^). During this era Florence was the stage on which, for the most part, the art drama of the Renaissance was played. True, there were schools at Rome, Milan, Naples, and Genoa; and the Visconti of Venice, the d'Estes of Ferrara, the Malatestas of Rimini, and the Benti- voglios of Verona all protected art. But from 1430 to 15 1 5 the Tuscan capital displayed an independence of thought and taste which easily placed her in the lead. Hitherto architecture had been mainly military or religious, its decoration dictated by sentiment or piety, mere artistic effect being looked upon as CIVIL BUILDINGS. 379 pagan ; now a reaction set in, and love of beauty for its own sake characterized the time. Stimulated by such works as the cathedrals of Sienna and Orvieto or Giotto's masterpieces, great innovations began to appear. Civil buildings, though still severe and externally rusticated, no longer car- ried embattled parapets, but cornices, as in the Ri- cardi and Strozzi palaces of Michelozzo. The prin- ciple of centralization or central climax was car- ried into effect in the Pazzi Chapel, followed by the simultaneous appearance in many directions of semi- circular and segmental pediments and bands of green- marble inlay ; while frescoed arcades, pilasters pan- elled with arabesques, and simplicity and elegance in the carving of doors soon became characteristic features of cinque cento times. In regard to carving, the doorways of the Baptistery (Dante's ^'mio bel San Giovanni"), by Ghiberti and Andrea Pisano, still stand as one of the world's chiefest treasures of human skill, and one might add of human patience, when it is considered that each required about twen- ty-two years for completion. The year 1460 introduced the most important in- novation — namely, the employment of classic orders for the exterior decoration of each story and as a framework for the windows, first shown in the Ru- cellai palace — a thing which gave lightness and ele- gance to buildings still somewhat fortresslike in character on account of the strifes of Guelph and Ghibelline. From this treatment a problem arose : Should the main cornice be left proportional to the upper order, it would appear too small ; on the other hand, if made 38o THE RENAISSANCE. proportional to the whole height of the building, it would seem too large for the sustaining order. At this juncture Leon Battista Alberti promptly came to the front and ultimately decided the matter in the above palace by making the main cornice larger and the intermediate cornices smaller than would be proportional to their respective orders, thereby effecting an integral harmony. In cinque cento times an innovation had but to be born to germinate spontaneously into custom. One sees accordingly without surprise the above charac- teristics appearing almost contemporaneously in the Strozzi palace and other Florentine buildings. Where- fore, notwithstanding Michael Angelo's " Chi va dietro ad alcuno non puo mai passari inanzi" * the breadth of mind which allowed rival architects to be willing to learn from one another redeemed many, like Majano, Cronaca, D'Agnolo, and Filareti, from the position of lesser lights. In ecclesiastical work of the time appears a fea- ture which should not be overlooked. For, aside from San Lorenzo and San Spirito (the purest fif- teenth-century churches), arose the custom of giving Renaissance flavour to old Gothic houses of worship by applying classic forms to their exteriors. Thus in Santa Maria Novella and San Francesco at Rimini the entire fagades were overlaid by Alberti with classic orders, a complete triumphal arch being ap- plied in the latter case. The Certosa, near Pavia, also bears a remarkable early Renaissance illustra- tion on its front, while in the Cathedral of Florence * " He who follows a man can never be before him." FLORENTINE INTERIOR DECORA TI '•yS. 381 the same idea culminates in the great dome (Fig. 158), the competition for which has been handed down through Vasari's racy account, adding another laurel to Brunelleschi, whose bones rest beneath this monu- ment of his genius. In the matter of interior decoration and the aux- iliary arts, no century, save the sixteenth, ever pos- FlG. 158. — Brunelleschi's dome, Florence Cathedral. sessed such rare opportunities. For what with sculptors and workers in metal and faience, like Donatello, Setignano, and Mino da Fiesole (the Raphael of marble), and fresco painters like Massac- cio, Fra Angelico, v. hiiiandajo, and Si";norelii, the mind grows confused with any attempt to cat .logue the wealth of ornamental decoration in any succinct formula. A few general features, however, were delicate 382 THE RENAISSANCE. carvings in low relief accentuated with points of shade by Rovezzano's skilful hand ; coffered ceil- ings, having large panels filled with paintings by the great masters, mirrored by polished, curiously wrought intarsia floors, which rang to the tread of the Medici in all their palaces; while here and there throughout Tuscany and Lombardy, in church and palace, externally and internally, enamelled terra cotta (now green and yellow, now blue and white) called attention to the genius of the Delia Robbia family, who held the secret of the glaze. Indeed, every internal feature, from tapestries, agate and lapis-lazuli mosaics, ornamental bronze cressets, candelabra and pendent lamps, down to linen chests and the meanest of household utensils, served but as vents for artists to expend their inde- scribable imagination and passion for sumptuous carv- ing ; and it was partly owing to the fact that this wanton fancy was allowed to run riot, that it became gradually chastened into that spirit which led to the golden age of art known as the " Set Cento " or Second Period. During the sixteenth century the scene of devel- opment was confined principally to Rome, and the great hierarchs of art strode into the arena. One reason for the change of scene was the im- passioned study of classic remains so keenly awak- ened at the time ; but even this could not have held the geniuses of other cities at Rome were it not for the wealth of that city and the ambition of Pope Julius II to be chronicled as the greatest patron of art who had yet occupied the papal chair. THE SEI-CENTO. 383 For, whatever his faults, certain it is that Julius was the friend of the artist, and gave to genius that rare opportunity for carrying out its designs which an unstinted liberality alone can bestow. Meanwhile, unaffected by love for the borrowed Oriental forms which had swept over Byzantine Venice (shown in her church interior decorations " from looted Eastern harem floors "), there worked and studied at Rome Bramante, San Gallo, Peruzzi, Michael Angelo, and Raphael, " the evangelists of art," displaying that quiet refinement of taste and free use of the orders, tempered with common sense, which gave the keynote to the great harmonies of form which adorned the set-cento. These characteristics were especially noticeable in the work of Bramante, of whom Vasari says, " A more exalted genius could not well have been im, parted to any one," and a glance only is required at the Cancellaria, the Church of S. Pietro, in Montorio, and the courts of the Vatican to apprehend its truth. To Bramante, too, belongs the honour of having made the first design for St. Peter's, in the form of a Greek cross surmounted by a dome — a design which, so far as refinement of composition is concerned, was never surpassed by subsequent architects. Down to 1575 the prelates and princes of Rome had directed their attention to palaces rather than to churches. These were for the most part after one pattern — namely, square, inclosing a court sur- rounded by an arcade rich in design and decorated with the orders. The exteriors were simple, almost bare, yet escaped the fortress character of some of those at Florence, and were carefully divided into 384 THE RENAISSANCE. stories. The Farnese palace, designed by Antonio San Gallo, with the exception of its cornice, which was by Michael Angelo, shows these characteristics, and is one of the best examples extant, though the antiquarian shudders when he remembers that it is chiefly composed of stone plundered from the Colos- seum. The courtyards of Roman palaces were usually more artistically disposed than those of Florence, the main hall coming down in a solid manner to the ground, and the cor/?'/^ thus formed being lined with an arcade of one or two stories. To men who had served apprenticeships as jewellers, sculptors, and painters before undertaking the architectural art (as did most of the old masters) the loggias thus formed afforded abundant opportunity for the exercise of their skill, and Raphael has left us a charming example of what can be done with fresco in the loggia of the Vatican (Plate LV), which gave rise to the well-known ex- pression of advice, " Compose like a giant, but finish like a jeweller! " A thorough master of this truth was Baldassare Peruzzi (whose Palazzo Massimi and Villa Farnesina show attention to detail after the constructive neces- sities have been disposed of), ignorant of jealousy where art was concerned, as is shown in his associ- ating Raphael with himself in the adornment of the above villa, and not disdaining to follow the old Ro- man orders vvith a closeness that had not yet de- veloped into Palladian formalism. Quite the reverse of Peruzzi was Michael Angelo, the leviathan of Renaissance art, all of whose work shows colossal genius, though hasty execution, since Plate LV. — Loggia of the V^ticw. 26 2g6 ■ THE RENAISSANCE. more ideas thronged upon him than he could con- veniently express. Painting, sculpture, and architec- ture were all alike vents ior his varied imagination, it being a mooted point in the Sagrestia Nuova of San Lorenzo whether the sculptures were modelled Fig. 159. — St. Peter's Church, Rome. to adorn the building or the building erected to hold the sculptures. With him began the use of classic orders without regard to the division of stories, thereby relieving the monotony sequent upon the superimposed orders in very large buildings, while ecclesiastical ceilings received a new impetus from his labours upon the Sistine Chapel. ST. PETER'S CHURCH. 387 At Bramante's death the responsibiUty of building St. Peter's (Fig. 159) had devolved upon Giuliano San Gallo, Fra Giocondo, and Raphael, the last hav- ing vfon his architectural spurs in designs for the Pandolfini palace (Plate LVI) and the Villa Madama. On their accession to the post, this triumvirate had attempted to improve on Bramante's plan by changing its form from the Greek to the Latin cross. This error was corrected by Peruzzi, to w^hom the position of chief architect was next accorded, only to be followed by Antonio San Gallo, who returned to the erroneous Latin scheme. Michael Angelo displayed his usual sagacity and taste by. returning to Bramante's original plan, only strengthening the piers for supporting the dome and adding a porch, which was afterward abandoned. Unfortunately, he never lived to see his great dome finished, though Vignola and Giacomo della Porta completed it from a wooden model, thereby leaving to us the best example of its kind in exist- ence — better lighted than Brunelleschi's, its acknowl- edged model, and serving as a useful study to all subsequent builders. With Michael Angelo's death the Renaissance passed under the influence of Vignola and Palladio, who became to architecture what grammarians are" to rhetoric, and gave a definite shape to that tend- ency under the influence of which Michael Angelo had worked — namely, the use of classical motives based upon the principles of the ancients. All Vignola's work reveals this idea, and shows to what extent careful study influences art, his buildings being especially noteworthy for the proportioning of PALL AD 10. THE BAROCCO. 389 voids and solids, accentuation of cornices, and refine- ment of all detail, as in the villa of Pope Julius and the palace of Caprarola. Palladio, like Vignola, gained considerable repu- tation by a treatise on architecture, but still more by his famous arrangement known as the " Palladian motive." Most of his works are to be found at Vicenza, where he was born, though Venice claimed many years of his life, through which she became richer by San Giorgio Maggiore and many other buildings. Two other architects who aided the Renaissance were Scamozzi, who succeeded Palladio in popu- larity, and Sansovino, whose library is the master- piece of the Venetian Renaissance. But neither were capable of taking the entire leadership, and from the death of Michael Angelo architecture gradually de- clined, until in the seventeenth century all simple ele- gance was abandoned and Italian art plunged into the extravagant excesses and vulgarity of detail which characterized the Barocco or Jesuit Style. During the early part of the seventeenth century, inspired by the example of Michael Angelo, domical churches appeared in many directions, which added splendour to the Italian towns ; but toward the end the influence of Fontana, Maderno, Bernini, and Bor- romini, "father of modern abuses in architecture," made itself felt largely through the building activi- ties of the Jesuits and popes. Illogical construction, vulgar theatrical display of clouds, scrolls, lightning, rays of light, and canopies 390 THE RENAISSANCE. in brass and stucco came into vogue, a popular ex- ample being the baldacchino of St. Peter's, which, one hundred feet high, rests upon columns weakened by twists, its,canopy a heavy bronze mass unarchitectu- ral in design. Indeed, the most unfortunate result of this style was its effect upon St. Peter's, for at the death of Vignola and Jacopa della Porta, before the style had acquired headway, Pope Paul V appointed Carlo Maderno to the architectural succession, who, changing the plan to the Latin cross, added a fagade, which, save at a great distance, obliterates most of the dome ; while on the inside stucco ornamentation painted to imitate marble shows to what the Barocco architects would descend to gratify their love of dis- play. Gilt, a thing to be used lightly for elegance or lavishly for splendour, not moderately for monotony, was always so used by Maderno as to give a cheap look to his buildings. Bernini, who followed Maderno at St. Peter's, somewhat redeemed the style by his beautiful colon- nade about the Piazza, but the majority of his work is not so happy. In the Barberini palace Maderno and Bernini seized the opportunity to perpetuate the Barocco style on a grand scale ; but here one sees the same turbulent unrest which characterized the ornament of less pretentious buildings, while quantities of statues in convulsed attitudes added to the evidence of Renaissance decline. At Venice a like excess became prevalent, though the Pesaro palace has justly had admirers; but in the Zobenico and Gesuiti churches the " Queen of EARLY FRENCH RENAISSANCE. 391 the Adriatic " quite emulated the " Eternal City," until with her relapse in art the erstwhile hardy spirit of the Renaissance expired throughout Ital)^ FRANCE. The Renaissance under the Valois. The same reason which brought about the Renais- sance in Italy stimulated its evolution in France, to which may be added certain local influences. The campaigns of Charles VIII and Louis XII brought a large number of Frenchmen in daily con- tact with Italian art ; the classic backgrounds of Jean Fouguet and sculptures of Michel Colombe whispered the possibilities of the antique, and the more general use of gunpowder relieved the chateaux of their stern character, rendering an adoption of the lighter graceful forms of Italy a natural sequence. Burgundy and Touraine each had its school of art ; but with the death of Charles the Bold and the cen- tralization of monarchical power the school of Dijon consolidated with that of Tours. Free intercourse and interchange of thought created a broader treat- ment, monasticism gave place to aestheticism, love of allegory to love of beauty for its own sake, until at the beginning of the sixteenth century, the cramping tyranny of the guilds being thrown off, the court be- came the nucleus of good taste round which gathered all the genius and cultivation of a new civilization. Thus France under the Valois came into just the sort of receptive condition for great artistic changes, especially under Francis I, whose national love of art greatly contributed to hasten its expression. 392 THE RENAISSANCE. He imported architects, sculptors, workers in silver and ceramics, and indeed experts of every Fig. i6o. — Chateau de Chenonceau. kind, while such names as Primaticcio, Leonardo da Vinci, Benvenuto Cellini, Delia Robbia, and Serlio prove him to have been a discriminating patron. Collections of manuscripts, pictures, statuary, and precious stones became fashionable among the no- bility in imitation of the royal Maecenas, and aesthetic cultivation found quick response in the comprehensive study of architecture. A wave of passionate enthusiasm for the subject RENAISSANCE ENTHUSIASM. 393 swept over Maine, Normandy, Brittany, Picardy, and Isle-de-France, and rolled its way along the valley of the Loire ; the loopholes of fortresses ex- panded into windows to let in the light of the Renais- sance, and the chateaux of Chenonceau (Fig. i6o), Blois, and Azai-le-Rideau (Fig. i6i) rose like petri- fied poetry to give it joyous utterance. One exception marred consistency — namely, ec- clesiastical building, where conservatism held its '-^-"^^^^M.^^ r Fig. i6i. — Chateau of Azai-le-Rideau. own, and the Gothic remained the medium for the architectural translation of religious thought. 394 THE RENAISSANCE. Not but what certain Renaissance churches ex- isted, as St.-Michael's, at Dijon, and St.-Eustache, at Paris ; but these were really " Gothic churches with Renaissance applique" and it is with a sense of relief that one turns to the more congenial analysis of secu- lar buildings. In these the general scheme of decoration pre- sents about the same number of vertical lines as Fig. 162. — Chateau de Chambord. horizontal, great care being taken to preserve voids over voids and solids over solids. Carving accentu- ated the stories, and when massed about openings was thrown into relief by large smooth wall spaces.' Columns were rarer than in Italy, though circular and semi-elliptical arches were numerous. Lofty CHARACTERISTICS, ETC. 395 dormers and chimneys, panelled and sculptured, rose from the roofs as in Chambord (Fig. 162) and Blois, and rinceaux of graceful curve appear wherever ap- propriate. The auxiliary arts contributed largely to the beauty of the interiors, the orfivrerie of Cellini } the bronze candelabra, screens, helmets, and chests of the Delia Robbias ; the magnificently carved wain- scots ; tables and chairs of massive black oak deco- rated with metal — all were brought to great perfec- tion and thrown into relief by the tapestries of Tours, Fontainebleau, and Bifevre ; while beamed and coffered ceilings (painted or wrought with clas- sical mouldings) disputed the prestige of beauty with the rest of the room. Grace, harmony, flexibility, and lightness reigned everywhere, and all interior and exterior decoration was treated with a delicacy of detail and smallness of scale which lent charm and refinement to the whole composition. Among the most important examples begun, built, or remodelled before the time of Henry II were the chateaux of Gaillon Fontainebleau, Madrid, Bury, Chateaudun, Blois, Chambord, and the portion of the present Louvre designed by Pierre Lescot ; while the house of Francis I (Fig. 163), with its swift sure strokes of genius and delicate detail, has been held the gem of the time. When Henry II came to the throne he displayed the same reverence for his father's taste in art as in affairs of the heart. And as he continued to be swayed by the same woman who ruled the paternal affections, so too was he stimulated and moved by 2q6 the renaissance. the same architectural interests which had lent glory and refinement to his father's reign. Palaces begun under Francis I were completed under Henry II, and whatever was built new showed much the same feeling as those of the preceding reign. One of the most important features was the start- ing of an order at the base of one story and terminal- 2.. Ml ^'^t^l^.';!^ Fig. 163. — House of Francis I. ing it in the middle of the next, while tall mullioned windows deliberately cut their way through the cor- nice of the building. But perhaps the most distinc- tive feature of the time (aside from a greater attention to classical precedent) was the universal evidence of artistic refinement and taste not only in the palaces of the nobles, but in the dwellings of the bourgeoisie. Nor can we be surprised when we see the mighty artists gathered about the king to fashion taste, and read such names as Philibert de L'Orme, Pierre Les- RENAISSANCE^ OF HENRY II. 397 cot, Jean Cousin, Germain Pilon, Jean Bullant, and Jean Goujon, the Phidias of France, whose work upon the Fountain of the Innocents alone would have made him famous. Three great buildings detach themselves from this artistic background : the Louvre of Lescot (which, though begun under Francis I, belongs for the most part to the period of Henry II), the Chateau d'Ecouen, and the Chateau d'Anet. The most typ- ical of these is the Chateau d'Anet (i 548-1 554), built for Diane de Poitiers by her royal lover. It is more essentially French than any other build- ing of the time, as Diane, in her antagonism to Cath- erine de Medici, resolved that it should be as little Italian as possible. Hence it was confided to the skill of Philibert de L'Orme for the architectural fea- tures, Jean Goujon for the carving and bas-reliefs,. and Cousin de Sens for the stained glass, while Pilon and Palissy contributed their specialties, the only Ital- ian feature being the tympanum over the entrance, which is the work of Benvenuto Cellini. Thus its illustration becomes a fair catalogue of Henry II Renaissance peculiarities. The increased importance given to the orders ; the preference of statuary to mere carved and conventional decoration ; the long, narrow mullioned windows, often with two transoms or cross-bars ; the heavily panelled ceilings and doors adorned with heraldic and allegorical interlaces ; the grisaille glass (invented by Cousin and often known under the title of ''grisaille d'Anet"') ; and the floors, which, either marquetry or inlaid marble, reproduced the design of the ceiling in projection — all gave the mode to contemporaneous architects. While as re- 398 THE RENAISSANCE. gards auxiliary arts, like iridescent faience and Oiron ware (of which only forty pieces remain to the world, and those jealously guarded by royalty), the Chateau d'Anet preserved for some time a selfish monopoly. Under the later Valois a number of buildings arose wearing Henry II characteristics, including the Tuileries, portions of the Louvre, and the Cha- teaux de Joigny and de Sully. But the religious wars precluded much advance, and under Henry III a general lull ensued, which continued until the acces- sion of the Bourbons. The Renaissance under the Bourbons. Under Henry IV the Renaissance took on an official and formal appearance, which continued through the reign of Louis XIV. Under "/^ roi soleil" majesty was aimed at more than anything else (Fig. 164). Mansard introduced his famous roof and erected the greatest dome in France over the Invalides, the " colossal orders " (or use of columns more than one story high) reigned supreme, and everything was sacrificed to pomp. In- deed Le Pautre tells us that though Versailles cost two hundred million dollars, no one except the king was decently lodged as regards comfort. The exteriors were simple, but the interior deco- rations were very elegant, infinite care being taken in regard to the proportioning of detail to construc- tive features, while the ceilings, panelled with oval frames, as in the Pitti palace, at Florence, afforded men like Le Brun opportunity to make their names famous. BOURBON RENAISSANCE. 399 The most celebrated examples are the south col- onnade of the Louvre, the rooms of state at Vaux built by Fouquet, and the H6tels Mazarin and Lam- FlG. 164. — Versailles. bert, where the imaginations of Bernini and Dr. Per- rault were allowed to run riot. But when the wits of the day used to laugh at Perrault and remark that " architecture must be indeed sick when it has to be confided to the care of a doctor," they were not so far wrong. For with the strain after pomp and circumstance began a decline in taste, and notwithstanding the perfection of aux- 400 THE RENAISSANCE. iliary arts, like tapestry, faience, and Sivres (the last of which was invented at that time), art, especially architectural art, began a steady retrograde move- ment during a period which, intellectually, was one of the greatest that France has ever known, and thus we arrive at the period of "Louis Quinze," or The Rococo. This style was the French form of the Barocco (see page 389). It had little to do with the exterior of buildings, though occasionally it appears, as in the Cour de Fontaines, at the Sevres factory. It was introduced into secular architecture by the influence of the Jesuit priests from Italy, whose churches were adorned with a curious commingling of cher- ubs, clouds, scrolls, shellwork, and gold. Design became a matter of secondary considera- tion and all resource and energy was expended on execution. As in the days of Le Grand Monarque architecture had taken upon itself a majesty and dig- nity suitable to its great patron, so under Louis XV did it become a mirror of the artificialitj' and license of his court. Constructive lines were concealed beneath masses of rock work and frivolous carving ; keystones (about which poetical Orientals have woven proverbs) lost all dignity and importance by being overlaid with fretwork and eccentric ornamentation ; the favourite outlines were the scroll and oval, and with the excep- tion of using these more or less consistently through- out, the imagination of the decorator was allowed to run riot. And although it seems paradoxical to say that art must not be artificial, a glance at the paint- ROCOCO AND LOUIS XVI. 401 ings of Boucher and Watteau and at Dresden china shepherdesses will explain the apparent con- tradiction. Ceilings underwent a certain change at this time, being coved and the corners invariably cut off ; fur- niture was of white and gold, and the door panels were carefully painted by the great artists of the day. But notwithstanding certain redeeming features as regards tone effects in the delicate shades of colour, and the fact that the rooms in Mme. de Pompadour's houses of Bellevue and Babiole would certainly make attractive bonbonniires, the expression of " C'est du Rococo" with the meaning of " It is twaddle," passed from a slang phrase into an idiom of the language, and shows to some extent the value of this style in public opinion. In Louis XVI's day a reaction set in, often known as the Late Renaissance, and though its life was short, like that of the king, it went to its death in a much more dignified way than the Rococo. Dissimulation in regard to constructive lines ceased to exist, and they once more emerged from their concealment of carving. Colossal orders were used, and pilasters were generally fluted or panelled, while the delicate refinement of the sharply cut carv- ing threw an air of simple elegance over such build- ings as the Palais de Justice and the garden fagade of the Palais-Royal at Paris. But the days of the Renaissance were now num- bered, and shortly after occurred the great social upheaval. Men destroyed churches, palaces, and works of art instead of creating them, and when the people 27 402 THE RENAISSANCE. had recovered from the imbecility of iconoclasm and had disgorged their venom sufiSciently to turn again to the work of rendering the world more habitable, the classic revival had set in, and with the servile copying of imperfectly understood Greek models originality died. CHAPTER XV: THE RENAISSANCE.— Continued. ENGLAND. Elizabethan has been the term agreed upon to denote the English period of transition from Gothic to Renaissance architecture. True, classic details began to make their appearance long before the ac- cession of the " Virgin Queen," but the year 1558 of Elizabeth's accession has been found a convenient starting point on account of the meagreness of Re- naissance buildings prior to that time. Yet why this meagreness ? And why did England hesitate to adopt what her neighbour across the channel had welcomed with such prompt eagerness? The answer lies in the following facts : The Renaissance was essentially a Latin move- ment, primarily asserting itself in Italy and France, while the English, being a Teutonic race and con- servative, were less disposed to receive these Latin innovations with enthusiasm — still less at second hand from their natural enemies, the French. Again, the Gothic had acquired a hold upon Eng- land, as only a style can in a country which has inde- pendently developed forms peculiar to itself, like the Tudor arch, panelling, and fan vaulting, while the 403 404 THE RENAISSANCE. Reformation tended to ally England with Germany and the Low Countries rather than with France and Italy, where the Renaissance had its beginnings. Hence the importations of Dutch artists like Hol- bein and Have became frequent in the reigns of Henry VIII and Elizabeth, giving popularity to. those tall carved gables with balls and pinnacles so often miscalled Queen Anne, while the half-timbered houses of Ulm, Antwerp, and Bruges were copied rather than those of Rouen and Caen. In the days of Henry VIII many great mansions still retained a certain feudal appearance, but in Eliz- abeth's time the development of domestic architecture received a tremendous impetus ; a man's house be- came more his home than his castle, and symmetry began to make itself felt. But, in general, the Re- naissance feeling showed itself principally in details, as doorways (witness the gateway of Caius College, by Theodore Have and Longleat), while in the build- ing and enlargement of the old manor and baronial houses of Brereton, Knowle, Audley End, Hard- wicke, and Wollaton the architects clung, in the main, to the picturesqueness of the Gothic, and, when utilizing the orders, displayed a fine scorn and independence of classic proportion. But, notwithstanding that so little was understood of Italian architectural principles that in Burleigh House one sees Doric columns used for chimneys, there is a certain dignified grandeur, a combined strength and splendour about Elizabethan manor houses which inartistic things can not possess. Thus the varied outline of the old brick gabled buildings with fantastic cresting, picturesquely ELIZABETHAN CHARACTERISTICS. 405 massed above staircased terraces enriched with bal- ustrades and perforated parapet ; the mullioned win- dows, huge and transomed, flashing light from .dia- mond panes in deep embrasures set in massive walls ; while arcades, turrets, oriels, and bays blend all in rich confusion, rousing the artistic sense at every de- vious turn. Within was that indescribable something (found only among Anglo-Saxon races) which unites the ex- pression of home with stateliness. The grand old Tudor hall was still preserved with panelled lofty wainscot, whose carved richness now and again be- trayed the hand" of some old master, like the one at Hardwicke House (1592), designed by Rubens. Wide oaken staircases appeared, balustrades and newels fretted with carving ; giant fireplaces ; and ceilings of wood beamed and coffered, or plaster ribbed in elaborate design (recalling Moorish intri- cate interlacing), while cunningly wrought tapes- tries, blazonries, pictorial sculpture, nail heads, scroll work, and strapwork imported from Holland, all claim recognition with the harmonious insistence of motifs in Wagnerian song ; and it is therefore with a sense almost of disappointment that one passes to the earlier stages of The Jacobean Style. During the time preceding the influence of Inigo Jones architecture, even in buildings like Hatfield, Coombe Abbey, and Holland House, showed (with few exceptions) a distinct retrograde movement, clinging to the faults of the Elizabethan without its dignity and repose. Details became more florid 4o6 THE RENAISSANCE. and inappropriate, the orders more frequent; but they were used with less regard for classic feeling, being purely ornamental and of no constructive value. In Kirby House huge pilasters support an entablature proportioned for columns half the size, and at Bramshill the fashion was followed of making pilasters smaller at the bottom than at the top. Entablatures were almost invariably broken at the columns, and gables were outlined in curves, while wood carving lost much of the elegance and refine- ment which had made the sixteenth-centurj' interiors famous. The year 1621, however, caused a revolution in style, and fairly launched the Renaissance upon its course on Palladian principles. For in that year Inigo Jones completed the Banqueting House at Whitehall, begun in 1619 for James I, which seemed to do more as a Renaissance educator than any pre- vious building in Great Britain; while its simplicity and purity of style rendered it a valuable study to all subsequent architects. Had the original scheme been carried Out, White- hall (with its seven courts and fagades exceeding a thousand feet) would have eclipsed in size, and doubt- less in magnificence, any other palace of modern Europe ; and with Jones to design and James to pay, the idea would seem to have been feasible ; but the penurious monarch did not fulfil his side of the con- tract, so that the Banqueting House and the drawing in the British Museum are all that remain to tell us of what it might have been. Many other successful works were contributed by Inigo Jones to the English Renaissance, as THE WREN PERIOD. 407 Thanet House (afterward called Shafetsbury House) "the Villa" at Chiswick, and Lord Radnor's house at Coleshill, all of which aided the cause. The great Vandyke remarked concerning Jones's position among those of his own time that "in de- signing with his pen he was not equalled by any contemporary master for boldness of touch " ; and Walpole speaks of him as " the greatest in his pro- fession that has ever appeared in these kingdoms, and so great that in the Reign of Arts (Charles I) we scarcely know the name of another architect." The Wren Period. The civil wars and the Commonwealth put an abrupt stop to all art for a time, and after the death of Inigo Jones, in 1652, a lull succeeded in building, which remained unbroken until the time of Sir Christopher Wren, who after the Restoration prac- tically monopolized architecture in England for fifty years. His first executed work was the Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford, begun in 1662, whose beauty was celebrated at the time in a Pindaric ode, and doubt- less had a certain effect on Renaissance advance. But the fire of 1666 was a more important factor, since it rendered the major part of London a blank whereon might be etched whatever design the fancy of the hour might dictate. Recognising this, a plan for rebuilding the city was submitted by Wren, in which broad streets crossed one another rectangu- larly at equal intervals, sites were arranged con- veniently for churches, squares, and public buildings, and the principal streets made to terminate attrac- tively in porticoes ; but the greed of private owners 4o8 THE RENAISSANCE. and the lack of public funds wrecked this plan, and the new city, though a Renaissance one, arose on pretty much the same lines as the old. The most conspicuous feature was, of course, the Church of St. Paul (Plate LVII), begun by Wren, in 1675, on a site previously occupied by a Roman temple of Diana, St. Paul's Monastery, and the old cathedral successively, the greatest church ever built by a sin- gle individual, and from a Renaissance view second only to St. Peter's at Rome. The plan was a Latin cross (500 X 250) surmounted by a great dome at the intersection, and roofed throughout with domical vaults. The first portion of the church was the choir, completed for service in 1697, which Evelyn calls " a piece of architecture without reproach," and dec- oratively much enhanced by the carvings of Grinling Gibbons upon the stalls, and by the altar. Externally St. Paul's has always mutely invited admiration rather than criticism ; the peculiarly at- tractive manner in which the whole composition culminates pyramidally (Plate LVII), whatever the point of view, being especially noticeable. Also the two-story treatment, to obtain a greater appearance of size, and the successful proportion and outline of the towers and steeples. Fifty other churches claim Wren as their archi- tect. Among them St. Mary-le-Bow (whose tower and spire are held the most perfect in English Re- naissance), St. Bride's, Fleet Street, and St. James's, Piccadilly, while the number of secular buildings conceived and executed by this great man might numerically form a good-sized city. Plate LVII.— St. Paul's Cathedral, London. 4IO THE RENAISSANCE. Of these may be cited the royal palace at Win- chester, the Ashmolean Museum, Chelsea Hospital, portions of Hampton Court and Windsor, Marlbor- ough House, halls of commerce to the number of seventy-nine, and Greenwich Hospital, the last be- ing the most stupendous work of its kind in Great Britain. The invention of the Renaissance spire has been attributed to Wren by his admirers, who acknowl- edge none of those in Spain as a prototype. Whether they be right or wrong, certain it is that he introduced it into England, and by its introduc- tion probably did more toward popularizing Italian architecture for churches than by any other act of his life. At his death he was reverently laid away, like Brunelleschi, beneath the greatest monument of his genius, while at his funeral honours almost royal were paid him ; but these are as nothing to what posterity has since accorded, and the simple sentence on his tomb of " Si monumentum requiris, circumspice ! " tells his story more completely than the most elab- orate rhetoric. TAe Eighteenth Century. During the early years of the eighteenth century one name especially detaches itself from the obscurity which Sir Christopher Wren cast over all his con- temporary confreres — namely, Sir John Vanbrugh. Bold, original, determined, Vanbrugh instilled a principle hitherto unknown to the Renaissance — namely, that of uniting the monumental splendour of the classic with the picturesqueness of the Gothic S/H JOHN VANBRUGH. 411 minus the hybrid qualities of transitional styles, while underlying all (according to Fergusson) ran " a lofty aspiration after grandeur and eternity." In his endeavour for the latter quality, a massive- ness resulted, which caused much witty comment at the time ; thus Walpole wrote : Lie heavy on him, earth, for he Laid many a heavy load on thee ; while Pope and Swift both amused themselves and others at his expense. Posterity, however, with Fig. 165. — Blenheim House, Woodstock. but few exceptions, has been apologizing ever since to save its reputation as a critic. Blenheim (Fig. 165) was to Vanbrugh what the campanile was to Giotto, St. Peter's to Bramante, St. Paul's to Wren. If not his best, it is at least his best- known work. 412 THE RENAISSANCE. Continental in magnitude, monumental in charac- ter, it rises (a worthy tribute of a nation to the hero of Ramilies, Oudenard, Blenheim, and Malplaquet) in the midst of a park where tradition tells us once dwelt fair Rosamond and her royal lover. The pal- ace consists mainly of a great central feature, com- posed of two vestibules entered through Corinthian porticoes, flanked by low buildings, these inclose an imposing area cut off by quadrant colonnades and form a striking approach to the central mass. Three garden fronts, bold in treatment without coarseness, display the graceful sky line characteristic of Vanbrugh, while the general effect is still further enhanced by the undulating lawns of the great park, twelve miles in circumference. The principal room of the interior is the library, which extends the entire length of one wing, but where also there is an unexpected carelessness in de- tail. As a whole, however, the conception is one of great dignit)', and quite worthy of the opinion of Sir Uvedale Price, that the architect " formed in a style truly his own, and in a well-combined whole, a man- sion worthy of a great prince and warrior." During the latter part of the reign of George II Kent (architect of the Treasury Buildings and Horse Guards) and his patron and partner, the Earl of Bur- lington, set the fashion to English art. Of Burlington it is said that he always evinced a profound contempt for the architectural dithyrambs of Sir John Vanbrugh, but the lack of originality in Petersham and the Duke of Richmond's house at Whitehall leaves little doubt in the minds of posterity as to which of the two names will live the longer; BURLINGTON, KENT, CHAMBERS. 413 while his sacrifice of practical comfort to architec- tural effect in General Wade's house, Burlington Street (which provoked Chesterfield to remark that the general had better take a house over the way and look at it), renders the opinion tenable that the earl was more popular than practical. The best work of either Burlington or Kent, how- ever, was that which they performed together, es- pecially Burlington House or the Royal Academy, the beauty of whose fagade makes up for all indi- vidual shortcomings, and doubtless did much toward keeping the Louis Quinze style from gaining head- way in England. In this building at least it may be truly said that both architects displayed that instinct- ive love of truth, which makes men do the right thing in the right way without extravagance, and justified the words of their poet friend, that " Something there is more needful than expense, • And something previous ev'n to taste — 'tis sense ! " With the accession of George III came the eleva- tion of Sir William Chambers to distinction, who may justly be called the Vignola of England, and, like the illustrious Italian, wrote a text-book formu- lating the rules of the Renaissance for the sake of students. All his work shows the same scrupulous attention to proportion and correctness of technique which makes the architectural grammarian, without which all flights of genius are liable to become futile ; but one must acknowledge that it lacks the exalted purity of Inigo Jones almost as much as the warmth, life, and bold originality of Vanbrugh. 414 THE RENAISSANCE. The next architects who influenced the style were the two Dances and the Adam brothers. The former built the Mansion House and Newgate in a pecu- liarly massive style ; while the latter gained celebrity by the introduction of a certain severe tone into archi- tecture (easily traceable to the Louis Seize of France), the use of stucco imitating stone, and a book published by Robert Adam on the Ruins of Spalato. Their work is characterized externally by large windows without dressings, the amalgamation of a number of separate residences into one monumental building, and internally by attention to plaster decora- tion, as seen in the houses of Hanover Square. The Adelphi Theatre, which derives its name from the circumstance that all four brothers built it, is an example of their best work ; but all the Adam architecture is essentially prosaic, and reveals none of those qualities which inspire the thought of " poetry in stone." Far better is it, however, than the ex- travagant conceits of the Barocco or Rococo, which found favour in the eyes of Italy and France, when the light of Renaissance began its declination. GERMANY. Germany, like England, was slow to welcome the innovations of the Renaissance. The struggles of the Reformation, the Thirty Years' War, and Ger- man mysticism have all been variously stated as the causes of this unreceptive condition, and indeed were undoubtedly causally connected therewith, but a stronger factor was the natural conservatism of the race. Like England under the Tudors, Germany had GERMAN RENAISSANCE. 415 developed an architecture peculiarly adapted to her own needs, and in consequence felt little or no desire for the new style generated by Italy. Furthermore, Germany had no supreme ruler like Francis I to in- troduce or compel a new school of art ; the whole country was a mosaic of petty kingdoms and princi- palities, each marked with that hereditary local inde- pendence which had characterized the nation since the days of Tacitus. Primarily, Italian details manifested themselves chiefly 'va portions of buildings, as doorways, pulpits, chapels, and tombs, and derived much of the spirit of their treatment from the sculptures and paintings of Peter Vischer and Albrecht Diirer. But it was not until 1530 that certain courts began to exhibit any rivalry in castle or mansion building. Gothic features rather predominated in these, es- pecially in the north, and lofty roofs with gables of picturesque outline, round towers, and circular stair- ways remained as popular as ever ; but in the portals, occasional loggias, and courts, the Renaissance found a permanent welcome, being characterized by freedom in the treatment of orders, the use of engaged col- umns partially fluted, frequent reliefs, lofty entabla- tures, and a profusion of bold and rather coarse sculpture, all of which may be seen in the Schlosse at Torgau, Stuttgart, Schwerin, Offenbach, and Wei- mar, though the latter, built by Van Aken and Von Lira, displays an elegance and Genoese delicacy in its relief work suggestive of the cinque cento rather than of early German work. The most successful of sixteenth-century castles was the Otto Heinrichsbau, of Heidelberg Schloss 4i6 THE RENAISSANCE. (1556-1559), which certain historians have attributed to the pencil of Michael Angelo ; but there is little or nothing to justify this hypothesis, especially as the composition is distinctly more French than Italian, and recalls Philibert de L'Orme and Pierre Lescot rather than any Roman or Florentine master, while the caryatides might easily have been chiselled by a pupil of Jean Goujon. As a whole it is characterized by great majesty and rude power, which its situation dominating the valley of the Necker further increases, while the re- markable richness of its members is thrown into fine relief by the sullen vigour and powerful simplicity in the basement. Palaces of this description produced a strong effect upon secular architecture throughout the land, since they instilled a spirit of emulation among the wealthy- burgher classes which found outlet in the erection and embellishment of Rathausen, or town halls. These showed, as a rule, more thought in composition than the palaces themselves. Thus the Rathausen at Lengo, Altenburg, Gorlitz, Lubeck, Strasburg, and Posen (built between 1552 and 1590), as well as some of the old German and Swiss inns, all show the increasing vitality of the Renaissance, but to ecclesiastical architecture the sixteenth cen- tury paid little heed. The quadrangles in the Villa at Gratz and in the Castle of Schalaburg are noted as being among the first to grasp thoroughly the principles as well as the forms of Italian art ; but there is an excess of orna- mentation which is disappointing to a lover of cinque- cento and seicento work, and at the same time re- THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 417 markably characteristic of German feeling with re- gard to plastic art. Sgraffito work, or arabesques traced in the plaster when wet, became popular at Ulm, Steyer, and some smaller towns, while in Miihlhausen, Schaffhausen, and Niirnberg colour was applied to exteriors of houses in the form of fresco. Oxidation, however, has interfered so seriously with the effect of the latter that it is difficult to form an opinion as to the true value of German outdoor artists or to what extent they enhanced the buildings of their time. Early in the seventeenth century occur a few Renaissance examples, from which one might infer that the style was about to take a turn toward a stricter classical purity. Thus the Friedrichsbau of Heidelberg Castle (begun by Salomon de Caux in 1601) shows a tone of much greater severity than its sister palace, and Marini's Castle Walstein (1629) is a fairly good example of true Renaissance work. But unfortunately this slight tendency toward classicism coincided with the first inception of the Borromini influence. At the middle of the century the Ba- rocco examples increased (the publications of Diet- terlein contributing toward their popularity), while a few years later one finds nearly all Germany pros- trated before the vulgar display and extravagant con- ceits of Fontana, Guarini, and Martinelli, who were invited to make the country their home. The Zwinger Palace, at Dresden, built for the Elector Augustus II, shows of what excess this eccen- tricity is capable. , More within the range of criticism is the Japanese Palace, also begun for the Elector by Count Flem- 28 4i8 THE RENAISSANCE. ming (the Baron Haussmann of Dresden), with its two-story pilasters, high pavilions, agreeable sky lines, and copper roof of a brilliant green, the result of oxidation. This building is dignified and vigor- ous, reposes securely on a strong rusticated base, and gives an effect of stable equilibrium w^hich is often lacking in contemporary and later work ; for in Sans Souci and Charlottenburg, by Von Knobelsdorf (chief architect of Frederick the Great), one misses this quality of inertia notwithstanding a certain severity in the constructive features. The Brandenburg Gate stands as the last secular structure of importance built in the Renaissance period and links the latter to the Greek revival. Mr. Fergusson gives it a rank second only to the Arc de I'Etoile among modern triumphal arches, but the fact that it is copied from the Propylaea at Athens detracts considerably from its value. In comparing the German Renaissance with that of other countries, one can not but be surprised at the total lack of genuine artistic insight and the archi- tectural apathy displayed, especially from 1700 to 1800, for the intellectual breadth and activity of a century that could produce Haller, Klopstock, Lessing, Winkelmann, Kant, Goethe, and Schiller ought cer- tainly to have brought forth greater building artists than Fisher, Behr, and Von Knobelsdorf. However, the Greek revival has proved that under proper stimuli a reaction is possible, and the gradual improvement in modern German architecture has in- duced many to believe that the present is only the twilight of a great architectural day of triumph yet to dawn. SPANISH RENAISSANCE. 419 SPAIN. During the early part of the fifteenth century Spain was in a peculiarly unfavourable condition for architectural development. Intellectual and com- mercial activity were at a very low ebb on account of the internal political troubles and the Turkish occupation of the Levant. But the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1469, and the subsequent union of Aragon and Castile, in 1474, reversed all these conditions. The cutting off of the old trading routes to the East gen- erated an unprecedented activity in maritime dis- covery in the West, while the fall of Granada, in 1492, and the fusion of all the Spanish states into an ecclesi- astical and political union by Cardinal Ximenez gave a unity to the whole Iberian peninsula, which made possible the conquest of Naples under Gonzalvo de Cordova. By this conquest Spain came into more intimate connection with Italy, her literature, and her art. The sonnets of Petrarch found an echo in those of Juan Almogaver and Garcilasso de la Vega ; the love of classic poetry, quickly winning its way, soon induced a like admiration for the sister arts, especially the most necessary one ; and so begins the true history of the Spanish Renaissance in architecture. The earliest manifestations of the new style are to be found in the alterations of old buildings, door- ways, and other minor structures, as in San Nicholas de la Villa, the Puerta de la Pellegeria, and staircase of Burgos Cathedral, by Diego de Siloe; but the tendency to cling to the Gothic remained almost, if 420 THE RENAISSANCE. not quite, as strong as in England and Germany, and it constantly asserted itself in the work of all the early sixteenth-century architects of the peninsula. The year 1510, however, is the date usually agreed upon as timidly ushering in the first period of the Spanish Renaissance, a style very analogous in char- acter to that of France under Francis I. Its deli- cacy of detail and exuberance of ornament earned for it the name of The Plateresco or Silversmith's Style. This style extended over a period of forty-five years. Though it lacked much of the academic purity of Italy and the refinement of France, it was signalized by great originality, vigour of design, and richness of detail ; and though this richness may be said at times to have fairly smothered the individual members (especially windows and doors), it was thrown into beautiful relief by great bare wall spaces, converting what might otherwise have been called tawdriness into artistic elegance. The love of pinnacles, gargoyles, and Gothic or- namental features proved also too strong to be lightly relinquished ; but throughout their work the Plate- resco architects showed great architectural insight by always aiming at a powerful effect of solidity in the base, as in the University of Alcala, by Pedro Gumiel, which, with its open arcaded story at the top, stands as a pleasing type of the period. At the same time there flourished another style of architecture, known as Mudejar (a mixture of Classic and Moorish elements), which obtained a certain pop- ularity, especially at Seville, where it may be seen THE GRIEGO-ROMANO. 421 in the Alcazar and Casa Pilatos ; but, oddly enough, this style had no influence whatever upon the Renais- sance, and pursued its own way quite independently. The patio being a household necessity in Spain, courtyards with cloistered arcades became univer- sally fashionable, bracket capitals being used to afford greater span and give the lightness suited to interior work. The best example of the kind is the archiepisco- pal palace at Alcala ; a less pure but more ambitious one is the Monastery of Lupiana, while the court in the palace of the Infanta at Saragossa (Plate LVIIl) illustrates how a good thing may be abused. For here, though the effect is light, the expression is ob- tained by the use of spindle-like baluster columns in the upper arcade, while the carving, though good, incrusts every available spot to an extent that would appear extravagant in a wedding cake. There being no contrast, there is consequently no elegance. Architecture of this sort quickly resulted in a re- action, which, after the abdication of Charles V, took shape and materialized under the name of The Griego-Romano. This style has been generally characterized as a "cold, unpoetical, architectural treatment, corre- sponding to the works of Vignola, Palladio, and San Michele, but without their refinement"; and it is certainly true that its peculiarity is the employment of Roman orders in rather a dry and prosaic fashion. To a pupil of Michael Angelo— Juan Baptista— do we owe its first real introduction in a pure form, a thing exemplified most intelligently in the Palace of Plate LVIII.-Patio Casa de la Infanta, Saragossa. THE ESCORIAL. 423 the Escorial, begun in 1563 at the order of Philip II, to fulfil a vow made at the battle of St. Quentin. At the death of Baptista, in 1567, his pupil Juan de Herrera succeeded to the post of chief architect ; and though it is difficult to distinguish how much of the design is due to the master and how much to the pupil, it is certain that the execution and building thereof belong to Herrera. Palustre, in speaking of the Escorial, designates it as " the most monotonous edifice in existence," but one can. not help feeling that this is the result either of superficial observation or a tendency to judge of the whole by the exterior. For, truly, the fagade presents a monotonously honeycombed appearance; but, having once entered the vast pile with its fifteen courts, porticoes, and galleries, containing upward of eighty fountains ; its superb atrium, flanked b}"^ a col- lege and monastery ; its gorgeous state apartments ; and, above all, stupendously magnificent church — one is forced to acknowledge that the building is in many ways one of the most deservedly admired of Euro- pean palaces. Among the important attributes of its composi- tion may be cited beauty of proportion, symmetry and convenience of plan, dignit}' of interior approach, picturesqueness of sky line, and success of climax formed by the dome and towers of the church, which latter frowns down in gloomy majesty over the whole mass, responsive in feeling to that religion which Torquemada rendered awful. Yet the true signifi- cance of the Escorial is not felt until one compares it, as regards intention, with some other great palace, like Versailles. In it one reads no trace of the 424 THE RENAISSANCE. grown-up toy, conceived to beguile the weary hours or satiety of a monarch, but, as Mr. Fergusson calls it, " the splendid abode of a great but gloomy des- potism," a home for the Inquisition. It is this con- scientious adherence to purpose and truth which gives it its greatest artistic value. During the latter part of the sixteenth and first half of the seventeenth centuries, the Griego-Romano showed its popularity everywhere, the palace of Ar- anjuez near Madrid and the cathedral at Valladolid adding further laurels to Herrera, while many build- ings by Rodrigo Gil and Berruguete contributed their classic influence. One of the most successful works of the period, though early, was the addition to the Giralda tower (Plate LIX). The history of this building commences with the eleventh century, when it was erected by the Moor, El Gibir ; it next figures as one of the conditions at the surrender of Seville in 1248 (the stipulation being that the Giralda should never be destroyed); in 1395 it narrowly escaped destruction from an earthquake, and for a time was apparently forgot ; but in the year 1568 it again came into prominence from the com- mission received by Fernan Rinz to restore and in- crease its height a hundred feet, an order which was executed with the utmost ingenuity. For, though treated as a steeple, and uncompromisingly Renais- sance, it has all the airy lightness of a kiosque, and the architect has caught much of the Moorish feeling in the base. It is an open question, however, whether a Moor- ish spire would not have been more appropriate, as hinted before. Plate LIX.— The Giralda, Seville. 426 THE RENAISSANCE. The Churrigueresco. This style, which was introduced into Spain by Churriguera about the year 1650, and rioted all over the country for the space of a hundred years, far surpassed the wildest conceits of either Borromini or Fontana. Classical treatment became a mere sem- blance of its former self, and the Spanish love for sumptuous ornamentation (which, held in proper check, had done so much for the Plateresco) began to violate the simplest canons of art. Detail of every sort was outrageously managed, and all the features so trespassed upon one another that it became impossible to distinguish anything like a keynote or motive in even the best designs. The fagade of the Hospicio at Madrid and the arch- bishop's palace at Seville both show the peculiarities of this Spanish kind of Rococo, while the transpa- rente back of the altar in the Cathedral of Toledo (designed in the same period by Narcisso Tome) has been fittingly described by Ford as " a fricassee of marble " in the midst of which flounders San Rafael, with legs in air, in a pardonable effort at equilibrium. But the towers of this period do much to make one forget the frivolity of the Churrigueresque style ; and as the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were characterized by extreme activity in church building not only in Spain, but in all her colonies as well, the opportunities for this form of structure were fortu- nately increased. Good examples of these towers and steeples are to be found attached to the cathe- drals of Murcia, Malaga, and Santiago ; and, indeed, to almost every ecclesiastical building of the period, DECLINE AND FUTURE OUTLOOK. 42; the majority being characterized by solidity in the lower stages and graceful lightness in the upper, while domes and lanterns form a favourite treatment at the peaks, recalling the best work of Sir Christo- pher Wren. After 1750 Spanish architectural advancement be- gan gradually to lessen in all directions, until after a time it ceased altogether. Internal political troubles have been advanced as the cause of this, and undoubtedly did exercise a strong influence, but the fact that after they ceased the same apathy continued proves that this can not have been the only cause ; while the present lack of industrial activity precludes much hope that any re- vival in art may soon occur. However, none can read the future and hope is free to all; and the literary revival in Catalonia may, as has often occurred previously, be the forerunner of a renewed activity in art, which, gradually com- municating its enthusiasm to the nation, shall yet convert the chateaux en Espagne of the dreamer into buildings of a more substantial nature. CHAPTER XVI: AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. The customary habit of regarding America as new and inartistic frequently makes us forget how old we are, and how artistic we once were. But when one recalls that Crailo Manor was built be- fore the coronation of Louis XIV, before the execu- tion of Charles I, and before Peter the Great was born, we can scarcely consider ourselves in the light of a novelty ; while a glance at the so-called colonial architecture of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and the first score years of the nineteenth centuries disqpiali- fies the assumption that we have always frowned upon art. Thus the old manor houses along the Hudson and the James, the halls of Harvard College, the early churches of Maryland, and the city halls of New York and Philadelphia all show a purity of style to satisfy the most exacting adherents of Sir Chris- topher Wren. Indeed the great Wren himself is said to have designed the first buildings of William and Mary College and the courthouse of Williams- burg, and Peter Harrison, the assistant of Sir John Vanbrugh, composed the market at Newport ; while Thomas Jefferson, the versatile, sketched and built EARLY INFLUENCES. 429 the University of Virginia in a manner comparable to the Rotunda Capra, at Vicenza. True, there was much which did not claim to be architecture at all, as the log cabins and forts of the earliest settlers, but when a lull in fighting permitted, swiftly there awakened a naive, tasteful style, " with a quaintly free classicism, an ingenious use of wood, and a grace of carving and detail " like that of Gre- cian relics saved through the wreck and ruin of ages, and these speedily spread and multiplied until they covered the eastern slope of the Appalachian chain, extending south as far as the Spanish claims. Unfortunately, however, the early Americans did not follow the method of the early Greeks in evolv- ing a style ; for, while the Dorian builders of Argolis twisted the overhanging rafters into mutules, chiselled the beam ends into triglyphs, and passed whatever lay. at hand through the alembic of taste and originality, the colonists contented themselves primarily with imitating what they had learned to love in the moth- erland, and in so doing wove little anew, unless we consider certain slight touches of wistful sentiment. The works of Wren, Hawksmoor, Gibbs, Sir Wil- liam Chambers, and the Adam brothers influenced the architecture most directly ; for, while the Dutch along the Hudson, the French in Louisiana, Canada, and the Carolinas, and the Spanish in Florida, New Mexico, and California all interpolated something native and local into their work, it was the English Renaissance which essentially ruled all, and in its precise adherence to the Roman orders induced a formal result. In order to avoid a coarseness sequent on the imi- 430 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. tation of stone in wood the columns were made more attenuated and the carvings more delicate in relief, and thus arose a certain differentiation which de- veloped into the so-called colonial style. Primarily, however, colonial builders were not even imitative, but simply utilitarian, as may be seen in " the Flaats," where Colonel Peter Schuyler, the first Mayor of Albanj^ was born, a brick house of two stories, shaped like a cross, and partially covered with a gambrel roof, the only decorative features on the exterior being a Dutch door with a ponderous brass knocker and bits of ornamental wrought iron in the form of anchors, the date, etc. Inside, however, some artistic effort was shown in the beautifully carved furniture of Holland make and the portraits of stolid gentlemen and kind-eyed old ladies in caps and Flemish ruffs ; but, as a rule, simplicity and utility ruled. " Here gallant Lord Howe, Aber- crombie, and other gay officers were entertained on their way to defeat at Ticonderoga, and here the young lord returned to die. Before it for seventy years marched the armies of the French, and be- tween it and the river occurred one of the bloodiest battles between the Mohawks and Mohegans." But from an architectural standpoint the building is only interesting as a primitive type, an amoeba of colonial civilization. In the more peaceful districts architecture sturdily improved, yet displayed no startling individuality. Most of the houses were square and gambrel-roofed, though hipped roofs found favour in Virginia. Pedi- ments, or large shells, usually bent above pilaster- flanked doorways, cool verandas passed along one COLONIAL CHARACTERISTICS. 431 side, and prominent porches shaded the principal en- trances. When these last named were framed in glass, long, narrow side lights and transoms veiled with delicate traceries were used. " But no glass found its way into New England before 1700, the lights being of mica, oiled paper, or horn." White columns twined with pink roses, as in the pictures of Alma-Tadema, often struck a note of Fig. 166.— Vlie House. Hellenic beauty, while tendrils of natural honey- suckle or Virginia creeper wove intricate interlaces over the humblest dwellings. " Palladian motives " appear everywhere, and roofs were rimmed with wooden balustrades (Fig. 166). The materials varied according to location. New England employed wood almost exclusively; the South, brick and stone ; while the Middle Atlantic 432 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. States used all the materials of the others and stucco, with roofs of tin, tile, slate, wood, copper, and lead. This versatility was probably due to the cosmopoli- tan character of that section of the country, for be- fore Nieuw Amsterdam became New York eighteen separate languages were spoken among its inhabit- ants, which, however, only numbered fifteen hundred, all told. Imported Holland bricks were preferred as a rule to the domestic article, and with reason ; for during the destruction of the old Columbia College buildings it was found necessary to employ gun- powder in order to disintegrate the foundations, which were composed of old Dutch brick. Crailo Manor before its demolition, in 1893, was said to be the oldest dwelling in the United States, and certainly it was the oldest claiming any archi- tectural value. Here Dr. Stackpole, the British sur- geon, composed Yankee Doodle, in derision of the American troops as they straggled into camp in motley costumes; and here the Continental army held cantonment in 1775 on the march to Ticonder- oga. Tradition asserts that it was erected in 1642 by the agents of Killian Van Rensselaer, a rich pearl merchant of Amsterdam, who in 1629 had purchased a tract of land from the Indians twenty-four miles long and forty-eight miles broad, extending on both banks of the Hudson. Old Killian never visited this country, though his son Jan Baptiste did so on his appointment as di- rector in 1652, and built for himself a residence under the guns of Fort Orange. CRAILO MANOR HOUSE. 433 Much controversy has arisen concerning the date of Crailo (1642) on account of a description in Albany, written by a French missionary in 1656, which states that there were no buildings of masonry in the vicinity at the time. But this does not alter the value of Crailo as a complete type and substan- tial example of early colonial work. It was composed of cream-coloured brick trimmed with white, rose two stories and an attic into the Fig. 167. — Van Rensselaer Manor House, remodelled by Upjohn. air, and was tied together with beams of unusual thickness (16 X 16 inches). Stone loopholes originally commanded the approaches, and all the rooms con- nected with one another, often by means of closets, to increase the difficulty of capture ; but otherwise the characteristics enumerated above prevailed. In general terms, colonial interiors contained 29 434 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. spacious halls with wainscots often panelled and reaching to the ceiling ; doorways in every variety of the Renaissance, with plain, broken, or carved pediments; mantels, resting on slender columns or pilasters of great refinement and elegance; and scenic paper or tapestries on the walls ; while fes- toons of forget-me-nots or other delicate flowery Fig. i68. — Rococo Doorway in Van Rensselaer Manor House. forms caught up with ribbons at the ends were frequently carved in low relief. Balusters were usually of three kinds, one of each to every step, and moulded into twisted spindles ; while other favourite features were richly polished mahogany doors framed in painted pine, tiled fire- places, egg-and-dart and water-lily mouldings and plaster panels modelled with wreaths, garlands, and musical instruments. VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND. 435 All these appear in the manor house known as Patroon's or Van Rensselaer Manor, remodelled by Upjohn in i840-'43 (Fig. 167), and there also may be seen the effect of the Rococo as it appeared in the houses of those who could afford its unfortunate elaboration (Fig. 168). The major part of the building was more pleas- ing, and Longfellow has immortalized it in the fol- lowing lines : It was a pleasant mansion, an abode Near and yet hidden by the great highroad, Sequestered among trees, a noble pile, Baronial and colonial in its style : Gables and dormer windows everywhere. And stacks of chimneys rising high in air, Pandean pipes, on which all the winds that blew Made mournful music the whole winter through. Within unwonted splendour met the eye. Panels, and floors of oak, and tapestry : Carved chimney pieces, whereon brazen dogs Revelled and roared the Christmas fires of logs. In Virginia the atmosphere was more feudal and manorial than in any other part of the United States save the banks of the Hudson, and all the best archi- tecture was in the country, for the population was practically divided into two classes — gentry and slaves — and without a middle class civic life is an impossibility. The same also was true, though in a minor degree, of Maryland, which boasted few towns and less artis- tic worth, save in the matter of churches, in which St. Mary, Woolnoth, and St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, with belfries bursting through the roof, were mi- nutely imitated. 436 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. The only roads were bridle paths, and the rivers alone were deemed safe for travel or conveyance. Every manor house, therefore, had its river front and private dock, and stately homes arose in quantity along the banks of the Severn, Potomac, and James. Brick of dull red with trimmings of white stone or white wood were generally used, and the smithy, dairy, slave quarters, and other subordinate buildings were ranged with great regard for sj'mmetry on either side of each house. These supplementary ad- ditions were attached b)' one- story corridors in Maryland, but generally detached in Virginia. Few of the old Virginian houses antedate 1715, though Shirley is said to have been built in 1700. All were solid, square, and stately, with statuary, Italian ter- races, and shrubbery paths ; but so orthodox were they in their imitation of English models that they sacrificed the luxury of verandas to academic purity, and, except for a broad porch, nothing architectural interrupted the light or softened the noonday glare, which beat upon the fagades. Grand halls with stone floors and panelled walls, ceilings with delicate traceries in plaster relief, and fine portraits by Godfrey Kneller and (in one or two instances) by Vandyke adorned the interiors. Breadth, simplicity, symmetry, and elegance charac- terized all in a manner very satisfactory and infinitely precious when compared with the turgid interiors of to-da)'. Westover, Shirley, Brandon, Berkeley, and Car- ter's Grove were the most important examples. Westover was built in 1737 by the Byrds, and contained the finest gateway in the cpuntry. Young SOUTHERN MANOR HOUSES. All Byrd was a gay spark, who cut something of a figure in London- and at the court of France. His friend, Lord Peterboro, would fain have made "sweet Eve- lyn " (Byrd's sister) his lady had not old Colonel Byrd opposed the match on religious grounds, and hurried the girl across the seas to Westover, where, mewed up solitarily, she died (according to tradition) of a broken heart, but more probably of boredom, for life on the James was not the same as life at the court of St. James. But though Westover was not gay socially, it was pleasing architecturally with its fine sweep of roof, symmetrical windows, and fluted pilasters, and, while containing all the style features enumerated above, was composed of "grand lines restrained in narrow compass like those of an old Greek coin." Hardly less important was Shirley, named after the wife of Lord de Warre and daughter of Sir Thomas Shirley. It was founded by Sir Thomas Dale, High Marshal of Virginia and successor of Lord de Warre, who, being a man of great force, set himself to rid the col- ony of its many dissipated idlers by setting them to work. This resulted in a conspiracy of the malcontents, but the truculent old gentleman quickly quelled the insurrection by " pleasantly varied methods of hang- ing, shooting, and breaking on the wheel, while one of the more mendacious malefactors had a bodkin thrust through his tongue, after which he was left ohained to a tree until he died." Sir Thomas's house was more than his castle ; it was the show place of the whole county. Here 438 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. could be seen one of the new roofs just invented by Monsieur Jean Hedouin Mansard, of Paris, a sky line like those of Sir John Vanbrugh, of London, pictures by Sir Godfrey Kneller and Peale, and, later, cray- ons from the hands of Ste.-Memin, the fashionable artist of 1789, a darling of the days of snuff, ankles, and epigrams. The great darkly panelled entrance hall did not bisect the house from front to rear, as was the case with nearly every house in the country, but occupied the whole northwestern quarter of the building, and, by its imposing proportions, formed a suitable back- ground for the fites and receptions of the chatelaines of Shirley. In other respects this fine old home re- sembled all the Southern manors, for, fortunately, the builders and amateur architects of the time knew too little to dare attempt originality, and in cling- ing to the rules and methods laid down in the books sinned only in stiffness and formality. Hitherto little has been said concerning the ec- clesiastical architecture of the colonies, which was simple to an extreme, for, aside from motives of economy, the stern creeds of the Puritans, Quakers, and other nonconformist faiths forbade taste to run riot in the house of God. Even Virginia, where the Church of England was established, showed little or no tendency toward elaboration in this direction, and the word meeting-house is a more appropriate term for the fanes of that province. Virginia- contains the oldest ecclesiastical edifice still standing in the Western Hemisphere — namely, St. Luke's, near Smithfield (Fig. 169), a building said to have been erected in 1632. ST. LUKE'S CHURCH. 439 It consists of a broad brick parallelogram, punc- tured sparsely with windows and prefaced by a wide tower, simple, stately, and sturdy as a Norman keep. Fig. 169. — St. Luke's Church, near Smithfield, Virginia. It contains no fanciful carving, gargoyles, or tracery of any account, but it is nevertheless superior to any 440 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. church that followed it for nearly a hundred years, possibly because of the interest taken in it by the Archbishop of Canterbury, who invested in the Vir- ginia Company. Thus Old Swedes Church, built in 1700 at Philadelphia, resembles a jail surmounted by a pepper pot, and others display little more artistic insight. However, Christ Church, Philadelphia, designed by Dr. John Kearsly, an amateur, claims a certain arch geological interest as regards its interior, for here one sees the differentiation of the colonial and Re- naissance styles, due to the reproduction of stode de- tail in the more maniable material of wood. Other colonial churches of the eighteenth century are St. Michael's and St. Philip's, at Charleston, the Church of Goose Creek, the so-called Cathedral of St. Augustine, and St. Paul's, in New York. (Fig. 170). In the year 1762 Stuart and Revett's Antiquities of Athens was published, and a revival of Greek forms swept over England, and in due time reached the colonies as well. " There being no quarantine to protect us against the invasion " (as Mr. Van Brunt expresses it), banks, town halls, homes, and churches were all converted into Greek temples. Unfortunately, it was not Greek principles which were utilized, but Greek forms that were reproduced, until every cupola became a " choragic monument of Lysicrates" or "Temple of the Winds," and every Methodist meeting-house a replica of the Parthenon in w^hitewashed wood. This was especially unfor- tunate in its effect on the Southwest, where the adobe or rubble mission houses of the Spaniards, with their arcaded cloisters and belfries, had piously preserved ST. PAUL'S, NEW YORK. 441 their Iberian prototypes, and in Mexico, had eventu- ally begotten a divergent style of some originality. Fig. 170. — Spire of St. Paul's Church, New York. 442 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. A similar future might have been predicted of the old Creole houses on the lower Mississippi, but fash- ion was too strong ; and here, as elsewhere, servile copies of misapprehended Greek models cut off all hope of the natural evolution of a national style. But the common-sense spirit of the American mind soon revolted against using temples for clubs or bank buildings, especially when it was discovered that archaeological truth would not permit the use of windows ; and in the course of twelve or fifteen 3'ears the Greek revival gave place to another. It is onl}' fair to state, however, that the mould- ings and ornaments of Greece were copied out of the books with scrupulous exactitude as regards form, and though the whole style seemed cold and inappro- priate in the North, it was singularly effective when chiselled out of stone or marble in the South. Meanwhile the election of Thomas Jefferson to the presidency had given him the opportunity to carry out a long, cherished project, namely, that of a grand national capitolium at Washington, and to him is due the suggestion, the sympathetic superin- tendence, and final accomplishment of the scheme, though not its architectural design. The drawing for the central portion of the pres- ent great edifice was presented in a competition by Dr. William Thornton, an English resident and ama- teur of art, who from his combined capacities has been likened to the famous Dr. Perrault, of France, but his design had to be developed, corrected, and redrawn in practical form, and this fell to the lot of Mr. B. H. Latrobe. After the burning, in 18 17, Latrobe was succeeded THE GOTHIC REVIVAL. 443 in the work of reconstruction by Charles Bulfinch, a man of great taste and cultivation, and architect of the statehouses of Massachusetts and Maine ; while Thomas Walter, second president of " the Institute," added the wings, built the dome, and practically completed the whole. The great iron bubble forming the climax is the finest example of its kind in America and second only to the domes of St. Peter's and St. Paul's, but the fact that it is supported on iron girders detracts from the constructive interest which usually attaches to edifices of this kind. Up to this time architecture had been plain and formal, yet nothing obviously odd had occurred ; but the " Gothic revival which followed the Greek de- prived unskilful men of the safeguard of definite rules, and primarily gave nothing but sentiment and enthusiasm in their place ; wherefore confusion and anarchy followed^" and the picturesque, the playful, and the grotesque were sought at the expense of all severity and good taste. It began in Europe during the great period of romance which followed Sir Walter Scott and the mediasvalist painters, and was greatly due to the per- sistent preaching or persuasive rhetoric of Ruskin, Pugin, Rickman, and Gilbert Scott. Not Gothic principles, but Gothic forms were revived — that is, in America — for it was claimed that those principles could only be adjusted by means of mediasval forms, and the jig saw and planing mill multiplied tempta- tion. A man named Vaux covered the countrj'^ with cheap imitations of Gothic forms in wood, and wretched books by incapable authors fell into the 444 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. still more incapable hands of masons and carpenters, who were practically the only architects. As a contributor to The Architect expressed it, " a large part could not build, another could not draw, and only a small part could design. The public consid- ered the first of these faults worse than the others, and naturally inclined toward the practical man, whose work did not make them uncomfortable, though it might be bad architecture ; " and hence the profession sank to the lowest point of invertebrate in- efficiency. An important phase arose under the Gothic re- vival which should not be overlooked, namely, ethics in art. Thus an arch flanked by two columns was called "an architectural lie," for either the arch or the columns support what is above, and this consci- entious self-examination of the artist was often carried to a morbid extreme. But in the end it did good. For though a direct result was the " moral furniture " of Mr. Eastlake, in which it was deemed wicked to conceal a mortice and tenon and excluded all curved lines as abnormal when the graining of the wood was straight, yet, on the other hand, it pointed out to classic architects the inutility and bad taste of embroidering facades with orders simply for ornamental reasons. It was a long time, however, before either school would consent to learn anything from the other, and prejudice increased at such a rate that forty years ago no two architects holding opposite opinions on the subject of Gothic or Classic could meet without quarreling, and the so-called "Battle of the Styles" was waged with vigorous energy. But in 1857 RICHARD UPJOHN. 445 Richard Upjohn and a few others perceived how hopeless it would be for architects to learn anything through attacking one another, and a society was formed for purposes of arbitration and patient dis- putation, which in 1866 gestated into the American Institute of Architects. Thanks to this coming together, foreign travel, and study at the ficole des Beaux-Arts, architecture slowly awoke, and eventually reached its American climax and highest expression in the World's Fair of 1893. To Upjohn, therefore, America owes a debt of gratitude, not so much for his monuments (though Trinity Church and St. Thomas's at New York and the Cathedral at Bangor are all archseologically cor- rect), but for his concentrative architectural opinion, which performed a service similar to the amalgama- tion of the schools of Dijon and Tours during the French Renaissance or the art guilds of Mediaeval times. It must not be imagined, however, that advan- tageous results were immediate ; for the Queen Anne revival or bric-a-brac style, which had begun under Norman Shaw in England, found distorted echo also in America, and contractors continued to erect miles of brown-stone abominations hastily hideous in de- sign and disgraceful as representations of any reputa- ble style. Besides a reign of caprice and general eclecticism held sway even among the better archi- tects ; for being suddenly brought face to face through travel and literature with so many foreign styles, it was as though a tribe of savages had suddenly dis- covered a theatrical wardrobe, and each masqueraded 446 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. in the manner which pleased him best. But among all the poor imitators and adaptors which thronged the early part of the second half of the nineteenth century, there was one who stood out clearly from the rest as an evangelist of something better and higher, namely, Henry Hobson Richardson. Richardson was a graduate of Harvard and of the ficole des Beaux-Arts, and by travel and study had thoroughly saturated himself with the spirit of the Romanesque architecture of Auvergne, while Nor- mandy supplied his inspirations for detail. The half- savage strength of this style, tinged slightly and deli- cately, as it was, with the refinement and luxury handed down from the late Roman Empire, seemed to offer great possibilities, while the picturesque quality of its distribution appealed to the romanti- cism which still hovered over the grave of the Gothic revival. Richardson began his Roma;nesque revival in Trinity Church, Boston, a building which is held by many to be his masterpiece. Here may be seen all the qualities enumerated above, but in their simplest and most unostentatious form. True, the central climax is frankly reminiscent of the middle tower of Salamanca Cathedral, but the sobriety and dignity of treatment therein gives it all the rights of individuality. The only fault in the whole building from a hypercritical point of view is the deficiency of base and the use of an " ungroupable " corner tower! In- ternally here, as well as elsew^here, it was Richard- son's ambition (according to Prof. Kerr) " to put the work into strong naked health and honesty rather than into any dainty and attenuated attire." RICHARDSON'S WORK. 447 Other Richardsonian masterpieces are the Winn Memorial Library, a design of much playfulness and imagination ; the Pittsburg jail, with its awesome Fig. 171. — ^Jail at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. grandeur (Fig. 171); Mr. Glessner's picturesque pal- ace at Chicago ; the Law School at Harvard ; Hubert Herkomer's house in England ; and a large number 448 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. of small libraries, having windows set jewellike in a matrix of rock or rock-cut stone, producing an effect of genuine originality. Breadth, unity, and simplicity were Richardson's strongest characteristics, but unfortunately his pupils never outstripped their master in his line or carried on his work of evolution. Hence, though Richard- son's influence is still felt in almost every large city of the United States, he died in 1886 a unique and isolated figure — a man who preferred principles to conventions, and who b}' this preference very nearly produced what might be termed an original style, and in any case one of great charm, vigour, and masculinity. Another personality that has stamped itself strongly on American architecture is that of the late Mr. R. M. Hunt. Richard Morris Hunt was born in 1827; entered the atelier of Darier in Geneva at seventeen, that of Hector Lefuel in Paris at eighteen, and pursued his studies at the ficole des Beaux-Arts for nine succes- sive years. During these years Lefuel was appointed by Napoleon III to complete the northern gallery of the Louvre, the most important feature of which was to be a central pavilion. For the sake of practice Lefuel allowed his pupils to make designs for this pavilion, hoping probably to receive some stray inspiration here and there which might be converted to utility. But the design of Hunt was so complete, and in such exquisite taste, that the master concluded to erect it just as it was, with but slight alteration, and appointed his voung apprentice Inspccteur des Travaux. R. M. HUNT. 44.g Hence to R. M. Hunt do the French owe the Pavilion de la Bibliothdque opposite the Palais-Royal. In 185s he began his American professional ca- reer, and continued it without interruption for forty years. His early work was influenced by the Neo- Grec movement so popular in France during his pupilage ; but after some ten years he allowed his genius to express itself in various consistent forms of Renaissance, Gothic, Byzantine, and even Moorish architecture, according to the exigencies of the prob- lem presented. His greatest good to this country was in "expanding the bourgeois buildings of the millionaires of 1855 into the princely palaces of 1895," and in proving that nearly all styles of architecture may be beautifully handled so long as we employ their purest principles without copying their indi- vidual forms. The house, or city chateau, of Mr. W. K. Vander- bilt is generally considered the most beautiful of Mr. Hunt's New York designs. That its situation is in- appropriate goes without saying, for the mind in- stinctively recalls the spacious parks surrounding cliff-cresting Chaumont and Amboise or water-rimmed Chenonceau and Azai-le-Rideau, but the situation does not affect the balance and completeness of the design, and even the situation has its precedent in the house of Jacques Coeur, at Bourges, which gives directly on the public street. It is customary to speak of this house as belong- ing to the style of Francis I ; but there are many details which might well belong to the reigns of Louis XII, Charles VIII, or even earlier, and thus it acquires the picturesqueness of all transitional styles 30 450 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. and escapes the rigid formalism which results when an attempt is made to imitate by rule and precept what has grown and developed naturally through inspiration. The principal features to be noticed are the com- pact and successful composition of the masses, the large smooth wall spaces left to enhance the richness of the carving, the sunken turret of the fagade, the picturesqueness of the sky line, the pilasters veiled with delicate traceries like those of the. Chateau de Gaillon, and, above all, the Genoese delicacy of the chiselled foliage throughout, a thing lacking in the Louis XII palace at the corner of Sixty-first Street, sadly deficient in St. Patrick's Cathedral, and gener- ally wanting in all the ornamented buildings of this country. In the Administration Building of the World's Fair Mr. Hunt won the plaudits of Europe by han- dling a difficult problem in an academic yet uncon- ventional spirit. Unfortunately, the corner masses were too detached when viewed from certain points of view, but above the first cornice this building needs no intercessor, and the simple treatment of the top of the dome, without the conventional woman making operatic gestures, was most refreshing to the architectural gourmets. Other well-known buildings of Mr. Hunt are The Breakers, Ochre Point, and Marble House, at New- port; Biltmore, near Asheville; the Lenox Library and Tribune building, in New York ; and the resi- dences of Elbridge Gerry and J. J. Astor, in the same city. Before his death he was made chevalier of the CONSIGLIO AT VERONA. 451 Legion of Honour, associate of the Institute of France, academician of St. Luke's, Rome, and, in addition to Fig. 172. — The Consiglio at Verona. the degree of LL. D. and countless other honours, received the gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects. 452 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. The firm of McKim, Mead & White have done much toward architectural education in this country by their adaptations of some of the best buildings in Europe to American uses. Thus the multiplication of the Cohsiglio at Verona in the Herald building (Fig. 172), the adaptation of the Villa Medici in the New York State Building at Chicago, of the Giralda Tower in the Madison Square Garden, and of the Bibliothfeque Ste-Genevieve in the Boston Library — all educate the taste of the masses, and even the classes, for things beautiful. True, these adaptations of individual buildings may not be the highest form of art, like the evolution of the Corinthian capital by Callicrates or the devel- opment of the pendentive system by Anthemios, of Tralles ; but they educate, beautify, and introduce an academic feeling much needed in the present state of our building art, in which the reaction from the East- lake ethical doctrines has often resulted in a scepti- cism and libertinage euphemistically termed eclecti- cism ; while the original Veronese fagade of the Cen- tury Club (Fig. 173) and the purity of the Naugatuck Library (Fig. 174) show the capabilities of their cre- ators both for invention and purity respectively when these are deemed necessary. The self-restraint shown in the Naugatuck Library is especially commendable, as the most serious fault of this firm has been a tendency toward overelabora- tion or overrustication, as in the Hotel Imperial and Warren Building in New York. Terra-cotta moulds and a vivid imagination are dangerous tools for an architect to play with, and the cheapness of moulded materials multiplies tempta- CENTURY CLUB, NEW YORK. 453 tion. But gingerbread work can never take the place of carving, and it is pleasant to note that this / \ T FlG. 173.— Detail of the Century Club, New York city. seems also to be the eventual conclusion of this suc- cessful triumvirate, for the self-control and good taste 454 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. displayed in the Columbia College Library is more than reassuring, and all their more recent work argues well for the future of our art. Many other architects have influenced and are still influencing American architecture for good, among whom may be mentioned Van Brunt, Ken- dall, Carrfere & Hastings, Sturgis, Peabody & Stearns, Fig. 174. — Library at Naugatuck, Connecticut. Jenney, Hardenbergh, Post, Price, Haight, Heins & Lafarge, Renwick, Lord, Potter, Atwood, and a host of others ; but especially are we indebted to Prof. William R. Ware, who has probably done more than any other single individual in this country toward educating and refining architectural taste. The so-called " vertical architecture " or " high building " in America belongs more properly to the Plate LX.— Office building in Milwaukee. 456 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. provinge of engineering than architecture ; but it would be a piece of affectation entirely to ignore so salient a feature of civic life, even in the constricted limits of this sketch. The " high building " is not beautiful to look upon ; but it is a commercial neces- sity, and the quick elevator, or lift, which brings the twentieth story down to the third has made it a pos- sibility. When a whole block is devoted to such a building and the design is treated pyramidally (Plate LX) or as an isolated tower, the result is often stately and imposing ; but the attenuated monstrosities which may be seen to-day on Union Square, New York, are a disgrace to architec- tural art. The method of building, however, is the same in all cases : a cage or skeleton of steel is erected by which the wall of each floor is supported separately on its own frame ; hence these walls, having only their own weight to carry, are made light and thin for economy of space, while the mason can begin filling in the brick and stone at the top if needful, in- stead of building from the bottom upward as hereto- fore (Fig. 175). American architecture reached its climax in the World's Fair, as already stated ; yet so much has been said and written concerning its buildings, and well said and well written by specialists, that it would be presumptuous to discuss the matter analytically within the present limits. But it may not be super- fluous to quote the President of the Royal Institute of British Architects who, in a subsequent speech, remarked that " the Court of Honour was the grand- THE WORLD'S FAIR. 457 est thing architecturally that the world had ever seen since the days of Pericles." Concerning individual buildings, however, it seems to be generally conceded that the Fine Arts Fig. 175. — New York Life Insurance building, Chicago. Building was the most beautiful thing ever erected in this country as regards purity and distribution ; while the gem for modesty and simplicity among the 458 AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. more subordinate works bore the prosaic and unin- spiring title of the Merchant Tailors' Building. One of the most potential factors of success in the World's Fair was the general agreement that the main cornice of no building should exceed a cer- tain height, by which means the beautiful " White City " became a homogeneous whole and an educa- tion in artistic self-restraint. For renunciation has its technique as well as imagination in art, and self- control is the secret of good taste. The World's Fair has faded away like a beautiful thought dreamed softly in the silver silence of the night ; but its influence is still keen and abundant — a living vibrant force. Whether that force will show art in some new relation to our age or, in a spirit of illiberal luxury, merely elaborate what we already know, is one of those mysteries which none can solve ; and we can only look to the future, of which we know so little yet hope so much, and patiently await the morning of fulfilment. THE END. INDEX AND GLOSSARY. Only the terms which are not defined where they are first used are explained here, the definitions being drawn from Adeline's Art Dictionary. Abacus, defined, 173. Achmet I, mosque of, 287. iEgina, temple of Zeus at, 152. Agora, 177. Aino dwellings, 81, Aksah, mosque of, 262. Alberto, Leon Battista, treatment of Renaissance cornices, 3S0. Alhambra, 279-283. Amado, defined, 84. Ambulatory. A part of a building suitable for walking in, such as cloisters, etc in the Early French period, 33^. Amenemhat I, his architectural works, 9.25- Amenophis III, statues of, 13. American architecture, 428-458. Amphitheatres, Roman, 212-216. Anet, Chateau d', 397. Angcor-Baion, towers of,' 59. Angelo, Michael, character of his work, 384. Antoninus ard Faustina, temple of, at Rome, 198. Apse, or Apsis. The semicircular or polygonal termination of a church, situated behind the choir, treatment in Romanesque church, 296, Aqueducts, Roman. 204. Arabesque, defined, 258. Arcade, blind. A series of arches employed for decorative purposes, which are set right against the wall of a building. Arcature, defined, 298. Arch, known in Egypt, 32 ; understood in Nineveh, 127 ; Cyclopean, 143 ; early use by the Etruscans, 186; triumphal^ 200-203 ; varied shapes, 227 ; Saracenic forms, 259 ; horse- shoe, not a distinct principle, 289 ; pointed, origin in the Gothic style, 322 ; Flamboyant, 342 ; Tudor, or four-centred, 354. OGIVAL, defined, 237. STILTED, defined, 228. Architrave, defined, 148. Archivolt. a moulding decorating an arch and corresponding exactly to the contour of the arch. Assyrian style, 11 7-140. Athens, temple of Theseus at, 153 ; Choragic monument of Lysicrates at, 174 ; Tower of the Winds, 175 ; stadium, r76. Atrium, defined, 191. Attic. The part of the entablature above the cornice. 459 460 THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Ayoub, mosque of, 286. Azai-le-Rideau, chateau of, 393. Babylon, architecture, 132-135 ; hang- ing gardens, 133. Bailey, inner and outer, defined, 364- Baldachin. a richly ornamented canopy constructed of metal, wood, or draperies. Baptisteries, early Christian, 249, Barbican, defined, 3. Barocco style, 389-331. Barolli, temple of, 52-54. Barton, Earls, tower of, 314. Base (of a column), defined, 148. Bases, Romanesque, 308. Basilicas, 217 ; of St. Peter, 242, 244 ; of St. Paul beyond the Wails, 246 ; at Torcello, 255. Baths, Roman, 205-209. Belfry, first, 254 ; use by the Rhenish school, 316. Beni-Hassan, tomb at, 8, 23; proto- type of Doric order, 151. Bernini, character of his work, 390. Birs Nimroud, 119-122. Blenheim House, 411. Boro-Buddor, temple at, 61. Botta, discovered the palace of Sargon, 122. Bourbons, the Renaiscancs under, 398-400. Bracketing, clumsy substitute for the arch, 48. Bramante, character of his work, 3S3. Brunelleschi, Filippo, the father of Renaissance architecture, 377 ; his dome on the Florence cathedral, 381. Buddhist style, 37-42 ; in Japan, 93- 99- Bulfinch, Charles, work on the Capitol at Washington, 443. Burlington, Earl of, works, 412. Burmah, architecture, 55 ; examples of pagodas, 56. Buttresses, 294 ; flying, 296 ; in French Gothic style, 326. Byzantine style, history, 219 ; first pe- riod, 220-229 ; second period, 229- 240. Caisson. A sunken panel in a ceiling. Cambodia, architecture, 59-61. Capital, defined, 148. Capitals, Theban, 15 ; Ptolemaic, 29 ; absence in Chinese houses, 67 ; Persian, 137 ; Doric, 148, 154 ; Ionic, r37, 161 ; Corinthian, 149, 173; Byzantine, 228; Lombard forms, 253 ; Romanesque, 305 ; Flamboyant, jtr ; early English, 350; decorated, 352. Capitol at Washington, 442. Caravansaries, Inca, ir5. Carving in the Renais:ance period, 382. Caryatids, defined, i63. Castles, Japanese, 87 ; mediaeval, early structure, 363 ; later form, 364- 366; of Chenonceau, Blois, and Azai-le-Rideau, 393; of Cham- bord, 395- Cathedral at Pisa, 302, 317 ; Durham, style truly English, 314; at Worms, 316 ; as a political and social cen- tre, 32r ; Rheims, 330 ; Notre Dame of Paris, 331 ; at Troyes, 342 ; Salisbury, 351 ; Sienna, 362 ; Florence, 362, 381. Ceilings, in the Rococo style, 4or. Cella, defined, r47. Central America, architecture, 108- iio. Century Club house, 452. Chaityas, defined, 38. Chaldea, birthplace of Assyrian archi- tecture, 117. ( hambord, chateau of, 395. INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 461 Chapels, in the early French period, 330 ; of King's College, Cam- bridge. 358 ; of Henry VII, West- mmster, 358. Chartres, cathedral of, contributions to its erection, 322. Chenonceau, chateau of, 393. Cheops, pyramid of, 3, 3. Chephren, pyramid of, 2, 5, Chevet. See Apse. ChiUumbaram, choultry at, 46. China, architecture, 63-75. Cholula, teocalli of, 103. Choultry, defined, 43 ; examples, 46. Christian, early, style, 241-255. Chronology, Egyptian, 33-35. Church of St. Pierre, at Caen, 338 ; of St. Ouen, at Rouen, 338 ; of La Madeleine, at Troyes, 342 ; at IfHey, Oxfordshire, 347; St. Pe- ter's, in Rome, 387 ; St. Paul's, in London, 408 ; St. Luke's, near Smithfield, Va., 438; St. Paul's, in New York, 440. Churrigueresco style, 426. Cinque Cento, 378-382. Circus, Roman, 211. Clerestory, defined, 16; in early Christian churches, 246. Cloaca Maxima at Rome, 186. Coeur, Jacques, house of, 373. Colonial style, American, 428-441. Colonnettes, 138, 145, 163, 301. Colosseum, 214-216 ; American, 108. Columns, Proto-Doric, 8 ; of the The- ban period, 15 ; of the Ptolemaic age, 29 ; Buddhist, 41 ; Persian, 137 ; parts, 148 ; Doric, 148 ; Ionic, 161 ; Corinthian, 149, 173; votive, 204; Lombard forms, 253; Ro- manesque, 304 ; engaged, 305 ; clustered, 305. Composite order, described, 191; ex- amples, 203. Consiglio at Verona, 452. Constantine, Emperor, architectural works, 220, 250. arch of, 203. Copan, ruins of, 108. Corbel tables, defined, 302. Corbelling, defined, 143 ; examples, 143. 147- Cordova, mosque at, 276-279. Corea, architecture, 75-80. Corinth, temple at, 150. Corinthian order, described 148, 171- 173 ; examples, 174 ; Roman, de- scribed, 189; examples, 197-199, 216. Cornice, defined, •150; none on Ro- manesque buildings, 302. Coucy, chateau of, 364. Crailo Manor, 432. Crenellated. Embaltled. Cresting. A pierced leaden orna- ment placed vertically on the ridge of a roof. Crocket. A projecting ornament terminating in a curve or roll in the form of foliage or flowers. Cross, Latin, form, 242. Crypt, defined, 305. Curvature of lines of the Parthenon, 158. Cuzco, walls of, 114. Dagobas, defined, 38. Decoration, of the Alhambra, 282 ; of Romanesque churches, 298 ; super- fluous and bizarre in Romanesque churches, 308 ; good taste of Nor- man, 313. Delhi, mosque at, 271 ; nameless Sara- cenic tomb at, 272. Denderah, temple at, 28. Dental, defined, 161. Diocletian, Thermae of, 207-209. Domes, pendentive, 222 ; of Santa Sophia, 225 ; replace roofs, 227 ; Neo-Byzantine, 230; monolithic 462 THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE. of La Rotonda, 248 ; Brunelles- chi's on the Florence cathedral, 381 ; of St. Peter's, at Rome, 387 ; of the Capitol at Washington, 443. Domestic architecture, in Egypt, 30- 32; in China, 65-68; of Corea, 77-80; in Japan, 83-85; of. Mex- ico, 106; of Peru, in; at Nine- veh, 123; Greek, 177; Roman, 191 ; Saracenic, 265 ; in Turkey, 288; English, 366; Italian, 367; French, 369; early development in England, 404. Donjon, defined, 363 ; examples, 364. Doorways, treatment in China, 66. Doric order, described, 148, 154; ex- amples, 150-161 ; called masculine, 170; Roman, described, 189; ex- amples, 204, 216. Dravidian style, 42-52- Ebn Touloun, mosque of, 267. Edfou, temple of, 2S. Egypt, architecture, 1-32 ; history, 9, 26, 33-35- Elephanta, temple of, 54. Elizabethan style, 403. EUora, temples at, 50-52. England, receives the Romanesque style, 314 ; Elizabethan style, 403- 405 ; Jacobean style, 405-407 ; Wren period, 407-410 ; the eight- eenth century, 410-414. Entablature, defined, 148, Erectheion, 166-170. Escorial Palace, 423. EsoNARTHEX, defined, 226. Elruria, architecture, 182-186. ExoNAKTHEX, defined, 226. Facade. The outside surface of a building, especially the principal front. FiNiAL. A sculptured ornament which represents a leaf or a flower, and which is employed as a termina- tion to gables, pinnacles, and canopies. Flamboyant period, 327, 340-344. Florence, cathedral at, 317, 362 ; first centre of Renaissance architecture, 378 ; cathedral, dome, 381. Fosse, defined, 363. Fountains, Turkish, 285. Foyer, defined, 175. France, examples of the Byzantine style, 237 ; civil architecture, 369 ; Renaissance under the Vedois, 391-398 ; under the Bourbons, 398-400 ; the Rococo, 400-402. Francis I, house of, 395. Freemasons, influence on English ar- chitecture, 348. French, Early, period, 327, 328-336. Frieze, defined, 148. Furnishings, Roman, 192 ; of the Al- hambra, 282. Gables, flamboyant, 342. Gargoyles. The spouts placed on a Gothic building to carry the rain water from the roof far from the walls. They most frequently rep- resented fantastic creatures. Genka, defined, 84. George Inn, 354. Germany, the Renaissance in, 414-418. Ghazni, minars at, 270. Giralda tower, 284, 424. GODOWN, defined, 85. GopuRA, defined, 43. Gothic style, origin of the name, 319 ; solution of the lighting problem, 326; arrangement of buttresses, 326 ; its three periods, 327 ; in England, 344-361 ; three periods of English Gothic, 347; Early English, 347-351 ; decorated pe- riod, 352-354 ; perpendicular pe- riod, 354-361 ; the Gothic in Ger- INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 463 many, Spsiin, and Italy, 361 ; sec- ular, 363-376; classic forms applied to exteriors, 380 ; revival in Amer- ica, 443. Greek architecture, 141-181 ; charac- ter, 180 ; copied in America, 440. Greek-cross plan, 227, 229. Griego-Romano style, 421-425. Grisaille glass, 397. Grottoes of Egypt imitate buildings, 23- Guatemala, architecture, 109. Guilds, position of the French building trades in the twelfth century, 320 ; the Freemasons in England, 348. Gymnasium, Greek, 176. Hadrian, mausoleum of, 217. Half-timbered houses, 373. Hampton Court, 376. Heating arrangements, Chinese, 67 ; Corean, 78. Hexastyle. Having six columns in the facade. Honduras, architecture, loS. House of the Nuns, afUxmal, 106. Hunt, Richard Morris, works, 448- 451- HyPjETHRAL temples, defined, 12. Hypostyle hall, defined, 12. Inca style, 111-116. India, architecture, 36-55; Saracenic style in, 267-275. Indo-Aryan style, 52-55. Indo-China, fantastic architecture, 55- 61. Ionic order, described, 148, 161 ; ex- amples, 163-171 ; Roman, de- scribed, 189 ; examples, 191, 216. Ipsamboul, temples of, 19-22. Italy, palaces, 367. Jacobean style, 405-407. Jail at Pittsburg, Pa., 447. Japan, architecture, 81-99; history, 81-83 ; improves imported forms, 83, 93 ; impressionist character, 93. Jaunpore, gateways of mosques, 271. Java, its overdecorated style, 61. Jerusalem, temples at, 129-132. Jesuit style, 389-391. Jones, Inigo, contributions to the Eng- lish Renaissance, 406. Jupiter Stater, temple of, 197. Tonans, temple of, at Rome, 198. Justinian, architectural works, 248. Kaabah, Mahomet's, 257. Kaitbey, mosque of, 267. Kang, defined, 67. Karli, temple of, 40. Kamak, temple of, 15-19. Keep, defined, 365. Keystones, hanging, 342. Khodabendah, Sultan, tomb at Sul- taneiEih, 264. Label, defined, 359. Labyrinth, 24. Lancet period, 327. Lanfroi, put to death by the Countess of Bayeux, 365. Latrobe, B. H., work on the Capitol at Washington, 442. Lisieux, half-timbered houses of, 373. Loggia. A gallery or portico project- ing from a building and sometimes decorated with paintings, of the Vatican, 384. Lombard style, 251-254. school, in Italy, 317. Luxor, temple of, 16, 18. Lysicrates, monument of, 174. McKim, Meade & White, works, 452- 454- Mademo, Carlo, character of his work, ^^■ Mahavellipore, temples at, 49. 464 THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Mahometan style, 256-289. Mammeisi, defined, 29. Manco Capac, house of, 113. Manor houses, English, 366 ; Ameri- can, 428-438. Mantapa, defined, 43. Market, Greek, 177.. Masonry, Egyptian, 6 ; Inca, 114, 115 ; Cyclopean, 143. Mastabah, defined, 7. Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, 179 ; of Hadrian, 217 ; of Suleiman, 286. Memnon, statues of, 13. Memphite period, limits, i ; examples, 1-9. Menber, defined, 26r. Metope, defined, 153. Mexico, architecture, 100-108, Mihrab, defined, 26r. Minaret, defined, 239; Giralda tower, at Seville, 284. Minars at Ghazni, 270. Minster at York, 354. MODILLION. A bracket placed under a cornice or balcony. Monasteries, Buddhist, 41. Moorish architecture, 275-284. Mosaic, gold, 233. Mosques, construction, 259-261 ; ex- amples, 261-263, 2^1 27'i ^7^" 286-288. Mouldings, Early English, 350 ; per- pendicular, 359. Mudejar style, 420. MuLLiON. A stone compartment which divides the surface of a window, in the Flamboyant period, 338, 340- Mummies in houses, 24. MUNA-os-E, defined, 91. MuTULE. A modillion of considerable size peculiar to the Doric order. Mycenas, Gate of Lions at, 145. Mycerinus, pyramid of, 2, 5. Nanking, porcelain tower, 68. Naos, defined, 147. Narthex, defined, 242, 243. Naugatuck Library building, 452. Naumachias, 212. Nave. That part of a Gothic church which extends from the choir to the western door. Nebuchadnezzar, restores Birs Nim- roud, 121. Nectanebo I, architectural works, 27. Neo-Byzantine epoch, 229-240. Nike Apteros, temple of, 163-166. Nineveh, architecture, 122-129. Norman style, 290; the simpler school of Romanesque architecture, 310 ; examples, 311. Notie Dame, church of, at Poitiers, 258, 309 ; du Port, church of, 298 ; cathedral of, in Paris, 331. Nubia, architecture, 15, 19-22. Obeli ks, general form, 10 ; examples, II. Octostyle. Having the facade deco- rated with eight columns. Office building at Milwaukee, 456 ; at Chicago, 456. Origineil style, 319. Ogive, defined, 319. Omar, mosque of, 261. Opisthodomos, defined, 147. Order, defined, 8 ». Orders, composite, 191, 203; classic, employment in the Renaissemce, •379 ; new use by Michael Angelo, 386. Orienting, defined, 296. Osirtasu I, his architectural works, 9, ij, 16. Oubliette, defined, 365. Pagoda, defined, 43; of Shoemadoo, 56 ; Chinese, 68-70 ; in Japan, 97- INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 465 Pai-fongs, 71. Pai-loos, 70. Palaces, Chinese, 67 ; Corean, So ; Japanese, 85 ; Mexican, loi ; Cen- tral American, 109; Inca, 11 1; Assyrian, 119, 122-129 ; at Baby- Ion, 133 ; Roman, 193-197 ; of Turkey, 288; Italian, 383; Pan- dolfini, 387 ; Versailles, 398 ; Es- corial, 423 ; of the Renaissance in Germany, 416. Palaestra, 176. Palenque, teocalli of, 104. Palladio, character of his work, 387. Pandoliini palace, 387. Panelling, in perpendicular Gothic, 354- Pantheon, 199, 207. Parapet, A wall which runs along the edge of a balcony, a platform, or a bridge, or protects the top,of a house or a church. Paris, cathedral of Notre Dame at, 331- Parthenon, plan, 148 ; construction, 156-159 ; history, 160. Patio Casa de la Infanta, 421. Pediment, defined, 154. Pedestal, defined, 183. Pelasgic period, 142-147. Pendentive system, described, 222 ; ex- amples, 223, 225. Periclean period, 147-181. Peripteral, defined, 153. Peristyle. A colonnade running round the interior of a court- yard. Persepolis, buildings, 135-137. Persia, architecture, 135-140. Peru, architecture, iio-ii6. Penizzi, Baldassare, character of his work, 384. Phidias, work on the Parthenon, 156. Philae, temple at, 28. Piazza del Campo, at Sienna, 367. 31 Piers, Romanesque, 304; Early Eng- lish, 349 ; Decorated, 352 ; Perpen- dicular, 359. PiLASiER. A square support termi- nated by a base and a capital. Pisa, cathedral at, 302, 317. Plateresco style, 420. Prokaos, defined, 147. Propyl.'ea, defined, 13. Prostyle, defined, 167. Proto-Doric order, early example, 8. Psammeticus I, architectural works, 23. Ptolemaic age, characteristics, i ; ex- amples, 27-32. Pylon. A ma£s of masonry in the form of a truncated pyramid with a door in the middle, terminated in a platform. Pyramids of Gizeh, 2 ; of Cheops, 3 ; of Chephren and Mycerinus, 5. Ramma, defined, 85. Raum, Col. G. E., disc«vered cap of the Sphinx, 7 n. Rayonnant period, 327, 336-340. Red-arrow gate, origin, 71 ; construc- tion, 77. Renaissance, meaning, 377 ; the Cinque Cento, 378-382 ; the Sei Cento, 382-389 ; Barocco or Jesuit style, 3S9-391 ; Renaissance in France under the Valois, 391-398 ; under the Bourbons, 398-400 ; the Ro- coco, 400 ; the Late Renaissance, 401 ; in England, 403-414 ; in Germany, 414-418 ; in Spain, 419. Replica. An original work of art of the same dimensions as an earlier production by the same artist, and representing identically the same subject as that treated in the former work. Rhameses the Great, architectural works, 10, 21. 466 THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rhameses III, built temple of Medinet- Abou, lo. Rheims, cathedral, 330. Rhenish school, 316. Richardson, Henry Hobson, works, 446-448. Rococo, 400. Romanesque style, 290-318 ; division into two schools, 308; introduc- tion into England, 314; spread over Europe, 315 ; Rhenish school, 316 ; main features, 318. Rome, architecture, 186-218 ; temple of Jupiter Stator, 197 ; temple of Jupiter Tonans, 198 ; the Pan- theon, 199. Roofs, gayly decorated in Siam, 57 ; treatment in Chinese houses, 66 ; use of coloured tiles in China, 70, 74 ; tiles in Japan, 95 ; form on Assyrian buildings, 126 ; of Greek temples, 147; superseded by domes, 227 ; of early Christian churches, 245 ; slow introduction of the vault among the Normans, 313. Rouen, Palais de Justice at, 373. Russia, examples of Byzantine style, 238-240. St. Andrew, church of, 250. St. Basil, church of, 240. St. -Denis, church of, mode of buttress- ing, 326. St.-Etienne, church of, at Caen, 311. St. -Front, church of, 237, 294. St.-Gilles, church of, in Languedoc, 301, 309. St. Luke's church, near Smithfield, Va., 438. St. Mark, cathedral of, 234-237. St. Nicodemus, church of, 231. St. Paul beyond the Walls, basilica of, 246. St. Paul's church in London, 408. St. Paul's church, in New York, 440. St. Peter, basilica of, 242, 244. St. Peter's church at Rome, 387. St.-Sernin, church of, at Toulouse, 311- St. Theodore, church of, 233. St. Trophyme, church of, at Aries, 300. Ste. -Trinity, church of, at Caen, 311. Saite period, limits, i ; vicissitudes, 26. Sakya Muni, founded Buddhism, 37. Salisbury, cathedral at, 351. Sammon, defined, 95. San Apollinare in Classe, basilica of, 248. San Michele, church of, 254. San Vitale, church of, 234, 248, 250. Sta. Maria Toscanella, church of, 254. Sta. Sophia, church of, 223-229. Sti. Angeli, tomb of, 250. Saracenic style, general character, 256- 259 ; Eastern division, 259-275 ; Western division, 275-289. Sardanapalus, palace of, 125. Sargon, palace of, 122, 126. Saxon style, 3r4. Sculpture, characteristic of Flamboy- ant period, 340. Sei Cento, 382-389. Sennacherib, palace of, 128. Sennamar, works and death, 256. Sens, Guillaume de, introduces Gothic architecture into England, 344. Serdab, defined, 7. Sergius and Bacchus, church of, 22t. Sesostris, architectural works, 10, 21. Sgraffito, defined, 417. Shait, defined, 148. Shinto style, 90-93. Shirley house, 437. Shoeraadoo, pagoda of, 56. Shoji, defined, 84. Siam, architecture, S7-59- Sienna, cathedral at, 362. Silversmith's style, 420. INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 467 Spain, the Renaissance in, 419-427. Spalato, palace of Diocletian at, 193- 197. Spandrel. The triangular space be- tween the outer surface of an arch and the rectangular moulding which surmounts the arch. Spea, defined, 12. Sphinx, Egyptian, 6 ; Assyrian, 127. Stadium of Athens, 176. Statues, the Sphinx, 6 ; of Amenophis or Memnon, 13 ; at Ipsamboul, 21, 22 ; Aztec, 105 ; Central Amer- ican, 108. Sthambas, defined, 38. Stylobate, defined, 154, 156. Suleiman, mosque of, 286. Syria, architecture, 129-132. Tage Mehal, 274. Tahraka, circhitectural works, 26. Tee, defined, 55. Tell-Loh, palace at, 122. Temenos, defined, 12. Temples, hypasthral, plan and chief features, 12-15 ; of Kjrnak, 15- 19 ; at Philas and Denderah, 28 ; Indo- Aryan, 52-34 ; Dravidian, general plan, 42-46 ; examples, 46, 49 ; comparison with Egyptian, 48 ; Chinese, 72-74 ; Shinto, 90- 93 ; Buddhist, 93-99 ; Mexican, 102; Inca, 112, lis; Assyrian, 119-122 ; none at Nineveh, 123 ; at Jerusalem, first and second, 129-132 ; at Babylon, 133 ; Greek, construction, 147 ; Doric, 150-161 ; of Erectheus, Pandrosus, and Mi- nerva Polias, 166; Roman, 197- 2CO. rock-cut, general plan, 15 ; temple of Ipsamboul, 19-22 ; Buddhist, 39-42 ; of Karli, 40 ; Dravidian, 49-52 ; the Indo-Aryan of Ele- phanta, 54. Teocalli, defined, 102 ; examples, 102-104. Theatre of Dionysus, 175 ; Roman, 209. Theban period, limits, i ; examples, 9-25. Theodoric the Goth, architectural works, 247. Theotocos, church of, 230. Tholos, defined, 174. Thornton, Dr. William, design; the Capitol at Washington, 442. Thotmes I, architectural works, 10, 11, 18. Thotmes III, architectural works, 11, 18. Thotmes IV, his temple to the Sphinx, 7- Tiger cave, 41. Tiruvalur, temple at, 49. Titus, Arch of, 203. Tombs, of kings in pyramids, 2, 4 ; rock-cut, 22 ; at Beni-Hassan, 8, 23 ; Chinese, 74 ; Lycian, 140 ; Greek, 179; rock-cut, of Etruria, 184 ; tumular, 185 ; Roman, 216 ; early Christian, 249 ; of the Sul- tan Khodabendah, 264 ; Saracenic in India, 272-275 ; of Suleiman, 286. Tope, defined, 38. Torcello, basilica at, 255. TORii, defined, 91. Torus, defined, 183. Towers, position and construction in Norman churches, 311-313; of Earls Barton, 314 ; the Giralda, 424 ; Churrigueresque, 426. Town halls of Europe, 373 ; of the Renaissance in Germany, 416. Tracery, plate, defined, 354. Transept, defined, 242. Transom, defined, 359. Trajan, column of, 204. Treasury of Atreus, 146. 468 THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Trefoils, 338. Triforium, defined, 246, 344. Triglyph, defined, 152. Troyes, cathedral at, 342. Trunch Hall, Norfolk, 359. Tudor style, 375. Turkey, Sjaracenic architecture in, 284- 288. Tuscan order, 183-186. Tympana, 301. '*" Typhonia, defined, 29. Utatalan, ruins of, 109. Uxmal, ruins of, 105. Valois, the Renaissance under, 391- 398- Vanbrugh, Sir John, works, 410-412. Van Rensselaer Manor House, 435. Vatican, loggia of, 384. Vault, distinguishes the Romanesque style, 290 ; first efforts towa:d, 294 ; the problem solved, 296. Vaulting, fan, 342, 354-358. Venice, palaces of, 369. Versailles, palace of, 398. Vertical architecture, 454. Vignola, character of his work, 387. ViH-i^RA, defined, 40. Villa Viciosa, chapel of, 284. ViMANA, defined, 43 ; general style, 43. Viollet-Leduc, quoted, 341. Vlie house, 431. Volute, defined, 161. VoussoiR, defined, 186. Voussoirs, alternating in colour, 302. Wady Sabooah, rock-cut temple, 15. Walter, Thomas, w oik on the Capitol at Washington, 443. Wat, defined, 57. Westover house, 436. Windows, rose, origin, 244, 298, 331 ; triforium, 246 ; first used in apse, 249 ; Saracenic, 260 ; bull's-eye, 2j8 ; lancet, 331 ; of the Rayon- nant period, 336; Flamboyant tracery, 34c ; Early English, 350. Winds, Tower of the, 175. Woodwork, successfully preserved by the Moors, 277, 283. World's Fair buildings at Chicago, 456-458. Worms, cathedral at, 316. Wren, Sir Christopher, works, 407- 410 ; said to have designed Ameri- can buildings, 42S. Wren period, 407-410. Xerxes, palace of, 137. Yashiki, defined, 87 ; construction, 8g. York Minster, 354. Ypres, hotel de ville at, 373. Yucatan, architecture, 104-108. THK END. 468 THE STORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Trefoils, 338. Trifosium, defined, 246, 344. Triglyph, defined, 152. Troyes, cathedral at, 342. Trunch Hall, Norfolk, 359. Tudor style, 375. Turkey, Saracenic architecture in, 284- 288. Tuscan order, 183-186. Tympana, 301. '*'" Typuonia, defined, 29. Utatalan, ruins of, 109. Uxmal, ruins of, 105. Valois, the Renaissance under, 391- 398- Vanbrugh, Sir John, works, 410-412. Van Rensselaer Manor House, 435. Vatican, logfgia of, 384. Vault, distinguishes the Romanesque style, 290; first efforts towaid, 294 ; the problem solved, 296. Vaulting, fan, 342, 354-358. Venice, palaces of, 369. Versailles, palace of, 398. Vertical architecture, 454. Vignola, character of his work, 387. ViHARA, defined, 40. Villa Viciosa, chapel of, 284. ViMANA, defined, 43 ; general style, 43. VioUet-Leduc, quoted, 341. Vlie house, 431. Volute, defined, 161. VoussoiR, defined, 186. Voussoirs, alternating in colour, 302. Wady Sabooah, rock-cut temple, 15, Walter, Thomas, w oik on the Capitol at Washington, 443. Wat, defined, 57. Westover house, 436. Windows, rose, origin, 244, 298, 331 ; triforium, 246 ; first used in apse, 249 ; Saracenic, 260 ; bull's-eye, 298 ; lancet, 331 ; of the Rayon- nant period, 336; Flamboyant tracery, 34c ; Early English, 350. Winds, Tower of the, 175. Woodwork, successfully preserved by the Moors, 277, 283. World's Fair buildings at Chicago, 456-458. Worms, cathedral at, 316. Wren, Sir Christopher, works, 407- 410 ; said to have designed Ameri- can buildings, 428. Wren period, 407-410. Xerxes, palace of, 137. Yashiki, defined, 87 ; construction, 89. York Minster, 354. Ypres, hotel de ville at, 373. Yucatan, architecture, 104-108. THK END.