CORN UNIVEK ^ITY LIBRA lY LL MUSIC 1 ML 2631?B27" """"""^ '""'"">' 3 1924 022 340 891 The original of tinis bool< is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022340891 ENGLISH GLEES AND PAET-SONGS J-RIXTED BT SPOITISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STHEET SQUARE LONDON' ENGLISH GLEES AND PAKT- SONGS AN INQDlSy INTO THEIR HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT BY WILLIAM -ALEX. BARRETT Mns. Bag. Oxos. "VICAB-CHOaAL OF 9T PAUL'S CATHEDRAL- ETO. LONDON LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 1886 All rightt reserved PREFACE. The substance of the following pages — the result of an attempt to trace the origin, growth, and development of English Glees and Part-songs — was read as a series of Lectures at the City of London College, under the auspices of the * Society for the Extension of University Teaching.' It was no por- tion of their purpose to offer anything else than the History of the subject. Such matters as would of necessity require to be made clear to musical students were reserved for the technical explana- tions which followed each Lecture. The only point which seems to call for elucidation in the present form these Lectures have assumed, may be pre- sented here for the benefit of those who may think it necessary. This is a short explanation of the difference between a Glee and a Madrigal. Taking the Madrigal first, as the older of the two, and therefore as entitled to priority, its cha- VI PEEFACE racter may be said, briefly, to consist of a series (few or many, according to the nature of the theme) of conversational phrases, or of passages in imita- tion, one part answering another, and interwoven so as to form harmony, the whole consisting of one movement. The Madrigal may be sung by any number of voices to a part, but without instrumental accom- paniment. Mechanical accuracy is an essential in the performance. The words of many of the best specimens generally contain some epigrammatic sentence or ' conceit.' The Glee should be constructed in several move- ments, according to the fancy of the composer and the meaning of the words, but should have not less than two of contrasted character. It should not be sung by more than one voice to a part, and should be capable of a great amount of expression. The words may be of any character, grave or gay. For other information the reader is referred to the book. If he knows more of the subject than the author, he is implored to be generous. If less, then, when he has finished the perusal, perhaps he will know quite as much. CONTENTS. CHAPTEE I. INTEODUCTION. PAGE The worth of musical art as an element of social enjoy- ment — The love of music the most universally spread through all peoples, and oyer all classes — A glance at the early history of the art — The importance of the study of particular branches — The origin of polyphonic harmony — A sketch of the rise and progress of part- wiiting 1 CHAPTEE II. THE OEIGIN OF VOCAL HABMONY. FEOM EARLY TIMES TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTUEY. A glance at the music of the Ancients — The music of the Hebrews — The Egyptians — The Greeks — The Eomans — The European races in the time of the Christian era — Music of the early Christian congregations — Pope Gregory the Great and his reforms — The invention of notation — The introduction of the organ — The contri- butions of Hucbald to the art and science — Organum — ^Falso-bordone — Descant — The invention of counter- point— Neumae — Mensural music 26 ■vnu CONTENTS CHAPTEE III. THE ORIGIN OP VOCAL HAEMONY FEOM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY continued. PAGE Time-signs — Early compositions in harmony, sacred and secular — The effect of the Crusades upon musical art — The troubadours — Their songs the precursors of the madrigal; the forerunner of the glee — The glee a distinctly characteristic and individual form of com- position peculiar to England 46 CHAPTEE IV, DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION. The origin of the word ' glee ' as applied to a musical com- position — Quotations from old writers showing the manner and variety of the application of the term . 66 CHAPTEE V. DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION — Continued. The early English translation of the First Book of Moses, ' The Story of Genesis,' 1250 — Eobert Manning's translation of the 150th Psalm, 1305 — Chaucer; the Promptorium Parvulorum — The gleemen, minstrels, jocnlators — The troubadours, &•'■ 82 CHAPTEE VI. SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. A short sketch of the history of the madrigal — The Flemish, Italian, and English writers of madrigals . , . 107 CONTENTS ix GHAPTEE VII. SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTUEIBS continued. The triumphs of Oriana — The Huguenot version of the Psahns — The Puritans and their singing — Social musical entertainments, their character and influence — The Commonwealth — The restoration of monarchy in England — The Catch clubs and tavern music — Pelham Humfrey, Henry PurceU, and their contribu- tions to secular vocal art — Michael Wise, John Hilton, John Playford, and the 'fugal duets' of the quasi - classical era — Thomas Brewer, and the earliest piece of music called a glee 127 GHAPTEE VIII. THE END OP THE SEVENTEENTH CBNTUET. Musicians before and after the restoration of Charles II. — Christopher Simpson — William and Henry Lawes — Eobert Coleman — The musical taverns in London and elsewhere — John Jenkins — The influence of Henry Purcell 143 GHAPTEE IX. THE FIEST HALF OP THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY continued. Dr. William Croft, John Blow, John Eocles, John Barrett, Dr. Maurice Greene, and the writers of the catches of the period — ^The social and convivial character of the meetings of the time reflected in the words selected for musical settings — Descriptive analysis of the musical compositions for voices which immediately preceded the glee proper . 163 X CONTENTS CHAPTER X. THE SECOND HALF OP TSt EIGHTEENTH CBNTU-EY. PAGE The influence of Handel's musi* affecting many of the forms of composition, the glee being one of the excep- tions—The unsatisfactory condition of musical litera- ture .181 CHAPTEE XI. THOMAS AT)GUSTINB ABNE AND iliS tABOUES. The indefinite character of the pieces of hiusic called gleeS about the year 1760 — The formation of the Caitch Club and the encouragement of glee-writing — Th'e filstitutioil of prizes — The first prize-winner, George Berg — Holmes' catches, so called, really -glees — Dr. Arne's glees in many instances identical in form with the cat&h ..... V ... . 196 CHAPTER XII. THE SECOND H-ALF OP THE EIGHTEENTH 'GliNTUEt contmued. Samuel Webbe, his life and labours — His early struggles at self-education — His amiable and simple-hearted dis- position — The variety of the chara'otfer of his glees — Critical examination of his glees —His best works bailed to obtain ptiz'feS 219 CHAPTEE XIII. THE SECOND HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CSiNTUEY continued. The effect of Webbe's genius npen his contemporaries — Luffmann Atterbury, Dr. Alcock, Joah Bates, Bichard CONTEISITS Bellamy, John Danty, Lord Momington, Dr. Cooke, John Hindle, Matthew Peter King, Eichard Wainwright, Stephen Paxton, W. Paxton, and other of the lesser glee composers ........ 236 CHAPTEE XIV. IHE SECOND HALF OP THE EIGHTEENTS CE^TUEY continued. The progress of musical art — The growth of instrumental and vocal forms — John Stafford Smith, his inusioal education, his pupils, his antiquarian tastes — His odes and glees — Critical analysis of some of his beautiful works ■......,■.■., 253 CHAPTEE XV. TttE SBCONG half of THE BIGHTEENl?H CElJTUEY continued. Beginald Spofforth, the foreshadowing of the modern ;part- song in his glees— The cultivatto'n of vocal miusi'c no longer restricted to professional singers — Dr. Callcott afld his three-part glees — The influence of the poems of Chatterton and Ossian upon the glee-writers — Bichard John Samuel Stevens and his settings of the words of Shakespeare, Ossian, 'and t)thers . . . 269 CHAPTEE XVI. THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CBNTUET KSD TSE BEGINNING OF THE ■NINETEENTH. William Horsley, Mua. Bac, Oxon — The purity of his style, the grace of his melodies, and iis poetical fancy, as xii CONTENTS shown in his glees — Samuel Wesley, the elder, his love for the works of John Sebastian Bach — His own masterly independence of style— His works indicating a complete advance in treatment, while yet maintain- ing a reverence for the old contrapuntal rules — Theodore Aylward, Samuel Arnold, and others — Thomas Attwood, the pupil of Mozart — His glees intended for domestic use 286 CHAPTEE XVII. THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUBY AND THE BEGINNING OF THE NINETEENTH. Thomas Cooke, his versatility — His perversions of classical works— Sir Henry Rowley Bishop, and his glees with accompaniments — The refining tendency of his music — The national character of his melodies— The un- deserved neglect of his compositions .... 302 CHAPTER XVIII. THE GLEE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Sir John Goss one of the few glee-writers who excelled in the composition of Church music — The decay of glee- writing — The loss of the art through the cultivation of instrumental music and other causes— Eobert , Lucas Pearsall and his happy union of the glee and madrigal styles — The introduction of the so-called German glees —The origin of the part-song— J. L. Hatton, Henry Smart, Maofarren, and other writers of part-songs — Collections of glees— Glee societies and choral unions— The advantages to be derived from a study of the subject — Conclusion 316 I^WEX ' . . 353 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS. CHAPTEE I. INTRODUCTOEY. The worth of musical art as an element of social enjoyment — The love of music the most universally spread through all peoples, and over all classes — A glance at the early history of the art — The importance of the study of par- ticular branches — The origin of polyphonic harmony — A sketch of the rise and progress of part-writing. The worth of the art of Music as an element of social enjoyment is so universally recognised that it scarcely needs a word said in defence of the practice of musical skill in conjunction with others. There is no science or art which inspires so much delight in all classes of society in every part of the world. Even among those nations who have but an imperfect idea of a Supreme Being, music, either vocal or instrumental, forms an integral element of social enjoyment and religious worship. The people of more cultivated states wisely make music a valuable portion of the plan of education, as it is B 2 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS said the better to fit them for society. However much a man may know in all other branches of art and science, he will scarcely find anything so available as music. A few may be attracted to him to hear his relation of some new or interesting fact or discovery in art or science, but it is music alone which is called into exercise as a means of enjoyment in which all can join. The transactions of scientific bodies may be read by a limited number to whom the business in hand is more or less interesting. The records of musical events and productions appeal to all, and the most eagerly read portions of the daily and weekly journals are those which relate to the record, description, and criticism of musical doings. If music is only capable of exciting temporary emo- tions, the question then arises. Why is it so exten- sively cultivated ? If it has no power in permanently influencing the human character, why should people of all shades of thought unite with one consent into admitting it into schools and homes ? What is the reason that we- find in nearly every town and village, here and abroad, the constant desire to form societies for its practice and cultivation ? Looking higher than the power it possesses of welding into a harmonious whole all sorts of con- MUSIC IN WOBSHIP 8 flicting elements of character, it may be noted that as an aid to religious exercise its value is set at the highest point next to doctrine. It is admitted that religious worship gains in power and impressive- ness in proportion to the dignity and solemnity of the music brought to its aid. If there was nothing beyond the emotional ex- citement temporarily created by the effect of beau- tiful music in worship, its use would have been abandoned long ere this. Instead of this there are congregations, now making the best endeavour to turn it to profitable effect, who for a long time not only discouraged its use, but actually made it the subject of special condemnation. In addition, it may be mentioned that there are many religious communities who have always given music a place in their formularies, who now are carefully extending the nature and importance of this aid to worship by every possible means in their power. It can scarcely be urged with any chance of acceptance that the state of education is in so rudi- mentary a condition that it is necessary first to awaken the artistic feelings before the moral senses can be acted upon, and so fitted to receive the truths of religion. The moral sense is intuitive, B 2 4 ENGLISH GLEES AND PAET-SONGS and is experienced by all, even by those who do not accept religious teaching. Music may strengthen the moral sense, it is true, though not in so strong a degree as may be effected by means of other works of art, particularly painting. It is because it is healthful in tone and pure in purpose, perhaps, that it is so earnestly sought after as a handmaid to religion. The emotions may be temporarily ex- cited by the sounds of music, but music can never by itself give rise to unworthy thoughts. It is only by association with words, or some declared idea, that it is capable of producing certain influences. No one hearing instrumental music for the first time can be moved by other influences than those which the sounds create. The impression on the mind may be strengthened and deepened by many causes. The beauty or associations of the place in which it is heard, the mental condition of the hearer, and other causes will be at work in order to produce effects which may be recalled upon repetition of the same strains elsewhere and at another time. It is only when music is connected with words that the emotions excited by the words become in- tensified, and capable of reproduction with more or less force. The stories told of the effects of abstract MUSIC AND EMOTION 5 music are due more to the imaginations of poets, to the constant practice of their trade to confound cause with result, to the general principle of ex- aggeration which is too often adopted when they wish to convey a moral lesson. Those who listen to a symphony — the most exalted form of abstract music — without knowledge of the picture it may be assumed to present, never realise the accepted picture. If they are capable of analysing their own sensations and describing them in words, the probability is that they will ascribe a meaning to the music which was altogether foreign to the avowed intention. English people listen to the ' Eakoczy March ' without being tempted to lay their hands upon a sword and go forth with a burning desire to slay the enemies of their country, which is said to be the feeling of every true Hungarian when he hears its strains. They can even hear with different sensations the ' skirl ' of the bagpipe which sets Scottish blood on fire. There are even Scotchmen who can hear the sounds of this instrument with- out particular excitement, when the sounds are unconnected in tbeir minds with a special idea. It is because the melody ' Lochaber no more ' recalls the love of home, and causes nostalgia, that 6 ENGLISH GLEKS AND PART-SONGS it is forbidden to be played in the Scotch regiments when they are on foreign service. For the same reason the Swiss mercenaries were forbidden to play the ' Eanz des Vaches ' out of their native moun- tains. "When, therefore, music is employed in religious worship, it finds its most salutary influ- ence when it is given in union with words, or in the elucidation of a recognisable object. To recall this object and to emphasise its value, to enable those who are moved by it to remember why they are so moved, and to strengthen the lessons derived from its associations, music is rightly employed to such an exalted purpose, and, being so employed, it must be considered as of greater worth for its educational than for its emotional design. That it has been regarded in this light from the remotest ages, the history of the art itself shows. Its origin is veiled in obscurity. The sacred writings make no mention of the inventor of the art, and give no clue as to its discovery. The most ancient writers offer no definite information as to those who found out its charms, though many conjectures are made and suggestions proposed. The difficulty is overcome by assigning the inven- tion to those convenient but scarcely trustworthy authorities the gods. Jupiter, Apollo, Pan, Mercury, OKIGIN OF MUSIC 7 and other of the deities who are scarcely respectable even for their antiquity, are assumed to have had a hand in the matter, and all that posterity has arrived at is the knowledge that humanity has inherited the art and made a science of it. The Book of Genesis speaks of Jubal. as ' the father of all such as handle the harp and organ,' or, as the revised version gives it, the harp and pipe. The form in which these instruments are mentioned implies their existence previously, and so the origin of musical material is still left in doubt. Men probably turned their attention first to the readiest means whereby to provide for their daily wants before they sought material for the beguilement of spare hours. The theories which are advanced as to the origin of the two instruments just named are various, some of them mythical, others probable. The mythical attributes the origin of pipe music to the god Pan, who made an organ or musical machine out of varied lengths of hollow reed stopped at one end with clay — the instrument still known by the name of the Pandean pipes. The invention of stringed instruments is assigned 'to Mercury, who, walking in a pensive mood by the seash'orje, 8 KNGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS accidentally struck his foot against the shell of a dried turtle. He heard the shell give forth sounds more or less musical, the sounds coming from the dried sinews over the concavity of the shell, which formed a sort of impromptu resonance box. The probable theories assume that the first musical in- struments, the string and the pipe, were suggested by the weapons used in hunting — the tightened bowstring and the hollow reed with which darts were blown to a distance at birds and animals sought for as prey. When once the fact of the discovery became recognised, the desire to extend it by improvements followed, and more convenient methods of utilising the knowledge so gained suggested themselves. Varieties of sound were thus at the command of those who were able and willing to take the trouble to call them into operation. It is not known, nor can it be even guessed, which form of music, the vocal or the instrumental, was the first discovered or employed. The opinion that vocal music is the older of the two seems to be most common. This idea is based on the belief that speech is of higher antiquity than manual dexterity. It is asserted by some, that men learnt to sing by attempting to imitate the song of birds. MUSICAL GIFTS AND CULTUEE 9 This implies a somewhat low opinion of the early faculties of man ' to suppose that he should find one of his most delightful pleasures in the imitation of the language of animals.' It is more likely that hy his natural constitution and organisation he should have been prompted to exercise his faculties after his own natural manner independently. It is better to believe that music, which was at first "the expression of joy or sorrow, should have been derived from the tones of the voice under the influ- ence of those passions. Music is held to be a natural gift, but it cannot be said how far the ex- istence of that natural gift can be traced to heredi- tary conditions. The cultured mind of a man is due to his own individual exertions in the endeavour to take to himself and to assimilate the knowledge he may acquire through the experience of his con- temporaries and predecessors. The capacity for cultivation, the innate powers which fit him for entering upon a course of mental training, are parts of the inheritance he enjoys, the results of a series of developments of mental forces derived through long generations. It is in accordance with the recognition of these facts, and the assumption that in early stages of society the forefathers of the present race were equal in condition with contem- 10 ENGLISH GLEES AND PAET-SONGS porary savage tribes, that the conjectures as to the origin of arts and sciences are founded. The universality of the love for music in the human mind is indicated by the possession of some sort of method of exercise, vocal or instrumental, common to all, however far removed some may be from the centres of communication. The history of the art has yet to be written. All that has hitherto been done can only be held to be contributive and not even final concerning its early use. A comparison of the character of in- struments and of their known history sifted from tradition will in course of time reveal as much in_ degree as the knowledge of human races derived from the study of their several languages lays before the philologist. It cannot at present be affirmed, on the one hand, that the origin of all musical instruments is to be traced to the usages of one particular tribe ; neither can it be said, on the other, with any basis of cer- tainty, that the knowledge of music and the use of instruments arose spontaneously and simultane- ously in many directions. The researches made in the tombs of Egypt and in the movmds of Nineveh have let in some light on historical study, only to show that those peoples ORIGIN OF MUSICAL SYSTEMS 11 who were accepted for ages as the sources of civili- sation are themselves only tributaries from a fount whose rise is still hidden from the explorer. The tempests and convulsions of time have so destroyed or disconnected the sequences of events, that even our knowledge of the science and practice of the art of music among the Greeks and Eomans, whatever we may know or guess concerning their literature and ordinary life, is for the most part conjectural and doubtful. It was not until the method was invented of vrriting and naming notes and assigning to each name a place in an accepted position that the knowledge of music became as it were moulded to a form capable of improvement and extension. The first philosophical musicians who noted that in the performance of a scale certain sounds re- curred at intervals which bore the like relative pro- portions to each, though situated at the distance of eight notes apart, and gave those recurring notes the names of the tones with which they corre- sponded, by their very limitation of nomenclature were enabled to increase the power of recognising music. Their systems, nominally taken from the Greek, at once displayed a point of departure which led to a greater degree of cultivation than Greek 12 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS music was capable of attaining. It was a refine- ment to apply to every sound a separate and distinct title so that it could not be confounded with any other musical sound. But while this practice would be found to answer very well so long as all music consisted of melody, it was a great hindrance to the progress of the art, inasmuch as it prevented the employment of harmony or combinations of melodies. The use of the letters of the Greek alphabet, in many ways, direct, indirect, upside down, or lying on their sides, was considered necessary in order to accommodate the nomenclature to the variety of sounds produced by voice or instrument, each having a different notation. The use of the first seven letters of the alphabet only, in large capitals for the great octave, small letters for the next octave, and double letters for the higher range, was a clear gain to the reader. The invention of the syllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, now in ordinary use, was a still greater gain. The suggestion of their employment is attri- buted to Guido of Arezzo, who is said to have taken them from a hymn for the festival of St. John. He proposed them as a sort of memoria technica to a brother monk as a means by which he could recall the melody of the hymn, each phrase of which rises GUIDO'S NOMENCLATUEE 13 a note higher, after the manner of the notes of the scale. The addition of the seventh syllable is declared to have been recommended centuries later by one who remarked that the final sentence of the verse of the hymn was formed of the words ' Sancte Johannis,' and the letters S and J or I formed the syllable si. The sound now associated with the syllable is not suggested in the hymn. The next step in advance was formed when another monk, Hucbald, indicated to the eye the relative position of the sounds required in singing certain words. He also made the discovery that, by means of his system of writing down notes, it was possible to record the simultaneous sounding of two notes in harmony. It had taken nearly three centuries to arrive at this fact. It occupied three more, at least, before the practice of harmony was reduced to a science, governed by special laws. One of the most stringent of these laws required the avoidance of progressions which had been formerly permitted,. and out of which the laws themselves had grown. There can be no doubt that the knowledge of the varieties of harmonic combinations existed from an early period, though only isolated examples. of the manner in which it was employed have been 14 ENGLISH GLEES AND PABT-SONGS preserved. What these were, and to what condition of art they point, will serve as suhject-matter for more elaborate treatment later on. Still, as it is necessary to offer an idea of the subject-matter of the whole course, a reference to the further progress of the art is required, so that out of the general the particular may be deduced. The origin of the melodies which have descended to the present time from a remote antiquity is as difficult to trace as to discover the personality of the author of the first attempts to formulate musical sounds out of the tones of the voice under the ex- citements of passion when the provocative cause was removed. We may consider that when the means by which these sounds could be reproduced were recognised, the next thing to which men turned their attention was towards the manner by which they could be permanently represented, so that the word or sign which embodied the thought should, when presented to the eye, recall the thought. Among nations tenacious of their old customs, but who trust to tradition as frequently as to written documents, the method of recalling these sounds -would be handed down by word of mouth, probably after the manner of men before the invention of wrriting. EASTERN AND GREEK NOTATIONS 15 Such a practice can be traced among the Eastern nations. The Mahometans, for example, have no formal written signs for music, yet they have dis- tinct melodies which, having been heard in various places, and written down by observant European travellers from time to time, show little, if any, changes of form when compared. The character of the notation employed by the ancient Egyptians is not known ; probably it was transmitted in the same way as is observed among their modern de- iscendants. The musical notation so called among the Hebrews consisted of a series of signs to direct the reader when to raise or lower the voice. These signs of notation, called neumata, were for a long time in use in the West, and are at the present day not wholly disused in the Greek Churches of the East. Many of these neumata are of fantastic forms, designed to represent the intermediate inflections of the voice requisite to give due effect to elocution. The character of the ancient scales of music, being avowedly derived from the East, may be compared with the present condition of Eastern scales. These are not divided after the manner of the European diatonic scale, which consists of a certain regulated order of tones and semitones, whose degrees are familiar to us all. The Eastern scale was capable 16 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS of division into more subtle parts, such as thirds of tones or less ; so the octave consisted not of thirteen semitones but of twenty-seven, and even so many as thirty-three. For this reason most Eastern instruments, and all performances of Eastern music, seem to be out of tune to European ears, as doubt- less most European harmonies are unbearable to Oriental sensibilities. The story of the Turkish dignitary who was prevailed upon to attend a per- formance at the Grand Opera at Paris, and who was most delighted with the flourishes made by the several instruments in an independent cacophony during ' tuning time,' as reminding him of the music of his native country, can be readily under- stood by many, and best of all by those who have had the opportunity of hearing the performance of so famous a body of chosen instrumentalists as that of the Court band of the King of Siam, which appeared at the Inventions Exhibition. The European scale is held to be the most perfect in its order, inasmuch as it accords with the character of our sensations. It could scarcely be substituted for another without an alteration almost of our nature. Certain it is that all our previous ideas of melody and harmony would have to be abandoned, with what result to the art of music may be left to the imagination. EUEOPEAN TONALITIES 17 Out of this European scale the numberless varieties of melodies which delight the souls of men have been constructed ; and, by means of in- genious combinations of concordant sounds, those same melodies have been harmonised so as to form an aggregate of pleasure. This pleasure has been removed from the emotional to the intellectual world by the successive discoveries of men of genius. In many of the old pieces of harmony produced in the early centuries, after certain prin- ciples had been accepted, will be discovered attempts to get free from the trammels and monotony of one all-pervading tonality. These efforts are in- teresting to the student of the present day, who has all the wealth of the tonalities at his com- mand without fear of violating rules by transgres- sive excursions into remote keys. The course of study which prescribes a certain following of the rules of the old masters, though despised, if not condemned, by many modern musicians, is not -without its advantages. A pupil who has conquered the difficulties of the mechanical treatment of a passage in one tonality, such as appears in the study of counterpoint, would certainly experience less trouble in understanding the like relations in other keys than those in which he made his c 18 ENGLISH GLEES AJSTD PABT-SONGS original essays. Those who are permitted at the outset to exercise freedom of treatment in the use of keys create their own embarrassment. It is a poor argument to quote the practice of writers with whom the choice of a key is a condescending con- cession to popular prejudice in favour of a distinct tonality. The study of music should, therefore, be based upon the lines of historical succession as far as possible. That is to say, the method of procedure should be almost after the manner in which suc- cessive discoveries and improvements have been made in the art. If the master or pupil finds it necessary to skip a century or two, as it were, as men of genius have done from generation to generation, it should be done with judgment and a distinct understanding of the reasons for the leap. Those who have attained a certain position in their studies will not regret the time spent in com- munion with old composers. Whatever particular branch may be selected . for study, either from necessity or choice, it will be'^found that attention to collateral branches springing from the same parent tree will increase the interest in the chosen from adopted. No knowledge of a special subject THE STUDY OF MUSIC 19 is complete without some other information to support it. In fact, it will be found as difficult to isolate a subject of study as it would be to reach a dwelling-house without passing through the roads which lead to it. The student wUl doubtless find himself attracted to the examination of particular phases of musical history in the course of his progress. Now while it is desirable to avoid paying undue attention to one section of a subject, there is always an advan- tage in concentrating the thoughts for a time, especially if the relative connection of the theme with others be not lost sight of. It is in this spirit that we enter into the examination of ' the historical development of glees and part-songs.' The subject of the glee itself is almost completed as an item in the history of music. It occupies a period of scarcely more than a hundred years of history. But it did not spring, Minerva-like, all clothed, armed and powerful, self-contained and originated from phenomenal causes. It was the result of slow growth, and was the extrinsic outcome of a series of developments which had been in preparation for centuries. It has served a musical purpose ; its monuments are still extant and valuable ; it has become the parent of a child scarcely so c 2 20 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS worthy as itself, though possessing a vitality which may ultimately lead to a new departure. The examination into ' the history and develop- ment of the glee ' should possess a peculiar interest for English students in music, inasmuch as it is distinctly native. English musicians alone have produced, and English singers alone can perform it properly. What further contributions to musical art have been furnished by Englishmen will be pointed out subsequently. There can be no doubt that the practice of singing music in parts has been observed in Great Britain from a very remote period. Mr. William Chappell, in his most valuable 'Popular Music of the Olden Time,' a work which has been written to r.efute the statement that England is not a musical nation, quotes a passage translated from 'Cambriae descriptse,' by Gerald Barry or Giraldus Cambrensis. This passage, from a book written about the year 1185, tells us that : 'The Britons do not sing their tunes in unison, like the inhabitants of other countries, but ia dif- ferent parts. So that when a company of singers meets to sing, as is usual in this country, as many different parts are heard as there are singers, who all finally unite in consonance and organic melody. ... In the northern parts of Britain, beyond the 6IRALDUS ON ENGLISH SINGING 21 Humber, and on the borders of Yorkshire, the in- habitants make use of a similar kind of symphonious harmony in singing, but with only two differences or varieties of tone and voice, the one murmuring the under part, the other singing the upper in a manner equally soft and pleasing. This they do, not so much by art, as by a habit peculiar to them- selves, which long practice has rendered almost natural, and this method of singing has taken such deep root among the people that hardly any melody is accustomed to be uttered simply or otherwise than in many parts by the former, and in two parts by the latter. And what is more astonishing, their children, as soon as they begin to sing, adopt the same manner. But as not all the English, but only those of the north sing in this manner, 1 believe they had this art at first, like their language, from the Danes and Norwegians, who were frequently accustomed to occupy, as well as longer to retain, possession of those pa and seven others, his own minstrels, named by him, by which they were created into a guild or fraternity, such as the body possessed in olden time. They were to be governed by a marshal, appointed for life, and other officers, who were empowered to admit members into the guild, and to regulate and govern, and to punish when necessary all such as exercised the profession of minstrel within the kingdom. (The minstrels of Chester were excepted in this charter.) The establishment of this institution does not seem to have improved either the position of the minstrels or the quality of those who exercised the profession. Their occupation was gone. In the days of Queen Elizabeth their credit had sunk so low in public estimation that, in the thirty- ninth year of her reign, a statute was issued against vagrants, and minstrels and gleemen were included among the rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars, and were subjected to Uke punishments. This DECAY OF MINSTKELSY 73 edict affected all fencers, bearwards, common players of interludes (with the exception of such players as belonged to great personages, and were authorised to play under the hand and seal of their patrons), as well as all minstrels wandering abroad, jugglers, tinkers, and pedlars. This Act gave the death-blow to the profession of the gleemen or minstrels, who had so long enjoyed the sunshine of popular favour. The miserable state of this section of the musical profession is described by Puttenham, in his ' Arte of English Poesie,' printed in 1589, when he speaks of ' small and popular musickes sung by these Contabanqui upon benches and barrels' heads, where they have none other audience then boys or countrey fellowes that pass them in the streete, or else by blind harpers, or such hke taverne minstrels, that give a fit of mirth for a groat, and their matters being for the most part stories of old time, as the tale of Sir Topas, the repartes of Bevis of Southampton, Guy of Warwicke, Adam Bell, and €lymme of the Clough, and such other old romances or historicall rimes, made purposely for recreation ■of the common people at Christmasse diners and bride ales, and in tavernes and alehouses, and such other places of base resort.' 74 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS The minstrels and gleemen were dissolved and dispersed by influences whicli were at the time growing in power, and were destined to change the whole habits of the nation, as well as to modify the processes of amusement and education. The printing press had been called into requisition to supply in a permanent form much that heretofore had been fur- nished in an ephemeral and temporary manner. The reign of Queen Elizabeth saw the multiplication of ballads and romances, such as were still the delight of the common people, in numbers and characters sufficient to justify the belief that the old craft of the minstrel had not been extinguished, but simply diverted into a new channel. The minstrels and gleemen wrought alone, and were known by a fresh title, that of balladmonger, which seemingly had no reference to the ancient profession of which they were then the representatives. The national delight in secular music admitted of little or no abatement by the disgrace and dis- persion of the minstrels. Better knowledge and im- proved skill were attained by musicians; the art of composition was making extensive strides, and writers, discovering the fact that the tuneful art was capable of being moulded into a series of mathe- matical puzzles, were fascinated by the discovery OLD ENGLISH CANONS 75 and beguiled by its exercise. The composers of the reign of Queen EUzabeth, and others far into the seventeenth century, spent the most of their time in working out intricate devices in counterpoint and in writing canons in all sorts of shapes — in circles,. in squares, in diagonals, in cross-rows, forwards,, backwards, and upside down, as may be seen in an autograph book by Elway Bevin, who died in 1640, preserved in the library of Buckingham Palace. Such exercises were ingenious and clever, but it is doubtful whether they had any permanent value as regarded the art of composition. They proved the capabilities that music in combination possessed, without a doubt. They may have helped towards exhibiting the plastic nature of harmony, and the possibility of interweaving certain effecta which were either forbidden entirely heretofore or only allowed under protest. The grace of expression and the charm of pure melody seem to have been a secondary considera- tion with the composers of these arithmetical rebuses. That such qualifications were sometimes, united with them may be shown by reference to- the canon ' Non nobis, Domine,' written by William Birde in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. This, which is in the present day one of the best-known pieces. 76 ENGLISH GLEES AND PABT-SONGS of harmony of that period, is in three parts, and is composed of one melody so treated that it forms its own harmony. The first part begins, the second part imitates the melody a fourth below, at a half-bar's- distance, and after a bar the third part enters at the octave, and the harmony is made complete. It is usually repeated three times, and ends at a previously agreed point, otherwise it forms a perpetual canon. The condition of musical art necessary to produce successful examples of this form of writing was only arrived at through long periods of probation. At first all music was in unison ; the earliest employment of harmony being traced to the or- ganising of the seventh or eighth centuries. This consisted of the introduction of two notes in concord by way of finale or cadence. From out of this organising the practice of falso-bordone was evolved, and descant or counterpoint was the crowning stone of the edifice. The labours and discoveries of the old writers, Willem Dufay, and his scholars ; Jos- quin des Pres, Jacob Clemens non Papa, Orlandus Lassus), and the Italian and English musicians their followers, augmented the scientific knowledge of the art. The more enlightened views which had fol- lowed the periods of reformation and convulsion POPULAR MELODIES AND COITNTEEPOINT 77 in the several European countries had caused the barriers which restricted the rules of musical art to be removed, and a fusion of ideas to be allowed to be made. The forms of melody, which had been made popular by the gleemen, minstrels, and others, were imitated and extended, and musical skill found wider fields for operation. That there had always been a hankering desire after the popular melodies among musicians may be assumed from the fact that many of the movements- in the masses for the service of the Church were counterpoints upon favourite popular melodies, melodies apparently so well known, and associated with general ideas, that more than one composer takes the same theme upon which to exhibit hi& ingenuity. The word ' moteft,' which is the same as motive, was at first appfied to such pieces as were founded upon themes so selected; afterwards it became attached to a piece of sacred music, not necessarily a portion of the ritual, but because it contained the musical exposition of a text or sentence of Scripture. The original musical notes, ideas, or, as Shakespeare would say, the conceits,, were doubtless those sung by the poets, the trou- badours, the minstrels, or the gleemen. It is therefore not difficult to understand that 78 ENGLISH GLEES AND PABT-SONGS the apparently incongruous efforts of musicians and performers should have something to do in bringing into being a form of such simple beauty as the glee, in addition to the more mighty expansions, the oratorio, the opera in its many forms, the symphony, and other vocal and instrumental treasures which we now enjoy. In more than one instance it is known that changes of the utmost importance have been effected by unexpected means, and have been due to causes which were out of the calculations even of those who were wise enough in some degree to foresee the future. How few imagined that the singing of a few hymns between the pauses of a continued discourse would suggest the oratorio, or anticipate the magnificent forms into which it would expand ! The most sanguine enthusiast would have hesitated to declare that the removal of the frets from the . finger-board of the violin would be the first step to a way which would culminate in the production of the symphony and other extended orchestral works. Enough has been shown for the present of the musical forces at work before the glee, as a piece of music, had its being. It will now perhaps not be un- interesting to trace the growth of the word, and to show its signification at the present time. DEFINITIONS AND QUESTIONS 79 The word ' glee ' is described in dictionaries as meaning joy, mirth, or gaiety. This is only true so far as the colloquial signification of the term is concerned. The musical glee may possibly be at times joyous, or mirthful, or gay, but it need not be either. Composers associate some other idea with the word — an idea which in this particular instance may be said to be concrete, inasmuch as it includes an agglomeration of ideas. If the word glee meant only cheerfulness, the questions then arise : "Why should composers take the trouble to describe works with this title as serious, elegiac. Bacchanalian, pastoral, humorous, and even comic ? Why should they be tautological and say often a * chearful glee ' ? Thus, CaUcott's ' Father of heroes ' is described as a serious glee ; Spofforth's ' Fill high the grape's exulting stream ' a convivial glee ; Dr. Arne's * Come, shepherds, we'll follow the hearse ' an elegiac glee ; Webbe's ' The mighty conqueror ' a Bacchanalian glee ; Steven's ' It was a lover and his lass ' a pastoral glee ; Eock's ' Let the sparkling wine go round,' though it might be called a Bacchanalian, is described on the printed copies as a ' chearful glee ' ; Bishop's ' Mynheer van Dunk ' and Caldicott's ' Humpty Dumpty ' are called humorous 80 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS glees ; and Shore's ' Willie brewed a peck o' maut ' is called a comic glee. Now it is a remarkable thing that no qualification of the term was ever applied to the madrigal. Its term is always used alone. It is true that many pieces are termed madrigals which would be properly described by other names in use, such as canzona, villanella, and so forth ; but those works that are termed madrigals have only the quahfying titles which refer to their me- chanical construction as Madrigali di stromenti, and so forth, but they are never marked by indications of character such as are often appended to the ' glee.' As the glee is not always of the natu;re which may be duly described by the dictionary explana- tion, we must look elsewhere for its meaning. The early English gleemen were not singers of glees. They probably derived their name from the fact that they were united in a brotherhood and formed into companies, by which means they were enabled to diversify their performances, and render many of them more surprising through the assist- ance of their confederates. Thomson in his ' Ety- mons of English Words,' in his explanation of the word and its derivatives, gives the old German word liek, or league, combination, or association, as a comparative meaning. The use of the word ' glee ' THE GLEEMEN AND THEIE WOEK 81 and gleeman by the old writers would seem to bear out the assumption that the words had a commonly -understood signification. None of them speak of a gleeman, the term is always applied in the plural. When it is necessary to speak of a single individual, he is referred to as a minstrel or as one of the gleemen. It is not unlikely that the Anglo-Saxon word ' gligg,' which is frequently interpreted 'music,' was originally applied to the kind of music made by the gleemen or brotherhood. It afterwards attained another meaning, also from its association with the acts of ihe same body. A portion of their business was mimicry and exaggeration of gesture, thence the word ' gleek ' which is employed by Shakespeare as meaning ' to mock.' There were many of the body who never took part in the musical performances, but whose business was posture-making and tumbling. Still they were called ' gleemen,' and therefore we may not unreasonably assume that there was another and well-understood meaning of the word in the days when the band or brotherhood were moving on the fuU tide of popular favour. The old manuscripts, which are adorned with drawings, generally depict the gleemen as exhibiting their accomplishments in companies. 82 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS CHAPTEE V. DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION {COntiuued). The early English translation of the First Book of Moses, ' The Story of Genesis,' 1250 — Eobert Manning's translation of the 150th Psalm, 1305 — Chaucer ; the Promptorium Parvulorum — The gleemen, minstrels, jooulators — The troubadours, &a. Theee can be no doubt that the word glee was never applied to musical compositions until the beginning of the eighteenth century, or, at the earliest, at the latter part of the seventeenth. The older poets used the word to mean harmony, or the combination of sounds. It is employed both as a verb and as a noun. There is an ancient rhyming version of the first Book of Moses called 'The Story of Genesis,' written in English about the year 1250, a few years later than the date of the manuscript which contains ' Sumer is icumen in,' the earliest example of poly- phonic composition extant. ' The Story of Genesis,' edited by Dr. Morris, has been included in the pub- lications of the Early English Text Society. The POETICAL EEFERENCES 83 version of the twenty- first verse of the fourth chapter in the authorised version is : ' and his brother's name ■was Jubal, he was the father of all such as handle the harp and organ.' The paraphrase runs thus : — Jobal is broker sung and glew, Wit of music well he knew. If this were paraphrased again, we should say that it signified that Jubal was able to sing and make combinations of harmony, because the second part of the verse informs us that Jubal possessed •wit of music' — that is to say, that he was well acquainted with the science of the art in which he was accomplished as an executant. In a manu- script of the year 1200, which is preserved in the British Museum in the Harleian collection, there is a love song which Warton conjectures to be one of the oldest extant. It was probably one of the songs of the troubadours, and the author declares in his manner that he will love his lady while he endures : — A wayle whyt as whalles bon | a grein in golde that godly shon I a tortle that min herte is on | in tonnes trewe | Hire gladship nes never gon i whil y may glewe. Here the poet uses the word as much to signify his singing as to assert his constancy. His sensi- bility to the charming qualities of the subject of a 2 84 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS his verse will ever continue while he can hold together. Robert Manning, more commonly called Eobert de Brunne, from the place of his birth, a village in Lincolnshire, in his translation of Bishop Grosse- teste's ' Manuel de Peche,' which he called ' Hand- lynge Synne,' makes reference to music and musical performances : — The vertu of the harpe, thurghe skylle and ryght, Wyl destroye the fendes myght, And to the croys, by god^ Bkylle Ys the harp6 lykened weyle. Tharefor, gode men, ye shul lere, Whan ye any glemen here, To wursohep God at youre powere As Davyd seyth yn the sautere Tu harpe, in thabour, and symphan gle Wurschepe God ; yn trounpes and sautre. In cordys, an organes, and bellys ryngyng ; Yn all these wurshepe ye hevene Kyng. The words 'yn harpe, in thabour, and symphan gle ' signify the music made by those instruments in combination. In another place Eobert de Brunne, in describing the coronation of King Arthur, speaks of Jogelours wer there inoug That were queitise for the drong Minstrels many with divers glew. Here the word 'glew' may mean several things connected with the profession of the minstrel. It FUETHEE KEFEEENCES 85 may mean divers pieces of music or instruments, or it may signify the union of forces in order to produce a grand effect. In any case it is an interesting example of the employment of a word connected with music as signifying harmony or combination of some kind or other. Geoffrey Chaucer, who was born in 1328 and died in 1400, has many references to music in his poems. In his ' TroUus and Creseida ' he says : — For though the best harpeur upon lyve, Wold upon the best sounyd joly harpe That evere was, with all his fingers fyve Touche evere o strenge, or evere o werble harpe Where his naylis poynted nevere so sharpe He sholde maken every wighte to dulle To here his gle, all of his strokis fulle. Thfese several quotations show that music was meant by the word glee, and that some of the writers infer that combined forces were to be employed in making it. It is pretty well under- stood that the gleemen worked in companies, and that part of their occupation was jesting and mimicry. There is the word ' gleek ' in Shake- speare, which all commentators interpret ' to scoff,' or ' to mock.' In Douce's ' Illustrations of Shake- speare ' he remarks that in some of the notes on this word it has been supposed to be connected 86 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS with the card game of gleek, but it was not recollected that the Saxon language applied the word Ir!i3 (gligg) litdibrium, and, doubtless, a corre- sponding verb. This ' glee ' signifies mirth and jocularity, and gleeman, or gligman, a minstrel or joculator. Gleek was therefore used to express a stronger sort of joke, a scoffing. It does not appear that the phrase ' to give the gleek ' was ever intro- duced into the game which was borrowed from the French ; but a passage in ' Eomeo and Juliet ' further illustrates this meaning. Peter, speaking to the musicians who came to Juliet's funeral, says, 'No money, on my faith, but the gleek ; I will give you the minstrel,' by which he meant that he would play some ridiculous jest upon him. The ' Promptorium Parvulorum,' a Latin and English Dictionary written about the year 1440, may also be referred to on this subject. It is a most valuable work of reference for students of mediaeval English, as it interprets certain English words of variable spelling and changeable meaning, by Latin words whose orthography and signification has remained unaltered. The word 'glee' is therein translated armonia, minstrelsy. As in those days the signification of the word harmony had been settled and understood, at all MORE DEFINITIONS 87 events by musicians, it is probable that the compiler of the dictionary would have made himself ac- quainted with the existing meaning of the word, and have contributed a not unimportant item to our knowledge of the history of the meaning and appli- cation of the word glee. There are other meanings of the word to which allusion may be made in this place. These mean- ings are to be traced to the practices of some of the members of the Guild of Gleemen. The posturing and wilful distortions of the body exhibited by some of the gleemen in their performances may have given rise to the word which in the north of England is used to describe a deformed person, who is said to be ' all a glea.' Still further north the word is used to mean 'on one side,' as many who have read the poems of Eobert Burns will remember, in the oft-quoted verse. The best laid schemes o' mice and men Gang aft a-gley. In Lancashire there is yet another meaning to the word, for it means to make faces, to squint. Harrison Ainsworth in one of his novels speaks of a man gleeing through a horse collar at a fair. In some parts of Sussex the word ' glee ' means adroit, clever, quick and' cunning. All these significations 88 ENGLISH GLEES AND PAET-SONGS may be traced to a connection with the gleemen or minstrels of old. A further support of the assumption that the name may have been derived from the fellowship or guUd is found in the fact that the old Anglo-Saxon gleemen were called joculators or 'jongleures' by the Normans. This word alludes to the 'jong' or band in which the minstrels were enrolled, the body to which they belonged. All the arts in which the minstrels or gleemen excelled were per- formed by the joculators. They included in their companies tregetours, gestours, and others. The name of tregetour was chiefly, if not entirely, ap- propriated to those members of the band who, by sleight of hand, or with the assistance of machinery of various kinds, deceived the eyes of the spectators, and produced such illusions as were usually sup- posed to be the effect of enchantment, for which reason they were frequently ranked with magicians, sorcerers, witches, and ' uncanny folk.' The feats they performed, according to the descriptions given of them, abundantly prove that they were no con- temptible practitioners in the arts of deception. Thus it was that the jongleur, jougleur, or yoke- fellow became a juggler, a term synonymous with deceiver or trickster. In like manner the gestour THE king's MINSTEELS ETC.- 8i> — who was originally that member of the band who- told the • gests ' or acts of heroes, or related popular stories — became the 'jester ' from the fact that manj of his stories were of a humorous character, or were illustrated by incidents of a laughable nature in the course of the narrative. The term 'gestour' was always applied to those of the gleemen who related droll stories, and from a particular acquired a general application. The performance of the jougler was called his. minstrelsy. The king's minstrels were also called joculators, and the office of king's juggler was main- tained in England up to the reign of Henry VIII. It is well known that minstrels have formed part of the royal household from time immemorial, and from certain allusions made in contemporary records there is reason to believe that among these were many musicians whose labours and studiea have been of no mean benefit in advancing the cause of art and the knowledge of its practice. The patronage and support offered by the sove- reigns and rulers of various States encouraged those of the musicians who were not attached to any particular clerical establishment to prosecute the cultivation of the science of sweet sounds, and so to a certain extent benefited the art, by extending to its. 90 ENGLISH GLEES AND PAET-SONGS professors the opportunity of enjoying that ease and relief from the immediate cares associated with the process of earning the daily bread. On the other hand, this sort of patronage was a hindrance to progress and discovery, by easing the necessity of making alterations in things that suf- ficed for present needs. It is a remarkable fact that the knowledge of musical instruments was restricted to a very few types, chiefly of a primitive character. The shapes and forms of the instruments known and used up to the fifteenth century were repeated almost with- out variation for more than five hundred years. The conservative spirit which the children had inherited from their parents was transmitted with- out change. Things that were capable of improve- ment were passed over unaltered, as year rolled by year, and music was anything but a progressive science. One reason for the want of enterprise was perhaps to be found in the encouragement given to the gleemen and their recognised position as makers of music and entertainments. We read occasion- ally of one who, though not a minstrel, could ' play upon the rote' or other instrument; but in the majority of instances the power of performing upon MUSIC AMONG THE PEOPLE 91 the musical instruments that were known was almost exclusiTely confined to the professional body, or to those who had received a musical education in the monasteries or other clerical establishments. Home music was not extensively cultivated. The people had their own musical instruments, but these were of the most primitive character. The pipe and tabour furnished the accompaniments to the rural dances, and to this might be added in certain districts the bagpipe, which was once the national instrument of England. Nearly every county had its own modification of the machine : Lincolnshire, Northumberland, Yorkshire, and Lancashire, above all others, furnished the most ■expert players. The frequent references made by the rhyming historians and the greater poets may be accepted as partly describing the condition of the people, and their love for and cultivation of music in various districts of the country. Vocal music was practised by the people. Songs -were in some places sung in parts. The majority of the songs were unaccompanied except by such instruments as were capable only of indicating or enforcing the rhythm. Clapping the hands, stamp- ing the feet, or what Dr. Burney somewhat con- temptuously and incorrectly states ' made the natural 92 ENGLISH GLEES AND PAET-SONGS music of the island, namely, the salt-box, the tongs and bones.' Shakespeare in ' Midsummer Night's Dream ' makes bully Bottom say, ' I have a reason- able good ear in music, let me have the tongs and bones.' Hentzner, who wrote at the end of the sixteenth century, says : ' The English excel in dancing and music, for they are active and lively ;: they are vastly fond of noises that fill the ear, such as the firing of cannon, beating of drums, and the ringing of bells, so that it is common for a number of them that have got a glass in their heads to get up into some belfry, and ring the bells for hours together for the sake of exercise.' It must be^ remembered that these descriptions were written after the revival of learning, and when the minstrels had fallen into disrepute. In the earlier centuries, the male children of the nobles and others of high degree were instructed in all sorts of out-of-door sports and pastimes, and sometimes were taught to play upon the harp or other musical instrument. Female education seems to have been restricted to needlework. Musical, accomplishments were not always considered neces- sary for ladies. It is not certain that they were taught to read, such accomplishments were left to- ' clarkes ' — that is to say, to men of education. THE TKOTJBADOURS 93 Their acquaintance with literature was restricted io the knowledge of a few poems, or ballads, which they learned by heart to sing. The advent of the troubadours, and the new life they imparted to music and poetry, had the •effect of arousing the higher classes to an interest in the charms of poetry and polished forms of •expression. The sentiment of honour was so strong in the hearts of the early English, race, that men have suffered themselves to be sold in open market as slaves, to redeem debts of honour contracted by indulgence in the passion of gambling. The troubadours did everything for the honour and glory of their work. They scorned to take rewards for the exercise of their art, and this spirit helped to recommend them to the nations who carried admiration for honour to excess. In this respect they were a distinct class from the jongleurs, who did not scruple to exact pay for their work. The character of the songs and of the music per- formed by each class was almost the same at the beginning, for the state of society both high and low was equally rude, and the songs which delighted the peasant were equally acceptable to the noble. < By degrees a superior refinement and sensibility manifested themselves in the tastes and manners 94 ENGLISH GLEES AKD PAET-SONGS of courts, and this superiority found poetical ex- pression in a more artistic kind of verse than had hitherto prevailed. Kings, nobles, and princes who practised verse-making for their pleasure or out of gallantry were always called troubadours, while inferior knights, court attendants, and even citizens and serfs who took money for the exercise of the art were called troubadours, minstrels, or jongleurs indiscriminately.' The true minstrel was at first the minister or servant of the troubadour, who carried the harp or other instrument of the master — for it was con- sidered undignified for the poet to be his own porter. Who and what the jongleurs were has already been explained. It not unfrequently happened that the troubadour had several of these minstrels in his service. The troubadour poetry {art de trobar) was lyrical, while the popular minstrelsy was of the epic ballad sort. It exercised a considerable in- fluence on the advancement of literature and culture generally, yet those who practised it never formed themselves into a guild, or into special schools, but preserved a certain free individualism, which gives a fine picturesqueness to the outlines of their history. ' At all the courts, great and small, in Southern France, Northern Spain, and Italy, they THE TEOUBADOUES 95 were esteemed a brilliant ornament of society; princes and fair dames (often themselves trouba- dours) were proud of their praise, and their service of gallantry, or dreaded the biting raillery of their satiric muse ; while, on the other hand, the majority of the troubadours gladly attached themselves to the court of a great prince or noble, sometimes praising their master in sirventes, or service songs, sometimes censuring him, but, at any rate, always selecting some lady as the " mistress of their heart," to whom they under a general or allegorical name addressed their love songs (cansos), whose cruelty they bewailed in songs of lamentation (planes), or whose death they mourned in sorrowful threnodies.' This love service was only an artificial gallantry, having more esprit than heart in it, yet not unfre- quently the sport passed into fatal earnest, and was followed by crime, revenge, and miurder. Further, when, as often happened at' great court festivals, several troubadours were present, verse battles were proposed, and competitions were undertaken for the gratification of the high society assembled on such occasions. The subject of the contest was selected by the ladies present from ' the laws of love,' one or more of the ladies sitting as umpires at such poetic jousts ■96 ENGLISH GLEES AND PAET-SONGS and deciding who were the victors. But although -the troubadours as a rule strictly confined them- tselves to themes of gallantry, yet sometimes their muse, especially in its satiric moods, ventured into higher regions, and glanced at the general con- ■ditions of society, or the graver evils of the times : as the wa,rs between France and England in Southern France, the persecution of the Albigenses, "the degeneracy of the clergy, the diminishing zeal for the crusades, and so forth. Sometimes their muse dipped her pinions in a lowlier atmosphere, and condescended to depict the life of the peasantry, their thoughts, aspirations, and customs, and sang "their adventures with shepherds and shepherdesses, and other matters relating to rural life. These songs were called pastoretes, vaqueyras, motes, canzoni, villancicos or villamellas. The variety of terms is owing to the differences of nationalities among the inventors. The extent of territory over which the troubadour jpoetry was cultivated included Proven9e, Toulouse, Poictou, Dauphiue, and all parts of Prance south of the Loire, as well as Catalonia, Valencia, and Arragon in Spain, and part of upper Italy. The period of time it existed was about 200 years (1090- 1290), and there were three periods in its history. THIBAUT OF NAVAEKE 97 The first is the period of its rise, and the develop- ment out of the popular poetry of the gleemen or jongleurs into forms of greater artistic purity (1090-1140). The second was its golden age, and included the period when the troubadours were at the highest estimation (1140-1250). Then the period of its decline, which took place forty years later. ' The first of these periods is marked by a con- scious striving after something finer and more poetic than the rude simplicity of popular verse ; the second by the loftiest expression of ideal chivalry and gallantry, and the most perfect development of artistic form ; the third by an ever- increasing didactic tendency, and a degeneracy in poetic art. Thus the poetry of the troubadours rose, and ruled, and fell with that courtly chivalry which was at once its inspiration and. its soul.' The music which was performed by the trou- badours was simple and plain, but by no means deficient in melody and grace. The songs of Thibaut, king of Navarre, one of the princes who was designated by the honourable title of ' master ' among the troubadours, which have been preserved, prove these facts incontestably. He belonged to the golden age of the ' gay science,' H 98 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS and saw its culmination. Before his death, in 1254, the process of decay had set in, but without showiag as yet any outward and visible signs that the days of its vigour and active life had been passed. The praises which Dante bestows upon him in his ' Inferno ' were not undeserved. The troubadours were not only the inventors and improvers of metrical romances, songs, ballads, and rhymes to so great a number, and of such a kind, as to raise an emulation in most countries of Europe to imitate them, but the best poets in Italy, namely Dante and Petrarca, owe much of their excellence to their imitations of the Proven9al poetry. An enthusiastic writer on the subject thus speaks : — • 'In Proven9e, on the flowery shores of the Durance, in the land where Grecian culture, tended by the Eomans, had never wholly been destroyed, where the arts of peace had long flourished, and yet more richly after the migrations of the nations, and in emulation of the Spanish Arabs ; under the brUliant heaven of southern France, where nature, womanly beauty, manly courage, and courtly man- ners lent their highest charms to life, the luxuriant flower of lyric song sprang forth among the trou- badours. It is true that the music and poetry of the troubadours were a natural outgrowth of that THE GAY SCIENCE 99 epoch of stirring life, of love, longing, joy, hatred, and melancholy, but every mental growth demands its appropriate soil, and only in the highest circles could an appropriate field for lyric song then exist. Though the profession of the singer had been regarded as an honourable one since the time of the Gallic bards, and though the jongleurs had preceded the troubadours, it was only towards the end of the eleventh century that it came to be considered as a matter of perhaps more consequence that a youthful knight should know how to compose and sing and play, than that he should invent verses, and read and right correctly. The art of the troubadour was called the gay science (gai saber, gaie science) ; to the idea of gaiety a noble meaning was attached. The true chevalier, it was said, should never lose his normal feeling of enthusiasm and joy ; hke an interior sun the joy of love should illuminate his life, and continually excite him to noble actions and fortitude in trial, purifying his soul from envious, sombre sadness, from avarice, torpidity, and hardness of mind. Melancholy was regarded as a morbid feeling, born of scepticism and degeneracy, a want of power to accomplish great deeds or duties. Gaiety or joy was a state of mind regarded by the troubadours as corre- H 2 100 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS spending with that of religious grace. The end of their profession was the service of religion, honour, and woman, in deed and in song. One of their mottoes was "Love and religion protect all the virtues ; " another ran, "My soul to God, my life for my king, my heart for my lady, my honour for myself." ' The troubadour most esteemed was he who could invent, compose, and accompany his own songs. If he was unable to play he had his minstrel ; if he could not sing, his cantador or musar. The merit of the troubadours in furthering the progress of music as an art was, that they liberated melody from the fetters of calculation, gave it the stamp of individuality, and bore it on the wings of fancy into the domain of sentiment. They had the further merit of introducing new and peculiar rhythmic changes of time, which, apparently irregular, were really forcible, symmetrical, and original. It is also more than probable that the troubadours received new ideas in regard to melody from the East, as they found among the Arabs not only a different system of tones, but many fanciful vocal ornaments then unknown in Europe, and which they introduced in their own songs on their return from the Crusades. But, as harmony was ADAM DE LA HALE AND OTHEES 101 in that day undeveloped, the glowing vine of melody received little support from it, and therefore often appears weak. The rules of composition were then highly complicated and ill classified ; yet they were well understood by the best educated troubadours, and though their earlier days were stiff, closely resembling the Gregorian chant in form and style, in some of the later ones we find graceful melodies that leave little to be desired, and that possess more real variety and individuality of character than do the words attached to them.' The most celebrated musicians among the trou- badours besides Thibaut, king of Navarre, were Adam de la Hale, Chatelain de Coucy, and Gaucehn Faidit. Many of their songs have been preserved, and though the harmonisation is crude and harsh, and even awkward according to our modern \iews, more than one show the higher in- fluences at work towards the attainment of a more perfect practice of harmony, such as delights modern ears, and satisfies modern demands of scientific con- trivance. Consecutive fifths and fourths it will be remembered were among the licences permitted and even enjoined in the harmony of the period at which Adam de la Hale and his tuneful brethren lived and worked, therefore the appearance of these 102 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS progressions among the harmonies employed is a matter for no sm-prise to those who know the history of such things. At the same time it must be noted that the music of Adam de la Hale, who lived in the latter half of the thirteenth century, cannot be compared in point of invention and con- trivance with the famous canon ' Sumer is icumen in,' which belongs to the same period, though perhaps in the feeling for melody shown in the recognised examples of work from his hand there is an eqvial amount of intelligence and regularity of expression displayed. The charm of a graceful melody having gained a recognition, the opportunities for the extension and expansion of the principles upon which it might be constructed were now admitted, and melodies were constructed upon plans which allowed the notes to be spread over a more extended compass than that which had hitherto restricted the ambitus of a song. Many of the melodies only required four or five notes of compass, long after the time when it was shown, as in ' Sumer is icumen in,* that the melody might be extended to the range of an octave. That more liberty was allowed to the instrumentalist may be assumed from the fact that a tune to which Mr. Chappell ('Popular Music of EARLY MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 103 the Olden Time ') assigns the date of 1300 has an extent of eleven notes, which is remarkable in a melody of so early a date. The extension of the compass of the melody led to the discovery that certain voices were in- capable of taking certain sounds beyond a given part, while others made no difficulty in reaching them. It is not unreasonable to assume that the distribution of vocal parts and the assortment of voices arose out of this knowledge, though at what time it was formulated and acted upon it is impos- sible to say. But however rapid may have Taeen the know- ledge of vocal music, there can be no question that instrumental music was almost at a standstill for many generations. The instruments which were in use among the early musicians were the harp, the lyre, and the cruit or crowd, similar in character to the violar. The early gleemen derived the harp from the ancient bards. The violar of the troubadours was the precursor of the modern violin. It was also called Eibible and fithele. The Ribible came from the Arabs. Among them it was a two-stringed instrument played with a bow, and the early forms of the instrument in ancient MSS. show 104 ENGLISH aLEES AND PART-SONGS that the shape adopted was a direct copy of the Moorish instrument called a Kemangeh, which is in use in the East to the present day. It is sometimes furnished with two, sometimes with three, strings. The Rebeck, as a name for the English form of the Arabian instrument the Eebab, existed up to the time of Milton. The word Jithele was only in use among the gleemen or the minstrels who were admitted to be of a lower degree of refine- ment. The name arose from the action employed in performance, the bow being drawn up and down. The Jithele was also called ' a jig,' and hence the name of certain dances so called. The German word Geige has a similar signification. The cruit, crwth, or crowd was another instru- ment oi the fiddle kind, with a finger-board which could only be reached by passing the hands through hollows in the framework. The fingers could only press the strings within a limited range, and there was an unstoppable string which sounded a per- petual drone as in the bagpipe and the hurdy-gurdy. The hurdy-gurdy was in fact a cnoth in which the action of the bow was superseded by a wheel charged with powdered rosin. The strings were pressed by keys, and not by immediate contact with the fingers. The sounds of each instrument were probably similar. WIND AND STRINGED INSTSUMENTS 105 The poor Italian or Swiss boy who performs, upon the instrument in our streets is, therefore, one of the direct artistic descendants of the old jongleurs or minstrels. The similarity of the sounds of the two instru- ments led the old writers to speak of them indis- criminately, and the likeness which exists in the names may have helped modern students to con- fuse one with the other, and come to no satisfac- tory conclusion. The word crwth or cruit came from a Gaelic root which in English mouths became corrupted to crowd. It was played with a bow, and the performer was called a ' crowder.' The hurdy-gurdy was played by a handle setting a wheel in motion. This wheel was called the ' rota,' and from this name, written variously according to the country or dialect of the writer, the word rota became crota, crotta, chrotta, crowd, and so on. There were few wind instruments in use in early times other than flutes, or recorders, pipes for use with tabours, and bagpipes. This last instrument represented the whole family of reed instruments, from which afterwards came the shalms, the waits, and the more modern oboe and clarinet. There were trumpets and clarions and drums. 106 ENGLISH GLEES AND PART-SONGS Military music was chiefly performed upon the last- named, rhythmical beats serving to mark the time for marching, a form still in use for some parts of regimental service. The trumpets and clarions were only used on State occasions, and in the time of battle. The instruments of peace were the pipe and tabour, both being played by one performer. The tabour was a iind of double-headed tambourine, which was struck with a short stick held in the right hand. The left hand was engaged in ' governing the ventages ' of ihe pipe. The melodies produced from this primitive instrument were naturally very limited, but they were not more restricted than the majority of the melodies in common use both for secular purposes and in connection with the music of the plain song of the Church. Primitive and simple as was the music of the time, there is yet to be traced a steady, if occasion- ally interrupted, progress towards further perfec- "tion. How music fared in the revival of learning during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries is yet to be told, before we arrive at a complete elucida- tion of the historical developments of glees and part-songs. THE EISE OF THE MADEIGAL 107 CHAPTEE VI. SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTUEIES. A short sketch of the history of the madrigal — The Flemish, Italian, and English writers of madrigals. The former chapters brought us to a chronological period ■which has particular attractions to the musician who loves his art. In giving an outline of the course of literary and musical history of several ages, there arises a feehng of regret and disappointment that the labours of so many genera- tions of worthy workers should scarcely have left enough to indicate more than the faintest shadow of the substance they provided. It was not until -the invention of the printing press that a true •estimate of the work done at all times could be formed. With this invention men's thoughts seem to have turned into an entirely new direction. Composers and thinkers were no longer called xipon to appeal to a favoured few for the apprecia- 108 ENGLISH GLEES AND PAET-SONGS tion of their efforts to promote the cause of science and art. With the printing press as a lever they were to move the whole world. Simplicity was to be the fulcrum upon which the lever was to rest before their great design could be accomplished. The ambiguities which had hitherto clothed all musical language and thoughts were cleared away. The need for extending knowledge prompted the old masters in music to discard much that was useless' although it was held to be reverend by tradition. Utility demanded the sacrifice of the conventional. The dictates of the schoolmen were to be disregarded in favour of the promptings of common sense. These principles being recognised and acted upon, the advances made in the science and art of music were as rapid as they had hitherto been slow. In the course of one hundred and fifty years music attained a degree of perfection which is astonishing when it is remembered that it had been almost stationary during nearly fourteen centuries. The majority of the musical compositions which have descended to posterity from the early agea show that the absurd and unnatural rules by which men thought fit to tie up their imaginations were effective enough in limiting their excursions into ANCIENT EULES OF HAEMONY 109 the fair regions of art. All the pieces of music produced under such conditions bore so strong a family likeness to each other that it is diffi- , Bnunston & Leroy's Historic Winchester. Crown 8vo. 6». BucUe's History of Civilisation. 3 vols, crown 8vo. 24s. Chesney's Waterloo Lectures. 8vo. 10«. Sd. Cox's (Sir G. W.) General History of Greece. Crown 8vo. Maps, 7<. 6d, — ^ Lives of Greek Statesmen. Two Series. Fcp. 8vo . 2s.Gd. each. Greighton's History of the Papacy during the Bef ormation. 2 vols. 8vo. 32«. De Tocqneville's Democracy in America, translated by Beeve. 2 vols, crown 8vo. IGs. ■ Doyle's English in America. 8vo. ISs. Epochs of Ancient History : — Beesly's Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla, 2s. 6d. Capes's Age of the Antonlnes, 2s. Gd, — Early Boman Empire, 2s. 6d. Cox's Athenian Empire, 2s. fid. — Greeks and Persians, 2s, Gd. Curteis's Bise of the Macedonian Empire, 2s. Gd. Bine's Borne to ite Capture by the Gauls, 2s. Gd. Kerivale's Boman Triumvirates, 2s. Gd. Sankey's Spartan and Theban Supremacies, 2s.Gd. Smith's Jlome and Carthage, the Funic Wars, 2s. Gd. Epochs of Modem Histoid V- Ghnrch's Beginning of the Middle Ages, 2s. Gd. Cox's Crusades, 2s. Gd. Greighton's Age of Elizabeth, 2s. Gd. Gairdner's Houses of Lancaster and York, 2s. Gd. Gardiner's Poriftan Bevolution, 28. Gd. — Thirty Tears' War, 2*. Gd. — (Mrs.) French Bevolution, 1789-1795, 2*. td. Hale's Fall of Hie Stuarts, 2s. Gd. Johnson's Normans in Europe, 2s. Gd. Longman's Frederick the Great and the Seven Tears" War,2». Gd. LniHow's War of American Independence, 2s. Gd, M'Carthy's Epoch of Eeform, 1830-1860, 2s. Gd. Morria's Age oE Queen Anne, 2s. Gd. — The Early Hanoverians, 2s. 6d. Seebohm's Protestant Bevolution, 2s. Gd. Stubbs's Early Flantagenets, 2s. Gd. Warburtou's Edward III., 2s. Gd. Epochs of Church History : — Perry's The Beformation in England, 2s. 6a. Tucker's The English Church in other Lands, 2s. Gd. Freemmi'a Historical Geography of Europe. 2 vols. 8to. 31j. 6d. London : LONGMANS, GEEEN, & 00. Oeneral Lists of Works. Blonde's English in Ireland in the 18th Centmy. 8 Tola, crown 8to. 18». . — HiBtory of England. Popular Edition. 12 vols, crown 8to. 3«. Btf. each. Gardiner's History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War. 10 vols, crown 8to. 60j. — Outline of English History, B.o. es-Aj>. 1880. Fcp, 8to, 2i. 6. Vols. 3 & 1, 1884r-1881, 8vo. 32l. — (Mrs.) Letters and Memorials. 8 vols. 8yo. 36«, De Witt (John), Life of, by A. 0. Pontalis. Translated. 2 TOls. 8to. 36*. Englisb Worthies. Edited by Andrew Lang. Crown 8to. 2s. dd. each. Charles Darwin. By G-rant Allen. | Marlborough. By G-eorge Saintsbury. Shaftesbury (The Pirst Earl). By H. D. Traill. Admiral Blake. By David Hanney. Eox (Charles James). The Early History. By Sir G. 0. Trevelyan, Bart. Crown 8to. 6<. Grimston's (Hon. R.) Life, by P. Gale. Crown 8to. IOj. 6d. Hamilton's (Sir W. R.) Life, by Graves. Yols. 1 and 2, 8vo. 15j. each. Havelook's Life, by Marshman. Crown 8vo. 3j. 6d. HuUah's (John) Life. By his Wife. CJrown 8vo. 6*. Macanlay's (Lord) Life and Letters. By his Nephew, Sir G. 0. Trevelyan, Bart., M.P. Popular Edition, 1 vol. crown 8vo. 6j. Cabinet Edition, 2 vols, post 8vo. 12*. Libraiy Edition, 2 vols. 8vo. 36s. Mendelssohn's Letters. Translated by Lady Wallace. 2 vols. or. 8vo. Sj. each. Mill (James) Biography of, by Prof. Bain. Crown 3vo. 5s. — (John Stuart) Reoolleotions of, by Prot Bain. Crown 8vo. is. Sd. — — Autobiography. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Mozley's Bemlniscences of Oriel College. 2 vols, crown 8vo. 18*. — — — Towns, Tillages, and Schools. 2 vols. or. 8to. 18j. MtUler's (Max) Biographical Essays. Crown Svo. 7s. 6d. Newman's Apologia pro Vita Sua. CSrown Svo. 6j. Pasolini's (Count) Memoir, by his Son. Svo. 16*. Pasteur (Louis) His Life and Labours. Crown Svo. 7i. 6(2. Shakespeare's Life (Outlines of), by HalliwBll-Phillipps. 2 vols, royal Svo. lOi. 6d. Southey's.Correspondence with Caroline Bowles. Svo. 14*. Stephen's Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography. Crown Svo. 7*. 6d. Taylor's (Sir Henry) Autobiography. 2 vols. Svo. 32*. TeHer's The Strange Career of the Chevalier D'Bon de Beaumont. Svo. 12*. Wellington's Life, by Gleig. Crown Svo. 6*. MENTAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY, FINANCE, &C. Ames's View of the Science of Jurisprudence. Svo. 18*. — Primer of the English Constitution. Crown Svo. 6*. Bacon's Essays, with Annotations by Whately. Svo. Its. 6ci. — Works, edited by Spedding. 7 vols. Svo. 73*. td. Bagehot's Economic Studies, edited by Hutton. Svo. 10*. Gd. — The Postulates of English Political Economy. Crown Svo. 2*. 6d. Bain's Logic, Deductive and Inductive. Crown Svo. 10*. 6d. Paut I. Deduction, is. | Pabt n. Induction, 6*. ed. — Mental and Moral Science. Crown Svo. 10*. Sd. — The Senses and the Intellect. Svo. 15*. — The Emotions and the Will. Svo. 15*. — Practical Essays. Crown Svo. 4*. fid. Buckle's (H. T.) Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works. 2 vols, crown Svo, 21*. C*ozler's Civilization and Progress. Svo. 14*. Crump's A Short Enquiry into the Formation of English Political Opinion. Svo. 7*. ed. Dowell's A History of Taxation and T*xes in England. 4 vols. Svo. 48*. London: LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. General Lists of Works. Crreen's (Thomas Hill) "Works. (3 vols.) Vols. 1 & 2, Philosophical Works. 8vo. 16<. each. Hume's Essays, edited hy Q-reen & Gtrose. 2 vols. Svo. 28^. ^ — Treatise of Human liTature, edited by Oreen & Grose.; 2 vols,, Svo. 28*. Lang's Custom and Myth : Studies of Early Usage and Belief. Crown Svo. 7*. 64, Leslie's Essays in Political and Moral Philosophy. Svo. IQs. Sd, Lewes's History of Philosophy, 2 vols. 8vo. 32*. Lubbock's Origin of Civilisation. Svo. 18*. Macleod's Principles of Economical Philosophy. In 2 vols. Vol. 1, Svo. 16*. Vol. 2, Part 1. 12*. — The Elements of Economics.' (2 vols.) Yol. 1, cr. Svo. 7*. 6d. Vol. 2, Part I. cr. Svo. 7*. Qd. — The Elements of Banking. Crown 8to. 6*. — The Theory and Practice of Bankin?. Vol. 1, Svo. 12*. Vol. 2, 14*. — Elements of Political Economy. Svo. 16*. — Economics for Beginners. Svo, 2*. 6d. — Lectures on Credit and Banking, Svo. Bs. Mill's (James) Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind. 2 vols. Svo. 28*, Mm (John Stuart) on Representative G-ovemment. Crown Svo, 2*. — — on Liberty. Crown Svo. 1*. 4d. — — Essays on Unsettled Qurations of Political Economy. Svo, 6*. Gd. — — Examination of Hamilton's Philosophy. Svo. 16*. — — Logic. 2 vols. Svo. 2.1*. People's Edition, 1 vol. cr. Svo. 5*. — — Principles of Political Economy. 2 vols, Svo. 30*. People's Edition, 1 vol. crown Svo. 6*, — — Subjection of Women. Crown Svo. 6*. — — Utilitarianism. Svo. 5*. — — Three Essays on Religion, &c. Svo. 5*. Miller's (Mrs. Penwick) Readings in Social Economy. Crown Svo. 2*. Mulhall's History of Prices since 1850. Crown Svo. 6*. Sandars's Institutes of Justinian, with English Notes. Svo. 18*. Seebohm's English Village Community. Svo. 16*. Sully's Outlines of Psychology. Svo, 12*. Gd. — Teacher's Handbook of Psychology. Crown Svo. Gs. 6rf. Swinburne's Picture Logic. Post Svo. 5*. ThomiBon'a A System of Psychology, 2 vols. Svo. 36*. Thomson's OutUne of Necessary Laws of Thought, Crown Svo. 6*, Twiss's Law of Nations in Time of War. Svo. 21*. — — in Time of Peace. Svo. 15*. Webb's The Veil of Isis. Svo. 10*. 6d. Whately's Elements of Logic. Crown Svo. 4*. 6d, — — — Rhetoric. Crown Svo. 4*. Bd. Wylie*s Labour, Leisure, and Luxury. Crown Svo. 6*. Zeller's History of Eclecticism in G-reefc Philosophy. Crown Svo. 10*. 6rf, — Plato and the Older Academy. Crown Svo. 18*. — Pre-Socratic Schods. 2 vols, crown Svo. 30*. — Socrates and the Socratic Schools. Grown Svo. 10*. Sd. — Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics. Crown Svo. 15*. — Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy. Ch-owu Svo. 10*, Sd. London : LONGMANS. GREEN, & CO. General Lists of Works. MISCELLANEOUS WORKS. A. K. H. B., The Essays and .Contributions of. Crown 8vo, Autumn HoUaays of a Country Parson. 35. 6d. Changed Aspepts of Unchahgol Truths. 3^. Gd. Cbmmon-^Piace Philosopher in Town and Country. 3j. 6d. Critical Essays of a Country Parson. 3s. Gd, Counsel and Comfort spoken from a City Pulpit. Za. Gd. Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson. Three Series, ds. Gd. each ' Landscapes, Churches, and Moralities. Ss, Gd. Leisure Hours in Town. Bs. Gd, Lessons of Middle Age. 3^. 6d. Our Little Life. Essays Consolatory and Domestic. Two Series. 8«. Gd, Present-day Thoughts. 35. Gd. ■ [each. Recreations of a Country Parson. Three Series. 3<. Gd. each. Seaside Musings on Sundays and Week-Days . 3s. Gd, Sunday Afternoons in the Parish Church of a XTniveraity City. 3«. 6d, Armstrong's (Ed. J .) Essays and Sketches. Pep. 8to. 5s. Arnold's (Dr. Thomas) Miscellaneous Works. 8vo. 7s. Gd, B^ehot's LiterMT Studies, edited by Hutton. 2 vols, 8vo. 26s. Beaconsfield (Lord), The Wit and Wisdom of. Crown 8vo. 1*. boards ; 1*. Gd. cl. — (The) Birthday Book. 18mo. 2^. Gd. cloth ; 4^. Gd. bound. Evans's Bronze Implements of G-reat Britain. 8vo. 25s, Parrar's Language and Langoages. Crown 8vo. Gs. French's Nineteen Centuries of Drink in England. Grown 8vo. 10s. Gd, Proude's Short Studies on Great Subjects. 4 vols, crown 8vo. 24*. Lang's Letters to Dead Authors. Pep. 8vo. Gs. Gd. Macanlay's Miscellaneous Writings. 2 vols. 8vo. 21s. 1 vol. crown 8vo. 4*. Gd, — Miscellaneous Writii^s and Speeches. Crown 8vo. Gs. — Miscellaneous Writings, Speeches, Lays of Ancient Rome, &o. Cabinet Edition. 4 vols, crown 8vo. 245. — Writings, Selections from. Crown 8vo. Gs. Mtiller's (Max) Lectures on the Science of Language. 2 vols, crown 8to. 18*. — — Lectures on India. 8vq. 12*. Gd. Smith (Sydney) The Wit and Wisdom of. Crown 8vo. 1*. boards ; 1*. Gd. cloth. Wilkinson's The Priendly Society Movement. Crown 8vo. 2s. Gd, ASTRONOMY. Hersddel's Outlines of Astronomy. Square crown 8vo, 12*. Kelson's Work oq the Moon. Medium 8to. 31*. Gd. Proctor's Larger Star Atlas. Polio, IS*, or Maps only, 12*. Gd. — New Star Atlas. Grown 8vo. Bs. — Light Science for Leisure Hours. 3 Series. Crown 8vo. 5*. each. — The Moon. Crown 8vo. 10*. Gd. — Other Worlds than Ours. Crown 8vo. 5s, — The Sun, Crown 8vo. 14*. — Studies of Tenus-Transits. 8vo. 5*. — Orbs Around TJs. Crown 8vo. 5*. — TTniverse of Stars. 8vo. 10*. Gd, Webb's Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes. Crown 8vo. 9*. — The Sun and his Phenomena. Fcp. 8vo. 1*. THE 'KNOWLEDGE' LIBRARY. Edited by Biohaed A. Proctoh. How to Play Whist. Grown 8vo. 5*. Home Whist. 16mo. 1*. ■ The Borderlajid of Scaence. Cr. 8vo. 6*. i&ature Studies. CJrown 8vo. 6*. Leisure Readings. Crown 8vo. 6*. The Stars in their Seasons. Imp. 8vo. 5s. Myths and Marvels of Astronomy. Crown 8vo. 6*. Pleasant Ways in Science. Or. 8vo. 6*. Star Primer. Crown 4to. 2*. Gd. The Seasons Pictured. Demy 4:to. 6*. Strength and Happiness. Gr. 8vo, 6*. Rough Ways made Smooth. Gr. 8to. 5s, The Expanse of Heaven. Cr. 8vo. 6*. Our Place among Infinities. Gr. 8vo. 5*. London : LONGMANS, GKEEN, & CO. General Lists of Works. CLASSICAL LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE. iBschylns, The Eirmenides of. Text, with Metrical English Translation, by J. F. DaTies. 8to. 75. AristophaneB' The Aohamians, translated by E. Y. Tyrrell. Crown 8to. 2s. 6d. Aristotle's The Ethics, Text and Kotes, by Sir Alex. Qrant, Bart. 2 TOls. 870. 32s. -^ The Nicomachean Ethics, translated by Williams, crown 8vo. 7s, Qd. — The Politics, Boois I. III. IV. (YII.) with Translation, cSio. by BoUand and Lang. Crown 8ro. 7s. 6d. Becker's Charicles and Oallm, by Metcalfe. Post 8vo. 7s. Gd. each. Cicero's Correspondence, Text and Notes, by R. T. Tyrrell. Vols. 1 & 2, Svo. 12s. each. Homer's Iliad, Homometrically translated by Oayley. 8vo. 12s. Gd, — — Greek Text, with Verse Translation, by W. C. Green. Vol. 1, Books I.-XII. Crown Bto. 6s. Mahaffy's Classical Greek Literature. Grown 870. Vol. 1, The Poets, 7s. 6d. Vol. 2, The Prose Writers, 7s. 6d. Plato's Farmenides, with Notes, &c. by J. Magnire. 8vo. 7s. 6d, Sophocles* Tragoedise Superstites, by Linwood. 8to. 16s. Virgil's Works, Latin Text, with Commentary, by Eennedy. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d. — .Slneidi translated into English Verse, by Conington. Crown 8to. 9s. — — — _ _ _ byW.J-Thornhill. Cr.8vo.7s.6d. — Poems, — — — Prose, by Conington. Crown 8vo. 9s. Witt's Myths of Hellas, translated by F. M. Younghusband. Crown 8to. 3s. Gd, — The Trojan War, — — Fop. 8vo. 2s. .— The Wanderings of Ulysses, — Crown 8vo. 3s. 6rf. NATURAL HISTORY, BOTANY, & GARDENING. Allen's Flowers and their Pedigrees. Crown 8to. Woodcuts, 5a, Becaisne and Le Maout's General System of Botany. Imperial 8to. 31s. Gd, Dixon's Knral Bird Life. Grown 870. Illustrations, 5s. Hartwig'a Aerial World, 8vo. 10s. Gd, — Polar World, 8vo. 10s. Gd. — Sea and its Living Wonders. 8vq, 10s. Gd. — Subterranean World, 8vo. 10s. 6*. — Tropical World, 8vo..l0s. Gd. Llndley's Treasury of Botany. Fcp. 8vo. 6s. Loudon's EncyclopEedia of Gardening. Bto. 21s. — — Plants. 8to. 42s. Bivers's Orchard House. Crown 8to. 5s. — Rose Amateur's Guide, Fcp. 8vo. 4s. Gd. — Miniature Fruit Garden. Fcp. 8to. 4s. Stanley's Familiar History of British Birds. Crown 8vo. 6s. Wood's Bible Animals. With 112 Vignettes. 8to. 10s. 6d. — Common British Insects. Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd. — Homes Without Hands, 8to. 10s, Gd, — Insects Abroad, 8to. 10s. Gd. — Horse and Man. 8vo. 14s. — Insects at Home. With 700 Illustrations. 8vo. 10s. 6d. — Out of Doors. Crown 8vo. 5s. — Petland BeTisited. Crown 8to. 7s. Gd, — Strange Dwellings. Crown 8vo. 5s. Popular Edition, 4to. Gd. London: LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. General Lists of Woi^s. THE FINE ARTS AND ILLUSTRATED EDITIONS. DieBBer's Arts and Art Manufactures of Japan. Sqaare crown 870. 31». M. Eastlake's Household Taste in Furniture, &o. Square crown Sto. 14<. Jameson's Sacred and Legendary Art. 6 vols, square 870. Legends of the Madonna. 1 toI. 21i. — ^.- — MonasUc Orders 1 vol. 21*. — — — Saints and Martyrs. ' 3 vols. 31». M. — — — Saviour. Completed by Lady Easilake. 2 vols. 43t. Maoanlay's Lays of Ancient Bome, illustrated by Soharf . Fcp. 4to. lOj. fid. The same, with Ivry and the Armada, illustrated by Weguelin. Crown 8vo, St. Si, Moore's Lalla Bookb, illustrated by Tennlel. Sqnare crown 8vo. 10<. 6d. New Testament (The) illustrated with Woodcuts after Paintings by the ^igK^ Masters. 4to. 21s. doth, or 42«. morocco. Ferry on Oreek and Soman Sculpture. With 280 Illustrations engraved on Wood. Square crown 8vo. 31s. 6d. CHEMISTRY, ENGINEERING, Sc GENERAL SCIENCE. Amott's Elements of Physics or Natural Philosophy, Crown 8to. 12>. 6(2, Bourne's Catechism of the Steam Engine, Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. — Examples of Steam. Air, and Gas Engines. 4to. 70t, — Handbook of the Steam Engine. Fcp. 8vo. 9j. — Recent Improvements in the Steam Engine. Fcp. Svo. 6s. — Treatise on the Steam Engine. 4to. 42«. Bnckton's Our Dwellings, Healthy and Unhealthy. Crown 8vo. is, 6d. Grookes's Select Methods in Chemical Analysis. 8vo. 24j. Cnlley's Handbook of Practical Telegraphy. 8vo. 16s. Fairbaim's Useful Information for Engineers. 3 vols, crown 8vo. 31s. 6i. — Miila and MlUwork. 1 vol, 8vo. 2Ss. ffanot'B Elementary Treatise on Physics, by Atkinson. Large crown 8to. 1S4< — Natural Philosophy, by Atkinson, Crown 8vo. 7s, 6(2. BiDve's Correlation of Physical Forces. 8vo. lis. Haughton's Six Lectures on Physical Geography. 8vo. 16«. Helmholtz on the Sensations of Tone. Boyal 8vo, 28i. Helmholtz's Lectures on Scientific Subje(^. 2 vols, crown 8vo. 7s, 6(2. each, Hudson and GK}Sse's The Botifera or * Wheel Animalcules.' With 30 Oolonxed Plates. 6 parte. 4to. 10s. Sd. each. Hullah's Lectures on the History of Modem Music. 8vo, Ss. 6(2. — Transition Period of Musical History. 8vo. 10<. 6(2. Jackson's Aid to Engineering Solution. Boyal 8va. 21>. Jago's Inorganic Chemistry, Theorotical and Practical. Fcp. 8vo. 2s, Eerl'B Metallurgy, adapted by Crookes and Bohrig. 3 vols. 8vo. £4, 19s, Eolbe's Short Text-Book of Inorganic Chemistry, Crown 8vo, 7s. 6(2, Lloyd's Treatise on Magnetism. 8vo. 10s. 6<2. Macaltster's Zoology and Morphology of Vertebrate Animals, 8vo. 10s. 6(2, Uactarren's Lectures on Harmony. Svo. 1 2s. London : LONGMANS, GEEEN, & CO. Oeneral Lists of Works. Miller's Elementa of Clliemistry> Theoretical and FracbicaL 3 vole. 8vo. Part I. Chemical Phyaics, 16j. Part II. Inoiganic Chemistry, 24j, Part III, Organic Chemistry, price Bis. fSd, Mitchell's Manual of Practical Assaying. 8vo. Zls. 6(2. Northcott's lathes and Tnming. 8to. 18j. Owen's Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. 3 Tola. 8to. 73b Sd. Piesse's Art of Perfumery. Square crown 8vo. 21s. Reynolds's Bxperimental Chemisiay. Fcp. 8vo. Part I. Is, Sd. Part II, 2i. ed. Part lU-'Ss. 6d. Schellen's^pectanim Analysis. 8Tb. 31a,. 6d. Sennett'B Treatise on the Marine Steam Engine.' 8to. 21j. Smith's Air' and Bain. 8to. 2is. Stoney's Tbe Theory of the Stresses on Girders, &c. Boyal 8to. 36*. Swinton's Electric lighting ; Its Principles and Practice. Crown 8to. 5*. Tilde* B Practicsl Chemistry. Fop. 8to. Is. 6d. Tyndall's Faraday as a DiscoTerer. Crown 8to. Ss. 6d. — Floating Matter of the Air. Crown 8to. 7s. Gd. — Fragments of Science. 2 Tols. post 8to. 168, — Heat a Mode of Motion. Cro'wn 8to. 12s. — Lectures on Light deliTered in America, Crown 8to. 5s. — Lessons on Electricity. Crown 8to. 2s. Sd. — Notes on Electrical Phenomena. Crown 8to. 1*. sewed. Is. 6d. cloth. — Notes of Lectures on Light. Crown 8to. Is. sewed. Is. 6d. cloth. — Sound, witli Frontispiece and 203 'Woodcuts. Crown 8to. 10s. Gd, "Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry. 9 toIs. medium 8to. £16. 2s. 6d, 'Wilson's Manual of Health-Science, Crown 8to, 2s. Gd. THEOLOGICAL AND RELIGIOUS WORKS. Arnold's (Rct. Dr. Thomas) Sermons. 6 Tols. crown 8to. 6s. each, BoultLee's Commentary on the 39 Articles. Crown 8to. 6s. Browne's (Bishop) Exposition of the 39 Articles. 8to. 16s. Biillinger's Critical Lexicon and Concordance to the English and Greek New Testament. Koyal 8to. 16s. Colenso on the Pentateuch and Book of Joshua. Crown 8to. 6s, Oouder's Handbook of the Bible. Post 8to. 7s. 6d. Gonybeare & Howson's Life and Letters of St. Paul : — Library Edition, with Maps, Plates, and Woodcuts. 2 Tols. square crown 8to. Zls. Student's Edition, rcTlsed and condensed, with 46 Illustrations and Maps. 1 Tol. crown 8to. 7s. 6d. Cox's (Homersham) The First Century of Christianity. 8to. 12s. DaTldson's Introduction to the Study of the New Testament. 2 Tols. 8to. 30s. Edersheim's Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. 2 toIs. 8to. 24s. — Prophecy and History in relation to the Messiah. 8to. 12s. EUlcott's (Bishop) Commentary on St. Paul's Epistles. 8to. Galatians, 8s. Sd. Ej^esians, 8s. 6d. Pastoral Epistles, IDs. Gd. Philippians, Cdossians and Philemon, 10s. Gd. Thessalonlans, 7s. Gd. — Lectures on the Life of our Lord. 8to. 12s. Ewald's Antiquities of Israel, translated by Solly. 8to. 12s. Gd. — History of Israel, translated by Carpenter & Smith. 'Vols. 1-7, 8to. £6, London: LONGMANS, GKEEN, & CO. General Lists of Works. Eobairt's Medical Langnage o{ St. Luke. 8to. 16t. Hopkins's Christ the Consoler. I'cp. 8to. 2s. id. Jokes's New Man and the Eternal Life. Crown 8to. 6s, — Second Death and the Bestitution of all Things. Crown 8vo. 3<. Sd. — Types of Qenesis. Crown 8vo. 7t. 6d. — The Mystery of the Kingdom. Crown 8to. 2a. dd. Lenormant's New Translation of the Book of Genesis. Translated into English. sto. 10s. ea. ■ Lyra Germanioa : Hymns translated by Miss Winkworth. Fop. 8to. Ss. MacdonEild's (G.) Unspoken Sermons. Two Series, Crown 8vo. 3s.- 6d. each, — The Miracles of our 'Lord. Crown 8vo. 3s. Bd. Manning's Temporal Mission of the Holy Ghost. GroWn Svo. S^. 6di Martineau's Endeavours after the Christian Life. Crown Svo. 7s. M. — Hymns of Praise and Prayer. Crown Svo. 4s. 6ii. 3Smo.' ls..6d, — Sermons, Hours of Thought on Sacred Things, 2 vols, 7s. 64. each. Monsell's Spiritual Songs for Sundays and Holidays. Fcp. Svo. 5s. ISmo. 2s. MtUler'B (Max) Origin and Growth of Religion. Grown Svo. 7}. 6d. — — Science of Beliglon. Crown Svo. 7s. Bd. Newman's Apologia pro Yitft Su&. Crown Svo. 6s. — The Idea of a TTnlTerslty Defined and Illustrated. Crown Svo. 7s. — Historical Sketches. 3 vols, crown Svo. 6s, each, — Discussions and Arguments on Various Subjects, Crown Svo. 6s, — An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine. Crown Svo. 6s. — Certain DifQculties Felt by Anglicans In Catholic Teaching Con- sidered. Vol. 1, crown Svo. 7s. Bd, Vol. 2, crown Svo. 6s. Bd. — The Via Media of the Anglican Church, Illustrated in Lectures, &c, 2 vols, crown Svo. 6s. each ' — Essays, Critical and Historical. 2 vols, crown Svo. 12s. — Essays on Biblical and on Ecclesiastical Miracles. Crown Svo. 6s. — An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent. 7s. Bd. Overton's Life in the English Church (1860-1714). Svo. 14s. Bogers's Eclipse of Faith. Fop. Svo. 6s. — Defence of the Eclipse of Faith. Fcp. Svo. 3s. Bd. Sewell's (Miss) Night Lessons from Scripture, 32mo, 3s. 6d. — — Passing Thoughts on Beligion. Fop. Svo. Ss. Bd. — — Preparation for the Holy Communion. 32mo. 3s. Smith's Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul. Crown Svo, 7s. Bd. , Supernatural Beligion. Complete Edition. 3 vols. Svo. 36s. Taylor's (Jeremy) Entire Works, With Life by Bishop Heber. Edited by the Eer, 0. P. Eden. 10 vols, Svo. £5, 6s, Tnlloch's Movements of Beligious Thought in Britain during the Nineteenth Century, Crown Svo. IDs. Bd, TRAVELS, ADVENTURES, &c, Aldridge's Banch Notes in Ejinsas, Colorada, &c. Crown Svo, 6s. Alpine Club (The) Map of Switzerland. In Four Sheets, 42s, Baker's Eight Tears in Ceylon, Crown Svo, 6s, Bifie and Hound in Ceylon. Crown Svo. 6s, Ball's Alpine Guide, 3 vols, post Svo, with Maps and Illustrations : — I, Western Alps, 6s, Bd. n. Central Alps, 7s, 6d. HI, Eastern Alps, 10s. Bd. Ball on Alpine Travelling, and on the Geology of the Alps, Is, London: LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO, 10 Oeneral Lists of Works. Bent's The 07Clades, or Lite among the Insular Greeks. Crown 8to. 12s. 6d. Brassey'a Sunshine and Storm in the East. Orovn 8to. 7i. M. Voyage in the Yacht ' Sunbeam.' CroTrn Sto. Is. 6d. Sohool Edition, fop. 8to. is. Popular Edition, Ito. 6(2. In the Trades, the Tropics, and the ■ Roaring Forties.' l^dition de Luxe, Bto. £3. ISi. 6(2. Library Edition, Svo.Zli. Crawford's Across the Pampas and the Andes. Crown Svo. %>. 6(2. Dent's Above the Snow Line. Crown Sto. 7s. 6(2. Fronde's Oceana ; or, England and her Colonies. Crown Svo. 2s. boards ; 29. 6(2. cloth. , Hassan's San Bemo Climatically considered. Crown Svo. Ss. Hewitt's Tisits to Bemarkable Places. Crown Svo. Is. id. Maritime Alps (The) and their Seaboard. By the Author of ' T6ra.' Svo. 21». Three in Norway. By Two of Them. Crown Svo. Illustrations, 6j. WORKS OF FICTION. Beaconsfleld's (The Earl of) Kovela and Tales. Hughenden Edition, with 2 Portraits on Steel and 11 Vignettes on "Wood. 11 vols, crown Svo. £2, is. Cheap Edition, 11 vols, crown Svo. Is. each, boards ; Is. 6d, each, cloth. Contarini Fleming. Alroy, Izlon, &c. The Young Duke, &c. Vivian &rey. Endymion. Lothair. SybU. Goningiby. Tancxed. Venetia. Henrietta Temple. Black Poodle (The) and other Tales. BytheAuthorof Vice Vers*.' Cr. 8vo.6>, Braboume's (Lord) Friends and Foes from Fairyland. Crown Svo. 6«. Harte (Bret) On the Frontier. Three Stories. 16mo. Is. — — By Shore and Sedge. Three Stories. 16mo. Is. In the Olden Time. By the Author of * Mademoiselle Mori.* Crown Svo. 6s. Melville's (Whyte) Novels. S vols. fcp. Svo. Is. each, boards ; Is. 6(2. each, cloth. Dlgby Grand. General Bounce. Kate Coventry. The Gladiators. Good for Nothing. Holmby House. The Interpreter. The Queen's Marios. The Modem Novelist's Library. Crown Svo. price 2s. each, boards, or 2s. 6(2. each, clcyth. By Bret Harte. In the Carguinez Woods. By Mrs. Oliphant. In Trust, the Story of a Lady and her Lover. By James Payn. Thicker than Water. By Various Writers. ■ The Atelier du Lys. Atherstone Priory. The Burgomaster's Family. Elsa and her Vulture. Mademoiselle Mori. The Six Sisters of the Valleys. Unawares. Oliphant's (Mrs.) Madam. Crown Svo. 3s. 6(2. Payn's (James) The Luck of the Darrells. Crown Svo. 3s, 6(7. Header's Fairy Prince FoUow-my-Lead. Crown Svo. 5s. Sewell's (Miss) Stories and Tales. Crown Svo. Is. each, boards ; Is. 6(2. cloth ; 2s. 6(2. cloth extra, gilt edges. Amy Herbert. Cleve Hall. The Earl's Daughter. Bxperlence of l2fe. Gertrude. Ivors. A Glimpse of the World. Katharine Ashton. Laneton Parsonage. Margaret Peroival. Ursula. London : LONGMAITS, GKEEN, & CO. General Lists of Works. 11 Stevenson's (B. L.) The Dynamiter. Fcp. Sro. Is. sewed ; la. Sd. cloth, — — Strange Case of Ht. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Fop. 8to. la, sewed ; If. Gd. cloth. Sturgis' My Friend and I. Grown 8to. 6a. Trollope's (Anthony) Kovels.. Fcp. 8to. Is. each, boards; la. 6i. cloth. The Warden. | Barohester Towers. POETRY AND THE DRAMA. Armstrong's (Ed. J.) Poetical Works. Fcp. 8vo. 5a. — (G. F.) Poetical Works :- Poems, Lyrical and Dramatic. Fcp. 8vo. 6*. ITgone : a Tragedy. Fcp. 8to. 6s. A Garland from G-reece. Fcp. 8vo.9s. King Saul. Fcp. 8to. 5s. King David. Fcp. 8vo. Gs. King Solomon. Fcp. 8v:0. Qa. Stories of Wioklow. Fcp. 8vo. 9j. Bailey's Festus, a Poem. Crown 8vo. 12>. 6d. Bowen's Harrow Songs and other Yerses. Fcp. 8vo. 2s. 6*. ; or printed on hand-made paper. 5s. Bowdler's Family Shakespeare. Medium Svo. 14s. 6 vols. fcp. 8to. 21s, Dante's Divine Comedy, translated by James Innes Minchin. Grown Svo. 16s, Gtoethe's Faust, translated by Birds, Large crown Svo, 12s. 6. Scl. — Selections from Latin Prose. Crown 8vo. 2s, 6d. Moody's $ton Latin Grammar. 12mo. 2>. 6. Si. Key, it, 6d. Parry's Origines Bomame, from LiT7, with English Notes, Grown Bto. it. . The PubUo School Latin Primer. 12mo. 2t. Sd. — — — — Grrammar, by Bat. Dr. Kennedy. Post 8to, 7t. 6d, Prendejrgast's Uwtery Series, Ilannalol Latin. 12mo. 2>. id. Bapier's Introduction to Composition of Latin Verse. 12mo. 3>. 6d. Key, 2t. Sd, Sbeppard and Tomer's Aids to Classical Study. 12mo. St. Key, St. Valpy's Latin BelectoSj improved by White. 12mo. 25. Sd. Key, 3£. Sd. • Virgil's ^neid, translated into English Verse by Conington. Crown 8to. 9<. — Works, edited by Kennedy. Crown Bvo. lOt. Sd. — — translated into English Prose by Conington. Crown 8to. 9t. Waliord's ProgressiTe Exercises in Latin Elegiac Verse. 12mo. 25. Sd. Key, 55. White and Biddle's Large Latin-English Dictionary. 1 vol. 4to. 2l5. White's Concise Latin-Eng. Dictionary for Univer^ty Students. Boyal 8vo. 12s. Junior Students' Eng.-Lat. & Lat.-Eng. Dictionary. Square 12mo. 6s. „„„„»„,„ f The Latin-English Dictionary, price 3j. separately -j .j.^^ English-Latin Dictionary, price 35. Yonge's Latin Qradns. Post 8vo. 9s. ; or with Appendix, 125. WHITE'S GRAMMAR-SCHOOL GREEK TEXTS. ^op (Pables) & Palsephatus (Myths). 32mo. Is. Homer, Iliad, Book L Is. — Odyssey, Book I. Is. Ludan, Select Dialogues. Is. Xenophon, Anabasis, Books L III. IV. V. & VL Is. Sd. each ; Book II. Is. ; Book VH. 2s. Xenophon, Book I. without Vocabu- lary. 3d. St. Matthew's and St. Luke's Gtospels. 2s. Sd. each. St. Mark's and St. John's Gospels. Is, Sd, each. The Acts of the Apostles. 25. Sd. St. Paul's Epistle to the Bomans. l5.6d. The Four Gospels in Greek, with Greek-English Lexicon. Edited by John T. White, D.D. Oxon. Sqnare 32ma. price Ss. WHITE'S GRAMMAR-SCHOOL LATIN TEXTS. Caesar. Gallic War, Books I. & II. V. & VI. Is. each. Book I. without Vocabulary, Sd. Caaar, Gallic War, Books HI, & IV. 9d. each. CBBsar, Gallic War, Book VII. Is. 6*, Cicero, Cato Major (Old Age). Is. Sd. Cicero, Ltelius (Friendship). Is. 6(2. Entropins, Boman History, Books I. & n. Is. Books in. & IV. Is. Horace,Odes,Books I. II. jc IV. Is. each. Horace, Odes, Book III. Is. Sd. Horace, Epodes and Carmen Seculare. Is. Nepos, Miltiades, Simon, Pansoniai, Axistides. 9d. Ovid. Selections from Epistles and Fasti. It, Ovid, Select Myths from Metamor- - phosee, 9(2. FhsedruB, Select Easy Fables, »d. ;£>h[edma. Fables, Books I, U H, Is. Sallast, Bellum Catilinaiium. Is. Sd, Virgil, Georgics, Book IV. Is. Virgil, ^neid. Books I. to VI. Is. each. Book I. without Vocabulary, Sd, Virgil, .Sneid, Books Til, VIH, X. XLZn. It. 6(i. each. London: LONGMAITS, GREEN, * CO. 16 A Selection of Educational Works. THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. Albit^s's How to Speak French., Pep. 8vo. 55. 6d. — Instantaneous French Exercises. Fcp. 2s. Key, 2*. Gassal's French Genders. Grown 8vo. 3^. Gd. Oassal & Karcher's G-raduated French Translation Book. Fart I. 3^. 6(2. Fart II. 5«. Key to Fart I. by Frofessor Gassal, price 5s, Gontanseau's Fractical French and English Dictionary. Foet 8vo. 3*. 6d, — Pocket French and English Dictionary. Square 18mo. 1*. 6d, — . Premieres Lectures. 12mo. 2^. Gd. — Fii'st Step in French. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Key, 3s. — French Accidence, 12mo. 2s. 6d. — — Grammar. 12mo. 4«, Key, 8*. Gontanseau's Middle-Class French Course. Fcp. 8vo, :- French Translation-Book, 8d. Easy French Delectus, 8d. First French Reader, 8d. Second French Eeader, Bd. French and English Dialogues, 8d, Accidence, 8d. syntax, 8d. French Conversation-Book, 8d. First French Exercise-Book, 8d, Second French Exercise-Book, Sd. Gontanseau's G-uide to French Translation, I2mo. 35. Gd. Key, 3^. 6c;, — Prosateura et Pontes Fran9ais. 12mo. 5s. — Fr^is de la Litt^rature Franpaise. 12mo. 3^. 6(2. — Abr6g6 de THistoire de France. 12mo. 2*. Gd. F^val's Ghouans et Bleus, with Notes by C. Sankey, M.A. Fcp. 8vo. 2s. Gd. Jerram's Sentences for Translation into French. Or. 8vo. Is. Key, 2s, Bd. Frendergast's Mastery Series, French. 12mo. 2,$. Qd. Sonvestre's Philosophe sous les Toits, by StiSvenard. Square 18mo. 1^. 6d. Stepping-Stone to French Pronunciation. 18mo. Is. Sti6venard's Lectures Franpaises from Modern Authors. 12mo. 4^. Gd . — Rules and Exercises on the French Language. 12mo. Ss. 6d. Tarver's Eton French Grammar. 12mo. 6^. Gd. THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. Blackley's Practical German and English Dictionary. Post 8to. 3*. 6i. Bnchheim's German Poetry, for Repetition. 18mo. If. Gd, CoUis's Card of German Irregular Verbs. 8to, 2s. Fischer- Fischart's Elementary German Grammar. Fcp. 8to. 2*. 6d. Just's German Grammar. 12mo. Is. Gd, — German Reading Book. 12mo. 8j. Gd, Longman's Pocket German and English Dictionary. Square 18mo. 2*. Gd. Kaftel's Elementary German Course for Public Schools. Fcp. Svo. German Accidence. 9d. German Syntax, dd. First German Exercise-Book. 9d. Second German Exercise-Book. 9d. Prendergast's Mastery Series, German. 12mo. 2s. Gd. Quick's Essentials of German. Crown Svo. 3*. Gd. Selss's School Edition of Goethe's Faust. Grown 870. 5s. — Outline of German Literature. Crown 8to. 4j. Gd. WirtJi's German Ghit-Chat. Crown 8to. 2s. Gd. German Prose Composition Book. First German Reader. 9d. Second German Reader. 9d. London: LONGMANS, OREBN, & CO. ^ottiswoode A Co. Printers^ Nets-street Square, London,