fyxmll Vtafrewttg plrwg BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henrn W. Sage 1S91 tU&UU V ^. K .. V; , & Extent of deposits — Practical illustration of formation of deposit — Processes presumably still in operation . . . . \i Objections to theory of animal origin — Trinidad deposits probably vegetable . . lo Evident need of qualification of Hbfer's view — Value of Engler's results ........•• 19 Conclusions as to origin — Part played by clay in aggregation — Whether formed where now found — Dr. Orton's re- marks ......... 20-21 CHAPTER II SOURCES OF SUPPLY. Geographical and geological occurrence — No connection with limits of land and sea — Association with mountain ranges 22 No necessary relation as regards origin — Geological and geo- graphical distribution of bitumens . . . . .23 Principal deposits in old and young rocks . . . .24 Requisite conformation of strata — Anticlines or anticlinals — "Terrace" structure 25 Pt rous " reservoir " rock and impervious " cover-rock " needtd — Principal porous rocks — Dolomitic limestone . . 20 Usual impervious cover — Capacity of porous rock . . .27 Petroliferous dolomite of Chicago — Production of Pennsylvania- New York oil-field — Capacity of Baku oil-sand — Pressure in oil- and gas-wells — Russian oil fountains . . .28 Cause of the pressure — Lesley's criticisms — Hydrostatic theory 29 Principal sources of supplies — World's production . . .30 Tendency to creation of numerous centres of production — Prospective sources — Developments in the United States 31-32 United States — Production of the various States — Russia — The oil-fields of Baku 33 The Grozni field— The Maikop field— Tcheleken— Gurieff (Ural - Caspian) field ......... 34 The Mexican oil-fields — Java, Sumatra, and Borneo — The Rou- manian petroleum industry ...... 35 CONTENTS. xi PACK Galicia — The oil-fields of Burma — The oil-fields of Japan - 36 The oil-fields of Peru— The oil-fields of Germany — The Canadian petroleum industry — Alberta — New Brunswick — The oil- fields of Italy 37 The Persian oil-fields — Egypt — Trinidad 38 CHAPTER III. PRODUCTION, REFINING, ETC. Prodcctiojj. The United States — The petroleum well — Construction of the derrick — "Walking-beam, &c. ...... 39 Steam-engine and boiler — Bull-wheel — Sand-reel — Control by driller .......... 40 Drilling cable — Drilling tools — J are — Auger or drill — Sinker- bar — Reamers, ic. . . . . . . .41 Bailer — Temper-screw — Clamps — !Sai.d-pump — Fishing tools . 42 Drilling a well — Conductor — Drive-pipe — Spudding — Use of drilling-tools ..... ... 43 Rate of movement — " Dressing" the bit — Sand-pumping — Work continuous— Fishing — Casing the well . . .44 Exclusion of water — Sizes and lengths of casing — : ' Torpedoing " the well — Rotary system of drilling . . . . .45 Pumping from well — Receiving tank — Transportation and storage company . . .... 40 Pipe-line certificate — Early method of transport — Beginning of railway transport — Early tank-waggons — Modern tank-car .... ..... 47 tank barges — First pipe-line — First trunk-line — Concentration of refining on Atlantic and Lake Erie — Pipe for trunk- lines — Tanks ......... 48 Pumping engines — " Go-devil " for clearing pipe-lines — Russia — Iron rods in lieu of cable ...... 49 Wells of greater diameter — Casing — Oil raised by bailer — Other countries 50 Refixisg. Size of stills — Process of fractional distillation (intermittent) . 50 Condenser — Continuous distillation — Division of distillation — Tail-house. ... 51 xii CONTENTS. PAGE Chemical treatment — Paraffin separation — Process merely out- lined — Scottish shale-oil industry 52 Marine Transport. Tank-iteamers .......... 52 Principles of construction — Isolating cofferdams — Division of oil-tanks .... 53 Storage and Distribution. Pjrts of discharge in the United Kingdom — London wharves . 53 Smaller storage installations — Storage arrangements — Installa- tions at Liverpool and Manchester — Petroleum spirit landed at Thames Haven for London . .54 Gas-oil — Bulk distribution of kerosene . . . . .55 CHAPTER IV. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM, SHALE-OIL, AND COAL-TAR. Nature of crude petroleum — Colour — Odour — Specific gravity — Inflammability — Chemical composition . . . .50 Division into commercial products — " Naphtha " — "^Gasoline" — "Cymogene" — "Rhigolene" — LightgasoliDe — "-680spirit," " petrol," motor-oar spirit ....... 57 "Benzoline" — "Petroleum ether" — Pentane . . . .58 "Benzine" — "Refined oil": " Ordinary " and "water-white" or high-test, American — Mineral colza — Gas-oil, lubricating oils, vaseline, and paraffin from residuum — Russian petro- leum products — "Benzine" — Kerosene . . . .59 "Ostatki" — Solar oil — Solar oil distillate (gas oil), and lubri- cating oils — Ostatki the principal product — Scottish shale- oil products — Crude shale-oil ...... 60 "Gasoline" and "naphtha," burning oils, gas-oil, lubricating oils, and paraffin — Brown-coal and peat products — Coal-tar and coal-tar products — Distillation — Benzol . . .61 Solvent naphtha — Burning naphtha, — Carbolic acid — Naphtha- lene — Creosote oil — Anthracene — Pitch — Proportion of products — Tar from coke-ovens, AGE Petroleum (Hawkers) Act, 1831 238-240 APPENDIX V. Model Code of Harbour By-laws for Petroleum and Carbide of Calcium .... ... 241-245 APPENDIX VI. Memorandum issued by London County Council, and forms of licence for petroleum and carbide of calcium . . 24G-272 APPENDIX VII. Regulations as to construction and verification of apparatus for testing petroleum ...... 273-27o APPENDIX VIII. Table for correction of observed flashing-points for variations in atmospheric pressure 276 APPENDIX IX. Locomotives on Highways Act, 1896 — Regulations dated July 31, 1907, made by the Secretary of State under Section 5, as to the keeping and use of petroleum for the purposes of light locomotives 277-282 APPENDIX X. Specifications of tank depots and screen walls (proposed to be included in an Act of Parliament) .... 283-286 APPENDIX XI. Suggestions for the care and use of petroleum lamps . 287-288 APPENDIX XII. Carbide of calcium — Compressed acetylene in admixture with oil-gas — Orders in Council 289-293 CONTENTS. xix APPENDIX XIII. PAGK Explosives Act, 1875 — Orders in Council relating to acetylene gas 294-299 APPENDIX XIV. London County Council — Report as to licensed premises in the County of London upon which petroleum, under the Acts, is used in trade or manufacture .... 300-304 APPENDIX XV, Scale of maximum amounts of petroleum allowed to be kept according to distance from protected works . . . 305 APPENDIX XVI. Thames Conservancy— By-laws for the regulation of the convey- ance of carbide of calcium on the River Thames — By-laws under the Petroleum Acts, 1871 and 1879 — Specification for tank barges — By-laws for the Regulation of Petrol Motor Launches on the River Thames . . . 306-320 APPENDIX XVII. Report of the Committee on Acetylene Generators 321-32: APPENDIX XVIII. London County Council (General Powers) Act, 1912. Part 2. Abstract of the requirements of the Act as to petroleum oil depots 326-328 APPENDIX XIX. Admiralty Specification for Oil Fuel (1910) and the Revised Specification (1912) 329-331 Ixuex 333 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. " Petroleum " : what it is, as defined by law and by com- mercial usage respectively — Early historic references — The origin of petroleum. Legal Definition. — By the Petroleum Act, 1871 (34 and 35 Vict., ch. 105), which is still in force, except as to the standard or limit of flash-point and the mode of testing, petroleum is denned in the following words : " For the purposes of this Act the term ' petroleum' includes any rock oil, Rangoon oil, Burmah oil, oil made from petroleum, coal, schist, shale, peat or other bituminous substance, and any products of petroleum, or any of the above-mentioned oils ; and the term 'petroleum to which this Act applies' means such of the petroleum so defined as, when tested in manner set forth in Schedule One to this Act, gives off an inflammable vapour at a temperature of less than one hundred degrees of Fahrenheit's thermo- meter." It will thus be seen that the legal definition of Legal petroleum is a wide one, embracing liquid products, w ° d j! one! * such as coal-tar, and the solid product, paraffin, which are not " petroleum " in the commercial acceptation of that term ; and it will further be observed that for legal purposes, in respect to storage, an arbitrary limit, based upon the temperature at which in- flammable vapour is given off, is fixed. A 2 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Rangoon oil The reference in the definition clause to Rangoon and Burmah Q ^ an( j j} urman oil, which first appeared in the Act of 1868, doubtless had its origin in the circumstance that shortly before this Act was passed the produce of the Burma oil-fields was, in small quantities, first brought to this country, petroleum having previously been imported only from the United States. The name of Rangoon oil was taken from the port of shipment, " Rangoon oil " and " Burmah oil " being two names for the same substance. Petroleum now comes to this country from many other parts of the world, and there is less reason for retaining the specific mention of Rangoon oil or Burmah oil, which can scarcely be regarded as an article of commerce in the ' United Kingdom, than for specifying Russian oil, which is largely imported, or the oils of Roumania and Borneo. Definition Presumably only what may be described as primary i P imi ? tedto ly P loducts of "petroleum" are intended to be included primary in the definition, otherwise nitrobenzol and aniline products. made therefrom, and even aniline dyes, would legally be petroleum. It has, however, been successfully con- Mixtures tended in the Courts of Law by local authorities empowered to take action under the Petroleum Acts, that mixtures containing petroleum (as defined by law), such as india-rubber solution, paints, and varnishes, come within the legal definition ; therefore, if any such mixture gives off inflammable vapour below the legal limit, it can only be kept in pursuance of the provisions of the law. This may be described as a common-sense interpretation, for experience has shown that the mixtures in question may be as liable to ignition or to create, by volatilisation, an inflammable or explosive atmosphere, as certain descriptions of petroleum unmixed with other substances. In a succeeding chapter details will be given of the INTRODUCTORY. 3 principal methods employed in ascertaining, for legal Flash-point purposes, the temperature at which a sample of or . flashin s- petroleum gives off inflammable vapour. This tem- perature, ascertained in accordance with the prescribed conditions, is commonly known as the flash-point or flashing-point of the oil. Commercial Definition. — In commerce the term " petroleum " was formerly employed to designate the oil burned in lamps, and as the flash-point of this oil is not below the limit fixed by law it followed that com- mercial "petroleum" was not "petroleum" to which the Acts apply. This, as will readily be appreciated, caused some confusion, and in order to avoid the incon- venience resulting therefrom the practice was adopted of applying the term "petroleum oil" to the product in question, although this obviously involves tautology. According to present commercial usage, the term " petroleum " is employed in what may be termed a " Petro- generic rather than a specific sense, an additional word J^ ri ' c giving the necessary definition. Thus we have : crude rather than petroleum which is the oil as it comes from the wells ; commerce petroleum oil, the product burned in lamps ; and petro- leum spirit, the more volatile products, collectively. The lamp oil is also known as petroleum distillate and refined petroleum, respectively, before and after being subjected to chemical treatment for its purification. Origin of the Term "Petroleum." — Petroleum is found in many parts of the world oozing or flowing from outcrops of porous rock, and from this mode of occurrence it derived its name, which means, literally, rock-oil — Latin, petra (rock), oleum (oil). Equivalents of this name are found in most other languages ; in German the corresponding terms erdbl (earth-oil), steinbl (stone-oil), and bergbl being thus employed. Other Names for Petroleum. — Petroleum was, however, known to the Persians, Greeks and Romans HANDBOOK ON TETROLEUM. Persian " naphtha." Asphaltum and bitumen. Maltha. Biblical references. under the name of naphtha, a name which is still em- ployed in Russia to designate crude petroleum, though elsewhere it is applied to certain descriptions of distilled petroleum spirit, and perhaps more properly should be confined to the volatile products obtained from coal-tar and wood-tar. Probably the adoption of the term in Persia arose from the circumstance that before the creation of the present petroleum industry a volatile and remarkably pure description of crude petroleum of light colour was found in that country, and was in fact made use of many years ago in protecting the readily oxidisable metals potassium and sodium from the action of the atmosphere. The less fluid kinds of petroleum were termed acnpaXrog by the Greeks (hence asphaltum), and the Romans applied the general term of bitumen to the various descriptions of natural hydrocarbons, the word petroleum not being used in classic Latin. By ancient writers the names pissasphaltum (Greek, vla-cra = pitch, aa-rjtaXroe = asphalt), and pisselceum (nWa = pitch, iXatov = oil), were occa- sionally employed. To distinguish bitumen inter- mediate in consistency between petroleum and asphalt the term maltha (Latin, maltha = cement for cisterns, roofs, &c.) is employed, the equivalent for this in Mexican Spanish being brea. Other names which may be mentioned as having been applied to petroleum are : earth balsam, mineral tar, oleum Medea, Seneca oil, Sicilian oil, and St. Quirinus's oil. In the Old Testament there are numerous references to petroleum, among which the following may be quoted : " The Vale of Siddim was full of slime pits " (Gen. xiv. 10) ; the word which is translated slime in our version appearing as bitumen in the Vulgate. In Genesis ix. 3, in the description of the Tower of Babel, we are told that " slime had they for mortar," whilst in Job xxxix. 6, we find, " and the rock poured me out INTRODUCTORY. 5 rivers of oil." In the Scriptures the word salt is used indiscriminately for common salt, nitre, and bitumen, and Lord Playfair suggested that the New Testament reference to salt losing its savour was meant to apply to petroleum, which on exposure parts with its volatile constituents and thus yields asphalt, good only to be " trodden under foot of men." Early Historic References. — Herodotus (4 5 Ob.c.) classical describes the collection of petroleum, which, he says, references - was called rhadinance by the Persians, from a well at Arderrica, and from the famous pitch spring in the island of Zante ; he also refers to the use, as mortar, in building the walls of Babylon, of the bitumen brought down by the Is, a tributary of the Euphrates. Diodorus, Josephus and Vitruvius also mention this use of bitumen, and Dioscorides describes a piss- asphaltum obtained at Apollonia near Epidamnos (Albania). Both this writer and Pliny, among others, mention the use of Sicilian oil from Agrigentum for Sicilian oil. illuminating purposes. Plutarch gives an account of the discovery of petroleum, " having the gloss and fatness of natural oil," by an attendant of Alexander, while digging on the banks of the Oxus. The petroleum found in the State of New York was Seneca oil. undoubtedly known to the Seneca Indians in very early days, and the burning of the oil which collected on the streams formed part of their religious cere- monies. Petroleum was also, long before the founda- tion of the present industry, collected in the United States and sold under the name of Seneca oil (from Lake Seneca, where it was first obtained) as a remedy for rheumatism, burns, coughs, sprains, &c. Referring to the petroleum of the Baku district, Marco Marco Polo Polo describes in the thirteenth century "a fountain on Baku " from which oil springs in great abundance, inasmuch as a hundred ship-loads might be taken from it at one HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Earth-oil creek in Burma. Barbados tar. Galician oil. St. Quiri- nus's oil. Bitumen at Pitchford, Shropshire. time. This oil," he adds, "is not good to use with food, but is good to burn, and is also used to anoint camels that have the mange." The oil springs of Persia, and the renowned petroleum wells of Yenangyaung (earth-oil creek) in Burma, have often been described by travellers, and it was from the asphalt of Trinidad that Gesner first prepared kerosene. The crude petroleum of Barbados, imported under the name of Barbados tar, formerly occupied a place of some importance in the Materia Medica of this and other countries. It was thus referred to in 1750 by Griffith Hughes in his "Natural History of the Island of Barbados" : " The most remarkable fossil of bituminous kind is green tar. It is obtained by digging holes or a trench, and it rises on the water. It issues from hills, and is gathered in the months of January, February and March, and serves to burn in lamps." Historical records show that from very early times crude petroleum has been collected in Austria-Hungary for use as cart-grease, and the Alstetterring, in Prague, is said to have been lighted by oil distilled from petroleum obtained in Galicia as far back as 1810, or between that date and 1818. In 1436, petroleum from the Tegern See in Bavaria was sold under the name of St. Quirinus's oil as a medicinal agent, and in Italy a concession was granted in the year 1400 for the collection of petroleum from wells at Miano. The petroleum of Modena, which at one time was largely used for lighting and medicinal purposes, as well as in the preparation of varnishes and paints, was discovered by Ariosto, a physician of Ferraia, in 1640. The following interesting account of the occurrence of bitumen at Pitchford in Shropshire is taken from Camden's ' ' Britannia " : INTRODUCTORY. 7 "A little village call'd Pitchford, which formerly gave name to the ancient family of the Pitchfords, is now the possession of the Otelies. Our ancestors gave it the name of Pitchford from a spring of pitchy water ; for in those days, they knew no distinction between pitch and bitumen. And here is a well in a poor man's yard, upon which there floats a sort of liquid bitumen, although it be every day scummed off; after the same manner as it doth on the lake Asphaltites in Judcea, and on a standing pool about Samosata, and on a spring by Agrigentum in Sicily ; but the inhabitants make no other use of it than as pitch. Whether it be a preservative against the Falling-sickness, or be good for drawing and healing of wounds (as that in Judcea is), I know no one yet that has made the experiment. Here, and in the adjacent places, there lies over most of the Coal-pits or Mines, a Stratum or layer of blackish rock, of which, by grinding and boiling, they make pitch and tar, and from which also a kind of Oil is distill'd." There are many other places in Great Britain where Oil spring in petroleum occurs in small quantities, and it is worthy Derb y shire - of note that James Young, the founder of the Scottish shale oil industry, commercially utilised a spring of petroleum which had been met with in the workings of the Biddings Colliery at Alfreton, in Derbyshire, before he took out his celebrated patent for obtaining " paraffine oil or an oil containing paraffine, and paraffine from bituminous coals." The Origin of Petroleum. — It is not surprising that a natural product of so distinctive and, one may add, of so self-assertive a character should have attracted the attention of men of science, and we find in some of the earlier treatises amusing statements in reference to the nature and origin of petroleum. Bacon Early in his Sylva Sylvarum tells us that the original con- theones - 8 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. cretion of bitumen is a mixture of a fiery and watery substance, and remarks that flame attracts the naphtha of Babylon afar off. Macquer published in 1764 a treatise on chemistry in which bitumen is defined as a mineral substance yielding petroleum on distillation, and as an oil rendered consistent and solid by being combined with an alkali, but in the same work bitumen is described as belonging as much to the vegetable as to the mineral kingdom ; the author further states that solid bitumen appears to be a vegetable oil combined with a mineral acid, and expresses the opinion that bitumens are the resinous and oily parts of trees or plants. Bergmann in his " Physical and Chemical Essays," which appeared during the years 1788-1791, expressed the view that petroleum was an example of a small proportion of water combined by means of an acid with the principle of inflammability. Amongst the earlier writers on the subject none contributed more specific and correct information than Hatchett, whose views will be found in the Transactions of the Linnean Society for 1798. It was, he said, generally admitted at that time that bituminous substances are not of mineral origin, " but have been formed from certain principles of substances belonging to the organ- ised kingdoms of nature." He further specified the elementary principles (as he called them) of bitumen as carbon, hydrogen, sometimes azote and probably some oxygen, a remarkably correct definition, by the way. and from the correspondence between this com- position and that of the vegetable and animal oils and resins he arrives at the conclusion that meta- morphic action has produced petroleum from these sources. Modem The latter half of the past century has been fertile in theories of the origin of petroleum, and many eminent men have devoted much thought to the theories. INTRODUCTORY. 9 subject. The various modern theories may be broadly classified into two groups, one consisting of those which assign to the product an inorganic origin, and the other those which account for its production from animal or vegetable matter, or both. The first exponent of the theory of inorganic origin inorganic was the distinguished chemist Berthelot, who, proceed- ^"ftheiot' ing upon the hypothesis of Daubrde that free alkali- experi- metals exist in the interior of the earth, ascertained ments - experimentally that when carbonic acid or an earthy carbonate acts upon the alkali-metals at a high temperature, acetylides are formed, and that these bodies when acted upon by water-vapour, under the conditions prevailing in the earth, yield hydrocarbons resembling those of American petroleum, the precise composition of the hydrocarbons varying with the temperature. He therefore in 1866 expressed the view that petroleum may have been produced by the infiltration of water containing carbonic acid into the interior of the earth, where it would be brought into contact with the alkali metals at an elevated tempera- ture. Many years later Maquenne prepared acetylide or carbide of barium (C 2 Ba) and obtained acetylene by its action on water, and still more recently through the discovery of Willson, one of the carbides, viz., that of calcium, has become an ordinary article of commerce, and acetylene a common illuminating agent. Of still Researches greater interest, however, in connection with the of Mo,ssan - subject we are considering, have been the results of the work of Moissan, who has found that certain of the carbides yield liquid hydrocarbons on decomposition with water. In a paper published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society in 1899, Mr. J. A. Matthews has given the following classification of the reactions of decomposition of the carbides : (1) The carbides of lithium, sodium, potassium, 10 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. calcium, barium and strontium are decomposed by water, giving mostly acetylene. (2) Silver, copper, mercury and gold (?) acetylides are acted on by hydrochloric acid, giving acetylene. (3) Aluminium and beryllium carbides react with water, yielding methane. (4) Manganese carbide with water gives methane and hydrogen. (5) The carbides of yttrium, lanthanum and thorium are decomposed by water, giving mixtures of acetylene, ethylene, methane and hydrogen. (6) Lanthanum, cerium and uranium carbides give with water, besides the volatile products, a residue of liquid and solid hydrocarbons. It will thus be seen that several of the carbides, including that of manganese, yield methane (CH 4 ), the lowest member of the paraffins present in Pennsylvania petroleum, and that some actually yield liquid and solid hydrocarbons. Byasson's In 1871, Byasson, in a memoir on the origin of theory. petroleum published in Paris, suggested that petroleum might have resulted from the action on iron or sulphide of iron at a white heat, of steam and carbonic acid gas, resulting from the infiltration of salt water to great depths in the earth, his theory, like that of Berthelot, being based upon laboratory experiments in which petroleum was obtained. In 1877 Cloez obtained petroleum-like hydrocarbons by the action of dilute mineral acid or even boiling water on a spiegeleisen (carbide of iron and manganese), Mendeieeffs and the eminent Russian chemist Mendeleeff gave the weight of his authority to the view that petroleum is of inorganic origin. The great density of the earth, and the well-known presence of iron in meteorites, in the solar system (as shown by the spectroscope), and in eruptive rocks, are regarded by Mendeleeff as INTRODUCTORY. II evidence that the interior of the earth contains large amounts of iron. Accepting the igneous theory of the formation of the earth, it is reasonable to conclude that the core of this spheroid may largely contain carbide of iron, and that as cooling of the molten mass progressed, and the outer crust became crumpled and cracked through the shrinkage of the central portion, forming valleys which were subsequently occupied by the seas when the cooling had progressed sufficiently to admit of the condensation of the dense cloud of aqueous Vapour, water would by gravitation .naturally find its way through the crevices towards the centre of the still highly-heated mass. In these circumstances it is evident that the chemical action which would be set up under the favourable conditions of high tem- perature and great pressure would probably produce hydrocarbons, the hydrogen of the water combining with the carbon of the carbide and the oxygen com- bining with the iron. The Russian geologist Sokoloff, on the other hand, SokoiofTs has expressed the opinion that hydrogen and carbon °P ,mon ' may not improbably have entered into direct combina- tion at an early stage in the earth's history, that the hydrocarbons thus formed may have been absorbed by the mass of the earth whilst the latter was still in a glowing viscid state, and that these hydrocarbons may subsequently have been transferred to the outer layers where they are now found. Other authorities, amongst whom are Coquand, Grabowski and Hitchcock, regard petroleum as not improbably a condensation-product of marsh gas. The majority of American geologists who have Organic devoted special study to the question are agreed as to ^^ can the organic origin of petroleum, and are of opinion that opinions, it is derived both from vegetable and from animal remains. Lesley has expressed the view that the oil of 12 HANDBOOK ON TETROLEUM. Pennsylvania has been formed from fossil fucoids and corals, of which remains are found in limestone beds many thousand feet thick, beneath the Venango oil- sands, and Ashburner concurs generally in this view of a dual origin. Orton considers that the oil occurring in shale and sandstone is of vegetable, and that found Animal and in limestone of animal, origin. Peckham suggests that vegetable Q -j w j t j 1 an aS phalt base is of animal origin, whilst that which contains paraffin (solid hydrocarbons) is derived from vegetable organisms. Strippelmann con- siders that petroleum and natural gas were probably produced from vegetable and animal remains in Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous formations. Orton expresses the view that the petroleum of California is derived from the animal remains with which the oil-bearing shales of the district were originally filled, and he adds that the similarity of the oils of Canada, Kentucky, Tennessee, and North-Western Ohio with the Californian oil points to a common origin. In a paper on the nitrogen content of California bitumen Peckham asserts that his discovery of basic oils in the petroleum of California " establishes beyond any question the animal origin " of such petroleum. Haferand As opposed to the dual theory of origin some oH dn bein' emment authorities on the European continent contend animal only, that petroleum is solely or mainly of animal origin. The most noted exponents of this view are Hbfer and Engler. The former did not originate the view in question, but was the first to marshal facts in support of it, whilst the latter by his cogent arguments, supported by practical experiments, has been largely instrumental in gaining adherents to the theory. Hofer's arguments in favour of an animal origin are summarised as follows : (1) Oil is found in strata containing animal, but little or no plant remains. This is the case in the Car- INTRODUCTORY. 13 pathians and in the limestone examined in Canada and the United States by Sterry Hunt. (2) The shales from which oil and paraffin were obtained in the Liassic oil shales of Swabia and of Steierdorf in Styria contained animal, but no vegetable remains. Other shales, as, for instance, the copper shales of Mansfeld, where the bitumen amounts to 22 per cent., are rich in animal remains, and practically free from vegetable remains. (3) Rocks which are rich in vegetable remains are generally not bituminous. (4) Substances resembling petroleum are produced by the decomposition of animal remains. (5) Fraas observed exudations of petroleum from a coral reef on the shores of the Red Sea, where it could only be of animal origin. In his experimental researches already alluded to Engier's Engler distilled 490 kilos, of menhaden (fish) oil at a high "^"j temperature and under considerable pressure, and thus researches, obtained a distillate resembling petroleum. The distil- lation was commenced at a temperature of 320° 0. under a pressure of ten atmospheres, and was com- pleted at 400° 0. under a pressure of four atmospheres. He thus obtained about 60 per cent, of distillate, of specific gravity "8105, about 8 "9 per cent, of gas, and about 5 per cent, of unsaponifiable fat in the residue. The distillate was brown, and possessed a greenish fluorescence and a disagreeable, acrolein-like smell. By fractionation, the distillate yielded pentane, hexane, normal and secondary heptane, and normal octane and nonane. From the chemical reactions of the distillate, the presence of olefines, naphthenes and other aromatic hydrocarbons was inferred. Finally, from the distil- late a lighting oil was separated, which was described as indistinguishable from commercial kerosene, and this statement one of the authors is in a position to confirm, of results. 14 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. having received from Professor Engler a specimen of the product. On repeating the experiments with triolein (com- mercial " oleine ") similar results were obtained ; in fact the menhaden oil used may be considered to consist of olein, stearin, and palmitin. The composition of the oil is such that after combination of all the oxygen with part of the hydrogen to form water, the residue contains carbon and hydrogen in about the same proportions as those in which they are present in petroleum. Explanation Engler considers that the glycerin or the acrolein formed during the reaction would be washed away from the petroleum, but Veith has given a more elaborate explanation of their disappearance. He suggests that by elimination of water and by con- densation, the acrolein formed from the glycerin under the action of heat and pressure becomes itself con- verted into benzene ; he further expresses the opinion that the carbon dioxide produced concurrently with the liquid hydrocarbons from the fatty acids may have become reduced to carbon monoxide and ultimately into hydrocarbons, by the influence of dissociated hydrocarbons. Failure to It should be added that all attempts by Engler to "etroieum obtain similar products from fish and other animal from fish, remains were totally unsuccessful. Engler therefore concludes that some change in the animal remains must have taken place in the earth, whereby all nitrogenous and other matters, save fats, were removed, the petroleum being formed from the fat alone, by the combined action of pressure and heat, or by pressure only. ZaioziecWs Zaloziecki, who is an adherent to the theory of animal origin, believes that the first products of the decomposition of animal bodies would be nitrogenous views. INTRODUCTORY. 15 matter and adipocere, which comprises the fatty- matter of the remains, and that the adipocere would become covered with sediment and gradually con- verted into fatty acids, which finally decompose into hydrocarbons. He is of opinion that adipocere, ozokerite, and liquid petroleum are produced in the order named. Ochsenius considers that the halogens in the water Ochsenius's found with petroleum have had much to do with views - the production of the petroleum, being of opinion that the fatty matters of decomposing animal bodies are converted into petroleum under the action of certain salts, notably alkaline bromides and aluminium chloride. Zaloziecki, however, points out that the water found with petroleum is not always saline, and expresses the view that the action of salt is merely to arrest putrefaction. Lesquereux states that at Lund (Scania) masses of Lesque- seaweed change into viscous fetid oily matter, saturating reux ' s v «ws. the sand with which they are intermixed, and retaining no trace of structure. The Sardinian salt-marshes are also occasionally covered with fucus, which decomposes into oil. He regards the Pennsylvanian petroleum as due to marine vegetation, whilst coal is derived from terrestrial fibrous plants. Such marine vegetation abounds throughout the Silurian and Devonian rocks. Broadly it may be said that the theories which critical ascribe an inorganic origin to petroleum are considered consi &c - square pillar of wood, which carries the walking-beam. 40 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Steam- engine and boiler. Bull-wheel. There is a smaller upright inside the derrick., termed the headache-post or life-preserver, to support the end of the walking-beam when disconnected. The end of this beam outside the derrick is connected by means of a rod called the pitman, with a crank attached to the axle of the band-wheel. This wheel runs in bearings on two uprights, and is caused to revolve through the medium of a belt or band driven by a steam-engine in an adjoining shed, thus imparting a rocking movement to the walking-beam. The steam-engine is of the horizontal pattern, of 30 to 35 h.-p., and is fitted with reversing gear. The boiler is of the locomotive type, and is often fired with natural gas. To the side of the derrick opposite the samson-post are fixed the bearings of the bull-wheel, a. wooden windlass of substantial construction, used for lowering and raising the drilling tools. The bull- wheel is driven by the bull-rope, a two-inch plain-laid cable, joined by iron couplings, which runs, crossed, in grooves in the bull-wheel and in the drive-wheel on the band-wheel shaft. The bull-wheel is provided with a powerful band- brake. A. second and smaller windlass, called the sand-reel, is also provided. This windlass is used for raising the detritus and water from the well. It is fixed close to the band-wheel, and one of its supports is pivoted to the foundation of the derrick. Attached to this support is a rod which passes into the derrick, where it is connected with a vertical lever. This lever actuates a friction- clutch on the sand-reel shaft, bringing it into contact control by wi th the band-wheel and thus imparting motion. The driller can, from the mouth of the well, start or stop the revolution of the sand-reel. The telegraph is an endless cord passing round a pulley on the throttle- valve of the engine and a similar pulley in the derrick. The reversing-link is also operated by a cord, and the Sand-reel. driller. PRODUCTION, REFINING, ETC. 4,1 running of the engine can thus be controlled from the interior of the derrick. The bull-wheel being driven through the medium of the band-wheel, the pitman which gives motion to the rocking-beam is disconnected when the bull-wheel is used, and similarly the bull- rope is thrown off when the pitman is in use. The cable used to support the drilling tools is a six-inch Drilling (two inches in diameter) untarred Manilla rope. It cable ' passes from the great windlass over a grooved wheel, termed the crown-pulley, fixed in the crown-block at the summit of the derrick, and thence to the drilling tools. The principal tools used in drilling are : Driiiing- tools. Rope-socket. Sinker-bar. Jars. Auger-stem. Bit. The jars may be likened to a couple of elongated and jars, flattened links of a chain constructed to slide freely within each other. This device was invented in 1831 by William Morris, and its function is to give the drill a sharp jar on the upward stroke, thus loosening the bit if it has become jammed in the rock. The jars practically divide the string of tools into two sections, the one delivering a blow downwards and the other a blow upwards. The auger or drill, which cuts and pulverises the Auger or rock, consists of the bit, or cutting tool, the auger-stem to provide the necessary weight, and the lower link of the jars. The sinker-bar and upper link of the jars sinker-bar. provide the necessary momentum for delivering an up- ward blow on the inside of the lower link of the jars. Besides bits of various sizes, the necessary outfit in- cludes reamers to enlarge the bore of the well, winged Reamers, substitute placed above the bit to keep it from glancing &c- pump. 42 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM off, larger jars, temper- screiv and clamps, wrenches, Bailer - sand-pumps to remove the detritus, and bailers to Temper- remove water from the well. The temper-screw hangs from a hook on the end of the walking-beam over the mouth of the well, and its function is to provide for the gradual lowering of the tools as the drilling proceeds. At the lower end of the temper- ciamps. screw are the clamps, which can be screwed together so as to grasp the drilling cable at the required point, sand- The sand-pump is frequently a plain cylinder of gal- vanised iron, about 6 feet or more in length, provided at the bottom with a valve opening inwards. This valve has a stem projecting downwards so that when the empty cylinder is lowered to the bottom of the well, the valve opens, allowing detritus to enter, and again, when withdrawn from the well and lowered into a trough, the opening of the valve permits the contents to escape. The valve, of course, closes by gravitation as the cylinder is raised from the well. Another form of sand-pump has, in addition to the bottom valve, a plunger attached to an iron rod passing through a stirrup spanning the top of the cylinder. This appa- ratus is suspended from the upper end of the plunger- rod, and when it reaches the bottom of the well the slackening of the rope allows the plunger to descend to the bottom of the cylinder. When the rope is tightened the plunger is first raised, thus facilitating the entrance of the detritus. When the plunger has reached the stirrup the cylinder itself begins to rise. The rope to which the sand pump is attached passes over a small pulley at the top of the derrick and thence to the sand-reel. The bailer, which is used to remove water or oil from the well, is constructed similarly to the simpler form of sand-pump, but is Fishing. much longer. Besides the drilling tools it is necessary to provide a number of appliances termed fishing -tools. tools. PRODUCTION, REFINING, ETC 4S These, as their name implies, are for the recovery of drilling tools which may have been lost in the well, and their forms necessarily vary considerably. On the completion of the derrick, a conductor is Drilling a sunk through the surface ground to the solid bed- wel1 - rock. When the superficial clays and gravels are not more than 10 to 15 feet in thickness, a common well- shaft, 8 to. 10 feet square, is dug to the rock, and a wooden conductor, somewhat greater in internal Conductor, diameter than the proposed bore of the upper part of the well, is placed so as to extend from the surface of the rock to the floor of the derrick, the gravel and mud being kept out of the well by a carefully-made joint between the rock and the conductor. When the depth of superficial soil is too great to admit of digging down to the rock, strong iron piping, called drive-pipe, Drive-pipe, furnished at the lower end with a sharp-edged shoe, is forced down by means of a mall working in guides, as in pile-driving. If the bed-rock is reached at a less distance than about 60 feet from the surface, the drilling tools cannot .at first be used in the ordinary manner, and the drill- ing has then to be commenced by the operation termed jpudding. In this operation the cable by which the Spudding, drilling tools are suspended is coiled two or three 'times round the axle of the revolving bull- wheel, the •end being held by the driller ; or the cable is attached to the crank of the band-wheel through the medium of what is known as a jerk-rope. In either method the cable is alternately tightened and slack- ened. When a sufficient depth is reached to admit of the regular use of the drilling tools, the cable is use of drm- properly coiled on the bull-wheel axle, the bull-rope is mg tools- thrown off, the pitman connected with the crank, and the string of tools lowered to the bottom of the well. The jars having closed by the slackening of the cable, 44 HANDBOOK ON PETJftOLEUM. Rate of movement. -'Dressing" the bit. Sand- pumping. Work continuous. Fishing Casing the well. the slack is taken up by turning the bull -wheel by hand until the cross-heads of the jars come together. A few inches of cable being then paid out, and the temper-screw suspended from the walking-beam being screwed home, the cable is grasped by the clamps at the lower end of the temper-screw ; sufficient cable being then uncoiled from the bull-wheel, the tools are suspended from the walking-beam, and upon the beam being set in motion the tools at once begin to rise and fall, the rate of movement being so timed that the drill delivers forty or fifty blows a minute. As the drilling proceeds, the driller, who has his hand on the temper- screw lever, gives the cable a slight twist, and thus causes the chisel-end of the bit to do its work evenly over the entire surface of the bottom of the well. From time to time it is necessary to draw the string of tools up into the derrick either for the purpose of "dressing" the bit, which consists in heating the cutting end in the forge-fire and hammering it out to a blunt edge of the required width (the object of " dress- ing " is to preserve the width of the bit, as this deter- mines the diameter of the well) ; or to remove the detritus from the well by means of the sand-pump. At night the derrick is lighted by a primitive form of lamp burning crude oil. The operation of drilling is conducted day and night, but very seldom pro- ceeds long without some accident necessitating the use of fishing-tools. Sometimes the fishing operation is unsuccessful, and wells have been abandoned after months of labour with the string of tools still in the hole. As the drilling progresses the bore-hole has to be lined with artesian casing, in order in the first place to exclude the water met with in the upper strata and afterwards to prevent caving. The casing is added in successive lengths screwed together. The exclusion of PRODUCTION, REFINING, ETC. 45 water is effected by seating the lower end of the casing Exclusion of on a hard and impervious stratum lying below the water - water-bearing formation, or by means of one of the various forms of "packer" designed to close the annular space between the casing and the bore-hole. When this has been effected a second string of casing is placed within the first, the drilling being continued through the second string, and as each string can usually only be lowered to a moderate depth, the finished well frequently contains several strings each extending from the surface. As an illustration of the sizes and lengths sizes and of casing which may be employed the following par- ticulars are given : "ncln " J casing. 682 feet of 10-inchi 1,060 „ „ 7f „ J- internal diameter. 1,750 „ „ 5| On completion the well is usually "torpedoed," with "Torpedo- the object of increasing the yield of oil. The torpedo ™* n the consists of a charge of nitro-glycerine in a suitable "shell" which is lowered to the oil-bearing level and there exploded. Within recent years considerable progress has been Rotary made in the adoption of the rotary system of drilling. s ^ te .J?. 'j his system, w' ich is a modification of that invented bv Fauvelle in 1845, was first used in the United States in the oil-fields of the coastal plain of Texas, but is now largely employed in California, and is giving excellent results in many other countries. In the rotary system the drilling bit is attached to a hollow rod, or string of casing, suspended from a revolving table driven by a steam engine, and is thus rapidly rotated. A stream of water containing clay in suspension is continuously pumped through the casing, and the detritus produced by the cutting action of the bit is thus removed, whilst at the same 46 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Pumping from well. Receiving- tank. Transporta- tion and storage company. time the clay suspended in the water is deposited on the surface of the boring, consolidating the formation and preventing the passage of the water into porous strata. The casing is gradually lowered as the depth of the well increases, and an additional length is added from time to time, as required. In strata for which it is adapted the rotary system has been proved to be by far the most rapid and economical method of drilling, and recent improvements have rendered it far more effective than it was formerly in hard strata ; but many experienced drillers give the preference to a combination of the rotary system with the percussion system already described, and combination rigs in which the two systems can be employed alternatively are now supplied. The great majority of wells in the United States do not flow, and the oil has to be raised to the surface by a pump. The arrangement employed for this purpose consists of a lift-pump attached to the lower end of a string of two-inch tubing extending to the bottom of the well, the sucker being connected with the walking- beam by a string of wooden rods passing up through the tubing. In some cases wells which would not ordinarily flow can be made to do so by confining the gas which would otherwise issue with the oil. Before the completion of the drilling of the well, a circular wooden tank is erected to receive the oil. Such tanks commonly hold about 250 barrels, but some are of two or even three times that capacity. As soon as the well commences to yield, either by flowing or by being pumped, notice is given to a representative of the transportation and storage company, who connects the tank with the company's mains, by means of a two-inch pipe. When the tank is full the quantity of oil is gauged by the company, 3 per cent, is deducted for " shrinkage," or loss in transportation ; one-eighth PRODUCTION, REFINING, ETC. 47 or other agreed proportion is appropriated to the land- owner ; the remainder is entered to the credit of the producer in the books of the company and a certificate i»ipe-Hne for this quantity is given to the producer. In the certificate - early days of the petroleum industry in the United States, the only method of transporting the oil from Early the well was to place it in oak barrels holding from method of /.,/./,,,. ° transport. torty to fifty gallons, and to convey these barrels by road to Oil Creek, where their contents were emptied into barges holding about 2000 barrels. The navigation of Oil Creek was not ordinarily possible and was at all times attended with great risk, and much oil was lost through barges coming into collision. This method of transportation, in default of a better, continued until Beginning the latter part of the year 1862, when a branch of the ofrailway r •> \ transport. Atlantic and Great Western Railway was carried into the oil regions, and at a later date the Allegheny Valley Railway was opened from Oil City, at the mouth of Oil Creek, to Pittsburg, and a number of narrow-gauge railways were constructed as feeders. Crude oil was at first conveyed by rail in barrels coated internally with glue, but the small quantity of water present in the oil was found to dissolve the glue and cause the barrels to leak. To remove this difficulty and to reduce the cost of.handling the oil, tank waggons, Early tank- consisting of two wooden tanks placed on an ordinary waggons, truck, were introduced in 1865-6. These early tank- waggons held from 2000 to 4000 gallons. In 1871 a tank-car similar to those now employed was introduced. This consists of a horizontal cylindrical tank of boiler- Modern plate, lying upon a truck and furnished with a dome tank ' car - such as a horizontal steam-boiler has. The tank is provided with an orifice in the top of the dome for filling, and with a valve beneath, by which it can be emptied. The tank now employed is about 24 ft. 6 in. in length by 5 ft. 6 in. in diameter, and holds nearly 48 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Tank barges. First pipe- line. First trunk- line. Concentra- tion of refining on Atlantic and Lake Erie. Pipe for trunk-lines. Tanks. 4500 American gallons (3748 imperial gallons). Tank barges 130 ft. in length by 22 ft. beam and 16 ft. in depth, divided into eight compartments by oil-tight bulkheads, have been largely employed for the convey- ance of oil on the Allegheny river. The credit of having first suggested the laying of a pipe-line appears to belong to General Karns, but Mr. Hutchinson was the first to carry out the idea. Hutchinson's pipe, however, was so defectively con- structed as to be useless. The first successful pipe- line was probably the one. laid by Yan Syckle, of Titusville, in 1865, and was four miles in length. It was not until 1875 that a trunk-line was laid. This extended from the lower oil country to Pittsburg, a distance of 60 miles, and was four inches in diameter. As the refining trade developed it became concen- trated on the Atlantic seaboard and the shores of Lake Erie, the transportation of the crude material to the refineries thus becoming a business of great im- portance, and from 1878 to 1881-2 the construction of trunk-lines was continuous. The pipe used in these trunk-lines is made specially, and is of wrought iron, lap-welded. It is tested to a pressure of 1500 lbs. per square inch, the working pressure being 900 to 1200 lbs or even more. The pipe is in lengths of 18 ft., provided at each end with coarse and sharp taper threads, nine to the inch, and the lengths are connected with long sleeve-couplings, also screwed taper. The line is usually laid two or three feet below the surface of the ground, although in some places it is exposed, and at intervals bends are provided to allow for expan- sion and contraction. At the pumping-stations there are tanks of boiler-plate, usually about 90 ft. in dia- meter by 30 ft. in height, the oil being pumped from the tanks of one station to those of the next, though sometimes a loop is laid round a station, and the oil PRODUCTION, REFINING, ETC. 49 has thus been pumped a distance of 110 miles with one engine. Worthington pumping-engines, from 200 to Pumping- 800 h.-p., are employed. These pumps have indepen- en s ines - dent plungers, with exterior packing, valve-boxes sub- divided into small chambers and leather-lined metallic valves with low lift and large surfaces ; they are so constructed that before one plunger has completed its stroke another has taken up the work, thus keeping the column of oil in continuous motion. The pipe- lines are cleared of obstructions caused by sediment deposited by the oil, by the use of an ingenious instrument termed a "go-devil." This apparatus "Go-devil" consists of a conical brush of steel wire furnished f ° rcleann e i • pipe-lines. at the base, or rear end, with a leather valve in four sections, strengthened with brass plates and with steel wire guides. The "go-devil" is pumped through with the oil, and travels at about three miles an hour. Its progress can be traced by the scraping sound emitted, and it is followed from one pumping- station to another by relays of men, who must not allow it to get out of hearing, otherwise, in the event of its progress having been arrested by an obstruction, it may be necessary to take up a considerable length of piping to ascertain its position. The oil is pumped into storage tanks, which are usually 93 ft. in diameter by 30 ft. in height, have slightly conical wooden roofs covered with sheet-iron, and hold 35,000 barrels each. Russia. — In the drilling of petroleum wells in the Baku district and other parts of Eussia, derricks and drilling tools presenting a general similarity to those already described are employed, but a string of iron iron rods in rods takes the place of the drilling cable. These rods are from 40 to 60 ft. in length, and are screwed together, an additional rod being added from time to time as the drilling proceeds. The Russian wells are of much greater diameter than those in the United D 50 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Wells of greater diameter. Casing. Oil raised by bailer. J3tates, a commencing diameter of 30 inches or more being now not unusual, aud are ordinarily lined with riveted casing, but screwed artesian casing is also used for the smaller sizes. Owing to the large quantity of sand which is mingled with the oil, it is impossible to use ordinary pumps in the wells, and when the wells do not flow the oil is raised by a bailer, similar to the sand pump or bailer already described as in use in the United States, but of larger size. Other Countries. — The Canadian system of drill- ing, in which the drilling tools are suspended from the walking-beam by a string of wooden poles, was adopted by the pioneers in the petroleum industry of Galicia ; but heavier tools, and stronger appliances generally, were found necessary, and this led to the evolution of the Galician-Canadian outfit, which has been very largely employed in exploratory drilling in many other countries. In the modern form of this outfit a wire cable is used in conjunction with a small number of poles, the time occupied in disconnecting and re-connecting the poles when the tools are with- drawn in order that the detritus may be removed from the bore-hole, being largely saved. REFINING. The stills usually employed in petroleum refineries are of horizontal cylindrical form, constructed of boiler- plate, and surmounted by a dome furnished with a size of stills, vapour-pipe. These stills, which may be 30 ft. in length by 12-J ft. in diameter, but are sometimes smaller, are set in brickwork furnaces, and are heated by solid or liquid fuel. When the crude oil in such a still is subjected to gradually increasing heat, the constituents are successively converted into vapour, substantially in the order of their volatilities, though Process of fractional distillation (intermit- tent). PRODUCTION, REFINING, ETC. 51 the separation thus effected is by no means perfect, as the oils of higher boiling-point are to some extent carried over by the vapour of those of lower boiling- point. The vapourised oil passes through the vapour- pipe of the still into the condenser, which may consist Condenser. of an iron pipe or series of pipes surrounded by cold water, and is thus brought again into the liquid con- dition. In this way any desired classification of the products may obviously be effected. The process described, in which the still is periodically refilled,isknownas the "intermittent system of fractional distillation," and is that which is always adopted in the United States. On the other hand, in Russia what is known as continuous distillation is employed. This Continuous involves the use of a series of stills heated to sue- istl cessively higher temperatures, which are carefully maintained, and the crude oil is caused to flow slowly and continuously through the whole series, being thus subjected to a steadily increasing heat while the tem- perature of the contents of each still remains practically constant. In this manner each still yields a product of given volatility corresponding with the temperature at which it is maintained. The loss of time, waste of fuel, and injury to plant involved in cooling down and re-heating the stills in the intermittent system are thus avoided. In practice it is usual to divide the distillation into Division of two operations, the more volatile products, petroleum lstl atl0n ' spirit and kerosene, being obtained in the first, and the residue being transferred to other stills to be heated to a higher temperature with the object of separating the lubricating oils, &c The condensing arrangement terminates in what is known as the tail-house, where provision is made for Tail-house, diverting the stream of distillate into various tanks. The products, thus classified in accordance with in- 59, HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Chemical treatment. Paraffin separation. Process merely outlined. Scottish shale-oil industry. dustrial requirements, are usually purified by treatment successively with sulphuric acid and a solution of caustic soda, followed by washing with water ; but when the crude oil contains sulphur a special process is also adopted to remove this impurity. The lubri- cating-oil distillates yielded by petroleum containing solid hydrocarbons are subjected to a low temperature, when the paraffin crystallises and is separated from the oil by means of filter-presses and hydraulic presses. The paraffin is refined by treatment with animal char- coal, and may be thus rendered colourless, odourless, and tasteless. It will be readily understood that this is but a mere outline of the process of refining, but it will suffice to give a clear indication of the principle upon which the refiner converts the raw material into the products met with in commerce. Information respecting the character of these products will be found in the following chapter. The manufacture of shale-oil carried out in Scotland commences with the destructive distillation of the shale, crude oil and ammonia being obtained in this operation. The crude oil, amounting to about twenty- three gallons from the ton of shale, is fractionally dis- tilled in substantially the same manner as the petroleum, continuous distillation being adopted ; but, in conse- quence of the comparatively complex composition of the shale-oil, the operations, though similar in principle to those of the petroleum refiner, are less simple, at least two distillations being requisite to effect the desired separation of the products. Tank steamers. .MARINE TRANSPORT. The building of tank steamships for the marine transport oi petroleum has steadily progressed, and PRODUCTION, REFINING, ETC. 53 every recent year has seen important additions to the fleet of these vessels, one of those recently launched having a carrying capacity of as much as 15,000 tons. The essential features of construction of tank steamers Principles „ re . of construe- (1) Provision for the expansion of the oil under an increase in temperature. (2) Provision for keeping each tank full. (3) Provision for the escape of the gases given off by the oil. (4) Special precautions to prevent the passage of any oil into the boiler space. The engines and boilers are placed either amidships or at the after end of the vessel, being in either case separated from the oil-space by coffer-dams. In the isolating former method of construction the oil-tanks are both coffer - dams - forward and aft of the machinery space, and the screw- shaft is carried through the after tanks in a tunnel. The oil-tanks are subdivided by transverse bulkheads, Division of and by an amidships fore-and-aft bulkhead, the sides of the tanks being formed by the skin of the ship. oil-tanks. STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION. The kerosene imported into Great Britain and Ports of Ireland in bulk is landed at the ports of London, dischar e e in Liverpool, Manchester, Bristol (Avonmouth), South Kingdom. Shields, Sunderland, Cardiff, Plymouth, Southampton, Barrow, Hull, Grangemouth, Dublin, Belfast, and Limerick. In London the principal wharves are at London Thames Haven, Purfleet, New Beckton, Silvertown, wharves, and Millwall on the Thames, and at Bromley and Bethnal Green on the Lea Cut and Regent's Canal respectively. The tank steamers discharge direct into the. storage- tanks at Thames Haven, Purfleet, and New Beckton, and tank barges are employed for the landing 54 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. of the oil at the other wharves named, the steamers lying, during the discharge, at moorings in the Thames smaller at Charlton and Greenwich. There is also a large storage number of subsidiary storage installations, and there tions. ar e many still smaller tank depots at railway stations and elsewhere to facilitate the distribution of the oil. storage The larger storage installations are provided with arrange- vertical cylindrical iron or steel tanks, placed on the ments. J . ' ground, but surrounded with a moat formed by em- bankments or walls, of a capacity equal to that of the tanks enclosed. Many of these tanks are about 90 to 100 ft. in diameter, by about 30 to 40 ft. in height, but there are two of the exceptional diameter of over 110 ft. The tanks usually have a slightly domed top. At the distributing stations on the railways, horizontal cylindrical tanks are employed, installations At Liverpool, the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board at Liverpool j-^yg erec ted, in the neighbourhood of the Herculaneum Manchester. Dock, a number of vertical cylindrical tanks, of about 2000 to 3000 tons capacity each, into which the tank steamers discharge direct through an 8-inch pipe-line. There are similar installations at Birkenhead, on the Ship Canal, Manchester, and at the other ports already named. Very little kerosene is now landed in barrels. Lubricating oils are now very largely imported from the United States in bulk, and wholly so from Russia. Petroleum Under the regulations made by the Thames Conser- sp, "' landed vancy, petroleum spirit, which is also imported in bulk, Haven, for is landed at Thames Haven. Provision for the storage London. f petroleum spirit is also made at the ports of Liverpool, Barrow, Bristol (Portishead), Granton, and elsewhere. Motor spirit is brought up the Thames in bulk in licensed barges, and is also largely conveyed by rail in tank waggons to distributing centres, whence PRODUCTION, REFINING, ETC. 55 it reaches the consumer in two-gallon hermetically- sealed tins. Gas-oil, which is imported in bulk, is to a large Gas-oil extent delivered direct from the steamer to the works of the gas companies, where it is stored in tanks of the usual construction. Kerosene is largely conveyed in bulk from the Bulk main storage-installations by rail in tank waggons, or in some instances by tank barges on the canals, to sub- sidiary storage-depots, and is thence distributed to the retailers in the road tank waggons with which readers of this book are familiar. In this manner most of the burning oil from the refineries of the United States and Russia now reaches the retail dealer without the em- ployment of the barrel, in which delivery was formerly made. distribution of kerosene. CHAPTER IV. Nature of crude petroleum. Colour. Odour. Specific gravity. Inflamma- bility. Chemical composi- tion, COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM, SHALE-OIL AND COAL-TAR. Crude petroleum, as it comes from the well, is an oily liquid varying in physical and chemical characters in different districts and countries, and at different depths in the same district. It is usually of a brown colour by transmitted light, but by reflected light commonly exhibits a green colour. Some descriptions are, however, so dark in colour as to appear black unless viewed in a thin stratum, and, on the other hand, crude oil is occasionally met with of a pale yellow colour. The odour of crude oil of good quality is generally considered not unpleasant, but when sulphur compounds are present in the oil the odour may be most offensive. Crude petroleum is nearly always lighter than water, its specific gravity, accord- ing to the authors' experience, lying between the extremes of 771 and 1-020 (water = 1-000), but being usually from a little below *800 to less than -900. The lighter descriptions are highly inflammable, and very freely give off vapour, not only at ordinary tempera- tures, but even when cooled to zero Fahrenheit. Crude petroleum may be described as a complex mixture of hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and hydrogen), ranging from the gaseous (for some descrip- tions of American petroleum evolve gas which has been held in solution) to the solid (paraffin wax), and we have seen in the previous chapter that the first object COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM, ETC. 57 of the refiner is to separate these hydrocarbons by frac- tional distillation, and group them in such proportions as to give the desired commercial products. Petroleum also frequently contains sulphur (as already mentioned), oxygen, and nitrogen. By distillation Pennsylvania petroleum yields from Division 8 to 10 per cent, of " naphtha," from 70 to 80 per cent. int0 n i -1 m -i <• n • commercial of " refined oils, and from 5 to 9 per cent, oi " resi- products, duum," the loss being about 5 per cent. The naphtha, " Naphtha." on being re-distilled, may be divided into " gasoline " and the various other less-volatile products hereafter described, but gasoline itself is sometimes further sub- " Gasoline." divided into " cymogene," " rhigolene," and " gasoline." Cymogene boils at 32° F., and can therefore only be "Cymo- preserved in a liquid state in a freezing mixture or gene " under pressure, whilst rhigolene has a boiling-point of " Rhigo 65° F. These liquids, which have in admixture a lene- " specific gravity of "636, have been used for surgical purposes as a local anaesthetic. A highly volatile pro- duct, of specific gravity "625, obtained from gasoline, has been employed for the same purpose in admixture with sulphuric ether. The generic term of " petroleum ether " is applied to the product in question (not the mixture), but various other descriptions of " petroleum ether" made in this country are, as will be seen from the particulars subsequently given, of higher specific gravity and lower volatility. Gasoline, the specific gravity of Light which formerly ranged from '642 to "648, has been used e asolene - to carburet air, in what are known as air-gas machines, for burnino- as an illuminant, and has also been largely employed as fuel in cooking-stoves in the United States. A product, known as "boulevard gas-fluid," with a ''Wo spirit,' specific gravity of about '680, was for a long time m £tor°car burned in the United States in street naphtha lamps, spirit. A similar spirit, to which the makers gave the name of " petrol," was manufactured for many years in this 58 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. o country, and in common with " '680 spirit ' or " 76 spirit" (its density being about 76° on the Baume scale) of American manufacture, was largely used as a source of power in the internal-combustion engines of automobile vehicles, and as a fuel in steam motor-cars of a certain type. The petroleum spirit formerly sold in this country under the name of " benzoline " for use as a source of light in " sponge-lamps," was imported from the United States as " deodorised naphtha." It had a specific gravity of about "700, and was also used for detergent purposes (in the process known as "dry-cleaning"). The enormous growth in the consumption of petro- leum spirit in motor vehicles has, however, led to a gradual increage in the specific gravity, the distillation of the product being carried to a higher temperature in order to increase the yield. By careful fractionation, " Petroleum various descriptions of " petroleum ether," of which the 11 ' following are examples, have been manufactured in this country from imported petroleum spirit (boiling- point, say, 130° to 350° F.) :— (l) Specific gravity -630, boiling-point 82° to 142° F. ; (2) specific gravity "640, boiling-point 89° to 145° F. ; (3) specific gravity "667, boiling-point 128°tol98°F (used for extracting resins, &c); (4) specific gravity "689, boiling-point 130° to 212° F. (for " de-naturing " alchohol) ; (5) specific gravity '703, boiling-point 176° to 240° F. (for extracting gums, &c.) ; (6) specific gravity "725, boiling-point 212° to 270° F. (for extracting fats) ; (7) specific gravity "730, boiling-point 220° to Pentane. 290° F. (for extracting fats). The commercial pentane made in this country for use as a standard of light in photometric work has a specific gravity of about '625 ('623 to "626) and a boiling-point of 76° to 128 s F. The boiling-points given above are those obtained with a thermometer having its COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM, ETC. 59 bulb immersed in the liquid, the higher temperature being that at which the volatilisation of the contents of the retort is completed. Finally, the spirit yields, as the least volatile of the products, "benzine," of "Benzine." a specific gravity of about "730, which is largely employed in " dry cleaning " as well as in oil-cloth and varnish making. The "refined oil" obtained from American petro- "Refined leum is of several descriptions, but only two of these, olL ' the ordinary American lamp-oil of commerce, and what "Ordinary" is known as " water-white," or " high-test," oil, are im- an ^ "water- ported into this country. The ordinary oil is usually high-test of a pale straw colour, and has a specific gravity of American, about "800. Its flash-point is above the legal limit of 73° F. (Abel test). The higher grade of oil, of which the average crude petroleum yields only about 15 or 16 per cent., is colourless, or nearly so, and has a specific gravity of 790 to 795. Its flash-point is over 100° F. (Abel). There is also manufactured to a small extent a burning oil having a specific gravity of "825 to "830 Mineral and a flash-point of about 250° F. (Abel). Of this oil, colza - oil - which is known as mineral colza or mineral sperm or mineral seal oil, about 10 per cent, may be obtained from the crude petroleum. The "residuum" already referred to yields, on further Qas-oii, distillation, "intermediate oil," or "gas-oil" (used as a ^J 5 /^"^ source of gas for illuminating purposes), a series of andparaffin lubricating oils of gradually increasing specific gravity, from viscosity, and flash-point, vaseline, and solid paraffin or paraffin-wax. The parallel products manufactured from Russian Russian (Baku) crude petroleum are of somewhat different P etroleum character. This description of petroleum yields, ac- cording to the district in which it is obtained, from 2 to 10 per cent, of "benzine" (also termed light "Benzine." petroleum), from 27 to 40 percent, of kerosene (burning Kerosene. 60 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. "Ostatki." Solar oil. Solar oil distillate (gas-oil), and lubricating oils. Ostatki the principal product. Scottish shale-oil products. Crude shale, oil. oil), 4 per cent., or more, of the lighter description of " solar oil " for use in lamps, and from 50 to 60 down to 35 or 36 per cent of "ostatki" (residue). The benzine (sometimes divided into " light " and " heavy") has a higher specific gravity than the corresponding product obtained from American petroleum, but the boiling-point is not proportionately higher. The kerosene usually has a specific gravity of "825 and a flash-point of about 85° F. (Abel). The solar oil has a specific gravity of about '865 and a flash-point of about 250° F. (Abel). A small proportion of the ostatki is further distilled, with the object of obtaining solar-oil distillate, specific gravity about '875 and flash-point about 240° F., for use in gas-making, and a series of lubricating oils ; but by far the greater part of it is employed as liquid fuel, for which there is so great a demand in Russia that the ostatki is really the principal product, the refiner now seeking to make as much of this and as little of the other products as possible, consistently with the separation of sufficient of the more volatile constituents of the crude oil to give the ostatki the requisite flash-point. This country now obtains its supplies of petroleum spirit (motor spirit) chiefly from the Dutch East Indies, and fuel oil is also largely obtained from the same source. The usual commercial products of petroleum are also imported in considerable quantities from Roumania and Mexico. Allusion to the Scottish shale-oil trade has been made in previous chapters. The oil-shales of Midlothian and Linlithgow yield, by destructive distillation at a bright-red heat, about 23 gallons to the ton of mineral oil (besides ammonia), and this oil furnishes on fractional distillation a series of products resembling those ob- tained from petroleum. The crude shale-oil has a COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OP PETROLEUM, ETC. 61 specific gravity of "860 to "890, and frequently is solid at temperatures below 90° F. owing to the large amount of paraffin which it contains. It yields from 3 to 6 "Gasoline" per cent, of " gasoline " and " naphtha," about 30 * nd htha „ per cent, of burning oils (for use in lamps), about burning oils, 9 per cent, of gas- oil, about 20 per cent, of various eas-oil, , , . Mii r> rv lubricating lubricating oils, and about 10 per cent, of paraffin, oils and The burning oils have a specific gravity of about '810 paraffin, and a flash-point of about 105° F. (Abel). In Saxony similar products are obtained from lignite Brown-coal or brown-coal, but these are not imported into the a " od {jg** United Kingdom. Peat of good quality yields by destructive distillation from 3 to 6 per cent, of tar, from which burning oil, lubricating oil and paraffin can be obtained, but the attempts which have been made to carry out the process on a commercial scale have not been successful. The coal-tar of gas-works is a black, more or less Coal-tar and viscid liquid, of characteristic odour, of specific gravity coa ^ tar usually between 1*1 and 1*2, and may be described as an extremely complex mixture of various hydrocarbons, together with chemical compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen. It is employed in the crude state as a coating to protect or preserve wood, stone, brick-work and iron, and is largely used in the manufacture of roofing-felt. It is, however, chiefly of value as a source of benzol, anthracene, carbolic acid and other products. The tar may by a preliminary distillation be separated into four fractions, the first Distillation, consisting of" crude benzol" and " naphtha," the second of " carbolic oil," the third of " dead oil " (so called because it sinks in water), and the fourth of "anthra- cene oil," the residue constituting " pitch." The two earlier fractions are re-distilled, the first yielding " benzol " (benzene, toluene and xylenes), from which Benzol, after nitration and subsequent conversion into aniline, 62 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Solvent naphtha. Burning naphtha. Carbolic acid. Naphtha- lene. Creosote oil. Anthracene. Pitch. Proportion of products. Tar from coke-ovens, &c. &c, artificial colouring matters are obtained, "solvent naphtha " employed in dissolving caoutchouc (india- rubber) for the manufacture of waterproof materials, &c, and for "dry-cleaning," and "heavy solvent naphtha," also known as " burning naphtha," largely used for making anti-fouling compositions for ships bottoms, and in admixture with petroleum spirit for burning in " flare-lamps " ; the second furnishing, upon further treatment, liquid and solid carbolic acid and naphthalene, both of which are employed in the arti- ficial-colour industry, the former also very largely for antiseptic purposes in surgery, as a disinfectant for household purposes and for the manufacture of picric acid ; whilst the latter in addition serves as an enricher of illuminating gas and as a substitute for camphor in preventing the ravages of insects in woollen goods and furs. The third original or main fraction, also called "creosote oil" or "heavy oil," which has a greenish-yellow colour, due to fluorescence, but by transmitted light is dark-red, is chiefly used in the creosoting of timber. The fourth original fraction yields anthracene, from which alizarine and other coal- tar colours are produced. The pitch is employed in street-paving, as well as in the manufacture of paints or varnishes, patent fuel (briquettes), roofing paper, &c. The proportions of the various products depend to a considerable extent upon the quality of the tar and the method of treatment adopted, of which the foregoing is merely an illustrative outline. The first original fraction may, however, be considered to represent 2 - 2 per cent, of the tar by weight, the second 10"6, the third 7'6, the fourth 16*9, and the pitch 60*5 per cent. Tars obtained from coke-ovens, gas-producers, and blast-furnaces (those in which the fuel used is coal), present, in some instances, essential differences from the COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OP PETROLEUM, ETC. 63 tar of the gas-works, owing to the lower temperature at which they are obtained. The Petroleum Acts have been held to apply to india-rubber substances containing " petroleum," such as paints and ^° ^ tl ° 1 ^,' ts varnishes and india-rubber solution, and accordingly containing inspectors under the Acts may have occasion to subject P etroleum - such substances to the test prescribed. Liquid " paint- dryers " and turpentine-substitutes may also be found Paintdryers, to come within the provisions of the Acts. &c- In the following statement an attempt has been made ciassifica- to classify the various products of petroleum, shale-oil, tlo ° ° ]eum and coal-tar met with in commerce in this country, to shaie-oiiand indicate their salient characteristics with a view to their coal - tar . . . products. identification, and to give the various names under which they are sold. It may here be remarked that, on the whole, the commercial nomenclature of the more volatile products is vague and somewhat confusing. PETROLEUM PRODUCTS. Petroleum Spirit. — Chiefly employed in motor vehicles under the names of petrol, motor spirit, gasoline or naphtha (United States), benzine (European Continent), motorine, carburine, &c. The more volatile fractions of petroleum spirit, described as " petroleum ether," have been referred to on pages 57 and 58. At one time "petroleum ether" was sold as "Sherwood oil" in the United States. Pentane, one of the hydrocarbons of petroleum spirit, is used as a standard of light in photometric work. Gasoline of about *650 specific gravity, formerly termed " canadol" in the United States, was used in air-gas machines. Gasoline of about •680 specific gravity was termed 76 naphtha in the United States, 76° being the density of the spirit on the Baume scale ; it was also known as boulevard gas fluid in that country, owing to its being used in street- 64 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. lamps. The term gasoline is now generally applied in the United States to any description of motor spirit. Petroleum spirit of about "700 specific gravity was formerly known in the United States as " ordinary spirit" or "naphtha," or " city naphtha " when in the condition of the untreated distillate, and " deodorised spirit," or " deodorised naphtha " when purified. It has also been sold in that country as " Danforth's oil." Ligroine is a term which has been applied to petroleum spirit of "715 specific gravity. The fraction of petro- leum spirit of comparatively high boiling-point was formerly distinguished as benzine, but this name is now applied in many countries to petroleum spirit generally. It must not be confused with benzene, the coal-tar product. In addition to the ordinary grade of motor spirit which has a specific gravity of about "710, a consider- able quantity is sold which has a specific gravity of *740 and upwards. Note. — The whole of the foregoing products have flash-points far below the legal standard of 73° F., and most of them evolve vapour freely even at a temperature of zero Fahrenheit. They are there- fore highly inflammable. Particulars of various industrial uses of petroleum spirit in this country will be found in Appendix XIY. Petroleum. Also known as "refined petroleum,'' "kerosene" (in the United States), " petroleum " (in Russia), "burning oil," " paraffin oil" (though this name is properly applied only to the shale-oil product). Also formerly termed " photogene." Two distinct classes of oils in this category are imported from the United States. The general use of the names already given may be said to be confined to what may be termed the ordinary American product, which has a specific gravity of about ■800 and a flash-point above 73° F. (Abel), and the ordinary Russian product, the specific gravity of which is about -825 and the flash-point about 85° F. (Abel). These oils are often sold under proprietary names or brands. The high- COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM, ETC. 65 test American oil is known as " water-white oil." It has a specific gravity of - 790 to "795 and a flash- point above 100° F. (Abel). An oil for use in lighthouses, &c, is imported from the United States under the name of " mineral colza oil," or " mineral sperm oil " or " mineral seal oil." It has a specific gravity of - 825 to "830, and a flash- point of 250° F. (Abel). The gas-oil imported from the United States has a specific gravity ranging from -850 to - 860 and a flash-point of about 150° F. (Abel). Pa/raffinum liquidum is a colourless arid inodorous oil, of specific gravity •880 to - 885, used for pharmaceutical purposes, and " mixing oil " is a less highly purified product, of similar specific gravity, which is mixed with other oils for certain purposes Lubricating Of mineral oils for lubricating purposes, imported Oil. chiefly from the United States and Russia, an ex- tensive series is met with in commerce under the names of "spindle oil," "engine oil," "cylinder oil," " valve oil," &c. In addition there are other oils of lower specific gravity and viscosity sold und. r the names of " neutral oil," " cleaning oil," " batch- ing oil," &c. The oils in this category vary so widely that it would be difficult to specify their characteristics in any useful manner in this work. The flash-point is in all cases far above the legal limit. Solid Pro- These include, in addition to paraffin or paraffin wax, ducts. and paraffin scale (unrefined paraffin wax), mineral jelly, termed pharmaceutical ly paraffinum molle and petrolatum, which is chiefly so'd under the proprietary name of " vaseline," but is also known as " cosmoline," " saxoline," " geoline," " fossiline," " petrolina," &c. Ozokerite is not a manufactured product of petroleum, but is a natural mineral wax found in Galicia. The purified material closely resembles beeswax and is employed as a substitute for the latter. Ozokerite also yields by distilla- tion a candle-making material similar to paraffin, but of higher melting-point. It is scarcely neces- sary to say that the flash-points of these products are very far above the legal standard. E 66 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. SHALE-OIL PRODUCTS. Shale Spikit. Gasoline of specific gravity -640 to '660, and nnph- thas of specific gravities 718 to -720, -735 to -740 and '750 are manufactured at some works. The flash-points of the various descriptions of shale spirit are below the legal standard. Shale Oil. The oils for use in lamps, sold under the names of " paraffin oil," " burning oil," " crystal oil," " petro- line," &c, usually have a specific gravity of about •810, and a flash-point of 105° F. (Abel) and up- wards. A special oil for use in lighthouses is also manufactured with a specific gravity of - 814 and a flash-point of 145° F. (Abel). Another product, of still higher specific gravity (about -836) and flash-point, is termed " marine oil." The specific gravity of intermediate oil or gas-oil produced from shale ranges from - 840 to "865 and the flash- point from 150° F. (Abel) upwards. Lubricating Lubricating oils of various specific gravities and Oils, &0. viscosities, as well as soft and hard paraffin, are among the products obtained. COAL-TAR PRODUCTS. Naphtha. It is only necessary in this statement to mention the various naphtha-products.* These include benzene (benzol), the hydrocarbon 6 H 6 , which has a specific gravity of - 884, a boiling-point of 177° F., and a flash-point below the tempera- ture of 32° F. at which it solidifies;" to! uene (0 7 H S ), specific gravity -871, boiling-point 232° F., flash-point about 45° F. ; solvent naphtha (often described as having a specific gravity not above ■875 and as distilling between 248° and 320° F.), specific gravity often about -867, and flash-point about 66° F. ; heavy solvent naphtha or binning naphtha (sometimes described as having a specific gravity of -880 to -887), specific gravity often as * The so-called " sharp oil," used in lamps of the " lucigen " type, has a specific gravity of about 1060, and a flash-point of about 160° F. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM, ETC. 67 high as -905, and flash-point about 116° F. # ; 90 per cent, benzol (of which 90 per cent, by volume distils below 212° F.), specific gravity — English •880 to -882, Scotch about -870, flash-point below 15° F.; 50 percent, benzol (of which 50 per cent, distils below 212° F.), specific gravity — English •878 to -880, Scotch -867 to -872, flash-point below 15° F. Note. — " Benzine Collas '* is a name under which a description of mineral spirit, doubtless obtained originally from coal-tar, has been sold for detergent purposes for many years. (The label used includes a copy of a testimonial from the Master of the Royal Apartments, dated Buckingham Palace, October 30, 1858.) The employment of petroleum products as liquid Various fuel, as a substitute for coal in the manufacture of gas uses ° f ° petroleum for illuminating and heating purposes, as a source of products power in internal-combustion engines, and as lubricants, increasi ns- is rapidly increasing as the attendant advantages become recognised, and adequate supplies are rendered available. An impetus has also been given to the use of kerosene as an illuminating agent, for it has been demonstrated that when burned in a specially constructed mantle-lamp in the form of vapour, under pressure, a brilliant light, well adapted for streets and large buildings, can be obtained from this oil at a less cost than by the use of any other illuminating agent, and as each lamp is self-contained the installation of the system can be effected without any opening of the ground such as is necessary in laying a service of gas-mains. * Two descriptions of solvent naphtha are specially prepared which have flash-points a little over 73° and 100° F. respectively. These products have specific gravities ranging from - 890 to '915, ac- cording to the character of the tar from which they are manu- factured. CHAPTER V. "FLASH-POINT" AND "FIRE-TEST." Explanation The Petroleum Acts are made to apply to such petro- °oint Sh l eam as ' w ^ en tested in the manner prescribed, " gives off an inflammable vapour " at a temperature of less than 73° F. This wording is unfortunate, inasmuch as it has given rise to a great deal of misconception as to the real meaning of the term " flash-point," and as to its relation to the safety of an oil in storage and use. In the succeeding chapter, the various methods of testing petroleum for the determination of its flash- point are described in detail. It is, therefore, only necessary here to enunciate the broad principle on which all such tests are carried out. A sample of the oil to be tested is placed in a vessel, and is gradually heated up until, on application of a light, a blue flame or flash is seen in the space above the surface of the liquid. The temperature of the oil at this point is noted, and this temperature is now commonly called the "flash-point" of the oil. The Act of 1879 and all previous ones, however, call this the temperature at which the petroleum " gives off inflammable vapour." This has led many persons to suppose that at this temperature the oil undergoes some physical change, and suddenly commences to evolve vapour. As a matter of fact, like all other liquids, petroleum gives off vapour at all temperatures, and would continue to do so even if cooled down to zero Fahrenheit. What "FLASH-POINT" AND " FIRE-TEST " 69 the Act really means is the temperature at which the oil gives off, or has given off, sufficient vapour to form an inflammable mixture with the air, and this is a matter entirely dependent on the conditions under which the test is carried out. By varying these conditions very wide differences may be made in the flash-point obtained with one and the same sample of oil. Consequently, to speak of the flash- point without naming the method by which it is to be determined is as meaningless as to name a degree of temperature without stating whether the Fahren- heit or Centigrade thermometer scale is intended. This fact appears to have been unknown to the framers of the Petroleum Act, 1862, in which a flash- point is specified, but no method of determining it is prescribed. In the subsequent Acts of 1868 and 1871 a test apparatus is laid down, but it was not until 1879 that the Legislature adopted a method, known as the Abel test,* in which the conditions are so far under control that anything like uniformity can be obtained in the hands of different experimenters. The minimum proportion of vapour to air necessary Proportion to produce an inflammable mixture is about 1*8 per ° f vapour , i ,-> n t necessary to cent. An increase to 2 per cent, ol vapour renders f orm the mixture explosive, while when the proportion explosive exceeds about 4 per cent., the liability to explosion theair begins to disappear, but the mixture continues to be inflammable. Now, not only does the temperature at which an oil gives off sufficient vapour to produce such proportions depend on many conditions, but the percentages them- selves are also liable to variations. It will be sufficient to discuss only the more important causes which are * See Appendix I. 70 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. known to produce such variations, but there are doubtless many other conditions which have a more or less direct influence both on the temperature and the percentage of vapour. One of the most important conditions Conditions affecting the temperature at which an inflammable affecting mixture of vapour and air may be produced, is the flash-point. f J r time during which the oil has been submitted to that temperature. As has ahead}'' been pointed out, no ordinary sample of petroleum is homogeneous, and it is' the vapour of its lighter and more volatile constituents which is first given off. If the proportion of light con- stituents is small, their vapour will be given off slowly, and it may take a very long time before a sufficient amount has been evolved to render a given volume of air inflammable. Consequently, in a closed vessel, if sufficient time is allowed, the vapour may continue to accumulate until an explosive atmosphere is formed, even though the oil may never have reached a tempera- ture as high as that of its flash-point determined by a test where the time is limited. On the other hand, if the oil is contained in a vessel which is not com- pletely closed, the effect of time may be just the reverse of that described. Thus, if the test is carried out in an open or partially open vessel, and if the rate of heating is made very slow, much of the vapour given off in the earlier stages of heating will diffuse into the outer air. In this way the proportion of lighter spirit will be diminished, and the flash-point determined by such a test will be higher than if the rate of heating had been more rapid. It is hardly necessary to state that the flash-point is very largely affected by the amount of ventilation which is afforded to the sample in the testing apparatus. The very wide difference between the results obtained with the test prescribed in the Act of 1871 and those of the Abel test, are principally due to the fact that in "FLASH-POINT" AND " FIItE-TEST." 7] the former apparatus the vapour at first given off escapes by diffusion, and is moreover liable to be carried away by currents of air ; therefore it is not until the temperature and consequent rate of evolution of vapour are raised sufficiently to counteract this effect that a flash is obtained. The size of the oil vessel also affects the result. Mr. Steuart stated before the Select Committee of 1896, that by increasing the diameter of the oil vessel in the testing apparatus to 9 inches, he obtained with the same sample of oil a flash-point lower by 2° F. than that given by the Abel test. The pressure of the atmosphere is another important factor affecting the results. Careful experiments have shown that the flash-point is lowered by r6° F. for every inch reduction in barometric pressure. A table of corrections for height of barometer will be found in Appendix VIII., but it must be remembered that the use of this table for correcting the results of official tests has not yet received the sanction of Parliament. It is true that in this country, where no places of importance are at any considerable elevation above the sea, the variation of barometric pressure does not usually exceed 2 or 3 inches ; but it is conceivable that even in the United Kingdom, circumstances may arise in actual practice which will cause a considerable re- duction in atmospheric pressure. For instance, if oil were drawn from a large tank which is hermetically closed, a partial vacuum would be formed above the ■surface of the liquid ; and in such a case an explosive nixture of air and vapour may be formed even when the oil is at a temperature far below its legal flash-point. The amount of vapour produced may also be increased by agitation of the oil. Dr. Beilby has shown that by the violent shaking up of samples of oil with air in a 72 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Conditions affecting inflamma- bility of vapour mixtures. closed vessel, an inflammable atmosphere was formed when the oil was at a temperature 5° or 6° F. below its flash-point (Abel). If portions of the containing vessel are at a higher temperature than the oil itself, this may have a con- siderable effect on the rate of evolution of vapour. The liquid will creep over the surface of the heated parts by capillary attraction, and will then give off vapour at a greater rate than the bulk of the oil. The vapour so given off will no doubt have some tendency to condense on the cooler surface of the oil ; but owing to the nature of petroleum vapour, such condensation will take place only to a very limited extent. The effect may be therefore to produce a larger amount of vapour than might be expected from the temperature of the oil. Thus in a badly-designed testing apparatus, if parts of the oil cup are brought to a higher temperature than the oil itself, low flash-points may be obtained ; but such an apparatus would not be likely to yield uniform results. This condition has a more important bearing in the case of lamps, where the metal- work of the burner in contact with the oily wick may be at a very high temperature. Again, in a tank exposed to the direct rays of the sun the sides may be raised to a high temperature, whilst the bulk of the oil remains comparatively cool. It is not improbable that electrification of the oil, such as may occur from friction in pipes or even in a lamp burning in the neighbourhood of electrified bodies in a dry room, may have a considerable influence on the amount of vapour emitted. The above are some of the conditions affecting the production of vapour ; but the question whether the amount of vapour produced is sufficient to form an inflammable or explosive atmosphere depends on yet other conditions. The most important of these is the "FLASH-POINT* AND "FIRE-TEST.* 73 nature of the means of ignition. This affects the results given by any particular form of testing apparatus, and it is necessary therefore to specify the means of ignition somewhat minutely in order to obtain uniform results. In general it may be said that the larger and hotter the flame, the smaller will be the proportion of vapour necessary to produce an inflammable or explosive mixture. This proportion will also depend to a less extent on the volume of the mixture which is present. In order to show that variations in one or more of the above conditions may produce results differing widely from those given by the Abel apparatus, it is only necessary to state that Professor Dewar (1896 : Q. 7057) produced an explosion of vapour with an oil having a flash-point of 106° F. (Abel), when the temperature of the sample was only 86° F. Again, an accident occurred on May 31, 1895, at Harburg near Hamburg, where a tank containing oil of a flash-point of 107° F. (Abel) was struck by lightning and exploded, notwithstanding the fact that the temperature of the air, and presum- ably that of the oil, was only 82° F. at the time (1896 : Q. 1894). From the above considerations it will be seen that it Conclusions is not safe to draw conclusions from the results given in a testing apparatus as to the liability of a particular oil to produce an explosive atmosphere under the ordinary conditions of storage and use. Nor would it be possible to devise a test which would take into account all the conditions which may arise in practice, or in other words, which would show the lowest tem- perature at which any particular oil will produce an inflammable atmosphere under all possible circum- stances. This being the case, the questions naturally arise as to what is the use of a test at all, and on what principle should the legal flash-point be fixed. The answer to the first of these questions is that petroleum 74 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Principles on which standard should be fixed. of almost every degree of volatility, from solid paraffin to gasoline or even pentane, has its uses. and is sold in this country. The lighter varieties evolve vapour so rapidly as to necessitate certain special precautions, while the petroleum oils, being less volatile, may be handled with comparative safety. Consequently it is necessary in the interests of public safety to draw a dividing line to separate these two varieties. Since the degree of danger increases uniformly with each degree as the flash-point becomes lower, there is no definite point at which the line can be drawn. Any such line must therefore necessarily be an arbitrary one, and it must not be supposed that there is a marked differ- ence of danger between an oil flashing at a degree above the fixed standard and one which flashes slightly below. Where, then, should this arbitrary line be fixed, and on what principle ? If petroleum were now for the first time being introduced as a popular illuminant, and if we had no previous experience of its behaviour under various conditions, this question would be a very difficult one to answer. According to present knowledge, it is useless to base the figure of the flash-point on the maximum tempera- ture of the air in this climate, or of the oil in any particular lamp, because the conditions of the test are not the same as those which arise in actual practice. When petroleum was first introduced into this country this fact was not known ; and Dr. Letheby, who advised the Home Office when the Bill of 1862 was being prepared, appears to have been under the im- pression that there is some one definite temperature at which each particular sample of oil commences to "give off inflammable vapour." He is said to have stated that, according to his observation and experiment, there was no ordinary place of storage or lamp which "FLASH- POINT" AND "FIRE-TEST." 75 could reach a temperature of 100° F., and he therefore recommended that the flash-point should be fixed at that figure. As no method of testing was prescribed, this can hardly be said to have been the fixing of a standard ; but from the figure arrived at in 1862 on an erroneous assumption a standard has arisen, which has at any rate served the country's needs, and remained unchanged until the present day. As a matter of fact, it is upon experience alone that a standard of flash-point should be judged, and no alteration should be made in such standard on merely theoretical grounds. The real question is whether oil of a given flash-point has shown itself to be so dangerous by reason of its volatility as to require the standard to be raised, and if so, whether the advantage in point of safety outweighs any dis- advantage which may be involved. As proposals for raising the standard have been based mainly on the occurrence of lamp accidents, the further discussion of this question has been dealt with in the chapter on Petroleum Lamps. Another method of testing petroleum consists in "Fire-test." determining, by means of a suitable instrument, the temperature at which the oil takes fire and continues to burn when a light is applied to the surface. This method has never been adopted in this country except in the case of lubricating oils, but is still in use in several of the States of America. The temperature so determined is called the "fire-test" of the oil. The results obtained, as in the case of the flash-point, are liable to variations according to the means employed in carrying out the test. So far no form of fire-test has been devised which gives nearly as uniform results as the Abel flash-test. For this reason it is not possible to give an accurate comparison between the two methods of testino 1 . The difference in the case of kerosene 76 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Effect of local heating. usually lies between 37° and 47° F. ; that is to say, an oil which flashes at 73° F. in the Abel apparatus will take fire at from 110° to 120° F. in the Tagliabue cup, this latter being generally used in' America for de- termining the fire-test. In applying the fire-test, if the oil is allowed to become heated locally by the igniting flame, it may be made to take fire at a considerably lower temperature than would otherwise be the case ; and wide differences in the observed temperature of ignition of a particular oil may thus occur in hands of different experimenters. CHAPTEE VI. TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. Kerosene. — The flash-point, or, in some cases, the fire-test, of kerosene forms the basis of legislation on petroleum in most civilised countries, and its accurate determination is equally important to the public and the trade. The customary limitation of specific gravity prevents the introduction of an undue proportion of the heavier hydrocarbons, which would injuriously affect the burning quality of the oil, but affords no security against the presence of very volatile hydrocarbons, which would render the oil unsafe for ordinary use. In the early days of the petroleum industry it was Primitive the custom to test kerosene by pouring it upon the surface of warm water in a saucer, or by heating it in a cup placed in warm water, and bringing a lighted taper near the surface, but this primitive method was soon superseded by the use of instruments constructed for the purpose. Most of these instruments may be described as belonging either to the " open-test " class "Open-test" or to the "close- test" class. In the former division ™* ',', close " the vessel holding the sample of oil is uncovered, whilst in the latter it is covered during the progress of the test. One of the earliest forms of open-test instruments TagHabue's is that of Tagliabue, shown in Fig. 1. It consists of ° n p s e t ^ m en t . a glass cup placed in a copper water-bath heated by a spirit-lamp. The cup is filled with the oil to be tested, a thermometer placed in it, and heat applied, method of testing. 78 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Squire's open-test apparatus. Directions for use. the temperatures being noted at which, on passing a lighted splinter of wood over the surface of the oil a flash occurs, and, after further heating, the oil ignites. The former is the flash-point and the latter the fire-test. Squire's open-test apparatus was designed with a view to the ready adjustment of the test flame to the re- quired height above the surface of the oil. The oil cup was heated in a water- bath as usual, but the test-flame was furnished by a wick slightly protruding from a long tube extending from the side of a cylindrical reservoir charged with spirit. The reservoir was carried by an arm, which swung on a vertical rod attached to a heavy base, separate from the water-bath, and the height of it could be adjusted by means of a screw, so that the flame could, by swinging the lamp, be caused to pass over the oil at any desired distance from the surface. The inventor's directions were : For 110° oil the cup should be filled to within one-eighth of an inch from the top, the bulb of the thermometer extended into the oil up to the first cut line, and the height of the test-flame fixed at three sixteenths of an inch above the edge of the cup, or five-sixteenths of an inch above the surface of the oil. The apparatus should stand quite level, and the test-flame should be trimmed down to about the size of a dried pea. The heat of the lamp should be so regulated as to raise the temperature of the oil 5° in the first four minutes, and afterwards 10° every three minutes until 90° is reached, at which point the lamp is withdrawn for three minutes to allow the temperature to become stationary (at 96° to 98°), tfig- 1. TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, HUE-TEST, ETC. 79 open-test apparatus. when the test-flame is swung, beginning at 2 inches from the cup and terminating at the same distance on the other side, the movement occupying about half a second. If no flash occurs, the test-flame is again swung after a lapse of ten seconds, repeating the operation every two or three degrees until the burning- point is reached. The lamp should be removed before a test is made, until the temperature becomes sta- tionary. For 120° oil, the lamp should be allowed to remain until the thermometer indicates 100°, the tests being then applied in the manner described, only at every four or five degrees. An open-cup tester similar to that of Tugliabue, but Amaboidi' of somewhat larger size, and provided with a mechanical arrange- ment for passing the test-flame over the oil, was introduced by Arnaboldi. Inl879theSaybolt electric tester (Fig. 2) was adopted by the New York Produce Exchange. In this apparatus the oil is contained in an open cup, and ignition is effected by a spark from an induction coil, passing between platinum points placed at a fixed distance above the oil. The official directions for the use of the apparatus are as follow : " Fill the metal bath with water, leaving room for Directions displacement by the glass cup. Heat the water until the bath thermometer indicates 100° F, at which point remove the lamp. Fill the . glass cup with oil to top line, indicated by the rim surrounding cup, which is Saybolt's electric tester. Fig. 2. 80 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. one-eighth of an inch below top edge of the cup. See that there is no oil on the outside of the cup, nor upon the upper level edge, using paper to clean cup in pre- ference to cotton or ■woollen material. See that the surface of the oil is free from air bubbles before first flash is produced. Lift the cup steadily with left hand and place in the bath. Suspend the thermometer with the bulb of same immersed just from view under the surface of oil. Adjust the flashing bar and immerse the battery zincs in fluid. Try for first flash every degree until the same is obtained. Attain flash by producing spark with one stroke of the key. The stroke on the key should be such as in telegraphy is used to produce what is called a dot, that is, a short, quick stroke. The first flash produced from 110° test oil is generally obtained when the temperature of the oil has arrived at 90°. The temperature of the bath at 100° (as per note above) will carry the oil to about 90°, or, in other words, to about the first flashing point, without the aid of a lamp. When the thermometer in the oil indicates 90°, introduce lamp under the bath, and do not remove until the operation is finished. The temperature of oil when placed in bath should not be lower than 55°, nor higher than 70° F. The flashing bar must be free from oil before adjusting for test. Draughts of air must be excluded from the apartment wherein tests are made. Oil of 110° and upwards shall (after first flash) be flashed at 95, 100, 104, 108, 110, 112, 115, Oil of 120° and upwards, after first flash, 100, 105, 110, 115, 118, 120, 122, 125. Oil of 130° and upwards, every 5° after first flash, until burn- ing-point." 1868 English The first apparatus employed in this country in con- open-test nec tion with the legal definition of petroleum was that apparatus. . . , described in the schedule of the Petroleum Act, 1868. It consists of a slightly conical oil-cup of thin sheet-iron, TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 81 two inches deep and two inches wide at the opening, provided with a flat rim, and a raised edge a quarter of an inch high.* Across the cup and fixed to or rest- Apparatus ing on the edge is a wire, which is thus a quarter of an °* " the inch above the flat rim. The oil-cup is supported by chemists." the rim in a tin water-bath, four and a half inches deep and four and a half inches in diameter. The outer vessel having been filled with " cold or nearly Directions cold water," as much of the oil to be tested is poured for use - into the cup as will fill it without flowing over the flat rim, and a thermometer with a round bulb, about half an inch in diameter, and so graduated that every 10° F. occupies not less than half an inch on the scale, is then suspended in the oil so that the bulb is im- mersed about an inch and a half beneath the surface. A screen of pasteboard or wood of specified dimensionsf having been placed round the apparatus, a "small" flame is applied to the bottom of the water bath, and when the temperature of the oil has reached 90° F., a " very small " flame is passed across the surface of the oil on a level with the wire, this application of the test- flame being repeated for every rise of " two or three " degrees in temperature, until a " pale-blue flicker or flash" is produced. The temperature at which this occurs having been noted, the experiment is repeated with a fresh sample of the oil, withdrawing the source of heat when the temperature approaches that noted in the first experiment, and applying the test-flame at * It was originally intended by- the three chemists, Sir Frederick Abel (then Mr. Abel), Professor Attfield, and Dr. Letheby, whs had reported on the subject, that an oil-cup three inches in depth and an inch and a half in diameter, to be only about half-filled with the oil, should be employed, without any screen, but these conditions were modified, as explained in chap. vii. t The schedule provides that the screen is to surround the apparatus about two-thirds, and is to reach " several inches above the level of the vessels.'' 82 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Relation of results to fire-test. Insuffi- ciency of directions for use. Defective nature of test. Keates' close-test. Abel's in- vestigation. every rise of two degrees. In the use of this apparatus, it was found that oils of 120° F. fire-test, as determined in. the United States before shipment, usually had a flash-point several degrees above the legal limit of 100° F. It was soon discovered that the directions for testing given in the English Petroleum Act of 1868 were not sufficiently precise, and that the words " small flame " and "very small flame" were differently interpreted by various operators. As the result dealers were fre- quently proceeded against, and sometimes convicted, for selling kerosene flashing below the legal limit, although the oil had been passed by independent experts. Moreover, it was found that the open-cup tests were very untrustworthy, especially when made by comparatively unskilled and inexperienced persons. The substitution of a closed or covered oil-cup (Fig. 3) for the open cup was accordingly proposed by Mr. Keates, consulting chemist of the Metropolitan Board of Works. In 1871 a bill to legalise this change and to otherwise amend the exist- ing law was introduced, but it was opposed by the petroleum trade on the ground that the flash-point of 85° F. advocated by Mr. Keates was much higher than the equiva- lent of the standard of 100° F. in use with the open cup. In 1875 the Government, with the concurrence of the Metropolitan Board of Works and of the Petro- leum Association, requested Sir Frederick Abel to experimentally investigate the matter with a view to placing it on a satisfactory basis. The questions referred were as follow : Fig. 3. TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 83 " 1. Whether the method of testing petroleum as prescribed in Terms of schedule 1 of the Petroleum Act, 1871 (34 & 35 Vict., referellc e. c. 105), is such as uniformly to ensure reliable and satisfactory results. " 2. If not, what alterations in the method of testing petroleum should be adopted to secure such results, due regard being had to the fact that the testing must, in many instances, be carried out by persons who have had comparatively little experience in conducting delicate experiments. " 3. Assuming it to be, in your opinion, desirable to obtain a ' flashing-test ' for petroleum, whether the present ' flash- ing-point' of 100° F. (or its equivalent under any,modified method of testing which you may propose) is, in your judgment, calculated to afford adequate protection to the public, without unduly interfering with or restricting the trade; if not, what alteration in this respect should be made." After a prolonged and exhaustive experimental inquiry, Results of in which Dr. Kellner rendered valuable assistance, Sir mq ir ' Frederick Abel presented to the Secretary of State an elaborate report, dated August 12, 1876, wherein the questions enumerated were thus answered : " 1. The method of testing petroleum as prescribed in schedule 1 of the Petroleum Act, 1871 (34 & 35 Vict., c. 105), is not of a nature ' uniformly to ensure reliable and satisfactory results.' "2. A method of testing petroleum has been elaborated for adoption in place of that prescribed by the Petroleum Act, 1871, due regard having been had to the fact ' that the testing must, in many instances, be carried out by persons who have had comparatively little experience in conducting delicate experiments.' This method, while resembling in its general nature the one hitherto used, is free from the defects inherent in the latter, and is so arranged that it can be carried out, with the certainty of furnishing uniform and precise results, by persons possessing no special knowledge or skill in manipulation. "With ordinary attention in the first instance to simple instructions, different operators cannot fail to obtain concordant results with it, and it is so nearly automatic in its nature that it is not, like the present method of testing, susceptible of 84 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Determina- tion of equivalent flash-point. Mean difference 27° F. Application of tests to 1000 samples. Results. manipulation so as to furnish different results at the will of the operator. " 3. There are not, in my judgment, any well-established grounds for considering that the present flashing-point of 100° F. is not ' calculated to afford adequate protection to the public' " 4. With the employment of the new test, a minimum flashing- point should therefore be adopted, which is equivalent, or as nearly as possible so, to the flashing-point of 100° F., as furnished by the present test." In the determination of the equivalent flash-point it was obviously necessary to deal with the conflicting views already referred to as to the proper mode of conducting the test with the open-cup instrument. One of the authors assisted Sir Frederick Abel in the conduct of this portion of the inquiry ; but before the test-standard was even provisionally fixed, Mr. T. W. Keates, as representing the Metropolitan Board of Works, and Mr. John Calderwood, on behalf of the Scottish Mineral Oil Association, were also consulted. Eventually, as the result of the joint experiments, it was ascertained that the difference between the flash-points obtained with the open-cup instrument and those furnished by the Abel apparatus usually ranged from 25° to 29° F. Adopting the mean differ- ence of 27°, the new standard was accordingly fixed at 73° F. One of the authors then applied the two tests to 1000 samples of American kerosene, the first 968 samples consisting of the ordinary oil of commerce, and the remaining 32 of " water-white " oil. The following were the results obtained : 92 samples showed a difference between the two tests of 25°. 208 225 281 162 26°. 27°. 28°. 29°. 968 TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 85 On the other hand, the majority of the last 32 samples gave smaller differences as follow : 9 samples showed a difference between the two tests of 20°. 1 sample 9 samples 1 sample 4 samples 8 „ 32 21°. 22°. 23°. 24°. 25°. These, however, all consisted, not of ordinary petro- leum oil, but of the special kind which is known in the trade under the name of " water- white " oil ; therefore the exceptional results afforded by them do not affect the question, and are of interest only as showing that samples may be selected or specially prepared having flash-points by the two systems more closely ap- proximating than those of the ordinary petroleum oil of commerce. This water-white oil, as is well under- stood, possesses the distinctive feature of low specific gravity in addition to that of high flash-point, being in fact produced at a considerably enhanced cost by rejecting, in the process of distilling the crude oil, an unusually large proportion of the heavier as well as of the lighter hydrocarbons, and doubtless this accounts for the smaller difference between the two tests. Before the new test was legalised, one of the authors introduction proceeded (in 1877) to New York for the purpose of submitting the instrument to the inspectors appointed by the New York Produce Exchange, and arranging for its use in testing kerosene intended for shipment to this country. The Abel test, as it is now commonly termed, was Legalisation legalised by the Petroleum Act, 1879. The construe- ° e f s f bel tion and use of the apparatus are fully described in Appendices I. and VII. By an oversight the length of Abel test. 86 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Length of pendulum. Use of pendulum. of the lead-line or pendulum was omitted from the schedule of the Act. This should be 24 inches from the point of suspension to the centre of gravity of the weight. The following explanatory note on the use of the pendulum appeared in the Petroleum Bill, 1883 : « 2fote. — For example : The pendulum having been moved from the perpendicular to posi- tion a (Fig. 4), The first oscillation is from a to b. second third fourth 6 to a. a to b. b to a. Fig. 4. Use of clock or "metro- nome." The action of the Abel test. The opening of the slide commences the moment the pendulum leaves posi- tion a in the first oscillation, and is steadily continued while it performs the first, second and third oscillations ; so that the slide is fully open when, in the third oscillation, the pendulum has reached position b. The slide is kept open for an instant and then quickly shut, the moment of its being quite closed again being coincident with the return of the pendulum to position a at the end of the fourth oscillation." Those who have occasion to make a large number of tests will find it convenient to use a clock with a pendulum of the requisite length or a synchronised " metronome " such as is used in teaching music. In the use of the Abel test it should be recognised that at each application of the test-flame a sample, so to say, of the atmosphere of the upper part of the oil- cup is withdrawn by the action of the current of air produced. This current passes downwards through the two smaller openings in the cover of the cup and up- wards through the central orifice, under the influence of the heat of the test-flame, sweeping out a portion of the vapour which has been given off. It will, therefore, TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 87 often be found that an oil the flash-point of which is, say, 75° F. will flash on the first application of the test-flame if such application be made only two or three degrees below the true flash-point instead of at about 66° F. As, however, the result thus obtained depends to a considerable extent upon the temperature of the cup itself and of the mercury in the bulb of the thermometer, it would be very difficult, if not practi- cally impossible, to obtain uniformity in tests made on this principle, and the fact that some portion of the vapour given off by the sample is eliminated before the flash-point is reached is of no consequence, as the test importance is otherwise an arbitrary one. With some oils of a ofbe s in ning the test at a flash-point barely 73° F. it is desirable, in order to sufficiently ensure obtaining a result which subsequent tests would low n i-i t i n temperature. connrm, to begin the application of the test-flame two or three degrees below 66° F. (a safe rule being to commence 8 or even 10 degrees below the flash-point); but obviously if a given sample has a flash-point below 73° F. when tested in the manner prescribed by law, the oil represented by this sample must be regarded as .petroleum to which the Acts apply even though the flash-point may not be below 73° when the testing is commenced at a lower temperature than "about 66° F." In 1881, Engler and Haass made a number of experi- Use of a ments with the Abel and other instruments, and came s ' irrerin lhe . . oil-cup. to the conclusion that the provision of a stirrer in the oil-cup was desirable. Victor Meyer had previously expressed the same opinion. In the Abel apparatus a stratum of vapour is formed upon the surface of the oil, and the temperature of the oil is not uniform throughout. It is, therefore, necessary that the dimensions of the air-space above the oil, the depth to which the test-flame is inserted, the size of the orifices in the cover, the position of the thermometer-bulb, and 88 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. other particulars should be defined with greater accuracy than would probably be necessary if a stirrer were added ; but experience has shown that the Abel instrument can be readily standardised, and any number of instruments can thus be constructed to give concordant results if used with a reasonable amount of care. The addition of a stirrer, both for the vapour and for the oil, is no doubt desirable when the Abel instrument in its original or modified form is applied to the testing of oils of high flash-point, such as lubricating oils, but Dr. Engler and Dr. Bunte have expressed to one of the authors their concurrence in his view that it is not requisite when the instrument is employed in testing kerosene. Suggestions If a number of tests are to be made with a single of the Abel 6 instrument, it will be found desirable, especially in test. warm weather, to cool the oil-cup and thermometer- bulb after each test, by plunging them into cold water and afterwards wiping them dry. It is perhaps scarcely necessary to say that a confirmatory test, such as it is often desirable to make, must of course be carried out Necessary with a fresh portion of the oil. It may not be precautions, altogether superfluous to point out that the mercurial column in the oil-cup thermometer should be carefully examined from time to time in order to ascertain that it is unbroken. Cases have occurred in which, owing to the accidental detachment of a small portion of the mercury, a flash-point far below the true one has been recorded. The oil-cup may with advantage be placed for filling upon a sheet of plate-glass, resting upon a tripod levelling stand, previously adjusted with the aid of a spirit-level. This stand should be in a good light, as the accurate filling of the cup to the point of the gauge is important. The oil should be poured in without splashing, and any bubbles which may be formed should be dispersed with a pointed strip of paper. TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 89 As the testing should be conducted in a subdued light, the reading of the thermometer will be found to be greatly facilitated by placing behind the apparatus at the requisite height a burning night-light or candle so that the light illuminates the translucent ivory scale of the thermometer. To shut off the light which would otherwise pass to the eyes of the observer a piece of paper, three or four inches square, having two slits made in it should be slipped over the thermometer- stem, the portion overlying the ivory being sufficiently cut away. The observer should take care that when he reads the thermometer the line of vision is at a right angle with the scale. The Petroleum Act, 1879, gives no specific directions Testing applicable to the testing of india-rubber solution, and s "iution bber to meet this deficiency the first schedule of the Inflam- mable Liquids Bill, 1891, contained the following addition to the instructions for the use of the test- apparatus : " If the flashing test has to be applied to sub- stances of a viscous or semi-solid nature which cannot be poured (such as solutions of india-rubber in mineral naphtha), the mode of proceeding is as follows : About a tablespoonful of the substance to be tested is placed in the cup, and the cover is put on. The air-chamber in the water-bath is filled with water to a depth of ltj- inch, and the temperature of the water-bath is raised to 76° (for which purpose the scale of the thermometer to be used in the water-bath should range from 60" to 180°). " The cup is then put into theb/ith and the tempera- ture of the water-bath maintained at 76° throughout the test. After the lapse of fifteen minutes the test- flame is to be applied. If no flash occurs, the heating is continued for another fifteen minutes and the test- 90 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. flame again applied, and so on until a flash takes placa or the temperature in the cup has reached 75°; [if a flash occurs at or]* below 72° the substance under examination has an observed flashing-point of less than 73°. The temperature at which a flash occurs is the observed flashing-point of the substance, and, subject to correction for atmospheric pressure as herein- before described, is the true flashing-point." Testing Although some paints containing petroleum, such plints ' as anti-fouling and anti-corrosive compositions applied to ships' bottoms, are neither viscous nor semi-solid and can be poured, their flash-points cannot be satis- factorily determined in the manner prescribed for the testing of petroleum owing to their being insufficiently fluid to admit of the formation of convection currents. In other words, the heat applied by means of the water-bath and air-jacket does not circulate freely through the contents of the oil-cup, with the result that the part of the liquid undergoing the test which is in contact with the walls of the cup acquires a much higher temperature than is indicated by the thermo- meter, and a flash-point may be thus recorded which is far below the true flash-point. For the efficient testing of such liquids a stirrer in the oil-cup is needed. Results After the Abel instrument had been in use for some atoospheTic time, the discovery was made that the results which it pressure. furnished differed materially according to the barometric pressure at the time of testing. This source of variation appears to have been first observed accidentally in Germany ; and as the result of a series of experiments made in an air-tight chamber in the Jewish Hospital in Berlin, it was ascertained that the difference in the flash-point amounted to about 0'30° 0. for each 10 milli- metres difference in the height of the barometric column. * The words in square brackets have, apparently, been inadver- tently omitted. TESTING— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 91 appears to have been first observed accidentally in Germany ; and as the result of a series of experiments made in an air-tight chamber in the Jewish Hospital in Berlin, it was ascertained that the difference in the flash-point amounted to about 0"30° C. for each 10 milli- metres difference in the height of the barometric column. A table of corrections was accordingly prepared in Germany for use with the Abel-Pensky tester. This table is given on p. 100. To obtain further evidence as to the effect of altera- tion in barometric pressure on the flash-point, a series of experiments was conducted by one of the altitudes authors in association with Sir Frederick Abel at different altitudes in Switzerland, and results exhibiting a difference of about 2° F. in the flash-point for 1 inch difference in barometric pressure were obtained. The experiments were, however, not carried out Results with a view of determining the exact extent of varia- ° tained - tion, the number of tests made being insufficient to form the basis of a table of corrections. The results actually obtained are given in the following table : Experi- ments at different No. of Sample. London. Paria. Bouveret. Visp. Chamonix. Zermatt. Riffel. Bar. at Bar. at Bar. at Bar. at Bar. at Bar. at Bar. at SO". 30-16". 28-76". 27-6". 26-425". 24-3". 21-5". 1 71° F. 71° V. 68° F. 66° F. 63° F. 60° F. 55° F. 2 73 73 70 68 64 62 56 3 76 76 73 71 68 65 63 4 78 78 75 73 70 67 64 5 85 85 83 80 78 75 70 Difference in barometer from London observa- tion . . - . 1-25" 2-5" 3-575" 5-7" 8-5" Mean difference in flash- point per inch of mer- curial column . 2-05° 2° 2-238° 1-93° 1-76° It was also found that the effect of a tropical climate Effect of a upon the liberation of vapour from the oil resulted in 4 ">P Ical n • • i climate. the flash-point being considerably lowered ; and as the Indian Government, in adopting the Abel test, 92 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Experi- ments in India and England. Results. Modifica- tion adopted. had copied the directions verbatim from the English Act, the result was that several cargoes of oil, which were certified as of proper flash-point at the time of shipment, were refused admittance at the port of Calcutta. In order to investigate the matter one of the authors proceeded to India, and from a series of experiments, made there and afterwards in England in conjunction with Sir Frederick Abel and with the assistance of Dr. Kellner, it was demonstrated that a much lower flash - point than that furnished in a temperate climate was liable to be obtained when the Abel test was employed in a tropical climate in the manner prescribed in the English Act. Further experiments made by Dr. Warden, analyst to the Government of Bengal, Professor Pedler, of Calcutta, Dr. Lyon, Sir Frederick Abel, Dr. Kellner, and one of the authors showed that the depression in the flash-point was largely due to disengagement of vapour in the act of filling the oil-cup. Although prolonged cooling of the oil minimised the liability to such disengagement of vapour, it was found that the only practical means of eliminating this source of error was to get rid of the vapour before commencing the test or before the flash-point was reached. The vapour was readily removed by gently blowing over the surface of the oil before placing the cover on the cup, or by the use of an aspirator attached to the cover, or by leaving the test-slide withdrawn for some time ; but the method finally adopted consisted in commencing the test many degrees below the flash- point, so that the vapour is withdrawn by the current of air created by the test-flame in successive quantities too small to cause a flash before active volatilisation of the oil begins. Thus modified, the test gives results at a tropical temperature which agree very closely with TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 93 those which it furnishes in a temperate climate. The slight loss of volatile constituents which occurs when the test is so performed is of no practical importance, since such loss takes place even by exposure to the air in hot climates. (See a joint communication from Sir F. Abel and one of the authors in the Chemical News, May 2, 1884.) In October 1887 Sir Frederick Abel drew up Directions directions for the use of the Abel instrument in foruseof tropical climates. These directions will be found in tropical Appendix III. climates. Since the Abel test was legalised in India, it has Testing been found necessary to determine the flash-point Bur ° ia *■ crude of Burma crude petroleum, which is solid at common petroleum, temperatures. In testing this oil in the Abel instru- ment, rapid evolution of vapour commences while the bulk of the oil in the cup remains solid, and the thermometer therefore does not indicate the tempera- ture of the oil in contact with the walls of the cup from which vapour is being evolved. To meet this difficulty, one of the authors suggested the addition of a delicate thermometer, which is fixed in the cover of the oil-cup in a vertical position, so that the small cylindrical bulb is just immersed in the oil, and is distant only a tenth of an inch from the side of the cup. In 1880 the subject of petroleum-testing was investiga- investigated in Germany on behalf of the Govern- tlon ° f i a • petroleum- ment, and the Abel instrument was selected as the testing in best, but, as exception was taken to the personal Germany, error liable to be introduced by the method of applying the test-flame, the modification devised by Pensky, of Berlin, was adopted. This consists in Abel- effecting the movement of the slide and applica- p e nsk y test tion of the test-flame by a clockwork arrangement. 94 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Description A section of the instrument — which in all other respects instrument. ^ s practically identical with the ordinary Abel apparatus — and the details of the clockwork mechanism, are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, which also give the dimensions in millimetres. Fig. 5. The slide S pivoted on the centre z is set in motion by the arm d moving on a central axis. This arm carries on its under side two pins e x , e 2 . When the slide is in its normal position — i.e., closing the openings o 1; o 2 , o, — one of the pins e 1 rests against the steel plate / on the right-hand side of the slide, and the other e 2 is held by the catch g. On the axis of the TESTING. -FLASH -POINT, FlltE-TEST, ETC. V5 arm d is fastened the spring-case u containing a spiral To wind up the clockwork, the knob b is turned half round, further winding being prevented by a stop. To Fig. 6. move the slide, the trigger h is pushed towards the spring h, the catch g being thus drawn back and the pin e 2 released. The spiral spring unwinds and presses the other pin e l against the slide S, moving this slide aside to the left and uncovering the apertures. As 96 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM, soon as the pin e 1 is carried by the revolution of the arm d past the steel plate/, the slide is forced back to its former position by the spring r, and the pin e x is stopped by the catch g, which returns it to its original place as the trigger k is released. These movements are repeated every time the test is applied. The un- coiling of the spiral spring and movement of the slide are regulated by the escapement m n p. The three holes in the lid of the oil-cup and the two holes in the slide (the lateral movement of the slide uncovering and covering the third hole in the lid) are of the same area as those in the Abel instrument, but not quite the same shape, on account of the circular motion of the slide. The lamp is tipped by a nose-piece n, and on its return to the perpendicular is prevented from swinging backwards by a stop v. The Abel-Pensky apparatus, as used in Germany, furnishes results about 3° F. higher than those given by the Abel instrument, but the clockwork modification employed in India is standardised to afford flash- points corresponding with those obtained with the original Abel instrument. Directions The following is the method of appl)ing the Abel- Pensky test prescribed in Germany : — The testing should be carried out in an apartment of medium temperature and free from draughts. The petroleum samples should be in closed vessels, and have been long enough in the room to have acquired the same temperature, otherwise the tests will not be satisfactory. The height of the barometer must be observed before commencing operations, and the temperature at which the test is to be first applied varies with the pressure indicated, according to the following table : — for use. TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. Height of Barometer. First Test applied at 685 to 695 millimetres + 14° 0. 695 to 705 „ + 14° 705 to 715 + 14-5° 715 to 725 + 15° 725 to 735 + 15-5* 735 to 745 + 16° 745 to 755 + 16-5° 755 to 765 + 17° 765 to 775 + 17° 775 to 785 + 17-5" 97 If the barometer varies from the normal pressure of 760 mm. by more than 2\ mm. either way, the actual flash-point observed is corrected in accordance with the table on p. 100. The table being arranged for intervals of 5 mm., intermediate pressures are counted as or 5, according to the figure which they most nearly approach — viz., 742 counts as 740, 743 as 745, and so on. The instrument must be set level on the testing-table, with the aid of a spirit-level or plumb-line, before it is filled, and it should be at such a height that the red mark on the water-bath thermometer is on a level with the eye of the operator. The bath is next filled with water at + 50° to 52° C. until a portion runs out through the overflow pipe, to which an indiarubber tube should be attached to convey the surplus water away without splashing the apparatus or table. If cold water is used for filling the bath, it must be warmed by the heating lamp before putting in the oil-cup, care being taken that the base ring does not get overheated. The test lamp is prepared for use by being packed with loose cotton wool, which is then saturated with petroleum, any surplus being poured out. If this is not attended to, the tipping of the lamp at the moment of applying the test might cause drops of oil to fall on to the lid of the tester and vitiate the results. The wick must also be cleansed from any adherent incrustation or char. o &8 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. The oil-cup, with its cover and thermometer, are to be thoroughly clean and dry, and all traces of oil from preceding tests are to be removed by drying and ab- sorption. Finally, the petroleum to be tested, if not at least 2° C. cooler than the lowest of the temperatures recorded in the foregoing table, must be cooled down to that point, together with the oil-cup, the latter being dipped into cold water. To obtain very exact results, it is advisable to use water cooled to + 11° C. for this purpose, and to keep the oil-cup in it long enough for proper cooling Before inserting the oil-cup, the water- bath is heated up to 54° to 55° C, the temperature indicated by the red mark on the thermometer scale. Meanwhile, the oil is poured into the oil-cup by means of the pipette, until the extreme point of the indicator just projects above the surface of the liquid. It is im- portant that this limit should not be exceeded, but if this should happen, the cup must be emptied, dried carefully, and refilled. Any bubbles forming on the surface of the oil must be dissipated by pricking with the warm charred point of a burnt-out match. The table on which the cup stands during the operation of filling should be perfectly horizontal and quite near to the water-bath, to minimise the risk of tilting or shaking the cup. The oil is poured into the centre of the cup and not against the sides, and to prevent bubbles the nozzle of the pipette should be kept below the surface of the liquid. The lid of the cup is put on directly after pouring in the oil, the thermometer being previously inserted in its socket and pressed down tightly, avoiding contact between the ebonite plate under the clockwork and the knobs K on the bath, as this would prevent the lid from fitting properly. The insertion of the oil-cup into the bath must be done without tilting or shaking, and to avoid the risk of this the cup, previously cooled by ice TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 99 and water to 8° C. (to prevent the oil getting warm while filling), may be put into position before filling. Should the water bath be at a higher temperature than 54° to 55° C, it must be cooled by the addition of cold water, and when that degree is reached the lamp is extinguished. When the oil approaches the temperature at which the. first test is to be applied, in accordance with the foregoing table, the test lamp is lighted and the flame adjusted until, when viewed from the front, it is of the same width as the white bead on the lid. This is im- portant, as the size of the flame has an influence on tbe flashing temperature. The clockwork is then wound up by turning the milled head as far as it will go in the direction indicated by the arrow. On releasing the catch by pressing on the trigger, the slide slowly and regularly moves aside, and at the end of two seconds has returned to its original position. During the movement of the slide the behaviour of the test-flame as it approaches the surface of the oil must be carefully observed, particular attention being directed to shelter- ing the apparatus from all draughts and from the breath of the operator. This is facilitated by the provision of a glass plate fixed to the draw-out side of the case con- taining the apparatus. The test is to be repeated at every %" rise of the thermometer until a flash is ob- tained. Before the absolute flash-point is reached the size of the test-flame will be observed to increase by a kind of halo when dipped towards the oil, but the true flash is a bluish, lightning-like flame extending over the whole free surface of the oil. The temperature indicated by the thermometer is subject to correction, both as regards barometric pressure and error, if any, of the thermometer itself, according to the variation ascertained on standardising the instrument. The test is repeated with a fresh portion of the same oil, after 100 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. cooling the oil-cup and lid, drying and freeing them, as well as the thermometer, from all adherent drops of oil, and reheating the bath to 55° C. U s o PS -a M PS O w H O E-t 8 | p-c ri 3 ° < Oh < O S5 O H O H PS PS O O ps o Em W PQ ■«! H OS TH OS -* OS ■* OS Tf OS -# OS ■* OS 00 OS rH O CM O CM rH CM rH CM CM CM CM CM CO CM CO CM H4 CM CM m CM m CM 1^- CM t~- CM *>- CM *>. CM J^~ CM r— CM l-~ 00 1> OS O CM O CM rH CM CM CM CM CM CM CO (M CO CM CM CM in CM in CM in O Vfi . O ITS. O >n o in O m O in OS O CM O CM rH CM rH CM CM CM CM CM CO CM CO CM CM CM m CM in CM HI OS -*! OS -# OS ^ OS Tfl OS ■Hi OS HH i> OS I— 1 OS rH o CM O CM l-i CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CM CO CM CM CM in CM CM !>. CM *-. CM O- CN t^- CM -T>. CM *-. CM co OS O O CM O CM rH CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CM CO CM CM CM in CM O iC O 10 O iO o IQ o l« o IS O CO r- OS o CM o CM CM CM CM cm CM CM CO CM CO CM CM CM CM tn GO CO CO CO CO CO 00 CO CO CO CO CO CO i> CO I— 1 OS rH OS rH o CM o CM CM rH CN CM CM CM CM CO CM CO CM CM CM o r- CM i>- CM r^ CM *>- CM r- CM *-- CM ^ H W t- 13 co r-l OS OS rH O CM o CM CM rH CM CM CM CM CM CO CM CO CM CM 4** CM ITS o iC o m O m O m O m O m PS D CO OS rH OS rH o CM o CM rH CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CM CO CM CM tf3 W H PS Ph W PS H El a EG O c- CO CO rH CO 00 rH CO OS rH 00 OS rH CO o CM CO o CM CO CM CO i-f CM CO CM CM CO CM CM CO CO CM CO CO CM CO CM w rH CO rH CD rH «D rH CD rH CD rH CO rH CO u 5 CO rH CO rH OS OS rH O CM O CM rH CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CM CO CM CM o O in O m O in O m O in O in O Hi Hi M 8 CO '8 Ph CO rH CO rH OS OS rH o CM o CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CM CO CM CM CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CM s ^ CO CO 1-+ OS rH OS rH o CM o CM rH CM rH CM CM CM CM CM CO CM CO CM CD rH CD rH CD rH CO rH CO rH CO rH CD CM rH CO rH CO rH OS rH OS rH O CM o CM rH CM rH CM CM CM CM CM CO CM CO CM -n OS HH OS HH OS H< OS t*H OS ■* OS -# I> rH rH CO CO rH OS OS rH O CM O CM CM rH CM CM CM CM CM CO CM o CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO h- rH rH CO CO rH OS OS o CM o CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CM in rH «o tH eo rH CO rH CO rH CO rH CD th o t- rH CO rH CO rH OS OS TH O CM o CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CM o OS ^ OS ■*** OS *# OS -* OS ■* OS •^ OS o CD rH 1>- rH rH CO rH CO OS rH OS rH o CM O CM r-H CM rH CM CM CM CM CM us !>. CM J>- CM ]>. CM i^. CM i^- CM J>- CM J^ CO CD rH t- CO 1-^ CO os rH OS rH O CM o CM CM rH CM CM CM CM CM o CD rH CO rH CD rH CD rH CO rH CD rH CO CO CD rH rH l>- CO rH CO rH OS OS O CM o CM CM rH CM CM CM CM CM m HH OS HH OS Hi OS ^fl OS ■* OS -tp OS ^ CO CD rH CD rH £ rH CO rH CO rH OS rH OS o CM o CM CM CM CM CM TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 101 If the result of the second test agrees with the first within £°, the average is taken as the apparent flash- point. If, however, the difference is 1° or more, a third test is necessary ; and, provided the results of the three do not differ more than l|-°, the average is taken. In case of a greater divergence a fresh set of tests must be made. In the case of oils flashing at the first application of the test-flame, the actual flash-point may be higher than is indicated by the thermometer, the accumulation of vapour in the oil-cup causing the flash to occur sooner than it would in ordinary circumstances. If it is desired to accurately test such oils, the operation is begun at a lower temperature than usual, and repeated at lower degrees until no flash is produced on first opening the slide. The apparent flash-points must be corrected for pressure, according to the table on p. 100, by finding the observed flash-point in the column headed by the existing height of the barometer, and proceeding in the same row to the column headed 760, which will show the actual flash-point at normal pressure. Fractions between the figures given in the table are to be counted as the figure to which they most nearly approach. Any error recorded by the standardiser of the apparatus must be corrected before applying the correction in the table. By an order of the Imperial Chancellor, dated July 21, standardis- 1882, the Kaiserliche Normal- Aichungs-Kommission in e the . instruments was empowered to standardise and stamp instruments for testing petroleum, particular attention being devoted to the following points : (a) The dimensions of the apparatus. (&) The accurate timing of the slide movement. (c) The accuracy of the thermometer. (d) The correctness of the flash-points indicated by the apparatus. 102 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. (e) The accuracy of the metallic barometer supplied with the instrument. The examination of the thermometers should not take place until they have been delivered. In verifying the dimensions of the apparatus, the following variations from the exact standard are allowed in : Millimetres. 0-2 0-2 The thickness of the metal plates The diameter of the lamp spout The distance of the point of the filling indicator from the upper edge of the cup ..... 0"5 The distance from the lower corner of the inside of the lamp spout to the upper face of the cup-lid when the lamp is fully tipped .... 0*5 The thickness of the ebonite ring .... - 5 The inside diameter and height of the oil-cup; the width of the brass ring; its distance from the upper edge of the cup ; the distance of the axis of the slide from the centre of the cup-lid and the centre of the three apertures ; the diameter of the bead ; and the dimensions of the tube for the insertion of the thermometer t x . 1*0 The distance of the centre of the bulb of the thermo- meter t x from the end of the sheathing-tube and from the underside of the cup-lid . . . 1 "0 The dimensions of the water-bath, and of the outer cylinder; the width of the ebonite ring on the bath ; and the distance of the lowest mark on the scale of either thermometer from the enlargement on the tube 2-0 The variation of time allowed for the slide movement is 0'2 second over or under the prescribed standard. The thermometer t x may not vary from the normal instrument more than 0'2° O. when tested in four places on the scale, and the thermometer t 2 not more than 0'5° C. when tested in two places. Furthermore, successive portions of the same sample of oil consecu- tively examined should not show a greater divergence TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIKE-TEST, ETC. 103 of flash-point than 075° C, and the average of five or seven such tests should not differ from the average of the same recorded by the standard by more than 0"5° C, an oil approximating to the standard flash- point being used for the experiment. The metallic barometer belonging to the apparatus should not differ more than 2 millimetres from the standard at the ordinary room temperature. It must be examined with a view to ascertaining the influence of sudden alterations of pressure or continued shaking of the instrument on its accuracy between the limits of 680 and 790 mm. The instruments which satisfy the tests imposed are stamped by the Normal- Aichungs • Kommission on all the removable portions, and the amount of variation or error of flash-point to be allowed for is indicated. The maker's name, the number of the instrument, and the year of examination are included in the stamping, and all the particulars are inscribed on a certificate issued by the standardiser together with the following measurements : (a) Distance of the point of the filling indicator from the upper edge of the oil-cup. (b) Distance of the lowest inside point of the lamp- spout from the under surface of the cup-lid when the lamp is fully tilted. (c) Distance of the central point of the oil-thermo- meter bulb from the under surface of the cup-lid. To guard against any alteration of these points subsequent to standardising, the Aichungs-Kommission send out with each apparatus examined a stamped gauge, consisting of a rectangular steel plate on one side of which is a projection for controlling the measure- ment a; on another a second projection bounded by two flutings to measure b, and furnished with a pro- jecting stud on one of its flat surfaces for gauging c. To examine a, the gauge is applied to the edge of the 104 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. oil-cup, so that the projection hangs down inside and the mark on it is touched by the point of the filling mark. For the second verification, b, the clockwork is set in motion, and the apertures in the lid are wedged open so that the mouth of the lamp is at its lowest point. The gauge lis then apphed under the lid, and the lower inside corner of the spout should coincide with the end of the smaller projection. For examining c, the side of the gauge opposite to the smaller projection used for b is applied to the under side of the lid, when the stud should exactly touch the middle of the bulb Tagliabue's " pyro- meter." Fig. 7. Fig. 8. of the thermometer. The length of the lamp-spout can also be verified, a mark cut at right angles to the plain side of the gauge showing the exact size. The edge of the spout-mouth should coincide with the mark ; and should either the top or bottom corner fail to do so, the apparatus is out of adjustment. As early as 1862, Tagliabue patented in America a " coal-oil pyrometer," for use either as a closed cup to determine the flash-point, or as an open cup for ascer- taining the igniting point of the oil. The apparatus is shown in Figs. 7 and 8, the upper portion of Fig. 8 showing the cover of the instrument illustrated in TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 105 Fig. 7, while the larger illustration in Fig. 8 shows a simpler form of the apparatus. The cylindrical water- bath is supported by a metal stand having an aperture near the bottom for the introduction of a small spirit lamp. The vapour disengaged from the oil by the application of heat mixes with atmospheric air admitted through perforations in the lid, and an inflammable mix- ture is thus formed, which ascends into the dome. The flash-point of the oil is ascertained by the insertion of a lighted taper or match into an opening in the dome, at intervals, until a slight explosion occurs. To deter- mine the igniting point of the oil, the cup is opened by partially revolving the cover, and the test-flame is held for one or two seconds in contact with the escaping vapour. Directions for Use. — Remove the cover a of the instrument by turning it until the vertical slots come into position to allow of its being taken off, take out the oil-cup, fill the outer vessel with water to a distance of within 2 inches from the top, replace the oil-cup and fill it with the oil to be tested to within f inch from the top, replace and secure the cover in position, supply the lamp with alcohol and trim the wick to give a small flame, light it and place it under the water-bath. The mercury in the thermometer will soon begin to rise ; watch this carefully until it approaches to within about 20° F. of the temperature at which the oil is ex- pected to flash, remove the lamp, press down the brass knob c* which will open the valves and allow air to enter into the instrument and vapour to rise in the dome C. Into the aperture of this insert a very small lighted taper, and if the vapourising point has been * This knob is connected with a bar e, the ends of which normally cover apertures /in a pivoted plate 6. The plate may be moved by means of a handle g when it is desired to open the cup. The bar e is supported by a spring. 106 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. reached, a slight " puff" will occur ; if this should not take place, replace the lamp and allow the mercury in the thermometer to ascend very slowly, 2° or 3° F. per minute ; remove the lamp and perform the same opera- tion with the lighted taper until the slight " puff" is produced ; proceed very slowly with this operation, and when the " puff" occurs take a simultaneous reading of the thermometer ; this indicates the flash-point. To ascertain the burning-point of the oil, replace the lighted lamp and allow the thermometer to rise about 8° F. ; now remove the lamp, swing back the cover by means of the handle g, and pass the lighted taper quickly across the oil without inclining the taper down- wards ; if the burning-point has been attained, the oil will ignite ; if not, cover the oil and replace the lamp, watching the thermometer carefully, and not allowing the mercury to rise more than 3° or 5° F. between the tests. When the oil takes fire, read the thermometer, and this. will give the igniting-point. It is advisable in all cases to make more than one test of the oil ; in each new test the water and oil should be changed, and the instrument allowed to cool. Having learned the vapourising point in the first operation, in the succeeding ones the instrument can be more carefully watched, and probably the flash-point recorded will be lower than in the first operation. When "high grade" oils are being tested, sand is placed in the outer vessel instead of water. One of the authors has not found it possible to obtain concordant results with this instrument. In some cases the results closely agree with those furnished by the Abel apparatus, but in most instances they appear to be from 6° to 8° F. higher, and occasionally 10° or 12° higher. This ap- paratus was formerly used in Germany. The simpler form of the instrument shown in Fig. 8 consists of a water-bath A, an oil-cup B, the hood C, with an TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 107 opening a, into which the test-flame is inserted ; the body E, the thermometer D, the lamp F, and the pivoted cover 6 over the air-inlet. The instrument oflicially employed in the State of Wisconsin Wisconsin has a copper oil-cup with a copper cover in tester - which there is a small opening for the insertion of the test-flame. In 1882 the State Board of Health of New York adopted a form of the tester last described, embodying improvements suggested by Professor Arthur Elliott H. Elliott, the chief of which was the substitution of a tester - glass for a metal cover. The following is the official description of the apparatus and of the mode of apply- ing the test : The instrument consists of a sheet-copper stand Description. 8^- inches high, exclusive of the base, and 4^- inches in diameter. On one side is an aperture, 3^- inches high, for introducing a small spirit lamp about 3 inches in height, or better, a small gas-burner in place of the lamp when a supply of gas is at hand. The water- bath is also of copper, and is 4£ inches in height and 4 inches inside diameter. The opening in the top is 2f- inches in diameter. It is also provided with a |--inch flange which supports the bath in the cylindrical stand. The capacity of the bath is about 20 fluid ounces, this quantity being indicated by a mark on the inside. The lower portion of the copper oil holder is 3-f inches high and 2f inches inside diameter. The upper part is 1 inch high and 3f inches diameter, and serves as a vapour-chamber. The upper rim is pro- vided with a small flange which serves to hold the glass cover in place. The oil holder contains about 10 fluid ounces when filled to within ■§- of an inch of the flange which joins the oil-cup and the vapour-chamber. In order to prevent reflection from the otherwise bright surface of the metal, the oil-cup is blackened on the inside by forming sulphide of copper by means of sulphide for use. 108 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. of ammonium. The cover is of glass, and is 3f inches in diameter. On one side is a circular opening closed by a cork through which the thermometer passes. In front of this is a second opening f- of an inch deep and the same in width on the rim, through which the flashing-jet is passed in testing. The substitution of a glass for a metal cover more readily euables the operator to note the exact point at which the flash occurs. A small gas jet, £ inch in length, furnishes the best means for igniting the vapour. Where gas cannot be had, the flame from a small waxed twine answers very well. The test shall be applied according to the following directions : Directions Remove the oil-cup and fill the water-bath with cold water up to the mark on the inside. Replace the oil-cup and pour in enough oil to fill it to within -J- of an inch of the flange joining the cup and the vapour- chamber above. Care must be taken that the oil does not flow over the flange. Remove all air bubbles with a piece of dry paper. Place the glass cover on the oil- cup, and so adjust the thermometer that its bulb shall be just covered by the oil. If an alcohol lamp is employed for heating the water-bath, the wick should be carefully trimmed and adjusted to a small flame. A small Bunsen burner may be used in place of the lamp. The rate of heating should be about 2° F. per minute, and should in no case exceed 3°. As a flash torch, a small gas jet £ inch in length should be employed. When gas is not at hand employ a piece of waxed linen twine. The flame in this case, how- ever, should be small. When the temperature of the oil has reached 85° F., the testing should commence. To this end, insert the torch into the opening in the cover, passing it in at such an angle as to well clear the cover, and to a distance about half-way between the oil and the cover. The motion should be steady TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 109 and uniform, rapid and without any pause. This should be repeated at every 2° F. rise of the thermometer until the temperature has reached 95° F., when the lamp should be removed and the test should be made at each degree of temperature until 100° F. is reached. After this the lamp may be replaced if necessary, and the test applied at each 2° F. The appearance of a slight bluish flame shows that the flash-point has been reached. In every case note the temperature of the oil before introducing the torch. The flame of the torch must not come in contact with the oil. The water-bath should be filled with cold water for each separate test, and the oil from a previous test carefully wiped from the oil-cup. The instrument to be used in ascertaining the igniting-point of oils shall consist of the cylinder, the copper oil-cup, together with a copper collar for suspending the cup in the cylinder, and an adjustable support for holding the thermometer. The test for ascertaining the igniting point shall be con- ducted as follows : Fill the cup with the oil to be tested to within f- of an inch of the flange joining the cup and the vapour-chamber above. Care must be taken that the oil does not flow over the flange. Place the cup in the cylinder and adjust the thermo- meter so that its bulb shall be just covered by the oil. Place the lamp or gas-burner under the oil-cup. The rate of heating should not exceed 10° F. a minute below 250° F., nor exceed 5° a minute above this point. The testing-flame described in the directions for ascertain- ing the flash-point should be used. It should be applied to the surface of the oil at every 5° rise in the thermometer till the oil ignites. An inconveniently large quantity of oil is required Objection to for this test, and the results obtained, while not differing greatly from those furnished by the Abel instrument, are less concordant. 110 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Granier tester. Directions for use. The first " automatic " tester introduced was that of Granier, which has been officially employed in France, and is thus described : The apparatus consists of a small copper cup divided into two concentric parts, the walls of the inner division being conical. In the aper- ture at the apex of the cone is inserted a tubular wick on a small mandrel which stands in a depression formed in the bottom of the cup, so as to be perfectly upright. There is a small tube in the outer division to serve as a gauge for the quantity of oil, and as an overflow pipe to carry away any slight excess. Heat is applied to the oil, not by a lamp below, but by means of a bent copper wire fixed in the aperture of the lid, so as to receive heat from the test-flame and convey it to the oil, into which its two ends dip. The cover has a cir- cular opening over the test-flame, with a small lid also pierced by a central aperture. The method of applying the test is as follows : The apparatus must be clean, and the wick must be renewed if carbonised to a depth exceeding 1 mm. The wick, fixed upon its metallic mandrel, is placed in the metallic cone in the cup, so as to rest evenly on the bottom of the cup. The oil to be tested, the temperature of which should not exceed 25° C, is poured into the cup in such a manner that it runs into the wick, the cup being filled to the top of the connecting tube, The cover is then placed on the cup, the small lid in the centre of the cover closed, and the thermometer placed in its socket. To ascertain the degree of inflamma- bility, a lighted match is held near the small orifice in the centre of the small lid, and kept there for several seconds, and the temperature at which a petroleum vapour flame appears and remains above the orifice is carefully noted. If a persistent vapour flame is not obtained, the wick should be lighted at several points, so as to produce combustion all round the edge, and TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. Ill the small lid closed. The rise in temperature is to be carefully observed, the degree at which a slight explosion occurs and extinguishes the flame being the degree of inflammability. Should this be e'ther 32°, 33°, or 34° C, the operation is to be twice repeated with fresh portions of the sample, and the average of the three taken as the correct result. Liquids passing the test of 35° 0. are considered as of the second class, and those failing to do so are held to belong to the first class, of inflammable liquids. One of the authors has made a considerable number Unsatisfac of tests with the Granier apparatus, but has found the character of action so unsatisfactory that he is unable to state how the test, the results compare with those given by the Abel instrument. In Parrish's naphthometer, an " automatic " tester panish's which has been largely used in Holland, the cover of ^ e p t gj ho " the oil-cup is provided with a wick holder, fixed cen- trally in a short tube of greater diameter, and carrying a lamp wick which passes down into the oil. The oil thermometer is inserted in a tube which is attached to the cover of the cup. This tube communicates (l) with the external air through orifices in the cup at the upper end, (2) with the air in the upper part of the oil-cup through a lateral aperture, and (3) with the oil in the cup through openings in the bottom of the tube. A screen prevents the heat of the test-flame from affecting the thermometer. The oil-cup fits in a water-bath which is placed in an outer casing containing the spirit lamp for heating the apparatus. In applying the test, cold water is poured into the water-bath, and the oil- cup is filled to within 1 centimetre from the top. The flame of the spirit lamp is regulated to a length of 1 to 1 J centimetre, and the testing-flame should not exceed 6 or 7 millimetres in length. The heat from the latter causes a current of air to pass down the tube containing n.2 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Foster's tester. Fig. 9. the thermometer, over the surface of the oil, where it mingles with the oil vapour, and to issue near the test- flame, ignition occurring when the flash-point of the oil is reached. The Foster automatic tester (Fig. 9), employed in Ohio, is similar in principle to Par- rish's tester. In the figure the oil- cup is shown at A, the water-bath at B, the body of the apparatus, forming an air jacket, at C, and the flash -jet at D. The instrument consists of a copper lamp-furnace containing a water-bath and oil-cup, the latter surmounted by a closed vapour- chamber, which is pierced at two points symmetri- cally placed for the reception of a thermometer and a flashing-lamp or taper. The apparatus is elliptical in shape, the thermo- meter being placed in one focus of the ellipse, and the flashing-taper in the other. The flashing-taper consists of a small cylindrical wick-holder, which is supported by radial arms attached to a ring, and rests upon a similar ring at the bottom of an open, shallow basin, the spaces between the radial arms giving egress to the oil vapour, while the wick itself extends down into the body of the oil within the cup. An inverted conical thimble, resting upon the rim of the basin, prevents the dissipation of the vapour. The thermometer is mounted in a copper tube cut away in front to expose the scale, the bulb of the thermometer, when in position, being within the body of the oil at a definite distance below the surface. A space round the tube of the thermometer, of definite diameter and distance above the surface of the oil, allows of the passage of a downward current of atmospheric air when the flashing-taper is alight. An TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 113 index is placed within the water-bath and within the oil-cup for maintaining uniformity in the filling of each. The heating lamp of the lamp-furnace has its wick ad- justable to regulate the rate of heating. Directions for Use. — (1) Remove the thermometer, with its mounting, from the oil. (2) Lift off the oil-cup containing the flashing-taper, and half fill the open water-bath with water. (3) Now take out the wick-holder from the oil-cup, and fill this vessel with the oil to be tested , pouring in the oil at the place of the wick-holder, and noting the gauge-mark at the thermometer hole ; pour in the oil very gradually as the surface approaches the gauge- mark. The gauge-mark consists of a small pendant shelf, and the oil-cup is properly filled when the upper surface of the oil just adheres to the lower surface of the gauge -mark. Too much care cannot be taken at this point ; therefore, having ceased pouring, tip the cup so that the oil flows away from the gauge, and then gradually restoring it to the horizontal, see that the surface again adheres, and add a little more oil if it does not. (4) See that the wick of the flashing-taper be adjusted to give a very small flame — a flame that does not exceed one quarter of an inch in height. A flame that exhibits as much blue at its base as yellow at its top is right. (5) Now replace the oil-cup in the water-bath ; return the flashing-taper to its place, inverting the conical thimble round it, and return the thermometer to its place upon the cup ; in doing this be sure that the casing of the latter is pushed down upon the cup as far as it will go. (6) Half fill the lamp beneath with alcohol, light it and put it in its place beneath the water-bath. Now note the rate of increase in temperature as shown by 114 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Salleron- Urbain tester. raise the When the Relation of results to those of Abel tester. the thermometer, and adjust the wick to temperature at the rate of 2° F. per minute, temperature has reached 100°F., light the flashing-taper and observe it closely. As soon as the oil under test has reached its "flashing- point" the flame of this taper will be extinguished by the "flash," and the temperature is to be noted at the instant the flame of the taper is ex- tinguished. Although the Foster tester belongs to the closed vessel class, one of the authors finds that it gives results from 14° to 20° F. higher than those furnished by the Abel instrument, the extent of the difference depend- ing upon the character of the oil. 1JI In the Salleron-Urbain tester, which has been used in France in the examination of petroleum, the flash-point is deduced from the pressure exerted by the vapour evolved at a given temperature. It consists, as shown in Fig. 10, of a copper or brass vessel A, from the bottom of which rises a conical pillar D. The vessel is hermetically closed by a cover d, which carries a guide-block C, fitting and pivoted on the pillar D, and containing a cylindrical chamber B, closed above by a screw stopper and indiarubber ring p, and communicating below with A by a hole in the lid. A graduated tube of glass m, 35 cm. long, and divided into millimetres ; a thermometer, and a regulator, consisting of a stuffing- Fig. 10. TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 115 box I, containing a piston raised or lowered by a screw r, to adjust tbe pressure of water in tbe tube m, are all fastened hermetically to the lid. Directions for Use. — To test aiv oil, water is poured into the vessel A and the lid with its appendages is fastened down, the block C being so turned that the cylinder B is not in communication with A. The oil being placed in B and the stopper screwed down, the whole apparatus is placed in warm water until the thermometer indicates the required temperature. The height of the column of water in m is reduced to on the scale by turning the regulator screw r, and the block O is turned round so as to allow the oil to flow from B into A. The heat in the vessel A vapourises a portion of the oil, and the pressure generated is recorded by the rise of water in the graduated tube. The in- ventors prepared the table on p. 116, showing the pressure produced by heating a " normal petroleum " free from all constituents of less than "735, or more than *820 specific gravity. Salleron and Urbain give also the following as the determined vapour pressures (vapour tensions) of petro- leum products of various densities : Density at Tension in mm. Density at Tension in mm. 15° 0. of water at 15° C. 15° C. of water at 15" C. •812 •756 125 •797 5 •735 410 •788 15 •695 930 •772 40 •680 1,185 •762 85 ■650 2,110 As regards this test, Engler and Haass state that the Defective method rests entirely upon the belief that the vapour " e a l ure of pressures vary directly with the flash-points of different varieties of petroleum, which is not in all cases correct, 116 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Test-tube method of testing. as the presence of a small quantity of highly volatile hydrocarbon, presumably too small in quantity to sensibly affect the flash-point, increases the pressure in the apparatus. The conclusion is, however, expressed that oils whose vapour pressure at 15° C. is not greater Pressure Pressure expressed in expressed in Temperature. millimetres of Temperature. millimetres of water in the water in the measuring tube. measuring tube. ° Mr. Pieler,| in 1883, after referring to the previous * "Redwood on the Transport of Petroleum," Mitt, of Froc. Inst. G.E., cxvi. (1893-94), Part II. t English Patent No. 187, 1893. } Ueber einfaohe Methoden zur Untermchung den Gruhmtnmlter, Aachen, 1883. 118 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Clowes' miners' test-lamp. Redwood's test-lamp. recommendation of the hydrogen flame for testing by Messrs. Mallard and Le Chatelier,* described an appa- ratus in which the gas generated in a Dobereiner lamp was burned in a specially constructed test-lamp, for use in testing samples of air from the workings in coal- mines. Professor Clowes is entitled to the credit of having devised a form of miners' testing-lamp, which depends for its success upon the employment of hydro- gen stored under pressure. In the Redwood testing- lamp compressed hydrogen is also used. Fig. 11. Description. The complete appliances are shown in Figs. 11 and 12.t They consist of the lamp A, the reservoir of compressed hydrogen B, and the sampling vessel C, in which the sample of air for examination is collected. The lamp is shown in section in Fig. 12. A is the hydrogen inlet tube with the regulating valve B, and G is the hydrogen jet. D is the inlet tube for the * Ann. d. Mines, 7th Ser., xix. t The apparatus is supplied by the sole makers, W. J. Fraser and Oo., Ltd., Dagenham, Essex TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 119 sample of atmosphere to be tested. The bore of this tube is greatly contracted, and immediately above the point at which the tube enters the base of the lamp is an arrangement of baffles, surmounted by three discs of wire gauze of at least 28 wires per lineal inch, or not UEjdiTjm. Fig. 12. less than 784 openings per square inch, the flow of the gaseous mixture to the flame being thus regulated, and passage of flame into the collecting-vessel being pre- vented. The chimney E fits air-tight at the base, but is capable of vertical movement on an inner tube, the front of which is removed. The chimney is partly of metal and partly of glass, the metallic portion being 120 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. blackened inside, and on the glass window, lines cor- responding with various heights of flame-caps may be marked. The top of the hydrogen jet-tube is 10 mm. (0'4 inch) below the bottom of the window. Attached to the base of the lamp is a telescopic support for a cloth, which envelops the head of the observer and excludes light when the testing apparatus is used in an undarkened room. The construction of the collecting- vessel is shown in section in Fig. 12. A is the compression-pump, which is furnished with a metallic spring-piston, fitting the pump cylinder without the use of leather or other material, and lubricated with plumbago. Surrounding the pump is an annular space, in which the sample of atmosphere is stored. B is a collar to which may be attached a flexible suction- tube of any desired length. C is a cock, to which is connected a copper tube conveying the sample to the test-lamp. The bore of this cock is very much reduced. D is a pressure gauge, and E a spring valve lifting at 30 lbs. pressure. F F are hinged brackets, on which the feet of the operator are placed while the pump is being worked. A handle is provided by which the cylinder can be conveniently carried. The capacity of the pump is 14 - 84 cubic inches, and of the annular space 169-14 cubic inches, thirty double strokes of the pump being required to charge the vessel to a pressure of 30 lbs. per square inch, when it will contain ^ cubic foot of the atmosphere sampled. It is desirable that the collecting- vessel should be fitted with a relief valve, as the apparatus is often used in places in which the dial of the pressure gauge cannot be easily seen. The hydrogen cylinder may be of any desired size, but what is known as a 5-feet cylinder is of convenient dimensions. When charged to the usual pressure of 120 atmospheres, it holds enough gas to supply a 10-mra. flame for ten hours, and is quite portable. TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 121 The whole apparatus may be packed into two small boxes, and may thus be readily taken on board a vessel. In the use of the apparatus, the first step is to Mode of use. connect the hydrogen cylinder with the lamp, taking care that the unions are screwed up gas-tight. The sliding chimney of the lamp being raised about halfway, the gas is then cautiously turned on at the cylinder, the regulating valve on the lamp being left open, ana a light is applied to the hydrogen jet. The valve on the hydrogen cylinder is then adjusted so as to give a flame rather more than 10 millimetres (0"4 inch) in length, and the lamp chimney pushed down until there is an opening of only about a quarter of an inch in height at the bottom. This opening is left for the supply of air to the hydrogen flame during the few minutes occupied in the warming of the chimney. As soon as the moisture which at first condenses upon the cold glass has evaporated, the lamp is ready for use, and assuming the collecting- vessel to have been already charged with the sample to be tested and connected with the lamp, all that remains is for the observer to completely close the sliding chimney of the lamp, adjust the hydrogen flame by means of the regulating valve on the lamp, so that the tip of the flame is only just hidden when the eye of the observer is on a level with the bottom of the window, place his head under a cloth, such as is used by photographers, so as to exclude light,* and as soon as his eyes have become sufficiently sensitive, turn on the tap of the collecting- cylinder, and carefully observe what takes place in the lamp chimney. The tap may at once be turned on fully, as the contraction of the outlet and inlet orifices, already referred to, prevents the sudden rushing out of * It is preferable to use the lamp in a darkened apartment, when this is possible. 122 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. the contents of the cylinder, and the sample will be gradually delivered into the test lamp during a period of more than two minutes, which is ample time for noting the effect. The rate of delivery is, of course, a gradually diminishing one, but this is not found to be attended with any inconvenience, the conditions being the same in each experiment. In this way, a propor- tion of vapour, considerably below that which is required even for the production of an inflammable mixture, and still lower than that which is needed to give an ex- plosive atmosphere, may be detected by the formation of a flame-cap of greyish-blue colour, which, though faint, is nevertheless easily seen, especially after a little practice. With an increase in the quantity of vapour, the flame-cap first becomes much better defined, though it is not greatly augmented in size, and then consider- able enlargement of the cap occurs, this condition being arrived at before the atmosphere becomes inflammable. One of the authors and his brother, Mr. T. Home Redwood, succeeded in obtaining photographs of flame- caps, which are reproduced in Plate I. The results of experiments made by one of the authors show that even the proportion of vapour which furnishes the large flame-cap F is considerably below that neces- sary for the formation of a mixture which is combustible under the conditions of the experiments, and far smaller than that which produces an explosive mixture. The Delicacy of test is, therefore, a delicate one, and it is obvious that if the interior of a tank or other space be freed from vapour until a sample of the atmosphere gives no flame- cap with this apparatus, an ample margin of safety will be provided, even allowing for the fact that on the large scale, under some circumstances, combustion might occur when the proportion of vapour was smaller than the minimum quantity found to be requisite in the experiments made. tes u < tel <3 w S apo< < >■ J u fa 1 . . c - - a o p n«o oo >" b "o "a ffi JS 'I : o a < E • * ?•. (6 < E H tfl Q w tf M £ H « M > O c 3 a. rt ■« S u £ = « i ft : s 8 > < £ u j *- c fa S * ; a: .8 8. 1 S o < ^ »o > 3 P .- to o o a 2 £ . ■a -r - D & f w 5 o. J "2 8 o 1 B - Bi r; rt eg w E < « o TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 123 In taking a sample of air in a tank it must be re- Density of membered that the density of the vapour of petroleum ^ tr °^ um is always much greater than that of the air. The density of the vapour varies with the chemical compo- sition of the hydrocarbons volatilised. Thus the vapour of pentane (C 5 H 12 ), a hydrocarbon of the paraffin series present in American crude petroleum, and of which gasoline is largely composed, is 2 '5 times heavier than air, whilst that of heptane (C 7 H 16 ) is 3 4 times heavier than air. The collecting-vessel may be used in the tank if the Collection of proportion of vapour present is known to be small, but sam P le - even in such cases it is better to employ a short suction- tube, the open end of which can be placed at the lowest point in the tank, where the heavy vapour would prob- ably be found in largest quantity. If, on the other hand, the atmosphere of the tank is suspected to con- tain so much vapour that there would be danger of its producing insensibility when taken into the lungs, and especially if the compartment is entered through a small manhole, it would obviously be most improper that any one should be sent into the tank, and in that case the sample should be taken by the use of a long suction-tube reaching to the bottom. The lamp and its accessories have now been in prac- satisfactory tical use for many years, and have given the most ™ 3Ults satisfactory results. In reporting upon a serious acci- dent which occurred on board the s.s. Tanca/rville ■ through the explosion of a mixture of petroleum vapour and air, the inspectors for the Board of Trade made the following suggestions :— - " When repairs require to be carried out in a vessel which has been carrying petroleum, there should, in our judgment, be a formal handing over of the vessel to those by whom the repairs are to be undertaken, and a . certificate that the tanks and all dangerous spaces have, 124 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Close and open flash- points and fire-test. Pensky- Martens tester. Description of the instrument. as far as practicable, been adequately cleansed and ventilated and rendered free from risk of explosion or fire. If from any cause a complete certificate of this sort cannot be given, then it should be clearly notified which tanks or spaces have not been cleansed and are still dangerous." This recommendation has been generally acted upon, and such certificates are now given. Lubricating Oils. — In this country it is customary to determine the close and open flash-points and fire- test of these oils. The two latter may be ascertained by heating the oil at the rate of 10° F. per minute in a porcelain crucible about two inches in diameter, which is filled with the sample to be tested to about a quarter of an inch from the top and placed in a sand-bath, a gas-flame T 3 ^- inch in diameter being passed across the surface, on a level with the edge of the crucible, at each rise of two degrees of temperature, indicated by a sensitive thermometer, the bulb of which is immersed in the oil, until a flash takes place, and subsequently, on further elevation of temperature, the oil ignites and continues burning. The more usual practice, however, is to test the oil in a special form of apparatus, and, having determined the close flash-point, to remove the cover of the oil-cup and proceed to ascertain the open flash-point and fire-test by using a test-flame in the manner described. The apparatus most largely in use is that known as the Pensky-Martens tester, which is shown in Fig. 13, with the test-flame in position for igniting the vapour ; the cover of the oil-cup being shown in plan and side view, and a handle, for removing the oil-cup, in the separate figures. The cover of the oil-cup consists of two parts — viz., the portion joined to the rim, and an upper portion which revolves through a small arc. In each portion TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 125 there are three orifices, the central one being twice the area of the two lateral ones. These orifices may be made to coincide, or the openings may be completely closed, according to the relative positions of the two portions of the cover. The lower part of the cover is fitted with a vertical rod serving as a support to a tube. This tube can be rotated upon the rod by turning the Fisr. 13. non-conducting milled head at the upper end, and the action compresses a spring. At the lower end the tube is provided with an arm which, by the action of the spring, is held against a vertical stud. A pin project- ing downwards from the arm engages with a slot in the revolving portion of the cover, and on turning the milled head the openings in the upper portion of the cover are brought over those in the lower portion. At the same time, a flange projecting from the edge of the 126 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. revolving portion of the cover comes into contact with the oscillating test-jet, and this is depressed, so that at the same moment when the central openings coincide, the test-flame is brought to the orifice. On releasing the pressure requisite to turn the milled head, the openings in the cover are again closed by the action ot the spring, and the test-jet is brought back to the hori- zontal position by the weight at the opposite end. This weight is attached to a stem forming a screw valve, by means of which the size of the test-flame can be adjusted. The gas is supplied through a lateral tube forming one of the supports on which the jet oscillates, the other support consisting of a small stud. In the lower part of the cover of the cup there is a socket for a thermometer, and in the centre of the cover there is a tube through which the stem of the stirrer passes. This stirrer is provided with a pair of arms working in the oil, and a smaller pair in the vapour-space above the oil. It is revolved by means of a flexible wire stem. The oil-cup is furnished with a pair of hooks for convenience in removing it from the bath when hot by means of the forked holder shown. The heating-vessel consists of a cast-iron air-bath with an annular chamber exposed to the flame, and a brass jacket, which serves to check radiation. The jacket is separated from the iron casting by a considerable space at' the sides and by a distance of a quarter of an inch at the top. The oil-cup rests upon the jacket, and therefore does not come into contact with the cast iron. Beneath the bath there is a disc of wire gauze which is fitted to a swinging arm, so that it may be turned aside and the flame of a Bunsen burner allowed to impinge upon the bath when a high temperature is required. The flame of the burner may be regulated so that heating. the temperature of the oil rises at the rate of about Testing.— flash-point, fire-test, etc. 127 10° F. per minute. In employing this or any other form of close-test instrument in the testing of lubri- cating oils, it is important that the samples should be Freedom of free from water, as the presence of aqueous vapour in ^Jj^! e frora essential. Fig 15. the upper part of the cup prevents the occurrence of the "flash." Figs. 14 and 15 show Gray's instrument for deter- Gray's mining the flash-point of heavy oils. The apparatus tes " ;^ • consists of a brass oil-cup of the same dimensions as 128 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Substitute for gas. Directions for use. that employed in the Abel instrument, supported on a tripod stand and covered with a tight-fitting lid through which passes a steel shaft carrying on the end within the cup two stirrers, one for the oil and the other for the vapour. The upper end of the shaft terminates in a bevelled wheel engaging with another similar wheel on a horizontal shaft supported by two bearings and rotated by a handle fixed in an ebonite disc on its further extremity. This shaft also carries a collar from which project two pins at diametrically opposite points. These, when the shaft is drawn out a little way so as to disengage the bevel wheels, come into position for applying the test-flame. In the lid are three openings — one immediately in front of the test-flame, and the others on either side of it. The sliding cover is pierced with two orifices corresponding to those on the lid, and is kept closed (as shown in Fig. 15) by a spring while the bevel wheels are in gear. On drawing back the shaft, one of the project- ing pins engages with the horizontal arm of an upright rod connected with the slide, wkich is turned round when the handle of the shaft is moved about a quarter of a revolution, the openings in the lid being thus uncovered and the test-flame simultaneously applied. Where gas is not available for the test-flame, a good substitute is obtained by passing a current of air or hydrogen through cotton wool or other absorbent material saturated with gasoline. The following are the directions for use prescribed by the inventor : The oil-cup being filled up to the mark inside with the oil to be tested, the thermometer is placed in its socket and heat is applied either by a direct flame or by the interposition of a sand-bath. The test-flame is adjusted to a diameter of about one- eighth of an inch. During the heating the stirrers should be rotated at short intervals, and in proportion TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 129 to the rate at which heating progresses. When the expected flash-point is approached, the heating should be more gradual, to ensure greater accuracy in the test ; and a rough test to ascertain this point may be first made. Observations may be taken every degree or half-degree, giving the stirrer a few turns before each. The rate of heating is immaterial, provided it is not too rapid to allow of readings being taken. Other Products. — The various commercial descrip- Testing tions of mineral spirit obtained from petroleum and ™ 1 ^ 1 e t ral shale oil have flash-points very far below the limit fixed by law, but it is nevertheless sometimes necessary in the administration of the Acts to make a formal application of the prescribed test. This can be done without risk, but care should be taken that the oil-cup is not filled or emptied in proximity to a flame. Burning oils of very high test, and gas-oils of this Testing description, are usually tested in the Pensky-Martens gas ' 0lls < * c - instrument. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The specific gravity will be seen from the particulars given in chap. iv. to afford a good indication of the character of the product. It may be determined with sufficient precision for this purpose by the use of an accurate hydrometer with an " open " scale, but the Hydro- temperature must also be taken, and if this exceeds or correction falls short of 60° F. the necessary correction must be for made. The correction depends to some extent upon tem P eraturG ■ the character of the product. In the case of kerosene it is usual for commercial purposes to add to, or deduct from, the observed specific gravity '004 for every 10° F. above or below 60° F. ; thus 796 at 70° F, or "804 at 50° F., would be "800. The co-efficient of expansion of mineral spirit is higher, and of lubricating oils lower, 130 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Westphal balance. than that of kerosene, so that for these products the addition or subtraction should be respectively some- what greater and somewhat smaller, "005 and "003 being nearer than *004 to the actual figure. The instrument known as the Westphal Balance, which can be obtained of any philosophical instrument maker, may sometimes be conveniently used instead of the hydrometer. Determina- tion of boiling- point. Pressure test for petroleum spirit. BOILING-POINT. The determination of the boiling-point of mineral spirit can be best carried out in the following manner : 100 c.c. of the spirit is placed in a Wurtz flask sup- ported on a sand-dish, and connected with a Liebig condenser. The bulb of the flask is 2f inches in diameter, the neck f inch in diameter by 5f inches in length, and the exit tube is 2^ inches above the shoulder. The tube of the Liebig condenser is 24 inches in length. The thermometer inserted through the cork in the tubulure is at first so adjusted that its bulb is just immersed in the spirit, and as soon as the ebullition becomes active it is gradually raised, so that the bulb is slightly below the rising level of the vapour (which can be seen in a bright light). The temperature at which the first drop of distillate falls from the end of the exit tube of the flask into the condenser is noted as the initial boiling-point of the sample. The percentages collected in a 100 c.c. measure-glass up to specified thermometer-readings are recorded, and the temperature at which the flask becomes dry is noted as the final boiling-point. In advising the railway companies on the construction of vessels suitable for the conveyance of petroleum spirit, the authors found it necessary to devise a test by means of which the relative volatility of various products may be distinguished, from the point of view of the pressure TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 131 which may be developed in a closed vessel on increase of temperature. The following is a description of the instrument which, after numerous experiments, was adopted for the purpose : * A thin glass tube, 6 inches long by 1 inch in diameter, is joined at its upper end to a short length of £-inch tubing and at its lower end to a long capillary tube (1 mm. bore), which is bent up in the form of a U-tube and is graduated in inches. The 1-inch tube is marked at a point near the bottom and again near the top, these two marks being in such a position that the space between them is 90 per cent, of the total space above the lower mark. The test is to be carried out as follows : Fit the short |~inch glass tube with a piece of stout rubber tubing covering the whole of the glass tube and projecting about f inch above. Wire this firmly on in two or three places. Fix the apparatus upright; pour in mercury up to the lower mark on the bulb ; draw a little air through the mercury into the bulb to ensure that the mercury column in the capillary tube is un- ■, broken. Pour in the spirit to be tested until it is well up to the upper line. Place the apparatus verti- cally in a vessel of water cooled down to 50° F. When the spirit has attained this temperature add a little spirit, if necessary, to bring the level up to the upper mark, then fit a strong screw pinch-cock on to the rubber tubing close above the glass tube, and screw up very firmly. Remove the apparatus from the cold water, and place it in a vessel of water heated to 100° F., taking care that the level of the water is well above the top of the rubber tubing so that any leakage may be observed. Maintain the water at this temperature for half an hour, at the end of which time • The makers of this instrument are Messrs. C. E. MUUer, Orme and Co. Ltd., 148 High HoLbom, ,W.O. 132 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Fractional- distillation test. Colour. Burning quality. Trinity House specifica- tion. observe the height of the mercury column by the scale marked on the capillary tube. The height should not exceed 24 inches if the spirit is to be contained in the vessels recommended for the purpose. OTHER TESTS. For scientific, industrial, or commercial purposes many other tests are applied to petroleum, shale-oil, and coal-tar products. Crude petroleum is fractionally distilled in the laboratory with a view to learning what results it may be expected to yield in the refinery, and it is frequently necessary also to determine the chemical composition. The results of fractional distillation form the principal basis of valuation of coal-tar products. The colour and burning quality of kerosene and other burning oils are experimentally determined. The Trinity House contract conditions for mineral oil intended for use in lighthouse lamps specify that : (1) The mineral oil required to be supplied under this contract is to be of the best possible quality, the greatest care is to be taken in its preparation, and it must be perfectly free from sulphuric acid. (2) In all cases, whether the oil be petroleum or paraffin, its flashing-point is to be determined by using the apparatus described in Schedule 1 of the Petroleum Act of 1879. (3) If the oil be petroleum, its flashing-point is to be not lower than 125° F. (close test), and it is to distil between 302° and 572° F., the temperature of the vapour, not that of the liquid, being taken. (1) If the oil be paraffin, its specific gravity is to be not less than 0'810, nor greater than 0-820, at 60° F. ; its flashing-point is to be not lower than 140° F. (close test), and it is to distil between 302° and 572° F., the temperature of the vapour, not that of the liquid, being taken. (5) The illuminating power of the oil supplied, whether petroleum or paraffin, is to be equal to that of the best colza oil when consumed in a Trinity House Argand lamp. For the distillation test about 250 grammes of the oil may be taken, the operation being conducted in an TESTING.— FLASH-POINT, FIRE-TEST, ETC. 138 ordinary distillation flask, with the bulb of the thermo- meter midway between the shoulder of the flask and the lateral tube leading to the condenser. The upper part of the flask should be wrapped in asbestos cloth. In reporting upon lubricating oils, the colour (of viscosity " pale " oils) and viscosity are also recorded. The latter , te ^. of . ... . . . lubricating quality, which is a measure of lubricating value, is oils, expressed in terms of the time occupied by the outflow of a given quantity at a specified temperature from the orifice of a specially constructed apparatus, Red- wood's Viscometer being the standard instrument in Redwood's this country. Sometimes the lubricating power is also s * andard " . . viscometer. directly determined by testing the oil on a friction- testing machine, though the results thus obtained are Friction usually of doubtful value. The " cold-test " of such test ' oils is also tested, this being the temperature at which •« cold-test." the sample, when slowly cooled, deposits solid hydro- carbons or ceases to flow. Occasionally the loss sus- Loss on tained by the oil on exposure in a capsule to an heatin s- elevated temperature ; the percentage of fixed oils Composi- present, or absence of such oils ; and the freedom from tlon ' impurities, some of which may act injuriously upon Freedom metallic surfaces, or from substances added to give f rom artificial viscosity, have to be ascertained. The testing of paraffin is usually confined to the determination Paraffin of the " melting-point," as it is called, which is really testtnK ' the setting- point, and the percentage of oil, water, and dirt present. Solar-oil distillate and American gas-oil are subjected to tests prescribed in the Gas Gas-oii Companies' contract conditions. testing. It does not fall within the scope of this work to describe these additional tests in detail ; and for further particulars of them, as well as of the chemical examina- tion of petroleum products, the reader is referred to the more comprehensive work to which allusion is made in the preface. CHAPTER VIL LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM (HISTORICAL). Act of 1862. The history of petroleum legislation in this country dates from 1862, in which year an "Act for the safe keeping of petroleum " was passed, and came into force three months later. In the first section of this Act, petroleum is defined in rather curious wording. The definition reads as follows : " Petroleum for the pur- poses of this Act shall include any product thereof that gives off an inflammable vapour at a temperature of less than one hundred degrees of Fahrenheit's ther- mometer." It was intended to legislate only for the more volatile products, but the intention of the Act as expressed in its wording was undoubtedly to include all petroleum of whatever flash-point, and this inter- pretation has been upheld in a Court of Law.* Under this Act, vessels carrying petroleum on enter- ing a harbour were required to conform to the regula- tions of the harbour authorities in respect of the place of mooring. The Act of 1862 also provided that not more than 40 gallons might be kept within 50 yards of a dwelling house or of a building in which goods were stored, except in pursuance of a licence from the local authority. The powers of search given by the Gunpowder Act of 1860 were incorporated in this Act, which also con- tained a provision that in England and Ireland one-half * Jones v. Cook, Law Reports, G Q.B. 505. LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. 135 of any forfeiture or penalty should go to the informer, unless he wei'e a servant of the person informed against, No means of testing the flash-point were laid down, and the temperature in the definition was taken by some to mean that of the " fire-test " of the oil. In point of fact the Act was found to be unworkable, and though occasional prosecutions did take place, it may be said that practically it was wholly inoperative. In 1867 a Select Committee was appointed by the select House of Commons to inquire into the then existing o f °j!jj™ lttee legislative provisions for the protection of life and property against fire. A great deal of evidence on the dangers of petroleum and the inefficient character of the legislation was taken, and the Committee presented a report in which a number of recommendations were put forward. One of these recommendations was to the effect that no petroleum with a flash-point of less than 110° F. should be sold for illuminating purposes, the flash-point to be determined by an open test, details of which were given. In this recommendation the Committee were following the lines of American legislation. In the United States a law had recently been passed prohibiting the sale of mineral oils below a fire-test of 110° F. for illuminating purposes, but such a prohibition is entirely contrary to the spirit of legis- lation in this country. An Englishman would very much resent being called upon to say for what purpose he was buying any particular article, and if asked by an oilman what he wanted petroleum for, he would probably suggest that the vendor should mind his own business.* * This difficulty was to some extent met in the Bill brought in in 1868 by providing that a person would be deemed to be selling petroleum spirit for illuminating purposes unless the vessel was labelled : " The contents must on no account be used for lamps." 136 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Obviously no total prohibition of the sale of petroleum below a certain standard could even be contemplated, inasmuch as mineral spirit is largely used in a variety of trades and by private persons for purposes of cleaning and as a solvent, to say nothing of its use in sponge- and flare-lamps, and more recently in motor-cars. In consequence of this Committee's recommendations, a Bill was introduced in the following year, laying down a flash-point of 110° F. by the open test. Thereupon the Petroleum Association sent a deputation to the Home Office to urge that the flash-point should be fixed at 100° as before. In consequence of this the whole question was referred to a Committee, consisting of Sir Frederick Abel (then Mr. Abel), Professor John Attfield and Dr. Henry Letheby. Report of On J une 4, 1868, this Committee made a report to the "three the Home Secretary which afterwards became known as the " report of the three chemists." While adhering to a flash-point of 100° F. as a safe limit, the three chemists proposed that the test should be carried out in an apparatus which they described, and which is known as the " open half-filled cup." This apparatus has been described in a previous chapter (p. 81). They also gave the results of some experiments with lamps, and proved that the production of an inflammable mixture in a lamp is not governed so much by the temperature of the oil as by the temperature of the metal work in contact with the wick, which temperature in the lamps experimented with rose as high as 113° F. They reported, however, that they did not consider it neces- sary to raise the legal flash-point above 100° F. Immediately after this report had been made, the petroleum trade were communicated with, and sub- mitted certain objections to the half-filled cup. sir F.Abel's The matter was accordingly referred back to Sir F. Abel, who substituted for the half-filled cup a full cup chemists." alteration. LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. 137 with a screen round it, and this was introduced into the Schedule of the Bill then before Parliament, which was recommitted on June 15, 1868. As to the exact difference between the results of the two forms of apparatus there has been much divergence of opinion,* probably on account of the fact that both forms are capable of manipulation, and are liable to give different results in the hands of different operators. The ques- tion is not really of the importance which it has been sought to attach to it, inasmuch as the test of the three chemists never at any time became the legal test. In July 1868 the Act was passed. This amended Act of 1868. the Act of 1862, and was intended to be read as one with the latter. The definition of petroleum was am- plified, and was framed with the evident intention of restricting the application of the Act to petroleum below the specified flash-point, but the word "include'' instead of the word " mean " still remained, so that it cannot be said with certainty that the heavier oils did not come legally within the scope of the Act. The flash-point was fixed at 100° F. as before, and the method of testing was specified in a Schedule to the Act. The method finally adopted was the open full-cup with a screen as proposed by Sir F. Abel. This must not be confounded with the Abel test. * Dr. Attfield before the Select Committee of 1872 (Q. 770) stated that if the efficiency of the test recommended by the three chemists was to be maintained, the screen must be five inches ic height, implying presumably that with a screen of that height the full cup would give the same results as the half-filled cup, whereas before the Select Committee of 1896 (Q. 4628) he stated that the half-filled cup gave a similar result to the Abel apparatus, i.e., 27° lower than the full cup. Again in a report quoted by Sir F. Abel before the latter Committee (Q. 7162) Dr. Attfield stated that the open cup with a three-inch screen and a cover to the screen gives the same results as the half- filled cup. 138 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. In the Act of 1868, instead of a quantity not ex- ceeding 40 gallons being allowed to be kept without licence within 50 yards of a dwelling house or ware- house, no quantity was allowed to be so kept, except for private use, in which case apparently an unlimited amount might be kept anywhere. Under this Act all petroleum spirit sold or exposed for sale was required to bear a label with an elaborate inscription upon it. Provision was also made for the testing, by Inspectors of Weights and Measures, of petroleum kept for sale, with the curious anomaly that if the petroleum was found by the Inspector to be kept contrary to the pro- visions of the Act, the person so offending was liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds, whereas by a preceding section a person keeping petroleum without a licence in contravention of the Act was liable to a penalty of twenty pounds a day. Bill of 1869. j n t ne following year a Bill was introduced into Parliament to repeal the previous Acts, and in this several new principles were embodied. The term "inflammable oil" was substituted for "petroleum," and the definition was drawn so as clearly to exclude all oil above 100° F. flash-point (open-test). The Bill was made to apply also to nitro-glycerine, to which apparently the officer of the local authority was called upon to apply the flash- test. Had this measure become law, local authorities might have found considerable difficulty in filling the frequent vacancies which would inevitably have occurred. Fortunately the Bill did not become law. Nothing further appears to have been done until 1871, when a fresh Act was passed repealing the two previous ones. When this Act was first introduced as a Bill, it contained a close-test with a flash-point of 85° F. ; but although it was generally admitted that this test was superior to that specified in the Act of LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. 139 1868, there was a great difference of opinion as to the equivalent flash-point to be adopted for the close-test. The controversy on this point was bo prolonged that though the Bill passed the Lords, the period of the Session was too late for the matter to be adjusted. Consequently the close-test was dropped, and the Bill was passed with the open-test as specified in the Act of 1868. The Act of 1871 was passed for one year only, with Act of 1871. the intention of legislating further in the ensuing Session. It was, however, renewed annually until 1879, when ifc was made permanent, and is still in force, though the test has been modified. The details of this Act will be dealt with in the succeeding chapter. In 1872 a Bill was introduced into the Lords to Bill of 187a. substitute the close-test, it being by this time generally acknowledged that the open-test specified in the Acta of 1868 and 1871 was a very uncertain one. A flash-point of 85° F. was first adopted as the equivalent of 100° F. by the open- test. The Bill was referred to a Select Committee of the House of Lords Select with a view to determining whether this equivalent {^^' tea was correct. This Committee collected a great deal of valuable evidence, and the question of flash-point was keenly fought before them. On July 5 they finally agreed on their report, which was to the effect that the close-test, with an alteration in detail, was much superior to the open-test. They considered that a flash-point of 100° F. by the open- test was sufficiently high to guarantee the safety of the public, and that the equivalent by the close-test should be 82°, not 85° as prescribed. The Bill, how- ever, was not brought down from the Lords until July 26, and it was then too late to make any further progress with it. 140 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. The subject of petroleum legislation was, shortly after this, taken up by the late Sir Vivian Majendie, who collected much information as to the working of the Act of 1871. Test revised In 1875 Sir F. Abel was asked to propose an improved Abei! r ' method of testing, and on August 26, 1876, he made a report in which the Abel close-test was first brought forward. A full description of this apparatus will be found in Appendix I. A vast number of comparisons between the new apparatus and the old open-test were made by different persons and with different samples of oil, with the result that the mean difference was found to be 27° F., that is to say, that an oil which would flash at 100° F. in the apparatus specified by the Act of 1871 would give 73° F. in the Abel test. A flash-point of 73° F. was therefore fixed for the Abel apparatus ; but it must be distinctly understood that this does not imply that the standard was in any way lowered. Actofi87g. It was not until 1879 that the new test was at length adopted and made legal by an Act, which is still in force, being substituted for the test prescribed by the Act of 1871. The Act of 1879, beyond substi- tuting the new test and making the previous Act a permanent one, went no further in amending the law, although by this time it was seen that several amend- ments might with advantage be made. These, however, were reserved for future legislation. Hawking. One of the most . important defects in the law was the absence of regulation in the case of hawkers. Some years before this (July 26, 1875), the Law Officers had given an opinion to the effect that the Act of 1871 would not prevent the hawking of petroleum in any district without licence, if the petroleum was not kept in the same district; but on November 8, 1879, the Court of Queen's Bench decided in the case of Coleman LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. 141 v. Goldsmith that petroleum could not be kept in a hawker's cart without licence, or, in other words, that a hawker's cart must be regarded as a place within the meaning of the Act. The previous decision had imposed a hardship on those who, having a fixed place of business, were obliged to take out a licence, while the peripatetic hawker was under no restriction, and might therefore undersell the licensed vendor. The reversal of this decision, however, introduced fresh difficulties. A hawker might ply his trade in half a dozen districts : to whom was he to apply for a licence, and what was he to do when the restrictions imposed in the different districts were not the same ? It became necessary, therefore, to impose statutory rules to be complied with by all hawkers throughout the Kingdom, and at the same time to exempt their vehicles from the necessity of licence. In 1881 an Act was passed for Act of 1881. this purpose, and this Act being still in force will be dealt with in detail in the next chapter. The Act of 1881 dealt only with the hawker difficulty, and it was not till 1883 that an attempt was made to remedy the other admitted defects of the existing legislation. In that year a comprehensive Bill was bui of 1883. introduced into the House of Lords, which repealed all previous Acts and introduced a new system of dealing with the whole subject. This Bill being a very long one, and containing no less than fifty- seven clauses, it is impossible to do more than glance at its more salient features. These were as follows : — The Bill was made to apply to all petroleum defined as before, whatever its flash-point; but two classes were recognised and designated "high-test petroleum" and "low-test petroleum," the dividing line being fixed at a flash-point of 73° F. (Abel). Excepting for private use petroleum was to be kept only on premises registered with the local authority. 142 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Statutory rules were laid down to be observed on such registered premises, these rules being, of course, much more stringent in the case of low-test petroleum. The place where the petroleum was kept was to bo termed a " depot," and the quantities which might be kept were to be regulated by the distance at which the dep6t was situated from dwelling-houses, &c, the amount to be allowed in a dwelling-house being only 50 gallons. In every case the amount of low- test petroleum was to be only one quarter of the total amount allowed. The Bill dealt with the conveyance of petroleum, and provided for the making of by-laws, not only by harbour authorities, but also by railway and canal companies. The hawking of petroleum was dealt with, and the powers and duties of local authorities were amplified and extended. There was also a clause providing for inquiry on behalf of the Secretary of State into causes of accidents, together with a number of miscellaneous clauses not contained in previous legislation. The description of the testing apparatus, printed as a Schedule in the Bill, was copied from that contained in the Act of 1879 ; but another Schedule had been prepared in which the description differed in certain minor details, and this was considered to represent the actual apparatus somewhat more exactly. Select The Bill was referred to a Select Committee of the House of Lords, who, having heard a great deal of evidence and a number of objections urged against the Bill, reported that they did not consider it expedient that it should be proceeded with, but that the evidence they had taken would enable a fresh Bill to be prepared for the ensuing Session. The Bill was accordingly dropped. •Shortly after this, the late Sir Vivian Majendie, in Committee of 1883. LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. 143 company with one of the authors, then Secretary of the Petroleum Association, commenced a tour of inspection and inquiry in the United Kingdom and on the Conti- nent, in the course of which a large number of places were visited. In 1884 a draft Bill was in course of preparation, but did not reach the stage of being introduced into Parliament. In that year numerous conferences were held between the late Sir Vivian Majendie and the trade. In 1886 the tour of inspection was extended to Canada and the United States, and towards the end of the following year the preparation of another Bill was in progress. In the early part of 1888 more conferences were held, a large and influential committee, representing all branches of the trade, having been called together by the Petroleum Association. No opportunity for intro- ducing the new Bill occurred in the two succeeding years, and it was not until February 9, 1891, that the Bill of 1891, measure was read for the first time in the House of Commons. An extensive memorandum on this Bill was prepared by the Home Office, and issued to both Houses of Parliament. Thereupon the Petroleum Defence Committee issued a report criticising the statements in this memorandum, evidently with a view to showing that such legislation was unnecessary. The Bill of 1891, like so many of its predecessors, died a natural death. It did not, in fact, reach a second reading. In general it followed the lines of the Bill of 1863, but it was made to apply not only to petroleum > as previously defined, but to liquid mixtures of petroleum with other substances, and to bisulphide of carbon also. It was termed the Inflammable Liquids Bill. Such •inflammable liquids as have a specific gravity exceeding 1/000, and a flash-point over 150° P. (Abel), weoe 144 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. excluded. The terms " mineral oil " and " mineral spirit" were substituted for "high-test" and "low- test" petroleum, the dividing line being, as before, a flash-point of 73° F. (Abel). Mineral spirit in quantity- above three gallons was only to be kept under licence, but mineral oil, with an exemption of sixty gallons, might be kept either under licence or under registra- tion ; the rules to be observed and the quantities to be kept in the latter case being laid down in the Bill. A table regulating the relation between quantity kept and distance from protected works appeared as a Schedule. In the case of licences, certain general rules to be observed were laid down, but power was given to the local authority to impose additional conditions. The Bill also contained a sort of instruction to local authorities not to be too hard on places which had been licensed under the Act of 1871, in cases where such places did not strictly conform with the new requirements. The expressions "dep6t" and "tank dep6t" were rigidly defined, the definitions in the former case being framed so as to provide against outflow, while the tank forming a tank-dep6t was to be constructed in accordance with a specification laid down by the Secretary of State. The Schedule containing the description and instruc- tions for use of the testing apparatus was fuller and more accurate than in the Act of 1879, and a table of corrections for barometric pressure was added. The remainder of the Bill was on the same lines as that of 1883, but it was even longer and more elaborate than the latter, and contained in all seventy-one clauses. Flash-point Up to this time there had been no suggestion that agitation. ^ s t an( Jard should be altered, but in 1 892 the Scottish oil producers commenced an agitation with a view to inducing the Government to raise the flash-point. LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. 145 According to the evidence given by the general manager of one of the Scottish Oil Companies, before the Select Committee of 1894, action had not been previously taken in this direction owing to the exist- ence of an understanding between the Scottish and American trades, by which the latter undertook to keep down the production of paraffin wax, on condi- tion that the question of altering the standard of flash- point in this country was not raised.* In 1894 a Select Committee of the House of Commons Select was appointed, and after having taken a certain amount f ^}gT to ees of evidence, recommended that the Committee should '898 be re-appointed. In 1896 this was done, and the Committee which sat during that year and was again re-appointed in the following year, made their report in 1898. It is impossible within the limits of this chapter to do more than glance at the immense amount of evidence collected by these Committees, though this evidence has been extensively made use of in other parts of this volume. The statements of several of the witnesses were directed to showing the deficiencies in the existing law in regard to petroleum, and much valuable evidence on this point was supplied by the late Sir Vivian Majendie, who also furnished records of accidents which have occurred. The necessity of legislating for petroleum above the legal flash-point was very fully considered, as also the form which such legislation should take. One group of witnesses sought to prove by their evidence that accidents would be largely or entirely prevented by the simple expedient of raising the flash- point to 100° F. (Abel). The question of defects in the construction of lamps was entered into very fully, and some witnesses attri- * Sek«u Committee 1894. Question 597 et seq. K 146 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. buted the majority of lamp accidents to these defects; Representatives of the lamp trades were heard, and some of them admitted that the construction of lamps should be improved. The views of municipal authorities were heard, as also those of the coroners of England. In general it may be said that the evidence represented almost every interest concerned. It need hardly be said, therefore* that the most conflicting opinions were expressed. Had the Committee been able to present a unanimous Report, such Report would have been of immense value* and would have cleared up the whole question once for all. However j so far from the Report being a unani- mous one, the Committee were almost equally divided for and against every recommendation. Indeed, whether any particular recommendation was put forward or not appears to have depended almost entirely on the number of members who happened to be present As a conse- quence of this the Report contains contradictions, and is of very little value or guidance to the Government in framing fresh legislation. In one part of the Report the Committee recommend that the flash-point should be raised to 100° F. (Abel), while in another they report strongly against such a measure. They recommend legislation based on the lines of the Bill of 1891 in regard to all oils* and statu- tory powers to be given to the Secretary of State to make regulations as to the manufacture and sale of lamps. They further suggest that steps should be taken to spread information among the public as to the nature of petroleum and the management of lamps. Mr. Reckitt's I n the following Session a private Bill was introduced BiU - by Mr. Reckitt, a member of the Committee, to raise the legal flash-point to 100° F. (Abel). This Bill was rejected on its second reading by a large majority in a LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. 147 full House. The amount of " lobbying " which had taken place on this occasion was such as to induce Mr. Healy, in a humorous speech, to express wonder whether " all this was pure philanthropy." Meanwhile a Government Bill had been prepared in which an attempt was made to meet some of the more prominent requirements, but as yet there has been no opportunity of introducing it. This brings the somewhat remarkable history of petroleum legislation up to the present date. In the main, it is a history of laborious attempt and dis- couraging failure. Committee after Committee have sat ; volumes of evidence have been given and recorded ; Bill after Bill has been prepared, only .to be thrown aside ; so that truly it may be said that, in the number of its failures, petroleum legislation rivals the Bill fop legalising marriage with a deceased wife's sister. CHAPTER VIII. EXISTING LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. Petroleum The law in regard to petroleum in force at the present Acts, .a,, to tim ig contained in the Petroleum Acts of 1871, 1879, and 1881. For convenience of reference these Acts, together with some explanatory notes, have been printed in Appendix I., the Act of 1879 being incorporated with that of 1871. In the existing legislation there is no prohibition of the importation, keeping, sale, or use of any particular description of petroleum, nor, with one exception, is there any restriction whatever which applies to mineral oils — i.e., petroleum above the legal flash-point. The Acts merely impose certain restrictions on the importation, storage, and sale of petroleum spirit flashing below 73° F. (Abel). The fact that oils sold for use in ordinary lamps are always above this flash-point, has led some persons to suppose Petroleum that the sale of petroleum spirit for this purpose is spirit not prohibited by law, whereas in reality this is only an for use ia incidental effect. At the present time there is little lamps. difference in price between oil and spirit, so that naturally the majority of traders stock only such oils as they are able to keep and sell without restriction. It is not impossible, however, that at some future time, owing either to alteration in the law or to other cir- cumstances, this condition of things might be largely modified. If, for instance, it were found that either a better or much cheaper illuminant could be produced below LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. 149 the legal flash-point, the demand for this would prohably necessitate its supply, and both dealers and users might either submit to, or attempt to evade, restrictions in order to obtain a form of petroleum better suited to their needs. At the present time, however, petroleum spirit, though largely used for other purposes, is not in great demand as an illuminant. The scope of the Acts of 1871 and 1879 may be Scope of briefly described as follows : andxs? * 7 * (1) To define petroleum, and to make the law applic- able only to petroleum spirit having a flash-point below 73° F. (Abel). (1871, Sect. 2 ; and 1879, Sect. 2.) (2) To lay down a detailed system of testing, and to provide for the verification of the test apparatus. (1879, Sect. 2 and 2, and First Schedule.) (3) To provide for the making of harbour by-laws governing the berthing of ships carrying petroleum spirit and the landing of their cargoes, and to provide for notice being given to the harbour authority on the entry of such ships into a harbour. (1871, Sects. 4 and 5.) (4) To provide for the marking of vessels containing petroleum spirit. (1871, Sect. 6.) (5) To require that, with the exception of a quantity not exceeding three gallons when kept in a prescribed manner, no petroleum spirit may be kept without a licence from the local authority. (1871, Sect. 7.) (6) To specify the local authorities throughout the Kingdom. (1871, Sect. 8.) (7) To provide for the method of granting, and the scope of, licences for keeping petroleum spirit. (1871, Sect. 9.) (8) To provide a right of appeal in cases where the grant of a licence is refused by the local authority, or where an applicant is dissatisfied with the conditions imposed. (1871, Sect. 10.) ISO HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Harbour by-laws. Forms of licence. (9) To provide for the sampling, testing and inspection tof petroleum on dealers' premises. (1871, Sect. 11.) (10) To provide a penalty for refusing to show petro- leum, or for obstructing the officer of the local authority in the case of dealers. (.1871, Sect 12.) (11) To provide means of search for, and seizure of, petroleum spirit in respect of which there is believed to be a breach of the law. (1871, Sect. 13.) (12) To enable other substances to be brought within the scope of the Acts by Order in Council. (1871, Sect. 14.) (13) To provide for the prosecution of offenders and the recovery of penalties. (1871, Sect. 15.) (14) To provide for the reservation of previous powers with respect to inflammable substances, and for the repeal of previous Acts. (1871, Sects. 16 and 17.) The detailed precautions to be taken in bringing petroleum spirit into the country, or in its storage, are not contained in the Acts themselves, but are to be •enjoined by harbour by-laws or by the terms of licences granted by local authorities. Consequently these vary considerably in different places. In order to assist harbour authorities in framing by-laws in the future, the Explosives Department of the Home Office have recently, at the instance of the Board ef Trade, prepared a Model Code, which will be found in Appendix V. This Code is, of course, in no way binding, and may be varied in accordance with local conditions or the requirements of any particular harbour. In Appendix VI. will be found the forms of licence which are used by the London County Council to cover the various conditions under which petroleum is allowed to be kept in the Metropolis. These, again, are in no way binding on other local authorities, but may be of assistance to those who have not already adopted a instrument. LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. 151 suitable form of licence. The London County Council have also issued, for the guidance of persons concerned, an abstract of the Petroleum Acts. After the passing of the Act of 1879, the Standards Verification Office of the Board of Trade issued regulations as to ? { testing o instrumer the construction and verification of the apparatus for testing petroleum. These regulations will be found in Appendix VII., and a diagram of the instrument will be found in Plate II., Appendix I. Advantage has been taken of the provisions of Sect. Carbide of 14 of the Act of 1871 to bring carbide of calcium calciumand ° w _ petroleum under legislative control. Four Orders in Council have mixtures. from time to time been issued in this connection, the last of these (Appendix XII. ) consolidating the other three and exempting lighthouse authorities from the necessity of obtaining licences. These Orders will be referred to at greater length in Chapter XL By means of this section, moreover, it has been possible to provide by Order in Council for the testing of solid, semi-solid, and viscous mixtures of petroleum with other sub- stances without recourse to Parliament. This Order is given in full in Appendix II. The Petroleum (Hawkers) Act, 1881, deals only Scope of Act with the hawking of petroleum spirit. This Act will of l881- be found printed in full in Appendix IV. Its scope is as follows : (1) To enable any person licensed under the Act of 1871 to hawk petroleum. (Sect. 1.) (2) To provide that petroleum oil while in any carriage used for the hawking of petroleum spirit shall be deemed to be petroleum to which the Petroleum Act applies, and shall therefore be subject to the same regulations. (Sect. 2.) (This is the only restriction on petroleum oil which exists under present legislation, unless indeed there are any local Acta bearing on the subject.) 152 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. (3) To provide detailed regulations in regard to such hawking. (Sect. 2.) (4) To provide for seizure of petroleum without warrant in a case where there is cause to believe that an offence against this Act is being committed. (Sect. 4.) (5) To prevent the hawking of petroleum in any borough where such hawking has by lawful authority been forbidden. (Sect. 5.) Defects in Although undoubtedly the Petroleum Act of 1871. existing j^g many defects, the fact that it has remained upon legislation. J . . . the Statute Book — amended, it is true, by the two subsequent Acts — for many years may be regarded as a proof that it is by no means unworkable. Nor has it in any sense become a dead letter, though it must be admitted that in many places its administration leaves much to be desired. It has, at any rate, the merit of comparative simplicity, and the questions which have arisen in regard to its interpretation and effect have not been numerous. It may not be out of place to discuss some of the defects, both real and alleged, which pertain to existing legislation, as well as proposals which have been made for their remedy. The present Acts do not in any way control the keeping of petroleum oils, and various representations have been made to the Government in favour of sub- jecting such oils to legislative restriction. To meet this defect it has been proposed to adopt a system of registration of places where petroleum oil up to a flash- point of 150° F. (Abel) is kept. This would not interfere with the right of any person to keep such oil so long as he observes certain statutory precautions ; whilst in the event of his having a diffi- culty in observing these precautions, it was intended that he should still have the alternative of applying for licence to the local authority. On the other hand, it LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. 153 has been urged that if the legal flash-point were raised to 100° F. (Abel), it would be safe to exclude any oil flashing above that temperature from all restriction. A minor defect is that the method of testing described in the Schedule to the Act of 1879 makes no allowance for variations in barometric pressure, and that in other respects the Schedule is capable of improvement. In the Bill of 1891 a Schedule was inserted providing for an improved testing apparatus known as the Abel-Pensky,* in which there is a clock- work arrangement for applying the igniting flame. This Schedule also contained a Table of Corrections of flash-point for variations in barometric pressure. These corrections, which are given in Appendix VIII., have not yet been sanctioned by law in this country, but it might be well for inspectors, in cases where petroleum of a flash-point but slightly below the legal standard is found to be kept, to refer to this table and ascertain whether, if the observed flash-point were corrected, the keeping would still be illegal or not, and use discretion as to the institution of proceedings accordingly. Another defect is the very limited scope of the powers conferred on the harbour authorities in regard to by-laws. These powers do not directly include the regulation of the shipment of petroleum, or the enforcing of precautions on board the ship previous to landing the petroleum, or on a wharf after the petroleum is landed. It is doubtful even if all the by-laws in the suggested Model Code are strictly within the four corners of the Act, though it is probable that any Court of Law would hold that they are sufficiently within the intention of the Act to give them legal validity. The absence of powers enabling railway and canal companies to make by-laws, and the omission of all restriction on the conveyance of petroleum spirit, is * For a description of this instrument see chap vi. 154 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. regarded as another defect in tbe law. But it must be remembered that, as railway and canal companies are not common carriers of dangerous goods, it is open to them to impose such restrictions as will ensure safety, and that it is wholly to their advantage to do so. The railway companies have, through their Clearing House, done a good deal in this direction, and have now placed the whole question of the nature of vessels of all sizes for conveyance of petroleum spirit, including tank waggons, on a more satisfactory footing. Various experiments and tests of the smaller vessels were carried out, and specifications of these and of tank waggons recommended. These specifications are now given in the publication* in which the railway companies specify their conditions for the carriage of goods classified as dangerous substances. As a matter of fact, serious accidents in the inland conveyance of petroleum have not been frequent, and it cannot be said that there is any urgent necessity for the amend- ment of the law in this direction. Another defect in existing legislation is the absence of any definite regulations of universal application to the keeping of petroleum, and indeed of any indication as to the character of the precautions which should be taken, this being a matter left entirely to the discretion of the local authority. The Acts are also defective in their provisions as to local control. They contain no obligation on the local authority to enforce the law or to appoint officers for the purpose. The excessive decentralisation which puts in the hands of district councils throughout the Kingdom the administration of such technical legislation cannot but militate against the attainment of the object in view In many cases it is impossible for these bodies * General Railway Classification of Goods. LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. 155 to find any person with sufficient technical knowledge to advise them, or to act as their officer in enforcing tbe provisions of the Acts. Nor are the present local authorities always fitted for the duty, inasmuch as their members are frequently interested parties and licensees under the Act. Even where there is every desire to carry the Acts into effect and where a zealous and efficient officer has been appointed, difficulties are met with in the inadequate powers of inspection, search and sampling, particularly in the case of petroleum kept by persons who are not dealers. As an example, a case may be quoted in which an accident occurred with carbide off calcium on unlicensed premises. The officer of the local authority, wishing to inspect the place, found that in order to obtain the necessary search warrant, he would have to wait some weeks, until the next sitting of the bench of magistrates. The absence of any provision for Government control and general supervision of the working of the Acts is undoubtedly also a defect. Under existing legislation there is no Government department having statutory powers under the Acts, nor has any Government officer a legal right of entry. Other defects are the absence of a statutory require- ment as to the reporting of accidents, and the want of provision for inquiry into those which are of a serious character. The majority of the above defects, as well as many Possibility others of less importance which have from time to time ° e ff ^ t 1 "" on- made themselves felt, will no doubt in time be remedied by fresh legislation of a comprehensive character : but it must be evident that in the past, at any rate, the whole question has been so obscured by trade interests, and by prejudices which have been fostered thereby, that the Government would have met with the greatest 156 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. difficulty in passing even the most reasonable and moderate amendments of the law. It is to be hoped, however, that the position in this respect is now con- siderably modified. Exemption A further enactment bearing on petroleum should of petroleum ^ e men tioned. When the Locomotives on Highways iteht Act, 1896, was under consideration, it was represented locomotives, that, as many light locomotives would require for then- use petroleum spirit, some relaxation of the law in regard to the keeping of such petroleum for this 'purpose might with advantage be made. Consequently a provision was made in this Act for the Secretary of State to issue regulations under which petroleum spirit may be kept for use in light locomotives without licence from the local authority. An Order was made under this section on November 3, 1896, and this was superseded by Orders dated April 26, 1900, and July 31, 1907. The last of these is now in force, and will be found in Appendix IX. Depart- On February 11, 1909, a Departmental Committee* mental was appointed by the Home Secretary "to inquire of 1909. into the sufficiency of the existing regulations relating to the storage, use, and conveyance of petroleum spirit, and to report what further precautions, if any, are in their opinion desirable as tending to diminish the dangers attendant thereon." In the first Report of this Committee, issued on May 3, 1910, it was recommended : (1) That a Central Authority be established. * The Committee was constituted as follows: Sir Henry H. Cunynghame, K.O.B., Chairman ; Sir Boverton Bedwood, Bart., D.Sc, Honorary Adviser on Petroleum to the Chief Government Depart- ments ; Major A. Cooper-Key, H.M. Chief Inspector of Explosives ; Mr. A. Boyle, Engineer Surveyor-in-Ohief, Marine Department, Board of Trade; Mr. James Ollis, Chief Officer, Public Coatrol Department, L.O.C. Seoretary, Major T. H. Crozier, H.M. In- spector of Explosives. LEGISLATION RELATING TO PETROLEUM. 157 (2) That the conveyance of petroleum spirit by road should be subject to certain conditions of general application. (3) That excessive decentralisation in the adminis- tration of the Acts by Local Authorities should be avoided by the substitution of County for district Councils. (4) That a definite obligation should be placed on Local Authorities to appoint an officer and administer the Acts. (5) That more adequate powers of search and seizure should be conferred on the officers appointed by the Local Authorities. (6) That the use of petroleum spirit both for industrial and domestic purposes should, where practicable, be subjected to further legislative control. (7) That the powers given to Harbour Authorities to make by-laws should be amplified, but that this question cannot properly be dealt with until the evidence of the Port of London Authority has been taken.* (8) That corresponding powers of making by-laws should be conferred on Railway and Canal Companies. (9) That the absence of a definite penalty for a breach of a term of a licence issued under the Petroleum Acts should be remedied. (10) That steps should be taken to prohibit, and prevent so far as is practicable, the practice of allowing spirit to escape into drains and sewers. (11) That regulations should be applied to the storage of empty vessels which have contained spirit. (12) That rules of general application in respect of the situation and construction of stores and other kindred matters should be issued by a Central Authority. • For reasons into which it is not necessary to enter the P.L.A. was not at this date in a position to submit evidence to the Committee. 158 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. (13) That to avoid confusion the regulations now issued by the Home Secretary under the Locomotives on Highways Act, 1896, should, with certain slight modifications, be issued under the Petroleum Acts. (14) That the Petroleum (Hawkers) Act, 1881, should be repealed and its provisions embodied in the regulations for conveyance suggested above, storage of l n the L.C.C. General Powers Act, 1912, provision oi e nn leUm is made for the registration with the Council of " Petro- London. leum Oil Depots " at a fee of £1 for those existing on January 1, 1913, and £5 for those subsequently regis- tered. " Petroleum Oil " is defined as petroleum coming within the definition of petroleum in the Petroleum Act, 1871, and having a flash-point of from 73° F, to 150° F., together with liquid mixtures of the same and any inflammable liquid such as turpentine, methylated spirit, &c, when kept with "petroleum oil." A "petroleum oil dep6t" is defined as any premises where there is stored petroleum oil in tanks of not less than 5000 gallons aggregate capacity or in tanks, barrels, or other receptacles containing not less than 2000 gallons. The Council may make and enforce approved regulations for the prevention of outflow, and may refuse to register premises which do not conform to the regulations. Vide Appendix XVIII. conveyance The Port of London Authority have recently made the S Thames concessions in regard to the conveyance of petroleum spirit from Thames Haven to the various dep6ts up the river. Hitherto the capacity of the licensed barges necessarily employed for this purpose has been limited to 150 tons. This has now been increased to 250 tons, and provided certain simple conditions are observed licences will also in future be granted for self-propelled barges driven by engines of the Diesel type and of a capacity of 500 tons. CHAPTER IX PRECAUTIONS NECESSARY FOR PETROLEUM. In the previous chapter it has heen pointed out that the Compara- law in this country in no way deals with petroleum oil ^ u *jj| er —that is, with petroleum having a flash-point not below spirit. 73° F. (Ahel). It must not be inferred from this that such petroleum is absolutely safe, and that precautions are therefore wholly unnecessary. The main difference between petroleum spirit and petroleum oil is that, whereas the former, as usually met with in this country, gives off vapour copiously at any ordinary temperature and is readily inflammable when brought in contact, with a flame, petroleum oil gives off vapour sparingly, and does not take fire at ordinary temperatures unless; it is absorbed in some material capable of acting as a wick. But when an ignition has taken place, the> dangers are much the same whether oil or spirit is involved. Where oil and spirit are kept together, therefore, the whole should be regarded as though it* were petroleum spirit. The precautions which it is necessary to observe may be divided into two classes — viz., those for prevention of ignition, and those for minimising the effect of a conflagration should it occur. The most obvious precaution for the prevention of Danger ignition is to prohibit the bringing of a naked light ^ sbt into dangerous proximity to the petroleum ; but the question at once arises as to how dangerous proximity IE ay be defined, and this will of course depend on 160 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. whether any petroleum spirit is present and also on the nature Of the surroundings. The vapour from spirit, being heavier than air, has a tendency to flow, and an ignition may therefore take place at some distance from the bulk of the petroleum. This was well illustrated by an accident which occurred on December 22, 1882, at Exeter, when a rock-hewn store which had been shut up for some time, was opened in the early morning by a man who had previously placed his lantern on the ground at a distance of 53 feet from the entrance. The vapour travelled to the lantern and ignited, causing an explosion which was followed by a disastrous fire. In a room where petroleum spirit is employed for the purpose of a trade or manufacture, it is not sufficient merely to provide that there shall be no naked light in the immediate vicinity of the spirit, but a fire or any light capable of igniting vapour should be excluded from the room altogether. With oil the danger of vapour ignition is much less, but is not entirely absent, as is shown by explosions which have occurred, notably one on May 17, 1884, on the British barque A. Goudey, and another at Harburg, near Hamburg, on May 31, 1895, where a tank containing oil was exploded by lightning. These, as well as several other explosions in America, were due to the vapour of oil and not spirit ; but in each case the explosive mixture of vapour and air had formed in a tank or confined space, and the ignition took place at the tank and not at any distance away. In general, therefore, in the case of oil a naked light 1 should not be taken into the immediate vicinity of the tank or vessel containing the oil, while in the case of spirit such light should never be taken into the building in which the petroleum is kept, or even into its vicinity, at any rate when the door is open. A store for petroleum spirit should only be entered during daylight. PRECAUTIONS FOR PETROLEUM. 161 or with some form of artificial light incapable of igniting vapour. For this purpose a Miners' Safety Lamp, or a special form of lamp constructed on the same principle, is sometimes used. Where a building in which spirit is used or stored Lighting of is lighted by incandescent electric light,* special pre- spul cautions should be taken in regard to the wiring and fittings, in addition to the regulations enjoined by the insurance companies. All switches and fuses should be outside the building, or should be enclosed in safety cases of metal or gauze. The wires should be led through metal pipes connected to earth, or should be protected by casing. No current-bearing part should be exposed — that is to say, all metal in contact with the source of electric supply should be either well coated with insulating material, or else entirely closed in a globe or metal case. The Wenham Lamp Company have, at the sugges- tion of one of the authors, designed a gas lamp for the lighting of such buildings, which is so constructed that the air supply is brought in from the outside, and vapour cannot come into contact with the flame. Some persons appear to consider that an ordinary closed lantern affords sufficient protection, but this is not the case. Unless a lamp is fitted with a properly constructed gauze covering to all apertures, it cannot with safety be taken into a building in which petroleum spirit is present. The readiness with which petroleum vapour can be Electric ignited by even a very small electric spark, has been spark * shown by several accidents in factories where fabrics are treated with petroleum spirit for the purpose of cleaning or waterproofing. In such cases the spark from the electric charge which had accumulated on the cloth was sufficient to * The arc light could not, of course, be safely used. 162 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. ignite the vapour. An accident of this description occurred on December 14, 1893, at Bradford, in a process for waterproofing cloth by treatment with paraffin wax dissolved in petroleum spirit. On this occasion the question of the prevention of such acci- dents in future received a good deal of attention. Probably it would be impossible entirely to guard against this danger, but the chance of accident may be much reduced by artificial ventilation and by fitting fine wire brushes or series of needle points in close proximity to the cloth so as to remove the electricity by silent discharge. Lightning. Every large tank, whether for oil or spirit, should be fitted with an efficient lightning-conductor, and it would be well if all petroleum stores were similarly protected. The number of serious fires and explosions of petroleum tanks, which have been caused by light- ning in various parts of the world, is considerable, though fortunately in this country there has been comparative immunity from accidents of this descrip- tion. Leakage. ^ i s most important at all times to guard against any leakage of petroleum, whether in conveyance, storage, or use. The neglect of this precaution has been a fruitful source of accident in the past. Thus at Mexboro' on May 13, 1881, oil stored in a yard had been allowed to leak into a cellar, where sufficient vapour accumulated to cause an explosion on a light being brought into the place. Again, the danger of allowing petroleum to leak or escape into the sewers has been illustrated by numerous accidents of a formid- able character. For instance, on May 5, 1884, the roadway at Newport, Monmouthshire, was torn up by an explosion in the sewers due to a quantity of benzo- line having been allowed to escape from a barrel in a shop. All taps for petroleum should be fitted with PRECAUTIONS FOR PETROLEUM. 163 drip-pans to catch any drip or leakage which may- occur. Every vessel, of whatever size, containing petroleum, Tanks and whether oil or spirit, should have a cover. In the case vessels tobe covered of large tanks the cover may take the form of an air- tight lid or top, having no opening except a ventilating hole which should be covered with fine wire gauze. Petroleum in barrels should invariably be under a roof of uninflammable material. The fire which occurred at Broxburn on August 19, 1887, is an illustration of the danger of the contents of an oil-tank, the cover of which is imperfectly closed, being ignited by a spark from a chimney. -The necessity for a cover applies with equal force in the case of smaller vessels inside a building, as is shown by an accident at Hackney on June 17, 1896, where oil, which was being kept in open pails, became ignited, and a sei'ious conflagration was caused. It is highly desirable that precautions should be Danger from taken to prevent children and unauthorised persons f™^ • i i -I • barrels. from having access to petroleum, or even to barrels \u which it has been contained. Numerous explosions have been caused by mischievous boys applying lighted matches to the bung-holes of empty petroleum spirit barrels, which generally contain vapour and are always highly inflammable. Such barrels as well as all other inflammable material of an inflammable character should be kept as materia1 ' far distant as possible from the place where petroleum is stored. The fatal fire which occurred in Lambeth on January 26, 1893, was caused by the ignition of a quantity of inflammable rubbish which had been allowed to accumulate near a leaky oil-barrel. A fruitful source of accident, both in this country pouring and abroad, is the foolish practice of pouring petroleum P et roieum on a fire to make it burn up. This is frequently done with impunity, but the risk is never absent, and persons 164 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. indulging in the practice are liable at any time to meet with a painful death. Quick- Special precautions to prevent ignition of vapour jSf should be taken in using the so-called quick-drying paints or paint-driers which usually contain petroleum spirit. Where these paints are used in a confined space, the conditions are highly favourable for the formation of an explosive atmosphere. The loss of H.M.S. Doterel in the Straits of Magellan on April 26, 1881, was due to an explosion of vapour from one of these paint-driers, known as Xerotine Siccative. The above are the more important precau- tions for the prevention of ignition ; it remains to deal with those for minimising the effects of an ignition should one occur. Ventilation. Every store in which petroleum spirit is kept in tanks should be thoroughly ventilated. This is not feasible where the spirit is kept in barrels, as it is found by experience that the effect of ventilation is to shrink the wood of the barrels and thus to increase the amount of leakage. Sand for In every petroleum store, or in any shop where oil ingfire ' S " * s kept, there should always be a quantity of sand in a large bucket or coal-scuttle, ready for throwing on to any petroleum which may be spilt and ignited on the floor. In this way a fire may be extinguished in its initial stage. It must be remembered that water is useless for this purpose, as the oil will float and continue to burn on the surface. In the case of petroleum being spilt and ignited in a room, or on the clothes of a person, the flames should be at once enveloped in a hearth-rug or woollen table-cloth. Metal tanks. The safest description of vessel for containing petroleum, either in storage or conveyance, is un- doubtedly a metal tank. It would be beyond the scope of this volume to enter into details of the PRECAUTIONS EOR PETROLEUM. 1(55 construction of tank-steamers or of tank-waggons for road or rail (though some particulars are given in ohap. iv.) ; but specifications for storage-tanks, which it was proposed to prescribe by law, may be of assist- ance to local authorities in determining the suitability for licence of a proposed store for petroleum spirit. These specifications are given in Appendix X. Every tank, if not provided with a gauze-covered air-hole, should be fitted with some form of safety-valve to prevent its being burst by internal pressure when heated by a conflagration. In the disastrous fire which occurred at Walker Gate on January 29, 1898, eleven persons lost their lives and many more sustained injury owing to the bursting of a creosote tank made from an old boiler, which had become heated by the flames. The most important precaution for minimising the Pre cautions effect of a fire is to prevent the outflow of the burning "J^" liquid. Thus every overground tank, every store for petroleum in barrels, and in fact every vessel containing petroleum oil or spirit, should be placed in such a position, or should be so surrounded with walls of masonry or earth, or with trenches, that under no circumstances can the liquid escape, even if the containing vessel gives way altogether. The capacity of the space formed by the surrounding wall, or of the trench, should be made sufficient to hold the contents of all the tanks or barrels which it surrounds. The effects of many of the largest petroleum fires have been aggravated by the outflow of the burning liquid into sewers, streets, or harbours, often with disastrous results. Thus in the accident at Exeter previously quoted, the burning petroleum flowed over the surface of the river and set fire to a vessel, which was com- pletely destroyed. In December 1881, at Bristol, an oil-store took fire, and the burning oil ran down into any one store. 166 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. the sewers, causing great damage. Again, at Anderston Quay, Glasgow, on January 16, 1897, quantities of burning oil escaped and ran down the streets, damaging buildings and property. Underground tanks are the safest in this respect, as escape of the oil cannot occur, unless it is displaced by water intended to extinguish the fire, as was the case in an accident which occurred at Nottiug Hill on March 5, 1890. But where under- ground tanks are installed, the greatest care must be taken to prevent the oil percolating through the soil to a sewer or to some building, in the event of a leak occurring; and, whereas leakage from an overground tank is readily observed, it is difficult to detect escape where the tank is sunk in the ground. Quantity in The quantity of petroleum which should be kept in any one store should depend on the method of keeping, and on the distances from " protected works." In the Inflammable Liquids Bill, 1891, "protected works" were defined as buildings in which persons dwell or assemble, docks, wharves, timber-yards, other petroleum stores, and any other place which the local authority might require to be so treated. In Appendix XVI. will be found a notice of the distances which should be main- tained whenever possible for various quantities and methods of keeping. Where petroleum is kept in a house it should never be stored in such a situation as, in case of fire, to prevent the escape of persons in the building. Three persons were burnt to death in the accident at Lambeth quoted above, their escape having been cut off by the burning oil, which was stored underneath the staircase. In general, the oil should be placed in the basement or outside the house, and in the case of shops it should be drawn to the place where it is wanted by a pump connected with the tank or barrel by means of a lead pipe. Petroleum should never be kept or conveyed with PRECAUTIONS FOR PETROLEUM. 1G7 any explosive. It was the neglect of this rather obvious Petroleum precaution which led to the disastrous explosion on the nottobe "ti i -»-» kept or Kegents Park Canal on October 2, 1874. In that conveyed instance gunpowder and petroleum spirit were being ]^ osives conveyed in the same barge, and the vapour from the spirit found its way into the cabin where a fire was burning. The keeping of petroleum near explosives is prohibited by the Explosives Act, but notwithstanding this, it sometimes happens that a person ignorantly stores the two substances together, under the mistaken belief that in dealing with two dangerous things it is better to consolidate the risk. The precautions which have been enumerated refer Precautions mainly to the storage of petroleum ; but many of them in c ° n " apply with equal force to conveyance. Thus the dangers of ignition and of leakage are as great, or even greater, when petroleum is being conveyed as when it is being kept in a place of storage. Until recently, accidents in the conveyance of petroleum by sea have been both serious and numerous ; but it is to be hoped that as the proper construction of ships for this purpose is now better understood, and more rigorous attention is paid to harbour by-laws, accidents of this class will become less frequent. It has been pointed out in a previous chapter that harbour authorities have no power to make by-laws governing the shipment of petroleum; but this in no way relieves persons from the responsibility of adopting the same precautions in shipping as are enjoined in the landing of petroleum. (See Appendix V.) Special care must always be taken in cleansing the cleansing holds or tanks of vessels which have carried petroleum p e t ro °eum "from all oil and vapour before a naked light is admitted, ships. or before repairs are carried out. The best method of doing this in the case of tank-steamers is first to fill the tank up with water so as to float out all remnant 168 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. of the oil. and then to pump out and thoroughly dry the tank. A powerful ventilating fan should then be applied, and should be kept working during the whole time men are working in the tank. Modern petroleum ships are usually fitted with a suitable fan for this purpose, but in some vessels a steam ejector is used for the purpose. Ordinary windsails do not furnish a very efficient means of cleansing a tank, and should not be relied on unless the conditions are exceptionally favourable for their uce. Whatever the method of ventilation employed, the operation of cleansing is much assisted by injecting steam into the tank so as to warm the interior. That these precautions are necessary with vessels which have carried refined oil, as well as with those which have carried crude oil or spirit, was shown by the explosion which occurred in the s.s. Petriana on December 26, 1886, during repairs. This vessel had discharged a cargo of oil of a flash-point of 79° F. (Abel), and the tanks, having under- gone repair, were being tested when a rapid ignition of the atmosphere in one of the tanks occurred, which caused the death of ten persons. In this case a spray of oil had in all probability been forced into the tank, but in the chapter on flash-point it has been pointed out that, under certain conditions, an explosive mixture of vapour and air may be formed by petroleum oil when at a temperature considerably below its flash- point. It must be remembered that when a tank which has contained petroleum spirit is filled with water for the purpose of cleansing, a considerable quantity of vapour will be driven out ; and in certain conditions of the weather this may tend to flow to some point where ignition could take place. Not only therefore must the requirement of the harbour by-law that no fire or light be on the vessel be strictly observed, but care PRECAUTIONS FOR PETROLEUM. 169 must also be taken that the position of the vessel at the time of cleansing is such that no danger can arise from neighbouring vessels or from any external source of ignition. A danger hitherto unsuspected was brought to light by a fire which occurred on the S.S. Bullmouth on the Tyne on February 14, 1902. The tanks of the vessel had been cleansed of vapour and tested in the usual manner. Some men then entered one of them with naked lights. A short time after flames were seen ascending the walls of the tank. The fire was found to have been caused by a candle, which had been placed against the tank wall, and had ignited a thick scale composed of rust and whitewash, saturated with oil, which had formed on the interior of the tank. This scale should always be removed before naked lights are allowed in a petroleum tank. Of accidents in conveyance by road and rail there conveyance have not been a great number in this country, nor, by ^ road and with one exception, have they been attended by very serious consequences. The exception referred to is the accident at Abergele on August 20, 1868, when the Irish mail ran into a goods train carrying about fifty barrels of paraffin oil, which was ignited and thirty- three persons were burnt to death. It is doubtful whether any precaution would prevent an accident of this description. Where a train carrying petroleum meets with a serious collision, the petroleum will almost inevitably be spilt, and a fire will be very likely to ensue. In general, the vessels in which petroleum is conveyed should be of such substantial construction as to withstand rough usage, and even a mild collision, without allowing their contents to escape. A slight collision which occurred in shunting on the sidings of the Great Northern Railway on August 16, 1889, caused the breakage of some puncheons or large 170 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. petroleum casks of insufficient strength containing mineral naphtha, and the spirit catching fire, the driver and fireman were burnt to death. Over-fiiiing An important precaution in the conveyance of petroleum is to avoid over-filling the vessel in which it is contained. The expansion of the liquid on rise of temperature, especially in the case of spirit, is con- siderable ; and unless a sufficient air-space is left, this expansion will be liable to burst or strain even the strongest vessels. The amount of air-space which should be left ought never to be less than 5 per cent, of the total capacity of the vessel, and it would be better always to allow r l\ per cent. Petroleum Petroleum spirit in barrels, when conveyed in open covered °\^ trucks or lorries, should be covered by a tarpaulin to conveyance, avoid the danger of ignition, in case of leakage, by a spark from without. Drivers of waggons carrying petroleum spirit should not be allowed to smoke or even to carry matches, and such waggons should only travel during the hours of daylight. A driver should be in constant attendance on his waggon at all times when the latter is on a public thoroughfare, and should take every precaution to prevent mischievous persons approaching his vehiele, especially when leakage or spilling of the spirit may have occurred. In an accident which occurred at Hackney on January 6, 1880, a van loaded with petroleum spirit caught fire in the street from some cause which was not ascertained, and the burning liquid escaped, to the great danger of surrounding houses, several of which were scorched. Again, on December 20, 1898, in Great Eussell Street, a man deliberately threw a lighted match into some spirit which had been spilt from a cart, with the result that the cart and all the naphtha were destroyed. Fortunately, accidents in the conveyance of petroleum PRECAUTIONS FOR PETROLEUM. 171 by canal have not been numerous. The Regent's Park explosion originated in the ignition of benzoline vapour, but in that instance a large quantity of gunpowder was also present. The vapour penetrated into the cabin of the barge, and was there by some means ignited. As it would be impossible in canal barges of ordinary construction absolutely to prevent such penetration of vapour, all fires and lights should be excluded from barges carrying petroleum spirit. As in the case of conveyance by road, petroleum, whether oil or spirit, should be covered over so as to protect it from ignition from without. The hawking of petroleum spirit is provided for by Hawking of the regulations contained in the Act of 1881, and it is pe r0 eum ' not necessary here to amplify the precautions enjoined by that Act. The hawking of petroleum oil is subject to no legal restrictions, but as will have been gathered from the preceding pages, precautions should not be altogether dispensed with. It is true that in an open cart there is little fear of vapour accumulating in the case of oil ; but where a tank waggon is employed, it is possible that under certain conditions an explosive atmosphere may be formed inside the tank, and a naked light should never therefore be brought near to the opening. In general, the precautions to be taken in hawking oil for the prevention of ignition and escape of the liquid, should be substantially the same as those detailed above for the storage and conveyance of this form of petroleum. The consideration of the" dangers of petroleum lamps and the precautions to be taken in their use, will be left to the succeeding chapter. One further danger should be mentioned, namely, Danger of the risk of suffocation to a person entering an atmo- sphere highly charged with petroleum vapour. The %'apour is not actively poisonous, and may be inhaled 172 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. in small proportions with perfect impunity ; but like many other non-poisonous gases, it will, in large quantities, so vitiate the air as to deprive a human being of the necessary supply of oxygen. In a recent case which occurred at Todmorden, a man, contrary to orders, entered a tank which had contained naphtha, and was so far overcome by the vapour that he perished before assistance could be rendered. Cases of partial suffocation have occurred amongst men working in the holds of vessels carrying petroleum spirit in barrels. To avoid this danger, tanks should not be entered except in cases of strict necessity, and then only after being thoroughly cleansed of all remnant of spirit and vapour. The hold of a vessel and any other place where vapour is likely to have accumulated, should be well ventilated both before men begin to work therein and during the time they are so working. As regards ships this precaution is enjoined in most cases by harbour by-laws. The method adopted in testing the atmosphere of the tanks to ascertain whether vapour is present, is described in chap. vi. (p. 118). In recent years the progress of automobilism has wrought vast changes in respect of the storage of petroleum spirit. Licences under the Act are now veiopments. numbered by thousands instead of by hundreds ; the quantity kept by each is as a rule only limited by the apprehensions of the Local Authority ; and lastly, owing to the relief given under the Locomotives on Highways Act to those who desire to keep the spirit for use in automobiles and not for sale, the licensees form only a small proportion of those who stock considerable quantities. But, on the other hand, the chemist or grocer who kept a few gallons of benzine or naphtha " on tap," so to speak, under conditions most conducive to the formation of a vapour-laden atmosphere has Changed conditions owing to recent de PRECAUTIONS FOR PETROLEUM. 178 been largely replaced by the garage-owner or motor- repairer, who keeps the spirit in sealed cans, which are sold complete, or in tanks from which dangerous leakage is practically impossible. Although, therefore, the total quantity kept has enormously increased, and although the risks remain essentially the same in principle as heretofore, it is probable that in the case of any individual licensee the danger of accident is substantially reduced. We would in fact venture to suggest that a Local Authority when issuing a licence would do well to take into consideration the method in which the applicant proposes to keep the spirit and to modify where practicable the stringency of the terms, especially in respect of the quantity, not only where the petroleum is to be kept in a tank but also where it is to be kept in sealed two-gallon cans only with a proviso that these vessels may not be opened within so many feet of the proposed place of storage. construc- tion. CHAPTER X. PETROLEUM OIL LAMPS. It would be beyond the scope of this volume to attempt to describe the numberless forms of lamps designed for use with mineral oil. The different patterns actually in use in this country may be counted by hundreds, and a still larger number of those which have been unsuccessful or have achieved no sale may be found in the records of the Patent Office. Of some of the more important of those in the former category particulars are given in "Petroleum," 3rd ed., 1913 (Charles Griffin & Co. Ltd.) In general, a petroleum lamp consists of an oil- General container usually mounted on a pedestal, a burner through which the wick passes, and a chimney to create the draught necessary for the effective burning of the oil. Except as regards a few patented lamps, the design is simple in the extreme ; yet it is upon the many details of construction that not only the efficiency of the lamp, but its safety in ordinary use, may depend. Few persons have sufficient technical knowledge to Choice of a judge of the safety and efficiency of a lamp, seen for amp * the first time in the dealer's shop ; and purchasers are often guided more by the beauty and finish of an article than by any consideration as to its efficiency or safety. It is well, therefore, to point out that in the case of petroleum lamps a beautiful appearance, even when accompanied by apparent excellence of manu- facture and perhaps a high price, is not always a guarantee that a lamp will prove satisfactory in actual 176 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Points of efficient construc- tion. Stability. use. Artistic effect may be dearly purchased if it is given by a lamp which blackens the ceilings, fouls the atmosphere, and above all has features which may tend to produce a serious accident. On the other hand, the poorer classes are guided more by the question of cost than by any other con- sideration. To them the difference of a few pence in the price of a lamp is a matter of importance ; and though they may also be influenced by the appearance of the lamp which they select, the question of safety seldom carries much weight. The importation of very cheap foreign lamps obliges British manufacturers to compete in prices, and to disregard some of the most important conditions of safety. The publicity which has recently been given to the whole subject of accidents with petroleum lamps, appears to have had the effect of making all classes more careful in the use of such lamps, and it is to be hoped that this publicity will also diminish the demand for the cheap and trumpery lamps which have been the cause of so many disasters. The following are the principal points which should be looked to in selecting a petroleum lamp. The base should be of such diameter or weight, in proportion to the height and weight of the whole lamp, that the lamp is not easily overturned. This can readily be tested by gently tilting the unlit lamp, and ascertaining at what angle it tends to fall over on its side. Any person of ordinary intelligence will then be able to judge whether or not the lamp is too top-heavy, and too liable to be upset in ordinary use. It must be remembered in carrying out this test with an empty lamp, that allowance must be made for the extra weight of the oil, and of any shade which it may be proposed to add ; and that any tendency to instability in the empty lamp may be increased to a dangerous extent when the oil and shade are added. PETROLEUM OIL LAMPS. 177 The next point is to see that the oil-container is Oii- firmly fixed to the pedestal. Lamps constructed to fit conlainer - into ordinary candlesticks should never be purchased, as, unless the fit is exact, there will always he a tendency for the lamp to be shaken off. Even when such lamps fit accurately, an ordinary candlestick forms a very insecure base when the weight of the lamp is added. One of the most important points to be looked to in choosing a lamp is the strength of the oil-container. This part should be sufficiently strong to withstand a fall on a bare wooden floor from the height of a table without either being broken or allowing the oil to escape. Oil-containers are usually made of either metal, glass, or porcelain. If of metal, the thickness of the walls should be such that there is no appre- ciable tendency to collapse when the container is squeezed with moderate force by the hand. Some of the cheap lamps now in the market are made of metal which is so thin that the oil-container can be readily crushed by the fingers without any great muscular effort. Such lamps would undoubtedly be dangerous when upset even from the height of a table on to the floor of an ordinary room. The joints of metal containers should be made by folding the edges of the metal over each other, and should be strongly soldered. Glass or porcelain containers should be of substantial thickness to withstand the shock of a fall. A good rule is that the weight of a glass container should be from 15 oz. to 1 lb. for each pint of capacity. The substantial cut-glass containers fitted to the higher- priced lamps will generally be found to conform to this rule ; but there are unfortunately large numbers of lamps on the market of which the containers are made of thin blown porqelain glass. These 178 HANDBOOK ON PETIIOLEUM. so-called " egg-shell " lamps, though attractive in appearance, have been responsible for a large number of accidents, and it would be well if their use could be absolutely prohibited. There has been much controversy as to the relative safety of metal and glass oil-containers. Undoubtedly a well-made and substantial metal container is safer than any glass one in the case of a fall ; but it is contended that metal has a greater tendency to heat the oil, and is therefore more likely to produce a lamp explosion. This contention is not, however, bome out by actual experience. Mr. Spencer, in a report to the Public Control Committee of the London County Council, has shown that the number of lamp explosions which have occurred with glass reservoirs far exceeds that with lamps wholly of metal. It is true that glass containers are more commonly used than metal ones, but this is hardly sufficient to account for the large difference in the numbers. It is possible that ex- plosions occur as often or oftener in metal containers, but that their consequences are seldom of a serious character. One advantage clear glass containers certainly have over metal ones ; and that is the opportunity they afford of seeing the level of the oil, and ascertaining at a glance whether the lamp requires replenishing or not. There is therefore less temptation to remove the burner whilst the lamp is lighted. There is not in reality much difference in point of safety between substantial containers of glass and those of metal. In either case, if the lamp is otherwise of proper construction and properly looked after, accidents are not likely to occur. Fiiiing-hoie. Some lamps have a separate filling-hole for re- plenishing the oil, closed generally by a screw plug, but this opening is unnecessary, and its presence PETROLEUM OIL LAMPS. 179 offers a temptation to replenish the lamp without first extinguishing it. If a filling-hole is provided, the closing plug should have a well-fitting screw, and if this plug is perforated for an air inlet, the perforation should not be larger than a pin-hole. In the case of a metal lamp, the collar into which Burner * the burner is fitted should be securely soldered or brazed to the container; and where the latter is of glass or porcelain, the metal collar holding the burner should be firmly cemented to the container by means of a mixture of plaster-of-paris and glue or other suit- able cement. The burner should be attached to this collar by a well-fitting screw having at least three complete threads, or by a good bayonet joint. It is particularly in respect of the attachment of the burner that so many cheap lamps are defective. In some a screw stamped in thin metal, and having perhaps not more than one or two threads, is employed : in others there is a bayonet joint of equally flimsy construction. The consequence is that in a very short time the attach- ment becomes absolutely ineffective, and the burner is liable to be shaken loose by the smallest vibration. Then if a fall of the lamp occurs the burner is detached, and the oil, flowing out, becomes ignited, often with fatal result. Several fatal accidents have occurred through th6 use of small glass lamps which are sold for a penny, and on which the burner is fitted without proper attachment. Such lamps are dangerous and should not be used for any purpose. The thickness of metal of which the burner is con- structed should be sufficient to prevent any tendency of the parts to be bent out of shape in the ordinary operations of cleaning and inserting the wick, even in not over-gentle hands, but should not be unnecessarily 180 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Chimney gallery. great, as thick metal is less readily kept cool by air- currents. The wick-tube should be solid-drawn, brazed, or double-folded ; and should be securely and completely soldered Or brazed to the burner. The burner should be easily taken to pieces, so as to enable all parts to be readily cleaned. Above all, there should be no opening through which the explosive atmosphere which is liable to form in the container of any lamp can possibly be ignited. It is doubtful whether an air-inlet hole is ever necessary ; but if this is provided, it should take the form of a mere pin-hole placed as far from the flame of the lamp as possible. The chimney gallery is usually made of brass, and has projections turned up so as to hold the chimney. These projections should be made of substantial and elastic metal to afford a good grip for the chimney. If thin and weak, they soon get bent out and lose their hold, with the result that the chimney is liable to be tilted and cracked by the flame. Wick-tube. There is some difference of opinion as to the value of an elongated wick-tube reaching down into the oil in the reservoir. It is claimed for this contrivance that it prevents the possibility of the ignition of the vapour in the container through the wick-tube; but if the wick entirely fills the tube, as it should do, no such ignition is possible. This elongated wick-tube has the disadvantage that it tends to heat the oil, and also renders the insertion of a fresh wick more difficult. Many safety devices for petroleum lamps have been proposed, and it would be beyond the scope of this volume to attempt to describe these in detail. The majority of such devices take the form of automatic extinguishers, which are intended to act when the lamp is upset or tilted out of the vertical. Few of these inventions can be wholly relied upon ; and never should such reliance be placed on any so-called safety Safety lamps. PETROLEUM OIL LAMPS. 181 lamp as to cause ordinary precautions to be regarded as unnecessary. An appliance for extinguishing the lamp when its light is no longer required is certainly a useful adjunct, and removes all inducement to adopt the dangerous practice of blowing down the chimney. More important even than the proper construction Manage- of . the lamp is carefulness and intelligence in its J!^ 1 * ° management and use. The ordinary petroleum lamp is not such a complicated piece of mechanism as to require special intelligence for its safe employment, nor, on the other hand, is it so simple as to render all care and intelligence unnecessary. Any person who is not mentally deficient is perfectly capable of mastering the simple precautions which should be observed ; yet so long as lamp users fail to grasp the necessity of these precautions accidents will continue to occur. Some local authorities and lamp manufacturers have done good work in preparing and distributing rules for the guidance of users of lamps, but more widely spread instruction is badly needed. It has been suggested that girls should be taught at the board schools the proper care and management of lamps. If this sugges- tion were carried out, there is little doubt that lamp accidents would become less frequent. In Appendix XI. will be found a code of rules based on those issued by local authorities, and embodying the precautions for the prevention of all the commoner forms of lamp accident. . Accidents Dealing next with the subject of the accidents themselves, it may be said at once that the number of cases where death or personal injury has been caused appears at first sight very alarming. During the eight years from 1889 to 1896 inclusive, the number of fatal lamp accidents was 1031, making an annual average of 129 throughout the country. It must be remembered, however, that these deaths occurred 182 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. among a vast number of persons using petroleum. It has been estimated that the number of lamps burning every night throughout the country is upwards of 10,000,000, and this represents the lighting, burning, and extinguishing of a lamp nearly 4,000,000,000 times in a year. That this vast number of separate opera- tions causes not more than 129 deaths tends to show that the danger to an individual in using a petroleum lamp is not as great as it is sometimes represented. It is instructive to compare the number of fat SI acci- dents caused by lamps with that of deaths fronv some other accidental cause — as, for instance, from falling down stairs. During the period named above this latter class of accident accounted for no less than 5500 deaths, or more than five times as many as those due to lamp accidents. From this it will be seen that, large though the number of fatal lamp accidents undoubtedly is, it is not so much out of proportion to other fatalities as to call for legislation of a very drastic character. Lamp In considering the causes of the accidents which explosions, occur, one is met by the great difficulty in some cases in obtaining trustworthy evidence as to particulars. Until recently, nearly every mishap with a lamp was described as an explosion. On the other hand, witnesses before the Select Committee have given the opinion that true lamp explosions scarcely ever occur; this opinion being no doubt based on the difficulty of producing such an explosion experimentally. The truth is that from 20 per cent, to 25 per cent, of the cases which have been investigated have proved to be explosions, whilst the remainder were fires caused in most cases by the fall of a lamp. A true lamp explosion occurs when the proportion of vapour to air in the reservoir happens to be between 2 per cent, and 4 per cent., and when at the same time the flame is brought in contact with the mixture. If the reservoir PETROLEUM OIL LAMPS. 183 is a fragile one it gives way, and the burning oil is thrown over any person who happens to be near. It is by the burning oil and not by the violence of the explosion that persons are killed and injured. Falls of lamps occur in a variety of ways. Sometimes Fails of a person carrying a lamp stumbles or is jostled against : amps ' sometimes a lamp is pulled off a table or the latter is upset : hanging lamps are sometimes insecurely sus- pended : and sometimes a lamp is used as a missile. Again, cases have occurred where a lamp which was being carried in the hand has suddenly flared up, with the result that the person carrying it has dropped it in alarm. Another class of accident is caused by the ignition of the oil in attempting to refill the lamp while it is alight or in close proximity to a fire. In such cases a person loses presence of mind and upsets the burning oil. It is doubtful as to how far the number of lamp Suggested accidents could be diminished by any legislative e & lsatl0n - measure. The two suggestions which have been made as to legislation with this object are, first, to raise the flash-point to 100° F., and secondly, to establish a legal control over the construction of lamps. The first suggestion has been mentioned in previous Effect of chapters (pp. 75 and 144). It is urged that by this " 1 e sl fl n a g sh . means explosions would be entirely prevented, inas- point. much as the temperature of the oil in the reservoir of a lamp seldom attains 100° F. It has been shown that this contention is erroneous (chap. v.). The conditions in the lamp are entirely different from those in the testing instrument, owing principally to the heated metal of the burner. Professor Dewar* has shown that, under ordinary conditions of burning, the metal work of the burner inside the oil-container is * Select Committee, 1896 ; Q. 6758 et seq. 184 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. liable to acquire a temperature as high as 149° F., while if the draft is impeded, this temperature may rise still higher. Therefore, if the flash-point of the oil alone were to be depended upon, absolute immunity from lamp explosions could not be attained unless only oil of a much higher standard were employed. As to what this figure would be, opinions differ, but probably it would not be less than 150° F. (Abel), a flash-point which is quite out of the question, with the present construction of lamps, and sources of supply of oil. Moreover, if the flash-point were raised there is no certainty that only oil above the legal standard would be employed, for it must be clearly understood that there would not, nor ever could be, in this country, a total prohibition of the sale and use of any particular description of petroleum. It is true that at the present time the effect of the restrictions placed on petroleum below a flash-point of 73° F. (Abel) has been almost entirely to abolish the use of spirit as an illuminant. Spirit now, however, costs more than oil, and there is therefore no inducement to any one to use the former in preference to the latter. If, however, the flash- point were raised, all this might be changed, and oils with flash-points below the legal standard might be found to be much cheaper and better illuminants. In such case it is unlikely that legislative restrictions would any longer serve as a deterrent to the use of lower flash-point oils. The effect of the use only of oils of a flash-point above 100° F. (Abel) in preventing* accidents from fall- ing lamps is by no means certain. If a lamp falls on a carpet and the oil escapes, a conflagration may ensue, whatever the nature of the oil, unless the lamp happens to be extinguished. But it is urged that the rapidity of the combustion will be much less in the case of high- flash oil. Other conditions being alike, this contention PETROLEUM OIL LAMPS. 185 is perfectly true, and in this respect the higher the flash-point the greater will be the safety. But if in the struggle to supply a high-flash oil at a reasonable price the free-burning qualities are sacrificed, this advantage may be largely nullified. An oil which is sluggish in ascending the wick tends to heat the lamp unduly ; and if when the lamp is upset the high-flash oil has become much hotter than would have been the case with oil of the present standard, there will be little difference in the rapidity of the resulting conflagration. It is stated by those in favour of raising the flash- point that lamp accidents with high-flash oil are prac- tically unknown. Even if this were true, it would not be conclusive as to the 'absolute safety of this description of oil, for two reasons. In the first place, the flash-point of the oil involved has not been ascertained in the case of the majority of lamp accidents which have occurred ; and secondly, high-flash oil has not until lately been used to any large extent by the classes amongst whom the greater proportion of accidents occur. In the last two years, however, a brand of oil flashing at about 100° F. (Abel) has been sold at prices which have brought it within the reach of such classes, and acci- dents with this oil have occurred. Indeed the propor- tion of such accidents to those with low-flash oil appears to be somewhat greater than might be expected from the relative proportions in which the two oils are used amongst the poorer classes. It would not be safe, however, to draw conclusions from this fact, owing to the large number of cases in which nothing is known as to the quality of the oil. A more powerful argument in favour of a higher immunity flash-point is the comparative immunity from lamp ac ° cidentsin accidents in Scotland, where Scottish shale oil is prin- Scotland, cipally used. But here again some other cause must price of oil. 186 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. be operating to reduce the number of accidents, as the recent large increase in the consumption of low-flash oil in Scotland does not appear to have led to any increase in the number of lamp accidents. Moreover, in Germany and Switzerland, where the standard is lower than in this country, the number of accidents is also smaller than in England. It is, therefore, by no means certain that raising the standard would have an appreciable effect in rendering lamp accidents less frequent. Effect on An important consideration to be taken into account is the effect which the raising of the flash-point would have on the price and quality of the oil if such a measure attained the desired effect of preventing the use of low-flash oil as an illuminant. It was shown above that fatal lamp accidents are largely outnumbered by fatal falls down stairs. Yet the most advanced reformer would not venture to suggest legislation for the abolition of houses of more than one storey. Obviously public safety is not the only consideration to be taken into account. Petroleum is essentially the illuminant of the poorer classes. The additional safety to be attained by raisingr the flash- point, the amount of which at best is somewhat doubtful, would be dearly bought if it entailed a serious increase of expenditure to the classes who can least afford it. The exact increase in the price of oil which would result from legislation raising the flash-point to 100° F. (Abel) can only be a matter of conjecture, owing to the numerous conditions on which the price depends. The evidence on this point before the Select Com- mittee was of the most contradictory character, and is therefore of little guidance as to the probable increase. The Committee, however, have reported that the PETROLEUM OIL LAMPS. 187 effect of such legislation would be to materially increase the cost of petroleum to the consumer. In attempting to arrive at an estimate, several con- siderations must be taken into account. At the present time Scottish oil, having a flash-point of over 100° F. (Abel), is somewhat lower in price than American low flash-point oil, while the so-called "Water-White," which is the high flash-point oil imported from America, costs wholesale a little over a penny a gallon more than the ordinary American oil. But Scotch oil could never be produced in anything like the quantity which is required in this country. Nor would the supply of American Water -White oil be sufficient for our needs, inasmuch as this brand represents but a small percentage of the crude oil as taken from the wells. It is possible, however, to refine the ordinary oil so as to bring the flash-point up to 100° F. (Abel.) This may be done by distilling off a certain percentage of the lighter petroleum ; but in order to maintain the same free-burning qualities, it is necessary to remove also some portion of the heavier oils. The results of laboratory experiments having for their object the raising of the flash-point of the ordinary oils of commerce, are not conclusive, as high- test oil would not in practice be made from low-test oil, but would be produced direct from the crude oil, It is therefore difficult to say what proportion of the ordinary oils at present made would be rejected in making oils of 100° flash-point. It may be assumed, however, that if the free burning quality is not sacri- ficed the diminution in yield would not be less than 10 to 15 per cent, and might be more. Extra capital expenditure would be necessary at the refineries to maintain the output, but, except for this, the additional cost of the refining operations would not, probably, be 188 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. appreciable, as it would be necessary only to cany the process of distilling off the spirit a little further, and to arrest the distillation of the kerosene at an earlier stage. Conflicting opinions were given before the Committee as to the value of the portions of the ordinary American oil which would be thus rejected, but it seems probable that the portions in question could only be sold as a cheap fuel oil or for gas-making, and that their commercial value would be very low. Assuming this to be the case, the increase in the cost of the high-test oil over that of the low-test oil would probably result in the addition of not more than a penny a gallon to the price in this country, as the loss must be calculated on the oil at the refinery, where the price is comparatively low. It must, however, be borne in mind that there would be an increase in the quantity of by-products, of which at present the production in the United States is in excess of the market requirements, and that this would tend to further raise the cost of the high-test oil, as the surplus of these by-products could only be sold, if at all, at reduced prices. There is, however, a more important point to be taken into consideration. According to evidence given before the Select Committee, the American refiners are barely able on the existing basis to meet the demands of the world for illuminating oil, and if the yield of such oil were diminished by raising the standard there would obviously be a risk of the supply proving inadequate. If this were to occur there would in- evitably be a serious rise in prices, or in the alternative an equally serious falling-off in the quality of the oil. The extent to which this might occur cannot be estimated, and it is evident that advocates of a test-standard of 100° F. might, if successful in their erous lamps. PETROLEUM OIL LAMPS. 189 efforts, find that they had assumed a very great responsibility. The other direction which has been suggested for Prohibition legislation would be more likely in time to produce ofdan e good effect, and it is one which was recommended by the Select Committee with some approach to unanimity. Unquestionably if an Act of Parliament were passed which would have the effect of entirely preventing the use of defective and flimsy lamps, a large proportion of accidents would be avoided. But here again there are difficulties. Of the ten million lamps now in use in this country a large proportion are defective, and no law can prevent the continuance of their use. Again, a lamp which is up to the standard when it is first sold may become defective from old age or improper use, and here also the law would be powerless. Another obstacle would be the difficulty of ensuring an efficient administration of any such Act. Few local authorities in country districts would be able to find an inspector with sufficient technical qualifications to judge whether lamps which are offered for sale come up to the required standard. Even in large towns the local authority is not always sufficiently energetic to carry a law of this kind into useful effect. And if in any town cheap and defective lamps were allowed to be sold with impunity, ignorant persons from the whole district round would avail themselves of the opportunity, and the trade of the more law-abiding dealers would suffer. It will be seen from the above considerations that importance there are grave difficulties in the Avay of the prevention ° nstruction of accidents by legislative control. The surest method of diminishing the number of accidents would un- doubtedly be some form of education by which persons of every class throughout the country would be induced to purchase only lamps of safe construction, and to use 190 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. them properly. The cure really lies with the people themselves, and no legislation of any kind can possibly be as effective as instructed popular opinion. It is not too much to say that ninety per cent, of the accidents which have occurred, whether by explosion of a lamp or otherwise, have been directly due to gross carelessness, ignorance, or the use of lamps after they have become dirty or broken or defective, these causes being aided by the mistaken economy which induces persons to- buy cheap and flimsy lamps rather than those of safer and at the same time more durable con- struction. CHAPTER XI. CARBIDE OF CALCIUM AND ACETYLENE. When a mixture of lime and coke or other form of Manufac- carbon is subjected to the intense heat of the electric tur * ° f furnace, chemical action takes place between the two substances. The lime is separated into its two com- ponent parts, calcium and oxygen, which combine with the carbon to form carbide of calcium and carbonic oxide respectively. The latter passes off as a gas, whilst the carbide remains in a molten or half- molten condition, and is either run off or allowed to form itself into an ingot in the furnace. A very large amount of electrical power is required .for the manufacture of carbide on a commercial scale, and for this reason factories for its manufacture are usually situated at places where water-power is available. The importance of carbide of calcium as a commercial Formation product lies in the ease with which it can be made to ° acety ene ' generate acetylene, which of all gases has the highest illuminating power. In order to produce this gas it is only necessary to bring the carbide into contact with water in a suitable generator, whereupon the calcium combines with the oxygen of the water to form lime, whilst the carbon combines with the hydrogen to form the gaseous product acetylene. The chemical processes involved in the formation of carbide of calcium and acetylene may be readily understood from the follow- ing simple chemical equations : 192 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Affinity of carbide for water. Properties of carbide. Identifica- tion. Properties of acetylene. Making use of the usual symbols : Calcium Oxygen Ca, 0, Carbon . Hydrogen 0, we get the following equations Lime. CaO + Calcium Carbide. CaO, + Carbon. Calcium Carbide. Carbonic Oxide. 3C = CaC 2 + CO. Water. Acetylene. Lime. H„0 = C,H, + CaO. So great is the affinity of carbide of calcium for water that it combines with the moisture of the atmosphere, and whenever exposed to the air it con- tinues to give off the highly inflammable gas. This affinity is taken advantage of in what is termed the dry process of acetylene generation. The process in question consists in mixing powdered carbide with a salt, such as carbonate of soda, also in powder, which contains a large amount of water of crystallisation. The carbide then abstracts from the salt the water necessary for its decomposition. In appearance freshly broken carbide is a crystalline semi-metallic-looking solid. The fresh fracture is dark in colour, varying between brown and bluish-black, but is sometimes tinged with iridescent colours. When the surface has been exposed to the air, how- ever, it becomes covered with a coating of lime which gives it a grey or whitish appearance. Carbide may be easily identified by plunging a small sample into water, and applying a match to the surface. If copious bubbles of gas rise in the water and are ignited on contact with the flame, and if a white powder is left at the bottom of the water, the sample may be pronounced to be carbide of calcium. Acetylene gas has a disagreeable smell resembling that of garlic ; and to any one familiar with this smell carbide, which is exposed to the air, can be readily CARBIDE OF CALCIUM AND ACETYLENE. 193 identified without submitting it to the above test. The disagreeable odour is due to phosphoretted hydro- gen, an impurity which is always present in acetylene made from commercial carbide. Perfectly pure acety- lene has a rather pleasant etherial odour. The evil smell of the commercially formed gas is not altogether a disadvantage, inasmuch as it enables a leakage to be detected with even greater readiness than in the case of coal-gas. Freed from impurities, acetylene is not a poisonous gas, though of course if air containing a very large percentage were breathed for any length of time, suffocation would ensue. Good commercial carbide will give about five cubic feet of acetylene per pound under suitable conditions of generation, but it is seldom in actual practice" that the amount reaches this figure. Acetylene has a specific gravity of about 9, and therefore differs but little in weight from air. Conse- quently it mixes readily with the atmosphere, and shows no tendency to flow like the heavier vapour of petroleum. Like all other inflammable gases and vapours, it tends to form an explosive mixture with the atmo- sphere. This mixture commences to be explosive when the . proportion of acetylene reaches 3 per cent., and continues to be so under certain conditions until the proportion of gas is over 80 per cent. The maximum explosive force is reached when the proportion of gas to air is half and half. In this wide range of explosive capability, acetylene differs greatly from most inflam- mable gases, the reason being that it possesses explosive properties in itself without any admixture of air. When raised to a pressure of two atmospheres or even less, acetylene alone will, on the application of a light or spark, explode with very great violence. The igniting temperature of acetylene in air is 194 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. 896° R, which is somewhat below that of the visible red heat of iron, and is considerably lower than the igniting point of coal-gas or petroleum vapour. The temperature necessary to produce an explosion of compressed acetylene is, however, considerably higher, being about 1436° F. In the smaller percentage which is necessary to form an explosive mixture, and in the lower temperature of ignition, acetylene is somewhat more dangerous in case of leakage than coal-gas ; while, on the other hand, the very small size of the burner for the former gas allows it to escape much more slowly in the event of the flame being blown out or the burner being accidentally left turned on. illuminating The illuminating power of acetylene as compared P° wer - with coal-gas varies with the type of burner employed. In a suitable burner 5 cubic feet of acetylene per hour will give 240 candle-power, while the same quantity of coal-gas gives 16 candle-power. Acetylene is, however, generally burnt in much smaller burners, consuming from £ to 1 cubic foot per hour. Under these condi- tions the illuminating power of acetylene is from six times to ten times as great as that of coal-gas. Generators. It would be impossible, within the limits of this chapter, to give a detailed description of the numerous forms of acetylene generator which have been devised. The fact that it is only necessary to bring water into contact with carbide of calcium in order to generate the gas makes the designing of a generator apparently so simple a matter that many inventors have been tempted to devote their energies to the subject. The matter is really not so simple as it seems, and it is upon the many important details of design that the success, and even the safety, of the apparatus depend. In the report of the Committee on the Exhibition of Acetylene Generators at the Imperial Institute in CARBIDE OF CALCIUM AND ACETYLENE 195 June 1898,* the various forms of apparatus are classified as follows : (1 ) Those in which the gas is generated by water being allowed to drip, or flow in a small stream, on to the top of the carbide. (2) Those in which water rises around the carbide. (3) Those in which the carbide falls into water. These are again subdivided into : Automatic. Non-Automatic. By automatic generators are Non-automatic generators are meant those which have a storage those in which a holder of sum- capacity for gas less than the cient capacity is provided to re- total volume which the charge of ceive the whole of the gas made carbide is capable of generating, from the largest charge of carbide and which depend upon some which the apparatus is capable special contrivance for stopping of taking, contact between the water and carbide. This report gives a detailed description of the various forms of generator tested by the committee, together with much other useful information on the subject. Since it was written, many new forms of apparatus have been placed on the market, all of which, however, fall within the above-mentioned classification. In 1900 a Committee was appointed by the Explosives Department to advise as to the conditions of safety to which acetylene generators should conform, and to test the generators then on the market. After carrying out numerous tests they issued a Reportf and made certain recommendations as to the conditions of safety. These will be found in Appendix XVII. Soon after the introduction of carbide of calcium as Legislation, an article of commerce into this country, it became * This report was issued by the Society of Arts, and may be obtained from William Trounce, 10 Gough Square, Fleet Street, London,, ■f- "Report of Committee on Acetylene Generators, 1902," which may be obtained from the King's Printers, either directly or through any bookseller. 196 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. evident that unless this substance were placed under some restrictions, serious accidents might arise. Not- withstanding the great difference between carbide and petroleum, it was recognised that the danger attending the storage of the two substances is much the same, since it arises from the liability of each to create an explosive atmosphere by giving off inflammable gas or vapour. Consequently it was decided that the best method of dealing with the danger was to take advantage of the power provided in Section 14 of the Petroleum Act, 1871, of bringing other substances within the scope of that Act, and to subject carbide of calcium to such of the provisions of the Petroleum Acts as were applicable. An Order in Council to this effect was accordingly made on February 26, 1897. This was followed on July 7, 1897, by an Order exempting from necessity of licence quantities of carbide amounting to 5 lbs. provided the material is kept in hermetically closed metal vessels containing not more than 1 lb. each. On October 24, 1904, a further order was issued extending the exemption to quantities not exceeding 28 lbs. subject to somewhat more elaborate conditions. Lastly, on August 8, 1911, an Order was made consolidating and repealing the three Orders already issued and exempting from necessity of licence carbide kept for the purposes of general Lighthouse Authorities as defined by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. This Order will be found in Appendix XII. It is not therefore lawful for any private person to keep more than 28 lbs. of carbide of calcium, whether for sale or for use, without a licence from the local authority under the Petroleum Acts. The conditions Licences. to be attached to such licence rest entirely with the local authority, and will vary somewhat in different places ; but it is usual to attach such conditions as will afford protection not only in the storage, but also in the CARBIDE OF CALCIUM AND ACETYLENE. 197 use of carbide on the licensed premises. The power to attach conditions in regard to the construction and position of the generator in which the carbide is to be used has not, as far as the authors are aware, ever been questioned ; and though there may be some doubt on the matter, it is probable that a Court of Law would hold that such conditions come within the wording of Section 9 of the Petroleum Act, 1871. Certainly these conditions do come within the wording of that section if it is held, as it very well may be, that carbide, even when in the generator, is being " kept " on the premises until the whole of it has been decomposed in the forma- tion of acetylene gas. In preparing licences for carbide of calcium, local authorities will probably be guided in some measure by the forms adopted by the London County Council, who have had the advantage of the assistance of the Home Office and of competent scientific advisers in framing their regulations. The forms of licence adopted by this body, together with a memorandum issued by them, will be found in Appendix VI. In dealing with the dangers which have to be precautions, guarded against in keeping carbide of calcium, it should be clearly understood that the material by itself is wholly inexplosive and incombustible, and is absolutely safe so long as no water or moisture can reach it. The carbide should be kept, therefore, in hermetically sealed metal vessels, which should be protected from the weather and stored in a dry place. As some gas may be formed from contact with the moisture of the atmosphere whenever the carbide vessels are opened or are not perfectly air-tight, it is desirable that the place of storage should be thoroughly ventilated, and that precautions should be taken to prevent the ignition of any < which may be so formed. Thus a naked 198 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. light * should never be brought into close proximity t& an open vessel containing, or -which has contained, carbide, nor should such light be used in any building where large quantities of carbide are stored. Another danger may arise in the case of a fire from some other cause, which may damage the carbide vessels. In attempting to extinguish the fire, water may then come in contact with the carbide, giving rise to a copious evolution of gas, which will add to the confla- gration, even if it does not cause a disastrous explosion. For this reason no large amount of carbide should be allowed to be stored in a shop or dwelling-house, or in any highly inflammable building ; and when afire does occur in a large carbide store, the Fire Brigade should be warned not to attempt to extinguish it in the usual manner. Quantity. It has been usual in licences to require that carbide should be kept in vessels containing not more than 112 lbs., but owing to the smaller size to which the material is now broken, the vessels originally designed to hold a hundredweight will now contain 140 lbs., and there is no special objection to the larger amount being allowed. On November 7, 1904, a Memorandum was issued by the Home Office to the effect that it was unnecessary to limit the quantity of carbide in any one vessel ; and also that although it is desirable by a term of the licence to protect the carbide from unauthorised persons it is seldom necessary to require each vessel to be fitted with a lock. With regard to the quantity to be kept on any one premises, it must be remembered that in the case of large stores the danger is measured, not by the quantity of carbide, but by the amount of water which can gain access to it at any one time. Consequently it is not usual to limit the amount of carbide which may be kept * See remarks on Safety Lamps (p. 161). CARBIDE OF CALCIUM AND ACETYLENE. 199 in a large store. In the special cases where licences are granted for the keeping of carbide in a shop or dwelling-house, the quantity should be strictly limited. As some guide in fixing the limit, it should be remem- bered that as one pound of carbide will produce 5 cubic feet of gas, and as an atmosphere of acetylene and air commences to be explosive when the proportion of the former reaches 3 per cent., therefore 3 lbs. of carbide, if all converted into gas at once, would render a space of 500 cubic feet explosive. It would be necessary, however, in order to convert the whole of the carbide into gas, that there should be nearly an equal weight of water in contact with the material. Where the evolution of gas is rapid, an explosive atmosphere may form in a portion of the space with a less quantity of gas than would be necessary to render the whole space capable of explosion. As already stated, it is usual where carbide of calcium safety of is required for use on the premises to attach to the e enerator - licence conditions in regard to the situation, construc- tion, and method of employment of the generator. The apparatus should always be placed in a well- ventilated outbuilding or in the open air, and never in a shop or dwelling-house. No artificial light capable of igniting gas should ever be taken into, or near, the building in which the generator is erected. Strict rules should be enjoined to prevent the access of children or unauthorised persons to the generator or to the store of carbide, and no person should be given charge of the apparatus without being thoroughly instructed in its use. If the generator is fitted with a blow-off pipe, this should be carried up through the roof of the building, so as to discharge into the open air. As the residue from the generator is not always Residue, wholly expended, it is necessary that it should be 200 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Purity of carbide. Harbour By-laws. immersed in at least ten times its bulk of water before being thrown into the drains, as otherwise dangerous accumulations of gas may take place in the sewers. In regard to the construction of generators, local authorities, unless they have some competent expert adviser, will usually have considerable difficulty in laying down regulations, or in approving any par- ticular generator which it is proposed to erect on the premises of an applicant for a licence for carbide. As this has been a difficulty much felt throughout the country, a committee of experts was requested to consider the question, and to carry out tests of such generators as might be brought before them. It is anticipated that their report will be of the greatest value to local authorities in determining the safety or otherwise of any particular generator. Another condition which it is usual to insert in licences is that no carbide should be kept which is not commercially pure. It was thought that if impurities were present in such amount as to develop large percentages of phosphoretted or siliciuretted hydrogen, there would be a danger of spontaneous ignition of the acetylene generated. Experiments made by Professor Lewes, conjointly with one of the authors, have, however, shown that the percentage of these gases necessary to produce spontaneous ignition is so great that carbide which is dangerous from this cause would be altogether unfit for practical use. There would be little chance, therefore, of finding in the market carbide of such a dangerous degree of impurity. The power of harbour authorities to make by-laws for petroleum spirit applies equally to carbide of calcium. It is preferable that the by-laws made for the latter should be entirely distinct from those made for petroleum. To assist harbour authorities a Model CARBIDE OF CALCIUM AND ACETYLENE. 201 Code has been prepared (see Appendix V.), which contains all the provisions necessary for ensuring public safety ; but this code is, of course, in no way binding. It has already been stated that acetylene when Compressed compressed is possessed of explosive properties by acet y lene - itself, that is, without the admixture of air. On the Continent more than one serious accident has occurred from the use of the compressed gas, and as it seemed likely that proposals would be made to use acetylene in this form in the United Kingdom, it was considered advisable to deal with the matter at the outset. Accordingly, after certain experiments had been made to confirm those of Continental chemists, it was decided to prohibit the compression of acetylene except when it can be shown that in admixture with any substance, or in any form or condition, it is free from explosive properties when compressed. This was done by an Order in Council, dated November 26, 1897, under the Explosives Act (see Appendix XIII.), which declares that, with the above exception, acetylene when liquid, or when compressed to a pressure exceed- ing the equivalent of 100 inches of water, shall be deemed to be an explosive under that Act, and shall be prohibited from being manufactured, imported, kept, conveyed or sold. Advantage has been taken of the exception, and it Exemptions, has been demonstrated by experiment to the satisfac- tion of the Secretary of State that a mixture of twenty parts of acetylene to eighty parts of oil-gas compressed to a pressure of 150 lbs. to the square inch, is free from explosive properties. An Order of Secretary of State, dated March 28, 1898, was accord- ingly made exempting this mixture from being deemed to be an explosive, and consequently from prohibition. (See Appendix XIII.) mixed with air 202 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Successful experiments have also been carried out in the presence of one of the authors to show that acetylene, when compressed into porous material, both with and without acetone, is free from danger of explosion under ordinary conditions. An Order of Secretary of State has accordingly been made exempt- ing the gas when compressed under these conditions from being deemed to be an explosive. (See Appen- dix XIII.) The capacity of the liquid, acetone, for absorbing acetylene is very remarkable. At a pressure of ten atmospheres one volume of acetone will absorb about 250 volumes of acetylene. Acetylene A similar Order in Council under the Explosives Act dated May 15, 1900, has been made, prohibiting the use of acetylene in admixture with air. (See Appen- dix XIII. ) It was proposed to obtain a better combustion of the gas by mixing it with a certain proportion of air in the pipes, and one installation on this principle was erected in this country. This proposal has been experimented with in America and resulted in several accidents. It was in order to prevent a repetition of such accidents in this country that the prohibition has been issued. When it is remembered that the most powerfully explosive mixture of acetylene and air is formed when the proportion of the former is 50 per cent., and that even when 80 per cent, is present the mixture can be exploded, it will be seen that no addition of air which would be of value in assisting combustion can be safely employed. The Order in Council expressly states that the prohibition does not extend to a mixture of gas and air formed in the burner or contrivance for consuming the gas, as, for instance, in a Bunsen burner, or in a gas-engine ; nor to a mixture which occurs in a well- designed generator when first used or re-charged ; and CARBIDE OP CALCIUM AND ACETYLENE. 203 therefore prosecutions under the Order should only be instituted in cases where mixtures of gas and air are deliberately made throughout an acetylene installation, or where a generator is so badly designed as to allow such a mixture to be formed to a dangerous extent. Owing probably to the restraining influence of Accidents, legislation on the subject, accidents with acetylene in this country have not been numerous, though the gas is now being used to a large and rapidly increasing extent. Those accidents which have occurred have all been due to culpable carelessness in connection with generators. In nearly every case it is believed that the cause was the bringing of a naked light in close proximity to a generator under examination or repair. The use of carbide of calcium is, however, by no other uses means confined to the production of acetylene for ofcarblde illuminating purposes. The following applications acetylene. . which have, or are likely to become, of importance in this country or abroad are worth noting. The production of metals from their ores. By mixture with carbide and subsequent exposure to gentle heat, the ores of copper and lead can be readily reduced, but whether the method is an economical one or not can only be shown by experience. Carbide can also be used for the production of steel and for the surface hardening of armour-plates. Lamp- black is now being manufactured from acetylene in Germany with considerable success, the product being of exceedingly good quality. It is possible also that the use of acetylene for gas- engines will obtain considerable importance, while the facility with which the gas can be converted into various organic substances may lead to important industries in the synthetical production of such sub- stances on a commercial scale. 204 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. The oxy-acetylene blowpipe is now also regarded as the best means of achieving the autogenous welding of steel, and armour-plates of considerable thickness may by the same means be cut to shape almost as easily as if they were made of cheese ! Carbide of calcium is also used for the production of ferro-silicon, a compound now somewhat commonly employed in the steel trade. For further information on the subject of carbide of calcium and acetylene, the reader should refer to Professor Vivian Lewes' Acetylene. APPENDIX I. PETROLEUM ACT, 1871, AS AMENDED. An Act for the safe keeping of Petro- leum and other substances of a like nature. [August 21, 1871.J 1. This Act may be cited as "The Petroleum Act, 1871." 2. In this Act, if not inconsistent with the context, the following terms have the meanings hereinafter assigned to them ; (that is to say), The term " borough " means — In England any place for the time being subject to the provisions of the Municipal Corporation Act, 1882, and the Acts amending the same ; In Scotland any royal burgh and any burgh or town returning or con- tributing to return a member or mem- bers to serve in Parliament ; In Ireland any place for the time being subject to the provisions of the Act of the session of the third and fourth years of the reign of Queen Victoria, chapter one hundred and eight, " for the regulation of municipi i corporations in Ireland, and the Acts amending the same : " The term " person " includes a body corporate ; The term "Secretary of State" means one of His Majesty's Principal Secre- taries of State : The term "harbour" means any Remarks. Sect. 1, 1871. Short title of Act. Sect. 2, 1871. Inter- pretation of certain terms in the Act. 206 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM Remarks. harbour properly so called, whether natural or artificial, and any port, haven, estuary, tidal river or other river, canal or inland navigation navi- gated by sea-going ships, and any d -ck, pier, jetty, or other works in or at which ships do or can ship or unship goods or passengers : The term "harbour authority" in- cludes any persons or person being or claiming to be proprietors or proprietor of or intrusted with the duty or invested with the power of improving, maintaining, or managing any har- bour: The term "ship" includes every description of vessel used in navigation, whether propelled by oars or otherwise : The term " Court of Summary Juris- diction " means and includes any jus- tice or justices of the peace, sheriff or sheriff substitute, metropolitan police magistrate, stipendiary or other magis- trate, or officer, by whatever name called, to whom jurisdiction is given by the Summary Jurisdiction Acts or any Acts therein referred to, or to proceedings before whom the provisions of the Summary Jurisdiction Acts are or may be made applicable : The term "county rate" means as regards Scotland the county general assessment leviable in pursuance of " The County General Assessment (Scot- land) Act, 1868," and as regards Ire- land the grand jury cess. 3. For the purposes of this Act the term " petroleum " includes any rock oil, Rangoon oil, Burmah oil, oil made from petroleum, coal, schist, shale, peat, or other bituminous substance, and any products of petroleum, or any Sect. 3, 1871. It will be seen that the general definition of " petroleum " includes not only the whole class of mineral oils (see chap, i.), but also "any APPENDIX I 207 of the above-mentioned oils; and the term "petroleum to which this Act applies," means such of the petroleum so defined as, when tested in manner set forth in Schedule One to this Act, gives off an inflammable vapour at a temperature of less than seventy-three degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. A model of the apparatus for testing petroleum, as described in Schedule One to this Act, shall be deposited with the Board of Trade, and the Board of Trade shall, on payment of such fee, not exceeding five shillings, as they from time to time prescribe, cause to be compared with such model and verified every apparatus con- structed in accordance with Schedule One to this Act which is submitted to them for the purpose, and if the same is found correct shall stamp the same with a mark approved of by the Board and notified in the London Gazette. An apparatus for testing petroleum j urporting to be stamped with the said mark shall, until the contrary is proved, be deemed to have been verified by the Bo^rd of Trade. Remarks. products of petroleum." The definition would there- fore include such solid sub- stances as paraffin wax, and might even be held to cover other solid or liquid substances which are pro- duced less directly from petroleum, coal-tar, &c, and which may not even be inflammable. The definition is however narrowed down by the pro- vision that the Act shall only apply to such of these substances as have a flash- point below 73° Fahr. (see chap. v.). The pre- scribed method of deter- mining the flash-point will be found in the Schedule below. Sect. 3, 1879. This Sec- tion provides for the veri- fication of the testing in- strument. Regulations for such verification, issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, will be found in Appendix VII. 208 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. All fees under this section shall be paid into the Exchequer. 4. Every harbour authority shall frame and submit for confirmation to the Board of Trade by-laws for regu- lating the place or places at which ships carrying petroleum to which this Act applies are to be moored in the harbour over which such authority has jurisdiction, and are to land their cargo, and for regulating the time and mode of, and the precautions to be taken on, such landing. The harbour authority shall publish the by-laws so framed with a notice of the intention of such authority to apply for the confirmation thereof. The Board of Trade may confirm such by-laws with or without any omission, addition, or alteration, or may disallow the same. Every such by-law when confirmed shall be published by the harbour .authority, and may be from time to time altered or repealed by a by-law made in like manner. By-laws under this section shall be published in such manner as the Board of Trade may from time to time direct. If at any time it appears to the Board of Trade that there is no by-law for the time being in force under this section in any harbour the Board of Trade may, by notice, require the iharbour authority of such harbour to frame and submit to them a by-law for the purposes of this section, and if such harbour authority make default in framing a by-law and obtaining the confirmation thereof within the time limited by such notice the Board of Trade may make a by-law for the pur- Eemarks. Sect. 4, 1871. Harbour authorities are required, with the sanction of the Board of Trade, to make by-laws under this Section regulating the following matters : (1) Places where ships carrying petroleum spirit are to be moored. (2) Places where such ships are to land their cargo. (3) Time and mode of such landing. (4) Precautions to be taken in such landing. It will be seen that there is no power to make by-laws prohibiting the bringing of petroleum into the har- bour ; nor is there power to regulate the shipping of petroleum, though this is regulated to some extent by laying down the place where ships carrying petro- leum are to be moored. It is desirable that sepa- rate by-laws should be made for carbide of calcium. In Appendix V. will be found a Model Code of harbour by-laws for petro- leum, and in Appendix XIII. a similar code for carbide of calcium. These Model Codes have been pre- pared by the Home Office for the assistance of har- APPENDIX I. 209 poses of this section, and such by-law shall have the same effect as if it had been framed by the harbour authority and confirmed by the Board of Trade. Where any ship or cargo is moored, landed, or otherwise dealt with in con- travention of any by-law for the time being in force under this Act in any harbour, the owner and master of such ship, or the owner of such cargo, as the case may be, shall each incur a penalty not exceeding fifty pounds for each day during which such contravention continues, and it shall be lawful for the harbour-master or any other person acting under the orders of the harbour authority of such harbour to cause such ship or cargo to be removed, at the expense of the owner thereof, to such place as may be in conformity with the said by-law, and all expenses incurred in such re- moval may be recovered in the same manner in which penalties are by this Act made recoverable. 5. The owner or master of every ship carrying a cargo any part of which consists of petroleum to which this Act applies, on entering any harbour within the United Kingdom, shall give notice of such cargo to the harbour authority having jurisdiction over such harbour. If such notice is not given the owner and master of such ship shall each incur a penalty not exceeding the sum of five hundred pounds, unless it is shown to the satisfaction of the court before which the case is tried that neither the owner nor the master knew the nature of the goods to which the proceed- Remarks. bour authorities, but they are in no way binding, and are subject to any modifi- cations or additions which may be rendered necessary by local requirements. Sect 5, 1871. It should be noted that in cases where pebroleum or carbide of calcium is shipped on a vessel without the know- ledge of the owner or mas- ter, the exemption from penalty can only be claimed if it is shown that such knowledge could not, with reasonable diligence, have been obtained. 210 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. ings relate, nor could with reason- able diligence have obtained such knowledge. 6. Where any petroleum to which this Act applies — (a) Is kept at any place except during the seven days next after it has been imported ; or, (J) Is sent or conveyed by land or water between any two places in the United Kingdom ; or, (c) Is sold or exposed for sale ; the vessel containing such petroleum shall have attached thereto a label in conspicuous characters, stating the description of the petroleum, with the addition of the words " highly inflam- mable," and with the addition — (a) In the case of a vessel kept, of the name and address of the consignee or owner : (6) In the case of a vessel sent or conveyed, of the name and ad- dress of the sender : (c) In the case of a vessel sold or exposed for sale, of the name and address of the vendor ; All petroleum to which this Act applies which is kept, sent, conveyed, sold, or exposed for sale, in contraven- tion of this section, shall, together with the vessel containing the same, be forfeited, and in addition thereto the person keeping, sending, selling, or ex- posing for sale.,the same shall for each offence be liable to a penalty not ex- ceeding five pounds. 7. Save as hereinafter mentioned, after the passing of this Act, petroleum to which this Act applies shall not be kept, except in pursuance of a licence Remarks. Sect. 6, 1871. In the case of carbide of calcium the following marking is substituted : "CARBIDE of CAL- CIUM. DANGEROUS if not kept DRY." "The contents of this package are liable if brought into contact with moisture to give off a highly inflam- mable gas." The requirements as to the package bearing the name and address of the owner, sender, or vendor, are the same as for petro- leum. Sect. 7, 1871. This sec- tion applies to keeping for private use or for manu- facture, as well as for sale ; APPENDIX I. 211 given by such local authority as is in this Act mentioned. All petroleum kept in contravention of this section shall, together with the vessel containing the same, be forfeited, and in addition thereto the occupier of the place in which such petroleum is so kept shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds a day for each day during which such petroleum is so kept. This section shall not apply to any petroleum kept either for private use or for sale, provided the following con- ditions are complied with : (1) That it is kept in separate glass, earthenware, or metal vessels, each of which contains not more than a pint, and is securely stopped : (2) That the aggregate amount kept, supposing the whole contents of the vessels to be in bulk, does not exceed three gallons. 8. The following bodies shall re- spectively be the local authority to grant licences under this Act in the districts hereinafter mentioned ; (that is to say), (1) In the City of London, except as hereafter in this section mentioned, the Court of the Lord Mayor and aldermen of the said city : (2) In the County of London, except the City of London, and except as here- Semarks. but persons keeping petro- leum spirit for use in motor-cars are exempted from the necessity of licence, so long as they conform to the Eegulations which will be found in Appendix IX. A licence is not required for a carriage in which petroleum is hawked. (See Petroleum Act, 1881, be- low.) A licence is necessary where petroleum spirit is kept in the factory where it is distilled. A Crown servant keep- ing petroleum on Crown property, or for the service of the Crown, is exempt from the necessity of licence. It has been decided by the Courts that petroleum spirit when kept for test- ing motor-cars during manufacture, is kept for the purposes of light loco- motives, and therefore exempt from licence. Sect. 8, 1871. By the Local Government Acts, the local authorities for petroleum have been al- tered as regards England, Scotland and Wales. They may now be sum- marised as follows ; In the City of London or any borough — the Cor- poration. 212 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. the after in this section mentioned, County Council of London. (3) In any borough in England or Ireland, except as hereafter in this section mentioned, the mayor, alder- men, and burgesses acting by the council : (4) In any place in England* or Ireland, except as hereafter in this section mentioned, within the juris- diction of any trustees or improvement commissioners appointed under the provisions of any local or general Act of Parliament, and not being a borough or comprising any part of a borough, the trustees or commissioners : (5) Repealed. (6) In any borough in Scotland, except as hereafter in this section men- tioned, the town council : (7j In any place in Scotland, except as hereafter in this section mentioned, within the jurisdiction of police com- missioners or trustees exercising the functions of police commissioners under any general or local Act, and not being a borough or comprising any part of a borough, the police commissioners or trustees : (8) In any harbour within the juris- diction of a harbour authority, whether situate or not within the jurisdiction of any local authority before in this section mentioned, theharbour authority,to the exclusion of any other local authority : (9) In any place in which there is no local authority as before in this section defined, in England the District Council, in Ireland the justices in petty sessions assembled, and in Scot- land the County Council. 9. Licences in pursuance of this Act Remarks. In the County of London the London County Council. In any harbour — the Harbour Authority. In any other place — in England, the District Council ; in Scotland, the County Council ; in Ireland, as in the Act. Sect. 9, 1871. The con- Repealed as regards England only. APPENDIX I. 218 shall be valid if signed by two or more of the persons constituting the local authority, or executed in any other way in which other licences, if any, granted by such authority are executed. Licences may be granted for a limited time and may be subject to renewal or not in such manner as the local au- thority think necessary. There may be annexed to any such licence such conditions as to the mode of storage, the nature and situation of the premises in which, and the nature of the goods with which petroleum to which this Act applies is to be stored, the facilities for the testing of such petroleum from time to time, the mode of carrying such petroleum within the district of the licensing authority, and generally as to the safe keeping of such petroleum as may seem expedient to the local authority. Any licensee violating any of the conditions of his licence shall be deemed to be an unlicensed person. There may be charged in respect of each licence granted in pursuance of this Act such sum, not exceeding five shillings, as the local authority may think fit to charge. Remwrks. ditions which may be at- tached to a licence are as to: (1) Mode of storage. (2) Nature and situation of the premises. (3) Nature of the goods with which the petroleum may be stored. (4) Facilities for testing. (5) Mode of carrying petroleum within the dis- trict of the licensing au- thority. (6) General safe keeping of the petroleum. These powers are much wider than in the case of harbour by-laws, and would cover almost any condition which the local authority may consider necessary for safety. Forms of licence as used by the London County Council will be found in Appendix VI. Before a licence is grant- ed, the officer of the local authority should inspect the premises, and ascertain whether the place is suit- able. For the precautions to be taken generally, and for remarks as to the suit- ability of places for keeping petroleum, see chap. ix. In the case of petroleum or carbide of calcium for private use or for manu- facturing purposes a term should be added to the 214 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. 1 0. If on any application for a licence under this Act the local authority refuse the licence, or grant the same only on conditions with which the applicant is dissatisfied, the local authority shall, if required by the applicant, deliver to him in writing under the hand or hands of one or more of the persons constitut- ing the local authority, a certificate of the grounds on which they refused the licence or annexed conditions to the grant thereof. The applicant within ten days from the time of the delivery of the certificate may transmit the same to a Secretary of State if the application is for a licence in England, to the Secretary for Scotland if the application is for a licence in Scotland, and to the Lord-Lieutenant if the application is for a licence in Ireland, together with a memorial, praying that notwithstanding such re- fusal the licence may be granted, or that the conditions may not be imposed, Remarks. licence to the effect that the ofiicer of the local au- thority must be given free access to the premises. The last paragraph of Section 9 makes it clear that a licence is granted to a person, and not for the place in which the petro- leum is kept. There is no provision for the transfer of a licence, and therefore if the premises pass into the hands of a new occupier, a fresh licence must be applied for. This also holds good in the case of a licence granted on appeal. Sect. 10, 1871. This section provides for appeal in the case of a licence being refused by the local authority, or of the appli- cant being dissatisfied with the conditions imposed. In England the appeal must be madeto the Home Secre- tary; in Ireland to the Lord-Lieutenant ; and in Scotland to the Secretary for Scotland. (Secretary for Scotland Acts.) Any person making an appeal should first obtain the certificate required by the first paragraph of the section. APPENDIX I. 215 Remarks. or may be altered or modified in such manner and to such extent as may be set forth in such memorial. It shall be lawful for the Secretary of State, the Secretary for Scotland, or the Lord-Lieutenant, if he think fit, on consideration of such memorial and certificate, and, if he think it necessary or desirable, after due inquiry and a report by such person as he may appoint for that purpose, to grant the licence prayed for, either absolutely or with such conditions as he thinks fit, or to alter or modify the conditions imposed by the local authority ; and the licence so granted, or altered and modified, as the case may be, when certified under the hand of a Secretary of State, the Secretary for Scotland, or the Lord- Lieutenant, shall be to all intents as valid as if granted by the local authority. 11. Any officer authorised by the local authority may purchase any petro- leum from any dealer in it, or may, on producing a copy of his appointment, purporting to be certified by the clerk or some member of the local authority, or producing some other sufficient authority, require the dealer to show him every or any place, and all or any of the vessels in which any petroleum in his possession is kept, and to give him samples of such petroleum on pay- ment of the value of such samples. "When the officer has by either of the means aforesaid taken samples of petro- leum, he may declare in writing to the dealer that he is about to test the same, or cause the same to be tested, in manner set forth in Schedule One to this Act, and it shall be lawful for him to test the same or cause the same to Sect. 11, 1871. This section gives a right of purchasing samples, and of inspection of any premises on which petroleum, whe- ther spirit or oil, is kept for sale ; but does not give a right of entry into a place where petroleum is kept for private use or for purposes of manufacture. The officer appointed by the local authority can only claim a right of entry into private premises or factories where he believes that petroleum spirit is kept, under a warrant as provided by Section 18, unless the place is licensed, and there is a term in the die handbook on petroleum. be tested, at any convenient place at such reasonable time as he may appoint, and the dealer or any person appointed by him may be present at the testing, and if it appear to the officer or other person so testing that the petroleum from which such samples have been taken is petroleum to which this Act applies, such officer or other person may certify such fact, and the certificate so given shall be receivable as evidence in any proceedings that may be taken against a dealer in petroleum in pursu- ance of this Act ; but it shall be lawful for a dealer proceeded against to give evidence in proof that such certificate is incorrect, and thereupon the court before which any such proceedings may be taken may, if such courts think fit, appoint some person skilled in testing petroleum to examine the samples to which such certificate relates, and to declare whether such certificate is correct or incorrect. Any expenses incurred in testing any petroleum of such dealer in pursu- ance of this section shall, if such dealer be convicted of keeping, sending, con- veying, selling, or exposing for sale, petroleum in contravention of this Act, be deemed to be a portion of the costs of the proceedings against him, and shall be paid by him accordingly. In any other event such expenses shall be paid by the local authority out of any funds for the time being in their hands, and in case the local authority are the justices, out of the county rate. 12. Any dealer who refuses to show to any officer authorised by the local authority every or any place or all or any of the vessels in which petroleum Remarks. licence requiring the occu- pier to allow him free access. Sect. 12, 1871. This section only applies to dealers, i.e., persons who keep petroleum for sale. APPENDIX L 217 in his possession is kept, or to give him such assistance as he may require for examining the same, or to give to such officer samples of such petroleum on payment of the value of such samples, or who wilfully obstructs the local authority, or any officer of the local authority, in the execution of this Act, shall incur a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds. 13. Where any court of summary jurisdiction is satisfied by information on oath that there is reasonable ground to believe that any petroleum to which this Act applies is being kept, sent, conveyed, or exposed for sale within the jurisdiction of such court in con- travention of this Act, at any place, whether a building or not, or in any ship or vehicle, such court shall grant a warrant by virtue whereof it shall be lawful for any person named in such warrant to enter the place, ship, or vehicle named in such warrant, and every part thereof, and examine the same and search for petroleum therein, and take samples of any petroleum found therein, and if any petroleum to which this Act applies be found therein, which is kept, sent, conveyed, or ex- posed for sale, in contravention of this Act, to seize and remove such petro- leum, and the vessel containing the same, and to detain such petroleum and vessel until some court of summary jurisdiction has determined whether the same are or are not forfeited, the pro- ceedings for which forfeiture shall be commenced forthwith after the seizure Any person seizing any petroleum to which this Act applies in pursuance of this section shall not be liable to Remarks. (See remarks on preceding section.) Sect. 13, 1871. This section provides for entry and search for petroleum kept otherwise than for sale. (See remarks on Sec- tion 11.) 218 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Remarks any suit for detaining the same, or for any loss or damage incurred in respect of such petroleum, otherwise than by any wilful act or neglect while the same is so detained. If any petroleum to which this Act applies is seized in pursuance of this sec- tion in any ship or vehicle, the person seizingthesamemay use for the purposes of the removal thereof, during twenty- four hours after the seizure,the said ship or vehicle, with the tackle, beasts, and accoutrements belonging thereto, and if he do so shall pay to the owner thereof a reasonable recompense for the use thereof, and the amount of such recompense shall, in case of dis- pute, be settled by the court of summary jurisdiction before whom proceedings for the forfeiture are taken, and may be recovered in like manner as penalties under this Act may be recovered. Any person who, by himself or by any one in his employ or acting by his direction or with his consent, refuses or fails to admit into any place occu- pied by or under the control of such person, any person demanding to enter in pursuance of this section, or in any way obstructs or prevents any person in or from making any such search, examination, or seizure, or taking any such samples as authorised by this sec- tion, shall be liable to pay a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds, and to forfeit all petroleum to which this Act applies which is found in his possession or under his control. 14. His Majesty may from time to time make, revoke, and vary Orders in Council directing this Act or any part thereof to apply to any substance, Sect. 14, 1871. The only substances brought under the operation of the Act by this section are carbide APPENDIX I. 219 and this Act, or the part thereof speci- fied in the Order shall, during the continuance of the Order, apply to such substance, and shall be construed and have effect as if throughout it such substance had been included in the definition of petroleum to which this Act applies, subject to the following qualifications : (1) The quantity of any substance to which this Act is directed by Order in Council to apply, which may be kept without a licence, shall be such quantity only as is specified in that behalf in such order, or if no such quantity is specified no quantity may be kept without a licence : (2) The label on the vessel containing such substance shall be such as may be specified in that behalf in the order. 15. In England and Ireland all offences and penalties under this Act, and all money and costs directed by this Act to be recovered as penalties, may be prosecuted and recovered in manner provided by the Summary Jurisdiction Acts. In Scotland all offences and penalties under this Act, and all money and expenses by this Act directed to be recovered as penalties, shall, savo as hereinafter provided, be prosecuted and recovered at the instance of the procurator fiscal or of any officer autho- rised in that behalf by the harbour authority or local authority under the provisions of the Summary Jurisdiction Acts before a court of summary juris- diction, and all necessary powers and jurisdictions are hereby conferred on such court in Scotland. lie marks. of calcium and mixtures of petroleum with other sub- stances. The Orders in Council will be found in Appendices II and XII. It is held that a licence to store petroleum does not authorise the keeping of carbide of calcium, because the quantity expressed in gallons, and some of the precautions, are inapplic- able. As there is some doubt on this qrestion, petroleum licences should contain a term excluding carbide of calcium. Where a joint licence is granted for keeping both sub- stances, only one fee should be charged. Sect. 15, 1871. This section deals with proceed- ings for offences and penal- ties. 220 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Eemarhs. Provided as follows : (1) A court of summary jurisdiction shall not impose a penalty exceeding fifty pounds, but any such court may impose that or any less penalty for any one offence, notwithstanding the offence involves a penalty of higher amount. (2) In Scotland any penalty exceed- ing fifty pounds shall be recovered and enforced in the same manner in which any penalty due to His Majesty under any Act of Parliament maybe recovered and enforced. (3) The " Court of Summary Juris- diction,"when hearing and determining an information or complaint, shall be constituted in some one of the following manners ; (that is to say), (a) In England, either of two or more justices of the peace in petty sessions sitting at a place appointed for holding petty ses- sions, or of one of the magistrates hereinafter mentioned, sitting alone or with others at some court or other place appointed for the administration of justice ; that is to say, the Lord Mayor, or any alderman of the City of London, a metropolitan police magistrate, a stipendiary magis- trate, or some other officer or officers for the time being em- powered by law to do alone or with others any act authorised to be done by more than one justice of the peace; (6) In Scotland, of two or more justices of the peace sitting as judges in a justice of the peace court, or of one of the magis- trates hereinafter mentioned APPENDIX 1. 221 Remarks. Bitting alone or with others at some court or other place ap- pointed for the administration of justice ; that is to say, the sheriff of the county or his substitute, or the provost or other magistrate of a royal burgh, or some other officer or officers for the time being em- powered by law to do alone or with others any act authorised to be done by more than one justice of the peace : (c) In Ireland, within the police district of Dublin Metropolis, of one of the divisional justices of the police district of Dublin Metropolis, sitting at a police court within the said district ; and elsewhere, of a stipendiary magistrate, sitting alone or with others, or of two or more justices of the peace in petty sessions, sitting at a place appointed for holding petty sessions. (4) Repealed. (5) Repealed. (6) No conviction or order made in pursuance of this Act shall be quashed for want of form or be removed by certiorari or otherwise, either at the instance of the Crown or of any private party, into any superior court. (7) Repealed. (8) In Scotland all penalties imposed under the provisions of this Act by a Court of Summary Jurisdiction may be enforced in default of payment by imprisonment for a term not exceeding three calendar months; and all such penalties recovered and the proceeds of all forfeitures sold under this Act shall 222 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Remarks. be paid to the clerk of the Court of Summary Jurisdiction, and by him accounted for and paid to the persons and for the purposes under stated ; (that is to say), (a) To the King's and Lord Trea- surer's Remembrancer, on be- half of His Majesty, when the court is the sheriffs court : (&) To the collector of county rates in aid of the general county assessment when the court is the justice of the peace court : (c) To the treasurer of the burgh in aid of the funds of the burgh when the court is a burgh court. (9) In Ireland all penalties recovered under the provisions of this Act shall be applied according to the Fines, Ireland, Act, 1851, or any Act amend- ing the same. 16. All powers given by this Act shall be deemed to be in addition to and not in derogation of any other powers conferred on any local or harbour authority by Act of Parliament, law, or custom, and every local autho- rity and harbour authority may exercise such other powers in the same manner as if this Act had not passed; and nothing in this Act contained shall be deemed to exempt any person from any penalty to which he would otherwise be subject in respect of a nuisance. The Petroleum Act, 1871, shall continue in force until otherwise directed by Parliament Sect. 16, 1871. This section provides for the reservation of previous powers. It is not, however, desirable that harbour au- thorities should make by- laws for petroleum by vir- tue of powers which they may have under some other Act. Sect. 4, 1879. The Petro- leum Act, 1871, was re- newed annually until 1879 when it was made perma- nent. Plate II To face page 223 APPENDIX I. 223 SCHEDULE ONE. Petroleum Act, 1879. (42 & 43 Vict. 0. 47.) Mode of Testing Petroleum so as to ascertain the Temperature at which it will give off inflammable vapour. Explanatory Remarks. The oil-cup consists of a cylindrical Fig. 1 [a]. Plate II. vessel 2" diameter, 2-^/' height (in- ternal),with outward projecting rim^" wide, f' from the top, and 1 J" from the bottom of the cup. It is made of gun metalorbrass(17B.W.G.) tinned inside. A bracket, consisting of a short stout piece of wire bent upwards and termi- nating in a point, is fixed to the inside of the cup to serve as a gauge. The distance of the point from the bottom of the cup is 1 \" . The cup is provided with a close-fitting overlapping cover made of brass (22 B.W.G.), which Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4. carries the thermometer and test lamp. The latter is suspended from two sup- ports from the side by means of trun- nions upon which it may be made to oscillate ; it is provided with a spout, the mouth of which is one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. The socket which is to hold the thermometer is fixed at such an angle and its length is so adjusted that the bulb of the ther- mometer when inserted to its full depth shall be l£" below the centre of the lid. The cover is provided with three Fig. 2. square holes, one in the centre, -^" by *fo", and two smaller ones, ^" by ^", close to the sides and opposite each other. These three holes may be closed and uncovered by means of a 224, HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Explanatory Remarks. slide moving in grooves, and having perforations corresponding to those on the lid. In moving the slide so as to uncover the holes, the oscillating lamp is caught by a pin fixed in the slide, and tilted in such a way as to bring the end of the spout just below the surface of the lid. Upon the slide being pushed Figs. 3, 4, 7. back so as to cover the holes, the lamp returns to its original position. Upon the cover, in front of and in line with the mouth of the lamp, is fixed a white bead,* the dimensions of * (/) Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4. which represent the size of the test flame to be used. The bath or heated vessel consists of two flat-bottomed copper cylinders 24 B.W.G.), an inner one of 3" dia- Fig. 1 [b]. meter and 2J" height, and an outer one of 5£" diameter and 5|" height ; they are soldered to a circular copper plate (20 B.W.G.) perforated in the centre, which forms the top of the bath, in such a manner as to enclose the space beneath the two cylinders, but leaving access to the inner cylinder. The top of the bath projects both out- wards and inwards about f " ; that is, its diameter is about ^" greater than that of the body of the bath, while the diameter of the circular opening in the centre is about the same amount less than that of the inner copper cylinder. To the inner projection of the top is fastened, by six small screws, a flat ring of ebonite, the screws being sunk Fig. 1 (h). below the surface of the ebonite, to avoid metallic contact between the bath and the oil-cup. The exact dis- tance between the sides and bottom of the bath and of the oil-cup is APPENDIX I. 225 J".* A split socket t similar to that on the cover of the oil-cup, but set at a right angle, allows a thermometer to be inserted into the space between the two cylinders. The bath is further provided with a funnel,J an overflow pipe,§ and two loop handles. || The bath rests upon a cast-iron tripod stand, to the ring of which is attached a copper cylinder or jacket * (24 B.W.G.) flanged at the top, and of such dimensions that the bath, while firmly resting on the iron ring, just touches with its projecting top the inward-turned flange. The diameter of this outer jacket is 6 J". One of the three legs of the stand serves as support for the spirit lamp attached to it by means of a small swing bracket." The distance of the wick holder t from the bottom of the bath is 1"4 Two thermometers are provided with the apparatus, the one for ascertaining the temperature of the bath, the other for determining the flashing point. The thermometer for ascertaining the temperature of the water has a long bulb and a space at the top. Its range is from about 90° to 190° Fahrenheit. The scale (in degrees of Fahrenheit) is marked on an ivory back lastened to the tube in the usual way It is fitted with a metal collar, fitting the socket, and the part of the tube below the scale should have » length of about Z\" measured from the lower end of the scale to the end of the bulb The thermometer for ascertaining the temperature of the oil is fitted with collar and ivory scale in a similar Explanatory Remarks. * This statement relates to the distance between the sides and bottom of the cup and the walls of the inner cylinder, which forms' the air chamber. t Fig. 1(e). %{d). §(/)• Ugg)- * Fig- 1 [o]. * Fig. 1 (a). t (c). X The lamp is filled through the funnel 6. In both thermometers the capillary tube is widened at the top to prevent breakage through over-heating. The line on the scale of the long bulb thermometer indicating 130°, is rendered conspi- cuous by being drawn across the whole width of the ivory back. In a similar manner the line indicating 73° is specially marked on the round bulb thermo- meter. 226 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Explanatory Remarks. manner to the one described. It has a round bulb, a space at the top, and ranges from about 55° F. to 150° F. ; it measures from end of ivory back to bulb 2£". Note. — A model apparatus is de- posited at the "Weights and Measures Department of the Board of Trade. Directions for applying the Flashing Test. (1) The test apparatus is to be placed for use in a position where it is not exposed to currents of air or draughts. (2) The heating vessel or water-bath is filled by pouring water into the funnel until it begins to flow out at the spout of the vessel. The tem- perature of the water at the com- mencement of the test is to be 130° Fahrenheit, and this is attained in the first instance either by mixing hot and cold water in the bath, or in a vessel from which the bath is filled, until the thermometer which is provided for testing the temperature of the water gives the proper indication ; or by heating the water with the spirit lamp (which is attached to the stand of the apparatus) until the required tempera- ture is indicated. If the water has been heated too highly, it is easily reduced to 130° by pouring in cold water little by little (to replace a portion of the warm water) until the thermometer gives the proper reading. When a test has been completed, this water-bath is again raised to 130° by placing the lamp underneath, and the result is readily obtained while the APPENDIX I. 227 Explanatory Remarks. petroleum cup is being emptied, cooled, and refilled with a fresh sample to be tested. The lamp is then turned on its swivel from under the apparatus, and the next test is proceeded with. (3) The test lamp is prepared for use by fitting it with a piece of fiat plaited candle wick, and filling it with colza or rape oil up to the lower edge of the opening of the spout or wick tube. The lamp is trimmed so that when lighted it gives a flame of about 0*15 of an inch diameter, and this size of flame, which is represented by the projecting white bead on the cover of the oil-cup, is readily maintained by simple manipulation from time to time with a small wire trimmer. When gas is available it may be conveniently used in place of the little oil-lamp, and for this purpose a test- flame arrangement for use with gas may be substituted for the lamp. (4) The bath having been raised to the proper temperature, the oil to be tested is introduced into the petroleum cup, being poured in slowly * until the level of the liquid just reaches the point of the gauge which is fixed in the cup. In warm weather the tem- perature of the room in which the samples to be tested have been kept should be observed in the first instance, and if it exceeds 65° the samples to be tested should be cooled down (to about 60°) by immersing the bottles containing them in cold water, or by any other convenient method. The lid of the cup, with the slide closed, is then put on, and the cup is placed into the bath or heating vessel. The thermometer in the lid of the cup has * In pouring in the oil to be tested, great care should be taken not to splash it against the sides of the cup. 228 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Explanatory Remarks. been adjusted so as to have its bulb just immersed in the liquid, and its position is not under any circumstances to be altered. When the cup has been placed in the proper position, the scale of the thermometer faces the operator. (5) The test lamp is then placed in position upon the lid of the cup, the lead line or pendulum, which has been fixed in a convenient position in front of the operator, is set in motion, and the rise of the thermometer in the petroleum cup is watched. "When the temperature has reached about 66° the operation of testing is to be commenced, the test-flame being applied once for every rise of one degree, in the fol- lowing manner : The slide is slowly drawn open while the pendulum performs three oscilla- tions, and is closed during the fourth oscillation. Note. — If it is desired to employ the test apparatus to determine the flashing points of oil of very low vola- tility, the mode of proceeding is to be modified as follows : The air-chamber which surrounds the cup is filled with cold water to a depth of 1^ inches, and the heating vessel or water-bath is filled as usual, but also with cold water. The lamp is then placed under the apparatus and kept there during the entire operation. If a very heavy oil is being dealt with, the operation may be commenced with water previously heated to 120° instead of with cold water. For explanation as to the use of the pendulum see p. 86. APPENDIX II. STATUTORY RULES AND ORDERS, 1907. No. 483. PETROLEUM. Mixtures of Petroleum. Order in Council directing, that Certain Portions of the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881, shall apply to Mixtures op Petroleum. At the Court at Buckingham Palace, the 7th day of May, 1907. Present : The King's Most Excellent Majesty in Council. Whereas it is provided by the Petroleum Act, 1871, that His Majesty may, from time to time, make, revoke, and vary Orders in Council directing that the said Act, or any part thereof, shall apply to any substance, and that the said Act, or the part thereof specified in any such Order, shall, during the continuance of the Order, apply to such substance, and shall be construed and have effect as if such substance had been included in the definition of petroleum to which that Act applies, subject to the following qualifications : (1) The quantity of any substance to which this Act is directed by order in Council to apply which may be kept without a licence shall be such quantity only as is specified in that behalf in such Order, or if no such quantity is specified no quantity may be kept without a licence. (2) The label on the vessel containing such substance shall be such as may be specified in that behalf in the Order. And whereas the Petroleum Act, 1879, and the Petroleum (Hawkers) Act, 1881, are to be construed as one with the Petroleum Act, 1871, and may, together with such Act, be cited as the Petro- leum Acts, 1871 to 1881. And whereas mixtures of petroleum with other substances present dangers similar to those presented by petroleum without admixture. Now, therefore, in pursuance of the above-mentioned provisions of the Petroleum Act, 1871, His Majesty is pleased, by and with the advice of His Privy Council, to order and prescribe that the under-mentioned parts of the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881, shall apply to any mixture of petroleum with any other substance which, 230 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. when tested in the manner set forth in the schedule to this Order, gives off an inflammable vapour at a temperature of less than seventy-three degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer; whether such mixture be liquid, viscous, or solid, in the same manner as if such mixture were petroleum to which the said Acts apply, viz. : The whole of the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881, except : (a) 'So much of Section 6 of the Petroleum Act, 1871, as specifies the nature of the label to be on the vessel, in lieu of which the label shall be as hereinafter provided. (6) So much of Section 7 of the Petroleum Act, 1871, relating to the exemption from such section of small quantities under certain specified conditions, as is inconsistent with or contradictory to the exemptions and conditions herein- after prescribed, (c) So much of Section 11 of the Petroleum Act, 1871, and of the Petroleum Act, 1879, relating to the testing of petro- leum, as is inconsistent with or contradictory to the direc- tions for testing contained in the fchedule to this Order. The label on the vessel or package containing a petroleum mixture which is subject to the Petroleum Acts in virtue of this Order shall bear in conspicuous characters the name of the mixture and the words " Petroleum Mixture giving off an inflammable heavy vapour." " Not to be exposed near a flame." The quantity of any petroleum mixture which is subject to the Petroleum Acts in virtue of this Order, which may be kept without licence, and the conditions of such keeping, shall be as follows : (a) Where the petroleum mixture is sufficiently liquid to be measured by liquid measure the quantity and the condi- tions of keeping shall be those specified in Section 7 of the Petroleum Act, 1871. (b) Where the petroleum mixture is solid, or otherwise unsuit- able to be measuredjby liquid measure, the quantity which may be kept without licence shall not exceed thirty pounds, which may only be so kept provided that it is enclosed in hermetically sealed packages or vessels containing each not more than one pound. Wherever in the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881, or in any Order, By-law, or Licence issued under these Acts, a quantity is specified in gallons or pints, such quantity 6hall, in the case of such solid petroleum mixture, be read as though the weight of ten pounds were substituted for a gallon and of one pound for a pint. A. W. FitzRoy. APPENDIX II. 231 SCHEDULE Directions for Testing: Petroleum Mixtures 1. Liquid Mixtures Where the Petroleum Mixture is wholly liquid, flows quite freely, and does not contain any sediment or thickening ingredient, such mixture shall be tested in the manner set forth in Schedule One to the Petroleum Act, 1879. 2. Viscous and Sedimentary Mixtures Where the Petroleum Mixture contains an undissolved sediment, as in the case of some metal polishes, which can be separated by fil- tration or by settlement and decantation, the sediment may be so separated and the decanted liquid may be tested in the manner set forth in Schedule One to the Petroleum Act, 1879. In carrying out such separation, care must be taken to minimise the evaporation of the petroleum. The separation of the sediment must not be effected by distillation. Where the Petroleum Mixture is such that sediment cannot be separated by the afore-mentioned means, or where it is of a viscous nature, as in the case of india-rubber solution, quick-drying paints, etc., such mixture shall be tested in the apparatus modified as shown in the drawing hereto. This apparatus differs from that prescribed in Schedule One to the Petroleum Act, 1879, only in the addition of a stirrer to equalise the temperature throughout the sample under test. In carrying out the test of a viscous petroleum mixture, this stirrer shall be constantly revolved at a slow speed, except when applying the test flame, with the fingers, the direction of revolution being that of the hand of a clock. With the exception of the use of the. stirrer, the manner of carry- ing out the test shall be that set forth in Schedule One to the Petro- leum Act, 1879. The stirrer may be removed by grasping the spindle just above the blades with the finger and thumb, and unscrewing the upper sh eath. The opening in the lid, through which the stirrer passes, may then be closed by a plug provided for the purpose. When this has been done, the apparatus shall be deemed to comply with the specification set forth in Schedule One of the Petroleum Act, 1879, and may be used for testing ordinary petroleum or solid petroleum mixtures. A model of the afore-mentioned apparatus will be deposited with the Board of Trade, and the provisions of Section 3 of the Petroleum 232 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Act, 1879, in regard to verification and stamping shall apply also to such apparatus as though it were the apparatus prescribed by the said Act. For the purpose of carrying out such verification the stirrer shall be removed and the opening plugged as hereinbefore directed. The apparatus shall then be tested with ordinary petroleum. The stirrer shall be verified by comparison of measurements. 3. Solid Petroleum Mixtures. Where the Petroleum Mixture is solid, as in the case of naphtha soaps, &c, the apparatus to be used for the test shall be that pre- scribed in Schedule One of the Petroleum Act, 1879. The method of carrying out the test of such solid mixture shall be as follows : The solid mixture must be cut into cylinders 1J inches long and J inch in diameter by means of a cork borer or other cylin- drical cutter having the correct internal diameter. These cylinders are to be placed in the petroleum cup of the testing apparatus in a vertical position in such number as will com- pletely fill the cup. The cylinders must be in contact with one another, but must not be so tightly packed as to be deformed in shape. Five or six of the cylinders in the centre of the cup must be shortened to £ inch to allow space for the thermometer bulb. The air bath of the testing apparatus must be filled to a depth of ] \ inches with water. The water bath must then be raised to and maintained at a temperature of about 75° Fahrenheit. The cup must then be placed in the air bath, and the tempera- ture of the sample must be allowed to rise until the thermo- meter in the oil-cup shows 72° Fahrenheit, when the test flame must be applied. If no flash is obtained, this temperature must be maintained constant in the oil-cup for one hour, at the expiration of which time the test flame must again be applied. If a flash is obtained, the solid mixture will be subject to the provisions of the Petroleum Acts in virtue of this Order. Note. — It may in many cases save time in testing samples of petroleum mixtures to apply the test flame after tho sample has been a few minutes in the cup and while still at the temperature of the room in which the test is being carried out, provided that this temperature is below 73° Fahrenheit. If a flash is obtained by this means, it is unnecessary to proceed with the test at a higher tem- perature. DetailsoF Stirrer »" I "£ \yyyts I7B.W.6. LZJ Small Coll^Mr.:^/,g W f. t, > rer n. » . Blades. Plug wti an Stirrer is not in use. Section on A.B. ® Plan A — Scale. 3 a j3BQfrGas Inlet "* Top Plan oF. Cover (slide open.) Modified Abel's Cup with Stirreb APPENDIX III. DIRECTIONS FOR DRAWING THE SAMPLE AND PREPAR- ING IT FOR TESTING IN TROPICAL CLIMATES. (1) Drawing the Sample. — In all cases the testing officer, or some person duly authorised by him, shall personally superintend the drawing of the sample from an original unopened tin or other vessel. An opening sufficiently large to admit of the oil being rapidly poured or siphoned from the tin or other vessel shall be made. Two bottles, each of the capacity of about 40 fluid ounces, are to be filled with the oil. One of these, the contents of which are intended to be preserved for reference in case of need, is to be care- fully corked, the cork being well driven home, cut off level with the neck, and melted sealing-wax worked into it. The other bottle may be either stoppered or corked. (2) Preparing the Sample for Testing. — About 10 fluid ounces of the oil, sufficient for three tests, are transferred from the bottle into which the sample has been drawn to a pint flask or bottle, which is to be immersed in water artificially cooled, until a thermometer, introduced into the oil, indicates a temperature not exceeding 50° F. DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING AND USING THE TEST APPARATUS IN TROPICAL CLIMATES. (3) Preparing the Water-Bath. — The water-bath is filled by pouring water into the funnel until it begins to flow out at the overflow pipe. The temperature of the water at the commencement of each test, as indicated by the long-bulb thermometer, is to be 130° F., and this is attained in the first instance by mixing hot and cold water, either in the bath or in a vessel from which the bath is filled, until the thermometer which is provided for testing the temperature of the water gives the proper indication ; or the water is heated by means of a spirit-lamp (which is attached to the stand of the apparatus) until the required temperature is indicated. APPENDIX III. 235 (4) Preparing the Test-Lamp. — The test-lamp is fitted with a piece of cylindrical wicK of such thickness that it fills the wick-holder, but may readily be moved to and fro for the purpose of adjusting the size of the flame. In the body of the lamp, upon the wick, which is boiled within it, is placed a small tuft of cotton wool, moistened with petroleum, any oil not absorbed by the wool being removed. "When the lamp has been lighted, the wick is adjusted by means of a pair of forceps or a pin, until the flame is the size of the bead fixed on the cover of the oil-cup ; should a particular test occupy so long a time that the flame begins to get smaller, through the supply of oil in the lamp becoming exhausted, three or four drops of petroleum are allowed to fall upon the tuft of wool in the lamp from the dropping- bottle or pipette provided for the purpose. This can be safely done without interrupting the test.* (5) Filling the Oil-Cup. — Before the oil-cup is filled, the lid is to be made ready for being placed upon the cup — i.e., the round-bulb thermometer is to be inserted into the socket (so that the projecting rim of the collar with which it is fitted touches the edge of the socket), and the test-lamp is to be placed in position. The oil-cup, having been previously cooled by placing it bottom downwards in water at a temperature not exceeding 50° F., is now to be rapidly wiped dry, placed on a level surface in a good light, and the oil to be tested is poured in without splashing until its surface is level with the point of the gauge which is fitted in the cup. The lid is then put on the cup at once, and pressed down so that its edge rests on the rim of the cup. (6) Application of the Test. — The water-bath, with its thermo- meter in position, is placed in some locality where it is not exposed to currents of air, and where the light is sufficiently subdued to admit of the size of the entire test-flame being compared with that of the bead on the cover. The cup is carefully lifted, without shaking it, and placed in the bath, the test-lamp is lighted, and the clockwork wound up by turning the key.t The thermometer in the oil-cup is now watched, and when the temperature has reached 56° F. the clockwork is set in motion by pressing the trigger If no flash takes place, the clockwork is at once re-wound, and the trigger pressed at 57° F., and so on at every degree rise of tempera- ture until the flash occurs, or until a temperature of 95° F. has been reached. If the flash takes place at any temperature below 77° F., the * These suggestions will be found of value in the use of the instrument in a temperate climate also. ■f This refers to the Abel-Pensky apparatus. 236 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. temperature at which it occurs is to be recorded. The fresh portions of the sample are then to be successively tested in a similar manner and the results recorded. If no greater difference than 2° F. exists between any two of the three recorded results, each result is to be corrected for atmospheric pressure, as hereafter described, and the average of the three corrected results is the flashing-point of the sample. In the event of there being a greater difference than 2° F. between any two of the results, the series of tests is to be rejected, and a fresh series of three similarly obtained, and so on until a sufficiently concordant series is furnished, when the results are to be corrected and the average taken in the manner already described. No flash which takes place within 8° of the temperature at which the testing is commenced shall be accepted as the true flashing-point of the sample tested. In the event of a flash occurring at or below 64° when the test is applied in the manner above described, the next testing shall be commenced 10° lower than the temperature at which the flash had been previously obtained — that is to say, at 54° or thereunder, and this procedure shall be continued until the results of three consecutive tests do not show a greater difference than 2°. If a temperature of 76° F. has been reached without a flash occurring, the application of the test-flame is to be continued until a temperature of 95° F. has been reached. If no flash has occurred up to this point, and if the petroleum is declared to be imported subject to the provisions of the Act,* the tests shall not be continued, and the testing officer shall certify that the petroleum has a flashing- point of over 95° and is not dangerous. But if the petroleum' is oil ordinarily used for lubricating purposes, and is declared to have its flashing-point at or above 200°, or is oil to which a notification of the Governor in Executive Council exempting it from the operation of the Act will be applicable in the event of the flashing-point being found to be at or above 120°, the test shall be continued as follows : The oil -cup is to be removed from the water-bath, and the tempera- ture of the water in the water-bath is to be reduced to 95° F. by pouring cold water into the funnel (the hot water escaping by the overflow pipe). The air chamber is then to be filled to a depth of 1 1 inch with water at a temperature of about 9 5 ° F. , the oil-cup is to be replaced in the water-bath, and the spirit-lamp attached to the water- bath is to be lighted and placed underneath. The test-flame is then to be again applied from 96° F., at every degree rise of temperature as indicated by the thermometer in the oil-cup, until a flash takes • The Indian Petroleum Aet is here referred to. APPENDIX III. 237 place, or until a temperature of 200° F. or 120° F., as the case may be, has been reached. If during this operation the test-flame appears to diminish in size, the lamp is to be replenished in the manner prescribed at (4) without interrupting the test. If a flash occurs at any temperature between 76° and 200° F. the temperature at which it occurs, subject to correction for atmo- spheric pressure, is the flashiDg-point of the sample. In repeating a test, a fresh sample of oil must always be used, the tested sample being thrown away, and the cup must be wiped dry from any adhering oil, and cooled, as already described, before receiving the fresh sample. (7) Correction for Atmospheric Pressure. — As the flashing-point of an oil is influenced by changes in atmospheric pressure to an average extent of 1'6° F. for every inch of the barometer, a correction of the observed flashing-point may become necessary. The height of the barometer must, therefore, be determined at the time of making the test for the flashing-point. An aneroid barometer is supplied for this purpose. To facilitate the correction of a flashing-point for pressure a table is appended,* giving flashing-points of oils ranging from 65° to 80° F., under pressures ranging from 27 to 31 inches cf mercury. The table is used in the following manner : — Example. — An oil has given a flashing-point of 71°, the barometer being at 28 - 6 in.; take the nearest number to 71° in the vertical column headed 28-6. This number is 708. Substitute for this the number in the same horizontal line in the column headed 80 (the normal height of the barometer). The substituted number — i.e., the true flashing-point of the oil — is 73°. • This table will be found in Appendix VIIL APPENDIX IV. PETROLEUM (HAWKERS) ACT; 1881. Chapter 67. A.D. 1881. An Act to regulate the hawking of Petroleum and other substances of a like nature. [August -27, 1881.] Be it enacted by the Queen's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : Power to 1. Any person who is licensed in pursuance of the Petroleum hawk Agf^ 1871, to keep petroleum to which that Act applies may, subject p . v .' to the enactments for the time being in force with respect to c. 105. hawkers and pedlars, hawk such petroleum by himself or his servants. Regulations 2. With respect to the hawking of petroleum to which the for hawking Petroleum Act, 1871, applies, the following regulations shall be petroleum. ohseryei . (1) The amount of petroleum conveyed at one time in any one carriage shall not exceed twenty gallons : (2) The petroleum shall be conveyed in a closed vessel so con- structed as to be free from leakage : (3) The carriage in which the vessels containing the petroleum are conveyed shall be so ventilated as to prevent any evaporation from the petroleum mixing with the air in or about the carriage in such proportion as to produce or be liable to produce an explosive mixture : (4) Any fire or light or any article of an explosive or highly inflammable nature shall not be brought into or dangerously near to the carriage in which the vessels containing the petroleum are conveyed : (5) The carriage in which the vessels containing the petroleum are conveyed shall be so constructed or fitted that the petroleum APPENDIX IV. 239 cannot escape therefrom in the form of liquid, whether ignited or otherwise : (6) Proper care shall be taken to prevent any petroleum escaping into any part of a house or building, or of the curtilage thereof, or into a drain or sewer : (7) The petroleum shall be stored in some premises licensed for keeping of petroleum and in accordance with the licence for such premises both every night and also when the petroleum is not in the course of being hawked : (8) All due precautions shall be taken for the prevention of accidents by fire or explosion, and for preventing unauthorised persons having access to the vessels containing the petroleum, and every person concerned in hawking the petroleum shall abstain from any act whatever which tends to cause lire or explosion, and is not reasonably necessary for the purpose of such hawking : (9) No article or substance of an explosive or inflammable character other than petroleum, nor any article liable to cause or communicate fire or explosion, shall be in the carriage while such carriage is being used for the purpose of hawking petro- leum : In the event of any contravention of this section with reference to any petroleum, the petroleum, together with the vessels contain- ing and the carriage conveying the same, shall be liable to be forfeited, and in addition thereto the licensee by whom or by whose servants the petroleum was being hawked shall be liable on summary conviction to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds. Provided that — (1) "Where some servant of the licensee or other person has in fact committed the offence, such servant or other person shall be liable to the same penalty as if he were the licensee : (2) Where the licensee is charged with a contravention of this section, he shall be entitled upon information duly laid by him to have any other person whom he charges as the actual offender brought before the court at the time appointed for hearing the charge, and if the licensee proves to the satisfaction of the court that he had used due diligence to enforce the execution of this section, and that the said other person had committed the offence in question without his knowledge, consent, or connivance, the said other person shall be summarily convicted of such offence, and the licensee shall be exempt from any penalty. Any petroleum other than that to which the Petroleum Act, 1871, applies while in any carriage used for the hawking of petro- leum to which the Petroleum Act, 1871, applies, shall for the MO HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Modification ofconditions of licence under 34 & 35 Vict. c. 105. Power of constable as to preven- tion of offences. Saving of rights of municipal boroughs. Definitions. Short title and construction of Act. purposes of this section be deemed to be petroleum to which the Petroleum Act, 1871, applies. • 3. Any conditions annexed to a licence granted in pursuance of the Petroleum Act, 1871, either before or after the passing of this Act, shall, so far as they are inconsistent with this Act, be void, but save as aforesaid nothing in this Act shall affect the application to a licensee of the provisions of the Petroleum Act, 1871, or of any licence granted thereunder. 4. Where a constable or any officer authorised by the local authority has reasonable cause to believe that a contravention of this Act is being committed in relation to any petroleum, he may seize and de- tain such petroleum and the vessels and carriage containing the same, until some court of summary jurisdiction has determined whether there was or not a contravention of this Act, and section thirteen of the Petroleum Act, 1871, shall apply to such constable and officer as if he were the person named in the warrant mentioned in that sec- tion, and as if the seizure were a seizure in pursuance of that section. 5. Nothing in this Act contained shall extend to authorise the hawking of petroleum within the limits of any municipal borough in which, by any lawful authority, such hawking shall have been or may hereafter be forbidden. 6. For the purposes of this Act — The expression "carriage " includes any carriage, waggon, cart, truck, vehicle, or other means of conveyance by land, in whatever manner the same may be drawn or propelled ; and A person shall be deemed for the purposes of this Act to hawk petroleum if by himself or his servants he goes about carrying petroleum to sell, whether going from town to town or to other men's houses, or selling it in the streets of the place of his residence or otherwise, and whether with or without any horse or other beast bearing or drawing burden. [Note. — It was decided by the Courts that a person who travels with a horse and cart, and delivers goods at the houses of customers in compliance with their request, without having received previous orders for any specified quantities, is a hawker within tne meaning of the Hawkers Act, 1888. This decision would probably hold even when the customers are retailers and not consumers, but would not apply where a standing order has been given for a specified quantity, to be delivered at intervals as required, even when payment is made on delivery.] 7. This Act may be cited as the Petroleum (Hawkers) Act, 1881. This Act shall be construed as one with the Petroleum Acts, 1871 and 1879, and together with those Acts may be cited as the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881. APPENDIX V. The following Model Codes have been adopted since the hist publication of this book. Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881. Harbour of BY-LAWS Made by the with respect to the landing, gu- spirit for lations of the Secretary of State under the Locomotives on Highways motor cars. Act are strictly observed. Where these regulations cannot be observed, or where it is in- tended to sell spirit a licence is necessary. Inspection. 15. Any dealer who refuses to show any Officer authorised by the R e f us i ng j n _ Council every or any place or all or any of the vessels in which formation or petroleum or petroleum oil in his possession is kept, or tu give him obstructing such assistance as he may require for examining the same, or to °'" cer - give to such Officer samples of such petroleum or petroleum oil on payment of the value of such samples, or who wilfully obstructs the Council, or any Officer of the Council, in the execution of this Act, incurs a penalty of not exceeding twenty pounds. James Ollis, 21, Northumberland-avenue, W.C. Chief Officer. 254 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL. PUBLIC CONTROL DEPARTMENT. Carbide of Calcium. Abstract of the Regulations as to the Keeping, Sale, and Con- veyance of Carbide of Calcium in the County of London. This Abstract has no legal validity, and is intended only for the information and guidance of the persons concerned. For further information reference should be made to the Petroleum Acts, 1871-1881, and to the Order in Council made thereunder, dated 8th August, 1911. General. 1. By an Order in Council, dated 8th August, 1911, carbide of calcium can only be kept in pursuance of a, licence granted by the local authority (in London, the London County Council), except as follows : — Exemption. Not exceeding 28 lbs. of carbide may be kept without licence, provided the following conditions are observed : — (a) The carbide shall be kept only in a metal vessel or vessels hermetically closed at all times when the carbide is not actually being placed in or withdrawn from such vessel or vessels. (b) The vessels containing the carbide shall be kept in a dry and well ventilated place. (c) Due precautions shall be taken to prevent unauthorised persons from having access to the carbide. (d) Notice shall be given of such keeping to the Council, and free access shall be afforded to their duly authorised inspector to inspect the portion of the premises where the carbide is kept and the generator is situated. "Where a fixed generator is used on the premises : — («) There shall be exhibited near the generator a certificate signed by the maker or supplier of the generator that the generator complies with the Regulations as to Acetylene Generators issued by the British Acetylene Association. (/) Full and detailed instructions as to the care and use of the generator shall be kept constantly posted up in such place as to be conveniently referred to by the generator attend- ant. APPENDIX VI. 255 Conditions (e) and (/) do not apply to lamps for vehicles or other portable lamps. Where it is desired to keep more them 28 lbs., or where the above conditions cannot be complied with, application must be made to the Council for a licence. Where the quantity kept is limited to 5 lbs. in separate hermetically closed metal vessels, each containing not more than 1 lb., notification to the Council is not necessary. 2. Where carbide of calcium is — Labelling (a) Kept at any place ; or vessels. (6) Sold or exposed for sale, the vessel containing it shall bear a label stating in con- spicuous characters, the words, " Carbide of Calcium," "Dangerous if not kept dry," and with the following caution : — " The contents of this package are liable if brought into contact with moisture to give ofl' a highly in- flammable gas," and also stating the name and address of the owner or vendor. Licences. 3. Application to the Council for a licence to keep carbide of Applica- calcium at any place in the County of London (except the City of tions. London) must be made upon the form provided for the purpose, which can be obtained by application in writing, addressed to the Chief Officer, Public Control Department, London County Council, 21, Northumberland-avenue, W.C. 4. Every application must be accompanied by a fee of 5s. in Fees. money, or, if sent through the post, by cheque or postal order for that amount payable to the order of the London County Council. The fee will be returned to the applicant if the licence is not granted. 5. Every application must state — Particulars (a) The quantity of carbide of calcium which the applicant desires in applica- to keep ; tion - (6) The proposed place and method of storage ; (c) If the carbide is to be kept only for sale, or if it is to be used for the generation of acetylene. 6. Where the application is for a licence to store 10 cwt. or more, Plans, there must also be sent a plan, drawn to the scale of one-eighth of an inch to a foot, showing the places where it is proposed to keep or use carbide and also the buildings, &c, within 50 feet of such places. 7. Carbide of calcium should be kept in strong metal vessels, and — 256 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Mode of (a) Such vessels should be so constructed and closed as to prevent storage. the admission of water and atmospheric moisture. (6) Such vessels should be opened only for the time necessary for the removal of any required quantity of carbide, or for the refilling of the vessels. (c) No one vessel should have a greater capacity than ia necessary for containing 224 lbs. of carbide. (d) Every vessel containing carbide of calcium which is opened on the premises should be locked, or be in a locked receptacle, so as to prevent unauthorised persons gaining access to the contents. (e) Copper should not be used in the construction of vessels for containing carbide of calcium. 8. Vessels containing carbide of calcium should be kept in dry and well-ventilated outbuildings with raised cement floors. 9. Small quantities of carbide will, however, be allowed in shops, dwellings or workshops, upon licensed premises, if the arrangements are satisfactory. 10. The Council grants licences to keep only such carbide of cal- cium as is pure (in a commercial sense), i.e., which contains no im- purities liable to generate pbosphoretted or siliciuretted hydrogen so as to render the gas evolved liable to ignite spontaneously. 11. Where carbide of calcium is kept for the generation of acetylene, such of the following precautions for ensuring safety as are applicable to the circumstances should be adopted — (a) Every apparatus for generating and storing acetylene should be placed in an outbuilding, or in a suitable place in the open air. (6) Such building should be separated as far as may be practicable from inhabited buildings, and should be well ventilated, (c) No fire, flame or any artificial light or article capable of ignit- ing acetylene should be taken into or near the building or place where a gas-making apparatus is situate. Generators. 12. Every apparatus for generating acetylene, before being used on licensed premises, must be approved by the Council. 13. The conditions which such apparatus should fulfil before it can be considered as being safe are as follows — (a) The temperature in any part of the apparatus, when run for a prolonged period at the maximum rate for which it is de- signed, should not exceed 130° C. This maybe ascertained by placing short lengths of wire, drawn from fusible metal, in those parts of the apparatus in which heat is liable to be generated. Place of storage. Small quantities. Purity of the carbide. Acetylene. Place of manufac- ture. APPENDIX VI. 257 (6) The apparatus should have an efficiency of at least 90 per cent, which, with carbide yielding 5 cubic feet per pound, would imply a yield of 4/5 cubic feet for each pound of carbide used. (c) The size of the pipes carrying the. gas should be proportioned to the maximum rate of generation, so that undue back pressure from throttling may not occur. ('/) The carbide s-hould be completely decomposed in the apparatus, so that any lime sludge discharged therefrom shall not be capable of generating more gas. (e) The pressure in any part of the apparatus, on the generator side of the holder, should not exceed that of 20 inches of water, and on the service side of the same, or where no gas holder is provided, should not exceed that of 5 inches of water. (/) The apparatus should give no tarry or other heavy con- densation products from the decomposition of the carbide. (g) In the use of such apparatus, regard should be had to the dan- ger of stoppage of passage of the gas and resulting increase of pressure which may arise from the freezing of the water. Where freezing may be anticipated, steps should be taken to prevent it. (A) The apparatus should be so constructed that lime sludge can- not gain access to finy pipes intended for the passage of gas or the circulation of water. (i) The use of glass in water gauges, sight boxes, &c, should be avoided, but where glass is absolutely necessary as part of the apparatus it should be effectively protected against fracture. (J) Each apparatus should be provided with a suitable cock fixed at a point immediately in communication with the interior of the generating chamber ; and such cock should be fitted with a " nipple '' or " nose piece " for indiarubber tube. tk) The air space in a generator should be as small as is consistent with the proper working of the apparatus. (A The use of copper should be avoided in such parts of the ap- paratus as are liable to come into contact with Acetylene. (wi) The various parts of the apparatus should be of adequate strength. (n) Escape of gas from the apparatus should be carefully guarded against : as a general rule generators should be fitted with blow-off pipes carried up to a suitable point in the open air. to) An open tank should be provided near the apparatus, but in R 258 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Duration of Licence. the open air, for the reception of all residue from the car- bide ; and such residue should remain for at least ten hours in ten times its bulk of water in such tank. (p) Precautions should be adopted for preventing any lime sludge being discharged into the drains. ( X I— I Q W Ph Ph 4 « CO Ph « H H Cu en o 3 o H M PS « o h <1 >-! PH fi w CO m o Ba O S5 o r< o s 05 O O pi o &. a COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOcOCOCOCOCOcO cbt^aboOrHGMCo-^ibcbt^cbosO'— ( cocococot~i>-t~t>-t>«t>-t>-l>t~i>"0000 CO © CO cococococococococococococococpcp cbt^ODOSOi-KNW-^Otbb-COOSOH CO © CO CDh.ajCJOHWM.^lOO^OOflSOH CDCOCDCDI>t>Nt>'I>t^Nt*t^l>0000 © CO COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOcO ibcbNaJciOHJNM-^ibiNCOQO CM © CO cococococococpcococococoTOcpcacp ibcbt^occHoT— icMco-^Hiocbt^cboiO OCOCQ^l>Nt>.Nt^NL>Nt't>00 o CO lOC01>C0050rHCMCO-*10COO.COC»0 cococococot~t~tr-t'-t>t>-t>-t--t-t>co CO C5 CM ffitO!SCO!OtONt>-t»NM>M>NN co OS ^^cbt^cbcHoAiGMcb-^HOcbb-oboa OS 5M M-^iOCOtNODOSOHfNfK-choiNob CM tjh "^ "*Ji tjh "^^ "^ "^ ^^ **3* "^ """^ "^ "^ ^i* "^ ^^ co4^ibcbr^cbcHorHCMco^»bcbt*db Op CO r- IH r- (i— I^Ht— | j— 1 t— (rH^Hr- (^Ht— < t— 1 t— |H OT^iiOOSXCJOr f CM CO --H to CO t- CO ^O CO CO CO CO CO CO t^ t^ t^ t~ l>- L~ t^ t^ t^ CO ob CM cooocooooocpcocooocoopoocooocpoo COCOCOCCCOCOCOCOC^t*-t>-l>»L~t~l>.t~ ob CM ■^H "^ "^p ""P ^31 "cp ""?* ™t* "^ *^H "^4 "^ '"^p ^p" "^H ^H (NM^iOtOsilCSoA (GMCO-^iOcbt* COCOCOCOCOcOCOCOI>-t^t>t>-t^t>-t^l> CM ob GM GMco^»bcbi^cba50^GMco4H»ricbi>- cocococococococoi>-t>.|>.t~i>.t>.t>t>- 00 CM opcocoopcoopoocococooococooococo >H7I>.l>> 27-8 ipoioipoicipiaiOiooioiQininio cococococococococot»t>-t>'I>t*-t~r~ CO CM (NS^CMSMCMCMCMSMCMSMCMSMCMCMINCM COcOCOCOcOCOCOCOCOt>.t>-t>.t>-l>t>-l>- SM opcpooopcpopcpccopcpopcoccooooco OrHCMIW^lOcbt^cbasOr-ICMcb-^O cocococococococococor>-E>-t^r~i>.t>. CM SM oioioipioioiOiniooioicjoioioio cocococococococococoi>.t>-E^t>.t^t>. CM G^GMGMCqGMG^GMGMGMCMCM'NIGMGMGMGM Ort(NM-^ocDi>oociOHcqn-iib cocococococococococot^t^t^t^t^t^ 'soqotn ut •^raqaaaq'Bj seejgaj ui ^ujod gaiqsB^ APPENDIX IX. STATUTORY RULES AND ORDERS, 1907. No. 614. LOCOMOTIVE. Petroleum. Regulations dated July 31, 1907, made by the Secretary of State under Section 5 of the Locomotives on High- ways Act, 1896, as to the Keeping and Use of Petroleum for the Purposes of Light Locomotives. Locomotives on Highways Act, 1896 (59 & 60 Vict. c. 36, 6. 5.) In promulgating the following Regulations relating to the keeping, conveyance and use of petroleum, in connection with light locomotives, the Secretary of State for the Home Department desires to direct public attention to the dangers that may arise from the careless use of the more volatile descriptions of petroleum, commonly known as petroleum spirit. Not only is the vapour therefrom, which is given off at ordinary temperatures, capable of being easily ignited, but it is also capable, when mixed with air, of forming an explosive atmosphere. It is, therefore, necessary, in dealing with and handling the spirit, to take strict precautions by the employment of thoroughly sound and properly closed vessels to prevent leakage of the spirit, and by avoiding the use of naked lights in dangerous proximity to prevent the contact of any form of artificial light with the highly inflammable vapour which it is always evolving. Regulations. By virtue of the powers conferred on me by the Fifth Section of the Locomotives on Highways Act, 1896, I hereby make the 278 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. following Regulations for the keeping and use of petroleum for the purposes of light locomotives.* In these Regulations the expression "petroleum spirit" shall mean the petroleum to which the Petroleum Acts, 1871 and 1879, apply, provided that when any petroleum other than that to which the said Petroleum Acts apply, is on or in any light locomotive, or is being conveyed or kept in any place on or in which there is also present any petroleum spirit as above defined, the whole of such petroleum shall be deemed to be petroleum spirit. In these Regulations the expression " storehouse " shall mean any room, building, coachhouse, lean-to, or other place in which petroleum spirit for the purposes of light locomotives is kept in pursuance of these Regulations and shall include an open-air place of storage, when and so long as due precautions for the prevention of unauthorised persons having access to the petroleum spirit are taken in pursuance of No. 13 of these Regulations. 1 . The following shall be exempt from licence under the Petroleum Act, 1871, namely: — (a) Petroleum spirit which is kept for the purpose of, or is being used en, light locomotives when kept or used in conformity with these Regulations. (6) Petroleum spirit which is kept for the. purpose of, or is being used on, light locomotives by, or by authority of, one of His Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State, the Admiralty, or other department of the Government. 2. These Regulations shall apply to petroleum spirit which is kept for the purpose of, or is being used on, light locomotives, and for which (save as hereinafter provided) no licence has been granted by the Local Authority under the Petroleum Act, 1871, and shall not apply to petroleum spirit which is kept for sale, or partly for sale and partly for use on light locomotives, and which must be kept in accordance with the provisions of the Petroleum Acts as heretofore, except that Regulations 13 and 14 shall apply to petroleum spirit which is kept partly for sale and partly for use on light locomotives. * Under the Seventh Section of the Act, a breach of these Regulations may, on summary conviction, be punished by a fine not exceeding ten pounds. APPENDIX IX. 279 These Regulations shall not apply to the keeping or use of petroleum spirit by or under the control of any Government Depart- ment. Such keeping or use may be the subject of Regulations to be made by the Department concerned. S. Where for any special reason a person keeping petroleum spirit for the purpose of light locomotives applies for a licence under the Petroleum Act, 1871, and the local authority see fit to grant such licence, such petroleum spirit shall be subject only to Regulations 8 to 15 and the conditions of such licence, in so far as the said conditions are not contrary to the said Regulations 8 to 15. 4. Where a storehouse forms part of, or is attached to, another building, and where the intervening floor or partition is of an unsubstantial or highly inflammable character, or has an opening therein, the whole of such building shall be deemed to be the store- house, and no portion of such storehouse shall be used as a dwelling or as a place where persons assemble. A storehouse shall have a separate entrance from the open air distinct from that of any dwelling or building in which persons assemble. 5. The amount of petroleum spirit to be kept in any one store- house, whether or not upon light locomotives, shall not exceed 60 gallons at any one time. 6. Where two or more storehouses are in the same occupation and are situated within 20 feet of one another, they shall for the purposes of these Regulations be deemed to be one and the same storehouse, and the maximum amount of petroleum spirit prescribed in the foregoing Regulation shall be the maximum to be kept in all such storehouses taken together. Where two or more storehouses in the same occupation are distant more than 20 feet from one another, the maximum amount shall apply to each storehouse. 7. Any person who keeps petroleum spirit in a storehouse which is situated within 20 feet of any other building whether or not in his occupation, or of any timber stack or other inflammable goods not owned by him, shall give notice to the local authority under the Petroleum Acts for the district in which he is keeping such petroleum spirit, that he is so keeping petroleum spirit, and shall renew such notice in the month of January in each year during the continuance of such keeping, and shall permit any duly authorised officer of the local authority to inspect such petroleum spirit at any 280 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. reasonable time. This Kegulation shall not apply to petroleum spirit kept in a tank forming part of a light locomotive. 8. Every storehouse shall be thoroughly ventilated. 9. Petroleum spirit shall not be kept, used, or conveyed except in metal vessels so substantially constructed as not to be liable, except under circumstances of gross negligence or extraordinary accident, to be broken or become defective or insecure. Every such vessel shall be so constructed and maintained that no leakage, whether of liquid or vapour, can take place therefrom. 10. Every such vessel, not forming part of a light locomotive, when used for conveying or keeping petroleum spirit shall bear the words "petroleum spirit highly inflammable" conspicuously and indelibly stamped or marked thereon, or on a metallic or enamelled label attached thereto, and shall be of a capacity not exceeding two gallons. Provided that this limitation of capacity shall not apply in any place of storage which is licensed under the Petroleum Act, 1871, unless such limitation is required by the conditions of the licence. 11. Before repairs are done to any such vessel, that vessel shall, as far as practicable, be cleaned by the removal of all petroleum spirit and of all dangerous vapours derived from the same. 12. The filling or replenishing of a vessel with petroleum spirit shall not be carried on, nor shall the contents of any such vessel be exposed in the presence of fire or artificial light, except a light of such construction, position or character, as not to be liable to ignite any inflammable vapour arising from such spirit, and no fire or artificial light capable of igniting inflammable vapour shall be brought within dangerous proximity of the place where any vessel containing petroleum spirit is being kept. 13. In the case of all petroleum spirit kept or conveyed for the purpose of, or in connection with, any light locomotive, (a) all due precautions shall be taken for the prevention of accidents by fire or explosion, and for the prevention of Mnauthorised persons having access to any petroleum spirit kept or conveyed, and to the vessels containing or intended to contain, or having actually contained, the same ; -and (6) every person managing, or employed on, or in con- nection with, any light locomotive sbs^U abstain from every act APPENDIX IX. 281 whatever which tends to cause fire or explosion, and which is not reasonably necessary, and shall prevent any other person from committing such act. 14. In the storehouse or in any place where a light locomotive is kept or is present, petroleum spirit shall not be used for the purpose of cleaning or lighting, or as a solvent or for any purpose other than as fuel for the engine of a light locomotive. Provided that where due precaution is taken to prevent petroleum sprit from escaping into a sewer or drain and provision made for disposing safely of any surplus petroleum spirit and where no fire or naked light is present, quantities not exceeding one gill may be used for the cleaning of a light locomotive at a safe distance from any building, place of storage of inflammable goods, or much frequented highway, or for the repair of tyres, under suitable precautions. This Regulation shall apply to premises on which petroleum spirit is kept for the purpose of, or is being used on, light locomotives, whether such premises are licensed or not, unless the Local Authority see fit, in the case of licensed premises to grant an exemption by a special term of the licence. 15. Petroleum shall not be allowed to escape into any inlet or drain communicating with a sewer. 16. These Regulations shall come into operation on the 15th August, 1907, from which date all previous Regulations made un6j>r the Fifth Section of the said Act are hereby repealed. H. J. GLADSTONE. One of His Majesty's Principal Secretaries of Stat^. Whitehall, 31st July, 1907. Note. — From the above Regulations it will be seen that there art two methods in which petroleum spirit required for use in motor cars may be kept. The first of these will be the usual method, namely, to keep in accordance with these Regulations ; but where a person finds that for some special reason he cannot observe one of the Regulations 4, 5, or 6, he may resort to the second method, namely, to apply to the Local Authority for a licence. In such cases the place will be ex- amined by the Local Authority Officer, who will advise the Local 282 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Authority as to its suitability for licence. Where a licence has been granted Regulations 4 to 7 no longer apply- In no case is petroleum spirit kept wholly or partly for sale exempt from the necessity of a licence. APPENDIX X. SPECIFICATIONS OF TANK DEPOTS AND SCREEN WALLS. (Proposed to be included in an Act of Parliament.) General. Any tank which satisfies the following conditions shall be deemed to be a tank depot for the purposes of this Act: (1) It must be constructed of good metal. (2) It must be properly tested before use, and seen to be perfectly tight and staunch. (3) It must at all times while in use be so well fitted that the inflammable liquid contained in it cannot escape therefrom in the form of liquid, whether under the action of lire or otherwise. (4) If it has a ventilating pipe, 'that pipe must be of suitable character and construction, and its orifice must be effectively pro- tected by wire gauze. (5) Every other opening in the tank, whether to be used as a manhole or for a pipe or other purpose, not being such a ventilating pipe as aforesaid, must have a neck whose length is at least equal to one-half of the diameter of the opening, and every such opening, when not in actual use, must be securely closed by an effective and properly secured cap, cover or tap. (6) It must be further constructed as hereunder specified accord- ing as it is an underground or overground tank — that is to say : I. Underground Tanks. A tank shall be deemed to be an underground tank which is wholly sunk in and surrounded by solid rock or earth, and the top of which is protected by a substantial covering of not less than nine inches of solid earth, sand, or concrete. There must be no opening in such top or covering, other than such manholes, pipes, pumps, or other connections as may be necessary. Every underground tank must be constructed of strong iron or steel tank-plates well riveted together and thoroughly caulked. The tops and sides must be supported and strengthened by such 284 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. uprights, girders, angle-irons, and ties as, having regard to the capacity and situation of the tank, may be necessary to render the tank thoroughly substantial and effective. The underground space in which the tank is enclosed must be of such construction and character that mineral oil cannot escape therefrom in the form of liquid, whether under the action of fire or otherwise, so as to reach either directly or indirectly any other place where inflammable liquid is kept, or any protected work,* or any river sewer, stream or drain. II. Ovekgbound Tanks. Every tank shall be deemed to be an overground tank which in respect of situation does not satisfy the conditions hereinbefore specified for an underground tank. If the tank is to be placed or fixed elsewhere in a building than on the basement, its position must be approved by the local authority. (a) Every tank of a capacity not exceeding 60 gallons must be well constructed of galvanised iron of such strength, having regard to its size, and with seams so securely closed and fastened, as to form an effective receptacle for the inflammable liquid which it contains. (6) Every tank of a capacity exceeding 60 but not exceeding 1000 gallons must be constructed of good galvanised iron plates of such thickness, and with rivets of such size, and at such distances apart (measured from centre to centre) as appear in the following scale : For tanks of a capacity not exceeding Thickness of plates not less than Size of rivets not less than Distance of rivets apai't not more than 100 Gallons 250 „ 500 „ 1000 „ Jj- inch .... £ inch .... ^ inch .... / T \ inch if cylindrical *| \£ inch if any other shape/ J inch % „ * ,, 7 IB » f inch H » H » If the tank has a capacity exceeding 60 but not exceeding 250 gallons, it must rest on the ground, or on brick or stone piers, or must be securely and adequately supported on strong girders. If the tank has a capacity exceeding *250 but not exceeding 1000 * For definition of Protectee 1 Work see p. 166. APPENDIX X. 285 gallons, it must be properly stiffened with vertical angle-irons and cross-stays, and must rest on solid foundations of concrete, brick, or stone. (c) Every tank of a capacity exceeding 1000 gallons must be cylindrical in shape, and must not exceed 26 feet in height or 35 feet in diameter. The top of the tank must be constructed of plates of a thickness of \ inch, riveted with f inch rivets, not more than \\ inch apart, and supported by a sufficient number of strong and - efficient angle-irons and ties, and where necessary by king posts. The sides and bottom of the tank must be of best iron or steel tank plates of at least the following thicknesses : Namely, within 10 feet from the top of the tank . \ inch thick. „ over 10 and within 20 feet from the top of the tank tt »• „ over 20 feet from the top of the tank . | „ „ bottom of tank £ n The plates must be riveted by § inch best rivets driven hot, and not more than l£ inch apart measured from centre to centre, and all vertical seams must be double riveted. Every such tank must be erected on good solid foundations, upon which the entire bottom surface shall have a fair bearing, and must be strengthened throughout by a sufficient number of strong and efficient angle-irons and cross-stays. If the tank has a capacity of more than 15,000 gallons, it must be constructed as hereinbefore described, and further, must be separately surrounded by a wall of such dimensions and substantial construction, or must be partially sunk in an excavation in such a manner that the total quantity of mineral oil capable of being con- tained in the tank could be altogether contained in the enclosure formed by such wall or excavation, and could not escape therefrom in the form of liquid, whether under the action of fire or otherwise ; and the space formed by such wall or excavation, so far as not occupied by the tank, must be kept entirely free and unoccupied. Specification of Screen Wall. A screen wall must be substantially constructed of good hard bricks, or such good building stone, not being limestone, or such concrete as may be approved by the local authority, properly bonded, and solidly put together with good mortar or cement, on proper foo< ings and foundations. 286 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. A screen wall must be of a thickness of not less than as follows : Within 16 feet of the top of the wall, 13 inches. Over 16 feet, and within 32 feet of the top of the wall, 17^ inches. t) 32 ,, „ 48 ,. „ „ „ 22 ., and in like proportion for any greater height. A screen wall must be strengthened by two or more transverse buttresses of similar construction to the wall. The buttresses must be carried up to the top of the wall and properly bonded thereto, and must not be more than 20 feet distant from each other. Each buttress must, at its base, project from each side of the wall not less than one-eighth the height of the wall, and at its top not less than nine inches. There must be no window, door, or other opening in a screen wall, other than such fire-proof doors as are necessary for the purposes of access to the. premises, and are open only when required for the said purposes. APPENDIX XI SUGGESTIONS FOR THE CARE AND USE OF PETROLEUM LAMPS. (1) The wick should quite fill the wick-tube, without having to be squeezed into it. (2) Before using, the wick should be dried at the fire, and then immediately soaked with oil. (3) "Wicks should be in lengths of not more than 10 inches, and should always reach to the bottom of the oil container. (4) It is well to change the wick after two months' use. (5) See that the chimney of the lamp fits properly and is held sufficiently tightly so as not to fall off when the lamp is used. (6) When a new wick or chimney is required, it is always advisable to take the burner to the shop that it may be properly fitted. (7) The burner should be taken to pieces and thoroughly cleansed at least once a month, and all burnt pieces of wick, dead flies, dirt, &o , should be carefully removed. (8) Never refill the lamp when it is alight, or near a fire or other light. (9) After filling see that the burner is properly fixed on, and if there is a side filling-hole, be careful to screw in the plug. (10) Before lighting remove the burnt crust of the wick. (11) Be careful not to spill oil in filling, and if any is spilt on the lamp, to wipe it off. (12) Before lighting see that the slit in the cone of the burner is exactly in line with the wick -tube, so that the flame will not touch the metal. (13) When first lit, the wick should be partially turned down, and then gradually raised but not so as to smoke. When the edge of the flame is orange- coloured the lamp is not burning properly, and the burner should be examined. (14) Do not continue to burn the oil until it is completely ex- hausted. It is best to keep the lamp well filled. 288 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. (15) Lamps which have no extinguisher should be put out as follows : The wick should be turned down until there is only a small flickering flame, care being taken not to turn down so far that the wick falls into the oil container. The small flame may be extinguished by placing a piece of flat tin or card on the top of the chimney, or by blowing across the top of the chimney. Never blow down tho chimney. (16) Never use a lamp which is broken or in any way out of order, or a chimney which is cracked. If any part comes loose, or is out of shape or defective, it should be taken to a lamp shop to be re- paired. (17) Always place the lamp in a secure place and on a level surface, and never on a rickety table or in any position where it could be easily upset. Hanging lamps should not be put on insecure nails in the wall. (18) Table lamps should not be carried about more than is necessary, and nothing else should be carried at the same time. Heavy lamps should be carried in both hands. The greater number of accidents have been caused by dropping a lamp while it was being carried. (19) Lamps should not be turned down except for the purpose of putting them out. If turned low the oil is apt to be unduly heated. (20) Should a person's clothes become ignited, the flames should be smothered with a hearthrug, blanket, woollen table cloth, or wet towel. (21) NEVER POUR OIL ON A FIRE Note. — Ihese suggestions have, teen amplified in a small booh by the authors entitled " The Petroleum Lamp, Its Choice and Use,'' published by Charles Griffin and Co. Ltd. Exeter Street, Strand, W. C APPENDIX XII. STATUTORY RULES AND ORDERS, 1911. No. 794. Petroleum. CARBIDE OF CALCIUM. Order in Council directing that certain portions of the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 188 L, shall apply to Carbide of Calcium. At the Court at Buckingham Palace, the 8th day of August, 1911. Present : The King's Most Excellent Majesty in Council. Whereas it is provided by the Petroleum Act, 1871, that His Majesty may, from time to time, make, revoke, and vary Orders in Council directing that the said Act or any part thereof shall apply to any substance, and that the said Act or the part thereof specified in any such Order shall, during the continuance of the Order, apply to such substance, and shall be construed and have effect as if such substance had been included in the definition of Petroleum to which that Act applies, subject to the following qualifications : — 1. The quantity of any substance to which this Act is directed by Order in Council to apply which may be kept without a licence, shall be such quantity only as is specified in that behalf in such Order, or if no such quantity is specified no quantity may be kept without a licence. 2. The label on the vessel containing such substance shall be such as may be specified in that behalf in the Order. And whereas the Petroleum Act, 1879, and the Petroleum (Hawkers) Act, 1881, are to be construed as one with the Petroleum Act of 1871, and may, together with such Act, be cited as the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881. And whereas Carbide of Calcium presents dangers similar to those presented by Petroleum. T 290 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Now, therefore, in pursuance of the above-mentioned provisions of the Petroleum Act, 1871, His Majesty is pleased, by and with the advice of His Privy Council, to order and prescribe that the under-mentioned parts of the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881,. shall apply to the said substance, Carbide of Calcium, in the same manner as if the said substance were Petroleum to which the Acts apply, viz. :— The whole of the Petroleum Acts, 187i to 1881, except :-= (a) So much of Section 6 of the Petroleum Act, 1871, as specifies the nature of the label to be on the vessel, in lieu of whick the label shall be as hereinafter provided, (6) So much of Section 7 of the Petroleum Act,, 1871,, as relates to the exemptions from such Section of small quantities under certain specified conditions, and the quantity of carbide of calcium that may be kept without a licence shall be as hereinafter provided. (c) So much of Section 11 of the Petroleum Act, 1871, as relates to the testing of samples taken by an officer of the Local Authority under the powers conferred by such Section. (d) So mach of the Petroleum Act, 1879, as relates to the testing of Petroleum. (e) So much of the Petroleum Act, 1881, as relates to the hawking of Petroleum. The label on the vessel containing the said carbide of calcium shall bear in conspicuous characters the words " Carbide of Calcium," " Dangerous if not kept dry," and with the following caution : " The contents of this package are liable if brought into contact with moisture to give off a highly inflammable gas," and with the addition : — {a) In the case of a vessel kept, of the name and address of the consignee or owner. (6) In the case of a vessel sent or conveyed, of the name and address of the sender. Jc) In the case of a vessel sold or exposed for sale, of the name and address of the vendor. The quantity of carbide of calcium that may be kept without a licence shall be as follows : — 1. Where the carbide is kept in separate hermetically closed metal vessels containing not more than 1 lb. each 5 lbs. 2. Where the following conditions are observed 28 lbs. (a) The carbide shall be kept only in a metal vessel or vessels hermetically closed at all times when the carbide is not APPENDIX XII. 291 actually being placed in or withdrawn from such vessel or vessels. (6) The vessels containing carbide shall be kept in a dry and well- ventilated place. (c) Due precautions shall be taken to prevent unauthorised persons from having access to the carbide. (d) Notice shall be given of such keeping to the Local Authority, and free access shall be afforded to their duly authorised inspector to inspect the portion of the premises where the carbide is kept and the generator is situated. Where a fixed generator is used on the premises : — (e) There shall be exhibited near the generator a certificate signed by the maker or supplier of the generator, that the generator complies with the Regulations as to acetylene generators issued by the British Acetylene Association. (f) Full and detailed instructions as to the care and use of the generator shall be kept constantly posted up in such place as to be conveniently referred to by the generator attendant. 3. Where the carbide is kept by a General Lighthouse Authority, as defined by the Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, such quantity as may be required for the purposes of such Authority, provided that : — (a) The carbide is kept only in a metal vessel or vessels hermetically closed at all times when the carbide is not actually being withdrawn from such vessel or (6) The vessels containing carbide are kept in a dry and well- ventilated building exclusively appropriated to the keep- ing of carbide, and detached from a dwelling-house or separated therefrom by a substantial partition with no opening in it. (c) Due precautions are taken to prevent unauthorised persons from having access to the carbide. (d) No artificial light capable of igniting inflammable vapour is allowed to be taken into the building in which the carbide is kept. All previous Orders in Council relating to the keeping of Carbide of Calcium, viz., Orders dated 26th February, 1897, 7th July, 1897, and 24th October, 1904, are hereby repealed. Almebio FitzRoy. 29« HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. STATUTORY RULES AND ORDERS, 1905. No. 1128. EXPLOSIVE "SUBSTANCE. Order of Secretary of State (No. 5a), dated September 29, 1905, relating to compressed acetylene in admixture with Oil-Gas. Explosives Act, 1875. 38 Vict., cap. 17. "Whereas by an Order in Council, dated 26th November, 1897, made under Section 104 of the Explosives Act, 1875, it is declared that acetylene when liquid, or when subject to a certain degree of compression, shall be deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the said Act : And whereas by the said Order in Council it is provided that if it be shown to the satisfaction of the Secretary of State that acetylene, declared to be an explosive by the said Order, when in admixture with any substance, or in any form or condition, is not possessed of explosive properties, the Secretary of State may by Order exempt such acetylene from being deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the said Act : And whereas it has been shown to the satisfaction of the Secretary of State that acetylene, when in admixture with a gas manufactured from mineral oil (hereinafter referred to as oil-gas) in certain proportions, and not compressed beyond a certain pressure, is not possessed of explosive properties : Now, therefore, in exercise of the powers aforesaid, I, one of His Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State, hereby order as follows : Subject to the conditions hereinafter specified, acetylene, when in admixture with oil-gas, shall not be deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the said Act when under compression, pro- vided that : (1) The acetylene shall be generated only by the Atkins Dry Process. (2) The proportion of acetylene shall not exceed fifty parts by volume in every one hundred parts of the mixture of acetylene and oil-gas. APPENDIX XII. t98 (8) The acetylene and oil-gas shall be mixed together in a chamber or vessel before the gases are subjected to com- pression. (4) The mixture shall not be compressed to a pressure exceeding one hundred and fifty pounds per square inch. A. AKERS-DOTTGLAS, One of His Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State. Whitehall, 29th September, 1905. APPENDIX XIII. ORDER IN COUNCIL No. 17. Explosives Act, 1875. (38 Vict. c. 17.) Order in Council relating to Acetylene Gas. At the Court at Windsor, the 26th day of November, 1897. Present : The Queen's Most Excellent Majesty in Council. Whereas by section one hundred and four of the Explosives Act, 1875, it is enacted that Her Majesty may, by Order in Council, declare that any substance which appears to Her Majesty to be specially dangerous to life or property by reason either of its explosive properties, or of any process in the manufacture thereof being liable to explosion, shall be deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the said Act, and the provisions of the said Act (subject to such exceptions, limitations, and restrictions as may be specified in the Order) shall accordingly extend to any such substance in like manner as if it were included in the term explosive in the said Act : And whereas acetylene when liquid or subject to a certain degree of compression is specially dangerous to life or property by reason of its explosive properties : Now, therefore, Her Majesty is pleased by and with the advice of Her Privy Council to order and declare, and be it ordered and declared as follows : Acetylene when liquid or when subject to a pressure above that of the atmosphere capable of supporting a column of water ex- ceeding one hundred inches in height and whether or not in admixture with other substances, shall be deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the said Act, subject to the following exception ; that if it be shown to the satisfaction of the Secretary of State that acetylene, declared to be explosive by this Order when in admixture with any substance, or in any APPENDIX XIII. 295 form or condition, is not possessed of explosive properties, the Secretary of State may by Order exempt such acetylene from being deemed to bo an explosive within the said Act. And whereas by section forty -three of the Explosives Act, 1875, it is provided that Her Majesty from time to time by Order in Council, may prohibit, either absolutely or except in pursuance of a licence of the Secretary of State under the said Act, or may subject to conditions or restrictions the manufacture, keeping, importation from any -place out of the United Kingdom, conveyance, and sale, or any of them, of any explosive which is of so dangerous a character that in the judgment of Her Majesty it is expedient for the public safety to make such Order : And whereas it is in the judgment of Her Majesty expedient for the public safety that acetylene, when an explosive within the meaning of this Order, shall be prohibited : NoWj therefore, in pursuance of the above mentioned provision of this Act, Her Majesty is pleased, by and with the advice of Her Privy Council, to order and prescribe that acetylene declared to be an explosive by this Order shall be prohibited from being manufactured, imported, kept, conveyed, or sold. C. L. PEEL. ORDER IN COUNCIL No. 18. STATUTORY RULES AND ORDERS, 1900. No. 345. EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCE. Order in Council Prohibiting the Manufacture, Importation, Keeping, Conveying or Sale of Acetylene when an Explo- sive as defined by the Order. At the Court at Windsor, the 15th day of May, 1900. Present : The Queen's Most Excellent Majesty in Council. Whereas by section one hundred and four of the Explosives Act, 1875, it is enacted that Her Majesty may, by Order in Council, declare that any substance which appears to Her Majesty to be Specially dangerous to life or property by reason either of its explo- sive properties, or of any process in the manufacture thereof being liable to explosion, shall be deemed to be an explosive within 296 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. the meaning of the said Act, and the provisions of the said Act (subject to such exceptions, limitations, and restrictions as may be specified in the Order) shall accordingly extend to any such substance in like manner as if it were included in the term explosive in the said Act : And whereas acetylene when in admixture with air or oxygen is specially dangerous to life or property by reason of its explosive properties : And whereas the provisions of section one of The Rules Publication Act, 1893, have been complied with: Now, therefore, Her Majesty is pleased by and with the advice of Her Pi-ivy Council to order and declare and be it ordered and declared as follows : Acetylene when in admixture with atmospheric air or with oxygen gas in whatever proportion and at whatever pressure and whether or not in admixture with other substances shall be deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the said Act. And whereas by section forty -three of the Explosives Act, 1875, it is provided that Her Majesty, from time to time by Order in Council, may prohibit, either absolutely or except in pursuance of a licence of the Secretary of State under the said Act, or may subject to conditions or restrictions the manufacture, keeping, importation from any place out of the United Kingdom, conveyance, and sale or any of them, of any explosive which is of so dangerous a character that in the judgment of Her Majesty it is expedient for the public safety to make such Older : And whereas it is in the judgment of Her Majesty expedient for the public safety that acetylene in admixture with air or oxygen, when an explosive within the meaning of this Order, shall bo prohibited : Now, therefore, Her Majesty is pleased, by and with the advice of Her Privy Council, to order and prescribe that acetylene in admixture with air or oxygen, declared to be an explosive by this Order, shall be prohibited from being manufactured, imported, kept, conveyed, or sold. Provided that nothing in this Order shall apply to acetylene in admixture with air when such admixture takes place only in a burner or contrivance in which the mixture is intended to be burnt. Provided also that nothing in this Order shall be held to apply to an admixture of acetylene and air which may unavoidably occur in the first use or re-charging of an apparatus, properly designed and constructed with a view to the production of pure acetylene. A. W. FITZROY. APPENDIX XIII. 297 STATUTORY RULES AND ORDERS, 1898. No. 2 48. explosive substance. Order of Secretary of State (No. 5), dated March 28, 1898, relating to compressed acetylene in admixture with oll- gas. (For Order No. 5a see p. 292.) Explosives Act, 1875. (38 Vict. c. 17.) Whereas by an Order in Council, dated November 26, 1807, made under section 104 of the Explosives Act, 1875, it is declared that acetylene when liquid, or when subject to a certain degree of com- pression, shall be deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the said Act : And whereas by the said Order in Council it is provided that if it be shown to the satisfaction of the Secretary of State that acetylene, decJared to be an explosive by the said Order when in admixture with any substance, or in any form or condition, is not possessed of explosive properties, the Secretary of State may by Order exempt such acetylene from being deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the said Act : And whereas it has been shown to the satisfaction of the Secretary of State that acetylene, when in admixture with a gas manufactured from mineral oil (hereinafter referred to as oil-gas) in certain proportions, and not compressed beyond a certain pressure, is not possessed of explosive properties : Now, therefore, in exercise of the powers aforesaid, I, one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State, hereby order as follows : Acet) lene in admixture with oil-gas in a proportion not exceeding twenty parts by volume of acetylene in every one hundred parts of the mixture, when subjected to a pressure not exceeding one hundred and fifty pounds to the square inch, shall not be deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the said Act. Provided that the acetylene and oil-gas shall be mixed together in a chamber or vessel before the gases are subjee'ed to com- pression. M. W. RIDLEY. Whitehall, March 28, 1898. 298 HANDBOOK ON PETHOLEUM. STATUTORY RULES AND ORDERS, 1912. No. 1200. EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCE. Order of Secretary op State (No. 8), dated August 6, 1912, relating to compressed acetylene contained in a porous Substance. Explosives Act, 1875. [38 Vict. c. 17.) Wiiekeas by an Order in Council dated 26th November, 1897, made under Section 104 of the Explosives Act, 1875, it is declared (hat acetylene when liquid, or when subject to a certain degree of compression, shall be deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the said Act : And whereas by the said Order in Council it is provided that if it be shown to the satisfaction of the Secretary of State that acetylene, declared to be an explosive by the said Order when in admixture with any substance, or in any form or condition, is not possessed of explosive properties, the Secretary of State may by Order exempt such acetylene from being deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the said Act : And whereas it has been shown to the satisfaction of the Secretary of State that acetylene when contained in a homogeneous porous substance, with or without acetone, and not compressed beyond a certain pressure, is not possessed of explosive properties : Now, therefore, in exercise of the powers aforesaid, I, one of His Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State, hereby order as follows : — Acetylene when contained in a homogeneous porous substance, with or without acetone, shall not be deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the said Act subject to the following conditions, viz. : — (1) The pressure shall not exceed one hundred and fifty pounds to the square inch. (2) The porous substance shall fill, as completely as possible, the cylinder or other vessel into which the acetylene is compressed, and the porosity of the substance shall not exceed eighty per cent. APPENDIX XIII. 299 (8) Every cylinder or other vessel into which acetylene is to be compressed shall be thoroughly tested to a pressure of not less than double that to which the vessel is to be subjected in use, and shall be fitted with a fusible plug designed to act at or below a temperature of 212° F. (4) Every cylinder or vessel in which acetylene is compressed shall be permanently and conspicuously marked with the name of the manufacturer and the words — " Acetylene compressed into porous substance exempted by Order of Secretary of State dated 6th August, 1912," and shall bear a label giving the date when it was last filled together with the name and address of the filler. (5) When acetone is used for absorbing the acetylene due precaution shall be taken ±hat the quantity of acetone is such that when fully charged with acetylene it does not completely fill the porosity of the porous substance. When the operation of compressing the acetylene is carried out in the United Kingdom : — (6) The apparatus by means of which the acetylene is com- pressed into a porous substance shall be fitted with a safety valve designed to act at a pressure of 200 lbs. per square inch, and shall be surrounded by rope mantlets in such a manner as efficiently to protect the operators. This Order shall come into force on the 1st day of October, 1912, from, which date the Order of Secretary of State No. 6, dated 10th April, 1901, shall be deemed to be repealed. B. McKENNA. Whitehall, 6th August, 1912. APPENDIX XIV. LONPON COUNTY COUNCIL. Report as to licensed premises in the County of London, upon which petroleum, under the acts, is used in trade or manufacture. Presented to tlie Sanitary and Special Purposes Committee, Novem- ber 14, 1890. Petroleum Acts. In accordance with the instructions of the committee at their meeting on October 31, that I should prepare a report sub- mitting a list of the businesses carried on in London in which petroleum spirit is used in manufacturing processes or otherwise, I have to report as follows : The following is a list of the businesses, in which petroleum is so used, carried on in the county of London under the licences of the Council : Dry Cleaners (21 licensed premises). Helmet Manufacturers (5 licensed premises). Tennis Shoe Manufacturers (4 licensed premises). Indiarubber Manufacturers (12 licensed premises). Waterproof Garment Manufacturers (41 licensed premises). Glass Silverers (14 licensed premises). Paint Manufacturers (6 licensed premises). Glove Cleaners (41 licensed premises). The licences granted in respect of all these businesses have special conditions attached, with a view to safety, and in some cases these conditions appear to be fully adequate, as they probably reduce the danger in the particular processes carried on to the minimum. In some of the businesses, however, it may be desirable to make some addition to the existing precautions. Whenever mineral spirit or its inflammable vapour is liable to be present in workrooms in dangerous quantity, the following precau- tions should, wherever possible, be adopted : APPENDIX XIV. 301 («) The workroom should be a detached fire-proof building on a level with the ground. (6) The workroom should be well ventilated, both at the ground and ceiling levels. (c) The workroom should be provided with doors opening outwards, in order to facilitate the escape of the workpeople in case of accident. {d) The process in which mineral spirit is used should be carried on in closed vessels, and where that is not possible, the exposure of spirit should be reduced to a minimum, in order to lessen the formation of inflammable vapour. («) Such artificial light as would ignite inflammable vapour should bo wholly excluded from workrooms in which mineral spirit is used. The only artificial light allowed should be incandescent electric light, or a form of gas light where the light is so enclosed as not to be in contact with the air of the workroom. Taking the businesses in the order in which they appear in the above list, the first to be dealt with is — (1) Dry Cleaners. — In this business mineral spirit is used, generally in large quantity, in the cleaning of dress material and other substances. The spirit is kept in specially constructed stores, and the cleaning takes place in specially constructed buildings. Practically all the conditions for safety already indicated are insisted on by the conditions attached to licences granted to dry cleaners in London. Formerly there were numerous accidents in connection with this business, but for the past few years, since the adoption of the indicated precautions, only one fire has occurred in London ; and fortunately, on account of the isolation of the building and the precautions imposed by the licence, no fatality or even personal injury resulted, nor did the fire extend beyond the actual build- ing in which it broke out. It may be mentioned as an instance of the value of precautions in businesses of this nature, that on one of the dry cleaner's premises, before the present stringent conditions were insisted upon, the cleaning room was burnt out five times in six years ; but that since the adoption of these precau- tions some seven years since, no fire has occurred on the premises. (2) Helmet Manufacturers. — In this business a quantity of petroleum spirit, in no case exceeding 45 gallons, is used for the purpose of dissolving indiarubber, to form a solution used in cement- ing and waterproofing some forms of helmets. I do not consider the conditions attached to licences for premises in which this business is carried on are sufficiently stringent. Difliculty was experienced in obtaining adequate arrangements for safety, both on account of the 302 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. situation and construction of many of the premises. In every case, however, the petroleum spirit is kept, and the indiarubber solution is made, in a store which is as far as possible detached from the work- rooms. The solution is used for cementing and waterproofing helmets, and in the room in which this is done, as well as in the place in which the helmets are afterwards dried, a considerable amount of inflammable vapour is given off. This vapour is to some extent carried off by ventilation, but at present artificial light is used in some of the workrooms ; and, looking to the recent fatal accident at a helmet manufacturer's in Cloth Fair, I think that such a method of lighting should no longer be permitted. No special provision is made upon any of the licensed helmet-makers' premises for the escape of workpeople in case of accident, and the Committee may consider it desirable in future to license only premises where adequate means of escape have been provided. I may, however, point out that no serious fire, or any fire involving loss of life, has occurred in recent years upon any of the licensed premises. The recent fatal fire on Messrs. Rowley and Brock's premises (which are in the city and under the jurisdiction of the Corporation of London) probably arose from the very grossest carelessness and the neglect of the most elementary precautions. An uncorked can containing a solution of naphtha and indiarubber was placed in the drying-stove, and on the door of the stove being opened a volume of the vapour escaped and ignited. Although no accident can be traced to the use of naked lights in workrooms where solution is used, it would undoubtedly reduce the danger if the Council insisted on the abolition of such lights and the substitution of the incandescent electric light or some perfectly safe form of gas lighting. In every case where a drying stove by fire heat is used, such stove should unquestionably be separated from the workrooms and ventilated into the external air, or in other words it should be a distinct fire risk. (3) Tennis Shoe Makers. — In this trade an indiarubber solution is used for cementing indiarubber soles to the uppers. The danger and the conditions are very similar to those in the case of helmet- makers, and whatever the Committee decide as to the one trade should be applied to the other. (4) Indiarubber Manufacturers. — In this trade indiarubber in bulk is dissolved in mineral spirit, and then mixed up with other ingredients to form a plastic substance, which is worked up into various forms of indiarubber goods. I think the arrangements for the storage of the naphtha and for dissolving the rubber are probably adequate at all the premises under the Council's licence. After being taken out of the vessels in which APPENDIX XIV. 303 it is dissolved the indiarubber is of the consistency of dough, and it is so termed by the trade. It subsequently passes through a variety of machines, for manufacture into different articles, and during these processes some inflammable vapour is given ofi", but probably not in sufficient quantities to be liable to ignition. I recommend the Com- mittee to in future attach a condition excluding fires and unsafe forms of artificial lighting, not only in the stores and mixing-rooms as at present, but also in any Workroom where there is a liability to the presence of inflammable vapour. (5) Waterproof Garment Makers. — This business is sometimes con- ducted on a very large scale in very large buildings, and in' others on a small scale, [and sometimes in dwellings. No matter how many or how few hands are at work, each of them requires a small quantity of solution and a small quantity of spirit. This is used for cementing the seams of the garments to be manufactured, and as there is but a small amount of vapour given off in the operations of each work- person, it is only where a large number of workpeople are employed in one room that there is a liability to the formation of a large amount of inflammable vapour. The two points for the consideration of the Committee appear to be : (1) Whether fires and exposed artificial light should not be pro- hibited in all such workrooms. (2) Whether facilities for escape, in case of accident, should not be insisted upon, wherever a considerable number of hands are employed in one building. By requiring both the solution and the naphtha to be used from suitable vessels, and by regulating the storage of the naphtha and the mixing of the solution, the Council has reduced the danger in these places ; but the other points indicated are matters for serious consideration. I may point out, however, that there might be great difficulty in the case of the smaller makers, and of the workpeople who carry on this business in their own homes, in providing a special artificial light, or special means of heating the rooms. (6) Glass Silverers. — In this business mineral spirit is used in the manufacture of the paint which covers the back of silvered glass. The spirit is usually kept and the paint mixed in the basement of the building where the business is carried on, and it has been im- practicable to obtain in such cases external places for the storage and the mixing. There is probably little danger in the process of applying the paint to the glass ; and the point for the consideration of the Committee appears to be whether in future the storage and mixing should be allowed in the building in which the workrooms are situated. (7) Glove Gleaning, — In this business only, small quantities of 304 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. mineral spirit are used, and in a large number of cases the trade is so small that it can be carried on under the exemption contained in section 7 of the Petroleum Act, 1871, which permits three gallons of spirit to be kept without a licence, provided it is kept in stoppered bottles which contain not more than one pint. The practice in London is that, where only one of these bottles is open at a time, no licence is necessary, but whenever any larger quantity than one pint is opened for use at one time a licence is requisite. Although the quantity of petroleum used in glove cleaning is small, there is a considerable escape of inflammable vapour, and consequent danger. Upon every premises licensed by the Council, glove cleaning is required to be carried on in buildings either detached or external to the house or shop, and the presence of a fire or artificial light is forbidden. It is probably unnecessary to add to the restrictions already imposed on this business. In addition to the foregoing, there are also a few other businesses in which petroleum spirit is used, and which are under the licence of the Council, as follows : One bone boiler. ,, bedstead manufacturer. „ photographic chemical manufacturer, „ manufacturing chemist. „ brassfitter (asbestos packing). „ paraffin scale maker. „ electrician (four licences). „ colour-printing works. I believe the conditions imposed in each of the above cases are adequate for safety. The only remaining trade in which it is known that petroleum spirit is used is that of toy-balloon maker. Two premises upon which this trade is carried on are licensed, and at each five gallons may be kept. In both cases the store is a sunk pit in the garden at rear of the dwelling, and this method is quite safe. The spirit is, however, taken in quantities not exceeding half a gallon into a workroom in the upper part of the dwelling, where it is put into an open vessel, into which the indiarubber is dipped. No fire or light is allowed in this room, and the work is done with open windows, and it is probable that no further precaution can be adopted except to require that the work be done in outbuildings only. The licensees are, however, so poor that they are- unable to provide these. These premises have been under licence for some years, and the inspector reports that he has always found the business conducted with care. APPENDIX XV. SCALE OF MAXIMUM AMOUNTS OF PETROLEUM ALLOWED TO BE KEPT ACCORDING TO DISTANCE FROM PROTECTED WORKS.* [Proposed to be included in am Act of Parliament.) Distance of depot from protected work.* Number of gallons allowed to be kept Not wholly in tank-depots, t In tank'depotst but not wholly underground. Wholly in underground tank -depots, f Within 10 ft. Over 10 ft. and not exeee< 20 ,. „ 30 „ „ 60 „ „ 76 „ „ , 100 „ „ , 160 „ . . ling 20 ft. 30 „ 50 „ 75 „ 100,, 150,, 100 500 2,000 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 Unlimited. 250 1,500 6,000 15,000 50,000 150,000 Unlimited. 500 5,000 20,000 50,000 (Jnlimiled. • For definition of protected works, see p. 166. f Specifications of tank-depots will be found in Appendix X. U APPENDIX XVI. THAMES CONSERVANCY.* By-laws fob the Regulation op the Conveyance op Carbide of Calcium on the River Thames. Whereas Carbide of Calcium presents dangers similar to those pre- sented by Petroleum. And whereas by an Order in Council of the 1§ih day of February, 1897, modified by an Order in Council dated the 17th day of July, 1897, it was ordered and prescribed that certain parts of the Petroleum Acts 1871 to 1881 shall apply to the said substance Carbide of Calcium in the same manner as if the said substance were Petroleum to which the Acts apply. Now, therefore, the Conservators of the River Thames, in exercise of the powers vested in thembythe "Petroleum Act, 1879," and of every other authority them hereunto enabling, do order and direct as follows: (1) The By-laws for regulating the conveyance of carbide of calcium on the River Thames made by the Conservators of the River Thames and confirmed by the Board of Trade on the 25th day of October, 1899, shall after these present By-laws have been confirmed by the Board of Trade be and the same are hereby repealed. (2) In the construction of these By-laws the following expressions shall have the meanings hereby assigned to them ; "Conservators" shall mean the Conservators of the River Thames. "Ship" shall mean every description of vessel used in sea navigation, whether propelled by oars or otherwise, entering the Thames with a cargo any part of which consists of carbide of calcium. " Licensed Barge " shall mean an open barge duly licensed by the Conservators for the carriage of carbide of calcium on the Thames. " Thames " shall mean the River Thames within the jurisdiction of the Conservators. * This is now the Port of London Authority, but mutatis mulandi* the By-laws remain as before. APPENDIX xvi. sf the notice of manner in which such petroleum is stowed. Such. notice ShaM \> e cargo and deemed to be the notice to the Conservators required by Section 5 nwiner of f the Petroleum Act, 1871. stows"©. (7) The Master of every petroleum ship shall anchor or moor his ships tcTbe S *"P below or tp the eastward of the Mucking ^ight; fit T^W* 8 anchored or Haven, and in such position as the Harbpur Master shji.ll; from time the eastward to *' me direct, and 80 ^iU n °t remove therefrom except in, accordance of Mucking with the written order or permission first obtained of the, J^a,isbpur m ' fj- M as * er or ^ or the purppse pf forthwith leaving the Thame^. Ifa charge to be petroleum ship shall be discharged except, at a place, previously approved by approved in writing by the Harbour Master. Master. (fi) The fpllowing rules in respect of the discharge of petroleum Rules as to within the Thames shall in every case be complied with, : discharge of ^ B e f ore anv petrpleum is discharged th,e Ovynap shall give notice to the Harbour Master pf the district in, whJQh, su,ch discharge is tp take place of the time and place of s,uch discharge, and no petroleum shall be discharged during any day unless such notice shall have been given, before |he hour of ten in the forenoon of that day. (6) No petroleum shall be landed at any quay other than such quay as the Harbpur Master shall from time to time direct, (c) Before any petroleum in barrels, drums, or other vessels is discharged from a petroleum ship, the holds of such petroleum ship shall be thoroughly ventilated, and after all APPENDIX XVI. 811 petroleum has been removed from any petroleum ship the holds and tanks shall be thoroughly cleansed. Provided that this By-law shall not be deemed to require the cleansing of the tanks of a tank steamer which leaves the Thames immediately/ after the discharge of the cargo of petroleum aad of which the tanks ape closed up immediately after such discharge. {d} From the time when the holds or tanks of a petroleum ship are first opened for the purpose of discharging petroleum until such time, as all petroleum shall have been discharged from such ship, and the holds or tanks shall have been thoroughly cleansed as required by this By-law, there shall be no fire or artificial light on board such ship. Provided that this By-law shall not prevent the use of a safety lamp of a construction previously approved by the Harbour Master. (•) Na person shall smoke, nor shall the Master permit any person to smoke, upon any petroleum ship when its cargo is being discharged, nor shall any person engaged in the discharge of any petroleum ship carry matches or other means of producing ignition. ff\ When the discharge of petroleum has been commenced such discharge shall be proceeded with with all due speed and diligence, and should it be impracticable to complete the discharge cf any petroleum ship, or petroleum barge, before sunset on any one' day, all tanks and holds shall be securely fastened immediately such discharge is dis- continued, and all the same precautions taken, as though bulk had not been broken. Provided that tank steamers which shall have commenced discharge- before sunset shall be permitted to continue such discharge into reser- voirs on shore or into tank barges. (p)h Petroleum shall not be discharged in the Thames after sunset or before sunrise except as provided in sub- section (/). ih)> Petroleum contained in barrels, drums, or other vessels which are not staunch and free from, leakage shall only be discharged on . shore at a duly licensed wharf, and not into a petroleum barge or any other vessel. (A. No petroleum shall be landed at any quay until the petroleum ship, or petroleum barge, or carriage by which the same is to be removed therefrom 9hall be a* the place in readiness to receive the same, and all petroleum discharged in the 312 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. As to the conveyance of imported petroleum westward of Mucking Light. Rules as to petroleum barges. Thames shall be forthwith removed therefrom or to some duly licensed place of storage. (j) No petroleum shall be discharged or allowed to escape into the Thames. (k) The Owner shall take all due precautions for the prevention of accident by fire in the discharge of petroleum in the Thames. (9) No imported petroleum shall be conveyed up the Thames above or to the westward of the Mucking Light at Thames Haven, except in a petroleum barge, and no petroleum shall be conveyed in any barge on the Thames other than a petroleum barge. (10) The following rules in respect to petroleum barges shall in every case be complied with : (a) Every petroleum barge shall have the names of the Owner and of the barge and the registered number of the licence preceded by the letters " T. 0." painted on the stern of the barge in letters or figures not less than six inches long, and broad in proportion. (6) No petroleum barge shall be discharged in any part of the Thames after sunset, or before sunrise, except as provided in By-law 8 (/). (c) No petroleum barge shall be navigated on the Thames after sunset or before sunrise, and no loaded petroleum barge shall be navigated except at such a time as shall permit as far as possible of the prompt discharge of its cargo on arrival at its destination. (d) Iso loaded petroleum barge, and no petroleum barge fitted with a tank or tanks, shall be navigated or lie in the Thames unless a red metal flag not less than eighteen inches square, with a white circular centre six inches in diameter is exhibited upon such petroleum barge where it can best be seen, and no tug shall tow such a petroleum barge without also exhibiting a similar flag at the mast- head. («) No loaded petroleum barge shall be navigated, except in tow of or attended by an efficient tug propelled by steam, electricity, or other mechanical power. (/) Not more than four loaded petroleum barges shall be towed together at one time, and these shall be towed two abreast and not more than two petroleum barges shall be towed in single line, and no petroleum barge shall be towed alongside a tug. (^) No tug employed in towing a loaded petroleum barge shall at APPENDIX XVI. 313 the same time tow any other harge or vessel, except barges carrying high-test petroleum, but not more than four barges shall be towed together as provided in sub-section (/), and barges carrying high-test petroleum shall, whilst being so towed, be subject to the provisions of these By- laws. (A) No petroleum barge shall be navigated in a fog. (*) No tug shall be in attendance upon, or take in tow, any petroleum barge, without having on board all necessary specially designed lamps previously approved by the Harbour Master for the use of such petroleum barge in the event of its having to moor or anchor on account of fog or other exceptional causes. (j) In the event of it becoming necessary to show lights upon any petroleum barge through the same having to moor or anchor on account of fog or other exceptional causes, the Master of such petroleum barge shall obtain such lights from the tug in attendance, and he shall return the lamps to the tug immediately after use. No lamps shall be lighted or extinguished on board a petroleum barge, and no petroleum barge shall, when under way, have on board any lights or lamps under any circumstances whatever. (&) No tank compartment shall be filled above a horizontal bar fixed two inches above the base of the expansion chamber. (I) After any petroleum barge, fitted with a tank or tanks, is loaded, and before it is removed from the quay or petroleum ship at which it has been loaded, all manholes shall be screwed down gas tight, all valves on suction pipes closed, and all ventilator openings securely stopped or covered with wire gauze. (w) No manholes, valves, or ventilators shall be opened whilst any such petroleum barge is in tow of a tug, or before it has been made fast to the quay at which the cargo is to be discharged. («) Before any manhole or valve is opened for the discharge of the cargo or otherwise, and continuously during such dis- charge, and at all other times when laden, a petroleum barge shall be under the control and personal supervision of the Master thereof, whose duty it shall be to prevent the access of any unauthorised person and to take all possible precautions against fire. 314 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. (o) Immediately after the discharge, of the cargo, and before the petroleum, barge is removed or the tug approaches for the purpose of. such removal, the. Master shall securely close, or caused to be securely dosed, aU manholes, valves, and ventilators. (p) The Master of a petroleum barge shall not cause or permit any fire or artificial light, or matches, or other means of producing ignition to be upon such petroleum barge,, or smoke, or permit smoking, to take place oa board such petroleum barge at any time. (g) No person when on board a petroleum barge shall have on his person any matches or other means of producing ignition, and every person on board a petroleum barge,, or about to go on board a petroleum barge, shall submit to being searched by any duly authorised, offices oi the Con- servators., (r) The bilges of a petroleum barge shall not be pumped when such barge is in any confined waters, or is alongside any petroleum ship or tug. (s) A copy of this By-law shall be posted by the Owner or Master in a suitable and conspicuous place on every petroleum barge. Competent (11) No petroleum ship shall be navigated on or lie in the Thames, Fn charge of except the same be constantly in charge of a competent person on petroleum board, snch ship until all petroleum on board shall have been dis- responsl- charged, and the Master of every petroleum ship shall aft all times bility of be responsible for the carrying out of and giving effect to the pro- Master> visions pf these By-laws. Inspection (^ 2 ) The Master shall when so required by the. Harbour Master, by Harbour or by any police constable, show to such Harbour Master or con- Master, stable all petroleum under his control upon the peteoleum ship or petroleum barge, and shall afford every reasonable facility to enable such Harbour Master or constable to inspect and examine such petroleum, and such, petroleum ship, and petroleum barge t so that he may ascertain whether the provisions of these- By-laws are duly observed. Penalty for ^3) When any petroleum ship, petroleum barge, or cargo is By-laws. moored, discharged or landed, or otherwise, dealt with in contra- vention of any of the above By-laws, the Owner and; Master of such petroleum ship or petroleum barge, and the-Owner of such cargo shall each incur, a penalty not exceeding £50 for each day during which such contravention continues,, and it shall be lawful for the Harbour Master to cause such petroleum ship, petroleum barge,, or cargo to appendix xvi. au be removed at the expense of the Owner thereof to soma place at or below the Mucking Light a,t Thames Haven, and &\l expenses in, or incident to suoh removal, may be recovered in. the same manner in which penalties are by "The Petroleum Act, 1871," made recoverable. The Common Seal of the Conservators of the Hive* Thames was hereunto affixed by order of the said Con- servators in the presence of ROBERT PHIUPSON, Secretary of the said Conservators. 80^ May, 1904. The Board of Trade hereby signify their confirmation oj the above By-laws. By Order of the Board of Trade the 11*& day of June, 1 904 T. H. W. PELHAM, Assistant Secretary. SPECIFICATION FOR TANK BARGES. No petroleum ba,rga fitted with a tank or tanks will be approved and licensed by the Conservators, except its construction be in accordance with the following general specification : (1) AH barges shall be of steel or iron, well and substantially built, a,ud strengthened witjh angles a,n,d bulbs, &c, as may be required. The scantlings shall be of ample proportions to suit the various sizes of barges. (2) No bulkhead shall be pierced or fitted with a sluice. (9) The petroleum shall be carried in one or more steel or iron tanks of adequate strength, divided into two compartments of equal size by a spirit tight longitudinal bulkhead, and each compartment shall have a separate pump fitted for draining. (4) No baifga sha,ll ba of a capacity greatep than 150 tons. (5)). l^o-tank shall be of a, greater capacity than 100 tons, and therefore no compartment shajl h.ohi more than 50 tons. (6) The tank or tanks shaH be so arranged that space is left all round at the sjdes and ends between the tanks and the shell of the barge and the bulkheads to admit of examination. (7) The capacity of the barge hetween bulkhead with tank or tanks in place shall be such that m the event of the contents of any one com- partment escaping the surface of the liquid in the space outside the tank shall be at feast 12 inches below deck of barge. 316 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. (8) Each tank compartment shall be provided with an expansion chamber of a capacity equal to at least 1\ per cent, of the capacity of the compartment measured from a horizontal bar fixed at a height of two inches above the base of the expansion chamber. (9) Each tank shall be fitted with approved arrangements of pipes and valves for the discharge of the petroleum and with manholes having acrew down covers with spirit tight joints. (10) Ventilators to spaces round the tanks shall be fitted as required supplied with wire gauze covers of approved mesh and screw pings. (11) Barges shall be properly fitted out with rudder, tiller, anchors, chains, windlass, mooring and towing bitts, oars, &c. (12) No stove shall be fitted nor provision made for any means of making a fire. THAMES CONSERVANCY. By-laws for the Regulation of Petrol Motor Launches on the River Thames. (As published and amended ; subject to confirmation by the Board of Trade.) The Conservators of the River Thames, in exercise of the powers and authority vested in them by the Thames Conservancy Act, 1894, do make the following By-laws, that is to say : 1. These By-laws may be cited as " The Thames Motor Launch By-laws, 1905," and shall come into operation the day after the same are confirmed by the Board of Trade. 2. These By-laws shall be applicable to the Thames as defined by the Thames Conservancy Act, 1894. 3. In these By-laws the words and expressions hereinafter men- tioned shall have the meanings hereby assigned to them respectively unless there be something in the subject or context repugnant to such construction, viz. : The expression " petrol motor launch " means any vessel in which the motive power is supplied by petroleum to which the Petroleum Acts 1871-1879 apply, whether such petroleum is used in an internal combustion engine or for the genera- tion of steam or otherwise, but the said expression shall not include a petrol motor launch having no petroleum on board when being towed. The word " Master " when used in relation to any petrol motor launch means any person, whether the Owner, Master or other person lawfully or wrongfully having or taking the APPENDIX XVI. 317 command, charge or management of the petrol motor launch for the time being, the expression " Officer of the Conservators " means any lockkeeper or other officer of the Conservators, or any person employed by them, and authorised by writing under their Common Seal to carry out the provisions of these By-laws. (4) No petrol motor launch shall be navigated into or through any lock on the Thames unless it is constructed in accordance with the following requirements : — (a) Carburetters, the design or construction whereof may under any circumstances permit of an overflow, so fitted as in the event of an overflow to drain into a gauze-covered receptacle capable of being emptied from time to time as may be necessary, and of a form to be approved by the Conservators. (6) Fuel tanks constructed of copper or an alloy of copper riveted, or of steel efficiently galvanised after making up, and their freedom from leakage or liability to leakage ascertained by testing. (o) A closed locker provided for the stowage of petrol cans, whether containing petrol or not, such closed locker not to be placed in close proximity to the exhaust pipe. (d) Fuel tanks installed in such a position that ready access can be had to all connections. (e) All fuel pipes of seamless drawn copper or other tubing approved by the Conservators. (/) Fuel pipes fitted with ground cone union joints or other approved form of joint and not with flange or socket joints. The main fuel pipe provided with suitable means for giving it the necessary elasticity. If bends or coils are fitted, one should be placed close to the fuel tank and another close to the carburetter. (a) Fuel pipe3 carried where they are least liable to become damaged, and in all cases so fitted that ready access can be had to them and all connections throughout their entire length. (A) One cock fitted to the fuel feed pipe where it leaves the tank and another where it joins the carburetter. Provided that in respect of petrol motor launches registered prior to the date when these By-laws come into operation, and having only one cock in the fuel feed pipe, the Inspector of the Conservators shall exercise his discretion as to the necessity of a second cock to such pipe. 318 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. {<) The exhaust pipe Water cooled Unless taken into a funnel. Where the exhaust pipe is taken into a funnel provision made to prevent liability of ignition of inflammable Vapour in any part of the boat. 1j) The silencer effective as regards suppression of noise of exhaust to this satisfaction of the Conservators) and constructed of sufficient strength to prevent it being injured by the occurrence of an explosion therein. (k) A spirit- tight tray or receptacle, the sides of Which are carried up as high as the propeller shaft Will permit or fitted beueath the engine so as to prevent leakage of spirit and lubricating oil escaping into any other part of the boat. Ignition Aeeangements. (J) The ignition circuit throughout carefully insulated. High tension leads from coil to sparking-plugs carried through a water-tight tube, or so installed as to prevent leakage of current or risk of breakage or damage by water, (m) Electric leads properly supported. (n) If a "spark gap" be employed it must be so enclosed as not to be capable of igniting inflammable vapour, (o) Some form of sparking-plug employed in which external sparking is as far as possible guarded against. (p) If trembler coils are employed the same must be placed in a position where an accumulation of inflammable vapour is not likely to occur. Note.—*^* use oflsw-temioit magneto ignition is preferable an the eeore *&f Safety. (§) No form of hot tube ignition employed. (5) The Master of every petrol motor launch whilst waiting to enter or when in any lock on the Thames shall give to any officer of the Conservators reasonable facilities to inspect such -petrol motor launch with a view to ascertainment; whether the aforesaid requirements are complied with. (8) Whilst waiting to enter or when in any lock on the Thames the Master of any petrol motor launch and the person or persons on board the same shall comply with the following regulations : (a) Having entered a lock the cock on the fuel feed pipe shall immediately be closed, and shall not be reopened until the lock gates are opened for the egress of the vessel or vessels then in the lock. (6) In any lock the engine shall be stopped before the lock APPENDIX XVI. 319 gates are closed and shall not be re-started until the gates are opened for the egress of the vessel or vessels then in the lock. Provided that sub-sections (a) and (b) of this By-law shall not apply to a petrol motor launch when no other vessel is passing through the lock at the same time as the petrol motor launch, or when the only other vessel or vessels passing through the lock at the same time as the petrol motor launch is or are a vessel or vessels of the same type. (c) No fuel tank or petrol can shall be opened or manipulated on any petrol motor launch. (d) Any petrol carried in excess of that contained in the fuel tanks shall be carried only in two-gallon cans of a pattern approved by the Railway Clearing House for conveyance of petrol by the railway companies. Such cans, whether containing petrol or not, shall be stowed in a closed locker, which must not be used for any other purpose while any petrol can is therein. (a) No person shall strike a match while on any petrol motor launch. Provided that this regulation shall apply only when such petrol motor launch is in a lock. (f) With a view to prevention of fire a proportionate quantity of sand equal to one-half a cubic foot for every complete twelve feet in length of the hull of the petrol motor launch together with a shovel or scoop shall be carried in some readily accessible place. Provided that in the event of the Conservators approving in writing under the hand of their Secretary a form of chemical extinguisher, such approved chemical fire extinguisher may be carried in place of sand as aforesaid. 7. Any person acting in contravention of any of these By-laws shall for every such act be liable to a penalty not exceeding £10, and in the case of a continuing offence to a further daily penalty not exceeding the like amount, which said penalties shall be recoverable enforced and applied according to the provisions of the Thames Conservancy Act, 1894. Note. — The Conservators will be prepared to inspect any petrol motor launch registered under the Thames Conservancy Aet f 1894, and grant to the owner of such launch, if on such inspection it be found to satisfy the requirements as to con- struction, a certificate of compliance with reference to the part of these By-laws relating to constrwlion. 820 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. Such certificate of compliance will not however exempt the Master of such petrol motor launch from liability to have his vessel further inspected from time to time in order that it may be ascertained whether the construction has been maintained in accordance with the aforesaid requirements. Applications for inspection of petrol motor launches should be addressed to the Secretary Thames Conservancy, Victoria Embankment, London, B.C. APPENDIX XVII. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ACETYLENE GENERATORS. Home Office, Whitehall, 8.W., October 30, 1901. Sib, In accordance with your letter of the 22nd December, 1900, we have prepared for your information the following Report on the question of Acetylene Generators. On the 7th January, 1901, we issued a circular to the members of the trade, inviting them to sub- mit the apparatus manufactured by them to the necessary tests. In response to this circular we received a larger number of applications than we anticipated, and we have tested what may be considered to be nearly the whole of the various types of generators in use in the United Kingdom. The conditions which, in our opinion, a generator should fulfil before it can be considered as being safe, and which we have had in view in carrying out the tests, are specified in Appendix A. We have tested forty-six different generators, and the results of these tests are shown in Appendix B. [not reprinted here]. In every case a representative of the firm who submitted the apparatus was present, so as to ensure the generator being worked under the most favourable conditions. This course appeared to us to be the only means of obtaining trustworthy comparative results. The Committee, feeling that it was desirable that there should be some means of identifying the particular form of apparatus tested by them, have appended to this Report a short description (Appendix C) [not reprinted here], which has been prepared for that purpose by the Secretary from data obtained at the time of testing. The actual testing was carried out by Mr. W. W. Duffield, F.C.S., under our direction, and as far as possible under our personal super- vision. The terms of reference to the Committee, as given in yo.ir letter X 322 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. of the 22nd December, 1900, did not distinctly specify that we were to examine into the efficiency of the generators submitted for test ; but we considered that although a high yield of gas per pound of carbide does not necessarily imply safety, yet, on the other hand, a low yield of gas from high-class carbide is objectionable, as all the gas capable of being yielded by the carbide must be generated at some time or other, and if not delivered by the apparatus to the service pipes may subsequently cause a danger or nuisance. With all generators the ultimate disposal of the lime sludge, and the water saturated with acetylene, is a point of considerable im- portance ; as although the discharge of a small quantity of such residue into the drains would probably give no trouble, yet, in the extended use of acetylene, the escape of gas from large quantities of saturated water or from incompletely decomposed carbide, might ead to explosion or nuisance, and the presence of large quantities of lime in the drains might cause such precipitation as would silt up traps, &c. In districts where sewers exist, the objections could be met by leading the effluents from generators into open catch-pits or intercepting chambers, from which the overflow only is discharged into the drains. Where cesspools are the only system of drainage great advantage accrues from the discharge of the lime sludge directly into the cesspool. We desire to place upon record our satisfaction with the manner in which the tests were carried out by Mr. Duffield, and to thank him for the very able assistance he has rendered us throughout. We also wish to express our thanks to the London County Council for the facilities granted us for carrying out the operations of test- ing at their Weights and Measures Office in Harrow Road, and for the courteous and kind manner in which help was given whenever required. The greater part of the carbide used in the tests was purchased by the Home Office from the Acetylene Illuminating Company, Limited, of London and Foyers, and was of high quality, the yield from samples taken from each drum being shown in the fifth column in Appendix B. The fact of the carbide giving very regular results considerably facilitated our work in testing. A large proportion of the generators examined belong to the automatic class. In these the object is the gradual generation of the gas as used, whereas in the non-automatic types the whole of the gas which can be generated from a given charge of carbide is evolved in a short time, and a gas-holder has to be provided large enough to contain it. The contention is that the generation of the gas as used, and the absence of a large gas-holder are advantageous APPENDIX XVII. 883 or convenient. "When all goes well this may be so, inasmuch as under the skilled supervision and favourable conditions of the tests made by us, serious difficulties did not arise, and in general the apparatus worked well. We are not satisfied, however, that under the varied conditions of use, especially with unskilled labour, this would always be the case, and we do not think that the advantages aimed at by the designers of automatic apparatus are sufficient to make it worth while to incur the possible trouble which we fear may be met with in the practical use of automatic generators, especially those of complicated design. In certain circumstances, with due safeguards, the employment of automatic generators may be admittedly convenient. In conclusion, we think it right to point out that, while the generators hdve in no instance shown evidence of being otherwise than safe under the conditions of the test to which we have sub- jected them, many are, in our opinion, of unnecessarily and un- desirably complicated design, and some are not sufficiently strong in construction. On the whole, having regard to the conditions of use which must often prevail, we consider that in the selection of an Acetylene Generator, regard should be had to the following desiderata : (1) Simplicity of action and design. (2) Strength of construction. (3) High efficiency, as indicated by the yield of gas per pound of carbide. (4) Low pressure in generator, and (5) Facility of removal of the residue. We have the honour to be, Sir, Tour obedient Servants, 0. V. BOYS, BOVERTON REDWOOD, HY. E. JONES, ALFRED SPENCER, VIVIAN B. LEWES, JAMES SWINBURNE. M. B. LLOYD, Captain, Secretary. Captain J. H. Thomson, H.M. Chief Inspector of Explosives, Home Office, S.W. SM HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. APPENDIX A. CONDITIONS WHICH A GeNEBATOH SHOULD FULFIL BEFOKE IT CAN BE CONSIDERED AS BEING SAFE. 1. The temperature in any part of the generator, when run at the maximum rate for which it is designed, for a prolonged period, should not exceed 130 8 O. This maybe ascertained by placing short lengths of wire, drawn from fusible metal, in those parts of the apparatus in which heat is liable to be generated. 2. The generator should have an efficiency of not less than 90 per cent., which, with carbide yielding 5 cubic feet per pound, would imply a yield of 4-5 cubic feet for each pound of carbide used. 3. The size of the pipes carrying the gas should be proportioned to the maximum rate of generation, so that undue back pressure from throttling may not occur. 4. The carbide should be completely decomposed in the apparatus, so that lime sludge discharged from the generator shall not be capable of generating more gas. 5. The pressure in any part of the apparatus, on the generator side of the holder, should not exceed that of 20 inches of water, and on the service side of same, or where no gas-holder is provided, should not exceed that of 5 inches of water. 6. The apparatus should give no tarry or other heavy condensation products from the decomposition of the carbide. 7. In the use of a generator, regard should be had to the danger of stoppage of passage of the gas and resulting increase of pressure which may arise from the freezing of the water. Where freezing may be anticipated, steps should be taken to prevent it. 8. The apparatus should be so constructed that no lime sludge can gain access to any pipes intended for the passage of gas or circulation of water. 9. The use of glass gauges should be avoided as far as possible, and, where absolutely necessary, they should be effectively protected against breakage. 10. The air space in a generator before charging should, be as small as possible. APPENDIX XVII. 825 11. The use of copper should be avoided in such parts of the apparatus as are liable to come in contact with acetylene. Note. — No reference was made in the specified conditions under which the tests were to be conducted to the determination of the efficiency of the various arrangements for automatically arresting the generation, as it was felt that no experimental results could guarantee that their operation might not fail in practical working. APPENDIX XVIII. LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL. PUBLIC CONTROL DEPARTMENT. London County Council (General Powers) Act, igi2. (Part 2.) Abstract of the Requirements op the Act as to Petroleum Oil Depots. This Abstract has no legal validity, and is intended only for the information and guidance of the persons concerned. For further information reference should be made to the Act itself and any Regulations made thereunder. 1. " Petroleum oil" to which the Act applies means any rock oil, Rangoon oil, Burmah oil, oil made from Petroleum, coal, schist, shale, peat, or other bituminous substance, and any products of Petroleum or any of the above-mentioned oils, which, when tested in the prescribed manner, give off an inflammable vapour at a temperature of 150 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer, or any lower temperature not being less than 73 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. The term includes any liquid mixture, including viscous or sedimentary mixtures, of such petroleum oil with other substances if such mixture gives off inflammable vapour at the above-mentioned temperatures, when tested in the prescribed manner. The term also includes any inflammable oil (other than petroleum having a flash-point of less than 73 degrees Fahrenheit to which the Petroleum Acts, 1871-81, apply), turpentine, methylated spirit, or ,rood naphtha which is stored on premises where is also stored any such petroleum oil or mixture as above defined. APPENDIX XVIII. 827 2. The provisions of this Act do not apply to petroleum oil in course of conveyance on railways. 3. "Petroleum Oil Depot" means any premises in the County (other than premises in the Port of London belonging to or occupied by the Port of London Authority) where petroleum oil is stored in tanks, barrels or other receptacles the aggregate capacity of which above the lowest level of the ground contiguous to such receptacles is not less than — (a) Where tanks only are used, 5000 gallons. (b) Any other case, 2000 gallons. 4. From and after the 1st January, 1913, all petroleum oil depots in the County (exclusive of the City) must be registered with the Council. 5. The fees for registration are £1 in respect of any depot exist- ing at the time of the passing of this Act, viz. : August 7, 1912, and £5 in respect of any new depot. 6. Applications for registration should be made upon the form provided for the purpose which can be obtained by application in writing to the Chief Officer, Public Control Department, London County Council, 21 Northumberland Avenue, W.O. 7. Every application must be accompanied by — (a) The proper fee in money, or if sent through the post by cheque or Postal Order, payable to the order of the London County Council. (6) A plan of the depot drawn to the scale of J in. to a foot, showing the position of the tanks (including the dimen- sions of same), barrels or other receptacles intended to contain the petroleum oil or other liquids above mentioned ; together with cross sections showing what arrangements have been made (if any) to prevent outflow of oil from the depot, the capacity of such retaining enclosure (if any), and the nature of its construction. 8. Applications for the registration of existing oil depots must be made not later than the 5th December, 1912. 9. The Council may refuse to register any new petroleum oil depot which contravenes any regulation made and in force under this Act. (See paragraph No. 11.) 10. Any person aggrieved by the decision of the Council to refuse registration may appeal to the Petty Sessional Court having juris- diction in the area in which the site of the proposed depot is situate. 11. The Council may make and enforce regulations as to tha 328 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. execution and maintenance of works at petroleum oil depots to prevent the risk of the outflow of oil therefrom. Such regulations do not come into force until they have been approved by the Secretary of State. 12. Any officer duly authorised by the Council may at all reason- able times enter any premises which are used for the purposes of a petroleum oil depot and such officer may require to be furnished with samples of the inflammable liquids kept thereon on payment of the value thereof. 13. Any person who refuses to permit such officer to carry out his duties under this Act incurs a penalty of not exceeding £20. 14. Any person who establishes or uses a petroleum oil depot in contravention of this Act, or any regulations in force thereunder, incurs a penalty of not exceeding £20, and a further penalty of not exceeding £20 for each day the offence continues after conviction thereof. James Ollis, Chief Officer. 21, NOHTHUMBEHLAHD AVEriUE, W.C. APPENDIX XIX. ADMIRALTY SPECIFICATION FOR OIL FUEL (1910), AND THE REVISED SPECIFICATION (1912). ADMIRALTY SPECIFICATION FOR OIL FUEL (igio). 1. Quality. — The Oil supplied shall consist of Liquid Hydro Carbons, and may be either : — (a) Shale Oil ; or (6) Petroleum as may be required ; or (0) A distillate or a residual product of petroleum ; and shall comply with the Admiralty requirements as regards flash- point, fluidity at low temperatures, percentage of sulphur, presence of water, acidity, and freedom from impurities. The flash-point shall not be lower than 200° F., close test (Abel or Pensky- Martens). The proportion of sulphur contained in the Oil shall not exceed 0-75 per cent. The Oil supplied shall be free from acidity. The quantity of water delivered with the Oil shall not exceed 0*5 per cent. The Oil supplied shall be sufficiently free from paraffin or bitumen to flow freely by gravitation with two feet head at a temperature of 32° F. through a horizontal length of three feet of half an inch bore copper pipe. The Oil supplied shall be free from earthy, carbonaceous, or fibrous matter, or other impurities which are likely to choke the burners. The Oil shall, if required by the Inspecting Officer, be strained by being pumped on discharge from the tanks, or tank steamers, through filters of wire gauze having 1G meshes to the inch. 330 HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM. The quality and kind of Oil supplied shall be fully described. The original source from which the Oil has been obtained shall be stated in detail as well as the treatment to which it has been subjected, and the place at which it has been treated. REVISED ADMIRALTY SPECIFICATION FOR OIL FUEL (1912) 1. Quality. — The Oil Fuel supplied shall consist of Liquid Hydro Carbons, and may be either : — (a) Shale Oil ; or (6) Petroleum as may be required ; or (c) A distillate or a residual product. of petroleum ; and shall comply with the Admiralty requirements as regards flash. point, fluidity at low temperatures, percentage of sulphur, presence of water, acidity, and freedom from impurities. The flash-point shall not be lower than 175° P., close test. (Abel or Pensky-Martens).* The proportion of sulphur contained in the Oil shall not exceed 3 - 00 per cent. The oil fuel supplied shaB be as free as passible from add, and in any case the quantity of acid must not exceed 0*05 per cent, calculated as oleic acid when tested by shaking up the oil with distilled water, and determining by titration with decinormal alkali the amount of acid extracted by the water, methyl orange being used as indicator. The quantity of water delivered with the Oil shall not exceed 0*5 per cent. The viscosity of the Oil supplied shall not exceed 2000 seconds for an outflow of 50 cubic centimetres at a temperature of 82* F„, as determined by Sir Boverton Kedwood's Standard Viscometer (Admiralty type for testing Oil Fuel).t The Oil supplied shall be free from earthy, carbonaceous, or fibrous matter, or other impurities which are likely to choke the burners. * In the case of oils of exceptionally low viscosity such as distillates from shale, the flashpoint must be not less than 200° P. f Pending settlement of this specification a viscosity of 1000 Becondg was provisionally adopted in 1912. APPENDIX XIX. 381 The Oil shall, if required by the Inspecting Officer, be strained by being pumped on discharge from the tanks, or tank steamer, through filters of wire gauze having 16 meshes to the inch. The quality and kind of Oil supplied shall be fully described. The original source from which the Oil has been obtained shall be stated in detail, as well as the treatment to which it has been subjected, and the place at which it has been treated. The ratio which the Oil supplied bears to the original crude oil should also be stated as a percentage. Note. — A comparison of these specifications will show that certain modifications were made in regard to flash- point, sulphur, acidity, and viscosity in 1912. These modifications have been made as the result of expert advice and experiment, and further experiments are still proceeding. Some further modifications in respect of the percentages of sulphur and water, and of the standard of viscosity have been, and will be admitted, within certain necessary limits, on account of natural variations of oils from different sources of supply. INDEX. Abel, Sir F., report on testing, 81, 136, 137 ; his report of 1876 on testing petroleum, 82-85, 140 ; experiments by (with Sir Bover- ton Redwood), on flash-points at different altitudes, 91 ; and in tropical climates, 91 Abel test, 69, 70, 71 ; legislation of, 85 ; mode of using, 85-89 Abel-Pensky test, 93-104 Abergele, fire on goods train at, 169 Acetone, its capacity for absorbing acetylene, 202 Acetylene, prepared from carbide byMaquenneand by Willson, 9 ; carbides which yield, 10 ; quantity yielded by calcium carbide, 199 ; explosive compressed, prohibited, 201, 202, 294-299 ; non-explosive kinds permitted, 201, 2j2, 292 et seq. ; absorption of, by acetone, 202 ; explosive mixtures with air prohibited from distribution, 202 ; uses of, 203 ; London County Council's regulations respecting, 254-258 ; Orders in Council re- lating to, 294-296 ; Orders of Secretary of State as to, 292-293, 297-299 Acetylenegenerators,194, 199, 256; report on, 321-325 Act of 1862. 134-135 ; of 1868. 137-138 ; of 1871, 138-139, 149 et seq., 205-222 ; of 1879, 140- 141, 149 et seq., 223-228 ; of 1881, 151 et seq , 238-240 Admiralty specificationsfor oilfuel, 329-331 Aichungs-Kommission, standardi- sation of testing instruments by, 101-104 Alabama, petroleum yield of, 31-32 Alaska, occurrence of oil in, 31 Alberta, petroleum in, 37 Alfreton, petroleum at, 7 Algeria, petroleum in, 31 American petroleum, 59. See also United States. Anthracene, 62 Anticlines favourable for accumu- lation of petroleum, 25-26 Appalachian oil-field, yield of, 31, 32 Apscheron peninsula, petroleum yield of, 33 Argentina, petroleum in, 31 Arnaboldi open-test apparatus, 79 Asphalt, Trinidad, 6 ; Peckham's view as to, 12 Asphaltum, 4 Assam, oil supply of, 36 Astatki, see Ostatki. Atmosphere of tanks and other spaces, modes of testing, 117-124 Atmospheric pressure, disturbing influence of, in testing the flash- point, 90, 91 ; table of correction of apparent flash-point for vary- ing, 100, 276 Attfield, Prof., report on testing, 81, 136, 137 Auger, 41, 42 ; dressing the bit, 44 Bacon on the origin of petroleum, 7,8 Bailer, 42, 50 Baku, petroleum at, 5, 28, 33, 34 Balakhani, petroleum production of, 34 Barbados tar, 6 Barges, tank, 48, 308-316 Barque A. Goudey, petroleum ex- plosion on, 160 Barrels for carrying oil, 47 ; danger from empty petroleum barrels, 163 Batching oil, 65 334 INDEX Bavaria, petroleum in, 37 Beilby, on the flash-point, 71, 72 Benzene, 61, 66 Benzine, 59, 63, 64 Benzine Collas, 67 Benzol, 61, 66 Benzoline, 58 Hergmann on bitumen, 8 Bergcil, 3 Berthelot, his views as to the origin of petroleum, 9 Bibi-Eibat, petroleum production of, 33, 34 Bill of 1869, 138 ; of 1872, 139 ; of 1883, 141-142 ; of 1891, 143 ; in- troduced by Mr. Reckitt, 146- 147 Binagadi, petroleum production of, 33 Bits. See Auger. Bitumen, 4 ; use of, as mortar, 5 ; Macquer's account of, 8 ; Berg- mann and Hatchett's views as to, 8 ; Peckham's view as to, 12 ; probable plant origin of the Trinidad deposit, 18, 19 ; dis- tribution of, 22-24 Blow-pipe, oxy-acetylene, 204 Boiling-point, use of, in testing, 130 Borneo, petroleum production in, 35 Boulevard gas oil, 57, 63 Bradford, ignition of petroleum vapour by electric spark at, 162 Brea, 4 Bristol, fire at, 165 Broxburn, fire at, 163 Brown coal, 61 Bull rope, 40 Bull wheel, 40 Bullmouth, fire on S.S., 169 Bunfe, Dr., on the use of a stirrer in the Abel test, 88 Burma, petroleum production in, 36 Burma crude petroleum, mode of testing, 93 Burmah oil, 1, 2 Burners of petroleum oil lamps, good and bad points of, 179, 180 Burning naphtha, 62, 66, 07 Burning oils, 61, 62, 66 Byasson, his theory on the origin of petroleum, 10 Calderwood, J., consulted as to test standard, 84 California, petroleum product'on of, 31,32,33 Canada, petroleum produetion of, 30, 34, 35 Canadol, 63 Carbide of calcium, manufacture and propertiesof , 191, 192 ; Orders in Council as to, 151, 219, 289- 291 ; legislation, 195 ; licenses, 196, 198 ; precautions applicable to, 197-200 ; purily of, 200, 256 ; uses of, 191, 204 ; London County Council's regulations respecting, 254-258 ; model code of harbour by-laws respecting, 241 , 244, 245; Thames Con.ervancy by-laws, 306-309 Carbides, acetylene obtained from, by Maquenne and by Willson, 9 ; Moissan's researches en, 9 ; Matthews' classification of, 9, 10 ; products of the action of water on, 10 Carbolic acid, 61, 62 Carburine, 63 Carpathian oil-fields, 18 Casing the wells, 44, 45, 50 Chimney gallery of petroleum oil lamps, 180 Clamps, 42 Clay as an absorber of petroleum, 20 Close test, 77, 82 et seq. Clowes, Prof, (with Sir Boverton Redwood), petroleum - vapour test, 117; his miner's test-lamp, 118 Coal tar, 61, 62 ; products of, 61, 62, 66-67 Coke-oven tar, 62 Coleman v. Goldsmith, 140-141 Colombia, occurrence of petroleum in, 31 Colorado, petroleum production of, 33 Conductor, 43 Conveyance. See Transportation. Cosmoline, 65 Covers required for vessel con- taining petroleum, 163 Creosote oil, 62 Crown block, 39 Crystal oil, 66 Cylinder oil, 65 Cymogene, 57 Dalton, table of geographical dis- tribution of bitumens, 23, 24 Danforth's oil, 64 Day, D T., on world's petroleum production in 1911, 30 INDEX 335 Departmental Committee of 1909, 156 Derrick, construction of, 39 Dewar, Prof., on the flash-point, 73 Distillation of petroleum by inter- mittent and continuous processes, 50, 51 Dolomite as oil reservoir, 20, 27 Doterd, explosion on H.M.S., due to paint driers, 164 Drill. See Auger. Drilling tools, 41-44 Drive pipe, 43 Dry cleaners, use of petroleum spirit by, 58, 63, 300, 301 Dutch East Indies, petroleum in, 30, 35 Earth balsam, 4 Ecuador, petroleum occurrence in, 31 Egypt, petroleum in, 31 Electric light (incandescence and arc) dangers of, near petroleum spirit, 161 Electric spark, dangers of, near petroleum spirit, 161, 162 Elliott tester, 107-109 Elsass, petroleum production in, 37 Engler, on the animal origin of petroleum, 12, 13 ; confirmatory experiments by, 13, 14, 19, 20; experiments on testing apparatus by Haass and, 87, 88 ; Haass and, on the Sallerou-Urbain test, 115 Erdol, 3 Ethylene produced by certain car- bides when acted on by water, 10 Exeter, accident at, 160, 165 Explosives Act, 1875, extended to acetylene gas by orders in Coun- cil, 2'J4-296 ; and by Order of the Secretary of State, 292-293, 297-299 Filling-hole of lamps, 178, 179 Fire, means of restricting damage by, 162 et seq. Fire test, 75, 77, 78 Fish oil, experiments by Engler on, as a possible source of petroleum, 13, 14 Fishing tools, 42, 43 Flame cap, 117-122 Flash-point, 3, GSetseq. ; explanation of term, 68 ; conditions affecting, 70-75 ; standard for, 74-75 ; test- ing the, 77 et seq., 223 et seq. ; determination of staudarJ, 84, Flash-poin t —(continued) 85 ; of india-rubber i^lution, testing the, 8'J. 90 : of paints, testing the, 90 ; table for correc- tion of observed, for variation in atmospheric pressure, 100, 276 Fossiliiie, 65 Foster's tester, 112-114 Fractional distillation of petro- leum, 50, 51 ; test for crude petroleum, 132 Fraser, W. J. and Co., their assist- ance in construction of petro- leum-vapour test apparatus, 117 Frictional test for lubricating oils, 133 Fuel, Admiralty Specification for oil, 329-331 Fuel oil, 57, 60 Galkia, petroleum from, 6, 30, 35,36 Gas oil, 59, 60, 61, 65, 66 ; method of testing, 129 Gasoline, 57, 61, 63,66 Generators, precautions as to safety of acetylene, 194, 195 Geoline, 65 Geological distribution of bitumens, 23-24 Germany, petroleum production of, 30, 37 ; adoption of the Abel- Pensky test in, 93-97 Glasgow, fire at Anderston Quay, 166 Cilass-silverers, use of petroleum spirit by, 300, 303 Glove-cleaning, use of petroleum spirit in, 300, 303, 304 " Go-devil " clearing apparatus, 49 Granier tester, 110, 111 Gray's tester, 127-129 Great Russell Street, fire in, due to throwing a lighted match on spilt petroleum spirit, 170 Grozni, petroleum production of, 34 Gurieff oil-field, 34 Haass, 87, 115 Hackney, fire at, due to uncovered petroleum oil, 163 ; and to a van catching fire in the street, 170 Harbour by-laws, 150, 163, 241- 245 Harburg, petroleum explosion at, 73, 160 Hatchett on bitumen, 8 Hawking, legality of, 140 ; Act regulating petroleum, 151-152, 171, 238-240 336 INDEX Headache post, 40 Helmet manufacturers, use of pe- troleum spirit by, 300, 301, 302 Heptane, 123 Hofer, on the animal origin of petroleum, 12, 13, 19 Hungary, petroleum occurrence in, 31 Hunt, S., on petroleum contents of porous rocks, 28 Hutchinson, the pioneer of pipe- line transportation, 48 Hydrocarbons produced by the action of water on carbides, 10 Hydrogen flame-cap testing appa- ratus for petroleum vapour, Sir Boverton Redwood's, 117-124 Illinois, petroleum production of, 32, 33 Impervious rocks as preservers of petroleum deposits, 26 Indiana, petroleum fields of, 25, 27, 32,33 Indiarubber manufacturers, use of petroleum spirit by, 300, 302 Indiarubber solution, 63 ; mode of testing. 89, 90 Inflammable Liquids Bill, 89, 143- 144, 166 Iron carbide as a source of petro- leum, 10, 11 Italy, petroleum production in, 30, 37 Japan, petroleum production in, 30, 36 Jars, 41 Java, petroleum production in, 30, 35 Jerk-rope, 43 Kansas, petroleum production of, 31, 33 Karabugas gulf, accumulation of organic remains in, 17 Karns, the suggester of-pipe line transportation, 48 Keates, T. W., consulted as to test standard, 84 Kellner, Dr., inquiry by, into pe- troleum testing, 83 ; on the in- fluence of tropical climates on the flash-point, 92 Kentucky, petroleum yield of, 33 Kerosene, artificially prepared by Engler, 13, 14 ; storage and dis- tribution, 53-55 ; from American petroleum, 60, 64 ; from Russian petroleum, 59, 64 ; use of, for Kerosene — (continued) lighting, 67 ; method of testing, 77 et seq. ; specific gravity, 129 Lambeth, fire at, 163, 166 Lamps for petroleum oil, their con- struction, 175 ; selection of, 175, 176 ; oil-container, 177 ; relative dangers of different kinds of oil- containers, 178 ; filling-hole, 178 ; burners, 179 ; safety devices, 180, 181 ; suggestions for the care and use of, 287-288 Leakage, dangers from, 162-170 Legislation relating to petroleum, 134-156; Act of 1862, 134; Select Committee of 1867, 135 ; report of the " three chemists," 136 ; Act of 1868, 137, 138 ; Bill of 1869, 138 ; Act of 1871, 138, 139, 205-222 ; Act of 1879, 140- 141, 223-228 ; Act of 1881, 141, 234-237 ; Bill of 1883, 141-142 ; Bill of 1891, 143; Report of Committees of 1894 to 1898, 145- 147 : Petroleum Acts of 1871, 1879, and 1881, 148 et seq., 229- 233, 241 et seq., 306-320 ; defects in existing, 152 et seq.; Order as to petroleum spirit for locomo- tives, 156, 277-282 ; relating to carbide of calcium, 195 et seq., 224 et seq , 289 et seq. ; and to acety- lene, 201 etseq.; Explosives Act, 1875, extended to acetylene gas, 294 et seq. Lesley, on the origin of petroleum 11, 12 ; on the pressure in oil wells, 29 Lesquereux,on the vegetable origin of petroleum, 15 Letheby, Dr., on the flash-point, report on testing, 81, 136 Lewes, Prof., his work on acetylene, 200 Licences, 150, 151, 239, 240, 247- 253, 255-272 Life preserver, 40 Lightning conductors required for petroleum tanks, 162 Ligroine, 64 Lima-Indiana oil-field, yield of, 33 Limestone as oil reservoir, 26 Liquid fuel industry, 30 et seq., 67 Locomotives, Order as to petroleum spirit for, 156, 277-282 London wharves, and storage ar- rangements of, for kerosene. 53-54 INDEX 337 London County Council, forma of licence, 150, 151, 259-272 ; regu- lations issued ly, relative to pe- troleum, 246-258 ; report as to licensed premises, 300 - 304, General Powers Act, 1912, re- quirements as to oil depots, 326-328 Lubricating oils, 59, 60, 65, 66 ; methods of testing, 88, 121-129, 130, 132, 133 Lyon, Dr., on the flash-point in India, 92 Macquer on bitumen, 8 Maltha, 4 Maquenne, acetylene prepared by, 9 Marine oil, 66 Matthews, classification of carbides by, 9, 10 Mendeleeff, on the origin of petro- leum, 10, 11 Metal polish (liquid), testing, 231- 232 Metal tanks for petroleum, 164, 165 Methane produced by the action of water on certain carbides, 10 Mexborough, petroleum leakage and explosion accident at, 162 Mexico, petroleum production in, 30 Meyer, V., on stirrer in oil-cup, 87 Miano, oil from, 6 Mineral colza oil, 59, 65 Mineral jelly, 65 Mineral seal oil, 59, 65 Mineral sperm oil, 59, 65 Mineral spirit, method of testing, 129, 132 Mineral tar, 4 Missouri, petroleum production of, 32 Mixing oil, 65 Modena, petroleum of, 6 Moissan, on carbides, 9 Motorine, 63 Motor launches, petrol, by-laws re- lating to, 316-320 Motor spirit, 60, 63, 64 Mountain ranges, association of, with petroleum deposits, 22-23 Naked lights near petroleum, dangers of, 159, 160 Naphtha, 4, 57, 58,61, 62, 64, 66, 67 Naphtha soaps, testing, 232 Naphthalene, 62 Naphthometer, Parrish's, 111-112 Neutral oil, 65 Newport, explosion at, due to leak- age of petroleum, 162 New York, petroleum fields of, 28, 31,33 New Zealand, petroleum occurrence in, 31 Normal - Aichungs - Kommission, standardisation of testing instru- ments by the, 101-104 Notting Hill, fire at, 166 Ochsexius, on the animal origin of petroleum, 15 Ohio, petroleum of, 25, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33 Oil containers of lamps, good and bad points of, 177, 178 Oil fountains of Russia, 29 Oil fuel, Admiralty Specifications', 329-331 Oil-gas mixed with compressed acetylene, Order in Council, 292, 293 Oleum Medea, 4 Open test, 77 el seq. Open test apparatus of Petroleum Act, 1868,80-82 Orton, on the origin of petroleum, 12, 20, 21 ; on oil content of porous rocks, 27, 28 Ostatki, 60 Outflow of petroleum in fires, im- portance of preventing, 165, 166 Oxy-acetylene blow-pipe, 204 Ozokerite, 65 Paint driers, 63 ; dangers of using, 1G4 Pa*ints, 63 ; mode of testing paints containing petroleum, 90, 231- 232 Paraffin, included in the legal defi- nitions of petroleum, 1 ; separa- tion of, from petroleum, 52, 59, 61,65; testing of, 133 Paraffin oil of Scotland, 7, 64, 66 Paraffin scale, G5 Paraffin wax, 65 Paraffinum liquidum, 65 Paraffinum molle, 65 Parrish's naphthometer, 111-112 Peat products, 61' Peckliam, on the origin of petro- leum, 12 ; on the distribution of petroleum, 22, 23 Pedler, Dr., on the flash-point in India, 92 Pennsylvania, oil-fields of, 28, 31, 32, 33 ' INDEX Pensky, his modification of Abel's test, 93-101 Pensky-Martens tester, 124-127 Pentane, 57, 63, 123 Persia, oil springs of, 6, 38 Peru, petroleum production in, 30, 37 Petriana, explosion on the, 1G8 Petrol, 57, 58, 63 ; motor launches, by-laws, 316-320 Petrolatum, 65 Petroleum, legal definition of, 1-3 ; commercial definition of, 3 ; origin of term, 3 ; synonyms for, 3, 4, ; Biblical references to, 4, 5 ; classical references to, 5 ; found in Barbados and in other localities, 6 ; origin of, according to Bacon, 7, 8 ; Macquer, Berg- mann,Hatchett, 8 ; Berthelot, 'J ; Byasson, 10 ; Mendeleeff, 10, 11 ; Sokoloff, 11 ; Lesley, 11, 12 ; Ashburner, Orton, Peckham, Strippelmann, 12; Hofer, 12, 13; Engler, 12-14 ; Zaloziecki, 14, 15 ; Ochsenius, 15 ; Lesquereux, 15 ; comparison of the theories, 15, 16 ; discussion on the organic origin of, 16-21 ; geological and geographical distribution, 22-3S ; transportation of, 46-48, 51, 52 ; refining, 50-52 ; physical pro- perties of crude, 56 ; chemical composition of , 56, 57 ; commercial products of, 57-67 ; fractional distillation test for crude, 132 ; legislation referring to, 134-158 ; 205 et seq. ; mixtures of, Order in Council relating to, 229-233 ; model code of harbour by-laws respecting, 241 etseq.; precautions necessary for, 159-173 ; storage quantity allowed, 166 ; regula- tions as to use of, for locomotives on highways, 277-282; businesses licensed to use, 300-304 ; depots, London County Council Act relating to, 326-328 Petroleum Acts, 134 et seq., 205- 228, 238-240 Petroleum distillate, 3, 51, 57 Petroleum ether, 57, 58, 63 Petroleum (Hawkers) Act, 1881, 151-152, 238-240 Petroleum oil, 3, 64, 326-328 ; pre- cautions necessary in using, 159 et seq. Petroleum spirit, 63 ; Captain Thomson's pressure test for, 130, 131 ; conveyance of, up the Petroleum spirit — (continued) Thames, 158 ; precautions neces- sary in using, 159 et seq., 300- 304 ; conveyance of, 250, 253 ; regulations as to use of, for loco- motives on highways, 277-282 Petroleum wells, methods of sink- ing, in the United States, 39-49 ; in Russia, 49, 50 Petrolina, 65 Petroline, 66 Photogene, 64 Pieler, his hydrogen flame test lamp for mine air, 117, 118 Pipe-line transportation of oil, 47 etseq.; pipes used for trunk lines 47, 48 Pissasphaltum, 4 Pisselseum, 4 Pitch, 62 Pitch Lake of Trinidad, 18, 19, 38 Pitchford, bitumen at, 6, 7 Pitman, 40 Porous rocks as reservoirs for petroleum, 26, 27, 28 Precautions as to use of petroleum 159-173 Pressure in oil and gas wells, 28, 29 Pressure test for petroleum spirit, Captain Thomson's, 130, 131 Price of oil, effect of raising flash- point on the, 186-188 " Protected works," definition of, 166 ; storage in relation to, 305 Pumping engines, 49 Pumping from wells, 46 Pyrometer, Tagliabue's, 104-106 Railway transportation of oil, 47 ; of spirit, 153, 154 Rangoon oil, 1, 2, 36 Reamers, 41 Receiving tanks, 46, 48 Reckitt, Mr., Bill introduced by, 146, 147 Redwood, Sir Boverton, experi- ments by, at different altitudes and in tropical climates, 91 ; on testing the air of confined spaces for petroleum vapour, 117 et seq. ; his standard viscometer, 133 Redwood, R., his assistance in de- vising vapour-test, 117 Redwood, T. H. (with Sir Boverton Redwood), photographs of flame- caps, 122 Refined oil, 59 Refining petroleum, 50-52 Regent's Park Canal, explosion on, INDEX 339 Rhadinance, 5 Rhigolene, 57 Rods used in drilling petroleum wells, 49 Romani, petroleum production of, 34 Roumania, petroleum production of, 30, 35, 36 Russia, petroleum production of, 30, 33-34 ; method of sinking wells in, 49 Sauntchi, petroleum yield of, 33, 34 Safety devices for petroleum oil lamps, 180, 181 St. Quirinus's oil, 4, 6 Salleron-Urbain tester, 114-116 Salt, 5 Samson post, 39 Sand as an extinguisher of fires caused by petroleum, 164 Sand pump, 42 Sand reel ,'40 Sandstones as oil reservoirs, 26 Sarawak, petroleum in, 31, 35 Saxoline, 65 Saybolt's electric tester, 79, 80 Scotland, shale oilindustry of, 52,60 Screen walls, specification of, 285- 286 Seneca oil, 4, 5 Shale oil, 52, 60, 66 Shale oil industry, 52, 60 Shale spirit, 66 Shales as a covering for reservoir rocks, 27 Sharp oil, 66 Sherwood oil, 63 Ships, oil, 308-316 Sicilian oil, 4, 5 Sinker bar, 41 Slime, 4 Soaps, testing naphtha, 232 Sokoloff, on the origin of petro- leum, 11 Solar oil, 60 Solar oil distillate, 60 Solvent naphtha, 62, 66, 67 Sparks, danger from, 161, 170 Specifications of tank depots and screen walls, 283-286 ; for tank barges, 315-316 ; for oil fuel, 329-331 Specific gravity as a test of petro- leum oils, 129-130 Spindle oil, 65 Spudding, 43 Squire's open test instrument, 78, Stability, importance of, in a petro- leum lamp, 176 Standardising testing apparatus, 101-104 Steam engine used in drilling petroleum wells, 40 Steinol, 3 Steuart on the flash-point, 71 Storage of petroleum, 158, 166- 168, 248-253, 259-268 ; of car- bide, 255-258, 268-272 Storage tanks for kerosene, 46, 54 ; for petroleum, 163-166 ; mode of cleansing, 167, 168 ; specifica- tion of, 283, 285 Strippelmann on petroleum, 12 Suffocation by petroleum vapour, danger of, 172, 173 Sumatra, petroleum production of, 35 Tagliabue, open test instrument, 77, 78 ; his coal oil pyrometer, 104-106 Tail-house, 51 Tancarville, explosion on the, 123 Tank barges for transport of oil, 48, 308-315 ; specification of, for transport of spirit, 315, 316 Tank depots, specification of, 283- 285 Tank steamers for transport of oil, 52, 53, 167-169 Tank waggons for carrying oil, 47, 170, 171 Tanks for petroleum, 46, 163-168, 248-253 Tcheleken, petroleum in, 34 Telegraph, 40, 41 Temper screw, 42 Tennessee, petroleum production of, 33 Tennis shoe makers, use of petro- leum by, 300, 302 Terrace structure associated with petroleum deposits, 25 Test-tube method of testing flash- point, 116, 117 Testing, 77-133, 223-228, 234-237, 273-276 Texas, production of petroleum in, 32,33 Thames, conveyance of petroleum spirit up the, 158 Thames Cons ; rvancy, by-laws re- lating to carbide of calcium, 306- 308 ; by-laws relating to petro- leum, 308-315 ; specification for tank barges. 315-316 ; by-laws 340 INDEX Thames Conservancy — (continued) relating to petrol motor-launches, 316-320 Thomson, Capt., his pressure test for petroleum spirit, 130-131 " Three chemists," testing ap- paratus of the, 81, 82 ; report of the, 136 Todmorden, suffocation accident at, 172 Toluene, 61, 66 Torpedoing wells, 45 Toy balloon making, use of petro- leum spirit in, 304 Transportation of petroleum, 46- 48, 52, 53, 158, 166-172, 308-316 Trenton limestone as an oil reser- voir, 26-28, 32 Trinidad, asphalt at, 6 ; probable plant origin of bitumen in, 18, 19 ; oil-fields of, 38 Tropical climate, effect of, on the flash-point, 91-93 ; testing in, 234-237 Trunk lines, 48 ; pipes used for, 48 United States, petroleum produc- tion in, 30-33 ; methods of sink- ing petroleum wells in, 39-45 ; mode of raising and transporting the oil in, 45-49 Ural Caspian oil-field, 34 Van Syckle, his successful pipe- line, 48 Varnishes, use of pitch in milking, 62 Vaseline, 59, 65 Ventilation of petroleum spirit stores, 164 ; of tank steamer holds, 168 Viscometer, Sir Boverton Red- wood's standard, 133 Viscosity test for lubricating oils, 133 Walkee Gate, nre at, 165 Walking beam, 39 Wall, on Trinidad Pitch Lake, 18, 19 Warden, Dr., on the flash-point in India, 92 Water, products formed by its action on carbides, 10 ; of no use for extinguishing fires caused by petroleum, 164 ; or by calcium carbide, 194 ; dangers arising from contact of, with calcium carbide stores, 197, 198 Water-lime bed as an oil reservoir, 28 Waterproof garment makers, use of petroleum spirit by, 300, 303 Water-white oil, 59, 65 ; experi- ments with, 84, 85 West Virginia, petroleum yield of, 32, 33 Westphal balance, 130 Wick-tube of petroleum oil-lamps, 180 Winged substitute, 41, 42 Wisconsin tester, 107 World's production of petroleum, 30 Wrenches, 42 Wyoming, petroleum occurrence in, 32,33 Xerotixe Siccative, explosion of vapour from, 164 Xylene, 61 Yenanuyauxg and petroleum at, 6, 36 Yenangyat Zalozieoki, on the animal origin of petroleum, 14, 15 Zuber, on Carpathian petroleum, 18 PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE AND COMPANY TAVISTOCK ST COVENT GARDEN LONDON M*= CHARLES GRIFFIN & COMPANY, LIMITED. A SELECTION FROM CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL WORKS. I fa 1820 MESSRS. CHARLES GRIFFIN & COMPANY'S PUBLICATIONS may be obtained through any Bookseller in the United Kingdom, or will be sent on receipt of a remittance to cover published price and postage. To prevent delay, Orders should be accompanied by a Cheque or Postal Order crossed "Union of London and Smith's Bank, Chancery Lane Branch." i>Xk Telephone— 1634 City, Telegrams— Explanatus. LONDON: 12 EXETER STREET, STRAND. \f.T. 64. 3-xiii. Jm INDEX TO SUBJECTS. PAGE PAGES ENGINEERING-, . 15-33 Civil, Mechanical. &c. , . 15 Marine, . 19 Railway, . 21 Oil Engines, . 22 Gas Engines, . 23 Engineering Drawing and Design, . 25 Engineering Calculations, 24, 26, 27 Prof. Jamieson's Text-Books, 28 Prof. Rankine's Works, . . 29 Introductory Works, . 77 Aviation, .... . 33 ELECTRICAL PUBLICATIONS, 30-32 SHIPBUILDING, 33-34 NAUTICAL. Griffin's Nautical Series, &c. . 35 38 MINING, . 39-45 General, '35-39 ' Coal Mining, . . , . 40 Surveying, . . 41 Treatment of Ores, . 44 Griffin's " New Land " Series, . 45 GEOLOGY 41-46 METALLURGY 47-53 Griffin's Metallurgical Series, . 47 Assaying, Analysis, Smelting, &c, 51 Foundry Practice, . . 54 PETROLEUM. Production and Use, . 55 •CHEMISTRY and TECHNOLOGY, . 56-71 General Reference, '. 56 ' Foods, 57,58 Fermentation Industries, . . 59 Sanitation, . 00, 62, 64 Clay, Peat, Ceramics, 61 Gas, Manufacture and Testing, . 63 Roadmaking, . 65 Colour Industries, . . 66 Textile Industries, . 68 Introductory Works, 71 •GRIFFIN'S OPEN-AIR SERIES, 73 Elementary Botanical Works, .' 72 ' PHYSICS, . 74-75 STATISTICS, 76 'MEDICINE, 78-100 Reference Works, . 78 ' Medical Pocket-Book Series, . 80 Students' Text-Books, 89 "First Aid," 97 Domestic Medicine, back cover and 96 "SCIENTIFIC ROMANCES, . 101 -* EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS, . 102-107 ♦RELIGIOUS WORKS, . 109 112 'MISCELLANEOUS WORKS, 108 * Works under these headings will be found only in Charles Griffin & Co 's rnmnlrte : atalogue. Post free on application. ' > *""i'" : ™ ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS. 15 *"ifth. Edition, Revised. In Large 8vo. Pp. i-xxiv + 511. With 255 Diagrams, Examples, and Tables, and a Chapter on Foundations. Cloth, 1 6s. THE DESIGN OF STRUCTURES: A Practical Treatise on the Building or Bridges, Roofs, &c. BY S. ANGLIN, C.E., Master of Engineering, Royal University of Ireland, late Whitworth Scholar, &c "We can unhesitatingly recommend this work not only to the Student, as the best ' Text- Book on the subject, but also to the professional engineer as an hxcredikglv valuable book of reference."— Mechanical World. tin Large Crown 8vo. Pp. i-xiv + 236. With 201 Illustrations. 6s. net. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN OF BEAMS, sGIRDERS, AND COLUMNS IN MACHINES AND STRUCTURES, With Examples in Graphic Statics. By WILLIAM H. ATHERTON, M.Sc, M.I.Mech.E. "A very useful source of information. ... A work which we commend very 'highly."— Nature. .Fourth Edition, Thoroughly Revised. Royal 8vo. Pp. i - xxx + 456. With 239 Illustrations in the Text, and 13 Lithographic Plates. Hand- some Cloth. Price 30s. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION : Being a Text-Book on the Construetion of Bridges in Iron and Steel. FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS, DRAUGHTSMEN, AND ENQINEER8. By T. CLAXTON FIDLER, M.Inst. C.E., Late Prof, of Engineering, University College, Dundee. " The new edition of Mr. Fidler's work will again occupy the same conspicuous .position among professional text-books and treatises as has been accorded to its pre- decessors. Sound, simple, and full.'* — The Engineer. In Medium 8vo. Pp. i-xv + 248. With 103 Illustrations. Price 10s. 6d. net. CONSTRUCTIONAL STEELWORKS Being Notes on the Practical Aspect and the Principles of Design, together with an Account of the Present Methods and Tools of Manufacture. By A. W. FARNSWORTH, A.M.I.Mech.E. A worthy volume, which will be found of much assistance. ... A book of .particular value." — Practical Engineer. In Crown 4to. Pp. i-x+128. Fully Illustrated. 8s.6d.net. BUILDING STRUCTURES IN EARTHQUAKE COUNTRIES. By ING. ALFREDO MONTEL. From the Italian, with additions by the Author. " An excellent survey of the subject, . . . will be found useful to many who are called .upon to design buildings where the soil is of unstable character or has been undermined by .colliery workings or brine-pumping operations ' — Builder. .LONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.. LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. i6 CHARLES GRIFFIN d, CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. Second Edition, Revised. In Large 8vo. Handsome Cloth, Gilt. With 37 Folding Plates and nearly 500 Illustrations in the Text. 30s. net. The Principles and Practice of DOCK ENGINEERING. By BRYSSON CUNNINGHAM. General Contests. — Historical and Discursive. — Dock Design. — Constructive Appliances. — Materials. — Dock and Quay Walls. — Entrance Passages and Locks. — Jetties, Wharves, and Piers. — Dock Gates and Caissons. — Transit Sheds and Warehouses. — Dock Bridges.— Graving and Repairing Docks. — Working Equipment of Docks. — Index. "We have never aeen a more profusely-illustrated treatise. It is a most important standard work, and should be in the hands of all dock and harbour engineers." — Steamthip. In Large 8vo. Pp. i - xii + 283. With 18 Plates, 11 Tables, and 220 Illustrations in the Text. 16s. net. A COMPANION VOLUME TO "DOCK ENGINEERING." THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF HARBOUR ENGINEERING. By BRYSSON CUNNINGHAM. Contents. — Introductory. — Harbour Design. — Surveying, Marine and* Submarine.— Piling.— Stone, Natural and Artificial. —Breakwater Design. — Breakwater Construction. — Pierheads, Quays, and Landing Stages. — Entrance Channels.— Channel Demarcation.— Index. " This is a standard work . . sure to prove a valuable book of reference." — Shipping World. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Pp. i-xiv x 504. With many Illus- trations, including 7 Coloured and 15 Other Plates. 12s. net. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING,. Fop the Use of Beginners, Amateurs, and Port and Harbour Masters. By COMMANDER S. MESSUM, R.N. " Eminently practical from beginning to end."— Eiqincer. In Medium 8vo, Handsome Cloth. Very fully Illustrated. THE PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN QF REINFORCED CONCRETE, By RICHARD COULSON, F.S.I,, Licentiate R.I.B.A., and RICHARD COULSON, Jun., Assoo.R.C.Sc.I. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS. 17 Third Edition, Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. Pp. i-xvi + 227. With 60 Plates and 71 other Illustrations. Handsome Cloth. 251. net. HYDRAULIC POWER AND HYDRAULIC MACHINERY. By HENRY ROBINSON, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., fellow at king's college, london; prof. emeritus o* civil engineering, king's college, etc., etc. — iraversers.— jaclts. — Weighing Machines. — Riveters and Shop Tools. — Punching, Shearing, and Flanging Machines.— Cranes. — Coal Discharging Machines. — Drills and Cutters.— Pile Drivers, Excavators, &c— Hydraulic Machinery applied to Bridges, Dock •Gates, Wheels and Turbines.— Shields:— Various Installations —Meters.— Index. "The standard work on the application of water power." — Cassiers Magazine. Second Edition, Greatly Enlarged. Pp. i-xiv + 336. With Frontispiece, 12 Plates, and 279 other Illustrations. 21s. net. THE PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRUCTION OF PUMPING MACHINERY (STEAM AND WATER PRESSURE). With Practical Illustrations of Engines and Pomps applied to Mining, Town Water Supply, Drainage of Lands, &c, also Economy and Efficiency Trials of Pumping Machinery. By HENRY DAVEY, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.Mech.E., &c. Contents — Early History of Pumping Engines — Steam Pumping Engines- Pumps and Pump Valves — General Principles of Non-Rotative Pumping Engines — The Cornish Engine, Simple and Compound — Types of Mining Engines — Pit Work — Shaft Sinking — Hydraulic Transmission of Power in Mines — Electric Transmission of Power — Valve Gears of Pumping Engines — Water Pressure Pumping Engines — Water Works Engines — Pumping Engine Economy and Trials of Pumping Machinery — Centrifugal and other Low-Lift Pumps — Hydraulic Rams, Pumping Mains, &c. — Index, "By the 'one English Engineer who probably knows move about Pumping Machinery than ANT OTHER.' ... A VOLUME RECORDING THE RESULTS OF LONG EXPERIENCE AND STUDT." — The Engineer. Iu Medium 8vo. Cloth. With 345 Illustrations. 18s. net. MODERN PUMPING AND HYDRAULIC MACHINERY. By EDWARD BUTLER, M.I.Mech.E. (Author of "Carburettors, Vaporisers, and Distributing Valves, 4c") LONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN A CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET. STRAND- i8 CHARLES QRIFFW & GO.'S PUBLICATIONS. In Medium 8vo. With over 1000 Illustrations. Cloth. 25s. net. A raANXJAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING PRACTICE, Specially Arranged for the Use of Municipal and County Engineers. By F». NOEL TAYLOR, Civil Engineer. Contents.— Ordnance Maps.— Chain Surveying.— Surveying with Angular Instru- ments— Levelling.— Adjustment of Instruments.— Mensuration of Areas, Volumes, .fee— The Mechanics of Engineering, &c— Beams.— Pillars, Stanchions and Shafting. — Desjgn of Structure. —Arches.— Graphic Statics.— Materials of Construction.— Engineering Foundations. — Brickwork and Masonry. — Walls. — Constructional Car-- pentering.— Road Materials.— Road Construction.— Reinforced Concrete Construction. — Masonry Bridges and River Work.— Hydraulics.— Land Drainage.— Pumping Machinery and Stations.— The Use of Water-Power.— Main- Drainage.— Sewage Disposal.— Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal.— Salford Sewage Works.— Sanitation, House Drainage and Disinfection.— Refuge Disposal. — Waterworks, Preliminary Considerations and Sources of Supply.— Construction, Fi.tration and Purification.— Water-works.— Dis- tribution. — Chimneys, Brick and Steel. — Steel Construction; Stanchions, Rivets and Bolts. — Steel Construction ; Beams and Girders. — Combined Structures in Iron and Steel.— Specification.— Electric Tram ways. —Appendix. —Index. "A veritable vademecum . . . would prove an acquisition to the library of and Municipal Engineer." — Surveyor. In Medium 8vo. Fully Illustrated. Cloth. 12s. 6d. net. THE MAIN DRAINAGE OF TOWNS. By F. NOEL TAYLOR, Civil Engineer. Contents. — Maps, Plans, Sections, and Preliminary Considerations.— Principles of Hydraulics and Hydrostatics. — Calculations in reference to Design of Sewage Works. — Practical Construction, Trenches, and Tunnels. — Forms of Sewers. — Ventilation of Sewers. — Manholes, Lampholes, Storm Overflows, etc. — Pumping Sewage. — House Drainage. — Sewage Disposal from a Theoretical Standpoint. — Sewage Disposal Works.— Special Constructions. — Tablbs. — Index. "The Author may be congratulated on the production of a work that can safely be placed in the hands of students, and which will serve as a useful guide to the municipal engineer."- Times. In Medium 8vo. Handsome Cloth. With 116 Illustrations. 15s. net. MODERN DESTRUCTOR PRACTICE. By W. FRANCIS GOODRICH, Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.I.San.Engrs., &c. Contents. — Some Alternative Methods of Refuse Disposal. — Representative Types of British Destructors. — Systems of Charging Destructors. — Destructors combined with Sewage Works.— With Electricity Works.— Refuse Destruction in TJ.K. — Site. — Specifi- cations. — Design and Operation. — Operative Costs. — Residuals. — Foreign and Colonial Practice. — Index. " Well illustrated and thoroughly up-to-date . . . should be in the hands of every engineer who is responsible for destructor design or maintenance."— Surveyor. MODERN METHODS OF SEWAGE PURIFICATION. G. B. Kershaw. [Seepage 62. PRINCIPLES OF SEWAGE TREATMENT. Dunbar an d Calvert. [See page 62. PRACTICAL SANITATION. Reid and Manley. [ „ 64. SANITARY ENGINEERING. Francis Wood. [ „ 64. ONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND/ MARINE MQINEMRING. 19 Skventkkntu Edition. Thoroughly Revised and Re-set Throughout, and Greatlv Enlarged. Large 8vo. Cloth. Profusely Illustrated. Nearly 1000 Pages. 28s. net. " A MAN UAL OF MARINE ENGINEERING: COMPRISING THE DESIGNING, CONSTRUCTION, AND WORKING OF MARINE MACHINERY. By A. E. SEATON, M.I.C.E., M.I.Meeh.E., M.I.N.A. Contents.— General Introduction.— Resistauce of Ships and Indicated Horse-power Necessary for Speed.— Marine Engines, their Types aud Variations of Design.— Steam used Expansively.— Steam used after Expansion.— Turbines.— Efficiency of Marine EngineB. — Engines, Simple and Compound. — Horse-power : Nominal, Indicated, aud Shaft or Brake. — General Design and the Influences which effect it. — The Cylinder and its Fittings.— The Piston, Piston-Rod, Conuecting-Rod.— Shafting, Cranks and Crank- Shafts, Ac — Foundations, Bedplates, Columns, Guides, and Framing. — Condensers. — Pumps. — Valves and Valve Gear. — Valve Diagrams — Propellers. — Sea-Cocks and Valves. — Auxiliary Machinery. — Boilers, Fuel, Ac. ; Evaporation. — Boilers ; Tank Boiler Design and Details. — Water-Tube Boilers. — Boilers ; Construction aud Detail.— Boiler Mount- ings and Fittings.— Fitting-in Machinery.— starting and Reversing of Engines, Ac- Weight and other Particulars of Machinery relating thereto.— Effect of Weight, Inertia, and Momentum; Balancing. — Materials used. by the Marine Engineer. — Oil and Lubri- cants, Engine Friction.— Tests and Trials, their Objects and Methods. Appendices.— The Diesel and other Oil Engines, also Lloyd's Rules relating to.— VnlveGear.— Cotterell's Method of Constructing Inertia Curves.— Spare Gear, aud B.O.T. and other Rules. — Boilers : B.O.T., Lloyd's, Admiralty, Ac, &c, Rules relating to. — Electric Light, Rules. — Safety VaUes, Rules.— Testing Materials, Rules, William White in th e Times Engineering Supplement. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. CHARLES GMFFIN 30 OH A RLE8 GRIFFIN 4 CO.'S PUBLICATIONS ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. Second Edition, Revised. In Large 8vo. Cloth. Pp. i-xvi + 496. With 145 Illustrations, including 7 Plates. 24s. net. CENTRAL ELECTRICAL STATIONS: Their Design, Organisation, and Management. HyCIJAS. H. WORDINGHAM, A.K.C.,M.Inst.C.I£.,M.1nst.Mech.E., Late Memb. of Council Inst. E. E., and Electrical Engineer to the City of Manchester ; Electrical Engineer-in-Chief to the Admiralty. " One of the most valuable contributions to Central Station literature we have had for some time."— Electricity. In Medium 8vo. Pp. i-xx + 313. With 366 Figures and 23 Tables. ELECTRIC CRANE CONSTRUCTION. By CLAUDE W. HILL, A.M.Inst.C.E. M.I.E.E., &c. Contents.— Overhead Cranes. —Locomotive and Portable Jib Cranes. — Derrick ■Cranes. —Transporters. — Sheer Legs. — K evolving Cantilever Cranes. — Cableways. — Power required tor Crane Driving.— Starting Torque and Acceleration.— Design of Crane Structures. — Design of Machinery. — Brakes. — Toothed Gearing. — Hooks, Lifting Magnets, Eope B and Cranes.— Design of Magnets.— Motors, Controllers and Collectors. —Crane Installations.— Index. " The whole work is straightforward, and may be recommended as being written from a thoroughly engineering point of view."— Electrical Engineering. Large 8vo Cloth. Pp. i-x + 333 and 307 Illustrations. 16s.net. ELECTRICITY METERS, Br HENRY G. SOLOMON, A.M.Inst.E.E. •' An eameBt and successful attempt to deal comprehensively with modem methods of measuring current or power in electrical installations."— Engineering. In Large 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 21s.net. TRANSFORMERS. By HERMANN BOHLE, M.I.E.E., Prof, of Electrotechnics, S.A. College, Cape Town, And Professor DAVID ROBERTSON, B.Sc, A.I.E.E., or Bristol. T™„.?™™ TS - - r Gene T ral Pri "oiples.-Magnetising and No-Load Currents. -Losses in Iransfoimers— Iron Losses—Copper Losses. -Temperature Else— Magnetic Leakage— S f In T d „ U0 ^ a ?. ce -T,, V f t ? 1 ; I »ag«™s for Transformers—Systematic Testing of TrW 4nSf^nf U fT U,g Matena >s.-Examples °f Construction— Design of Transformers— App cations of Transformers—Regulating and Phase-Changing Transformers— Index. should Fbe ™¥JZ* treatl8e ■ • a m ° deI 0f wha * teohnical Plications In Large 8vo. Pp. i-x + 116. With 79 IUustrations. 8s.6d.net. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY, By GUSTAVE EICHHORN, Ph.D. ^MSfS. fundameS E^ffi^^J*****" ° Care ' Ul LONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRANq7 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. In Large Crown 8vo. Cloth. Pp. i-xvi+268. With 222 Illustrations. 5s. net. TELEGRAPHIC SYSTEMS, AND OTHER NOTES. A Handbook of the Principles on which Telegraphic Practice is Based Br ARTHUR CROTCH, of the Engineer-in-Chief's Department, G.P.O. Contents.— Batteries, Primary and Secondary. — Universal Battery Working Duplex Telegraphy. — Duplex and Quadruples Telegraphy. — Automatic Telegraphy. - Multiplex Telegraphy.— The Hughes Type Printing Instrument.— The Baudot System.- ™ Murray Type Printing Telegraph.— Test and Battery Boxes.— Circuit Concentration, y Machines and Living Agents-The Mechanical Powers: _ lne Leyer Derricks as Bent Levers-The Wheel and Axle: Windlass; Ship's Capstan; Crab Winch-Tackles: the "Old Man"— The Inclined Phme; the bcrew- The Centre of Gravity of a Ship and Cargo - Relative Strength of Hope : Steel Wire, Manilla, Hemp, Coir— Derricks and Shears- Calculation of the Cross-breaking Strain of Fir Spar-Centre of Effort of Sails— Hydrostatics : the Diving-bell ; Stability of Floating Bodies ; the Ship's Pump, &c. " Well worth the money . . . will be found exceedingly helpful."— Shipping World. " No Ships' Officers' bookcase will henceforth be complete without •Captain Mackenzie's ' Practical Mechanics.' Notwithstanding my many years' experience at sea, it has told me how much more there is to acquire. — •(Letter to the Publishers from a Master Mariner). WORKS BY RICHARD C. BUCK, of the Thames Nautical Training College, H.M.S. 'Worcester.' Fourth Edition, Revised and Corrected. Pp. i-viii + 113. With 38 Illustrations. Price 3s. 6d. A MANUAL OF TRIGONOMETRY: With Diagrams, Examples, and Exercises. *„* Mr. Buck's Text-Book has been specially prepared with a view to the Examinations of the Board of Trade, in which Trigonometry is an obligatory subject. "This eminently PRACTICAL and reliable voldme." — Schoolmaster Second Edition, Revised. Pp. i-viii + 158. Price 3s. 6d. A MANUAL OF ALGEBRA. Designed to meet the Requirements of Sailors and others, \* These elementary works on algebra and trigonometry are written specially for ■ WOSKS BIT SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE FOSTER, D.Sc, F.R.S. Sixth Edition. With Frontispiece and 712 Illustrations. Price 28s. net. ORE & STONE MINING. By Sir C. LE NEVE FOSTER, D.Sc, F.R.S., LATE PROFESSOR OF MINING, ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE. Revised, and brought up-to-date By Prof. S. H. COX, Assoc.R.S.M., PROFESSOR OF MINING, ROYAL COLI.HGE OF SCIRNCE. GENERAL CONTENTS. d™i R i 0DU 9, TI0N \, M ° d «° f Occurrence of Minerals.-Prospeeting. -Boring. T«^fi!£& K &™ u » d '-Supportlng Exeavations.-Exploitatlon. -Haulage or ££?,! J?? Pt -J? olstinB S r Winding. - Drainage. - Ventilation. - Lighting. - i f2S « Ase ent.-Dpesslng-Pplnelples ofEmployment of Mining Labour. -Legislation affecting Mines and Quarries. — Condition of the Miner.- A eelden is . — Index "We have seldom had the pleasure to review a work so thorough and complete as the present one. Both in manner and in matter it is par superior to anythino on- us SPECIAL SUBJECT HITHERTO PUBLISHED IN ENGLAND."— Athenaeum. "Not only is this work the acknowledged text-book on metal mining in Great Britain and the Colonies, but that it is so regarded in the United States of America is evidenced by the fact that it is the book on that subject recommended to the students in most 0* the mining schools of that country."— The Timet. Second Edition, Revised. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. With nearly 300 Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d. net. THE ELEMENTS OF MINING AND QUARRYING. An Introduotory Text-Book for Mining Students. By Sir C. LE NEVE FOSTER, D.Sc, F.R.S., Late Professor of Mining at the Royal College of Science. Revised by Prof. S. H. Cox, A.R.S.M., &c. General Contents. — Introduction. — Occurrence of Minerals. — Pro- specting. — Boring.— Breaking Ground.— Supporting Excavations.— Exploita- tion.— -Haulage or Transport.— Hoisting or Winding.— Drainage.— Ventilation. —Lighting. — Descent and Ascent.— Dressing, &c— Index. " A remarkably clear survey of the whole field of mining operations."— Engineer. " Rarely does it fall to the lot of a reviewer to have to accord such unqualified praise as this book deserves. . . . The profession generally have every reason to be grateful to Sir C. Le Neve Foster for having enriched educational literature with so admirable an elementary Text-book."— Mining Journal. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Illustrated. 5s. net. METHODS OF A I ft ANALYSIS. By J. S. HALDANE, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Reader in Physiology and Fellow of New College, Oxford. An Account of Methods of Air Analysis suitable for work In Physiology, Hygiene, Investigations of Mine Air, Flue Gases, Exhaust Gases from Engines, &e. _ In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Illustrated. THE AIR OF MINES. By JOHN CADMAN, D.Sc, Prof, of Mining, University of Birmingham, And J. S. HALDANE, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. LONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.. LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND- 4 o CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. WORKS ON COAL-MINING. Fifth Edition, Revised and Greatly Enlarged. With 4 Plates and 690 Illustrations. Price 24s. net. A TEXT-BOOK OF COAL-MINING: FOR THE USE OF COLLIERY MANAGERS AND OTHERS ENGAGED IN COAL-MINING. By HERBERT WILLIAM HUGHES, F.G.S., Assoc. Royal School of Mines, General Manager of Sand well Park Colliery. General Contents. — Geology.— Search for Coal.— Breaking Ground.— Sinking. —Preliminary Operations. — Methods of Working. —Haulage. — Winding. —Pumping.— Ventilation.— Lighting.— Works at Surface. —Pre- paration of Coal for Market.— Index. "Quite the best book of its kind . . as peactical in aim as a book can be The illustrations are excellent." — Athenasum. " We cordially recommend the work."— Colliery Guardian. "Will soon come to be regarded as the standard work of its kind." Birmingham Daily Gazette. Fifth Edition, Thoroughly Revised and Greatly Enlarged.. Re-set throughout. Large Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. PRACTICAL COAL-MINING i A. MANUAL FOR MANAGERS, TJNDER-MANAGERS, COLLIERY ' ENGINEERS, AND OTHERS. With Worlced-out Problems on Haulage, Pumping, Ventilation, i'KM>ix.— Index. In Crown 8vo, Handsome Cloth. 8s. 6d. net. MINING LAW OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. By CHARLES J. ALFORD, F.G.S., M.Inst.M.M. Contents. — The Principles of Mining Law. — The Mining Law of Great Britain. — British India.— Ceylon.— Burma. — The Malay Peninsula — British North Borneo. — Egypt. — Cyprus. — The Dominion of Canada. — British ■Guiana.— The Gold Coast Colony and Ashanti. — Cape of Good Hope. — Natal. — Orange Biver Colony. — Transvaal Colony. — Rhodesia. — The ■Commonwealth of Australia. — New Zealand, &c— Index. " Cannot fail to be useful . . we cordially recommend the book." — Mining World. Seventh Edition. In Large 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. MINE ACCOUNTS AND MINING BOOK-KEEPING. For Students, Managers, Secretaries, and others. ■With Examples taken from Actual Practice of Leading Companies. By JAMES GUNSON LAWN, A.R.S.M., A.M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., Head of the Mining Department, Camborne School of Mines. Edited by Sib C. LE NEVE FOSTER, D.Sc, F.R.S. "It seema impossible to suggest how Mr. Lawn'b book could be made more complete or more valuable, careful, and exhaustive." — Accountants' Magazine. Third Edition. In Pocket Size, Strongly Bound in Leather, 3s. 6d. Provided with Detachable Blank Pages for MS. THE MINING ENGINEERS' REPORT BOOK AND DIRECTORS' AND SHAREHOLDERS' GUIDE TO MINING REPORTS. By EDWIN R. FIELD, M.Inst.M.M. With Notes on the Valuation of Property, and Tabulating Reports, Useful Tables, and Examples of Calculations, &c. " An ADMIRABLY compiled book which Mining Engineers and Managers will find iextkemely useful."— Mining Journal. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Illustrated. 10s. Cd. net. A DICTIONARY OF SPANISH-ENGLISH AND SPANISH-AMERICAN MINING, METALLURGICAL, AND ALLIED TERMS. To which some Portuguese and Portuguese-American (.Brazilian) Terms are added. By EDWARD HALSE, A.R.S.M., Mem. Inst. Ming, and Metall., of tbe Eng. Inst, of Ming, and Metall. Engrs., ftc, &c " Will be found of the greatest service to the mining profession."— Mining Journal. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETEB STREET, STRAND. MINING WORKS. 43 WORKS ON PROSPE CTING, SINKIN G, EXPLOSIVES, &e. In Pocket Size. Strongly Bound in Morocco Leather. 6s. net. THE MINERALOGY OF THE RARER METALS. A HANDBOOK FOR PROSPECTORS. BY AND EDWARD CAHEN, WILLIAM ORD WOOTXON, A.R.C.E., F.I.C. A.R.C.S , B.Sc. (Loud.) With Foreword by F. W. HARBORD, A.R.S.M., F.I.C. "This convenient and carefully prepared manual supplies a want that has long been felt." — Mature. In Medium 8vo, Handsome Cloth. With 18 Figures in the Text, and 19 Folding Plates. 10s. 6d. net. SHAFT-SINKING IN DIFFICULT CASES. By J. RIEMER, Translated by J. W. BROUGH, A.M. Inst. C.E. Contents. — Shaft Sinking by Hand.— Shaft Sinking by Boring. -The Freezing Method. — The Sinking Drum Process. -Bibliography. — Index. "The translator deserves the thanks of the raining community for placing this valuable work before them. . . . The work is one which every mining engineer should include in his library."— Mining World. Second Edition, Revised. In Large 8vo, with Numerous Illustrations and Folding Plates. 10s. 6d. BLASTING : AND THE USE OF EXPLOSIVES. By OSOAR GTJTTMANN, M.Inst.O.E., F.I.C, F.C.S. " Should prove a vade-mecum to Mining Engineers and all engaged in practical work.'' — Iron and Coal Trades Review. In Medium 8vo, Cloth. With n any Illustrations in the Text. Four Full Page Plates and Four Folding Tables. 6s. net. NEW METHODS OP TESTING EXPLOSIVES. By 0. E. BIOHEL. Translated and Edited by ALEX. LARSEN, M.Inst. C.E. Contents. — Introductory. — Historical. — Testing Stations. — Power Gauges. — Products of Combustion. — Rate of Detonatidh. — Length and Duration of Flame. — After-Flame Ratio. — Transmission of Explosion.— Conclusions. — Efficiency. "Its pages bristle with suggestions and actual experimental results to an extent seldom found in a volume of five times its size."— Arms and Explosives. Third Edition. In Crown Svo. Handsome Cloth. With 30 yew Illustrations. 7s. 60!. net. ELECTRICAL PRACTICE IN COLLIERIES. By Prof. D. BURNS, M.E., M.Tnst.M.E., Professor of Mining and Geology to the Glasgow and West or Scotland Technical College. "A clear and concise introduction to electrical practice in collieries."— Mining Journal. (See also page 32.) CONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.. LIMITED. EXETER STREET. STRAND 44 CHARLES GRIFFIN & GO.'S PUBLICATIONS. Second Edition, Revised Throughout. In Medium 8vo. With Numerous Plates, Maps, and Illustrations. 21s. net. CYANIDINC GOLD & SILVER ORES. A Practical Treatise on the Cyanide Process ; its Application, Methods of Working, Design and Construction of Plant, and Costs. By II. FORBES JULIAN, Mining and Metallurgical Engineer ; Specialist in Gold : Late Technical Adviaer or the Deutsche Gold und Silber Scheide Anstalt, Frankfort-on -Maine. And EDGAR SMART, A.M.I.O.E., Civil and Metallurgical Engineer. "A handsome volume of 400 pages which will be a valuable book of reference for all' associated with the process."— Mining Journal. In Large Grown Svo. With 13 Plates and many Illustrations in the Text. Handsome Cloth, Is, 6d, net, THE CYANIDE PROCESS OF GOLD EXTRACTION. A Text-Booh for the Use of Metallurgists and Students at Schools of IHines, do. By JAMES PARK, F.G.S., M.Inst.M.M., Professor of Mining and Director of the Otago University School of Mines ; late Director Thames School of Mines, and Geological Surveyor and Mining Geologist to the Government of New Zealand. Fourth English Edition. Thoroughly Revised and Greatly Enlarged With additional details concerning the Siemens-Halske and othei recent processes. " Deserves to be ranked as amongst the BEST of existing treatises. ' '—Mining Journal . Third Edition, Revised. With Plates and Illustrations. Cloth, 3s. 6d. GETTI NG GOLD: A GOLD-MINING HANDBOOK FOR PRACTICAL MEN. By J. 0. R JOHNSON, E.G.S., A.I.M.E., Life Member Australasian Mine-Managers' Association. I ,.'V? RACI ;P 0A i'.' ronl beginning to end . . . deals thoroughly with the Prospecting, Sinking, Crushing, and Extraction of gold."— Brit. Australasian. In Crown Svo. Illustrated. Fancy Cloth Boards, is. Sd. GOLD SEEKING IN SOUTH AFRICA: A Handbook 'of Hints fop intending Explorers, Prospectors. and Settlers. By THEO KASSNER, Mine Manager, Author of the Geological Sketch Map of the De Kaap Gold Fields. With a Chapter on the Agricultural Prospects of South Africa. "As fascinating as anything ever penned by Jules Verne."— African Commerce. In Crown Svo. Handsome Cloth. 3s. net. A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE MINERAL WEALTH AND GEOLOGY OF CHINA. By C. Y. WANG, M. A. , B. Sc. , M. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. , M. Iron & Steel I nst. UNDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAW NbtV LAND SEMES. 45 In Medium 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Wilh about 160 Illustrations The Sampling & Assay of the Precious Metals : Comprising Gold, Silver and Platinum, in Ores, Bullion and Products Be P „ ty J$ £!^a» of tnSl^ool 0I Mine3 Methods of tul ?' 1 Ores -Calculating and Reporting Results ^-Special of On?H Si™ As , sa y-- B " ) V on - Valua tion of Bullion. -Sampling of Bullion.-AssaY Wort In cZm'™ 56 Buion.-Of Auriferous and Argentiferous Products -Assay inO.es Bunion.?, A"' r P i atl "i lm ftnd the " Pla "n«™ Metals."-Assay of Platinum in uies, jiuiMon and Products.— Appendices.— Index. GRIFFIN'S "NEW LAND" SERIES. Practical Band-Books for the Use of Prospectors, Explorers, Settlers, Colonists, and all Interested in the opening up and Development of New Lands. Edited by GRENVILLE A. J. COLE, M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Royal College of Science for Ireland, and Examiner In the University of London. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. 5s. With Numet ous Maps Specially Drawn and Executed /or this Work NEW LANDS: THEIB EESOUECES AND PBOSPECTIVE ADVANTAGES. By HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc, LL.D., E.R.S.E., "A. want admirably supplied. . . . Has the advantage of beiDg written by a pro- 8«sed Geographer."— Geographical Journal. With many Engravings and Photographs. Handsome Cloth, 4s. 6d. FOOD SUPPLY. By ROBERT BRUOE, Agricultural Superintendent to the Royal Dublin Society. VVith Appendix on Preserved Foods by C. A. Mitchell, B.A., F.I.O. " The work is one which will appeal to those intending to become farmers at home or in the Colonies, and who desire to obtain a general idea of the true principles of farming in ALL ITS BRANCHES."— Journal of the Royal Colonial Inst. Sixth Edition. With Illustrations. Handsome Cloth, 5s. PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS. A Practical Handbook for Prospectors, Explorers, Settlers, and all interested in the Opening up and Development of New Lands. By S. HERBERT COX, Assoo.R.S.M., M.Inst.M.M., F.G.S., Professor of Mining at the Royal School of Mines. " This ADMIRABLE LITTLE WORK . . . written with SCIENTIFIC AOOtTKApY in i« clear and lucld style. ... An important addition to technical literature . . —Mining Journal. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO, LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. 3 46 CHARLES GRIFFIN «fe««nm. tONOON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.. LIMITED. EXETER STREET. STRAND 58 CHARLES GRIFFIN Jb GO.'S PUBLICATIONS. Second Edition. With Numerous Tables, Fully Illustrated. DAIRY CHEMISTRY FOR DAIRY MANAGERS, CHEMISTS, AND ANALYSTS A Practical Handbook for Dairy Chemists and others having Control of Dairies. Bv H. DROOP RICHMOND, F.I.C., CHEMIST TO THE AYLESBURY DAIRY COMPANY. ". . . In our opinion the book is the best contribution cn the subject that mas ybt appbarhd in the English language. "^Lancet (on the Firs- Edition). In Crown 8vo, Fully Illustrated. 2s. 6d. net. THE LABORATORY BOOK OF DAIRY ANALYSIS. By H. DROOP RICHMOND, F.I.C. " Without doubt the best contribution to the literature of its subject that has ever been written." — Medical Timet. Illustrated. With Photographs of Various Breeds of Cattle, Ate. 6s. net. MILK: ITS PRODUCTION & USES. With Chapters on Dairy Farming, The Diseases of Cattle, and on the Hygiene and Control of Supplies. By EDWARD F. WILLOTJGHBY, M.D., -D.P.H. " We cordially recommend it to everyone who has anything at all to do with milk." — Dairy World. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Fully Illustrated. A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURAL BACTERIOLOGY. By Peof. Db. F. LOHNIS. Translated by W. Stevenson, of the West of Scotland Agricultural College, and .T. Hunter Smith, B.Sc, Assistant in the Laboratory of Dr. F. Lohnis. Second Edition. In Large Crown 8vo. Cloth. 4s. 6d. net. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. By HERBERT INGLE, B.Sc, F.I.C, F.C.S. Contents.— Introduction. — The Atmosphere. — The Soil— Natural Waters. — The Want.— Manures.— Crops.— The Animal.— Foods and Feeding. — The Dairy.— Miscel- laneous. — Index. Fifth Edition. In Demy 8vo Revised Throughout. Pp. i xi + 489 With 101 Illustrations. In Cloth. 15s. net. MICRO-ORGANISMS AND FERMENTATION. By ALFRED JORGENSEN. Translated by SAMUEL H. DAVIES, M.Sc. " The student taking up this subject would do well to work through this book first and then take Lafar's." — Brewing Trade- Review. LONDON : CHARLES 8RIFFIU & CO., LIMITED. EXETEP, STSEtT. 8TRANf>. CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY, 59 Third Edition. In Handsome Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 21s. net. PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF BREWING. FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND PRACTICAL MEN. By "WALTER J. SYKES. Revised by ARTHUR R. LING, F.I.C., F.C.S., Editor of the Journal of the Institute of Brewing. Contents. -Physical Principles Involved. - The Chemistry of Brewing. - The Microscope. — Vegetable Biology. — Fermentation. — Water. — Barley and Malting - Arrangement of Brewery Plant-Quantities of Materials.-Fermentation.-Antiseptics. —Finings.— Characteristics of Beer.— Diseases of Beer.— Index. " A thorough and comprehensive text-book . . . up-to-date . . a standard text-book.' —Bnweri/ Journal. In Large 8vo. Complete in Two Volumes. Each Volume Complete in Itself, anil Sold Separately. TECHNICAL MYCOLOGY: The Utilisation of Micro-organisms in the Arts and Manufactures. By Dr. FRANZ LAFAR, Prof, of Fermentation-Physiology and Bacteriology In the Technical High School, Vienna Translated by CHARLES T. C. SALTER. Vol. I.— SCHIZOMYCKTIC FERMENTATION. 16s. net. Vol. II.-EUMYCETIC FERMENTATION. 24s. net. Note.— Part I. of Vol. II. was issued separately at 7s. 6d. Copies of Part II. Vol. II. , have, therefore, been bound up to enable those possessing Part I. to complete their copies. The price of Vol. II., Part II., is 18s. net. "The first work of the kind which can lay claim to completeness in the treatmont or a fascinating subject. The plan is admirable, the classincaMou simple, the style is good and the tendency of the whole volume is to convey sure information to the reader "— Lancet, Crown 8vo, Handsome Cloth. With Diagrams. 7s. 6d. net. [Companion Volume to "FERMENTS," by the same Author.} TOXINES AND ANTITOXINES. By OARL OPPENHEIMER, Ph.D., M.D., Of the Physiological Institute at Erlangen. Translated from the German by C. AINSWORTH MITCHELL, B.A., F.I.C., F.C.S. With Notes, and Additions by the Author, since the publication of the German Edition. "ForVealCh of detail, we have no small work on Toxines which equals the one unrW review." — Medical Times In Crown 8vo, Handsome Cloth. Price 7s. 6d. net. FERMENTS : AND THEIR ACTIONS. A Text-book on the Chemistry and Physics of Fermentative Changes. Br CARL OPPENHEIMER, Ph.D., M.D. Translated by C. AINSWORTH MITCHELL, B.A., F.I.C., F.C.S. " Such a veritable multum in parvo has oever yet appeared." — Brewers' Journal. 10ND0N : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED. EXETER STREET, STRANG 60 OHARLEi GRIFFIN «fc CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Pp. i-vi+114. 3s. 6d. net. THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COLLOIDS. Translated from the German of Dr. VICTOR POSCHL By Dr. H. H. HODGSON. " An excellent little summary of the subject.'' — Chemical News. In Medium 8vo. Handsome Cloth. With Plates and Illustrations. .A. TBEATISB OZEsT CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, With Special Reference to Clays, Glasses, Minerals, and the Silicate Industries. VOLUME I Nearly Ready. By J. W. MELLOR, Sc.D. In Medium 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Illustrated. Pp. -xix + 359. 25s. net> CELLULOID. ITS MANUFACTURE, APPLICATIONS, AND SUBSTITUTES. Translated from the French of Masselo.v, Boblrts, and Cillard. By H. H. HODGSON, M.A.(Camb.), B.Sc.(Lond.), Ph.D.(Heidelberg>_ In Crown 8vo. Fully Illustrated. 4s. 6d. net. WATER ANALYSIS, FOR SANITARY AND TECHNICAL PURPOSES. By HERBERT B. STOCKS, F.I.C., F.C.S. "Conciseness in detail of this important subject makes this a useful book for those- engaged in sanitary water analysis."— Chemical Trade Journal. Second Edition, Revised. In Medium 8vo, Cloth. Illustrated. 12s. 6d. net. PAPER TECHNOLOGY: AN ELEMENTARY MANUAL ON THE MANUFACTURE, PHYSICAL QUALITIES,. AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF PAPER AND OF PAPERMAKING FIBRES. With Selected Tables for Stationers, Publishers, and Others. By R. W. SINDALL, F.C.S. " Exceedingly instructive and particularly useful."— Paper Makers' Monthly J ' menial - In Two Large Volumes, Sold Separately, Crown Quarto, Strongly Bound, with 13 Plates and 331 other Illustrations. BRIQUETTING. Coal, Shale, &e. ; Ores, Furnace Products, Metal Swarf, &c. By G. FRANKE. Translated and Elited by F. LANTSBERRY, M.Se. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO , LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 6s. net. PEAT: Its Use and Manufacture. By PHILIP R. BJORLING And FREDERICK T. GISSING. Gbrbhal Contbhts.— Introduction.— The Formation of Peat.- Area and Depth of BogB in Principal Countries.— Manufacture of Peat Fuel, Ac— Cut Peat, Dredged Peat, and Manufactured Peat.— Machinery employed in the Manufacture of Peat Fuel.— Peat Moss Litter, and the Machinery employed in its Manufacture.— Peat Charcoal and its Manufacture— Cost of making Peat Fuel ana Charcoal.— Other Productions derived from Peat, such as Tar, Manure, Candles, Dyes, Paper, &c. —Bibliography.— Index. "The treatment throughout is clear and interesting . . . excellent plates."— E-ngineering. Companion Volume to the above. In Crown 8vo. Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 6s. net. COMMERCIAL PEAT: Its Uses and Its Possibilities. By E. T. GISSING. " A useful and instructive epitome of the development of the industry."— Mechanical Engineer. In Crown 8vo. Pp. i-xi + 451. Price 7s. 6d. net. British Clays, Shales & Sands. By A. B. SEARLE, Cantor Lecturer on Brickmaking. Second Edition, Thoroughly Revised. In Crown 8vo. Handsome Cloth. 6s. net. THE OLAYWORKER'S HANDBOOK. A Manual for all engaged in the Manufacture of Articles from Clay. Br ALFRED B. SEARLE, Cantor Lecturer on Brickmaking. General Contests.— Materials use* in Clayworklng ; Clays, Engpbes, Glazes, Colours. Water. Fuel, Oils, and Lul.ricants.-The Preparation of the Clay, Mining and Quarrying. Weathering, Washing, Grinding. Tempering, andPugging. -Machinery; Boilers, Engtoea, General Machineryrsieves, Mixing Machinery, Presses, &c.-Wryers and Drying. -Engobing and Olailng. -Setting or Charging, Transport.-Kilns.-Flring.-Dischargin|r, Sorting, and Pacli.ng.-Derects and Waste. -Tests, Analysis and Control.— Bjblio ;bapby.— Tablss.-Ikdsx. "We can thoroughly recommend this handy little book to all our readers." Brick anil Pottery Trades' Journal. In Imperial Svo. Strongly and Elegantly Bound in Half Leather. Enclosed in Case. Pp. i-xviii + 660. £2 2s. net. CERAMIC LITERATURE. Compiled, Classified, and Described by M. L. SOLON, President of the English Ceramic Society. An Analytical Index to the Works Published in all Languages on the History and the Technology of the Ceramic Art ; also to the Catalogues oi Public Museums, Private Collections and of Auction Sales in which the Description of Ceramic Ohjecta occupy an important ™ aceland to the most important Price Lists of the Ancient and Modern Manufactories of Pottery and Porcelain. "A work of inestimable value to all serious study of Ceramics. --Burlington. Magazine. UMDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRMiD 62 CHARLES QRIFriX <* OO.'S PUBLICATIONS, In Medium 8vo. Cloth. Pp. i-xiii + 356. With Tables, Illustrations in the Text, and 36 Plates. 21s. net. MODERN METHODS OF SEWAGE PURIFICATION. By G. BERTRAM KERSHAW, Engineer to the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal. "A large and comprehensive work . . replete with information." — Journal Royal Sanitary Institute. In Large 8vo. Cloth. With 147 Illustrations. 15s. net. A MANUAL OF THE PRINCIPLES OF SEWAGE TREATMENT. By Prof. DUNBAR, Director of the Institute of State Hygiene, Hamburg. English Edition by HARRY T. CALVERT, M.Sc, Ph.D., F.I.C., Chief Chemical Assistant, West Riding of Yorkshire Rivers Board. " We heartily commend the book as a peculiarly fair and impartial statement of the present position of the sewage problem." — Lancet. In Medium 8vo. Handsome Cloth. With Plates and Numerous other Illustrations. A TEXT-BOOK ON TRADE WASTE WATERS, THEIR NATURE AND DISPOSAL. BY AND II. MACLEAN WILSON, H. T. CALVERT, M. D. , B. Sc, M. So. , Ph. D. , P. I. C. , Chief Inspector, West Riding of Yorkshire Chief Chemical Assistant to the West Rivers Board. Riding of Yorkshire Rivers Board. Beautifully Illustrated, with Numerous Plates, Diagrams, and Figures in the Text. Sis. net. T R A D E S ' WASTE: ITS TREATMENT AND UTILISATION. By W. NAYLOR, F.O.S., A.M. Inst. C.E., Ohier Inspector of Rivers, Ribble Joint Committee. "There is probably no person in England to-day better fitted to deal rationally with such a subject." — British Sanitarian. "Second Edition. In Medium 8vo. Thoroughly Revised and Re-Written. 15s. net, CALCAREOUS CEMENTS: THEIR NATURE, PREPARATION, AND USES. "With some RemaTha -upon Cement Testing. By GILBERT R. REDGRAVE, Assoc. Inst. C.E., Assistant Secretary for Technology, Board of Education, South Kensington And CHARLES SPACKMAN, F.C.S.- " We can thoroughly recommend it as a first-class investment. "—Practical Engineer. In Handsome Cloth. 5s. net. A HANDBOOK FOR CEMENT WORKS' CHEMISTS. By FRANK B. GATEHOUSE, F.C.S. "Concise excellent . . a useful addition to Cement Literature."- ConcriU. WNDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & r.O.. LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND, CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY. 6j Id Large Crowu 8vo. Fully Illustrated. In Two Volumes Vol. I. FOURTH EDITION. Price 7s. 6d. Net. Vol.11. THIRD EDITION. READY SHORTLY THE CHEMISTRY OF GAS MANUFACTURE : A Hand-Booh on the Production, Purification, and Testing of Illuminating Gas, and the Assay of the Bye-Products of Gas Manufacture. By W. J. ATKINSON BUTTERFIELD, M.A., FLO, F.O.S., F'Tmerly Head Chemist, Gas Works, Beckton, London, E. " The best work of its kind which we have ever had the pleasure of r« viewing." — JovrncU of GOULD NOT HAVK A more alluring INTRODUCTION to scientific pursuit* than these charming-looking volumes." — Letter to the Publishers from the Head- master of one of our great Public Schools. Second Edition, Revised. Handsome Cloth. 6s. net. OPEK-fllR STUDIES If B0TAflY: SKETCHES OF BRITISH WILD FLOWERS IN THEIR HOMES. By R. LLOYD PRAEGER, B.A., M.R.I.A. Illustrated by Drawings from Nature by S. Rosamond Praeger, and Photographs by R. Welch. General Contents. — A Daisy-Starred Pasture — Under the Hawthorne —By the River — Along the Shingle— A Fragrant Hedgerow— A Connemaia Bog — Where the Samphire grows — A Flowery Meadow — Among the Corn (a Study in Weeds) — In the Home of the Alpines — A City Rubbish-Hoap— Glossary. "A FRESH and STIMULATING book . . . should take a high place . . . The Illustrations are drawn with much skill."— The Times. "BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED. . • • One of the MOST AOOURATB as Well as interesting books of the kind we have seen."— ittomum. "Redolent with the Bcent of woodland and meadow. — The Standard. Second Edition, Revised. With 12 Full-Page Illustrations from Photographs. Cloth. 8s. 6d. OPEJi-fllR: STUDIES I|l GEOLOGY: An Introduction to Geology Out-of-doors. B* GRENVILLE A. J. COLE, F.G.S., M.R.I.A., Professor of Geology in the Royal College of Science for Ireland, and Examiner in the University of London. General Contents.— The Materials of the Earth— A Mountain Hollow —Down the Valley — Along the Shore — Across the Plains — Dead Volcanoes —A Granite Highland— The Annals of the Earth— The Surrey Hills— The Voids of the Mountains. "The fAsoiHATiHO 'Opbn-Aib. Studies' of Paoi. Oolk give the Bubjeot a glow op, uhmatioh . . . cannot fail to arouse keen interest in geology."— Qmlogieal Maganni . "A ohakmiho book, beautifully illustrated." -Athensmm. Beautifully Illustrated. With a Frontispiece in Colours, and Numerous Specially Drawn Plates by Charles Whymper. 7s. 6d. OPEK-AIH STUDIES IJl BIRD-LIFE: SKETCHES OF BRITISH BIRDS IN THEIR HAUNTS. By CHARLES DIXON. The Spacious Air. -The Open Fields and Downs. -In the Hedgerows. -On Onen hS and Moor. -On the Mountains.-Amongst the Evergreens. - BopTe aid Woodland.-By Stream and Pool.-The Sandy Wastes and Mud- ■£=«£ S^Sal^ «^K«- to aU H b rar,s,-^- minster Review. LONDON •- CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. 74 GHARLES GRIFFIN & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. AN ELEMENTARY TEXT -BOOK OF PHYSICS. By R. WALLACE STEWART, D.Sc. (Lond.) In Four Volumes. Crown 8uo. Cloth. Each Fully Illustrated. Sold Separately. Vol. I. Pp. i-vii + 414. With 187 Illustrations. 4s. 6d. net. GENERAL PHYSICS. Contents.— Introductory.— Scalar and Vector Quantities.— Measurement of Length, .Area, and Volume. — Measurement of Time. — Measurement of Mass. — Velocity. Acceleration.— Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion.— Force. — Work and Energy.— Composition and Resolution of Forces.— Centre of Gravity.— Equilibrium -of Forces.— Friction.— The Balance.— General Properties of Matter.— Properties of -Solids.— Hydrostatics. — Experimental Determination of Specific Gravity and Density. —Properties' of Liquids.— Properties of Liquids (continued).— Properties of Gases.— Index Vol. II. Pp. i-vii+141. Profusely Illustrated. 2s. 6d. net. SOUND. Contents. —Simple Harmonic Vibration. — Production of Sound. — Wave Motion. — Propagation of Sound. — Characteristics of Sound. — Re- •flection and Refraction of Sound. — Velocity of Sound in Air and Water. — Transverse Vibration of Strings. — Longitudinal Vibration of Rods and Columns of Air. — Index. " Should supply the much-felt need of an elementary treatment of this subject . . ■•distinctly good."— Nature. Vol. III. Pp. i-vii + 219. With 142 Illustrations. 3s. 6d. net. LIGHT. Contents. — Introductory. — Rectilinear Propagation of Light. — Photometry. — Reflection at Plane Surfaces. — Reflection at Spherical 'Surfaces. — Refraction. — Refraction through Lenses. — Dispersion. — Index. " This elementary treatise resembles Part II. (Sound) in its attractiveness . . . the treatment is good . . . excellent diagrams . . . very clear."— Journ. of Inst, of Teachers in Technical Institutes. Vol. IV. Pp. i-v + 242. With 84 Illustrations. 3s. 6d. net. HEAT. Contents. — Introductory. — Thermometry. — Expansion of Solids. — 'Expansion of Liquids. — Expansion of Gases. — Calorimetry. — Specific ^Heat. — Liquefaction and Solidification. — Vaporisation and Condensation. — Conduction of Heat. — Convection. — Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. — Radiation. — Ind kx. In Large 8vo. With Bibliography, Illustrations in the Text, and Seven Plates. 12s. 6d. THE MEAN DENSITY OF THE EARTH. Jn Essay to which the Adams Prize was Adjudged in 1893 in the University of Cambridge By J. H. POYNTING, So.D., F.R.8. "Cannot fail to be of great and general interest."— Athenaeum. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET. STRAND, TEXT-BOOK. OF PHYSICS. 75 Dp. STEWART'S ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK OF PHYSICS was designed as an introduction to the following:— A TEXT-BOOK OF PHYSICS By J. H. POYNTING, Sc.D., F.B.S., Professor of PhysiCB, Birmingham University, And Sir J. J. THOMSON, M.A., F.K.S., Professor of Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. In Five Volumes. Large 8vo. Sold Separately. Introductory Volume. Fifth Edition, Revised. Fully Illustrated. 10s. 6d. PROPERTIES OF MATTER. Oohtbntb. — Gravitation. — The Acceleration of Gravity. — Elasticity.— stresses and Strains.— Torsion.— Bending of Bods.— Spiral Springs— Collision.— Compressibility of Liquids.— Pressures and Volumes of Gases.— Thermal Effects Accompanying Strain — Capillarity.— Surface Tension.— Laplace's Theory of Capillarity.— Diffusion of Liquids'— Diffusion of Gases.— Viscosity of Liquids.— Index. "We regard this book as quite indispensable not merely to teachers but to physicists of every «rade above the lowest. '— University Correspondent.. Volume II. Fifth Edition. Fully Illustrated. Price 8a. 6d. SOUND. Oohtkntb.— The Nature of Sound and its chief Characteristics. — Tbe Velocity of Sound in Air and other Media.— Refleoiion and Refraction of Sound.— Frequency and Pitch of Notes.— Resonance and Forced Oscillations.— Analysis of Vibrations.— The Transverse Vibrations of Stretched Strings or Wires —Pipes and other Air Cavities.— Rods.— Plate .. —Membranes.— Vibrations maintained by Heat.— Sensitive Flames and Jets.— Musical Sand.— The Superposition of Waves.— Ihdkx. " The work . , , may be recommended to anyone desirous of possessing an bast dp-to-daTe Standard Treatise on Acoustics." — Literature. Volume III. Fourth Edition, Revised. Fully Illustrated. Price 15s. HEAT. Contents. — Temperature. —Expansion of Solids —Liquids.— Gases. — Circulation and Convection.— Quantity of Heat ; Specific Heat.— Conductivity.— Forms of Energy ; Conservation ; Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.— The Kinetic Theory —Change of Stale ; Liquid, Vapour. — Critical Points. — Solids and Liquids. —Atmospheric Conditions.— Radiation. — Theory of Exchanges.— Radiation and Temperature.— Thermodynamics.— Isothermal and Adiabatic Changes. — Thermodynamics of Changes of State, and Solu- tions. — Thermodynamics of Radiation.— Index. "Well up-to-date, and extremely clear and exact throughout. ... As clear as it would be possible to make such a text-book " — Nature. A NEW VOLUME. ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM, By Prof. J. H. POYNTING, F.R.S., and Sir J. J. THOMSON, F.R.S. In Two Parts. Medium 8vo. Cloth. Each complete in itself and sold separately. Fully Illustrated, and uniform with the above. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND. 7 6 CHARLES QRlFFiy