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THE TEACHING OF LATIN 
 IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
 
 By EUGENE A. HECKER 
 
 Master in the Roxbury Latin School 
 
 THE SCHOENHOF BOOK COMPANY 
 
 128 Tremont Street 
 
 BOSTON (MASS.) 
 
 T 
 
Cotyrts'at 1909 
 
 by 
 
 Eugene A. Heckef 
 
 Press of 
 
 Caustic Claflin Company 
 
 Cambridge, Mass. 
 
CHAPTER I 
 
 The keynote of modern pedagogy is a protest against 
 tradition, whether in subject-matter or in methods of 
 presentation. No subject of instruction has, when com- 
 pared with other studies of the curriculum, so long a 
 tradition behind it as has Latin. Inasmuch as every 
 study in our modern system of education must, as is 
 fitting, prove its ability to secure a definite result of 
 actual worth, we shall first attempt to ascertain what 
 credentials it needs to present to prove its right of ad- 
 mission as a subject of instruction. 
 
 Unless a study can be correlated with something in 
 the lives of our pupils — we are dealing with boys and 
 girls of high-school age — -then that study is useless; 
 as idle as the inquiries of Tiberius at Capri when he 
 wished to discover what song it was that the Sirens 
 sang. It is true, that the mere fact of knowing some- 
 thing — Ah! la belle chose que de savoir quelque chose! — 
 may ■ enthuse a student for the moment, no matter 
 whether the thing learned has some connection with 
 vital matters or not; but later, when he perceives its 
 isolation, the reaction may take the form of a ^riolent 
 protest against the whole subject of which the mental 
 gymnastic was a part. Of this fact the writer can recall 
 two instances, the one connected with arithmetic, the 
 other with English grammar. His teacher in arithmetic 
 insisted that in a case of division of fractions he must 
 not invert the divisor and multiply, but work instead by 
 the method of finding a greatest common divisor. The 
 case in grammar was that complex system of " diagram- 
 ming " a sentence by countless lines and sub-lines until 
 
the thing looked like a railroad map ; wherein the gram- 
 matical interest of the sentence had long since yielded 
 to its possibilities as a model in drawing. Studies and 
 the methods employed in their elucidation must pro- 
 duce a definite and practical result; if their aim is men- 
 tal gymnastic alone, they have no place in secondary 
 schools. They may yield a return in dollars and cents; 
 or they may explain the laws of nature and their rela- 
 tions to our bodies; or they may present the evolution 
 of the races; or mould character, inculcate ideals, and 
 develop a feeling for the beautiful; and the like. But 
 some definite and practical result, bearing directly on 
 life, each study must effect before we can admit it. 
 
 The study of Latin will_ yield, no. particular ^financial 
 return. Its possible benefits may be embraced under 
 the following headings : 
 
 I. A thorough knowledge of grammatical principles. 
 
 II. A correct use of English, both by a clearer in- 
 sight into grammar and by the accurate and faithful 
 translation of the acknowledged masterpieces of a tongue 
 quite different in its idioms from qurs. 
 
 III. An appreciation of good literature. 
 
 IV. An understanding of the political, social, and 
 religious institutions of the Roman Empire in its native 
 vehicle, the Latin tongue; and any insight into a differ- 
 ent civilization, especially through its own medium of 
 expression, necessarily brog^dens the view. 
 
 V. An idea of the profound influence of Rome on 
 modern literatures, languages, and institutions; a grasp 
 of the continuity of history and the evolution of the 
 races. 
 
 It is evident that such benefits are acceptable in a 
 modern system of education; inasmuch as they may 
 mould character ; inspire ideals ; assist correctness in the 
 use of the mother-tongue and of modern foreign lan- 
 guages; and develop the logical and historical faculty. 
 Nevertheless, we must confess at once that the ad- 
 
vantages enumerated are not peculiar to Latin. The 
 accurate study of a modern foreign tongue may pro- 
 duce the first three eftects described above; and the 
 benefits mentioned under IV and V may be procured 
 fairly well by means of good translations. We must 
 inquire, then, in what 'respect the study of Latin may 
 have special advantages. 
 
 A knowledge of Latin is not only pi'ofitable, but in- 
 dispensable to two classes of students : L Those who 
 wish to study any European literature and language 
 with reference to its growth and sources ; IL Those 
 who intend to study history from the original sources. 
 The truth of my first assertion I take as obvious.*- 
 
 It might be objected to my second statement, how- 
 ever, that here translations would do. So, indeed, they 
 might, if they existed. But we must remember that the 
 use of Latin in diplomacy did not die out until the close 
 of the seventeenth century, when French took its place ;" 
 that long after this date the German empire insisted that 
 negotiations with itself be conducted in Latin; and that 
 not until 1825 did Magyar displace Latin in the debates 
 of the Hungarian Diet. Latin is still the medium of 
 communication of the Roman Catholic Church. The 
 
 A " For myself," remarks Mr. F. W. H. Myers, " I am 
 no fanatical advocate of a classical education, — a form of 
 training which must needs lose its old unique position now 
 that there is so much else to know. But for one small class 
 of students such an education still seems to me essential, 
 for those, namely, who desire to judge the highest poetry 
 aright." 
 
 E The following great scientific works were written in 
 Latin : 
 
 Newton's Principia — • 1689. 
 
 Burnet's Theoria Telluris Sacra — 1694. 
 
 Ray's Synopsis Methodioa — 1693. 
 
 Linnaeus — ■ Systema Naturae — 1760. 
 
 Leibnitz [1646-1716] was the last great philosopher who 
 habitually employed Latin in his works. 
 
student will hardly find translations of all the Latin 
 above mentioned ; although he could have them made — 
 if he were a millionaire; but ill this case we should 
 hardly consider him a great authority. 
 
 So much for those students for whom Latin is very 
 necessary. The two groups are obviously only a mi- 
 nority. We shall inquire next what benefits the pur- 
 suit of Latin may hold for a pupil who would like to 
 know if, for example, he should take German and 
 French, or one of these languages and Latin. 
 
 A correct use and adequate command of English is 
 as desirable in business as in literature; and there is 
 no vehicle more fit to give this practical benefit than 
 the study of Latin. For Latin is severely logical; one 
 may not read without taking in and weighing each word. 
 This is a mental stimulus of the first rank. If now a 
 faithful attempt is made to render as adequately as 
 possible the elegance and directness of Caesar, the 
 rhythm and periodic flow of Cicero, the harmony and 
 majesty of Vergil, one's English vocabulary will be 
 enormously broadened and the command of expression 
 and the style bettered many fold. It seems more than 
 an accident that the great masters of style of English 
 literature were steeped in Latin — Milton, De Quincey, 
 Burke, Macaulay, Gladstone, Carlyle, Gibbon. French 
 and German cannot be as valuable here as Latin, for 
 the simple reason that they are too like our idiom 
 and demand no particular mental effort, if the dic- 
 tionary is handy. That even a limited study of Latin 
 is of great help in understanding English grammar, 
 I am confident that no one will deny. And there 
 can be no doubt that one who has mastered his Latin 
 grammar can grasp French, Italian, and Spanish gram- 
 mar in short order; so that some Latin will do no harm 
 even to the student who, without any particular liking 
 
for it, yet purposes to enter any trade or profession 
 where the knowledge of a modern tongue will be of 
 assistance. 
 
 A knowledge of Latin is certainly a powerful help 
 in the comprehension of the various terminologies dnd 
 methods of classification of the natural sciences, of law, 
 of medicine, of logic, and of philosophy; although I do 
 not agree with those who would make Latin compulsory 
 for prospective students of those sciences. But the 
 language is assuredly of assistance in many ways. The 
 student of Latin need not run to the dictionary to find 
 out the meaning of words like horticulture, apiculture, 
 magnanimous, craniology, cervical, cardial, labial, lingual, 
 carnivorous, and the like. And Latin, which has fur- 
 nished English, with a vast per cent of its words, is also 
 an aid to correct spelling ; as in words like " separate," 
 " missile," " discern." 
 
 Having now enumerated the advantages of Latin, we 
 shall inquire next whether it should be a compulsory 
 study at any time or throughout the course. Will it 
 be beneficial to every boy and girl without distinction? 
 
 No one study is fitted for every mind. The aim of 
 education should be, to find that combination of studies 
 which shall develop each individual character to the 
 end for which Nature has fitted it. It is evident that 
 certain subjects are so intimately bound up with every 
 branch of human activity that they must be compulsory ; 
 for, lacking them, the child has not the tools for ad- 
 vancement. Such are reading and writing of English, 
 arithmetic, geography, and American history (including 
 Civics). When we get outside the range of these 
 foundation studies, we must begin to exercise a choice; 
 a wide field is presented; and, as I have already re- 
 marked, the individual needs now to work out the place 
 for which Nature has destined him in the social order. 
 It is for this reason that Industrial Education is the 
 greatest pedagogical movement of the last decade. There 
 
is no point in forcing Latin upon a boy whom Nature 
 has intended for a blacksmith. There are some who 
 would prescribe Latin for such a one for " culture " — 
 whatever that is. But the boy who is taught black- 
 smithing thoroughly, who is inspired with a desire to 
 produce the very best work, who is led to contemplate 
 his trade as a whole which he may be privileged to 
 develop further; the boy, in short, who has, by the 
 study of blacksmithing, acquired the power to produce 
 and to express himself; that boy has a fair culture. 
 Others believe in forcing Latin upon all alike on the 
 ground that the fact of wrestling with a repugnant study 
 strengthens the will. They ought to prescribe Sanskrit 
 or Hebrew. The remedy for the prevalent search after 
 easy studies is not to prescribe one particular sort, but 
 to make all subjects which the pupil may take the basis 
 of thorough work, demanding real and earnest effort. 
 Latin should be an optional study ; and in practice 
 it is generally so in our public schools, since the student 
 has a choice of several courses, such as the Classical, 
 the Scientific, the Business, some of which require Latin 
 and some of which do not include it. Educators are 
 fond of attacking non-classical courses for their lack 
 of results in system and mental training. This is not, 
 however, the fault of non-classical courses per se, but 
 because, unfortunately, the subjects of those courses 
 have not in the past been taught with the thoroughness 
 that has, on the whole, characterized instruction in the 
 Classics. Any subject that has some connection with 
 life is valuable and useful if taught accurately and 
 thoroughly. The lack of scholarly training which re- 
 sulted for a time in Harvard College under the elective 
 system was not due to that system in itself, but simply 
 to the fact that courses other than the Classics and 
 Mathematics were not yet adjusted to scientific peda- 
 gogy and undergraduates therefore did a minimum of 
 work in them. However, it is not out of place for 
 
teachers to point out to all students at the beginning of 
 their high-school career that Latin will not hurt any 
 one, no matter what he intends to be; it will benefit, 
 even if taken but one year. ^ 
 
 Since we have determined what the advantages of 
 Latin are and have argued that it should not be a com- 
 pulsory study, it will now be our purpose, in the fol- 
 lowing pages, to discuss the grammar to be mastered, 
 the authors to be read, and those methods of presenta- 
 tion which shall develop the subject in its highest degree 
 of usefulness and inspiration; It must be our aim to 
 emphasize the essential and to pass lightly over the less 
 important — Wie wolltc einer als Meister in seinem Fach 
 erscheinen, wenn er nichts Unnutzes iehrte! [Goethe: 
 Sprtiche in Prosa.] Our ideal is, to develop the greatest 
 amount of interest in the pupil and to have him derive 
 the greatest profit, without, at the same time, losing 
 sight of the fundamental principles of accuracy and 
 thoroughness. Nothing can stand without these elements 
 as a foundation. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Before we comment on the teaching itself of Latin, 
 it will be well to consider representative schedules in 
 that subject as they exist to-day in Germany, in France, 
 in England, and in the United States; and to these pro- 
 grammes we shall append the courses of study of three 
 great schoolmasters of the Renaissance — Vittorino da 
 Feltre, John Sturm, and Roger Ascham. This will pave 
 the way more clearly for a discussion of authors to be 
 read and methods to be employed to-day. 
 
I. German Schools 
 
 The programs of German schools in which Latin 
 is taught may "well be illustrated by the following 
 examples : 
 
 PROGRAM 
 
 OF 
 
 THE 
 
 "GYMNASIEN" 
 
 IN 
 
 PRUSSIA 
 
 
 
 VI 
 
 V 
 
 IV 
 
 * 
 UIII 
 
 OIII 
 
 t 
 UII 
 
 t 
 on 
 
 t 
 UI 
 
 t 
 01 
 
 Hi 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 Religion 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 German and His- 
 torical Anecdotes 
 
 
 :f 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 Latin 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 6 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 7] 
 
 7' 
 6 
 
 7' 
 ^1 
 
 68 
 
 Greek 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6) 
 
 36 
 
 French 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 History 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2] 
 
 3] 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 Geography 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ij 
 
 
 9 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 41 
 
 4] 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 Natural Sciences 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 zj 
 
 18 
 
 Writing 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 Drawing 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 Total 
 
 2S 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 2S9 
 
 *UIII = Unter-tertia : O III = Ober-tertia. 
 t U II = Unter-secunda ; 1 1 = Ober-secunda. 
 JUI = Unter-prima; O I = Ober-priraa. 
 
 The course is nine years long. 
 
 8 
 
PROGRAM OF THE " REALGYMNASIEN " IN PRUSSIA 
 
 
 VI 
 
 V 
 
 IV 
 
 UllI 
 
 OIII UII Oil 
 
 UI 
 
 OI 
 
 < 
 
 H 
 O 
 H 
 
 Religion 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 German and His- 
 torical Anecdotes 
 
 '1^ 
 1. 
 
 2) 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 Latin 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 49 
 
 French 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 S 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 '1 
 
 4' 
 
 4] 
 
 29 
 
 English 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 al 
 
 18 
 
 History 
 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1^ 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 ]3 
 
 17 
 
 Geography 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 11 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 5 
 S 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 42 
 
 Natural Science 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 S 
 
 29 
 
 Writing 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 ~" 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 4 
 
 Drawing 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 Total 25 25 
 
 29 30 30 30 31 31 31 262 
 
 General Aim: A. For the Gymnasium: the acqui- 
 sition of a knowledge of the most important classical 
 writers of Rome, based on a firm grammatical founda- 
 tion; and by these means an appreciation of the genius 
 of antiquity. B. For the Realgymnasium : a firm gram- 
 matical foundation and the reading of the easier works 
 of Roman literature. 
 
In the Realgymnasium Caesar alone of prose-writers 
 is read for three successive years, from Untertertia to 
 Untersecunda. In Untersecunda a few selections of 
 Ovid's Metamorphoses are read; but not until Ober- 
 secunda, that is, after six years of Latin, may Cassar 
 give way to selections from Curtius or Livy or one of 
 the easier orations of Cicero. In Prima, passages from 
 Vergil's " Aeneid," the easier " Odes " of Horace, and 
 selections from the " Germania " of Tacitus are read. 
 
 The Gymnasium presents a somewhat wider range. 
 But here also Caesar and selections from the Metamor- 
 phoses are alone read for two years. The program 
 for the last four years is as follows : 
 
 Untersecunda: Easier Orations of Cicero [e.g., pro 
 S. Roscio, in Catihnam, de imperio Cn. Pompei] ; selec- 
 tions from the First Decade of Livy,; Ovid — who may 
 be replaced, in the second half-year, by Vergil's 
 " Aeneid." Translation at sight, also from Caesar. 
 
 Obersecunda: Selections from Livy's Third Decade; 
 Cicero's Orations [e.g., pro Archia, pro Ligario, pro 
 rege Deiotaro, in Cascilium], and the Cato Maior; Se- 
 lections from Sallust ; Vergil's " Aeneid " in such se- 
 lections as shall be complete in themselves and yet give 
 an idea of the whole work. Sight reading to suit the 
 occasion. Memorizing of verses from Vergil. 
 
 Unter-und-oberprima : Cicero's Orations [e.g., in Ver- 
 rem IV or V, pro Plancio, pro Sestio, all with portions 
 omitted, pro Murena] ; selections from Cicero's letters 
 and philosophical and rhetorical works ; the " Germania " 
 of Tacitus — at least as far as ch. 27 — -also the 
 " Agricola " or parts of the " Dialogue," as well as 
 selections from the " Annals " — especially the portions 
 dealing with Germany — and from the " Histories " ; 
 selections from Horace and memorizing of some of his 
 odes. 
 
 In the Gymnasien of Bavaria Curtius and the Elegiac 
 Poets are found with Caesar and Ovid as early as the 
 
 10 
 
fifth class — obertertia — while in the eighth Quintilian 
 appears with Cicero; in the highest class Terence and 
 Plautus accompany the Satires and Epistles of Horace. 
 
 It must be borne in mind, of course, that the last two 
 years of the Gymnasium are equivalent to the first two 
 years of our college work. People are not usually 
 aware, that the study of the Classics' has been violently 
 assailed in Germany during the past decade; and the 
 whole curriculum has undergone, and is still undergoing, 
 fundamental changes. Particularly has the old regime, 
 which made grammar and composition ends in them- 
 selves, suflFered the keenest onslaughts ; and the emphasis 
 tends more and more to be placed on the reading of 
 the authors with the purpose of gaining an appreciation 
 of the genius of Rome; while grammar and composition 
 are pursued only so far as they serve as tools for such 
 study. The professional student will find the following 
 three books most useful to consult on the matter — -books 
 which combine a clear and interesting style with profound 
 knowledge of the whole history of classical studies : 
 
 I. Das Unterrichtswesen im Deutschen Reich. Aus 
 Anlass der Weltausstellung in St. Louis unter Mitwir- 
 kung zahlreicher Fachrnanner herausgegeben von W. 
 Lexis. Zweiter Band : Die hoheren Lehranstalten und 
 das Madchenschulwesen. BerHn. Verlag von A. Asher 
 und Co. 1904. 
 
 IL F. Paulsen: Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts 
 auf den deutschen Schulen und Universitaten vom Aus- 
 gang des Mittelalters bis zur Gegenwart. Leipsig. Ver- 
 lag von Veit u. Comp. 1896. 
 
 III. P. Dettweiler: in A. Baumeister's Handbuch der 
 Ei-ziehungs-und Unterrichtslehre fiir hohere Schulen; 
 vol. Ill — ^Didaktik und Methodik der einzelnen Lehr- 
 facher. Miinchen, 18981. C. H. Beck'sche Verlagsbuch- 
 handlung. 
 
 II 
 
II. Latin in the Secondary Schools of France 
 
 The following is a typical program. Child begins 
 at eleven years of age. 
 
 First year, lo hours per week : Latin Grammar. Ex- 
 planation and Recitation of Latin authors. 
 
 (Great importance is attached to the preparation and 
 explanation of the texts.) Latin exercises, especially 
 oral, and written composition. Accent and quantity. 
 Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs. Instruction in 
 best methods of translation. Exercises for immediate 
 translation into Latin (the teacher reads slowly a pas- 
 sage of French, of which the words have already been 
 seen in Latin, and the pupik render it into Latin). 
 
 Authors: Epitome Historise Graecae (edition adapted 
 to the gradual progress of the pupils). 
 
 De viris illustribus urbis Romse (second semester). 
 
 Second Year : lo hours per week during first semester ; 
 8 hours per week beginning January i. 
 
 Grammar — syntax completed ; word formation (prim- 
 itive and derived words). Elements of prosody (hex- 
 ameter, pentameter, iambic). French translated into 
 Latin, oral and written themes. Biographies of authors 
 studied. Memory work. 
 
 Authors : De viris illustribus Urbis Romae (first 
 semester). 
 
 Selectae a profanis scriptoribus historiae (edition 
 adapted to gradual progress of pupils). 
 
 Cornelius Nepos (second semester). 
 
 Phsedrus: Selected Fables (second semester). 
 
 Justin: Extracts. 
 
 Third Year: 5 hours per week. 
 
 Grammar — review, and comparison of Latin and 
 French constructions. Prosody, word-formation, com- 
 position, biography of authors continued. Pupils are 
 
 12 
 
encouraged to read additional Latin out of class, es- 
 pecially to read further in the authors of the preceding 
 year. 
 
 Authors: Cornelius Nepos (first semester). 
 
 Caesar: de Bello Gallico. 
 
 Cicero: de Senectute. 
 
 Quintus Curtius: Selections. . 
 
 Vergil: Aeneid — I, II, and III. 
 
 Ovid: Metamorphoses (selections). 
 
 Fourth Year: 5 hours per week. 
 
 Grammar — review. Prosody and composition. Brief 
 instruction in literary history in connection with the 
 texts read. Written and oral criticism of passages taken 
 from Latin writers of prose and verse. 
 
 Authors : Narrationes (reading of extracts, taken 
 chiefly from Livy). 
 
 Cicero : Catilines I, II, III, IV. Archias. 
 
 Sallust: Extracts. 
 
 Dramatic Writers: Extracts. 
 
 Vergil: Georgics (chiefly the Episodes); Aeneid — 
 IV and VIII. 
 
 Anthology of Latin Poetry (excluding works com- 
 prised in the program). 
 
 Fifth Year : 9 hours per week. 
 
 Exercises in prosody; study of the principal metres 
 of Horace. Themes and exercises in Latin. Outline of 
 the history of Latin Literature — 10 lectures of an hour 
 apiece arranged as follows : — 
 
 1. Earliest times of Latin Literature; first attempts 
 at poetry under the influence of Greece. 
 
 2. The comic poets. 
 
 3. Cicero. 
 
 4. Poetry, in the time of Cicero. 
 
 5. The great historians. 
 
 13 
 
6. The poets of the Augustan Age. 
 
 7. Seneca — the two Plinys — Quintilian. 
 
 8. Epic poets after Vergil. 
 
 9. Satirists (poets) after Horace. 
 
 10. Last period of Latin literature — ^ Christian Lit- 
 erature. 
 
 Authors : Cicero : de Suppliciis, de Signis. Somnium 
 Scipionis. 
 
 Livy: One book of the Third Decade. 
 
 Tacitus: Agricola. Germania. 
 
 Pliny the Younger: Selected Letters. 
 
 Latin Dramatists : Selections. 
 
 Vergil: Aeneid IX to XIL Bucolics. 
 
 Horace : Odes. 
 
 Anthology of Latin Poetry (excluding works already 
 comprised in the program). 
 
 Sixth Year : 4 hours per week. 
 
 Composition and themes in Latin. Literary criticisms 
 of Latin authors. 
 
 Authors : Cicero : Select Letters. Milo. Murena. 
 Selections from his rhetorical and philosophical works. 
 
 Livy : A book of the Third Decade. 
 
 Seneca : Selections from his Letters to Lucilius and 
 Ethical Treatises. 
 
 Tacitus: Annals. Histories. Dialogus de Oratoribus. 
 
 Lucretius : Selections. 
 
 Vergil. 
 
 Horace: Satires and Epistles. 
 
 Lucan: Selections. — 
 
 Anthology of Latin Poets as above. 
 
 Pupils finish the above course at the age of sixteen. 
 Ought it not give food for thought to teachers of 
 Latin? If boys can do that between the ages of eleven 
 and sixteen, doesn't it seem a pretty feeble result that 
 the American student effects so little between the ages 
 
 14 
 
of fourteen and nineteen? Note, too, the fact that in- 
 struction in Latin in France does not consist merely in 
 translating and doing nothing else day after day; a 
 knowledge of the authors and their places in literature 
 receives reasonable attention. Perhaps that is one rea- 
 son why no German or American doctor's thesis can 
 usually compare in artistic excellence and scholarly treat- 
 ment with the thesis of the Docteur-es-Lettres. 
 
 Before discussing the subject further, I shall men- 
 tion some books which will give the teacher an authori- 
 tative and minute account of the status of Latin in the 
 secondary schools of France: 
 
 I. Instructions concernant les programmes de I'En- 
 seignement Secondaire Classique — Paris, Delalain Freres 
 — 56 Rue des Ecoles. 
 
 IL Programmes de I'Enseignement Secondaire. — 
 Delalain Freres (as above). 
 
 III. La Reforme de I'Enseignement Secondaire — 
 par A. Ribot. Armand Colin et Cie. — Paris, 5 rue de 
 Mezieres (see especially pp. 71-88). 
 
 IV. La Reforme de I'Enseignement Secondaire ex- 
 pliquee aux Families, par H. Vinbert. Paris, Librairie 
 Nony et Cie., 63 Boulevard Saint-Germain. 
 
 From the report of the Minister of Education I wish 
 to translate certain passages which shall show clearly 
 the revolution which is going on in the teaching of 
 Latin. It is but a question of time when these new 
 ideas must prevail in the United States. " The essential 
 aim of secondary education," writes M. Leon Bourgeois, 
 " is obviously the harmonious development of the mind. 
 Between primary instruction, which is immediately con- 
 cerned with the acquisition of knowledge directly use- 
 ful, and the higher instruction, wiiich aims to produce 
 scholars, that is, men capable of research in a particular 
 line of studies, secondary education occupies a middle 
 place. It strives to form good minds (de bons esprits) 
 strengthened by a very general culture. It does cer- 
 
 15 
 
tainly give the pupils knowledge both exact and useful, 
 but above all, it teaches good habits. It has no particu- 
 lar profession in view ; but it allows them to touch upon 
 all with a basis of intellectual and moral soundness which 
 alone permits one to excel in any of them. 
 
 The study of ancient languages in secondary educa- 
 tion must, therefore, be subordinated to these essential 
 ideas. We are not concerned about making professional 
 Latinists and Hellenists. We demand of Greek and 
 Latin only that they contribute their share to the general 
 education of the mind. 
 
 The methodical study of a language necessarily com- 
 prises three kinds of exercises and tasks: (i) the study 
 of grammatical theory; (2) written exercises in transla- 
 tion and composition; (3) reading and explanation of 
 texts. It is clear that the reading of the texts is the 
 capital point. The study of grammatical theory can 
 doubtless, in skilful and discreet hands, become by itself 
 a useful instrument of intellectual culture; it accustoms 
 the mind to reflect, to grasp, to compare; but it is above 
 all a practical means of getting at the literary apprecia- 
 tion of the texts. Written exercises, again, are indis- 
 pensable in order to give to knowledge of grammar all 
 its solidity, all its precision, all its nicety; they are, be- 
 sides, a powerful instrument of formal culture for the 
 intelligence ; but they cultivate and refine the mmd 
 rather than nourish it. This necessary nourishment is 
 given to youthful minds above all by the reading of the 
 texts and by the various exercises connected therewith. 
 The profit derived from the texts is two- fold. In the 
 first place, they are the ever-living tradition of the human 
 mind, by means of which the present is connected with 
 the past; they cause the child to see the road that all 
 humanity has traversed ; and by making him acquainted 
 with his ancestors they confer on him, literally, their 
 true titles of intellectual nobility. In the second place, 
 they are, for a large part, models; they initiate into an 
 
 16 
 
acquaintance with the true, the good, the beautiful ; they 
 awaken in his soul a feeling of active and fruitful love 
 for all the things comprised in these three words; they 
 enrich and strengthen his very being, that is to say, they 
 accomplish to an eminent degree the work which is the 
 essential object of secondary education." 
 
 Thus does the keen Frenchman rise above the ideal 
 of a gerund-grinder; and the results justify him. If 
 there be a doubting Thomas, let him compare the work 
 of French and German scholars; for example, Renan 
 and Harnack, Croiset and Christ. In both German and 
 Frenchman we note that profound and minute scholar- 
 ship, the painstaking research to which humanity must 
 be forever indebted. But the German is heavy in style, 
 not always clear in arrangement; the Frenchman com- 
 bines with his learning the elegance, the perspicuity, and 
 the artistic form which makes the perusal of his work 
 an inspiration even to the uninitiated. 
 
 III. English Schools 
 
 I shall take Harrow as the type of an English Classical 
 School. No boy may enter before twelve nor after 
 fourteen; and the rudiments of Latin are supposed to 
 have been studied before entrance. Just as in Germany 
 Latin is pursued more extensively in the gymnasien, 
 which keep the old classical tradition, than in the real- 
 gymnasien, which omit Greek and take more science and 
 modern tongues instead ; so the program at Harrow is 
 divided into the Classical Side and the Modern Side. 
 The schedule of the Classical Side runs as follows: 
 
 Upper Sixth : 7 to 8 hours for all boys ; 2 to 3 hours 
 more for some boys. Cicero in Verrem Actio I. 
 Vergil — Aeneid VIII. Composition exercises one 
 or two hours. Average age of boys, eighteen. 
 
 17 
 
Lower Sixth: the same. Age (average), 17 years. 
 
 Fifth Head Remove: 4 hours. Vergil — Aeneid XL 
 Livy I, 1-26. At least 3 hours of prose comgosition. 
 Average age, 16 years. 
 
 Fifth Second Remove: 4^^ hours Vergil and Livy the 
 same. Horace, Odes IV, i-io. Average age, 16 
 years. 
 
 Fifth Third Remove : 4 hours Vergil and Livy the same. 
 Arnold's Prose (Bradley), ex. 29-43. Weekly 
 Grammar Paper. Also one hour prose composition. 
 Average age, 16 years. 
 
 Upper Remove : 6 hours Walford's Cicero, 20 pages. 
 Horace, Odes I or 800 lines of Vergil. Prose com- 
 position, 154 hours. Average age, 15 years. 
 
 Lower Remove : 7 hours Cicero and Horace the same. 
 , Prose composition, 2)4 hours. Champney and 
 Roundell's Easy Passages. Arnold's Prose. Gram- 
 mar, lyi hours. A^erses, 2 hours. Average age, 
 15 years. 
 
 Upper Shell: 7 hours. Horace, Odes I, or Caesar de 
 Bell. Civ. L Two grammar lessons. Prose and 
 Exercises, 2^ hours. Average age, 15 years. 
 
 Second Shell: 7 to yYz hours. Prose, i^ hours. Caesar, 
 Bell. Civ. I, 2 hours — 21 chapters. Ovid, 300 or 
 400 lines — 2 hours. Grammar, J4 hour. Unseen 
 translation, }^ to lyi hours. Average age, 15 years. 
 
 Third Shell : 6 hours. Same. Age, 14 years. 
 
 Fourth Head Remove: 6j4 hours. Translation, Hardy's 
 Reader, pp. 28-38, 3 hours. Ovid, one hour (Tay- 
 lor's Selections, 200 lines). Prose, 2 hours — easy 
 continuous passages — short sentences. Grammar, 
 54 hour — Accidence and Elements of Syntax. Av- 
 erage age, 14 years. 
 
 Fourth Second Remove : Same, except less translation. 
 Age, 14 years. 
 
 Fourth Third Remove : Same. Age, 14 years. 
 
 18 
 
The Schedule of the Modern Side is as follows: 
 
 Modern Sixth: 4 hours. Vergil, Eclogues and part of 
 
 Georgics IV. Lucretius, part of Book I. Latin 
 
 Prose. (Also i or 2 hours with Tutor.) Average 
 
 age, 17 years. 
 Modern Fifth Head Remove: Same. Age, 17 years. 
 Modern Fifth Second Remove: 3 hours. Vergil — 
 
 Aeneid, XIL Latin Prose. (Also i or 2 hours with 
 
 Tutor.) Age, 16 years. 
 Modern Fifth Third Remove: Same. Age, 16 years. 
 Modern Remove: 3 hours. Vergil ^ — -Aeneid II. (Also 
 
 Ovid's Fasti, i hour with Tutor.) Age, 15 years. 
 Modern Upper Shell: 3 hours. Ovid: Metamorphoses. 
 
 Latin Prose. (Also i hour of Ovid's Fasti with 
 
 Tutor.) Average age, 15 years. 
 Modem Second Shell: 2% hours. Crustula, 20 pages. 
 
 (Fasti with Tutor, i hour.) Age, 16 years. 
 Modern Third'Shell: Same. Age, 15 years. 
 Modern Fourth Head Remove : 3^^ hours. Epitome 
 
 Historias Graecse, ch. 64-82. Prose and Grammar. 
 
 Selections from Ovid. (One hour also with Tutor.) 
 
 Age, 14 years. 
 Modern Fourth Remove : Same. Age, 14 years. 
 
 IV. American Schools 
 
 I shall give representative schedules of public, private, 
 and Jesuit Schools in the United States. 
 
 A. Program of the Boston Latin School — a six years 
 course. 
 Class VI: 5 hours a week. i. Regular forms, with 
 simple exercises illustrating their use. 2. a. Oral and 
 written translation of easy Latin ir^to English, h. Un- 
 prepared translation of easy Latin with the help of the 
 teacher. 3. a. Reading aloud, copying, and writing 
 from dictation Latin simple in construction and com- 
 
 19 
 
posed of words familiar to the pupils, b. Simple oral 
 and written translations of English into Latin. 
 
 Class V: 5 hours per week. i. Forms and construc- 
 tions with exercises thereon. 2. Oral and, occasionally, 
 written translation into idiomatic English of (a) easy 
 Latin, (b) books I, II, and III of Caesar's Gallic War. 
 
 (c) Unprepared translation of easy Latin. 3. (a) 
 Reading aloud, copying, and writing from dictation fa- 
 miliar passages from Caesar. (&) Repeating aloud or 
 writing passages from Caesar that have been carefully 
 studied and committed to memory. 4. English into 
 Latin, including simple oral and written exercise based 
 upon passages from Caesar. 
 
 Class IV: 5 hours per week. i. Oral, and, occa- 
 sionally, written translation, at least (a) of books IV 
 and V of Caesar's Gallic War; (b) of 1000 lines of 
 Ovid; and (c) of book I and part of II of the Aeneid. 
 
 (d) Unseen translation of average passages from 
 Caesar and of the easier passages from Ovid. 2. (a) 
 Writing from dictation and committing to memory pas- 
 sages from Caesar, (b) Reading metrically and com- 
 mitting to memory passages from Ovid. 3. English 
 into Latin, including oral and written exercises based 
 upon passages from Caesar or upon other Latin prose 
 that the pupils have translated into EngHsh. 
 
 Class III: 5 hours per week. Oral and, occasionally, 
 written translation {a) of the remainder of book II and 
 the whole of III, IV, and V of the Aeneid; (b) of 
 Sallust's Catiline; and (c) of at least one of Nepos's 
 Lives, (d) Unprepared translation of average pas- 
 sages from Caesar, and of the easier passages from Sal- 
 lust, Nepos, and Vergil. 2. (a) Writing from dic- 
 tation and committing to memory passages from Sallust 
 or Nepos. (6) Reading metrically and committing to 
 memory passages from A'ergil. 3. English into Latin, 
 including oral and written exercises based upon passages 
 from Caesar, Sallust, or Nepos. 
 
 20 
 
Class 11: 4 hours per week. Oral and, occasionally, 
 written translations (a) of at least three more books of 
 the Aeneid and the Eclogues of Vergil; (b) of at least 
 four orations of Cicero; and (c) some of Nepos's Lives. 
 (d) Unprepared translation of average passages from 
 Cffisar and Nepos, and of the easier passages from Ver- 
 gil and Cicero. 2. (a) Writing from dictation and 
 committing to memory passages from the prose writers 
 studied; and (b) reading metrically and committing to 
 memory passages from Vergil. 3. English into Latin, 
 including oral and written translation based upon pas- 
 sages from Caesar or Cicero. 
 
 Class I: 4 hours per week. i. Prepared and unpre- 
 pared translation, oral and written, from Vergil and 
 Cicero. 2. (a) Writing from dictation and commit- 
 ting to memory passages from Cicero; (b) reading met- 
 rically and committing to memory passages from Vergil. 
 3. English into Latin, including oral and written ex- 
 ercises based on passages from Nepos, Caesar, or Cicero. 
 
 B. Of boarding or private schools, some have Latin 
 four years, some five. Phillips-Exeter has four, ar- 
 ranged as follows (candidates for entrance must be at 
 least fourteen years old) : 
 
 (a) Junior Class : 8 hours per week. Beginners' Book. 
 
 Fabulae Faciles. Nepos — about fifteen Lives. 
 
 Caesar, Gallic War IL Grammar, composition, and 
 
 sight translation. 
 Lower Middle Class : 5 hours. Caesar, GalHc War I, 
 
 and either III and IV or their equivalent. Ovid — 
 
 about 1000 verses. Sallust — CatiHne. Grammar, 
 
 composition, and sight translation. 
 Upper Middle Class: 5 hours. Selections from Caesar's 
 
 Civil War. Cicero — Manilian Law. Vergil, 
 
 Aeneid, I, II, III, IV. Grammar, composition, and 
 
 translation at sight. 
 
 21 
 
Senior Class : 5 hours. Aeneid V and VI, and selections 
 from VII through XII, and the Bucolics. Cicero 
 — the Catilines, Archias, Milo, Marcellus, Ligarius, 
 Philippic XIV, and Selected Letters. Grammar, 
 composition, and translation at sight. 
 
 (b) The Latin Course at the Hill School is one of 
 five years; it begins in the second form: 
 
 Second Form: Grammar and Lessons. Viri Romae. 
 
 Third Form: Caesar, Gallic War, I, II, III, IV. Com- 
 position and sight reading. 
 
 Fourth Form : Cicero — Catilines, Archias, Manilian 
 Law. Ovid. Composition and sight reading. 
 
 Fifth Form: Nepos. Ovid. Caesar. Cicero. Reviews. 
 Composition. Sight Reading. 
 
 Sixth Form : Varies by years : either Cicero — Catilines, 
 Archias, Ligarius, ManiHan Law, Marcellus; or 
 Vergil. Composition and translation at sight. 
 
 (c) Course of study of Jesuit Academies of the 
 Middle West: 
 
 First Year: 8 periods a week in two terms. 
 Precepts : 
 
 First Term : Etymology as far as deponent verbs. 
 Second Term : Brief review of etymology ; deponent 
 and irregular verbs. Principal rules of syntax. 
 Text-book: Bennett's Foundations of Latin. 
 Authors : First Term : Translation of exercises in text- 
 book, pp. 1-83. 
 Second Term: Exercises, Fables, and Roman His- 
 tory in text-book, pp. 83-168. 
 Composition: First and Second Terms: Exercises 
 given in text-book, and constant oral and written 
 themes on the matter seen. 
 Memory: Second Term: One hundred lines at least. 
 (Half of the Latin exercises and half of the " Se- 
 
 22 
 
lections for Reading " sliould be seen tiioroughly, 
 the other half should be read and translated at 
 sight.) 
 
 Second Year : 6 periods per week in two terms. 
 Precepts : 
 
 First Term: Thorough review of etymology, with 
 principal notes and exceptions. Syntax — agree- 
 ment, questions and answers, accusative and 
 dative. 
 Second Term: The genitive, ablative, adjectives, 
 Roman dates. 
 Text-book: Bennett's Grammar. First Term: Par. i 
 
 to 193. Second Term: Par. 194-241. 
 Authors: Fables of Phaedrus, Aulus Gellius, Viri 
 Romag — for the first term. 
 Second Term: Nepos, Csesar (de Bell. Gall.) Sight 
 reading both terms. (Miller and Beeson's Second 
 Year Latin Book to be used in second and third 
 years.) 
 Composition : 
 First Term: Bennett's Preparatory Latin Writer — 
 
 lessons I to X. 
 Second Term : id. XI to XXIL 
 Both Terms : One written composition a week in 
 imitation of the author. Daily oral themes. 
 Memory: About 200 lines. 
 
 Third Year : 5 periods a week in two terms. 
 
 First Term: Etymology reviewed with all exceptions 
 and irregularities. Syntax — brief review of mat- 
 ter seen preceding year. Pronouns, tenses, sub- 
 junctive, purpose clauses, causal and temporal 
 clauses. 
 
 Second Term: Substantive clauses, conditional sen- 
 tences, indirect discourse, participles, gerund and 
 supine. 
 
 23 
 
Text-book : 
 
 First Term: Bennett: Par. 242-293. 
 Second Term: Bennett: Par. 293-347. 
 Authors : 
 
 First Term : Caesar, de Bello Gallico. 
 Second Term: Ovid's Metamorphoses and Cicero's 
 Letters. Sight reading, both terms. 
 Composition : 
 
 First Term: Bennett's Preparatory Latin Writer, 
 
 lessons XXIII to XXXII. 
 Second Term: id., lessons XXXIII to XLIV. 
 Both Terms : One written composition a week in 
 imitation of the author. Daily drill in oral themes 
 and Latin conversation. 
 Memory : About 200 lines. 
 
 Fourth Year: 5 periods a week in two terms. 
 Precepts : 
 
 First Term : Thorough review of the whole gram- 
 mar, including all exceptions and irregularities. 
 Word-order, sentence structure, style, Julian Cal- 
 endar. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric. 
 Second Term: Prosody. 
 Text-book: Bennett's Grammar. 
 Authors : 
 
 First Term : Cicero's Letters, de Senectute, and de 
 Amicitia. Vergil's Eclogues and Georgics. Sal- 
 lust's CatiHne. 
 Second Term : Vergil, Aeneid I. Cicero in Catilin- 
 
 am I, III, and TV. Quintus Curtius. 
 Sight reading both terms. 
 Composition : ' 
 
 First Term : Bennett's Supplementary Exercises in 
 Continued Discourse. Weekly composition in 
 imitation of author. 
 Second Term: Two compositions a week in imita- 
 tion of author. Exercises in verse-making. 
 
 24 
 
Both Terms : Daily drill in oral themes and Latin 
 conversation. 
 Memory: About 200 lines. 
 
 [Note. — The best monograph on Jesuit Education, 
 from the Jesuit point of view, is that by Robert Schwick- 
 erath, S.J., of Woodstock College, Md. Published by 
 Herder, St. Louis — 1903.] 
 
 V. Proc^rams of the Humanist Schoolmasters 
 
 A. School of Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446.) The 
 best monograph on Vittorino is that of Woodward 
 ■ — Cambridge University Press. 1897. 
 
 Grammar was treated under four heads, which had 
 to be mastered thoroughly before reading of authors or 
 continuous composition was entered upon. The master 
 first provided sufficient vocabulary by dictation, and with 
 the words themselves their inflexions. Then easy pas- 
 sages from the poets were delivered, explained, trans- 
 lated, and treated as exercises in accidence. Parallel 
 with this ran a similar course in historical narrative or 
 moral anecdote, in which more stress was laid upon the 
 matter in view of subjects for elementary composition 
 or disputation. Accent, quantity, and enunciation were 
 taken in hand as an integral part of every lesson. These 
 quattuor officia grammaticorum were, in the eyes of 
 Vittorino, the foundation of good teaching. 
 
 Inasmuch as practically nothing better in the way of 
 grammars existed than elementary treatises like the 
 Erotemata of Chrysoloras, it was necessary for the pupil 
 to accumulate both vocabulary and syntax by gradual in- 
 duction from the usage of authors. Observation and 
 practice were a sine qua non. There was much reading 
 aloud. 
 
 Cicero and Vergil were the corner-stones of the read- 
 ing. Passages from both were committed to memory as 
 the basis of style and aids to vocabulary and prosody. 
 
 2S 
 
With these Lucan and Ovid were associated. Vittorino 
 dealt first of all with the exact meaning of each word 
 and its construction in the sentence; this was followed 
 by an exposition of style. Explanations of allusions 
 and characters succeeded ; and all these points were illus- 
 trated -from other passages of the same or of different 
 authors. The matter thus given out was taken down by 
 each pupil, who thus formed for himself his own written 
 vocabulary and collected examples of syntax and 
 prosody; 
 
 Among other authors studied in entirety or in selec- 
 tions, were Horace, Juvenal, Seneca (Tragedies), Caesar, 
 Livy, Q. Curtius Rufus, Valerius Maximus, Pliny's 
 Natural History, Phaedrus, Statius, Claudian, Justin, 
 Florus, Quintilian, Boethius, Jerome, and Lactantius — 
 the last four were mainly for advanced students. 
 
 Latin was the regular medium for conversation; there 
 was a vast amount of memory work — such as commit- 
 ting whole orations of Cicero; and much original com- 
 position and verse writing in Latin. 
 
 B. The program of John Sturm (1507-1589). 
 
 Joannis Sturmii de institutione scholastica opuscula 
 selecta. L de literarum ludis recte aperiendis liber 
 Joannis Sturmii ad Prudentissimos Viros, ornatissimos 
 homines, etc., 1538. H. Joannis Sturmii Classicarum 
 Epistularum libri HI sive Scholse Argentinenses restitu- 
 tx — 1565. This is the plan I have abridged and trans- 
 lated opposite. 
 
 The works of Sturm will be found in " Die evangelis- 
 chen Schulordnungen des sechszehnten Jahrhunderts," 
 pp. 653-745, herausgegeben von Reinbold Vormbaum — 
 Giitersloh, C. Bertelsmann, i860. 
 
 Boys entered at six or seven; and the course lasted 
 ten years, after which they were supposed to go to the 
 university. 
 
 I Year: Memorize declensions and conjugations. 
 
 26 
 
II Year: (a) More declensions and conjugations, tak- 
 ing up irregular forms; (&) begin definite construction 
 of vocabulary, each pupil building his own dictionary. 
 Review of I. 
 
 III Year: Review. Grammar systematically arranged. 
 Select Letters of Cicero, with reference to grammatical 
 construction throughout. 
 
 IV Year: Review. Syntax expounded by examples 
 from Cicero. Daily reading of Cicero. Exercises in 
 style — alteration and changing of sentences. Transla- 
 tion of Catechism into Latin. 
 
 V Year : Review. Cicero translated into German. 
 Memory work. Latin poems — • for style. Letters of St. 
 Jerome. Catechism in Latin. 
 
 VI Year: Review. Vocabulary — Latin names of ob- 
 jects of which the German names were previously un- 
 known; dictionary of Latin words and phrases com- 
 pleted. Prosody. Cicero (Cato, Laslius). Vergil (Ec- 
 logues). Mythology. Style — double translation of 
 Latin into German and vice-versa. Versification: (a) 
 restoring to proper metre words disarranged; (b) in- 
 vention in a specific metre. 
 
 VII Year : Review. Practice in style as above. Cicero 
 — Verres. Epistles and Satires of Horace. Pauline 
 Epistles. 
 
 Villi Same methods of style, etc. Rhetoric added. 
 IX I Cicero. Vergil. Sallust. PauHne Epistles. 
 Xj All the plays of Plautus and Terence — many 
 of these were acted by the pupils. 
 
 C. Method of Roger Ascham (1515-1568). 
 
 The Scholemaster — by Roger Ascham. London, 
 posthumously published, 1570. Edited by Edward 
 Arber, and reprinted as in the original. London, 1870. 
 
 After the child had learned the eight parts of speech, 
 as well as the joining of noun and adjective, noun and 
 
 27 
 
verb, and noun and antecedent, he was to be given 
 Sturm's Selections of Cicero's Epistles. This to be care- 
 fully construed, parsed, etc., by the teacher first and 
 then by the pupil. The text was translated into English ; 
 the translation was laid aside for a while, and then 
 translated back into Latin; and the pupil's version com- 
 pared with the original. Thus the student Studied gram- 
 mar in direct connection with the original text, instead 
 of as an isolated subject. After this, he was given 
 longer lessons, and taught what was proprium and trans- 
 latum, what synonymum, what diversum, etc. ; and a 
 course of reading in Cicero, Csesar, Livy, and Terence or 
 Plautus followed. 
 
 Six points were to be observed: I. Translatio ; II. 
 Paraphrasis ; III. Metaphrasis; IV. Epitome; V. Im- 
 itatio; VI. Declamatio. Special stress was laid on 
 translatio and imitatio; and double translation (Latin 
 into English and vice-versa) insisted upon. Paraphrasis 
 was to " take some eloquent Oration or some notable 
 commonplace in Latin and express it with other wordes." 
 ^Metaphrasis consisted in taking " some notable place 
 out of a good Poete and turning the same sens into 
 meter, or into other wordes in Prose." 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 W'e are now in a position to lay down some general 
 principles on the question of Latin which shall guide 
 us in presenting the subject to its best advantage. 
 
 I do not believe that a child should undertake the 
 study of Latin before the twelfth year at least. The 
 judgment before that age is not yet mature enough to 
 grasp the complexities of a language so highly inflected 
 when compared with the English. It is true, that in 
 Vittorino da Feltre's school children of ten recited their 
 
 28 
 
own Latin compositions, and pupils of fourteen memor- 
 ized and recited with taste whole orations of Cicero. 
 But I cannot be convinced that the introduction of Latin 
 into the grammar school grades is desirable; though it 
 has been attempted in several quarters. The reasons of 
 my objection are several. Firstly, immaturity, as I have 
 said above. Again, I believe, that the grammar school 
 is the place to acquire a thorough grounding in such 
 essentials as reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, 
 English grammar, and history, including civics. It is 
 the general experience of those who teach beginners of 
 Latin- in the high school, that the first two or three 
 weeks must be spent in driving home such facts as, for 
 example, that a noun may not be conjugated nor a verb 
 declined with impunity. The next year, when Caesar 
 is taken up, time must needs be wasted in proving to 
 pupils that Hungary is not in Asia. Then a Roman 
 numeraf occurs, and nobody in the class can interpret it. 
 When a translation is asked for, the amount of ignorance 
 displayed in spelling makes the teacher shiver. All this 
 is by the way, to support my contention that the grammar 
 school is no place for Latin, but for vital fundamentals. 
 It is better, too, for a boy to study elementary civics and 
 learn how his municipality is governed, than to take his 
 dead language before he knows some living facts ; one of 
 the worst faults of education has always been a tendency 
 to live too much in the past. In Vittorino's school his- 
 tory was a subject for style; any idea of strict investiga- 
 tion of truth was quite beyond his horizon, as it was 
 also for his model, Livy ; but happily times have changed. 
 A third objection to beginning Latin in the grammar 
 school is the danger of forcing a pupil to plod at a 
 subject so long that the very monotony of it will kill 
 his interest. I think that five years is quite enough for 
 Latin before college ; but if it is to be begun in grammar 
 grades, the unfortiinate boys and girls will have six and 
 seven years ahead of them. Moreover, it has been my 
 
 29 
 
experience that the boys or girls in the high school have 
 the maturity to go ahead just about twice as fast in Latin 
 as they could advance when they were in the gram- 
 mar grades; so that for them to take up the language 
 in, say, Grade VDl, where they could do only half the 
 amount of work, is time wasted which might better have 
 been devoted to other things. 
 
 Before passing to a consideration of the first year of 
 Latin, I shall make some comments in the form of 
 general principles to be observed in the teaching of the 
 various parts of our subject, such as grammar. I shall 
 touch them briefly; for I propose to discourse more 
 minutely upon them when I take up the course year 
 by year. 
 
 Of Correlation 
 
 It is in the highest degree undesirable that Latin 
 should be taught as an isolated study. It should be cor- 
 related throughout the course with English. It should 
 be correlated with French or German; for these lan- 
 guages often present grammatical peculiarities similar to 
 those of Latin; and a reference to such aids to a better 
 understanding of them all. It should be correlated with 
 History; in Roman History instruction in the use of 
 primary sources may be given by the Commentaries of 
 Caesar, the Catiline of Sallust, and the Orations and 
 Letters of Cicero, for example; and in Medieval His- 
 tory attention may be called to simple works like 
 Einhard's " Life of Charles the Great "' in the original. 
 
 Of correlation with English I shall have considerable 
 to say later; but for the present I subjoin a list of 
 various works which illustrate diverse aspects of Roman 
 history. Some of them may assuredly be with profit 
 made a part of the prescribed reading in English ; and 
 they furnish much admirable material for themes. At 
 any rate, the pupil should be encouraged to read those 
 
 30 
 
that his teacher may select as most suited to his age 
 or tastes. Here are some of the books : 
 Quo Vadis Sienkiewicz 
 
 Last Days of Pompeii Bulwer-Lytton 
 
 Lays of Ancient Rome Macaulay 
 
 Ben Hur Wallace 
 
 JuHus Csesar Shakespeare 
 
 The Young Carthaginian Henty 
 
 Coriolanus Shakespeare 
 
 Sisters Eber 
 
 The Emperor (time of Hadrian) Eber 
 
 Prusias (story of Spartacus) Eckstein 
 
 Gallus Becker 
 
 Two Thousand Years Ago A. J. Church 
 
 (third Mithridatic War) 
 Roman Traitor (time of Catiline) 
 Neaera (Tiberius at Capri) 
 Quintus Claudius (time of Domitian) 
 Letters 
 Meditations 
 Enchiridion 
 Marius the Epicurean 
 Callista (persecutions of Decius) 
 Wards of Plotinus 
 Zenobia , 
 Aurelian 
 
 Fabiola, or, The Church of the Catacombs 
 Hypatia 
 
 The Count of the Saxon Shore 
 
 Antonina ; or, The Fall of Rome 
 
 Felicitas 
 
 Stories from Vergil ' 
 
 Parallel Lives 
 
 Herbert 
 
 Graham 
 
 Eckstein 
 
 Pliny 
 
 M. Aurelius 
 
 Epictetus 
 
 Pater 
 
 Newman 
 
 Mrs. John Hunt 
 
 William Ware 
 
 William Ware 
 
 Wiseman 
 
 Kingsley 
 
 A. J. Church 
 
 Wilkie Collins 
 
 Dahn 
 
 Church 
 
 Plutarch 
 
 Of Grammar 
 
 The first two years of Latin should give such a thor- 
 ough knowledge in the fundamentals of grammar by 
 
 3T 
 
constant drill and repeated review, that the emphasis 
 during the other years may be put more on the litera- 
 ture as literature. I see no valid reason why, after two 
 years of grammar, a pupil should not have absorbed 
 enough not to be balked by any syntactical difficulty that 
 may be encountered in the reading of the next three 
 years. 
 
 I believe most firmly in the method used by the 
 Humanists, that each pupil write his own grammar up 
 to a certain point. During the first two years this ought 
 to be the case ; and no formal printed grammar should 
 be given until the third year. For the presentation of 
 all possible cases and the mention of every exception, 
 such as necessarily occurs in a good grammar, is con- 
 fusing to the student who has but lately begun the 
 language. Inasmuch, also, as our text-books insist on 
 explaining every point by copious references not to one, 
 but to half a dozen grammars, it will be well to adopt 
 a plan more simple and much more profitable. The best 
 way to learn syntax is by seeing it in the authors read. 
 Therefore, after the pupil has mastered forms from a 
 good beginner's book — but not until then — he should 
 at once be put to reading ; and each construction should 
 be explained and taken down, with simple concrete ex- 
 amples, in a notebook. Let us suppose that the first 
 construction met is a purpose clause. The teacher ex- 
 plains by examples in English what that means ; the 
 pupils are then asked to give examples of their own ; 
 the teacher now points out or asks the students to find 
 other examples in the text ; and finally the child is led 
 to deduce the fact that in Latin purpose is expressed 
 by the subjunctive with " ut." Next, the law of se- 
 • quence of tenses may be similarly developed. The teacher 
 may then state the rules as simply as possible and the 
 pupil should record them, with concrete examples, in 
 his notebook. Other methods of expressing purpose may 
 in like manner be explained and noted. If the pupils 
 
 32 
 
are studying German or French also, it will help to an 
 understanding of all the languages concerned if the use 
 of " dass " in German or of " afin que " in French to 
 express purpose be similarly brought to the attention. 
 A teacher may even go further and explain ivhy a pur- 
 pose clause takes the subjunctive; it expresses desire, 
 one of the two primary functions of that mood. Teachers 
 who don't realize that grammar is something more than 
 rules will doubtless assert that fifteen-year-old children 
 cannot reason out that much; but if they will try the 
 experiment, they may learn considerable themselves. If 
 this deductive method is employed to a reasonable ex- 
 tent, the student will begin to use his logical faculty; 
 and that is one reason why Latin is taught. 
 
 It is obviously important to guard against an abuse 
 of either inductive or deductive methods. It is well to 
 start at once by giving a rule in a case where time 
 would be lost in an attempt to get by deduction a gram- 
 matical principle quite foreign to the student's experi- 
 ence or grasp. So with the inductive process also; a 
 student can easily be induced to build up the perfect, 
 pluperfect, and future perfect of a verb after he has the 
 perfect stem and the personal endings; but it is waste 
 of time to try that process in the matter of case-endings, 
 for example, of a declension ; here it is better to present 
 the whole paradigm at once in its entirety and have it 
 memorized. I do not believe that, as a rule, either in- 
 ductive or deductive method should be attempted until 
 the declensions and conjugations have been mastered; 
 it is only after you have been provided with hammer and 
 nails and timber that you can build a house. 
 
 ^''ery important in grammar it obviously is, to let the 
 unessentials pass and not give exceptions or rare forms 
 which the student will never see in his reading during 
 his high-school course. In word formation the impor- 
 tance of knowing the force of sco attached to a verb 
 or of the suffix ia to a noun is evident ; but it is deaden- 
 
 33 
 
ing and unprofitable to give elaborate rules about the 
 precise force of suffixes alis, aris, elis, His, and uHs at- 
 tached to adjectives. These the pupil gets readily by- 
 observation. 
 
 Of Prose Composition 
 
 Prose composition is usually the bugbear of the teach- 
 ing of Latin. Many a pupil who takes a real pleasure 
 in the reading of Latin has his interest deadened by it. 
 The usual arguments adduced for it are that it .is superb 
 training for the logical faculty, that it leads to a better 
 appreciation of an author, that it makes syntax clearer, 
 and that it helps the understanding of English because 
 the student must weigh carefully the exact meaning of 
 the English before rendering it into an idiom so different 
 as the Latin. Of these reasons, I can accept only the 
 last two as valid. For a close and logically conducted 
 study of grammar will develop the reasoning faculty 
 much more than composition; and careful translation of 
 Latin into English, with particular attention to the force 
 of each word and phrase and characteristics of style, is 
 by all odds the best way to appreciation. 
 
 The prime aim of prose composition, then, is to drive 
 home grammatical principles and, indirectly, to help the 
 pupil's English. Here it is well to reason out the limits 
 to which this work should be confined. In the first 
 place, any insistance on " style " is quite out of place 
 in a secondary school. We have heard of an English- 
 man who would never read the Vulgate because it might 
 spoil his style. But very few men indeed who are fa- 
 miliar with the classic writers would be so self-com- 
 placent. One who reads modern Latin as written by 
 the greatest scholars knows very well that he is not 
 reading Caesar or Cicero. It is not fair, therefore, to 
 distract a high-school pupil by such considerations. As 
 a single illustration, let us take the matter of word 
 order. Teachers are very prone to make a fuss about 
 
 34 
 
putting verbs at the end of the sentence, and forming 
 correct periods of all composition, and the like . Yet 
 there are many sentences in Cicero's Letters which run 
 along as in English ; which would prove that the natural 
 order of speech was very much the same in the Roman's 
 conversation as in the Englishman's; for which the 
 Vulgate, which is certainly very excellent Latin, fur- 
 nishes additional arguments. And is the periodic sen- 
 tence the only possible arrangement in Latin? Are not 
 Sallust and Tacitus as great stylists as Csesar? 
 
 Again, the best composition is only a piracy of words, 
 phrases, and constructions which actually occur in ex- 
 tant authors. When a student uses any other, the 
 teacher doesn't know whether the Romans may have 
 used it or not. Suppose you give the pupil this sen- 
 tence : " Caesar made me write the letter." The boy 
 translates literally : " Caesar fecit me scribere banc 
 epistolam." "Wrong," says the teacher; "you should 
 say, ' Caesar coegit' " etc. But observe : 
 qui nati coram me cernere letum fecisti 
 
 — Vergil, Aen., II, 539. 
 mel ter infervere facito. 
 
 — Col. 12, '38, 5. 
 Nulla res magis talis oratores videri facit 
 
 ■ — Cicero, Brutus, 38, 142. 
 Or suppose you have the sentence, " Horace is worth 
 reading." I believe that the majority of teachers 
 would here insist on a qui clause, because the composition 
 book says so and they don't remember ever seeing an 
 infinitive used in this construction. But see Quintilian, 
 X, I, 96: "At Lyricorum idem Horatius fere solus legi 
 dignus." And isn't Quintilian "classical"? 
 
 What teacher would not insist on omitting the prepo- 
 sitions before names of cities? Nevertheless, the Em- 
 peror Augustus did not omit them : praecipuamque curam 
 duxit, sensum aiiimi quam apertissime exprimere. Quod 
 quo facilius efficeret aut necubi lectorem vel auditorem 
 
 35 
 
obturbaret ac moraretur, neque prsepositiones urbibus 
 addere neque coniunctiones ssepius iterare dubitavit, quae 
 detractse aflferunt aliquid obscuritatis, etsi gratiam augent 
 — Suetonius, divus Augustus, §86. Teachers insist that 
 " dum " meaning " while " takes the present indicative ; 
 but Caesar and Nepos make it take the perfect, also. 
 Nepos uses " quamvis " with the indicative ; so does 
 Cicero, once. But the teacher insists that "quamvis" 
 takes the subjunctive always. Nepos often, and Cicero 
 and Caesar occasionaly, break the " law " of the sequence 
 of tenses and use the perfect instead of the imperfect 
 with " ut " in result clauses. What is truth, indeed ? 
 
 See also Cicero ad Atticum: 7, 3, 10. And note the 
 anecdote on " odivit " in Phil. 13, 19, 42. 
 
 As Latin is, furthermore, no longer the language of 
 diplomacy, of science, or of history, more than a limited 
 amount of time devoted to speaking or writing it is very 
 idle ; about as. ridiculous as the English habit of writing 
 verse. 
 
 I repeat, then, that only so much time should be de- 
 voted to prose composition as shall drive home gram- 
 matical principles. The vital mistake in this matter is 
 to expect too much. Sentences should be simple and 
 based on the text read in the daily lesson. It is also 
 better, I believe, to spend five minutes a day on com- 
 position, than to set one whole period apart for this on 
 some particular day. 
 
 It is my conviction that the teacher will derive more 
 profit from making sentences of his own for this work, 
 than to use a formal composition book. Composition 
 books are entirely too voluminous and complex. Take 
 this sentence from lesson 23, page 87, of Harper and 
 Burgess's " Elements of Latin "■*• " Cassar, after carry- 
 ing on war with the \''enetians, remains in Gaul, so that 
 he may hinder the barbarians, who are wont to fight 
 with their neighbors." That is not only too much to 
 
 • 1900. 
 
 36 
 
expect from pupils who have had but twenty-three les- 
 sons in Latin, but it is too elaborate for students in the 
 first half of the second year. Or consider this for 
 second-year students -.^ " While the Helvetii were getting 
 ready those things which they were going to take with 
 them on the journey, Orgetorix persuaded them to es- 
 tablish peace with their neighbors, saying that he would 
 go to the neighboring states to accomplish this purpose." 
 Compare with this the simple sentences given on the 
 Harvard paper in Elementary Latin for pupils who have 
 had three years of the language. 
 
 Of Memory Work 
 
 From the first a reasonable amount of work to be 
 committed to memory and recited should be required, 
 both to cultivate the memory — mental laziness is a 
 pretty prevalent fault with our pupils- — -and to enrich 
 the mind with the best thoughts of the masters. A stu- 
 dent will not, in later years, regret having memorized 
 the eulogy of literature in the " Archias " or Vergil's 
 " Non ignara mali miseris succurrere disco"; and the 
 like. 
 
 On Reading Aloud 
 
 The advantages of reading aloud, if one endeavors, at 
 the same time, to throw the emphasis in the right places, 
 must be obvious ; not only is it a powerful aid in grasp- 
 ing the sense, but it conduces also to familiarity with 
 the language and to an easy and correct pronunciation. 
 One of the most difficult things to persuade a student 
 to do, is to get him to read the lesson over as a whole 
 in order to grasp the meaning in its entirety, before 
 proceeding to pick out the individual words and trans- 
 lating piecemeal. The teacher should also constantly 
 
 ■*■ Ch. Ill, section 2, of Mmilton's Preparatory Latin Com- 
 position (Ginn, 1901). 
 
 37 
 
read to the pupils; whereby they readily acquire a cor- 
 rect enunciation by observation. The majestic rhythm 
 and cadence which is one of the charms of Latin can 
 be appreciated only by intelligent reading; and in Cicero 
 correct reading, especially in quantity, is, as we shall 
 see, of vast importance in understanding the power of 
 the orator over his audience. People to-day seem to 
 have forgotten what Quintilian and later the Humanists 
 knew very well, that reading aloud is one erf the most 
 healthful of exercises, from the standpoint both of the 
 digestion and of the lungs. 
 
 It is very profitable, if the teacher will from time to 
 time read to the classes some selection in Latin adapted 
 to their progress and then ask the pupils the purport of 
 what has been read. This not only brings about a 
 readier comprehension, but also inspires the enthusiasm 
 which always follows the feeling that one is acquiring 
 mastery of one's subject. 
 
 Of the Pronunciation of Latin 
 
 Perhaps it is not necessary to say much on the pro- 
 nunciation of Latin, since the Roman method is in prac- 
 tically universal vogue. Professor Bennett, in the 
 " Teaching of Latin and Greek," pp. 66-80, argues that 
 this method should be abandoned, and the English 
 method substituted. He admits that we do know exactly 
 how Csesar and Cicero pronounced their language; but 
 holds that inasmuch as no student can ever learn the 
 
 — ^ — u u 
 
 quantities of vowels' in all words like sexaginta, senex, 
 
 video, etc., it is better to abandon the attempt altogether ; 
 and he believes that the English method is also easier 
 for beginners. I cannot agree with him. The vowels 
 in our text-books are marked for the pupil; and they 
 readily become familiar with them. That beginners find 
 it difficult is not my experience; it stands to reason, of 
 
 38 
 
course, that beginners should not be harassed by too 
 great an insistence on mastering each long and short 
 quantity. It seems to me that even approximate correct- 
 ness is better than the English method, which emasculates 
 the Latin; and how any one can appreciate Cicero or 
 Vergil by this systetm is beyond my comprehension. In 
 Vergil pupils learn to read the hexameter both readily 
 and with a correct enunciation of long and short vowels 
 without much trouble, because the quantity is easily seen 
 in this metre. Moreover, the English method is not 
 so easy as it appears, because the English letters have 
 severally so many varied sounds.-*- However, I do not 
 deem the subject so important that it needs extended 
 discussion; I shall content myself with giving a short 
 bibliography of primary and secondary sources; and the 
 teacher interested can form his opinion at his leisure. 
 
 Primary Sources : 
 
 Keil: Grammatici Latini. Leipsig. 1855-1880. The 
 standard collection of grammarians, who, by the way, 
 are much more numerous than people suppose. 
 
 ■*■ Observe some of the elaborate rules -which the student of 
 the EngHsh method must learn: 
 
 I. Of dissyllables the penultimate vo-wel, if it be folio-wed 
 by a single consonant or by T and R or L, is sounded long, 
 as amo, scelus, Titus, onus, lyra, triplex. Traditional exceptions 
 are ibi, tibi, sibi, quibus, Paris, and ero, eram, etc., from 
 sum, to which Greek influence has now added ego. In all 
 others the penultimate vowel is prpnounced short, as in cinctus, 
 nondum, sanctus. 
 
 II. In words of more than two syllables, if the penultimate 
 be long, the quantities are observed before a single consonant, 
 as moneham, amain. If the penultimate be short, the ante- 
 penult is also sounded short, as monitum, veritus; but in earlier 
 syllables the quantities are observed, as mirahilia. If, however, 
 a penultimate vowel other than U be immediately followed by 
 another vowel, the antepenultimate vowel if sounded long, as 
 habeo, melior, but wonui; except where the two vowels are 
 both I or its equivalent, as utilia, Nicias, video. The same 
 principles apply to earlier vowels; thus, the first syllable of 
 amai'erunt is sounded short, and the first syllable of Dicaeopolis 
 long. 
 
 39 
 
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Begun in 1863. 
 
 Statements of writers like Varro, Quintilian, Cicero, 
 and Aulus Gellius (see, for example, Gellius II, 3, II, 17, 
 IV, 17, VI (VII) 7, VII (VI) IS). 
 
 Greek transliterations of Latin words.-*^ 
 
 The scientific study of sound changes.^ 
 
 The development of the Romance Languages.^ 
 
 Secondary Sources: 
 
 Charles E. Bennett: Appendix to Latin Grammar, pp. 
 4-68. Boston. 1895. Allyn & Bacon. 
 
 W. M. Lindsay: The Latin Language. Ch. II. Ox- 
 ford. Clarendon Press. 1894. 
 
 W. M. Lindsay: Historical Latin Grammar, pp. 8-21. 
 Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1895. 
 
 Emil Seelmann: Die Aussprache des Latein. Heil- 
 bronn. 1885. 
 
 Robinson Ellis : The Quantitative Pronunciation of 
 Latin. London. 1874. 
 
 H. Roby: Latin Grammar. Vol. I, 4th edition, pp. 
 xxx-xc. London. Macmillan. 1881. 
 
 H. A. J. Munro : Pronunciation of Latin. London. 
 
 Frances E. Lord : The Roman Pronunciation of Latin. 
 Boston. Ginn & Co. 1894. 
 
 Of Review 
 
 Constant review is the only sure way to settle gram- 
 mar and vocabulary firmly in the mind. It is very 
 
 ■^ V. the "Corpus inscriptionum Grxcarum"; and Roman 
 names in Plutarch, for example. 
 
 B V. Max Miiller's and Whitney's standard works. 
 
 c V. Professor Grandgent's " Introduction to Vulgar Latin." 
 (D. C. Heath.) 
 
 40 
 
foolish to imagine that Latin is easy. Each daily lesson 
 should be either preceded or followed by a review of 
 the preceding day's lesson; and at the end of terms the 
 work of that term should be reviewed and summed up 
 as concisely and coherently as possible. It is in review 
 that the pupil sees the subject as a whole and iiotes the 
 connection of parts which have so far seemed more or 
 less isolated fragments. 
 
 Of Translation 
 
 " The fine art of translation " is one of the very best 
 means of acquiring command of one's mother tongue 
 and appreciation of the authors who are to be translated. 
 A translation that is adequate will render as minutely as 
 possible the exact force of each word, the style, and the 
 atmosphere of an author. Great translations are lament- 
 ably few ; translations, I mean, equal to Bayard Taylor's 
 " Faust," or the Comedies of Aristophanes, by Rogers. 
 Good English in translation is a thing to be absolutely 
 insisted upon; and there is no reason why pupils should 
 not, with fair success, imitate the conciseness of Caesar 
 and the periodic harmony of Cicero. In Vergil, above 
 all, attention to the concrete meanings of words, their 
 literal signification, is a sine qua non for real apprecia- 
 tion.-*- When Virgil sings " spumas salis aere ruebant," 
 and the teacher permits a student to render it " they 
 were sailing along," instead of " they were plowing the 
 foam of the brine with the bronze " — that teacher has 
 sinned against Vergil. Written translations should be 
 
 •A^ " Language is calltd the Garment of Thought; however, 
 it should rather be, Language is the Flesh-Garment, the Body, 
 of Thought. . . . Metaphors are her stuff : examine Lan- 
 guage; what, if you except some few primitive elements (of 
 natural sound), what is it all but Metaphors, recognized as 
 such, or no longer recognized. ... is not your every 
 Attention a Stretching-to?" — Carlyle, Sartor Resartus, I, ii. 
 
 41 
 
assigned frequently and as part of the required work in 
 English; for the Latin schedule cannot afford too much 
 time for such matters. 
 
 Pupils should be taught to take the Latin idea in the 
 Latin order, with special attention to the emphatic posi- 
 tion of words. 
 
 Slipshod renderings of Latin words are a common 
 feature of the classical work in our schools. Does 
 " fides " mean " faith," or " religio " " religion," or " an " 
 at the beginning of a sentence mean " or " ? Is " quos 
 honoris causa nomino " translated adequately by " whom 
 I name for the sake of honor " ? And how many 
 teachers pay attention to a good rendering of an 
 "ethical" dative? Very few; they permit a pupil to 
 fancy that " Tongilium mihi eduxit '' is well translated 
 by " He led out Tongilius," instead of by Professor 
 Lane's " He took out Tongilius, bless my soul ! " I 
 most earnestly recommend the splendid grammar of Pro- 
 fessor Lane to teachers, if only for the numberless 
 happy translations to be found in it.-*^ 
 
 On the Use of Translations 
 
 That the use of " trots " cripples the power of a 
 pupil during the first two or three years of Latin I 
 fancy no one will deny. When it comes to Vergil, how- 
 • ever, I believe that translations of acknowledged literary 
 excellence — such as those of Dryden, Rhoades, Wil- 
 liams, and Conington — help in appreciation and do not 
 lead to abuse. The teacher should keep on his desk, 
 for pupils to look into at opportune moments, good trans- 
 lations of the works of Caesar, Cicero, Vergil, not usually 
 read in the schools; and in teaching Roman History 
 translations of Suetonius, Tacitus, and the like should 
 by all means be accessible for reference, 
 
 ■*■ Revised Edition, 1898. Harper. 
 
 42 
 
Of the Acquisition of Vocabulary; and of Sight Reading. 
 
 Grammar is the tool which unlocks the treasure-house 
 of a language; but the words are the treasure-rooms 
 themselves. The acquisition of vocabulary is a vital 
 point in learning any tongue. How can it be acquired 
 most readily, most effectively ? In two ways : by the 
 intensive study of a certain 'passage or passages of a 
 prescribed lesson each day ; and by reading at sight. And 
 here the old Humanist schoolmasters can still instruct 
 us. John Sturm insisted that each boy put down on a 
 card or in a notebook each new word met with in the 
 reading and that this be committed to memory. Experi- 
 ence has convinced me that no other method can com- 
 pare with this in fruitfulness for pupils in secondary 
 schools. I have repeatedly had pupils come to me for 
 coaching in College Entrance Examinations in Latin and 
 German and French who had read a very flattering 
 amount of literature in those languages; but they could 
 not translate the simplest sentences at sight with ac- 
 curacy. They had simply never learned to photograph 
 individual words and their meanings in their minds. 
 There should be considerable reading at sight through- 
 out the course ; and here is the chance really to acquire 
 a vocabulary. Let the student write each new word on 
 a card with its meanings and let him be required to 
 memorize it; by this means the memory is strengthened 
 and a stronger grasp of the language follows. 
 
 I have heard of an objection to this, to the effect that 
 a boy cannot write and memorize all the possible mean- 
 ings of words like ratio, res, fero, studium, consilium, 
 and the like, which must be diflferently translated in a 
 multitude of ways in different passages. The objection 
 is not valid; for in the case of all such words two, three, 
 and, at the most, four meanings can be given which will 
 fit every context. 
 
 43 
 
Ability to distinguish between words which- look alike 
 is of fundamental importance; many a sentence is in- 
 accurately translated from failure to distinguish " opus " 
 meaning " work " and the indeclinable " opus " meaning 
 " need " ; and both these are constantly confused with 
 *ops (opis) and opera (operse). Again, " tantum " as 
 an adverb in the sense of " merely," " only " is very 
 common ; and the only way to learn such necessary mat- 
 ters is to write them down and memorize them. Little 
 booklets like Ritchie's " Discernenda," a list of Latin 
 words liable to be confused, are a convenient thing for 
 pupils to use> 
 
 In the case of many words it is not beyond a pupil's 
 comprehension, if he is given the fundamental root of a 
 series of words from which, by the addition of proper 
 prefixes and suffixes, he can easily derive secondary 
 meanings. Thus : i/ag has the idea " to go at a thing," 
 " to drive," " to set in motion." Hence : ago, agito, 
 actor, actus, agilis, agitator, agitatio, agilitas, cogo [co- 
 ago], adigo [ad-ago], etc. 
 
 Two excellent " Latin Word Lists " have appeared 
 within the last three years : one by Professor Lodge 
 [Columbia University Pressl, the other by Mr. George 
 H. Browne [Ginn & Co.]. These lists contain the words 
 met with in works of the authors usually read in second- 
 ary schools ; and these words are, furthermore, arranged 
 in the numerical proportion of their occurrence. The 
 translations of each word are excellent and adequate to 
 fit the sense of any context in which they occur. Obvi- 
 ously, if a pupil were assigned only two or three of these 
 words per day — a small task — throughout the high- 
 school course, he would have a larger vocabulary than 
 the feeble imitation which is usually met among seniors 
 in secondary schools. It is, however, always to be re- 
 membered, that the visualization of a word is best ac- 
 
 ■*- Discernenda — Ritchie — Longmans, Green & Co. — 1898 
 44 
 
quired by first seeing it in a given context and then 
 noting it with its various meanings in other contexts. 
 This is the best method to photograph it in the memory. 
 But the Latin Word List may well serve as an important 
 auxiliary. 
 
 Of Authors; and What Works of the Authors should 
 be read in Secondary Schools 
 
 A careful survey of the courses of study in Latin in 
 preparatory and high-schools shows that, in general, the 
 reading is confined to three authors : Caesar, Cicero, and 
 Vergil. To these are added, occasionally, Ovid, Nepos, 
 and Sallust. Of Csesar, four to eight books of the 
 " Gallic War " and, now and then, the " Civil War " are 
 presented ; of Cicero, six to fourteen orations ; of Vergil, 
 six to twelve books of the ".(Eneid." Compare with 
 this the courses of study in modei^n languages ; and note 
 the huge contrast. A student who pursues German for 
 four years becomes acquainted with representative works 
 of Goethe, Schiller, Lessing, and Heine ; with lesser poets, 
 such as Uhland, Riickert, and the like; with prose 
 writers such as Freytag, Hauflf, Grimm, and Hoffmann. 
 The question arises why Latin literature with its Livy, 
 Pliny, Catullus, Juvenal, and a host of writers who 
 have profoundly impressed their marks on succeeding 
 ages, has grown to be confined, in secondary schools — ■ 
 with the exception of the Jesuit — to the " Gallic War," 
 the " Aeneid," and the " Orations " of Cicero. That is 
 to say, Latin has suffered as if English literature were 
 to be confined to the campaigns of Wellington, the 
 " Paradise Lost," and Burke's speeches.-*^ 
 
 ■*■ What period of Roman history is most closely related to 
 us? The first three centuries after Christ, when law was 
 perfected, when Christianity worked its way to supremacj', 
 when the barbarians who were to form the modern nations 
 began to win the ascendency. Strange that such a period should 
 have not one of its numerous authors represented in a course of 
 Latin. 
 
 45 
 
The causes of the confined study of Latin are varied 
 and without any substantial basis of reason. For in the 
 first place, Latin is looked upon primarily as a drill in 
 grammar. Again, the teachers themselves are not the 
 masters of their subject as they ought to be — -"the 
 master many times being as ignorant as the childe, what 
 to saie properlie and fitlie to the matter," as Ascham 
 remarks. Furthermore, it is believed that reading as 
 much as possible of a single author, and that, too, of a 
 single work of that author, is the only way of gaining 
 a proper mastery of Latin literature. And, lastly, the 
 cogent reason that superintendents demand certain fixed 
 programs, the colleges require them, and the publishing 
 houses will issue no other texts. 
 
 Latin is more than a drill in grammar. It can and 
 should be made a vehicle for the interpretation of the 
 genius of that people which has stamped its system of 
 law and government upon the western nations. Its liter- 
 ature, considered as pure literature, is majestic, ethical, 
 classic; Plautus and Terence inspired English comedy; 
 Seneca and Horace have influenced tragedy by example 
 and precept ; Vergil has guided not Dante alone ; Quin- 
 tilian is mighty as rhetorician and educator. You can- 
 not understand the development of the Christian Church 
 without the study of the genius of Rome. Why should 
 Latin be but a drill in grammar? 
 
 Caesar's " Commentaries " will always remain the 
 model of the military memoir for their precision, their 
 sustained elegance. The study of the tribes who formed 
 the nucleus of modern nations never fails to interest the 
 student; the Roman methods of conquering, their pro- 
 cesses of warfare, always attract attention and eager 
 inquiry. But they are as poor that surfeit with too 
 much, as they who starve on nothing; and to force three, 
 four, and even five books of Caesar on a boy or girl 
 is a grievous sin. Would any German teacher spend a 
 year on the campaigns of Frederick the Great? The 
 
 46 
 
moment that the reading of an author is pushed to 
 satiety and becomes a painful repetition of the same 
 dreary details, as of battles, sieges, and battles again, at 
 that moment it ceases to inspire and produces a reaction 
 against the literature which the author represents. 
 
 Nothing is more unfortunate than the treatment of 
 Gicero in our secondary schools. For the " Orations " 
 do not represent Cicero's real greatness. He is the 
 humanist, who interpreted Greek philosophy for the 
 western world ; he is a human man, whose letters throw 
 a fascinating light on contemparaneous political and 
 social life. In his " Orations " he has set a false stand- 
 ard for men.'^ 
 
 Why confine Vergil to the " Aeneid " ? Is not the 
 music of the " Eclogues " worth attention ? Why not 
 drop the last six- books of the " Aeneid," the artificial, 
 though wonderfully artistic, adaptations of Greek origi- 
 nals, and contemplate for a while the Fourth Eclogue 
 and Vergil's unique position as a magician during the 
 Middle Ages ? Does any English teacher read the whole 
 of " Paradise Lost," with no consideration of "Lycidas" ?* 
 
 The result of our present system of presenting Latin 
 is that the Roman world is plunged into the same mystic 
 and unhuman atmosphere which surrounded it during 
 the Middle Ages. It will be worth while for any teacher 
 to question his or her juniors and seniors some day as 
 to their ideas of Roman life and literature. Results are 
 always interesting, though rarely soothing. To cite but 
 one example : the average student believes quite naturally 
 that the Roman conversed exactly as Cicero and Vergil 
 wrote, using the same elaborate word order, the same 
 flowery language. Hence the Roman appears as a Being 
 fearfully and wonderfuly made, who spent most of his 
 time in devising knotty grammar for posterity. And 
 yet a week devoted to reading from the Vulgate would 
 
 ■^See pages 79-87 and 97-101 for an extended discussion of 
 these points. 
 
 47 
 
quickly disabuse the student; the Vulgate was written 
 for the great masses, not for a cultivated nobility alone; 
 and it seems to me extraordinary that this chance-lias 
 been so long overlooked for making boys and girls ac- 
 quainted at once with the Bible and the spoken language 
 of the average Roman. 
 
 I meet at once with the objection, that I am trying 
 to make Latin interesting at the expense of hard work. 
 Such has never been my practice; and the make-it- 
 pleasant-and-easy method of teaching is as distasteful 
 to me as to any one. But I assert positively that, at 
 the end of two or, at most, three years of Latin, a 
 student who has been rightly drilled should be ready to 
 read at a fair pace and should have enough grammar to 
 last for the next four years of study, if he desires to 
 continue the language. It is in the junior and senior 
 years that I plead for greater variety, much more than 
 during the first two or three. No one insists more 
 firmly on a solid foundation of grammar than I do. ' 
 
 Again : the assertion is made that the vocabulary, say, 
 of Pliny and of Seneca is too difficult for a high-school 
 student. That assertion is nonsense ; for I have had 
 juniors and seniors read selections from these authors 
 with less trouble than from Cicero. 
 
 The idea that one must read the whole " Aeneid " to 
 appreciate Vergil, or seven books of the " Gallic War " 
 to understand Caesar is about the weakest argument of 
 the Old Guard. Far from leading to appreciation, too 
 much of an author becomes a deadly bore. And it is 
 unfair to the author. Cicero also wrote some charm- 
 ing essays, and some still more interesting letters; to 
 prevent the student from observing his author in all his 
 difiFerent aspects is most unjust to the writer. 
 
 I would make certain parts of Caesar, Cicero, and 
 Vergil the basis of the curriculum in Latin for intensive 
 study; but I believe that one month or two of the year 
 should be taken for other authors, adapted to the sev- 
 
 48 
 
eral classes, in order to get a wider knowledge and a 
 broader vocabulary. In my own practice, I use such 
 authors largely for sight reading. 
 
 It is to be remembered that a small percentage of our 
 high-school pupils take' Latin in college ; very few ever 
 go to college; and hence the desirability for as broad 
 a range in reading as is consistent with thoroughness is 
 vastly increased. I do not believe that every boy or 
 girl should study Latin; but I hold firmly that, if it is 
 taught, our present confined system is inadequate. The 
 language is, indeed, on the defensive. Botany, zoology, 
 meteorology, Esperanto, and other vital studies, which 
 are so marvelously practical, tend to crowd it back. If 
 Nature has intended a boy to be a blacksmith, let him 
 study blacksmithing ; but if he has a capacity for litera- 
 ture, let him not be driven from that literature which is 
 so vitally interwoven with our modern ; let him not gain 
 the impression that Csesar, Cicero, and Vergil are all 
 there is. 
 
 I once asked a teacher of the old school why so many 
 authors were studied in German and French, and only 
 three in Latin. To this he replied that he would not 
 give a snap of his fingers for the results achieved in 
 modern-language work; and he cited in support that 
 an eminent Harvard professor of modern languages had 
 said the same. The worthy old schoolmaster was mis- 
 taken. The Harvard professor had not attacked the 
 reading of many authors; he had attacked the slipshod 
 way in which these authors are presented. 
 
 Many teachers agree that more variety is desirable; 
 but they point to the fact that Yale, Princeton, Wil- 
 liams, every college except Harvard, demand four books 
 of Caesar, six orations of Cicero, and six books of the 
 "Aeneid"; and they ask, "What can we do?" Well, 
 if teachers were not so afraid of expressing their opin- 
 ions, perhaps Yale and her little sisters would some day 
 awake to the fact that translation at sight is the only 
 
 49 
 
true test of ability in Latin, as all acknowledge it is in 
 German and French. Any bright boy can " trot " out 
 his prescribed Cicero in a month and pas« the examina- 
 tion. I have seen it done repeatedly. And I should like 
 to inquire, by the way, by what divine right colleges 
 are allowed to dictate studies in secondary schools, see- 
 ing that a very small per cent of high-school students 
 ever go to college? 
 
 In accordance with the arguments that I have pre- 
 sented above, it is my purpose, when I deal with the 
 program year by year, to indicate what various authors 
 and what parts of those authors I have found suitable 
 to present to pupils in secondary schools, in order to 
 give them a wider range and broader insight. As I have 
 said, one or two months a year devoted to these writers 
 — who may serve largely for sight reading — will suffice 
 for our purposes. I shall, I trust, prove that from 
 Phasdrus, Aulus Gellius, Pliny the Younger, Q. Curtius 
 Rufus, Valerius Maximus, the Vulgate, Velleius Pater- 
 culus, Livy, Seneca, Juvenal, Ovid, Sallust, and the like, 
 the teacher has a splendid opportunity to derive work 
 adapted to the several classes at the teacher's discretion. 
 In connection with these authors I shall here notice 
 briefly two possible objections : I. That many are not 
 " classical " ; II. That suitable texts cannot be procured. 
 
 The " classical " argument amounts in most cases to 
 absolute feeble-mindedness. The Old Guard tell us that 
 Caesar, Cicero, Vergil, and the other Augustan writers 
 are " classical," but the others are beyond the pale. Pre- 
 cisely as if, in English, we should all attempt to write in 
 the language of Shakespeare and Milton, and consider 
 Gladstone and, Lincoln "silver" English. Isn't Quin- 
 tilian classical ? Isn't Claudian classical ? Isn't the Vul- 
 gate classical? If you except formations like " baptizo," 
 the Latin of the Vulgate is the Latin of Caesar; only 
 the word-order is much the same as in English; it is, 
 therefore, not to be read, I suppose. Some of those who 
 
 SO 
 
insist so on the " classical " even have the impertinence 
 to forbid their pupils to read authors like Velleius Pater- 
 culus on the ground that their Latin style would be 
 corrupted. " Style " in writing Latin is something that 
 can be predicated very rarely of great scholars — like 
 Erasmus; and to speak of it in connection with high- 
 school pupils amounts to a self-complacency verging on 
 the idiotic. 
 
 As to texts : the Teubuer texts are very cheap, neatly 
 bound, well printed, and excellently edited. They have 
 no vocabulary attached; but, as I have remarked before, 
 these authors last mentioned should form the basis of 
 the sight reading to a large extent ; and the pupil should 
 note each new word. There is nothing so profitable as 
 to place the whole text of an author in the hands of a 
 pupil; one Hkewise without the pretty- pictures, legions 
 of grammatical references, and exercises in composition 
 based on the text, which all go to make the usual text- 
 books a bugbear. From a Teubner text, also, the teacher 
 has the whole field of an author to select from. Nor is 
 it a bad idea to encourage the pupil to start a little 
 classical library of his own, if he can afford it; ten 
 dollars will do wonders. 
 
 Texts with notes and vocabularies are also accessible, 
 although teachers do not know it. I shall mention two 
 of these — excellent in every way: 
 
 I. Selections from Ovid, Curtius, and Cicero; with 
 notes, vocabulary, and brief biographies of these writers. 
 Edited by F. Gardner, A. M. Gay, and A. H. Buck. 
 Lee and Shepard, Boston. Contains selections from 
 Ovid's Metamorphoses, Quintus Curtius Rufus's His- 
 tory of Alexander the Great, and Cicero's de Senec- 
 tute and de Amicitia. 
 
 II. A Latin Reader. By William and Joseph Allen. 
 Boston, Ginn & Co., 1869. Notes and vocabulary. Con- 
 
 51 
 
tains selections from Phaedrus, Caesar, Quintus Curtius 
 Rufus, Nepos, Sallust, Ovid, Vergil, Plautus, Terence, 
 Cicero, Pliny, and others. 
 
 To these should be added the following admirable 
 selections for sight reading: 
 
 III. Latin at .Sight. By Edwin Post. Ginn & Co. 
 Short selections from Caesar, Cicero, A. Gellius, 
 Phaedrus, Nepos, Eutropius, Q. Curtius Rufus, Sue- 
 tonius, Tibullus, Justin, Pliny, Livy. 
 
 IV. Passages for Practice in Translation at Sight. 
 Selected and arranged by James S. Reid. London: 
 Daldy, Isbister, and Co. (56 Ludgate Hill). 
 
 V. Roman Life in Latin Prose and Verse. Selected 
 and edited by Harry T. Peck and Robert Arrowsmith. 
 American Book Company. Selections from popular 
 songs, tomb inscriptions, Ennius, Plautus, Cato the Cen- 
 sor, Catullus, Livy, Ovid, Caesar, Juvenal, Pliny the 
 Younger and Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, Christian Hymns, 
 etc., etc., with brief biographies and excellent pictures. 
 This is the best reader that has appeared. 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Schoolrooms where Latin is taught should, wherever 
 possible, contain pictures dealing with Roman Hfe or 
 art, busts of men like Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil, and 
 suitable maps ; for all these lend vividness and bring the 
 past nearer. On the desk, or in the bookcase, there 
 should be such works on topography, archeology, private 
 Hfe of the Romans, history, facsimiles of manuscripts, 
 and the like, as are adapted to the student's progress; 
 and he should be encouraged to glance through them 
 whenever time permits. I append a limited list of works 
 which are suitable to inspire the attention of pupils in 
 secondary schools: 
 
 Cow: Companion to School Classics. London. Mac- 
 millan. 
 
 52 
 
Becker: Gallus, or Roman Scenes in the Time of Au- 
 gustus. Longmans, Green & Co. 
 Comparetti: Vergil in the Middle Ages. Macmillan. 
 H. W. Johnston : Latin Manuscripts. Chicago. Scott, 
 
 Foresman & Co. 
 Scott: Portraits of Csesar. Longmans, Green & Co. 
 W. Smith: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 
 id. : Dictionary of Greek and Roman fjiography and 
 Mythology. Boston. Little, Brown & Co. 
 Mackail: Latin Literature. New York. Chas. Scrib- 
 
 ner's Sons. 
 Lanciani : Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Ex- 
 cavations, id. : Ruins and Excavations of Ancient 
 Rome. Boston. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
 Mau: Pompeii; its Life and Art. New York. Mac- 
 millan. 
 Baumeister : Bilder aus dem griechischen und romischen 
 Alterthum, fur Schiller zusammengestellt. Munich. 
 R. Oldenbourg. 
 Kiepert: Classical Atlas. Boston. Benjamin H. San- 
 born & Co. 
 Classical Atlas. Ginn. 
 Gayley: Classic Myths in English Literature. Ginn 
 
 & Co. 
 Gesta Romanorum: Translated by Charles Swan. Lon- 
 don. George Bell & Sons. 
 Allen : Remnants of Early Latin. Ginn & Co. 
 Lindsay: Latin Inscriptions. Allyn and Bacon. 
 Preston and Dodge : The Private Life of the Romans. 
 
 Boston. Leach, Shewell & Sanborn. 
 Peck and Arrowsmith: Roman Life in Latin Prose and 
 
 Verse. American Book Co. 1894. 
 Church : Roman Life in the Days of Cicero. Macmillan. 
 Peck (Harry T.) : Trimalchio's Dinner. New York. 
 
 Dodd, Mead & Co. 
 Pliny the Elder: Natural History. Bohn. 
 
 53 
 
A standard History of Rome, as, for example, Gibbon's, 
 
 Mommsen's, or Merivale's. Also Ferrero. 
 Milne : Surgical Instruments in Greek and Roman Times. 
 
 Oxford, Clarendon Press [54 fine photographic 
 
 plates] . 
 Frontinus: On the Water Supply of Rome (de aquse- 
 
 ductibus). Text, facsimile of MSS., translation, 
 
 numerous illustrations — by Clemens Herschel. 
 
 Boston. Dana Estes & Co. 
 Heroes of History : By Ida . P. Whitcomb. Maynard, 
 
 Merrill & Co., New York. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 The First Year of Latin 
 
 The most important point to remember at the begin- 
 ning of the first year of Latin is that Latin is not easy 
 and that constant drill and review are indispensable. 
 
 In the text-book the mere mechanics of arrangement 
 are of great importance. A complex or confused ar- 
 rangement discourages the pupil; clearness and sim- 
 plicity of presentation are vital. The book should not 
 be too voluminous. 
 
 There are four possible methods of approaching our 
 subject; I shall illustrate them by reviewing four repre- 
 sentative text-books which apply them. 
 
 I. The First Latin Book. Collar and Daniell. Ginn, 
 1901. This book, after the usual brief introduction to 
 the alphabet and to pronunciation, gives paradigms of 
 declension and conjugation at the beginning of each 
 lesson ; later on, also, a matter of syntax, say, the ablative 
 of means ; and to each lesson are appended sentences for 
 translation from Latin into English and from English 
 
 54 
 
into Latin. In the case of verbs, whole conjugations are 
 not presented at once; but individual tenses are given 
 in separate lessons, until the conjugation is complete. 
 
 II. Foundations of Latin. Charles E. Bennett. 
 Boston. AUyn and Bacon. Revised edition, 1903. Pro- 
 fessor Bennett's manual proceeds on a different basis. 
 The declensions and conjugations are given as a whole 
 in successive lessons. The sentences set for translation 
 from English into Latin are much simpler than in the 
 book of Messrs. Collar and Daniell. Up to chapter 35 
 no such sentences appear at all in the regular lessons, 
 being placed by themselves in the back of the book. 
 Exercises for rendering of Latin into English appear 
 with each lesson. 
 
 III. Beginning Latin. John E. Barss. D. C. Heath. 
 Boston. 1907. This text-book uses the inductive 
 method. Paradigms of declensions and conjugations are 
 not presented at once, but the root or stem of a noun, 
 for example, is shown, and the pupil is asked to build 
 up its declension by the suffix of appropriate endings. 
 
 IV. Bellum Helveticum. For Beginners in Latin. 
 C. M. Lowe - and Nathaniel Butler. Chicago, 1900. 
 Scott, Foresman & Co. In this manual the deductive 
 method prevails. The pupil is put at once into the read- 
 ing of Cassar ; and each grammatical or syntactical point, 
 and forms, are explained as they occur. 
 
 It is rash to assert that any one method is best. Each 
 teacher has his own; and. if results are right, the means 
 are good. Personally I think that Professor Bennett's 
 is by far the best for pupils who begin Latin in the high 
 school. His book is very simple, compact, clear; and 
 the sentences are, to my mind, better than those of any 
 other beginner's book in their reasonableness and under- 
 standing of what may be expected of immature children. 
 His method, moreover, of presenting whole conjugations 
 at once, instead of piecemeal, as Messrs. Collar and 
 Daniell do, avoids confusion by concentration on the 
 
 55 
 
forms in their entirety. The simplicity of the sentences 
 to be rendered into EngUsh commends itself to those 
 who have learned by experience that the sentences in 
 most of the first Latin books are entirely too difficult 
 for first-year students. 
 
 After declensions and conjugations have been mas- 
 tered, together with easy syntax like the ablative of 
 cause; and after considerable practice in the translation 
 of simple Latin into English; then, and then only, is it 
 proper to begin prose composition of English into Latin. 
 Prose composition is the most difficult thing for the 
 beginner to do ; it is also, when wrongly used, the great- 
 est invention known to make Latin odious, and for this 
 reason is often referred to as superb mental training; 
 just as physicians formerly thought a drug efficacious in 
 proportion to its nauseousness. It demands common- 
 sense on the part of the teacher to prevent it from be- 
 coming a bugbear. Sentences for first-year pupils should 
 be simple. I find the following in one book, given in 
 lesson 23 : " Cassar, after carrying on war with the 
 Venetians, remains in Gaul, so that he may hinder the 
 barbarians, who are wont to fight with their neighbors." 
 I consider this too difficult for second-year students, not 
 to speak of unfortunates who have had only twenty- 
 three lessons in Latin. I append an example or two 
 of sentences which I believe illustrate what may reason- 
 ably be expected of a pupil at the end of the first year. 
 
 1. Caesar came in order to conquer the Helvetii. 
 
 2. We stayed at Rome for ten days. 
 
 3. The soldiers who fought in that battle were 
 praised by Caesar. 
 
 4. Vergil was born at Mantua, but Cicero in Arpi- 
 num. Cicero was thirty-six years older than Vergil. 
 
 And the like. 
 
 Grammar studied alone, without vital connection with 
 a language, is not of much value. Pupils should, there- 
 fore, begin reading simple anecdotes as soon as possible. 
 
 56 
 
After the Roman way of saying things has become 
 familiar, the pupil should begin to do what seems to 
 me of the highest practical value, namely, make his own 
 dictionary of words, phrases, and rules in his notebook 
 as he meets them in his reading, especially reading at 
 sight. It is strange that this method, found by the 
 Humanist schoolmasters to yield such vast practical 
 benefits, is not more used to-day. After all, vocabulary 
 is perhaps the most important matter. Grammar is, in- 
 deed, the foundation; but words are the living material. 
 An architect cannot build a mansion with his plans al«ne ; 
 he needs stones and' timber. 
 
 The following books are suitable for first-year stu- 
 dents' reading: 
 
 I. The Gradatim. Revised by Collar. Ginn & Co. 
 
 II. Ritchie's Fabulse Faciles. Edited with vocabulary 
 by J. C. Kirkland. Longmans, Green & Co. 
 
 III. Scalse Primse. J. G. Spencer. Geo. Bell & 
 Sons, London. With vocabulary. 
 
 IV. Viri Romse. Edjted by D'Ooge. Ginn & Co. 
 
 V. Phasdrus, Justin, and Nepos. Edited with notes 
 and vocabulary, and brief biographical notices, by F. 
 Gardner, A. M. Gay, and A. H. Buck. Lee & Shepard, 
 Boston. 
 
 I would have the students begin real Latin, written 
 by real Romans, as soon as possible. The Latin of 
 modern works like the " Fabulas Faciles " is, indeed, ex- 
 cellent; but they are not and cannot be what original 
 works are. The Fables of Phaedrus are practically un- 
 used ; yet consider their interest historically and ethically 
 alone. As most teachers have not read them and prob- 
 ably imagine them too difficult for beginners, I shall 
 quote the first; 
 
 Lupus et Agnus 
 
 Ad rivum eundem lupus et agnus venerant, 
 Siti compulsi ; superior stabat lupus, 
 
 57 
 
Longeque inferior agnus. Tunc fauce improba 
 
 Latro incitatus iurgii causam intulit. 
 
 " Cur," inquit, " turbulentam fecisti mihi 
 
 Aquam bibenti ? " Laniger contra timens : 
 
 " Qui possum, quaeso, f acere, quod quereris, lupe ? 
 
 A te decurrit ad meos haustus liquor." 
 
 Repulsus ille veritatis viribus, 
 
 " Ante hos sox menses male," ait, " dixisti mihi." 
 
 Respondit agnus : " Equidem natus non eram." 
 
 " Pater hercule tuus," inquit, " male dixit mihi." 
 
 Atque ita correptum lacerat inusta nece. 
 
 Haec propter illos scripta est homines fabula. 
 
 Qui fictis causis innocentes opprimunt. 
 
 Surely no one will assert that pupils who have studied 
 Latin for six months, will be nonplussed by any gram- 
 matical construction here. Note, too, the excellence of 
 the vocabulary — the language is that of Caesar and 
 Cicero. That the fables are in verse need cause no diffi- 
 culty; the teacher can read it, and the pupils learn the 
 scansion more easily than one would suppose. It is, of 
 course, much too early to bother them with any rules of 
 prosody; but the matter of long and short syllables they 
 will have learned in the first lessons. The following 
 fables of Phsedrus are by no means beneath the ability 
 of first-year students : Nos. I, VI, VIII, XIV, and XLII. 
 
 Memory work should be assigned to' a reasonable 
 amount, even in the first year. Phasdrus offers excellent 
 material, e.g., the four verses of No. VI, or the first three 
 of Nos. VII and VIII. Or the teacher may write on the 
 board, for the pupils to copy and memorize, very com- 
 monly used proverbs, as: 
 
 Amicus certus in re incerta cernitur, 
 or, 
 
 Vulgus amicitias utilitate probat. 
 
 58 
 
There should be much reading aloud; and above all 
 it should be drilled into the students from the beginning 
 that they should read the Latin over first and try to 
 get the meaning as a whole before the individual words 
 are picked out for translation. 
 
 Written daily tests of, say, five minutes duration, are 
 most profitable. Many a pupil recites glibly and with 
 seeming correctness what he cannot transcribe accurately 
 on paper. The test may consist of a question on forms 
 one day; on another, a sentence to translate; on a third, 
 a matter of syntax; and the like. Dictation exercises 
 are also useful to acquire accuracy and familiarity in 
 the language. 
 
 At the end of the first year of Latin a student should 
 have the following knowledge: Declensions of nouns, 
 pronouns, and adjectives; conjugations of regular verbs 
 and the common irregular verbs, like possum, fero, eo; 
 common uses of ablative, genitive, dative, accusative ; the 
 simple principles governing common subordinate clauses, 
 such as those of purpose, result, temporal. A familiarity 
 with the Latin way of saying things, acquired by a rea- 
 sonable amount of reading in a suitable reader; and 
 ability to render into Latin very simple English sen- 
 tences illustrating grammatical principles. 
 
 OHAPrER V 
 
 The Second Year of Latin 
 
 Part I 
 
 The author on whom we shall lay the stress in the 
 second year of Latin is Caesar; and the work, his Com- 
 mentaries on the Gallic War, wherein, as Roger Ascham 
 
 59 
 
remarks, " is scene the unspotted proprietie of the Latin 
 tong, even when it was, as the Grecians say, in aicfi^, 
 that is, at the hiest pitch of all perfiteness." The value 
 of the " Commentaries " is quite different from that of 
 any modern general's memoirs. No other book con- 
 tains such a wealth of grammatical, linguistic, geo- 
 graphical, ethnic, and historical material for the 
 secondary student. I suggest books II and V for in- 
 tensive study; but any other equivalent for this can 
 readily be arranged by the teacher at his or her dis- 
 cretion. 
 
 But it is not wise to plunge the pupil at once into 
 Caesar in all his complexity. Therefore, after a review 
 of the first-year grammar to refresh the mind of the 
 student, it is best to start with a book like Mr. Collar's 
 " Gate to Caesar " [Ginn & Co.], in which the narrative 
 of Book II is presented, with the mpst difficult parts 
 simplified ; indirect discourse, for example, is put into 
 the direct form. We are then ready to read Book II 
 of the original with profit and ease. 
 
 Second Year Grammar 
 
 It is in the first two years that the essentials of gram- 
 mar must be mastered thoroughly, as an indispensable 
 basis of further progress ; and the second book of Caesar 
 will offer rich illustrations of grammatical principles. 
 The general method of the presentation of grammar I 
 have already pointed out. As the student has either 
 already begun or is beginning a modern tongue this 
 year, grammatical similarities of the Latin and German 
 or French should be pointed out; purpose clauses and 
 contrary to fact conditions, for example. Or take 
 " quod causal " clauses ; both German and Latin well 
 illustrate the fundamental purpose of indicative and 
 subjunctive here. Explain the shades of meaning be- 
 tween " Caesar non venit, quod aeger erat " and " Caesar 
 
 60 
 
non venit, quod aeger esset " ; and in German,, " Casar 
 kam nicht, weil er krank war," and " Casar kam nicht, 
 weil er krank sei." The " ethical " dative is more readily 
 grasped by citing examples like Shakespeare's " He 
 plucked me ope his doublet " ; and the dative of " ad- 
 vantage " by daily uses, such as " Read the lesson for 
 me." When such means are employed, grammar seldom 
 becomes a bore and is both profitable and interesting. 
 
 So, too, by way of calling attention to the fact that ■ 
 Latin is vitally connected with modern tongues, the 
 teacher should explain that " Chester " in words like 
 " Dorchester " means " camp " from " castra," just as 
 " wick " in Southwick comes from " vicus " meaning 
 " village." And in French the derivation of " mais " 
 from " magis," later " mayis," is not without value' for 
 furthering knowledge and interest ; so also " chose " 
 from " causa," " chateau " from " castellum," and the 
 like. It stands to reason that the student should not 
 be required to learn these as part of his lesson; for our 
 concern is first of all the Latin. 
 
 At the end of the second year, the student should 
 have a very fair grammatical equipment ; in fact, enough 
 to be adequate, with some additional note of rarer con- 
 structions and forms, for the next three years.- Constant 
 drill and review is as essential as during the first year. 
 I consider a knowledge of the following reasonable to 
 expect at the end of the second year : 
 
 Syntax 
 
 1. Sequence of Tenses. 
 
 2. Prohibitions, Exhortatiops, Wishes. 
 
 3. Purpose. 
 
 4. Result. 
 
 5. Causal Clauses. 
 , 6. Conditions. 
 
 7. Concessive Clauses. 
 
 61 
 
8. Temporal Clauses. 
 
 9. Questions, Direct and Indirect. 
 
 ID. Indirect Discourse. Complementary Infinitive. 
 
 11. Potential Subjunctive and Subjunctive of Desire 
 
 as Basis of all Subjunctives. 
 
 12. Ablative Absolute. 
 
 Forms 
 
 13. Declensions. 
 
 14. Comparison, Regular and Irregular. 
 
 15. Conjugations. Gerund and Gerundive. Supine. 
 
 
 Functions of Cases 
 
 16. 
 
 Vocative. 
 
 17- 
 
 Genitive. 
 
 18. 
 
 Dative. 
 
 19. 
 
 Accusative. 
 
 20. 
 
 Ablative. Locative. 
 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 21. 
 
 Uses of Prepositions. 
 
 22. 
 
 Accent. 
 
 23- 
 
 Word Foi'mation. 
 
 24. 
 
 Numerals. Dates. 
 
 Nouns having Peculiarities 
 
 I. Dea, filia, insidiae (reliquiae, tenebrae), Aeneas, 
 Athenae. 
 II. Deus, pelagus (vulgus, virus), castra (hiberna), 
 locus, filius, Delphi. 
 
 III. Paterfamilias, aedes, opis, vis, lupiter, bos, nemo, 
 
 tussis (sitis), navis (puppis, turris, sementis), 
 ignis (avis, civis, collis, classis, finis, orbis), pax 
 (sal, sol, lux), aer, caro, lac, nox, moenia. 
 
 IV. Domus. Dissyllables in cus. 
 
 V. Cases lacking in plural. Acies, effigies, facies, 
 series, spes. 
 
 62 
 
Other Irregular Words 
 
 Hie, ille, is. Iste, ipse, idem. Quis, qui, quisque, 
 quidam, aliquis, quispiam, quilibet, quivis. Unus, duo, 
 tres, mille. Plus. Personal pronouns. Adjectives with 
 peculiar genitive and dative (solus, etc.). Eo, edo, 
 fero, fio, vole, nolo, malo, possum, prosum. Coepi, 
 memini, odi. Semi-deponents. Acer (equester). 
 
 Words often 
 
 confused, and words 
 distinct meanings 
 
 with tw 
 
 quidem 
 
 fortis 
 
 dolor 
 
 quidam 
 
 fors 
 forte 
 
 dolus 
 
 superior 
 
 quamquam 
 
 studiun 
 
 profecto 
 
 
 iubeo 
 
 profisciscor 
 
 vis 
 vir 
 
 iuvo 
 
 facies 
 
 
 aer 
 
 facio 
 
 servo 
 servio 
 
 aes 
 
 consilium 
 
 
 numen 
 
 concilium 
 
 remitto 
 amitto 
 
 nomen 
 
 impero 
 
 emitto 
 
 vallis 
 
 impetro 
 
 promitto 
 
 vallum 
 
 impertio 
 
 praemitto 
 
 
 veneo 
 
 
 patior 
 
 venio 
 
 reus 
 
 pateo 
 
 venia 
 
 res 
 
 fugo 
 
 et 
 
 dubito 
 
 fugio 
 
 fero 
 
 ratio 
 
 audeo 
 audio 
 
 fama 
 
 supplicium 
 63 
 
 

 supplicatio 
 
 praedico 
 
 OS 
 
 
 praedico 
 
 ora 
 
 vinco 
 
 
 oro 
 
 vincio 
 
 oblitus 
 
 
 
 oblitus 
 
 levis 
 
 civis 
 
 
 levis 
 
 civitas 
 
 morior 
 moror 
 
 sol 
 
 malus 
 
 
 solus 
 
 mala 
 
 nego 
 
 solum 
 
 malum 
 
 
 solium 
 
 malo 
 
 cogo 
 
 aestas 
 
 incido 
 
 educo 
 
 aetas 
 
 incido 
 
 educo 
 
 aestus 
 
 
 
 
 accido 
 
 tantum 
 
 licet 
 
 accido 
 
 
 liceor 
 
 accedo 
 
 hostis 
 
 
 cedo 
 
 hostia 
 
 aura 
 
 caedo 
 
 
 aurum 
 
 cado 
 
 omen 
 
 auris 
 
 
 omnis 
 
 ^J 
 
 iacio 
 
 omnino 
 
 liber 
 
 iaceo 
 
 
 liber 
 
 
 redeo 
 
 
 nisi 
 
 reddo 
 
 mors 
 
 
 
 mos 
 
 duco 
 
 opus 
 
 mora 
 
 
 opis (gen.) 
 
 
 secundum 
 
 opera 
 
 nanciscor 
 
 secundus 
 
 
 nascor 
 
 
 otium 
 
 
 una 
 
 odium 
 
 quaero 
 
 
 
 queror 
 
 lego 
 
 ordior 
 orior 
 
 64 
 
porta 
 
 portus 
 
 porto 
 
 paro 
 
 pareo 
 
 pario 
 
 video 
 
 
 contendo 
 
 suus 
 
 potior 
 
 usus 
 
 possum 
 
 and the like. 
 
 Tf^A 
 
 nescio quis. 
 aliter ac (atque). 
 dare operam. 
 cum turn. 
 
 lat 
 
 poenas dare (sumere). 
 
 alii alia in parte. 
 
 res secundae (adversae). 
 
 res gestae. 
 
 non modo ne quidem. 
 
 ex usu. 
 
 
 deligo 
 diligo 
 
 praesto 
 necessarius 
 
 gratias agere (habere), 
 euro with gerundive, 
 in dies, 
 and the like. 
 
 Composition during the Second Yeae 
 
 Exercises in translation from English to Latin should 
 be given, say, five minutes during each period. They 
 should be both oral and written; and consist of simple 
 continuous narrative, based on the text. As the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 Dumnorix was an ^duan, who plotted against the 
 Romans. When Csesar was setting out to Britain, Dum- 
 norix stirred up the Gallic leaders. For he thought that 
 he could free Gaul from the Romans. But as soon as 
 
 65 
 
Caesar learned of these matters, he sent some cavalry 
 to kill him. Caesar could not have crossed to Britain, 
 if he had left such men on the continent. 
 
 Vocabulary during the Second Year. 
 
 The pupils should continue their own dictionaries of 
 words and phrases, noting especially the words in the 
 sight reading of the authors whom I shall specify in 
 Part II of this chapter. Exact meanings should be in- 
 sisted upon; e.g.: 
 
 religio = superstition, or, religious scruple, or, conscience, 
 
 rarely religion 
 accedo = to approach and to be added ; not to be confused 
 
 with 
 accido — kill, cut . 
 and accido = fall, happen. 
 
 praesto, are = (i) furnish, (2) excel, (3) it is better 
 (impersonally) ; not to be confused with the adverb 
 praesto = at hand, ready. Slipshod translation should 
 never be tolerated for a moment. Certain widely spread 
 errors of pronunciation and quantity may well be guarded 
 against by impressing the correct method on the pupils 
 as early as possible. But too much attention should not 
 be wasted on the matter. Among words commonly mis- 
 pronounced, notice : 
 
 egredi, not egredi. 
 
 populus = people (but populus = poplar tree), 
 educo = lead out (but educo = educatel . 
 prxdico = predict (but praedico = assert, boast). 
 
 / y 
 
 accido = cut, kill (but accido = fall, happen), 
 confero, not confero. 
 convoco, not convoco. 
 
JULIUS G^SAR 
 
 Latin is the vehicle -for the study of the genius of 
 Rome, of a civilization vitally interwoven with our 
 own. The importance of emphasizing this vital connec- 
 tion should always be present to the teacher; Latin 
 should not be isolated as if it had nothing in common 
 with us. During the second year, therefore, an ad- 
 mirable opportunity presents "itself for making clear to 
 the pupil the importance of the Roman conquest of the 
 world for us; and the life of Csesar in all its manifold 
 aspects will have that peculiar attraction that the bi- 
 ography of great men of action always exerts on ado- 
 lescents. 
 
 (a) Let the pupil first read some brief account of 
 Roman history during Cesar's time, so that he may 
 have the political and social background clearly before 
 his eye. I suggest as admirably suited to the student 
 the short but excellent account on pages 200-225 of 
 Allen's " Short History of the Roman People." [Ginn 
 & Co.]^ 
 
 (b) The teacher may well dictate a condensed bi- 
 ography. Lives of Caesar, such as those by Froude, 
 Trollope, Napoleon III, and H. G. Liddell, should be 
 on the desk for reference. The " Portraitures of 
 Caesar," by Frank Jesup Scott [Longmans, Green & 
 Co., 1903], should be at hand to present the great 
 leader more vividly to the eye. Pupils should be en- 
 couraged to form their own estimates of Csesar; give 
 them Ferrero's opinion, for example, and have them 
 criticize it. 
 
 ^Abbott's " History of Julius Caesar " (Harper & Brothers) 
 is an excellent little book for boys and girls, presenting the 
 history of the times in very attractive and simple form. 
 
 67 
 
(c) The place of Cjesar in the history of Rome, 
 his financial and constitutional reforms, his welding to- 
 gether of the Roman world, his calendar, and the like, 
 should be presented briefly, but concisely. 
 
 (d) His personality, as stamped upon succeeding 
 generations, should be noted. Here I would advise 
 teachers to read carefully the following two admirable 
 monographs : 
 
 " Caesar in der deutschen Literatur," by Friedrich 
 Gundelfinger. Berlin. jNJayer und Miiller, 1904. 129 
 pages. 
 
 " Ceesarfabeln des -\Iittelalters," by Hermann Wese- 
 mann. Lowenberg in Schlesien, 1879. Druck von 
 Paul Miiller. (Neunter Jahresbericht iiber die hohere 
 Biirgerschule zu Lowenberg in Sch.) 35 pages.-* 
 
 Of Caesar's hold upon English writers like Shake- 
 speare I shall speak when I deal with the subject of cor- 
 relation with English during the second year. The in- 
 fluence of the " Commentaries " on great generals Hke 
 Napoleon I should not be neglected. 
 
 Turning now from the contemplation of Caesar as a 
 man and of the force of his personality, it will be fit- 
 ting for us to study in some detail the conquests of 
 England, Gaul, and Germany; and every means must 
 
 •*■ There is no book which will give a better and more inter- 
 esting idea of the strange way in which the celebrated men 
 of Rome were regarded in the Middle Ages than the naiw; 
 " Gesta Romanorutii,'' those curious chronicles which supplied 
 Shakespeare and Boccaccio with considerable material for plots. 
 There is an excellent translation and commentary by Charles 
 Swan, revised and corrected by W. Hooper [London, George 
 Bell & Sons, 1905]. For an anecdote of Cjesar and Pompey, 
 see Tale XIX (p. ,48); observe the Moral: "My beloved, l)y 
 Pompey understand the Creator of all things; Caesar signifies 
 Adam, who was the first man. His daughter is the soul, be- 
 trothed to God. Adam was placed in Paradise to cultivate 
 and to guard it; but not fulfilling the condition imposed upon 
 him, like Caesar, he was expelled his native country. The 
 Rubicon is baptism, by which mankind reenters a state of 
 blessedness.'' 
 
 68 
 
be taken to impress upon the pupil the lasting nature of 
 the works wrought in these regions by the Romans. 
 
 (a) Caesar's own account of the conquest of Britain 
 is contained in IV, chapters 20-38, and V, 8-23. With 
 this account the teacher should by all means correlate 
 chapters 10-17 of the "Agricola " of Tacitus, either in 
 the original or in translation ; and this comparison of 
 the description of the Britons by two of the greatest 
 Roman writers proves very interesting to the student.-*- 
 The further history of England to the withdrawal of 
 the Romans in the fifth century can be touched upon 
 briefly in five minutes. A convenient book on the sub- 
 ject of Caesar's Conquest of Britain is:, 
 
 "Ancient Britain and the Invasion of Julius Caesar," 
 by Thomas Rice Holmes. Oxford, 1907. The Claren- 
 don Press. 
 
 Pictures of Roman antiquities, still to be seen in 
 England, bring the past more closely to the present. The 
 f ollo\ying volume can be had from the library : 
 
 " Illustrations of Roman London," by Charles Roach 
 Smith. London, 1859. Privately printed. T. Rich- 
 ards, 37 Great Queen Street. "^ 
 
 (b) The conquest of Gaul is the main theme of the 
 " Commentaries " throughout. In addition to the read- 
 ing of books II and V, the geographical description 
 in I, I, should be read, as well as the very interesting 
 account of Gallic character and customs in book VI, 
 11-21. The great siege of Alesia and the account of 
 the gallant Vercingetorix — book VII — might well be 
 substituted for some of the reading in V. 
 
 A It -will be -well for the teacher also to present the ac- 
 counts in Dio Cassius, 76, 12; Ph'ny the Elder, N. H., IV 
 30 (16) ; Pomponius Mela, III, 49-33. 
 
 ^ More accessible is H. M. Scarth's " Roman Britain " — 
 New York, J. B. Young & Co. — London, Society for Pro- 
 moting Christian Knowledge, Northumberland Avenue, Charing 
 Cross, W. C, London. 
 
 69 
 
Attention should be called to various points by way of 
 making the narrative mean more to the pupils For 
 example: Gallic proper nouns are not undeserving of 
 comment. Cingetorix means " king of warriors." On 
 this matter teachers can profitably consult the following 
 work, which is clearly and elegantly written: 
 
 " Les Noms Gaulois chez Cesar et Hirtius de Bello 
 Gallico." H. D'Arbois de Jubainville, avec le collabora- 
 tion de E. Renault et G. Dottin. Paris, 1891. Emile 
 Bouillon, editeur. 
 
 Observe, for instance, such a comment as this : 
 " Mandu-bracios est ' le fils de celui qui s'occupe du malt,' 
 c'est a dire ' de I'orge a fabriquer la biere.' L'orge a 
 fabriquer la biere, autrement dit le malt, s'appelle en 
 vieil irlandais braich, au genitif bracha, primitivement 
 * braci-s, genitif * bracos. Phne, qui ecrit ce mot a 
 I'accusatif bracem, nous apprend qu'il etait usite en 
 Gaule, et, suivant lui, ce mot designait en Gaule une 
 espece de ble, genus f arris [Pline, xviii, 62]. Mandu- 
 bracio-s est compose de trois elements." 
 
 A work that is more learned and exhaustive, but not 
 of the artistic form of the above, is : 
 
 " Die bei Gaius Julius Caesar vorkommenden kel- 
 tischen Namen in ihrer Echtheit festgestellt und erlau- 
 tert," von Christian Wilhelm Gliick. Miinchen, 1857. 
 Verlag von J. G. Cotta. 
 
 The modern names of towns and rivers mentioned by 
 Caesar will bring home to the student the lasting effects 
 of the pioneer work of the Romans ; thus : portus Itius = 
 
 *■ With Caesar's description of the Druids in VI, 14, compare 
 that of Pomponius Mela, III, 18-20. In connection with the 
 astronomical knowledge of the ancient priests I would like 
 to call attention to an article on "-The Uses and Dates of 
 Ancient Temples; an interesting Astronomical Investigation," 
 by Sir Norman Lockyer — in the Scientific American Supple- 
 ment 1761, October 2, igog. 
 
 70 
 
Boulogne, etc. The teacher will find the modern names 
 in the geographical appendix of the following excellent 
 work : 
 
 " Conquete des Gaules. Analyse Raisonnee des Com- 
 mentaires de Jules Cesar," par Leon Fallue. Paris, 
 1862. Ch. Tanera, editeur.-*- 
 
 The results of excavations in France may be illustrated 
 by: 
 
 " Excursions Archeologiques dans les montagnes 
 fiduennes de la Cote-d'Or. Antiquites de Sainte-Sabine. 
 Defaite des Helvetes par J. Cesar." Paul Guillemot, 
 Dijon, 1861. 
 
 The standard histories, like Mommsen's, and Lives of 
 Caesar, like Froude's and Napoleon's, of course give 
 accounts of the Roman occupation and its effects. The 
 following work is very valuable: 
 
 " Caesar's Conquest of Gaul," by Thomas Rice Holmes. 
 London, 1899. The first part of this work is historical, 
 the second part critical, and includes discussions of the 
 
 •*■ Ginn & Company's very admirable " Classical Atlas " will 
 also be found most useful for a knowledge of thg modern 
 names of ancient site.= — they are given in the back of the 
 "Atlas." I also recommend most earnestly the same com- 
 pany's wall maps (Johnston) — 50x42. 
 
 Suitable maps should, of course, always be before the eyes 
 of the pupils; and routes should be traced with some care. 
 Kiepert's maps are the standard ones. Useful also are Riistow's 
 "Atlas zu Caesars Gall. Krieg," in 15 Karten u. Planen; and 
 Oehler's " Bilder Atlas zu Cassars Buchern de Bell. Gall.," 
 Leipsig, i8go. But the Atlas of Ginn is by far the best atlas to 
 give to secondary pupils. 
 
 Of exhaustive lexicons to Cssar, these are standard works : 
 
 I. " Lexikon zu den Schriften Caesars und seiner Fort- 
 setzer mit Aiigabe samtlicher Stellen," von H. Merguet. Jena, 
 1886, I vol. — Gustav Fisher. 
 
 II. "Lexicon CcBsarianum confecit H. Meusel." 3 vols. 
 Berolini, W. Weber, 1887. 
 
 III. " Lexicon Caesarianum. Menge und Preuss.'' Leipsig, 
 1890. 
 
 71 
 
credibility of Cresar's narrative, chapters on ethnology 
 and geography, and notes on the " Commentaries." 
 
 Chapter V, vol. I, of Guizot's " History of France,'' 
 is excellent for a study of Gaul under Roman dominion. 
 
 The attitude of the Romans to conquered peoples 
 should by all means be briefly explained to the students ; 
 especially their admirable policy of incorporating sub- 
 jugated countries into the empire, allowing them their 
 own institutions to a large extent, adopting their gods 
 into the Roman Pantheon, and their remorselessness 
 when policy dictated annihilation ; as well as the prac- 
 tise of taking subjugated nations into the army. The 
 cruel treatment of Vercingetorix may be compared with 
 the fate of Jugurtha before and of Zenobia after him. 
 
 (c) The conquest of Germany cannot fail to awaken 
 interest. With the description of the character and cus- 
 toms of the Germans in VI, 21-23, the " Germania " of 
 Tacitus should by all means be correlated in translation ; 
 although there is no reason why selections from the 
 original should not be presented. The mention of Cim- 
 bri and Teutones in II, 4, calls for a brief rehearsal 
 of the great invasion of these peoples in the years 103- 
 loi B. C, and their subjugation by Marius. The story 
 of Arminius and the fight in the Teutoberg fdrest should 
 be summarized ; and a review of the first barbarian 
 invasion in 390 B. C. to the sack of the Eternal City by 
 Alaric in 410 A. D. may well be given at any time in 
 the study of the " Commentaries." 
 
 The description of the bridge across the Rhine 
 (IV, 17) gives an opportunity to expatiate on the great 
 engineering skill of the Romans; and the vast bridge 
 that Trajan built later may be compared with profit. 
 It is a good plan to have some bright pupil make 
 a model of the structure, which he can readily do, with 
 some help from the teacher ; for many of the text-books 
 supply excellent diagrams. The teacher will find the 
 following works useful : 
 
 72 
 
" C. Julius Caesars Rheinbriicke ; eine tecknisch- 
 kritische Studie," von August Rheinhard. Stuttgart, 
 1883. 
 
 " Studie zu Ccesars Rheinbriicke," von August Schfeus- 
 singer. Miinchen, 1884. Criticizes the above. 
 
 " C. Julius Caesars Rheinbriicke," von F. Zimmer- 
 haeckel. Leipsig, 1899. 
 
 The introductions to the " Commentaries " in standard 
 text-books like Allen and Greenough's give adequate ac- 
 counts of Roman methods of warfare, army and naval 
 matters, war machines, and the like; but the teacher can 
 consult the following with advantage: 
 
 " Das Kriegswesen Casars," von Dr. Franz Frohlich. 
 Ziirich, 1891 — F. Schulthess. I. Shaffung'und Ges- 
 taltung der Kriegsmittel. II. Ausbildung und Erhaltung 
 der Kriesmittel. III. Gebrauch und Fiihrung der Kriegs- 
 mittel. 
 
 "A History of the Art of War among the Romans 
 down to the end of the Empire, with a detailed ac- 
 count of the campaigns of Gains Julius Csesar," by 
 Theodore A. Dodge. Boston, 1892. 
 
 " Caesar's Army," by H. P. Judson. Ginn & Co., 
 1887. 
 
 CORRELATION OF SECOND- YEAR LATIN 
 WITH ENGLISFI 
 
 Latin should be a powerful help in the acquisition of 
 English and of power of appreciation, and should be 
 (constantly correlated with our mother-tongue. This 
 work would, however, if done during the time allotted 
 to Latin, occupy too great a prominence and hinder the 
 pupil in the task of learning the Latin language — his 
 chief concern. The exercises which I shall next suggest 
 should, therefore, .be a prescribed part of the course 
 in English during the second year. 
 
 73 
 
I. Once a fortnight a chapter of Caesar should be 
 assigned for faithful rendering into good and idiomatic 
 English. The long periodic sentences which occur fre- 
 quently in the " Commentaries " are a fruitful source 
 of the horrible thing known as " translation English." 
 As a rule, after a pupil has translated one or two clauses 
 of a complex sentence, he quite forgets any connection 
 of these with the part that follows ; and the matter 
 becomes a veritable chimaera : 
 
 Trpoa-de Xeccv, oiridev 8e SpaKcov, fieaaij Bk ')(ifj,aipa. 
 
 Pupils should be taught both to split a long periodic 
 sentence into shorter ones, and also to keep the periodic 
 structure in English, if possible. Diligent attention to 
 the most exact English equivalents of the Latin words 
 should be demanded ; and tenses and moods given their 
 precise force. For example : Ccesar equites prcemisit qui 
 viderent, etc., contains a qui clause of purpose, which 
 is accurately translated " who were to see " and inac- 
 curately by "who saw" — which latter would be qui 
 videnint. 
 
 II. Shakespeare's " Julius Caesar " can be read with 
 profit and pleasure in second-year English while the 
 " Commentaries " are studied in the Latin course. Not 
 to mention the admirable opportunities for character 
 study which it offers, we may call attention to the 
 knowledge of antiquities which the pupil may acquire 
 by its perusal — such matters as the L-upercal, the Ides 
 (Roman Calendar), and the like. Grammatical usages 
 similar to the Latin are not uncommon and help to an 
 understanding of syntax — like the " ethical " dative in 
 " He plucked me ope his doublet." The use of words 
 in their Latin significations will also be noted, e.g.: 
 
 censure = " judge " (censeo) ■ — III, 2. 
 proper = " own " (proprius) — V, i. 
 
 74 
 
factious = " active " (facio) — I, 3. 
 prodigious = " portentious " (prodigium) — I, 3. 
 apprehensive = " intelligent " " capable of apprehend- 
 ing" (apprehendo) — III, i. 
 prevent—" anticipate " (prcBvenio) — V^, i. 
 
 III. Attention may be called to Mr. .Bernard Shaw's 
 " Cassar and Cleopatra," Addison's " Cato," Beaumont 
 and Fletcher's " Ihe False One," and H. W. Herbert's 
 
 ' The Roman Traitor." 
 
 IV. Topics dealing with matters connected with the 
 study of Cassar may well furnish subjects for themes, 
 either for the whole class or for individual pupils. It 
 is an excellent scheme to assign different students dif- 
 ferent topics to work up for five-minute talks; whereby 
 a great variety of interesting material can be presentee! 
 to the class and a broad field covered without taking 
 valuable time from more essential matters. I have had 
 pupils speak or write excellently on such subjects as 
 these : 
 
 1. Caesar's treatment of his men and officers. 
 
 2. The character of Caesar as presented by Shake- 
 speare, and as it impresses us in the "Commentaries." 
 
 3. Cjesar's bridge across the Rhine: an exposition,, 
 with illustrative model. 
 
 4. A brief history of England from 55 B. C. to 420 
 A. D. 
 
 5. The Latin of the " Commentaries " compared with 
 that of the " Vulgate." [The boy who wrote and re- 
 cited on this pointed out such matters as differences in 
 word order, use of direct and indirect discourse, Greek 
 formations, etc. — see extracts on next page.^] 
 
 6. The Germans as described by Caesar and by Taci- 
 tus. [Pupil was given the " Germania " in translation.] 
 
 7. The " Gallic War " as a political pamphlet. 
 
 I have also found it useful to require the whole class 
 to write a critical edition of V, chapter i, with gram- 
 
 75 
 
matical notes, sentences for composition based on the 
 text, and a brief biographical and historical introduction ; 
 together with some similarities of French and Latin 
 grammar — as in the force of the imperfect tense. 
 
 Pupils should be encouraged to read Plutarch's " Life 
 of Caesar," both to acquire some knowledge of our origi- 
 nal sources, and to become acquainted with that charm- 
 ing writer. 
 
 Part II 
 
 I shall next discuss suitable reading in other authors 
 besides Caesar; this part of the work is for rapid sight- 
 reading, in order to broaden the pupil's horizon and give 
 him a more varied view of the literature of Rome. The 
 extracts which I shall suggest are perfectly capable of 
 being grasped by any student who has faithfully worked 
 out two books of Caesar, or even one. The pupil should 
 put each new word or idiom on a card or in a note- 
 book, and commit it to memory. 
 
 A Extracts ■from this pupil's five-minute paper (boy was fifteen 
 years old) : " The Latin spoken by the Roman people was not 
 the Latin of Caesar and Cicero, but what modern students 
 call sermo plebeius. . The Vulgate was intended for 
 
 all classes of people. . . the Commentaries were intended 
 only for the nobility, and therefore Caesar wrote in the style 
 of the nobles. Cajsar's writings are much more complex than 
 the Vulgate ; for example : ' Cum ab his quaereret quae civitates 
 quantaeque in armis e.^sent, et quid in bello possent, sic reperiebat : 
 plerosque Belgas esse ortos ab Germanis.' Let us compare 
 with this a few sentences from the Vulgate: 'Dixit autem ei 
 Jesus, Cur me dicis bonnm? nemo bonus, nisi unus, nempe 
 Deus. lUe autem dix't, Hrec omnia observavi a iuventute mea.' 
 It can be seen, by comparing these sentences, that Cffisar uses 
 complex constructions of subordinate clauses with the sub- 
 junctive; the Vulgate uses the simple sentence with the indica- 
 tive. Caesar u'ses indirect discourse often ; the Vulgate rarely. 
 Caesar is fond of the periodic sentence ; it is rare in the Vul- 
 gate. . . The word order in the Vulgate is very like 
 the English. Many words in the Vulgate have an 
 ecclesiastical meaning which they never have in Caesar, like 
 'fides' 'faith.'" 
 
 76 
 
I. The five Readers which I have already mentioned 
 are in all respects admirable, and may be used throughout 
 the high-school course; the teacher can readily choose 
 those selections which are best adapted to the degree of 
 progress of the several classes. 
 
 II. " Stories of Great Men — from Romulus to Sci- 
 pio Africanus Minor," by F. Conway, London — George 
 Bell & Sons, 1900 (with vocabulary). Extracts from 
 Livy, Floras, Velleius Paterculus, Nepos, Cicero — 
 sometimes as in the original, sometimes abridged. 
 
 III. " Scalas Tertise," by E. C. Marchant, London, 
 1900 — George Bell & Sons (with vocabulary). Se- 
 lect passages from Phsedrus, Ovid, Nepos, Cicero. 
 
 IV. "Via Latin<" by William Collar — Ginn & Co. 
 Selections from Suetonius, Nepos, Eutropius, etc. 
 
 The following authors are readily accessible in the 
 excellent and cheap Teulner texts; and the value of 
 placing the ichole of an author in the hands of the pupil 
 I have already disctxssed. 
 
 V. Eutropius: Breviarium (Compendium of Ro- 
 man Flistory), ed. Ruehl, 1897. 45 Pfennig. Here is 
 a specimen of this little work, to show how well it is 
 adapted to quick reading by second-year pupils : 
 
 Anno urbis conditas sexcentesimo nonagesimo tertio C. 
 Julius Caesar, qui postea imperavit, cum L. Bibulo consul 
 est factus. Decreta est ei Gallia et Illyricum cum legioni- 
 bus decem. Is primus vicit Helvetios, c[ui nunc Sequani 
 appellantur, deinde vincendo per bella gravissima usque 
 ad Oceanum Brittanicum processit. [VI, 17.] 
 
 VI. Aulus Gellius : Noctes Atticas, ed. C. Hosius, 
 1903. (Vol. I, M. 1.80, vol. II, M. 2.40.) Offers a 
 great variety of stories dealing with history, grammar, 
 philosophy, etc. Second-year students might easily read, 
 
 In antiquis annalibus memoria super libris Sibyllinis 
 ha;c prodita est : Anus hospita atque incognita ad Tarqui- 
 
 77 
 
nium Superbuni regem adiit novem libros ferens, quos 
 esse dicebat divina oracula : eos velle venundare. Tarqui- 
 nius pretiiim percontatus est. iMulier nimium atque 
 immensum poposcit; rex, quasi anus setate desiperet, 
 derisit, etc. [I, 19]. 
 
 The A'^ulgate should by all means be used. Objection 
 might be made for sectarian reasons ; but it seems to me 
 that there is no reason why the Latin should not be 
 read without comment : 
 
 VII. Novum Testamentum et Psalmi Latine, ed. 
 Beza. Berolini, sumptibus Societatis Bibliophilorum Bri- 
 tannicie et externae, MDCCCCV (50 cents). A very 
 handsome little edition, that will ornament any book- 
 shelf. The following will illustrate the style: 
 
 Et fecit ei Levi epulum mag^num domi suae; eratque 
 turba multa publicanorum et aliorum qui cum ipsis ac- 
 cumbebant. Obmurmurabant autem eis scribae ac Phari- 
 saei dicentes ad discipulos eius, Quare cum publicanis 
 et peccatoribus editis et bibitis? Et respondens Jesus 
 dixit eis, Non opus est iis, qui sani sunt, medico, etc. 
 [Luke 5: 29-31]. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 The Third Year of Latin 
 
 Part I 
 
 The third year presents the question of what author 
 can best serve for intensive study; shall it be Cicero or 
 Vergil.'' The main objection to Vergil is, that he de- 
 mands a greater maturity for appreciation; and that his 
 poetical usages, so different from the norm of prose, 
 are very confusing to the student, who has just spent 
 two years in learning fixed rules. Experience does not 
 
 78 
 
prove that these arguments are necessarily valid; pupils 
 do, as a matter of fact, often declare Vergil easier than 
 Cicero; and the change to poetry, after two years of 
 continuous prose, seems not infrequently a pleasant break 
 of monotony, The individuality of the class will per- 
 haps be our best guide; and Vergil or Cicero may be 
 presented according to their adaptability to the several 
 groups of students. For convenience I shall assume 
 that Cicero is taken for intensive study during the third 
 year; and the first part of this chapter will be concerned 
 with the teaching of that author. 
 
 The reading of Cicero is confined, in our secondary 
 schools, to six or more orations. The number of the 
 schools which study any other part of his writings, such 
 as the " Letters " or " Essays," is so small a per cent 
 of the whole as to be insignificant. I conceive the 
 prevalent method to be absolutely wrong and unjustifi- 
 able; and the matter is important enough to merit ex- 
 tended discussion. 
 
 I. The " Orations " present but one sidfe of Cicero. 
 Let me remind the reader again, that the vast majority 
 of our high-school pupils either do not go to college at 
 all, or do not take Latin when they get there. To 
 exhibit a writer in but one aspect is, then, unjust to 
 that writer, and leaves a false impression in the minds 
 of the students. It is important that Cicero should stand 
 out in his true position in the history of literature and 
 thought. When we shall have discovered wherein his 
 real greatness consists, we shall be able more clearly to 
 see on what works the stress should be laid. A review 
 of the opinions of some acknowledged authorities of 
 the first rank will aid us in our attempt. 
 
 The judgment of QuintiHan is famous [X, i, 105- 
 ^^3] '■ ".Quare non immerito ab hominibus aetatis suae 
 regnare in iudiciis dictus est, apud posteros vero id 
 consecutus, ut Cicero iam non hominis nomen sed elo- 
 
 79 
 
quentias habeatur. Hunc igitur spectemus, hoc proposi- 
 tum nobis sit exemplum, ille se profecisse sciat, cui 
 Cicero valde placebit." Some excerpts from Tacitus 
 will supplement excellently the ancient views of Cicero 
 [Dial, de orat. 22-27] : " Primus enim excoluit oratio- 
 nem, primus et verbis dilectum adhibuit et composi- 
 tion! artem, locos quoque laetiores attentavit et quasdam 
 sententias invenit, utique in iis orationibus, quas iam 
 senior et iuxta finem vitje composuit, id est, postquam 
 magis profecerat usuque et experimentis didicerat quod 
 optimum dicendi genus esset. Nam priores eius ora- 
 tiones non carent vitiis antiquitatis : lentus est in princi- 
 piis, longus in narrationibus, otiosus circa excessus ; 
 tarde commovetur, raro incalescit ; pauci sensus apte et 
 cum quodam lumine terminantur. . . . adstrictior 
 Calvus, numerosior Asinius, splendidior Cjesar, amarior 
 Caelius, gravior Brutus, vehementior et plenior et valen- 
 tior Cicero. . . . et Calvum et Asinium et ipsum 
 Ciceronem credo solitos [et invidere] et livere et ceteris 
 humanae infirmitatis vitiis adfici." Longinus, comparing 
 Cicero and Demosthenes, calls the foi'mer a wide con- 
 fiagation, the latter a thunderbolt. 
 
 So much for the opinions of the ancients. The 
 judgment of the modern scholar will cover a wider field; 
 for Quintilian was concerned only with Cicero's style, 
 as a means of rounding out the perfect orator. But 
 we of to-day have nineteen centuries to survey; and we 
 measure Cicero not merely as a stylist, but also as a 
 man, whose influence on posterity has been large. The 
 opinion of Theodore Mommsen will follow next : 
 
 " Thus oratorical authorship," says Mommsen [V, 
 pp. 504 ff. — translation of Dickson], " emancipated from 
 poHtics was naturalized in the Roman literary world by 
 Cicero. We have already had occasion several times to 
 mention this many-sided man. As a statesman without 
 insight, idea, or purpose, he figured successively as demo- 
 
 80 
 
crat, as aristocrat, and as a tool of the monarchs, and 
 was never more than a short-sighted egotist. . . . He 
 was valiant in opposition to sham attacks, and he knocked 
 down many walls of i)asteboard with a loud din; no 
 serious matter was ever, either in good or evil, decided 
 by him, and the execution of the Catilinarians in par- 
 ticular was far more due to his acquiescence than to . 
 his instigation. In a literary point "of view we have 
 already noticed that he was the creator of the modern 
 Latin prose; his importance rests on his mastery of 
 style, and it is only as a stylist that he shows confidence 
 in himself. In the character of an author, on the other 
 hand, he stands quite as low as in that of a states- 
 man. . . . He was, in fact, so thoroughly a dabbler, 
 that it was pretty much a matter of indifference to 
 what work he applied his hand. By nature a journalist 
 in the worst sense of the term. . . . there was no 
 department in which he could not with the help of a 
 few books have rapidly got up by translation or compila- 
 tion a readable essay. . . . It is scarcely needful to 
 add that such a statesman and such a litterateur could 
 not, as a man. exhibit aught else than a thinly varnished 
 superficiality and heartlessness. Must we still describe 
 the orator? The great author is also a great man. . . . 
 Cicero had no conviction and no passion ; he was nothing 
 but an advocate, and not a good one. . . . the abso- 
 lute want of political discernment in the orations on 
 constitutional questions and of juristic deduction in the 
 forensic addresses, the egotism forgetful of its duty 
 and constantly losing sight of the cause while thinking 
 of the advocate, the dreadful barrenness of thought in 
 the Ciceronian orations must revolt every reader of 
 feeling and judgment." 
 
 Thus Mommsen; and we shall now see what Ferrero 
 has to say on the same subject [" Greatness and Decline 
 of Rome," vol. Ill, pp. i88 ff. — translation of Chay- 
 
 8i 
 
tor] : " Modern historians have an easy task when they 
 proceed to point out the weaknesses, the vacillation, and 
 the inconsistencies of Cicero; they forget, however, that 
 the same observations would equally apply to any one 
 of his contemporaries, even to Casar himself, and they 
 are the more obviously true in Cicero's case only because 
 . he has himself exposed them to our view. Cicero's per- 
 sonality and the part in history which he played are of 
 greater significance than this. In a society where for 
 centuries noble birth, wealth, or military talents had 
 been the only openings to political power, Cicero had been 
 the first, though he possessed none of these advantages, 
 to enter the governing class, to hold the highest offices, 
 and to govern with nobles and millionaires and generals 
 simply by reason of his admirable literary and oratorical 
 style, and of the lucidity with which he was able to ex- 
 pound to the public the deep complexities of Greek 
 philosophy. . . . Cicero was the first of those men 
 of letters who have been throughout the history of our 
 civilization either the pillars of state or the workers of 
 revolution ; the great company of rhetoricians, lawyers, 
 and publicists under the Pagan Empire are succeeded by 
 the apologists and fathers of the Church ; monks, law- 
 yers, theologians, doctors, and readers appear in the 
 Middle Ages, humanists at the time of the Renaissance ; 
 encyclopaedists appear in the eighteenth century in 
 France; barristers, journalists, political writers, and pro- 
 fessors in our own day. Cicero may have made many 
 a grave political error, but none the less his historical 
 importance can compare with that of CjEsar, and is but 
 little inferior to that of St. Paul or St. Augustine. He 
 had, moreover, all the fine qualities of the dynasty which 
 he founded, and of their defects only the most venial. 
 He was one of those unusual characters rarely to be 
 found even in the world of thought and of letters, who 
 have no ambition for power, no thirst for wealth,' but 
 
 82 
 
merely the far nobler desire, whatever the vanity which 
 it implies, to become the objects of admiration. . . . 
 He alone attempted to govern the world, not with the 
 foolish obstinacy of Cato, or with the cynical' opportu- 
 nism of others, but upon a rational system based upon 
 loyalty to republican tradition amid the prevailing dis- 
 order, based upon the effort to harmonize the austere 
 virtues of the Latin race with the art and wisdom of 
 the Greeks and to disseminate throughout the Roman 
 aristocracy that sense of equity and moderation which 
 can often mollify the constitutional brutality or blind- 
 ness of the principle that might is right. Historians 
 have jested lightly upon Cicero and his Utopias; his. 
 contemporaries must have thought more of them, seeing 
 that fifteen years later they attempted to put many of 
 them into practice." 
 
 These are the views, conflicting with each other, of 
 two of the greatest historians of modern times. Neither 
 of them expresses the real case; and the best summary 
 of Cicero's work will be found in Mr. Mackail's' little 
 masterjpiece, " Latin Literature,'' pp. 62 ft'. [London, 
 John Murray, Albemarle Street, 1899 — third impres- 
 sion). This is the careful judgment: "The claims of 
 Cicero to a place among the first rank of Roman states- 
 men have been fiercely canvassed by modern critics; and 
 l)Oth in oratory and philosophy some excess of venera- 
 tion once paid to him has been replaced by an equally ex- 
 cessive depreciation. The fault in both estimates lay 
 in the fact that they were alike based on secondary 
 issues. Cicero's unique and imperishable glory is not, 
 as he thought himself, that of having put down the revo- 
 lutionary movement of Catiline, nor, as later ages 
 thought, that of having rivalled Demosthenes in the 
 Second Philippic, or confuted atheism in the ' De Na- 
 tura Deorum.' It is that he created a language which 
 remained for sixteen centuries that of, the civilized 
 
 83 
 
world, and used that language to create a style which 
 nineteen centuries have not replaced, and in some re- 
 spects have scarcely altered. He stands in prose, like 
 Vergil in poetry, as the bridge between the ancient and 
 modern world. Before his time Latin prose was, from 
 a wide point of view, but one among many local an- 
 cient dialects. As it left his hands, it had become a 
 universal language, one which had definitely superseded 
 all others, Greek included, as the type of civilized ex- 
 pression. . . . Ciceronian prose is practically the 
 prose of the human race; not only of the Roman Em- 
 pire of the first and second centuries, but of Lactantius 
 and Augustine, of the medijeval Church, of the earlier 
 and later Renaissance, and even now, when the Renais- 
 sance is a piece of past history, of the modern world 
 to which the Renaissance was the prelude. ... It 
 is in the work of this astonishing year (45-44 B. C.) 
 which, on the whole, represents Cicero's permanent con- 
 tribution to letters and to human thought. If his phi- 
 losophy seems now to have exhausted its influence, it 
 is because it has in great measure been absorbed into the 
 fabric of civilized society. ... To less informed 
 or less critical ages than our own, the absolute contri- 
 bution of Cicero to ethics and metaphysics seemed com- 
 parable to that of the great Greek thinkers ; the ' De 
 Natura Deorum ' was taken as a workable argument 
 against atheism, and the thin and wire-drawn discussions 
 of the Academics were studied with an attention hardly 
 given to the founder of the Academy. When a sounder 
 historical method brought these writings into their real 
 proportion, it was inevitable that the scale should swing 
 violently to the other side. . . . The violence 
 of this attack has now exhausted itself. 
 Cicero. . . . did for the Empire and the Middle 
 Ages what Lucretius with his far greater philosophic 
 genius totally failed to do — created forms of thought 
 
 84 
 
in which the life of philosophy grew, and a body of 
 expression which alone made its growth in the Latin- 
 speaking world possible ; and to that world he presented 
 a political ideal which profoundly influenced the whole 
 course of European history, even up to the French 
 Revolution, Without Cicero, the Middle Ages would 
 not have had Augustine or Aquinas; but, without him, 
 the movement which annulled the Middle Ages would 
 have had neither Mirabeau nor Pitt. . . . The art 
 of letter-writing suddenly rose in Cicero's hands to its 
 full perfection. It fell to the lot of no later Roman to 
 have at once such mastery over familiar style, and con- 
 temporary events of such engrossing and ever-changing 
 interest on which to exercise it. All the great letter- 
 writers of more modern ages have more or less, con- 
 sciously or unconsciously, followed the Ciceronian 
 model. England of the eighteenth century was peculiarly 
 rich in them.; but Horace Walpole, Cowper, Gray him- 
 self would willingly have acknowledged Cicero as their 
 master." 
 
 II. Cicero's real greatness consists, therefore, firstly, 
 in his mastery of style, and secondly, in his work as a 
 humanizer, the interpreter of Greek philosophy to the 
 Western world in language that is classic and method 
 that is popular. The " Orations " do not constitute his 
 greatness. Here, indeed, we see the colossal egotist : 
 " O fortunatam natam me consule Romam ! " We see 
 the pseudo-statesman; and above all, the jury lawyer. 
 " Nil ad ius ; ad Ciceronem," said the great jurist Aquila 
 to a client who had no case. When it suits his purpose, 
 Cicero often lies deliberately or suppresses the tg -ith. In 
 grandiloquent periods he throws dust in the eyes of the 
 jurors. The present age in which we are living 
 is rapidly growing out of the pyrotechnic style of speak- 
 ing; it prefers Lincoln's Gettysburg speech to Edward 
 Everett's floridity; and many paragraphs in Daniel 
 
 85 
 
Webster's Bunker Hill Oration would raise a laugh, if 
 declaimed to-day. The truth can be expressed as grandly 
 as a lie; the Gospels are more convincing than Seneca. 
 There is no audience that has a keener sense of what is 
 fitting than boys and girls in the adolescent stage; they 
 pierce Cicero's weaknesses at once; oration after ora- 
 tion is forced upon them; and the result is nausea so 
 far as Latin is concerned and a totally one-sided impres- 
 sion of Cicero and Rome. Teachers themselves would 
 never dream of reading six orations one after the other 
 for pleasure or profit ; nor would any teacher of English 
 read nothing but Burke for a whole year; but in the 
 teaching of Latin we can only say with Job, " Where 
 shall wisdom be found ? " 
 
 I have mentioned that a keen sense of what is fitting 
 is characteristic of the adolescent. Some further analy- 
 sis of this period of- life will assist us in discovering 
 whether other works than the " Orations " are not better 
 suited to our boys and girls. 
 
 Adolescents are in that age that is passionately fond 
 of action. They are interested in the concrete; hence 
 biography, the study of real men and their deeds, at- 
 tracts them especially. The personal interest is para- 
 mount. Adolescence is, moreover, a chivalrous period; 
 problems of ethics, as of fair play in sport and of cheat- 
 ing in an examination, arouse eager discussion. At the 
 same time the adolescent is not yet ready to grasp the 
 deeper sides of philosophy; the fundamentals of ethics 
 are fitted to him, but not those of metaphysics. 
 
 What, then, can be better adapted to these boys and 
 girls than Cicero's " Letters " and some of the " Es- 
 says " ? In the " Letters " we have Cicero the man, a 
 very human man. baring the minutest details of his 
 own varied life and of the fascinating political and so- 
 cial world that surrounded him. The " Essays " are 
 deliberately written in a popular style; hence suited to 
 the comprehension of the amateur in philosophy. And 
 
 86 
 
both " Letters " and " Essays " are in every respect as 
 " classical " in style as any of the " Orations." 
 
 Thus we arrive at a criterion for deciding what pai'ts 
 of Cicero ou§;ht to be read in secondary schools. We 
 cannot afford entirely to neglect the " Orations " ; nor 
 may high-school students comprehend all the " Letters " 
 or " Essays." Careful selection must, of course, be 
 made; and I suggest the following combinations as 
 adapted to boys and girls who are studying Cicero. 
 
 L CatiHne I. Archias. De Amicitia. Selected Letters. 
 
 II. PhiHppic II. Roscius Amerinus. De Amicitia. 
 Selected Letters. 
 
 III. Marcellus. Verres I. De Amicitia. Selected 
 Letters. 
 
 Not the least pleasant thing connected with the read- 
 ing of the '■ Essays " and " Letters " is the change of 
 style : we say good-bye to a rhetoric which can, as in 
 Archias 11, string out periodic bomba:st half a page in 
 length for each sentence. There are numerous editions 
 of " Selected Letters," of the " De Amicitia," and of the 
 " De Senectute " easily procurable from the large pub- 
 lishing houses. 
 
 POINTS TO BE NOTED IN THE TEACHING OF 
 CICERO 
 
 As Caesar served for the study more of the external 
 side of Rome, its conquests, its treatment of subjugated 
 peoples, and the like, so the study of Cicero will bring us 
 more intimately in contact with the inner social, political, 
 and religious life of Rome itself. 
 
 Short and adequate biographies of Cicero are usually 
 prefixed to our school editions; but the teacher will do 
 well to recommend to the pupils and to have on the desk 
 for ready reference one of the " Lives " of the following 
 authors : Middleton, Forsyth, Trollope, Collins, and Bois- 
 
 87 
 
sier. The teacher will also find the work of Suringar 
 interesting; it consists of extracts from all of Cicero's 
 writings that tell the story of his own life. 
 
 Excellent pictures of Roman society in the period with 
 which we are dealing will be found in Becker's " Callus," 
 Boissier's " Cicero and His Friends," and Church's 
 " Roman Life in the Days of Cicero." These works 
 seldom fail to invite the attention of the student. 
 
 The teacher will find A. H. J. Greenidge's " Legal 
 Procedure in Cicero's Time " [Oxford, Clarendon Press, 
 1901] a most useful volume for a better understanding 
 of the ' Orations " that deal with strictly legal matters. 
 
 Alerguet's " Lexicon " is the standard dictionary for 
 our author. 
 
 To gain a better appreciation of Cicero's style, the 
 perusal of a dozen works will by no means yield the 
 profit of studying carefully the " Etudes sur le Style des 
 Discours de Ciceron " by L. Laurand [Paris, Librairie 
 Hachette et C'^ — 1907] • This work is one of those 
 masterpieces in which the T-'rench excel ; it is scholarly, 
 most interesting, and written in a style of much elegance 
 — it were devoutly to be wished that we could say as 
 much of German and American doctors' theses. 
 
 Opinions held of Cicero in various ages from classical 
 times through the eighteenth centurj' will be found ably 
 presented in Th. Zielinski's " Cicero im Wandel der 
 Jahrhunderte " [Teubner, Leipsig und Berlin, 1908]. 
 
 For a comprehension of the Roman constitution, the 
 accounts in editions of Cicero like that of Allen and 
 Greenough are generally very good. I would like to 
 emphasize one point here : an effort should always be 
 made to connect Roman government with those things 
 of our .'society to-day which it resembles. If, for ex- 
 ample, 'SedilL is translated by " police commissioner," 
 prwtor by " supreme judge," and (iwiesior by " secretary 
 of the treasury," the oflkers of the Roman state adminis- 
 
 88 
 
tration are more likely to become real to the pupil's mind 
 than if they are rendered merely by ledilr, fructor, and 
 quaestor. 
 
 The reading of Cicero demands special notice. We 
 have known for a long time that the great orators of 
 antiquity, using languages in which quantity played so 
 large a part, were fond of closing their periods in 
 rhythmic cadences. Some savants, like Wolf, had made 
 studies on the subject;/ but the matter has recently been 
 investigated exhaustively, so far as Cicero is concerned, 
 by Th. Zielinski [" Das Glauselgesetz in Ciceros Reden," 
 von Th. Zielinski-Leipsig-Dieterich'sche Verlags-Buch- 
 handlung, 1904]. Zielinski has analyzed the endings of 
 all the sentences of all the orations of Cicero — 17902 
 clausulcB — and has found that they follow fairly de- 
 fined types. The regular usages of prosody are observed 
 — elision, syllaba anceps, etc ; and the results are as 
 follows : 
 
 V : " verje clausulse " — cretic base. 
 
 
 
 Form 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Per cent 
 
 1 
 
 — U 
 
 - 1 
 
 — u 
 
 
 4184 
 
 23.3 
 
 2 
 
 — u 
 
 - 1 
 
 - u - 
 
 
 ■1991 
 
 11.1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 - 1 
 
 — u — 
 
 
 1297 
 
 7.2 
 
 3 
 
 — u 
 
 - 1 
 
 - u — u 
 
 
 1787 
 
 10. 
 
 3 
 
 - - 
 
 - 1 
 
 — u — u 
 
 
 1586 
 
 8.7 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 10845 
 
 60.3 
 
 
 L: "licitae'^ 
 
 '—permitting 
 
 resolutions. 
 
 
 1 
 
 u u 
 
 U — 
 
 1 - u 
 
 
 436 
 
 2.4 
 
 r- 
 
 - u 
 
 u'^u 
 
 1 - u 
 
 
 772 
 
 4.3 
 
 18 
 
 - u 
 
 - 1 
 
 u u u 
 
 
 278 
 
 1.6 
 
 ,12 
 
 u'Ti 
 
 u u u 1 - u 
 
 
 108 
 
 .6 
 
 2' 
 
 u u 
 
 u - 
 
 1 - u - 
 
 
 190 
 
 1.1 
 
 2' 
 
 u u 
 
 
 
 1 - u - 
 
 
 266 
 
 1.5 
 
 22 
 
 u — 
 
 u u 
 
 1 - u - 
 
 
 127 
 
 .7 
 
 
 Carried over . 
 
 
 
 2177 
 
 ili 
 
 89 
 
Bri 
 
 ms:ht over 
 
 
 
 
 
 2177 
 
 2" 
 
 — U 
 
 u — 
 
 1 - 
 
 u 
 
 - 
 
 239 
 
 2" 
 
 — U 
 
 _ _ 
 
 1 - 
 
 u 
 
 — 
 
 207 
 
 3' 
 
 u u 
 
 u — 
 
 1 - 
 
 u 
 
 — u 
 
 192 
 
 3' 
 
 u'^u 
 
 _ — 
 
 1 - 
 
 u 
 
 — u 
 
 226 
 
 3- 
 
 iL ~ 
 
 u^u 
 
 1 - 
 
 u 
 
 — u 
 
 243 
 
 3' 
 
 — u 
 
 - 1 
 
 u u 
 
 u 
 
 — u 
 
 211 
 
 3' 
 
 — — 
 
 - 1 
 
 u u 
 
 u 
 
 - u 
 
 161 
 
 3" 
 
 — u 
 
 u — 
 
 1 - 
 
 u 
 
 — u 
 
 433 
 
 3" 
 
 — u 
 
 - - 
 
 1 - 
 
 u 
 
 — u 
 
 307 
 
 4 
 
 — u 
 
 - 1 
 
 — u 
 
 - 
 
 u — 
 
 184 
 
 4 
 
 - - 
 
 - 1 
 
 - u 
 
 — 
 
 u — 
 Total 
 
 196 
 4776 
 
 M : " malx" — too much like poetry. 
 
 e.g. 
 
 _u- I -u — u — u 
 
 — I _u-u-u 
 
 — u— I _u-u — u — 
 
 u u u — I u u u 
 
 Total, 1103=6.1 per cent. 
 P : " pessimas " — prevalence of dactyls. 
 
 1 
 
 — u u — 
 
 1 - 
 
 u 
 
 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 - u - 1 
 
 — u 
 
 u 
 
 1 - 
 
 87 
 
 3 
 
 - u - 1 
 
 — u 
 
 u 
 
 1 - u 
 Total 
 
 107 
 248 
 
 
 S : " selectae. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 — u — 1 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 235 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 • - 
 
 
 44 
 
 3 
 
 — u — 1 
 
 — 
 
 • - 
 
 - 
 
 501 
 
 3 
 
 — — — 1 
 
 — — 
 
 ■ — 
 
 Total 
 
 116 
 930 
 
 12.2 
 1.3 
 1.2 
 1.1 
 1.3 
 1.4 
 1.2 
 .9 
 2.4 
 1.7 
 1. 
 1.1 
 
 26.8 
 
 .3 
 
 .5 
 
 .6 
 
 1.4 
 
 .2 
 1.3 
 
 .2 
 2.8 
 
 .7 
 5.2 
 
 90 
 
There is, no doubt, much to be said on both sides of 
 this theory; but it is a theory to be reckoned with. By 
 reading, in accordance with ZieHnski's suggestions, the 
 fragments that we possess of orators like Antonius, we 
 can easily see how it was that the populace which heard 
 him burst into spontaneous, applause; whereas if ■ 
 recited like ordinary prose the words do not seem par- 
 ticularly forcible. We know, too, that a Roman audience 
 was more delighted with harmonious periods and rhyth- 
 mic cadences, even though there was no real argument 
 behind them, than with weighty matter prosaically ex- 
 pressed. 
 
 CORRELATIO'N with ENGLISH 
 
 As it was found useful to correlate the study of Caesar 
 with the English course, so a similar method will be 
 found profitable in the case of Cicero. Execises in 
 translation of, say, one whole chapter a month should be 
 
 ' insisted upon. Cicero is far more difficult to translate 
 faithfully than Csesar; and I desire ,to call attention here 
 to several expressions about which teachers themselves 
 are very careless. Take, for example, an at the beginning 
 of a sentence. This is usually rendered by " or " in 99 
 per cent of all cases ; and makes absolute nonsense, too, 
 in that signification; but pupils bother very little about 
 sense, .md many teachers do not have time to worry 
 over such matters. Nevertheless, the rendering " or " 
 is not Cicero ; and it is our duty to find as exact equiva- 
 lents as possible. Note what Professor Lane remarks 
 [§ 1508] : "A question with an, less often anne, or if 
 negative, with an non, usually challenges or comments 
 emphatically on something previously expressed or im- 
 plied; as, ' An habent quas gallin;e manus? ' (PI. Ps. 29.) 
 'What, what, do hens have hands?'" There is a good 
 instance of an in Catiline I, i, 3 — "An vero vir amplis- 
 
 simus, P. Scipio," etc. — translate this an by " or " and 
 
 91 
 
note what gibberish the sentence becomes ; render it by 
 "Why, P. Scipio,'' etc., and the real force of the Latin 
 is felt. The datives known as " ethical," " datives of ad- 
 vantage," and the like, are poorly translated or entirely 
 passed over by most boys and girls ; yet they have as 
 , distinct a force as the datives which are so similarly 
 used in German. Professor Lane's renderings may well 
 serve as models of felicitous translation; I shall quote 
 two [see sections 1205 ff. of the Grammar] : " Transfi- 
 gitur scutum Pulioni " — " unfortuately for Pulio, his 
 shield gets pierced through and through " ; "At tibi re- 
 pente, cum minime exspectarem, venit ad me Caninius 
 mane " — " but bless you, sir, when I least dreamt of it, 
 who should drop in on me all at once but Caninius, 
 bright and early ! " So, too, in expressions like " pace 
 tua " [" by your leave "] and " Quem honoris causa 
 nomino " [" whom I mention with all due respect "] the 
 chances for the monstrosity called " translation English " 
 are so admirable that they are seldom neglected. These 
 exam.ples will suffice to show how constantly a faithful 
 rendering of the spirit of the Latin should be insisted 
 upon. The long periods in Cicero are also excellently 
 adapted to strengthening the pupil's command of 
 English. 
 
 Sallust's " Catiline " should, of course, be read along 
 with the " Orations against Catiline " of Cicero — if not 
 all of it, at least a large part. This combination of Cicero 
 and Sallust offers excellent material for work in English ; 
 for instance, themes on any of these topics : 
 
 1. The style of Cicero compared with that of Sallust. 
 
 2. A comparison of Catiline with modern political 
 " bosses." 
 
 3. Verres — what would he have done in Pennsyl- 
 vania ? 
 
 4. The style of Cicero in his " Letters " and in his 
 " Orations." 
 
 92 
 
5- Social and political conditions in the time of Cati- 
 line and Louis XV, of France. 
 
 6. Julius Caesar as drawn by Sallust. 
 
 Attention may well be called .to the following works 
 of English authors which will interest the student of 
 Cicero : 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher: "The False One." 
 Croly: "Catiline." 
 Dryden : "All for Love." 
 
 H. W. Herbert : " The Roman Traitor." , 
 
 Ben Jonson : " Catiline." 
 
 Walter Savage Landor : " Imaginary conversation be- 
 tween Cicero and his brother Quintus." 
 J. E. Reade : " Catiline." 
 
 CORRELATION WITH HISTORY 
 
 The study of Roman History is often begun in the 
 third year; and the importance of impressing upon the 
 pupil the fact that he is handling original sources is 
 obvious. Students should by all means be encouraged, 
 also, to form their own judgm.ents on men and events 
 from first-hand evidence. From the works of Caesar, 
 Cicero, and Sallust they may well study a fair amount 
 of material in the original; and translations of the fol- 
 lowing should, whenever possible, be accessible for refer- 
 ence: 
 
 Appian : " Roman History " [XII and XIV] . 
 Dio Cassius: "Roman History" [XXXVI and 
 XXXVII]. 
 
 Florus: " Epitome " [III and IV]. 
 Plutarch : " Lives of Ccesar and Pompey." 
 Suetonius : " Lives of Csesar and Augustus." 
 Velleius PatercuUis, book II. 
 
 93 
 
Part K 
 
 I shall next consider .reading for wider knowledge, on 
 the principles already cited in Part II of the previous 
 chapter. One of the excellent readers which I mentioned 
 there will offer suitable material, and Sallust's " Catiline " 
 may well receive more than a cursory study. Or, if 
 the teacher prefers to place the whole texts of one or 
 two authors in the hands of the pupils and to select 
 extracts from these, I most earnestly recommend : 
 
 I. " Scriptores Historic Augusts," edidit H. Peter- — 
 2 vols.: vol. I — M. 3.30: vol. 2 — M. 4.20. 
 
 The "Augustan Histories " reveal the inner life of the 
 emperors from Hadrian to Carinus with a wealth of 
 fascinating material. And it is most desirable that stu- 
 dents should see that not the age of Cicero, but the first 
 three centuries after Christ are most relative to our pres- 
 ent age. For during the first three centuries was per- 
 fected that Roman Law which taught the Western world 
 the art of government ; a new religion, destined to destroy 
 the whole fabric of the old, was toiling slowly to emi- 
 nence ; the peoples were welded into a homogeneous 
 mass under one system; and the Empire in its death- 
 throes gave birth to the modern European nations. This 
 panorama is well illustrated in the "'Augustan Histories." 
 The high-school student is, of course, not mature enough 
 to grasp every passage ;- but selections can be made that 
 are at once highly interesting and not too difficult. I 
 shall append a few from the " Life of Alexander Sev- 
 erus," by Lampridius : 
 
 § 29 : Matutinis horis in larario suo, in quo et divos 
 principes sed optimos electos et animas sanctiores, in quis 
 Apollonium et, quantum scriptor suorum temporum dicit, 
 Christimi, Abraham, et Orfeum et huiuscemodi ceteros 
 habebat ac maiorum effigies, rem divinam faciebat. 
 
 94 
 
§22: Tudseis privilegia re.servavit. Christianos esse 
 passus est. . . . prjesides provinciarum, quos vera non 
 factionibus laudari comperit, et itineribus secum semper 
 in vehiculo habnit et muneribus adiuvit, dicens et fures 
 a re publica pellendos ac pauperandos et integros esse 
 retinendos atque ditandos. 
 
 II. " Valerii Maximi Factorum et Dictorum Memora- 
 biliutn libri novem," recensuit Carolus Kempf. — Teub- 
 ner, Leipsig — M. 4.50. 
 
 E.g. — [II, 6, 10 et sqq.] : Horum [i.e. Massiliensium] 
 moenia egressis vetus ille mos Gallorum occnrrit, quos 
 memoria proditum est pecunias mutuas, quas his apud 
 inferos redderentur, dare, quia persuasum habuerint ani- 
 mas hominum immortales esse. Dicerem stultos, nisi 
 idem bracati sensissent, quod palliatus Pythagoras credi- 
 dit. 
 
 Avara et feneratoria Gallorum philosophia, alacris et 
 fortis Cimbrorum et Celtiberorum, qui in acie gaudio ex- 
 ultabant tamquam gloriose et f eliciter vita excessuri ; la- 
 mentabantur in morbo, quasi turpiter et miserabiliter 
 perituri. Celtiberi etiam nefas esse ducebant proelio 
 superesse, cum is occidisset, pro cuius salute spiritum 
 devo\ erant. 
 
 [VIII-7, 2] : Pythagoras. . . . ^gyptum petiit, 
 ubi, litteris gentis eius adsuefactus, prseteriti sevi sacerdo- 
 tum commentarios scrutatus, innumerabilium sjeculorum 
 observationes cognovit, inde ad Persas profectus mago- 
 rum exactissima; prudentise se formandum tradidit, a qui- 
 bus siderum motus cursusque stellarum et unius cuiusque 
 vim, proprietatem, affectum benignissime demonstratum 
 docili animo sorpsit. Cretam deinde et Lacedsemona 
 navigavit, quarum legibus ac moribus inspectis ad Olym- 
 picum certamen descendit. 
 
 III. " Latin Hymns. With English Notes and bi-ief 
 ■Notices of the Authors," by F. A. March. Harpers, New 
 York. 
 
 95 
 
A perusal of the great Latin hymns cannot fail to be 
 of value to the student. He will find in them the real 
 poetry — accentual, often rhymed — that we know to 
 have belonged to the common people of Rome from the 
 very earliest times. The pupil should know that all the 
 subjects of Rome did not find the prosody of Vergil 
 a thing of native growth. " They (the Hymns) are the 
 true Latin folk-poems," remarks Professor March, " they 
 have been called 'the Bible of the people.' They are 
 a valuable study also from the biographical, historical, 
 and literary matter that comes up in reading them. The 
 authors are many of them the heroes of their generation, 
 kings in the realm of thought or action. Interesting 
 events are connected with their composition or history, 
 and they are full of allusions to the great works of the 
 older period, the Bible and the fathers of the Church. 
 There is great vaiiety in the subjects, the metres, and 
 the style of the hymns." . . . " By a careful study 
 of their words, we are enabled rapidly to think their 
 (the authors') thoughts, to repeat in our experience their 
 aspirations and resolves, and to recognize and accept their 
 ideals." 
 
 The grandeur of the organ-notes, so to speak, of 
 
 Dies iras, dies ilia 
 Solvet sseclum in favilla 
 Teste David cum Sybilla 
 
 and the 
 
 Stabat mater dolorosa 
 luxta crucem lacrymosa, 
 Dum pendebat filius, 
 
 will appeal to the student's mind with as much power as 
 the 
 
 Parcere subiectis et debellare superbos 
 
 96 
 
of Vergil; and a comparison of the majesty of the Man- 
 tuan and of the Christian monk will open a wider ho- 
 rizon, a deeper insight into the realms of the inner 
 spirit of man. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 Fourth Year of Latin 
 
 Part I 
 
 I shall assume that Vergil is our author for intensive 
 study during the fourth year. As Caesar introduces us 
 to the external government and policy of Rome, and 
 Cicero to its inner social and poHtical life, .so Vergil 
 shall be our guide to an appreciation of the thoughts 
 and ideals of the Romans — nobly sung in .(Eneid VI, 
 851-853: 
 
 Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento ; 
 Hae tibi erunt artes; pacisque imponere morem, 
 Parcere subiectis, et debellare superbos. 
 
 In our secondary schools the reading of Vergil is con- 
 fined practically exclusively to the "^neid " — the first 
 six books and, if time allows, as much of the other six 
 as can be read in the space allotted. 
 
 For the professional student of literature it is undoubt- 
 edly necessary to read the whole of the " ^Eneid " ; and 
 the brilliant works of Conington, Sellar, and Nettleship 
 on Vergil will open to one who studies them carefully 
 the subtle beauties of the poet in their full dramatic or 
 artistic perfection. But we are dealing with boys and 
 girls of seventeen and eighteen years of age, many of 
 whom (the majority, rather) will carry the study of 
 Latin no further than the high-school course. They have 
 now arrived at a stage when grammar should have been 
 mastered and when an eiiort should be made to have 
 
 97 
 
them appreciate Latin Literature as literature, not as a 
 text for syntax or composition. Vergil is the supreme 
 artist of Latin verse; but he is also the most difficult to 
 grasp; the beauties of no poet are more elusive, more 
 subtle. In teaching Vergil, therefore, we must be on our 
 guard to prevent the subject from becoming irksome or 
 a bore; we shall do well to realize what parts of our 
 author are suited to adolescents and what parts are 
 beyond their immature years; and I propose next to 
 discuss certain aspects of this matter with a view to 
 ascertain what course of reading shall be best adapted 
 to the fourth-year pupil. 
 
 Adolescence is the period of romance; a time when 
 romantic love appeals most strongly. It is fond of ad- 
 venture and action. It is idealistic, and enjoys prose 
 or poetry of lofty sentiment. Problems of practical 
 ethics win its attention. It is an age of frankness, too, 
 and much opposed to artificiality or tame submittance to 
 convention. 
 
 The adolescent is attracted by romance, as I havesaid; 
 and the history of Dido, as depicted in so masterly a 
 way in the fourth book of the ".-'Eneid," seldom fails 
 to win the sympathy and attention of the secondary stu- 
 dent. 
 
 The adolescent is fond of adventure and action ; then 
 the first three books of the ''JF.neid," so vivid, full of life, 
 pregnant with reminiscences of the " tale of Troy divine," 
 seem well-fitted to cater to this side of youth. 
 
 The adolescent is idealistic ; and nowhere will he find 
 loftier ethics, sublimer sentiments, than in the idealiza- 
 tion of Rome and her destiny as conceived in the sixth 
 book of the "^Eneid." The harmony and vigor of verses 
 such as these: 
 
 Tu ne cede malis, sed contra audentior ito, 
 or 
 
 Tros Anchisiade, f acilis descensus Averno ; 
 Noctes atque dies patet atri ianua Ditis; 
 98 
 
Sed revocare gradnm superasqiie evaJere ad auras, 
 Hoc opus, hie labor est. 
 or 
 
 Discite iustitiam moniti, et non teumere divos 
 
 are well adapted to minister to the sense of idealism 
 inherent in the adolescent. 
 
 Books I-IV and Book VI of the " ^neid " I should 
 consider excellent to present in the fourth year of Latin. 
 Before considering the question of the other parts, let 
 me quote the best summary of Vergil's place as poet 
 that can be found anywhere; I mean the criticism of 
 Mackail [" Latin Literature," p. 98 and following] : " Up 
 to the beginning of the present century the supremacy 
 of Virgil was hardly doubted. Since then the develop- 
 ment of scientific criticism has passed him through all 
 its searching processes, and in a fair judgment his great- 
 ness has rather gained than lost. The doubtful honor 
 of indiscriminate praise was for a brief period succeeded 
 by the attacks of an almost equally undiscriminating cen- 
 sure. An ill-judged partiality had once spoken of the 
 ^Eneid as something greater than a Roman Iliad ; it was 
 easy to show that in the most remarkable Homeric quali- 
 ties the ^neid fell far short, and that, so far as it was 
 an imitation of Homer, it could no more stand beside 
 Homer than the imitations of Theocritus in the Eclogues 
 could stand beside Theocritus. . . . No great work 
 of art can be usefully judged by comparison with any 
 other great work of art . . . and to depreciate one 
 because it has not what is the special quality of the other, 
 is to lose sight of the function of criticism. . . . The 
 most adverse critic would not deny that portions of the 
 poem are, both in dramatic and narrative qualty, all but 
 unsurpassed, and in a certain union of imaginative sym- 
 pathy with their fine dramatic power and their state- 
 Hness of narration perhaps unequalled. . . . That the 
 ^neid is unequal, is true; that passages in it here 
 
 99 
 
and there are mannered, and even flat, is true also. . . . 
 Vergil may seem to us to miss Some of his opportunities, 
 to labor others beyond their due proportion, and to force 
 himself (especially in the later books) into material not 
 well adapted to the distinctive Vergilian treatment. . . . 
 The funeral games at the tomb of Anchises, no longer 
 described, as they had been in early Greek poetry, from 
 a real pleasure in dwelling upon their details, begin to 
 become tedious before they are over. In the battle- 
 pieces of the last three books we sometimes cannot help 
 being reminded that Vergil is rather wearily following 
 an absolescent literary tradition." 
 
 Vergil may, then, be confessedly flat and stale for the 
 mature reader at times; doubly so in that case for 
 younger readers. Now, it is in Book V and in the last 
 six books of the " ^neid " that Vergil is simply follow- 
 ing obsolete literary tradition or copying, sometimes word 
 for word, Greek originals. The " distinctive Vergilian 
 treatment " has no longer adequate material on which 
 to be exercised. He has funeral games" for Anchises 
 because Homer depicts those for Patroclus ; but he can- 
 not bring into the subject that joy in life^ the zest for 
 sport, which characterizes the description of Homer; 
 and naturally, because Vergil lived in a far more ad- 
 vanced civilization. Again, Vergil describes the shield 
 of .lEneas, because Homer did the same for the shield 
 of Achilles; but Homer describes through action, he 
 puts us through the process of its manufacture, and the 
 interest never flags. In the " ^neid " we get simply a 
 heap of dreary details. 
 
 Again, the whole machinery of gods and goddesses 
 is dragged in by the heels in Book V and Books VII-XII ; 
 and whereas in Homer the mythology is so natural, be- 
 cause we feel that the poet believed in it sincerely, in the 
 " yEneid " we are not deceived ; we know at once that 
 the poet did not have faith in the credo of the general. 
 
 lOO 
 
We live to-day, moreover, in an age to which the 
 great epics like " Paradise Lost " are not attractive. 
 The whole setting is incredible, unreal; such things as 
 are described cannot occur and never did take place; 
 the conception is alien to our ways of thought. It is 
 only when the epic drops its artificial supernumeraries 
 and concerns itself with men and women of real life 
 that it may become great; for this reason Books VI 
 and XXII of the "Iliad" will delight to the end of 
 time. For this reason the " Iliad " will have more 
 readers than " Paradise Lost," in which only the ma- 
 jestic and sonorous music can stir our emotions; of 
 men and women with senses, affections, and passions 
 kin to us, there are none ; but what a galaxy does Homer 
 present ! — Andromache, Nausicaa, Penelope, Hector, 
 Helen, Paris — the "Odyssey" and the "Iliad" are 
 filled with creatures of flesh and blood. 
 
 My conclusion is, therefore, that of the " .^neid " 
 only Books I to IV and Book VI should be presented 
 in secondary schools. By the careful study of these the 
 student will have had the opportunity to grasp the real 
 greatness of Vergil — his perfect mastery of metre, his 
 sublimity, his marvelous power in delineating sympa- 
 thetically the love of woman, his lofty idealization of 
 Rome — without becoming intimately acquainted with 
 his worst faults — artificiality and imitation of obsolete 
 traditions of epic machinery. 
 
 There are, indeed, passages in the last six books which 
 are equal in interest and merit to anything in the first 
 four — the story of Nisus and Euryalus, for example — 
 but I think it a bad mistake to push the reading of an 
 author to the point of saturation, until he becomes mo- 
 notonous and a bore. Moreover, as before remarked, 
 we do not read " Paradise Lost " without some con- 
 sideration of " Lycidas " ; and after the " ^neid " it is 
 only fair to exhibit our poet in another aspect by turn- 
 ing to the " Eclogues." 
 
 lOI 
 
Some teachers object to the "Eclogues" on the 
 ground that the vocabulary is too difficult, the allusions 
 many and hard, the whole subject-matter unattractive to 
 a boy or girl ; and that' they are merely artificial imi- 
 tations of Theocritus, after all.^ To be sure, Vergil 
 is an imitator ; but, as Voltaire remarked, " Homere a 
 fait Virgile, dit-on; si cela est, c'est sans doute son plus 
 bel ouvrage." In the " Eclogues " Vergil has known 
 how to blend the spirit of his originals with his own 
 genius ; and since, furthermore, not more than one pupil 
 in ten thousand will ever read the " Idyls " of Theocri- 
 tus, the fact that the " Eclogues " are imitated from 
 him will hardly trouble their serenity. As to subject- 
 matter, experience shows that boys and girls like it; as, 
 indeed, why should they not? Life in the open, the joy 
 of living, birds and flowers, are their natural elements. 
 The allusions can surely be explained very easily by the 
 teacher; and care should be taken not to force the stu- 
 dents to remember each detail. Nor is the vocabulary 
 too difficult; unusual words like bacchar and colocasia 
 do certainly occur; but the pupils need not be required 
 to learn them. The music of these poems is not their 
 least cham; the limpid flow of verses like 
 
 SiceHdes Musse, paulo maiora canamus ! 
 has frequently been of great potency in leading to an 
 appreciation of the hexameter that was not so keenly 
 felt while reading the " ^neid." 
 
 I do, indeed, believe that some of the " Eclogues " 
 are hardly virginibus puerisque; the second, for instance, 
 is beyond their range. But " Eclogues " IV and IX 
 I consider well adapted to pupils in the fourth year of 
 Latin. The study of number IV has had such a peculiar 
 historical interest from the earliest times, that it is 
 especially fitted to be presented ; and the story of Vergil 
 as a magician and prophet during the Middle Agea, and 
 
 A Some of these arguments .are, indeed, true of the " Geor- 
 gics," which are too difficult for students in secondary schools. 
 
 I02 
 
of the extraordinary relations of the Sibyls to early 
 Christianity, will not fail to attract the attention power- 
 fully. 
 
 SOME POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE 
 TEACHING OF VERGIL 
 
 If the teacher feels that the sudden transition to 
 poetry will prove difficult for the pupils without some 
 special help, Mr. C. W. Gleason's "Gate to Vergil" 
 [Ginn] will be found a convenient little volume. It 
 contains Book I of the " .^Eneid," together with a prose 
 version in Latin, and very helpful aids to scansion. A 
 vocabulary is appended. 
 
 In regard to the reading of Vergil, perhaps there is no 
 need of particular comment. But two or three points 
 seem to me worth noting. Students are, as a rule, in- 
 formed that in Latin verse words may change their ac- 
 cent completely; cdno, for example, having an ictus on 
 its last syllable — cano — in the opening line of the 
 ".^Eneid," thus: 
 
 Arma virtimque cano, Troiae qui primus ab oris 
 
 That accent in any language should exhibit such wide 
 divergences seems strange; and the matter is, indeed, 
 so alien to all our conceptions that it appears unreal. 
 But was there in fact such differentiation in Latin as 
 has been commonly supposed? Let me refer the teacher 
 to pages 175-190 of Bennett and Bristol's " The Teach- 
 ing of Latin and Greek " [Longmans, Green & Co.] 
 for an illuminating discussion of this subject. Not to 
 weary the reader by a tedious commentary, I shall quote 
 Professor Bennett's summary : " Latin poetry is to be 
 read exactly like Latin prose. Latin was primarily a 
 quantitative language in the classical period and is to 
 be read quantitatively. The Latin word-accent was 
 relatively slight as compared with that of our strongly 
 
 103 
 
stressed English speech, and is therefore to be carefully 
 subordinated to quantity both in prose and poetry. 
 Ictus was not a metrical term current among the Ro- 
 mans, nor was there anything corresponding to it in 
 the quantitative poetry of the Greeks. The term is 
 purely modern. We first imported the conception of 
 stress from our modern speech into the quantitative 
 poetry of the Greeks and Romans, and then imported 
 the term ' ictus ' to cover it. But just as the conception 
 of artificial stress in Latin poetry is false, so the term 
 ' ictus ' is superfluous. @eo-« was employed by the 
 ancient Greek writers on metric to designate the promi- 
 nent part of every fundamental foot, and is still en- 
 tirely adequate to cover that conception. ... In 
 actual reading it will be well to bear in mind the four 
 following fundamental principles : 
 
 1. Observe the quantity of each syllable scrupulously, 
 taking care to observe the proper division of the sylla- 
 bles, joining the first of two successive consonants with 
 the preceding vowel, and so closing the syllable. 
 
 2. Make the word-accent light; subordinate it care- 
 fully to quantity. 
 
 3. Endeavor to cultivate the quantitative sense, i.e., 
 to feel the verse as consisting of a succession of long 
 and short intervals. 
 
 4. . Do not attempt to give special expression to the 
 ' ictus ' in any way. The ' ictus ' (which is only quanti- 
 tative prominence) will take care of itself, if the sylla- 
 bles are properly pronounced." 
 
 Professor Lane remarks in his Grammar [§2548] : 
 " Although in all probability the Latin accent was mainly 
 one of stress rather than of pitch, it seems to have been 
 comparatively weak. Hence, when it conflicted with 
 the metrical ictus, it could be the more easily disregarded. 
 But accentual or semi-accentual poetry seems to have 
 existed among the common people even in the Augustan 
 age, and even in classical Latin verse in certain cases 
 
 104 
 
(as in the last part of the dactylic hexameter) conflict 
 between ictus and accent was carefully avoided. After 
 the third century A. D. the accent exerted a stronger 
 and stronger influence upon versification, until in the 
 Middle Ages the quantitative Latin verse was quite sup- 
 planted by the accentual." 
 
 It is certainly a great help to pupils who are just be- 
 ginriing to scan to accent the first syllable very strongly ; 
 and perhaps it is well to allow a strong ictus at first, 
 until the student becomes more accustomed to the metre. 
 After that it will be in order to render the hexameter 
 in as classical a way as possible. The melodious verse 
 of Vergil does, in fact, read itself, so to speak, mar- 
 velously well; and pupils seldom find it very difficult. 
 At any rate, the students should not be burdened with 
 long and elaborate rules of quantity, each attended by 
 a train of numerous exceptions; they are quite unneces- 
 sary; and the three or four brief principles which ex- 
 plain when a vowel is long, short, or common — prin- 
 ciples clearly stated in all First Latin Books — are quite 
 enough for the purpose. 
 
 Mythology, as we meet it in Vergil, may be made 
 profitable and entertaining to the student. It is idle 
 to load the pupil with details of unimportant names or 
 episodes; for instance, there is no particular point in 
 requiring him to remember who Polydorus was. But 
 those features of myth and fable which have become 
 prorriinent in art, literature, and the study of race his- 
 tory are well worth attention. 
 
 I. The " .(Eneid " offers some good material for 
 anthropological and historical study. " Myth is actual 
 history of early and imperfect stages of thought and 
 belief," remarks Professor Gayley, " it is the true nar- 
 rative of unenlightened observation, of infantine grop- 
 ings after truth. Whatever reservations scholars may 
 make on other points, most of them will concur in these : 
 that some myths came into existence by a ' disease of 
 
language ' ; that some were invented to explain names 
 of nations and of places, and some to explain the ex- 
 istence of fossils and bones that suggested prehistoric 
 animals and men; that many were invented to gratify 
 the ancestral pride of chieftains and clans, and that 
 very many obtained consistency and form as explana- 
 tions of the phenomena of nature, as expressions of 
 the reverence felt for the powers of nature, and as 
 personifications, in general, of the passions and the ideals 
 of primitive mankind." Scylla, the personification of 
 rocks dangerous to the mariner; Charybdis, the whirl- 
 pool; the Harpies, personifications of the storm-winds; 
 Enceladus under yEtna, the volcano myth; these are a 
 few of the fables mentioned by Vergil which will repay 
 study in the light of Professor Gayley's remarks. The 
 whole " jEneid," furthermore, was distinctly " invented 
 to gratify the ancestral pride " of Augustus and the 
 Julian clan and to justify the ways of Rome to men. 
 The historical background of the stories which center 
 about Troy arouses eager curiosity when connected with 
 the epoch-making excavations of Dr. Schliemann at His- 
 sarlik (site of ancient Troy) and at Mycenas; and no 
 less interesting will be a brief mention of Elissa, the 
 foundress of Carthage, who later became confused with 
 Dido-Astarte, the protectress of the colony. 
 
 Religious rites and customs will properly receive some 
 attention in connection with the study of mythology; 
 for example, the calling to the dead [III, 68], libations 
 before the feast [I, 736], offerings to departed spirits. 
 [Ill, 301-305]. 
 
 Any myth that has had an influence on later history 
 should always receive explanation, however brief ; for 
 so the past is brought more vividly in connection with 
 the present. The mention of the Sibyls [III, 440, VI, 
 98] recalls at once their whole interesting position, from 
 the legend of the Sibyl who came to Tarquin through 
 the centuries when the Christians adopted them as in- 
 
 106 
 
spired prophetesses of the triumph of Christianity. The 
 use of the " Sortes VergiHanae " up to comparatively 
 modern times presents a curious example of lasting 
 superstition ; and the pupil should be told how Charles I 
 of England, on consulting the " Sortes VergiHanae " at 
 Oxford, turned by chance to " ^neid " IV, 615-620, the 
 curse of Dido, which was so strangely fulfilled in his own 
 case. 
 
 It is worth while to inform the students that all 
 Romans and Greeks did not accept literally the various 
 myths and fables any more than we do; for people in 
 general have very peculiar ideas on the matter and are 
 firmly convinced that pagan Rome was sunk in abysses 
 of blind heathenism and immorahty. Such notions 
 should be corrected, as far as possible, in secondary 
 schools; or better, they should never be conceived. The 
 search of Plato and Aristotle after God ; the attempt of 
 Euhemerus [316 B.C.] to give a natural and historical 
 explanation to myths; the allegorical interpretations 
 given even by the ancients to stories such as that of 
 Cupid and Psyche; how the Eleusinian Mysteries min- 
 istered to men's craving for higher spiritual truths, and 
 Vergil's own initiation into them; these are a few of 
 the topics that may be presented, even if only summarily, 
 to the student of the " ^neid." 
 
 II. The vast extent of the use of classical mythology 
 in literature justifies a careful consideration of it; the 
 more so, as Milton, Tennyson, and Shakespeare, among 
 other writers who allude freely to myth, are regularly 
 studied in the English course. When Hecate is men- 
 tioned in "Macbeth"; Dido in "The Merchant of 
 Venice " ; when Milton, in " Comus," speaks of " Triton's 
 winding shell " ; the student should not be ignorant of 
 the very general use of classic myths in English litera- 
 ture; and he should acquire a reasonably accurate idea 
 of their sources. 
 
 107 
 
III. No less profitable is it, to contemplate the classi- 
 cal mythology with reference to its enormous influence 
 upon art. With the most common masterpieces of 
 ancient sculpture — such as the Apollo Belvedere, and 
 the Venus of Melos — most students are f amiHar. They 
 should also acquire some outline knowledge of the myths 
 and stories treated by the great painters and sculptors of 
 later ages ; as, for instance, Gnido Reni's "Aurora," Rem- 
 brandt's " Ganymede carried off by Jove's Eagle," Mi- 
 chael Angelo's 'The Fates" (also Paul Thumann's), 
 Thorwaldsen's " Hector and Andromache." It will do no 
 harm for the teacher to point out that the famous Laocoon 
 group inspired Lessing's " Laocoon," one of the great- 
 est criticisms of art ever written ; and a brief summary of 
 this masterpiece, adapted to the pupil's comprehension, is 
 a stimulant of a high order of merit to instil some ap- 
 preciation of the principles underlying the beauty of 
 classic sculpture. 
 
 Prints of all the masterpieces of sculpture and paint- 
 ing are easily gotten and are very cheap ; they should be 
 in the hands of the pupils, or at least be on the desk or 
 hung on the wall. The Perry Prints are excellent 
 [The Perry Pictures Co., 76 Fifth Avenue, New York; 
 Alalden, Mass.] ; as are also the Harper's Black and 
 White Prints [Helman-Taylor Art Co., 257 Fifth 
 Avenue, New York] . Plaster casts may be had of P. P. 
 Caproni and Bro., 1914 Washington Street, Boston. 
 
 The very best work on mythology in its historical, 
 literary, and artistic relations is Gayley's " Classic Myths 
 in English Literature" [Ginn and Co.]. In this work 
 not only are there interesting and well-written accounts 
 of each myth, but also copious extracts of and references 
 to all English writers who have alluded to any of these ; 
 a list of artists and sculptors, both ancient and modern, 
 who have treated any myth, is appended to the several 
 accounts ; and an interpretation or scientific explanation 
 accompanies all. 
 
 108 
 
How far can Vergil be treated from the literary point 
 of view, or correlated with English in secondary schools ? 
 The high-school student cannot be expected to read the 
 masterly and extensive critical works of Nettleship, 
 Sellar, and Conington; but Mackail's remarkable little 
 " Latin Literature " should certainly be on the desk ; and 
 the short chapter on Vergil ought to be prescribed for 
 all students to read carefully. The beauties of Vergil, 
 so ably summarized by Mac'kail — " his haunting and 
 liquid rhythms, his majestic sadness, his grace and pity " 
 — these should be noted by the teacher and pointed out 
 to the students as they occur in the several verses. Boys 
 and girls are quite capable of appreciating the " grace 
 and pity " of 
 
 Sunt lacrimse rerum et mentem mortalia tangunt 
 
 — ^neid I, 462. 
 the nobleness of 
 
 Non ignara mali miseris succurrere disco 
 
 1- Mneid I, 630. 
 the quiet beauty of 
 
 qua se 
 Plena per insertas fundebat luna fenestras 
 
 — ^Eneid III, 151-152. 
 
 Memory work is a most powerful help to appreciation ; 
 a great masterpiece yields all its beauties only after re- 
 peated reading, after the mind is saturated with its 
 thought and language. Any one who is familiar with 
 Shakespeare knows how true this is. No less than two 
 hundred lines of Vergil should be assigned to pupils to 
 commit to memory and recite. 
 
 Careful translation from Latin into English is a 
 potent aid not only to a better appreciation of the Latin, 
 but also to enlargement of vocabulary and feeling for 
 the power of words in English. Teachers are very care- 
 less and allow pupils to give renderings which are in 
 no sense equivalents of the Latin. For example: to 
 
 109 
 
render " sonipes " [" ^neid " IV, 135] by the prosaic 
 " horse " is to miss the force of the original. " Sonipes " 
 is a purely poetical word, found only in verse [e.g., 
 Catullus, 63, 41; Silius Italicus, I, 222; Valerius Flaccus, 
 3> 334; etc.]. Just as in English we have "horse," 
 " steed," " charger," " nag," so did the Romans use 
 " equus, caballus, sonipes," according as they wished to 
 use a refined, a colloquial, or a poetical word. Now, 
 " equus " is equivalent to our " horse " ; " caballus " 
 [It. caballo, Fr. cheval] was a very colloquial word and 
 can perhaps be best rendered by " nag." " Sonipes " 
 [" noisy-footed," " prancer "] can, therefore, be trans- 
 lated best by " steed " ; and the use of such words in 
 English poetry should be explained to the students. To 
 take another instance : " genitor " = " sire " ; it is poeti- 
 cal, and ought not be rendered by " father," a more 
 colloquial word, the equivalent of which is " pater." 
 " Ensis," again, is a purely poetical word, like our 
 " glaive " ; the prose word is " gladius," our " sword." 
 These examples will suffice to give an idea of the care 
 that needs to be exercised in order to translate Vergil 
 faithfully, in accordance with the spirit of the original. 
 I believe firmly that pupils, after they have worked 
 out carefully one or two books of the " .Sneid," should 
 be allowed and encouraged to use and compare the best 
 English translations, both in prose and verse. Of the 
 making of such translations there seems to be no end; 
 new ones appear constantly. However, it seems to me 
 that the prose rendering of Conington, and the metrical 
 versions of Dryden, Rhoades, Conington, and Williams 
 are the best to recommend to the students. It is profit- 
 able, and conduces to a better appreciation of the real 
 significance of the Latin, if the teacher selects some 
 passage and has the various versions of it by diflferent 
 translators put on the board ; a comparison is thus easily 
 made; and the pupils should be encouraged to find out 
 for themselves wherein the English versions are faithful 
 
 1 10 
 
to the exact force of the original, and where they are 
 simply paraphrases or miss the concrete power of the 
 Latin word. Let us consider verses 301-317 of the 
 second book of the " JEneid," as an illustration or practi- 
 cal application of the method described above: 
 
 1. Excutior somno [302]: "I woke on sudden" 
 [Williams] ; " I start from sleep " [Rhoades] ; " I start 
 up from sleep " [Conington] . None of these renderings 
 are adequate. " Excutio " means literally " to shake 
 out " ; a vivid word ; and " excutior somno " should be 
 translated " I am shaken out of sleep " — surely a most 
 appropriate expression, when we reflect that all Troy 
 was being destroyed, that hosts of heavily-mailed sol- 
 diers were rushing through the streets, and that great 
 buildings were crashing to ruin right and left. Most 
 teachers are quite content to permit pupils to render 
 this " I get up " — O Vergil, how art thou translated ! 
 
 2. lam Deiphobi dedit ampla ruinam 
 Volcano superante domus, iam proxumus ardet 
 Ucalegon ; Sigea igni f reta lata relucent, 
 
 310-312. 
 " Deiphobus' gr.eat house 
 Sunk vanquished in the fire. Ucalegon's 
 Hard by was blazing, while the waters wide 
 Around Sigeum gave an answering glow." 
 
 — Williams. 
 " Thy halls already, late so proud, 
 Deiphobus, to fire have bowed : 
 Ucalegon has caught the light : 
 Sigeum's waves gleam broad and bright." 
 
 — Conington (metrical version). 
 
 " Already Deiphobus' palace has fallen with a mighty 
 overthrow before the mastering fire-god — already his 
 neighbor Ucalegon is in flames — the expanse of the 
 Sigean sea shines again with the blaze." 
 
 ■ — Conington (prose version) . 
 
 Ill 
 
" See e'en now 
 The house of Deiphobus a vast ruin yawns 
 O'ertopped by Vulcan ! see his neighbour too 
 Ucalegon in flames ! Sigeum's gulf 
 Reflects the blaze afar." 
 
 — Rhoades. 
 
 " Now the big house of Deiphobus went to ruin, the 
 fire conquering it, now the neighboring house of 
 Ucalegon burns; the straits of Sigeum far and wide 
 shine from the fire." — ^ Usual rendering of the pupil. 
 
 Of these translations, that of Mr. Rhoades is the most 
 faithful to the real meaning of Vergil's words. Note 
 the " o'ertopped by Vulfean " ; that is what the poet says. 
 " Supero " means literally " to surmount," " to climb 
 over " ; the use of " Vulcan " for " fire " adds vividness 
 by personifying the element, by making the agent real. 
 Literally translated, the expression is one of great beauty 
 and imagery ; but anything like " sunk vanquished in the 
 fire " is a mere paraphrase, an explanatory comment, not 
 a translation. " Ruina " is constantly flattened when 
 rendered into English ; it means " a downfall," " a tum- 
 bling," not the abstract vagueness of the English " ruin " ; 
 " dedit ruinam " is " fell with a crash," not merely " went 
 to ruin." Mr. Conington's poetical version, in the metre 
 of Scott's " Marmion," offers good material for a dis- 
 cussion of the question, " What metre in English will 
 best give the force of the Latin dactylic hexameter ? " 
 
 Careful explanations of rhetorical devices — metony- 
 my, simile, metaphor, personification, hendiadys, and the 
 like — must always be given, or the student is likely to 
 imagine that the poet has dragged them in by the heels 
 to fill out space, like a newspaper reporter. The function, 
 use, and abuse of these devices are proper adjuncts of 
 a pupil's knowledge both of English and of Latin. 
 
 There is still another way to assist appreciation of the 
 " ^nejd " : namely, a study, confined to reasonable limits, 
 
 112 
 
of the nature of the Epic in general, and of the various 
 great epic poems in particular. Let the teacher sum- 
 marize Chapters 23 and 24 of Aristotle's " Poetics " [text, 
 translation, and criticism by Butcher ■ — • Macmillan] ; and 
 encourage the pupils to draw some conclusions of their 
 own on the matter. The " Iliad " and the " Odyssey " 
 of Homer; the "^neid" "of Vergil; the "Divine 
 Comedy " of Dante ; the " Niebelungen Lied " ; and Mil- 
 ton's " Paradise Lost " should be rendered familiar to 
 the pupil at least in outline; and their several agreements, 
 differences, and relations noted in reasonable detail. The 
 art of the poets is worth perusing with care; let students 
 observe, for example, how Vergil, Dante, and Milton 
 plunge at once in medias res and. only in later books nar- 
 rate events from their very beginning; let students ob- 
 serve how the interest is at once seized and kept by that 
 device [as also in Thackeray's " Vanity Fair " and 
 Hugo's " Hunchback of Notre Dame "] ; and have them 
 use this knowledge for their own profit in their English 
 composition. 
 
 Longfellow's " Evangeline," which is usually read in 
 the earlier years at school, offers an interesting com- 
 parison of the hexameter in English. 
 
 I trust that the reader will not imagine that I am 
 prescribing more than can be given in the time allotted 
 to Latin in the high-school course. Much of the work 
 which I have suggested should be made part of the work 
 in English; and the remainder can be presented easily 
 by devoting to it one period every three or four weeks 
 ■ — such has been my experience. 
 
 In accordance with our desire to correlate Latin with 
 things in modern life and not to isolate it as if it were 
 as alien to us as Chinese, we must endeavor to give some 
 idea, however limited, of the vast influence exerted by 
 Vergil on English literature; nor does it behoove us to 
 pass over his relation to his own time and the authority 
 which he wielded in the Middle Ages. 
 
 "3 
 
The relation of Vergil to Augustus; his purpose in 
 writing the " ^neid " ; the aid given by him to the 
 movement for securing a universal peace under a cen- 
 tralized government, after the fearful decades of civil 
 wars; these matters are adequately treated in the intro- 
 ductions of our text-books, and more comment is not 
 needed. 
 
 The later position of Vergil, however, fascinating as 
 it is, is usually, I am sorry to say, quite unknown to 
 teachers. How many of them are aware that he ac- 
 quired great fame as a prophet of the birth of Christ, 
 becoming to the Christians an equal authority to the 
 Sibyls? That he later was altered in character and was 
 transformed into a magician, who performed divers mar- 
 vels throughout the Middle Ages? That the remnants 
 of this belief existed to within very recent times among 
 the common people about Naples, showing how widely 
 his reputation had spread and how firmly rooted it was? 
 Certainly, some of these features — ■ such as the stories 
 told by Gervasius of Tilbury — should be made familiar 
 to the pupils; and the great work on the subject is 
 Comparetti's " Vergil in the Middle Ages " [translated 
 by Bernecke — Macmillan & Co.], with which every 
 teacher should be familiar, and extracts of which may 
 be read to the pupils with profit and amusement. 
 
 Vergil's influence on the whole of modern English 
 literature has been enormous and no high-school student 
 could begin to grasp it in its totality. The edition of 
 Allen and Greenough gives excellent parallel references ; 
 so does Gayley, in his " Classic Myths in English Litera- 
 ture." In the case of two poets, however, it is quite 
 possible for our pupil to make a somewhat detailed study 
 of Vergilian influence. I refer to Milton and Tennyson ; 
 both of these are commonly read in all secondary schools. 
 Let us see how much can be done in this direction. 
 
 "Lycidas," " Comus," " L'Allegro," "II Penseroso," 
 and often a book or two of " Paradise Lost " are gen- 
 
 114 
 
erally given among the works of Milton to be read in 
 the senior year. How these can be correlated with 
 classical mythology and literary study of the " ^neid " 
 I have already shown. But I think the pupil is now 
 mature enough to go a little farther; and he can ap- 
 preciate a pamphlet of twenty-one pages by Dr. Max 
 Schlicht " On the Influence of the Ancients to be traced 
 in Milton's Style and Language" [Rosenberg, O. R. 
 Foege]. In this article, well adapted to the compre- 
 hension of a boy or girl seventeen years of age, will be 
 found instances of the classical use of relative pronouns 
 in Milton's style; of the employment of past participle 
 and noun in the way of the Latin — like the " since 
 created man" [P. L. I, 573; cf. "post urbem condi- 
 tam] ; and the like. Most profitable I consider the list 
 of words used by Milton in a Latin sense [pp. 5-11] ; 
 words which are constantly mistranslated when they oc- 
 cur in Latin authors. Here are a few of those met with 
 in Milton, words which indicate most clearly the influence 
 of Vergil and other Roman poets : 
 
 crown : in the Latin sense of coronare—' to fill brimful." 
 frequent : in the Latin sense of frequens = " crowded." 
 secure: (followed by "of") in the Latin sense of 
 securus = " without any concern about, or fear of." 
 fable : in the original sense of fabula = any event or cir- 
 cumstance generally spoken of, whether true or not. 
 lax : in the Latin sense of laxus = " wide," " spacious " 
 
 [cf . laxa domus, laxa toga] " unconfined." 
 ruin : in the Latin sense of ruina = " a fall with violence 
 
 and precipitation." 
 
 obtain : in the Latin sense of obtineo = " keep," " have," 
 
 " maintain a hold on " (constantly mistranslated in 
 
 Csesar). 
 
 [Note: The teacher may find it interesting to read 
 
 " Miltons Paradise Lost in seinem Verhaltnisse zur 
 
 ^neide, Ilias, und Odyssee " — von Friedrich Buff. 
 
 Miinchen, Mintzel'sche Buchdruckerei, 1904. 78 pages.] 
 
 115 
 
The influence of Vergil on Tennyson can be traced in 
 numerous specific instances ; and indeed, the great Eng- 
 lish poet has confessed his debt in the beautiful tribute 
 rendered to the bard of Mantua : 
 
 I salute thee, Mantovano, 
 
 I, that loved thee since my day' began; 
 Wielder of the stateliest measure 
 
 ever moulded by the lips of man. 
 
 This specific influence is presented by Wilfred P. 
 Mustard in a suggestive pamphlet of eleven pages en- 
 titled " Tennyson and Vergil " [Lord Baltimore Press. 
 Baltimore. Reprint from American Journal of Philol- 
 ogy, XX, No. 2, April, May, June, 1899]. This article 
 should be placed in the hands of the students, if only 
 in order to show them what a real translation of Vergil 
 is like. For example : this in the " Princess " (the work 
 usually read in our schools), 
 
 " Myriads of rivulets hurrying thro' the lawn " 
 is a real translation, faithful to the original, 
 
 et tenuis fugiens per gramina rivus » 
 
 — Georgics IV, 19. 
 
 usually rendered in schools by " the small river running 
 through the grass." Note also the following: 
 
 Universal Nature moved by Universal Mind 
 
 — from the Ode to Vergil. 
 Mens agitat molem — vEneid VI, 727. 
 
 This way and that dividing the swift mind. 
 
 — Sir Bedivere, in the Morte d'Arthur. 
 Atque animum nunc hue celerem, nunc dividit illuc. 
 
 — ^neid IV, 285. 
 
 116 
 
She found no rest, and ever failed to draw 
 The quiet night into her blood. 
 
 — " Marriage of Geraint." 
 neque umquam 
 solvitur in somnos oculisque aut pectore noctem 
 accipit. 
 
 — Mntid IV, 529-531- 
 
 Part II 
 
 In the fourth .year of Latin the reader, if that has 
 been used for the sight reading and for wider knowledge, 
 should be discarded and the whole texts of authors put 
 into the hands of the pupils; for they are now mature 
 enough not to be reminded that they are still children, 
 which fact a reader generally suggests. Besides, extracts . 
 usually grow very unsatisfactory after two or three 
 years and a craving to see an author in his entirety 
 usually follows. In a course of four years the follow- 
 ing is a good scheme of reading for the last year : 
 
 Vergil— ^neid I, II, III, IV. 
 
 Pliny — Letters — VI, 16 and 20 (on Vesuvius), X, 
 96 (on the Christians). 
 Juvenal — VIII or X. 
 
 Or, if the Latin is continued for five years, the following: 
 
 Fourth Year: as above. 
 Fifth Year : ^Eneid VI, and 
 
 Eclogues IV and IX. 
 
 Seneca — selections. 
 
 Ovid • — selections (Metamorphoses) . 
 
 Cicero — Milo. 
 
 In my mind's eye I can see teachers raising their 
 hands in horror at the suggestion of Pliny, Juvenal, and 
 Seneca for students in secondary schools. " The vocabu- 
 lary is surely too difficult," they will assert, " and besides, 
 
 117 
 
we are afraid that reading these authors will take from 
 our pupils the time which they should spend in studying 
 for the college entrance examinations." As to the latter 
 objection, I can say that my pupils, who have studied 
 with me in these writers, have passed their entrance ex- 
 aminations in 90 per cent of all cases ; and as to vocabu- 
 lary, they found no difficulty. A fair number of new 
 words are met, to be sure; but Latin is not the personal 
 property of Cicero, heretical as that statement may 
 sound. And Pliny, Juvenal, and Seneca are, by the 
 consensus of all critics, " classical," though it is true 
 that they are accorded only a " Silver " Latinity, not 
 " Golden," as Cicero. However, what they lack in gilt, 
 they make up in human interest; and that is a very 
 pleasant feature to all except doctors of philosophy. 
 
 I. C. Plini Caecili Secundi Epistularum Libri Novem. 
 Epistularum ad Traianum Liber. Panegyricus. Recog- 
 novit C. F. W. Mueller. (Teubner — Leipsig — M. 
 1.20). 
 
 The two letters on the eruption of Vesuvius, of which 
 Pliny was a personal witness, are very fascinating to 
 the student, especially so in connection with Pompeii. 
 The letter to Trajan on the Christians holds the attention 
 no less ; and the pupil can acquire a correct idea, from 
 an original source, of the reasons which prompted the 
 Romans to persecute. I shall quote two passages, one 
 from VI, 16, and one from X, 96; let the teacher ask 
 himself whether they are above the ability of any fourth- 
 year student: 
 
 [VI, 16] : Erat [avunculus mens] Miseni classemque 
 imperio praesens regebat. Nonum Kal. Septembres hora 
 fere septima mater mea indicat ei apparere nubem in- 
 visitata et magnitudine et specie. Usus ille sole, mox 
 frigida gustaverat iacens studebatque; poscit soleas, as- 
 cendit locum, ex quo maxime miraculum illud conspici 
 poterat. Nubes, incertum procul intuentibus, ex quo 
 
 118 
 
nionte (Vesuvium fuisse postea cognitum est), oriebatui*, 
 cuius similitudinem et formam non alia magis arbor 
 quam pinus expresserit. 
 
 [X, 96] : Nihil aliud inveni quam superstitionem 
 pravam immodicam. Ideo dilata cognitione ad consulen- 
 dum te decucurri. Visa est enim mihi res digna con- 
 sultatione, maxime propter periclitantium numerum. 
 Multi enim omnis setatis,. omnis ordinis, utriusque sexus 
 etiam vocantur in periculum et vocabuntur. 
 
 II. Juvenalis Satirarum libri quinque. Recognovit 
 C. F. Hermann. [Teubner, M. — .45]. 
 
 The tenth satire of Juvenal is adapted to students not 
 only for the ethical vigor of its thoughts, but also 
 through Johnson's celebrated imitation of it entitled 
 "The Vanity of Human Wishes." The eighth is not 
 so suitable, although it contains some noble lines. What 
 pupil will not admire the loftiness and epigrammatic 
 pointedness of lines like these (from X) : 
 
 Orandum est, ut sit mens sana in corpora sano. 
 Fortem posce animum, mortis terrore carentem. 
 
 And verses such as the following are famous in literature : 
 
 Cantabit vacuus coram latrone viator. 
 
 Sed quid 
 Turba Remi? Sequitur fortunam ut semper et odit 
 Damnatos. , 
 
 Expende Hannibalem : quot libras in duce summo 
 Invenies ? 
 
 III. L. Annsei Senecse opera quae supersunt. ed. 
 Fridericus Haase. [Teubner — Vol. I. M. 2.10; Vol. II, 
 M. 2.40; Vol. Ill, M. 3.60]. 
 
 The rhetoric of Seneca may be artificial; but it cer- 
 tainly has a powerful swing to it and a moral earnestness 
 that is most attractive. Selections such as the follow- 
 ing are adapted to fourth-year students : 
 
 119 
 
[Natur. Quaest. VII, 25] : Quid ergo miramur cometas, 
 tarn rarum muiidi spectaculum, nondum teneri legibus 
 certis nee initia illorum finesque notescere, quorum ex 
 ingentibus intervallis recursus est? Nondum sunt anni 
 mille quingenti, ex quo Grsecia 
 
 " stellis numeros et nomina fecit " 
 multae hodieque sunt gentes, quae tantum facie noverunt 
 coelum, qu£e nondum sciunt, cur luna deficiat, quare 
 obumbretur. iijec apud nos quoque nuper ratio ad cer- 
 tum duxit. Veniet tempus, quo ista, quae nunc latent, in 
 lucem dies extrahat et longioris aevi diligentia. 
 
 [de Beneficiis II, 29] : Quanto satius est ad contem- 
 plationem tot tantorum beneficiorum reverti et agere 
 gratias, quod iios in hoc pulcherrimo domicilio [dei] 
 voluerunt secundas sortiri, quod terrenis prsef ecerunt ? 
 aliquis ea animalia comparat nobis, quorum potestas 
 pene nos est? Quicquid nobis negatum est dari non 
 potuit. Proinde quisquis es iniquus estimator sortis 
 humanse, cogita, quanta nobis tribuerit parens noster. 
 
 (The student will be interested to know that Seneca 
 was the brother of the Gallic mentioned in Acts of the 
 Apostles who "cared for none of these things.") 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 The large part played by the college entrance examina- 
 tions in shaping the work of secondary schools justifies 
 a brief consideration of these. 
 
 All colleges prescribe some definite work; this con- 
 sists usually of four books of Caesar, six orations of 
 Cicero, and six books of the " yEneid." Sallust's " Cati- 
 line " and some of the " Lives " of Nepos are added 
 occasionally. Harvard prescribes reading only for the 
 
 120 
 
elementary test; this may be the first four books of the 
 " ^neid," certain of Ovid's " Metamorphoses," or cer- 
 tain orations of Cicero. Harvard is the only college that 
 makes its paper in advanced Latin entirely of passages 
 at sight. In addition to tests on reading, most colleges 
 give separate examinations in grammar and composition. 
 
 Not a single college gives prescribed work in German 
 or French; the passages set for translation and gram- 
 mar in these languages are all at sight. I fail to see 
 why the same test of ability should not hold in Latin 
 as in French and German. Translation at sight is the 
 only real way of discovering what the pupil has ac- 
 quired. Examinations consisting of prescribed reading 
 are open, moreover, to very serious objections; objections 
 so obvious, indeed, that they are patent to any one whose 
 mental vision and observation of facts are not of the 
 density that seems to settle like a fog on professors of 
 Classical Philology. In the first place, every teacher 
 knows that any boy of fair ability can " trot out " pre- 
 scribed work in a month and pass the examination 
 handily. I have seen this done repeatedly. The same 
 things have been set, moreover, for so many years, that 
 there are no longer many passages which can be given 
 without danger of repeating what has already been given 
 on other papers; at the same time, repetition won't do, 
 because most teachers go over all previous tests with 
 their pupils. It follows that a bright boy will read not 
 even all the prescribed work, but only those passages 
 which there is a fair chance that he will meet. The 
 system is a God-send for private tutors. 
 
 Again : the consequence of colleges fixing the reading 
 is that teachers are mortally afraid of reading anything 
 but the definite requirements; and the splendid oppor- 
 tunity presented thereby to " cram " pupils is seldom 
 neglected. Therefore it behooves the teacher to worry 
 himself into nervous tension by the fear lest the pupils 
 do not pass. 
 
 121 
 
All this is the more ridiculous, because only a small per 
 cent of our high-school students go to college; and for 
 this small per cent the others are confined and ham- 
 mered into a narrow compass. The few have no right to 
 limit the horizon of the majority. It passes belief, how 
 headmasters tacitly allow to the colleges a divine right to 
 settle matters for secondary schools, just as if the ulti- 
 mate goal of all our pupils were to write a thesis " On 
 Kettles and Pots during the Keign of Romulus." 
 
 Yet college entrance examinations can be made edu- 
 cational tools of real value, if, namely, they are made 
 true tests of a pupil's knowledge and ability. As mat- 
 ters now stand, Harvard alone offers papers which any 
 boy who has done his work from year to year reason- 
 ably well will pass, no matter what he has read, if he 
 has read enough. But it is not so in the case of the 
 colleges which set examinations on definite prescribed 
 work. A boy may have excellent ability and yet not be 
 able to do justice to a Yale paper on Cicero, if he has 
 not read the particular orations given ; for these passages 
 are too difficult, too much to require as tests in power 
 to read at sight. 
 
 A good entrance examination will test two things in 
 particular: I. The ability of a student to render into 
 idiomatic English an accurate translation of a passage 
 which he has never seen. This passage should contain 
 no unusual words (unless their meaning is given in 
 notes) and no uncommon constructions. It should aim 
 also to test the student's reasoning power. II. The 
 pupil's knowledge of Latin grammar. To these we may 
 add, perhaps, a connected narrative, containing simple 
 sentences, to be translated into Latin. Whether there 
 ought, in addition, be questions testing the candidate's 
 knowledge of antiquities and literature, is a question that 
 I am inclined to answer in the negative. An adequate 
 test would demand too much time; and no entrance - 
 
 122 
 
papers should stretch beyond three hours. We must 
 assume that teachers shall have done their duty during 
 the years of the secondary school course. 
 
 As an illustration of what I consider a good examina- 
 tion, I shall append the entrance papers set by Harvard 
 in June, 1909. The preliminary test is divided into two 
 parts, the first (A) consisting of a passage at sight, with 
 questions on the text and some composition; the second 
 (B) embracing the prescribed work (option of Vergil, 
 Ovid, or Cicero). And first we shall look at A: 
 
 A 
 I. Translate : — 
 
 [The Roman army, under the consul Flaminiiis, falls 
 into a Carthaginian ambush by Lake Trasimenus.] 
 
 Flaminius cum pridie solis occasu ad lacum per- 
 venisset, postero die vixdum^ satis certa luce angustiis 
 superatis, postquam in patentiorem campum pandi^ 
 agmen coepit, id tantum hostium quod ex adverse 
 S erat conspexit; ab tergo ac super caput non detectse 
 insidiae. Hannibal ubi, id quod petierat, clausum lacu 
 ac montibus et circumfusum suis copiis habuit hostem, 
 signum omnibus dat simul invadendi. Romanis subita 
 atque improvisa res fuit, quod orta ex lacu nebula^ 
 
 10 campo quam montibus densior sederat. Consul cla- 
 more prius undique orto quam satis cerneret,* se cir- 
 cumventum esse sensit, et in frontem lateraque pug- 
 nari coeptum est antequam satis instrueretur acies 
 aut expediri arma stringique gladii possent. Sed 
 
 15 perculsis^ omnibus ipse satis impavidus turbatos or- 
 dines instruit, ut tempus locusque patitur, et quacun- 
 que adire audirique potest, adhortatur ac stare ac 
 pugnare iubet. Sed prse" strepitu ac tumultu nee 
 consilium nee imperium accipi poterat ; et erat in tanta 
 
 123 
 
20 caligine^ maior usus aurium quam oculorum. Ad 
 gemitus vulneratorum ictusque armorum et mixtos 
 strepentium paventiumque clamores circuniferebant 
 ora oculosque 
 
 ^ scarcely yet. '' to spread out. ^ mist. * he could see. 
 ° dismayed. ^ on account of. ' darkness. 
 
 II. (a) Give the principal parts of circumfusum 
 (7), orta (9), stringi (14), patitur (16). 
 
 {b) Write out the following words and mark the 
 quantities of their penults and final syllables: copiis (7), 
 sederat (10), clamore (10), cerncrct (11). 
 
 (c) Decline in full caput (5), and ipse (15), and in 
 the plural locus (16) in the sense it has here. Write the 
 future indicative active in all persons of pervenisset (i). 
 Write the present subjunctive in all persons of orta (9). 
 Decline in full and compare maior (20). 
 
 {d) Explain fully the derivation of adverso (4), cir- 
 cumfiismn (7). 
 
 (<?) Explain the case of superatis (3), campum (3), 
 hostiinn (4), copiis (7), invadendi (8), campo (10). 
 
 (/) Explain the mood of pervenisset (i), the tense 
 of petierat (6), the mood of circumventum esse (12), 
 instrueretur (13). 
 
 ((7) Translate into Latin the following passage : — 
 
 Hannibal thought that if he occupied the mountains he 
 should overcome the Romans. Flaminius did not send 
 men to see the nature of the country. He was so care- 
 less (negligens) that he did not know where the enemy 
 were; but when they attacked him he fought bravely. 
 
 This passage is set for students who have had three 
 years of Latin ; and it seems to me a real test of their 
 ability. The vocabulary presents no words which a pupil 
 will not have found frequently in Caesar; the meanings 
 of more unusual words are given. The constructions are 
 simple. But note the various tests of accuracy. " Tan- 
 
 124 
 
turn " in line 4 means " merely," not " so great " ; the 
 candidate must reason, in line 6, whether ubi means 
 " where " or " when " ; in line 16, ut is followed by the 
 indicative and means " as," not " that." At least half 
 of the pupils, not having been trained to us^ their eyes, 
 will confuse aurium (20) with aurum and ora (24), the 
 plural of OS with ora, genitive orw. 
 
 Of the grammar questions, I would omit (&) and (d) ; 
 but especially (d), since no one is fitted to give really 
 scientific explanations of word formation until he has 
 mastered a language completely. Nor do I consider a 
 question like the one on campo (10) fair; for it is an ex- 
 ception to a rule. It is hard enough for students to get 
 rules, without bothering them with the exceptions. 
 
 The composition consists of simple sentences, involving 
 very common constructions. There are no frills, and 
 " style " is not demanded. For myself, I wish compo- 
 sition were optional, as it is on the Advanced Greek 
 paper. 
 
 Heje is the second part of the elementary examination : 
 
 B 
 
 Take one only of the following ; I or II or III. 
 
 I. Translate : — 
 
 [Virgil, " ^neid," 4, 457-468.] 
 
 Praeterea fuit in tectis de marmore templum 
 458 coniugis antiqui, miro quod honore colebat, 
 velleribus niveis et f esta f ronde revinctum : 
 hinc exaudiri voces et verba vocantis 
 visa yiri, nox cum terras obscura teneret, 
 solaque culminibus ferali carmine bubo 
 saepe queri et longas in fletum ducere voces ; 
 multaque praeterea vatum prsedicta priorum 
 terribili monitu horrificant. Agit ipse furentem 
 
 125 
 
in somnis ferus ^neas, semperque relinqui 
 sola sibi, semper longam incomitata videtur 
 ire viam et Tyrios deserta quserere terra. 
 
 Who is meant by coniugis antiqui (458) ? Where was 
 Tyre? Explain the causes of Dido's flight from Tyre. 
 What part does Juno take in the story of the first four 
 books of the " ^neid " ? 
 
 Quote any passage of English poetry of which the 
 above passage reminds you. 
 
 . II. Translate : — 
 
 [Ovid, Metam. 4, 685-696.] 
 
 Saepius instanti, sua ne delicta fateri 
 nolle videretur, nomen terrseque suumque, 
 quantaque maternse fuerit fiducia formse, 
 indicat. Et nondum memoratis omnibus unda 
 ■ insonuit, veniensque inmenso belua ponto 
 imminet, et latum sub pectore possidet sequor. 
 Conclamat virgo. Genitor lugubris et una 
 mater adest, ambo miseri, sed iustius ilia. 
 Nee secum auxilium, sed dignos tempore fletus 
 plangoremque t erunt, vinctoque in corpore adhaerent : 
 cum sic hospes ait : " Lacrimarum longa manere 
 tempora vos poterunt. Ad opem brevis hora feren- 
 dam est." 
 
 Why was Andromeda bound here by the seashore? 
 Quote any passage from Milton of which the third line 
 above reminds you. What were the names of her 
 mother, father, and deliverer? Tell what you know 
 about her deliverer. 
 
 III. Translate : — 
 
 [Cicero, Catiline, 4, 9.] 
 
 Nunc, patres conscripti, ego mea video quid intersit : 
 si eritis secuti sententiam C. C?esaris, quoniam hanc is in 
 
 126 
 
republica viam quae popularis habetur secutus est, f ortasse 
 minus erunt (hoc auctore et cognitore huiusce sen- 
 tentiae) mihi populates impetus pertimescendi ; sin illam 
 alteram, nescio an amplius mihi negoti contrahatur. Sed 
 tamen meorum periculorum rationes utilitas rei publicas 
 vincat. Habemus enim a Csesare, sicut ipsius dignitas et 
 maiorum eius amplitude postulabat, sententiam tamquam 
 obsidem perpetuse in rem publicam voluntatis. Intellec- 
 tum est quid interesset inter levitatem contionatorum et 
 animum vere popularem, saluti populi consulentem. 
 
 What was the proposal which Cicero advocated in this 
 oration? Give a brief account of Caesar. What was his 
 proposal about the conspirators? What important prin- 
 ciple of the popular party was he trying to maintain? 
 Why does Cicero anticipate danger for himself? Tell 
 how the anticipation came true. 
 
 The Advanced Latin paper, for those who have had 
 at least four years of Latin, contains only unseen work; 
 a passage of poetry, one of prose, and composition. Here 
 is the poetry: 
 
 C 
 
 . I. Translate : — 
 
 [The poet Tibullus imagines his own death and burial, 
 and the beauty of the Elysian fields to which his spirit 
 goes, with other faithful lovers.] 
 
 Quod si fatales iam nunc explevimus annos, 
 
 f ac lapis inscriptis stet super ossa notis : 
 " Hie iacet immiti consumptus niorte Tibullus, 
 
 Messalam terra dum sequiturque mari." 
 5 Sed me, quod facilis tenero sum semper Amori, 
 
 ipsa Venus campos ducet in Elysios. 
 Hie choreae cantusque vigent, passimque^ vagantes 
 
 dulce sonant tenui gutture^ carmen aves; 
 fert casiam^ non culta seges, totosque per agros 
 
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ro floret odoratis terra benigna rosis; 
 ac iuvenum series* teneris immixta^ puellis 
 
 ludit, et adsidue proelia" miscet Amor. 
 Illic est cuicunque rapax Mors venit amanti, 
 et gerit insigni myrtea serta^ coma. 
 
 TiBULLUS: Carmina, I, 3, 53-66. 
 
 ^and ez'evywhere. ^throat. ^a fragrant plant. *a line. 
 ° in company with. ' contra-dances. ^ garlands. 
 
 Write out verses 3 and 7. Divide them into feet and 
 mark the quantities and chief caesuras. 
 
 Explain the mood of stet (2). 
 
 The questions are brief and appropriate. It should be 
 observed that the grammar questions on the Advanced 
 Latin are tests of the student's reasoning power; rules 
 will not help him. Unless he knows the fact that all 
 subjunctives express either desire (optative) or merely 
 a possibility (potential), and that from these primary 
 uses all uses of the mood spring, he will not be able to 
 explain stet (2). I append the rest of the paper: 
 
 II. Translate : — 
 
 [Cicero tries to rouse the prejudice of a jury against 
 some Gallic witnesses, by claiming that the Gauls are 
 opposed to religion and will not keep an oath to give true 
 testimony.] 
 
 An vero istas nationes religione iuris iurandi ac 
 metu deorum immortalium in testimoniis dicendis 
 commoveri arbitramini, quae tan turn a ceterarum gen- 
 tium more ac natura dissentiunt? quod ceterse pro 
 5 religionibus suis bella suscipiunt, istse contra omnium 
 religiones; illae in bellis gerendis ab dis immortalibus 
 pacem ac veniam petunt, ists cum ipsis dis immor- 
 talibus bella gesserunt; has sunt nationes quae quon- 
 dam tam longe ab suis sedibus Delphos usque ad 
 
 128 
 
lo Apollinem Pythium atque ad oraculum orbis terrae 
 vexandum ac spoliandum profectse sunt; ab isdem 
 gentibus obsessum Capitolium est atque ille lupiter, 
 cuius nomine maiores nostri vinctam^ testimoniorum 
 fidem^ esse voluerunt. Postremo his quicquam sanc- 
 
 15 turn ac religiosum videri potest, qui etiamsi quando 
 aliquo metu adducti deos placandos esse arbitrantur, 
 humanis hostiis' eorum aras ac templa funestant*? 
 ut ne religionem quidem colere possint nisi earn ipsam 
 prius scelere violarint. — Cicero: Pro Fonteio, 30, 31. 
 
 ^ secured. ^ trustworthiness. ^ ( from hostia) victims. 
 * disgrace. 
 
 What is the difference between illae (6), istae (7), and 
 hae (8) ? Explain the case of Delphos (9) and the ab- 
 sence of a preposition with it. Explain the mood of 
 possint (18) and the tense of violarint (19). 
 
 III. Translate into Latin : — 
 
 Cicero himself was willing to use the testimony of 
 Gauls. For Lentulus had asked some Gallic ambassadors 
 to take a message to their fellow countrymen. When 
 these ambassadors had left the city, Cicero sent an armed 
 force which arrested them. The next day he brought 
 the Gauls into the senate and asked them what Lentulus 
 had said. They declared that he had told them to send 
 cavalry into Italy, promising that he would supply in- 
 fantry. They also testified that he expected to be king 
 in Rome, and they told at^out a plan to burn the city 
 and kill the citizens. There is no doubt that this testi- 
 mony greatly injured Lentulus. — Based- on Cicero : In 
 Catilinam, III, 4-10. 
 
 June, 1909. 
 
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