R. B. HiNMAN COLLECTION Professor of Animal Husbandry 1921-1943 New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. Elements of agriculture; a text-book prep 3 1924 003 372 723 The original of tliis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003372723 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE A TEXT-BOOK PRF:PARED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE ROYAL-, AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND BY THE LATE W. FREAM, LL.D. TENTH EDITION (KU-'TY-FIRST THOUSAXD) EDITED BY J. R. AINSWORTH-DAVIS, M.A , (Trin. Coll. Camb.V PRINCIPAL OF THB ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CIRENCESTER, AND PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HlaTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY or BRISTOL. LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 1918. - IP I^ E 'FJ^CD E TO THK EIGHTH EDITION of the Royal Agricultural Society's Text Book, 1911 rpHE Text-Book edited by the late Dr. Fream and -*- .published, having run through seven editions, and met with so great a demand, by the public that 39,000 copies have been sold since its issue, the Society thought the time had arrived for a thorough revision and partial rewriting of the book, this being placed in the hands of Professor J. E. Ainsworth-Davis, Principal of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. Assisted by Dr. Voelcker, Mr. R. M. Greaves, Mr. Cecil Warburton. Professor ^Drysdale Turner, Mr. C. D. Stewart, Mr. Ernest Mathews, Mr. G. H. Hollingworth, Mr. W. H. Neild, Mr. J. Herbert Taylor, Mr. W. Hanson Sale, Mr. Sanders Spencer, and the Secretaries of the Breeding Societies, Professor Ainsworth-Davis has spared no pains to bring Dr. Fream's work up to the present date. The plates are taken from photographs of representative animals, and the Society wish to thank those gentlemen who have been good enough to provide them. The thanks of the Society are especially due to Pro- fessor Ainsworth-Davis for undertaking the somewhat ungrateful task of building upon another man's founda- tions, and they trust that the gratitude of all interested in Agricultural Education will be some reward for his arduous labours. J. H. THOROLD, ' Chairman of the Educaiion GommiUee Royal Aoricttltubal Society of England, 16, Bedford Square, W.C. July, 1911. EXTfiACTS FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION The preparation of this Text-Book was undertaken by the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in compliance with the many demands that had been addres.sed to it for an elementary work on Agriculture adapted for use in rural anji other schools and classes. The general scheme of the work was settled by a Sub- Committee appointed by the Council of the Society, and consisting of Lord Moreton (Chairman), Major Craigie, Mr. C. De L. Faunce De Laune, Mr. D. Pidgeon, Mr. Martin J. Sutton, and Mr. Charles Whitehead. The Sub-Committee placed the preparation of the Text-Book in the capable hands of Dr. W. Fream, to whose skill and knowledge of the subject any success which the work may attain will be chiefly due. The Sub-Committee desire also to record their grateful acknowledgjjaents, for valuable suggestions and revision of the proof-sheets, to Sir John Lawes, Bart., Sir John Thorold, Bart., Sir Jacob Wilson, Mr. 'Alfred Ashworth, Mr. Thomas Bell, Mr. J. Bowen-Jones, Mr. Chandos-Pole-Gell, Dr. J. H. Gilbert, Miss E. A. Ormerod, Mr. D. Pidgeon, Mr. Clare Sewell Read, and Dr. Voelcker. TABLI^: OF CONTENTS FART I.— THE SOIL CHAPTER PAGB I. Formation of Soil 1 Soil and subsoil, 1; kinds of soil, 2; native plant growth, soluble and insoluble soil constituents, 3 ; geological maps, formation of soil from rooks, disintegration, 4 ; water as an agent of dis- integration, 5 ; igneous and aqueous rocks, 7 ; weathering, sedentary soils, 8 ; transported soils, constant change in soils, earthworms, 9. II. Composition and Classification of Soils . . 10 Mineral and organic matter, sand, 10 ; clay, 11 ; lime, 12 ; limestone, humus, 13 ; green manuring, classification of soils, 14; mechanical analysis of soils, 16 ; chemical analysis of soils, 17 ; availability of plant foods, 18; analyses of soils, 20. III. Physical Peopbbtibs of Soils . . .22 Structure of soil, 22; air and water of soil, 23; capillarity, tilth, water-table, 25 ; mulches, 26 ; pans, 27 ; temperature of soil, 28. IV. SouBCES of Loss and Gain to Soils . . .29 Composition of drainage waters, 30 ; washing out of nitrates, 31 ; bare fallow, 32 ; sources of gain, 33 ; agente of disintegration, rain, 34 ; dew and hoar-frost, composition of rain, 36 ; residues of crops, humus, 37 ; organic nitrogen, nitrification, 38; nitrogen-fixing bacteria, ,39; denitrification, fungi of soil, 40 ; myeorhiza, symbiosis, 41. vi CONTENTS OHAPTBR TASB V. Improvement or Soils 41 Poor soils, 41 j lime, marl, warping, paring and burning, 42 ; green manuring, draining, 43 ; natural and artificial drainage, 44; acts of tillage, 46. VI. Agricultural Implements .... 46 (1) Implements for working soils, 46 ; the plough, 47 ; ploughing, 53 ; points of good ploughing, types of plough, 57 ; cultivators, 62 ; harrows, 63 ; rollers and pressers, 64. (2) Implements for sowing seed and distributing manure, drills, 66 ; artificial manure distributors. (3) Steam culti- vation, 69. (4) Implementa for securing crops, harvesting implements, reaping machines, 71 ; mowing machines, 74 ; haymaking' machine, hay- kicker,: swathe turner, horse-rake, 76 ; elevator or stg,eker, 77; hay and straw presses, carts and waggons, 79. (5) Implements for preparing crops for market, threshing machines, 80 ; steam engines, oil engines, 85 ; petrol engines, 86 ; winnowing machines, 87 ; screens, 88. (6) _ Implements for preparing food for stock, chaff cutters, 89 ; turnip-cutters or pulpens, corn grinding mills, 91. (7) Hand implements, spade, shovel, forks, 92; rakes, 93; hoes, scythe, 94; sickle, fagging hook, 96 ; pea-hook, hedge- slasher or switch bill, 97. VTI. Tillage ... . . . 97 Preparation of a tilth, ploughing, cultivating, har- rowing, rolling, 98; hoeing, autumn cultivation, 99 ; winter and spring cultivation, 100 ; summer cultivation, cleaning land, 101 ; features of a good tilth, differences between cultivation of heavy and light soils, 103; after cultivation or intertillage, 104 ; objecta lof tillage, 105. VIII. Manures and Manuring 105 Manuring land through stock, 105; farmyard manure, 107; artificial manures, ill; fertility and condition of soil, Peruvian guano, 112 ; fish guano, bones, 113 ; mineral superpho^hate, 114; basic slag, 117; nitrate of soda, 118; sul- phate of ammonia, calcium cyanamide, calcium nitrate, 119 ; manures made from animal refuse, soot, 120; other organic manure, potash manures, common salt, 121 ; gypsum, applica- tion of artificial manures, 122 ; manures for special crops, 123. CONTENTS PART II.— THE PLANT FAOE IX. Seeds and theib, Germisiation . . . 127 Structure of broad bean seed, 127 ; factors of germi- nation, 128; root and shoot, 130; plant food, 131 ; seeds like the bean, structure and germina- tion of wheat grain, 132 ; albuminous and ex- albuminoua seeds, 135; ohlorophyll, malting, 136; ferments (enzymes), carbohydrates, fate, and oils, 137 ; proteins, seeds as storehouses, 138.' x. stbtrctube and functions of plants — roots, Stems, and Leaves ... . 139 Shoot and root, 139; branching form of green plante, protoplasm, metabolism, 140 ; food and feeding, chlorophyll, 142; breatiiing or respira- tion, 143; roots, general character and struc- ture, 144 ; kinds of root, functions of roots, 145 ; osmosis, 147 ; water culture, stems, general ohaTacter and structure, 148 ; nodes and inter- nodes, kinds of stem, 149 ; climbing stems, stolons, 150 ; runners, underground stems, tubers, 151 ; bulbs, corms, rhizomes or root stocks, 152 ; suckers, 154 ; functions of stems, leaves, general character and kinds, foliage leaves, 155; structure of foliage leaves, 156; functions of foliage leaves, 158; duration of life, annuals, 159 ; biennials, 160 ; perennials, storage of plant food, 161. XI. Stbucture and Fdnctions of Plants — Flowebs, Fruits, and Seeds >162 Structure and function of flowers, 162 ; pollination and fertilization, 164; floweirs and insects, self and cross-pollination and fertilization, 165 ; cruciferous flowers, 166 ; papilionaceous flowers, 167 ; dichogamy, 169 ; incomplete flowers, dico- tyledons and monocotyledons, 170 ; cross- pollination and cross-fertilization, 17l ; inflor- escences, artificial' pollination, 173 ; self-pollina- f tion and self-fertilization, fruits and seeds, 174 ; , kinds of fruit, ' 175 ; spurious fruits, dispersal of seeds, 177. XII. Cultivated Plants . 178 (1) Cruciferae, 179 ; turnips and swedes, 180 ; rape, 182 ; cabbage, 183 ; mustard, cress, charlock, radish, 186 ; horse - radish, watercress. (2) Caryophyllacese, ohiokweed, 187 ; corn cockle, viii ■ CONTENTS CHAPTER XII. Cultivated Plants — continued. spurrey, 188. (3)' Linacese, flax, 189. (4) Leguminosse, pulsee, peae, 190 ; beans, 191 ; clovers, white or Dutch clover, 192 ; red or broad clover, 193 ; cow grass, 194 ; aleike, crimson clover or "trifolium," 195; yellow suckling clover, hop trefoil, 196 ; trefoil or yellow clover, lucerne, 197; sainfoin, 198; vetches or tares, 199 ; birdsfoot trefoil, 200 ; kidney vetch, Bokhara clover, 201 ; lupines, gorse, serradella, fenugreek. (5) Bosaceee, 202 ; stone fruits, strawberry, apple and pear. (6) Ribesiacese, gooseberry and currant, 203. (7) Cucurbitacese, cucumber, vegetable marrow etc. (8) Umbelliterae, 204 ; carrot, 205, ; parsnip celery, parsley, sheep's parsley, fennel, caraway 206 ; weed umbellifers, 207 ; poisonous umbelli- fers,' 208. (9) Compositce, 209; yarrow, 210 chicory, lettuce, 211 ; dandeJion, sunflower, Jerusalem artichoke, globe artichoke, oomposita eeous weeds, 212. (10) Solanacese, 213 ; potato poisonous solanaceous plants, tomato, 214 ; egg plant. (11) Labiata3, pot herljs and weeds. (12) Boraginese, priokly comfrey, boraginaoeous weeds, 215. (13) Chenopodiacese, 216, mangel wiirzel, garden beet, sugar beet, 217. (14) I^olygonacess, buckwheat, rhubarb, polygona- ceous weeds, 218. . (15) Urticacese, hop, 219. (16) Liliacese, onion, 220 ; shallot, leek, aspara- gus, liliaceous weeds. (17) Graminese, 221 ; rUshes (Juncaeese), sedges (Cyperaceae), 227 ; cocksfoot, 230 ; dogstail, 231 ; fescues, 232 ; bent grasses, 237 ; meadow foxtail, 238 ; floating and slender foxtail, 241 ; meadow grasses, 241 ; oat grasses, 243 ; rye grasses, 247 ; sweet grasses, 350 ; sweet-scented vernal grass, 251 ; Fuel's vernal grass, 253 ; Timothy, 254 ; brome grasses, 256 ; couch grass, 257 ; wheat grass, hair grasses, 258 ; barley grasses, 259 ; quaking grass, York- shire fog, 259; creeping soft grass, 260; cereals, wheat, barley, 261 ; oats, rye, 262 ; maize, sorghum, canary grass, 263. ^ XIII. Weeds .... . , .264 (1) Ranunculacese, buttercups, marsh marigold, pheasant's eye, wood anemone, 264. (2) Papa- veracesB, poppy, opium poppy, (3) Fumariacese, fumitory. (4) Geraniacese, cranesbills, 265. (5) Rubiaeeae, goosegrass, bedstraws, field madder. CONTENTS is CHAPTER PAGE XIIT. Wekds — continued. (6) Convolvulacese, bindweeds, 266; dodders, 267. (7) Scrophularineae, snapdragon, foxglove, musk, toadflax, root parasites, figwort, mullein, speedwells, 268. (8) Orobanohaeese, broom rapes, 269. (9) Primulacese, cowslip, primrose, scarlet pimpernel. (10) Plantaginese, plantains, 270. (11) Junoacese. (12) Cyperaceae ; relation of weeds to agriculture, 271 ; preventive measures, 272 ; remedial measures, 273. XIV. Selection of Seeds 274 Germinating capacity, 274 ; identity to species, impurities, 276; real value, collections of seeds, 277. XV. Grass Land and its Mana SO .\ -■s-ts- -j= ir sue>;oi Fia. 1. — Diagram illustrating the formation of a sedentary soil on the Oolitic limestone of the Cotswold Hills, Gloucestershire. differs from the rock, but the changes it has experienced have not gone far enough for the production of true soil. A convenient term to include the whole of the changes which have been described, and which result in the conversion of rock into soil, is weathering. Some soils are directly produced from the rock that lies beneath them, as is the case with the thin soil resting upon the chalk of the Wiltshire Downs or the oolitic strata of the Cotswold Hills. Such soils (fig. 1) are described as local, sedentary, or indigenous. In other cases, soils bear no relationship to the under- lying rock. Examples are afforded by the alluvial soils around the Wash, and in Holderness, and by the Boulder CHANGES IN SOIL 9 Clay of many northern counties. These soils, as has already been stated (p. 6) are termed erratic or trans- ported. The weathering agents, whereby rocks are converted into soils, do not cease to act when at length a soil is formed. On account of the usually loose condition of soils, they are, indeed, more susceptible than rocks to the influence of frost, rain, and snow, of running water, and of oxygen and carbonic dioxide : for these agents more easily gain access to the interstices of the soil than to those of the rock. Other agents, moreover — living agents in the form of plants and animals — work upon the fabric of the soil. In the case of cultivated soils, crops grow and are removed, whilst their roots remain in the soil to increase the store of organic matter or humus. This, i^i the course of its decay, enriches the air in the soil with carbon dioxide, which increases the solvent power of soil water. Under the influence of the air and water in the soil, the fragments of rocky matter which it contains are broken up, and added to the store of soil proper. Hence the constituent parts of a soil are ever chang- ing. Crops are continually carrying away certain ingre- dients of the soil, whilst the ' fine earth ' of the soil is as constantly being added to by the decomposition or decay of the stony fragments which the soil contains. In addi- tion, the rain which falls upon the land brings with it from the atmosphere certain substances which are of much importance in cultivated soils. Of the animals which dwell in the soil, none approach the earthworm in the magnitude of their effects. Earth- worms feed upon the organic matter in the soil, and in order to get sufficient food they have to pass large quan- tities of earth through their TDodies. This earth is ejected in the form of castings, which may often be seen as little mounds on the surface, near the entrance .of the burrow. Through the burrows of earthworms, air and water can penetrate more freely into the soil, and the work of decomposition progresses more rapidly. It has been cal- culated that an acre of ordinary agricultural land con- tains about 50,000 earthworms. The effect of their 10 COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS combined labours in reducing the soil to a finer condition is great, whilst they also enrich- the surface soil in nitrogen. In old pastures the production of a close, compact greensward is largely due to the fine earth which is brought to the surface by earthworms, to be afterwards crumbled down and levelled by the effect of sun and wind. CHAPTER II. COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS The solid substances found in ' soils consist either of mineral (inorganic) matter or of organic matter. The mineral matter is derived from the decay of rocks. The organic matter (humus) arises from the decay of animal and vegetiable substances. The most abundant mineral ingredients of soils are sand and clay. To a less extent, lime also, generally as carbonate of lime, is often present. What sand is may best be learnt by examining the sand on the sea-shore, or in a sand-pit, or in a heap of sand intended to be mixed with lime for making mortar. In many country districts fine sand can be scraped to- gether on the roadside, after a heavy storm of rain. It consists of a number of small hard clean particles of stone which, looked at through a magnifying glass, are usually found to be rounded like the stones or pebbles in gravel. Sand is, in fact, a very fine sort of gravel, and the small particles of the latter which pass through a sieve can afterwards be shovelled up as sand. When sand is put into a bowl and water poured upon it, the liquid at once sinks into the sand. If the bowl be turned upside down upon the ground the water will drain from it, and the heap soon becomes dry. Particles of sand will not adhere to each other, and if moist sand is made into a ball in the hands, it will fall to frag- ments after the pressure ceases. Hence it is that sand is easily carried by the wind, and on some sea-coasts SAND AND CLAY 11 this drifting of loose sand takes place to a serious extent. A soil consisting entirely of sand would be useless to the cultivator, for he could grow nothing upon it. Plants would be unable to get sufficient hold for their roots. Besides this they would pine away for lack of moisture, because all the rain that fell upon such a soil would trickle through and leave it dry. The physical properties of sand, therefore, are such that a soil of pure sand would not be of any value. Sand is equally deficient in respect of its chemical properties. It is generally composed of silica (SiOj), and can offer to plants but little that may serve them as food. A micaceous sand, however, contains fragments or spangles of the glittering mineral mica, which, when decomposed, is capable of yielding potash, lime, - iron, etc., some of which may be used by plants as food. Sand may also contain grains of other minerals (felspar, horn- blende, etc.) from which plant food may be derived. Although ordinary sand, by itself, has no physical or chemical qualities which can commend it to the culti- vator, yet as a constituent of soils it confers upon them two important physical properties. It tends to make them light and open, and. therefore permeable to mois- ture, air, and warmth. In addition, its stony particles become warm under the rays of the sun, and so the temperature of the soil is raised. Clay is made up of exceedingly minute particles which readily adhere to each other, so that clay, when moist, can be moulded or kneaded by the hand into any desired shape. Hence its use in making bricks, tiles, drain-pipes, and pottery. When water falls upon a surface of clay it accumulates in puddles, and water that is lodged in the interstices of clay has very little ten- dency to drain away. Clay, therefore, is described as impermeable to water. The chemical composition of clay is less simple than that of ordinary sand. The latter is made up wholly of silica. Pure clay contains silica combined with another substance called alumina. Like silica,' alumina also is an oxide, being composed of oxygen combined with a 12 COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS silvery-looking metal, aluminium, which has a number of useful applications in the arts. Water enters into the composition of all natural clays, and these are accord- ingly described by the chemist as hydrated silicates of alumina, a name that sufficiently indicates the presence of water, silica, and alumina, ' hydrated ' being derived from the Greek word for water. From a chemical point of view, pure clay would be as useless as pure sand as a source of plant food.- But clays are always more or less impure, and the impurities present usually contain elements, such as potassium, magnesium, calcium, and iron, which play an important part in the nutrition of plants. The physical properties of clay are, in many respects, the reverse of those of sand. Sand is loose and non-cohesive, clay is firm-, plastic, and tenacious ; sand rapidly loses moisture, clay is very retentive of it ; sand easily becomes hot and dry, whereas clay remains cool, and is well able to resist a drought. It appears, then, that a soil consisting entirely of clay would be very firm, cold, and damp, and if exposed to much rain the surface would become muddy, owing to the moisture not draining away. As one of the con- stituents of the soil, however, clay is found to possess many valuable properties. Thus, it holds the oxygen of the air ; retains water, thereby keeping the soil moist ; gives tenacity to the soil ; absorbs and retains the useful products resulting from the decomposition of manures, such as ammonia, potash, lime, and phosphonic acid; and is rich in useful substances (alkalies) adapted to supply plants with food. Most soils contain lime (generally as carbonate of lime), though this substance is rarely present in large proportion. If some powdered chalk, or Bath freestone, or broken marble — all of which are composed of car- bonate of lime — is put in a tumbler, and a weak solution of hydrochloric acid is poured upon it, the union of the carbonic acid gas with the lime will be broken, and the gas will escape in bubbles. If a soil contains "lime in any appreciable quantity its presence can be detected in the manner just indicated. LIME, LIMESTONE AND HUMUS 13 Take a small portion of soil which has been dried and rub it down to a powder, then pour a few drops of weak hydrocl^loric acid upon it. If carbonate of lime is present,\ effervescence will result. It is necessary to distinguish between lime and lime- stone, because unfortunately the term ' lime ' is popu- larly made to do duty for both. Limestone, as has been said, consists of lime combined with carbonic acid ga's ; it is a carbonate of lime, or, to^use strictly chemical nomenclature, calcium carbonate. Lime can be obtained from limestone by burning the latter in a limekiln wherein the heat is sufficient to drive the carbonic acid gas away from its combination with the lime. The whitish substance (quicklime) left behind crumbles when touched. If water is poured upon it the liquid is greedily absorbed, there being a marked rise in tempera- ture, and the resulting mass is known as hydrated lime, or slaked lime, or slack lime. If quicklime — also called caustic lime — be exposed to the air, it will, besides absorbing water, re-unite wi^h carbonic acid gas, and gradually revert to the form of carbonate of lime or limestone. Pure lime never occurs naturally. When it is said that a farmer is ' lim'ing ' his land, it is not always certain whether it is meant that he is giving it a dressing of lime — that is, quicklime — or of carbonate of lime (chalk, or ground limestone). As a constituent of soils, lime, if sufficiently pul- verised, has useful agricultural properties. On account of its reaction with acids it aids the decomposition of organic manures, such as farmyard manure, and pro- motes the formation of nitrates in the soil. Most lime- stones are more or less impure, owing to the presence of phosphates or sulphates of lime, magnesia, etc., the elements of which are valuable as ingredients of plant food. Calcium carbonate renders clay soils more friable. Humus consists chiefly of decaying vegetable matter in the soil, sometimes mixed with a greater or less proportion of animal substance. It has a dark brown or blackish colour. Well-rotted leaf-mould, so largely used by gardeners, is very rich in humus. The com- pounds produced by the decay of organic matter in the 14 COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS soil contain a larger proportion of nitrogen to carbon than exists in living vegetation, the carbon of the humus being diminished owing to much of it going off in union with oxygen as carbon dioxide. It was formerly thought that humus was capable of serving dirpctly as plant-food, but this has been proved to be not the case. Nevertheless, humus is of great value, because the final products of its decomposition — chiefly carbon dioxide, ammonia and water — are capable of , ministering to the food require- ments of growing plants. The quantity of humus usually present in cultivated soils ranges from 2 to 9 per cent., and, within these limits, the soil will be the richer, or the more fertile, the more humus it contains. It is possible, however, for a soil to contain too much decay- ing organic matter; this is the case with peaty soils and boggy moorlands. Garden soils commonly contain more humus than ordinary agricultural soils. Sandy soils need to be en- riched with humus, not only on account of its con- taining fertilizing ingredients, but equally for its moisture-holding capacity. Of the various constituents of soils none are equal to humus in the power of absorb- ing and retaining moisture ; hence, a soil rich in humus is better able to withstand drought. In contrast with the free, open, sandy soils are the firm, dense, water- holding clay soils ; in these, hiimus has a physical value on account of its property of loosening, and thereby opening and aerating, the soil. Consequently, the very growth of crops may improve the soil for future crops, because the crop-residue, in the form of roots and stubble, goes to increase the store of humus which the soil contains. Hence it is desirable in some cases to increase, and in others to judiciously regulate, the quantity of humus contained in the soil. By the process of green manuring — ^that is, raising a crop of mustard, rape, or any other quick-growing plant, and ploughing it in green — the amount of organic matter in a soil can be speedily increased. Plassification of Soils. — Soils consisting almost ex- clusively of one constituent are rare and exceptional. Nearly all soils of the farm and garden will be found CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS IR to coi\tain sand, clay, a little limestone, and some amount of huiaus. Inasmuch, however, as clay and sand are, in poiiit of quantity, by far the leading ingredients of most sAils, it has been found convenient to classify soils according to the percentages of clay and sand they contain.^ Suppose, then, for the sake of simplicity, that a soil consists ^most entirely of sand and clay. If, in such a case, the Wantity of clay does not exceed 5 per cent. of the weight, a sandy soil is the result. With fr^m 5 to 10 per cent, of clay it is a sandy loam. With frota 10 to 20 per cent, of clay it is a loamy soil. With from 20 to 30 per cent of clay it becomes a clay loam, with from 30 to 40 per cent, of clay it is a clay, and with over 40 per cent, of clay a strong or heavy clay. A loam, it will be noticed, is a soil consisting of a mixture of sand and clay. A gravel loam and a chalk loam are loams of which gravel and chalk respectively are noteworthy ingredients. A marl is a clayey soil containing from 5 to 20 per cent, of carbonate of lime. Should the limestone pre- sent exceed 20 per cent, of the total weight, a calcareous soil (Lat. calx, limestone ; arena, sand) is the result. A sandy soil containing some amount of carbonate of lime is called chalky sand. For nearly all purposes loams make the most suitable soils. If a soil happens to be excessively sandy, or clayey, or calcareous, or peaty, it will be improved in character in proportion as it is brought to resemble a good medium loam. The object of the cultivator is, as far as possible, to bring it into such a condition. Experience proves that a soil is best adapted for purposes of cultivation when it contains of — Sand (siliceous and calcareous) ... from 50 to 70 per cent. Clay „ 20 „ 30 „ „ Carbonate of lime •. „ 5 „ 10 ,, ,, Humus ... ... ... ,, 5 ,, 10 ,, It thus contains enough sand to make it warm, and pervious to air and moisture ; enough clay to render it moist, tenacious, and conservative of manures ; enough 16 COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS limestone to furnish calcareous material and to decom- pose organic matter; and, lastly, sufficient humus to assist in supplying the food requirements of plants, and to aid in maintaijiing the carbon dioxide in the inter- stitial air of the soil. The reason that alluvial soils are generally so fertile is the mixed mineral character they possess, owing to their having been usually derived from the disintegration of various kinds of rocks, and not of one kind only. Such a soil as that indicated in the above table is, however, the exception rather than the rule in nature, most soils being characterized by too great an excess of one or more of the ingredients. Various agricultural terms are applied to soils. A sandy soil is described as light, and sandy and loamy soils are spoken of as open and free-working. Friable soils are readily crumbled between the thumb and fingers. A clay soil is described as heavy because it is sticky or tenacious ; it may also be termed stiff or stubborn. As a matter of fact, however, a cubic foot of sand weighs more than a cubic foot of clay, the terms ' light ' and ' heavy ' referring to consistency rather than to den- sity. A ' mellow ' soil is one which, by natural or artificial means, has been reduced to a fine state of subdivision. A ' hungry ' soil is one which is greedy of manure and of water, with little power of retaining either ! a poor sandy soil is an example. A ' cold ' soil contains an excess of clay or of humus, both of which retain water. A ' shallow ' or ' thin ' soil is one in which the distance from the surface to the subsoil is but little; on the Chalk Downs some of the soils are so shallow that they cannot be ploughed deeper than 3 inches. To go below this would bring up so much carbonate of lime (chalk) that it would exercise an injurious effect for years. A ' deep ' soil, such as many clays, is of considerable thickness. Mechanical Analysis of Soils.— A given soil consists of fragments and particles of different size, the sorting out of which is effected by mechanical analysis. The sample to be examined is first dried, the weight of moisture lost being noted, and then shaken through a sieve with round holes 3 mm. in diameter. In this way MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS 17 the \ stones ' are separat®! from the ' fine earth.' The latten is then treated successively with dilute hydro- chloric acid and ammonia, for the purpose of removing the ca»bonates,and humates that help to bind its par- ticles together. The fine earth is then air-dried, aftei ■which fipe gravel, coarse sand, and fine sand are sepa- rated by means of sieves, with holes of suitable dimen- sions. The very finely divided material (silt and clay) that remains is then sorted into size constituents by means of water. This is sometimes done by stirring up the soil in, a full cylinder of water and afterwards allow- ing it to fettle. The coarsest particles are deposited first and its finest ones last. More accurate results are obtained when water currents of known force are used to wash ou4 particles of corresponding size. The following will serve as an example of mechanical analyses : — Table I. — Soils from Chapel Close, Royal Aoeicultural College, Cikencestbr (M. Kekshaw). Stones, diam. over 10 mm Soil A. Soil B. SoilC. per cent. -4 per cent. 2-2 per cent. ■4 Small stones, diam. over 3 mm. 1-5 1-7 -15 Loss on treatment with acid 37-6 18-9 11-6 Fine gravel (3 mm. — 1 mm.) Coarse sand (1 mm. — -2 mm.) Fine sand (-2 mm. — -04 mm ) Silt (-04 mm.— -01 mm.) ... Fine silt • (-01 mm.— -002 mm.) ... Clay (below -002 mm.) Moisture Organic matter, etc., lost on heating ■ Dissolved matter (carbonates and humates) mostly calcium carbonate 1-53 1-62 5-69 13-48 15-36 13-89 9-96 12-73 27-64 -52 1-38 9-92 11-99 18-64 22-24 10-60 14-56 8-30 -95 1-35 15-17 17-88 21-93 21-34 9-49 ' llvtO 2-11 The stones were nearly all limestone (calcium carbonate). Chemical Analysis of Soils. — Of the chemical ingre- dients of soils, silica, alumina, and lime have already been noticed. Others, usuaMy present, are potash, soda, magnesia^, oxide of iron, phosphoric 18 COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS acid, sulphuric acid, and ''•'chlorine. With the ex- ception of chlorine these are all oxides, that is, com- pounds formed by the union of oxygen with some other element, though, in the case of the two acids named, water also enters into the composition. Potash, soda, magnesia, and oxide of iron are compounds of oxygen with the metals potassium, sodium, magnesium, and iron respectively. Phosphoric acid and sulphuric acid con- tain, as their names imply, the non-metallic elements, phosphorus and sulphur respectively, combined with hydrogen and oxygen. The substances which have been named do not usually exist free in the soil — no soils contain potash, soda, lime, or magnesia, as such, though many include free oxide of iron. The oxides of the metals (bases as they are termed) exist in soils in com- bination with the acids, forming salts* All clays contain silicate of alumina, and frequently silicate of potash. Phosphates, sulphates, and carbonates of lime, and of magnesia, occur naturally in many soils. Oxide of iron, though not present in quantity, is of interest in that the colours of soils are more frequently due to this ingre- dient than to any other. Eed and yellow sands and clays owe their colour to the presence of similarly coloured oxides of iron. Oxygen combines with iron in several different proportions, and the change in colour of a subsoil from a bright yellow to a rusty brown may be due to the bright yellow oxide of iron becoming more thoroughly oxidized when the subsoil is exposed to the air at the surface. Availability of Plant Foods. — An ordinary chemical analysis of a soil enumerates various substances known to be essential as plant food, but does not state whether these are immediately available for use. The roots of plants can only absorb compounds in solution, the feebly acid sap and dissolved carbon dioxide constantly diffus- ing out and thus helping to prepare such solutions. By extracting a soil with a 1 per cent, solution of citric acid the natural action of roots is, so to speak, imitated, * Acids whose names end in ic form salts whose names usually end in ate ; thus, sulphuric acid forms sulphates ; nitric acid, nitrates. AVAILABLE AND UNAVAILABLE PLANT FOOD 19 the substances thus dissolved out representing the plant {pod which can at once be drawn upon, and also serving, as a guide to manurial treatment. The citric acid method, however, is practically only a guide to the amount^\Of available phosphoric acid -and potash present. Of the various substances required by crops to sustain their growth, there are four of which the available supply in the soil is liable to run short, so that the deficiency has to be made good by the cultivator. These are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. The latter three, as they occur naturally in the soil, belong to the mineral ingredients. Nitrogen, on the other hand, is derived from the decay of organic matter in the soil and to some extent frpm the atm'osphere, in addition to which small but variable quantities are brought down in rain. In most ordinary soils, sand, clay, and humus make up as much as nine-tenths of the whole, the actual in- gredients upon which plants feed being comparatively small in amount (see Analyses, p. 20). The sand, clay, and humus," which constitute £he hulk of the soil, furnish the staple or fabric in which the roots search for food. They contain varying amounts of material which, later on, may be converted into plant food ready for absorp- tion, but are for the time being ' dormant ' or ' un- available.' The quantity of, soluble matter available, even in rich soils, is never abundant at any one time, and to add very large amounts of such matter would defeat the end in view, for roots can only absorb weak solutions. The object of the cultivator in his treatment of the soil — by tilling, manuring, fallowing — is to provide a succession of active or available plant-^ood, so that as the nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, lime, and other matters existing in the soluble form are used up, fresh supplies may be ready to take their place. ^If the soil should run short of any ingredient of plant-food it is said to be exhausted of that substance, and crops cannot be grown till it is replaced in sufficient quantity. More- over, an excess of one substance will not make good the deficiency of another; if a soil contains no potash an abundance of lime will not help it, and, similarly, 20 COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS though a soil may be rich in nitrogen it will yet be incapable of growing crops if it has no phosphorus. A good illustration of the difierence between soluble and insoluble plant-food is affoi'ded by nitrogen. Organic nitrogen, as it exists in farmyard manure, is insoluble in water, and therefore the plant cannot directly make use of it. The same nitrogen, after the process of nitrification, takes the form of a nitrate — nitrate of lime usually — which is soluble, and, dissolved in water, can be taken up by the plant. The following analyses of soils have been specially selected, and are presented here together, as illustrative of the variations in the composition of soils, which is the subject discussed in this chapter. Respecting the four ingredients just referred to, it is seen that nitrogen is at its highest (a-47 per cent.) in the peaty soil, and at its lowest (0-12 per cent.) in the sandy soil. Of phos- phoric acid, the percentages range from 0'16 in the clay soil to 0-10 in the sandy soil. Potash is at its highest (0-76 per cent.) in the clay soil, whilst lime is most abundant in the chalk soil and very deficient in the sandy soil. The student will notice the small percent- ages of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash which are usually present in cultivated soils. He will also observe the high proportions of insoluble silicates and sand — amounting to four-fifths or more of the whole — which enter into the composition of clays, loams, and sandy soils. Table II. — Composition of a Sandy Soil.* Sample 9 inches deep. ' Organic matter and loss on heating 2-82 Oxide of iron ... ■ •92 Alumina ■88 Lime ■18 Magnesia •12 Potash •07 Soda •oe Phosphoric acid •10 Sulphuric acid •01 Insoluble siliceous matter ... 94^84 • 100^00 ' Containing nitrogen -12 equal to ammonia ... ... ... -lo From Bugeley, Staffordshire. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS 21 , Table III.— Composition of a Clay Soil 1 Sample 9 indies deep. * ' Oi-ganiornatter and loss on heating Oxidqoiiroh Alumina Carbonate of lime Magnesia' Potash...' Soda 1 Phosphoric acid Sulphuric acid Insoluble silicates and sand 7-21 5-77 4-4:, ■7'.i ■76 •06 ■16 •10 7S^44 ' Containing nitrogen... equal to ammonia ... 100^00 •16 ■19 Table IV. — Composition of a Loam SoiL.t Sample 9 inches deep. * Organic matter and loss on heating- 5^07 Oxide of iron S63 Alumina 3^51 Carbonate of lime 1^48 Sulphite of lime •34 Magnesia •42 Potash •30 Soda •01 Phosphoric acid ... ... •10 Insoluble silicates and sand 85^14 IQOOO ' Containing nitrogen •19 equal to ammonia •23 Table V. —Composition of a Chalk Soil.J Sample 6 inches deep. ' Organic matter and loss on heating Oxide of iron Alumina Carbonate of lime Sulphate of lime Magnesia Potash Soda Phosphoric acid Insoluble silicates and sand 313 r62 1^63 28^77 •18 •36 •18 •11 ■15 63^97 ' Containing nitrogen equal to ammonia 100^00 •18 ■21 * From near Cambridge. t TTii + A hop soil near SittiugbourDe. icr'a T.vnn PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OP SOILS Table VI. — Composition of a Peaty Soil.* Sample 9 inches deep. ' Organic matter and loss on heating Oxide of h'on and alumina ... C'arbonate of lime Potash, soda, magnesia, etc Insoluble silicates and sand Containing nitrogen equal to ammonia * From Exeter, Devon. CHAPTER III. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OP SOILS Structure of Soil. — A soil consists, as we have seen (p. 17), of particles of various size and kind. The inter- stices between these particles collectively form what is known as the ' pore space,' which is greatest in clays (up to 50 per cent, of volume), and least in some of the coarser sands (25 to 30 per cent.). The density of the materials making up soils (true density) is obviously greater than the density (apparent density) of the soils themselves when dry, because the latter possess a larger or smaller pore space. The apparent density of a dry soil is obtained by dividing a given weight by its volume. Owing to the large pore space in clay soils these are really lighter than sandy soils with a smaller pore space, as will be seen from the following table (A. D. Hall) :— Table VII. — Apparent Density and Weight oy Soils. Kind of Soil. Apparent Density. Weight per cubic foot. Lbs. per acre of a layer 9 inches thick. Heavy clay Saudy clay Sandy clay subsoil Light loam Light loam subsoil Sandy loam Sandy peat Light sand 1-062 1-279 MIS 1-222 1-144 1-22.T 0-782 1-266 66-4 80 73-7 76-4 • 71-5 76-7 49 79-2 2,150,000 2,600,000 2,380,000 2,480,000 . 2,320,000 2,490,000 ],680;000 2,560,000 AIR OF THE SOIL 23 Since the roots of plants derive their food from the thin films of moisture clinging to the soil particles, it is obvious that the total surface presented by these in different cases is a matter of practical as well as theore- tical interest, especially as it is also related to the power of retaining water and of taking up certain sub- stances from solutions. The following table embodies the results of calculations made to determine the sur- faces offered by soils of different kinds. Table VIII.— Pore Spaces and Surfaces op Soils. Kind of Soil. Pore space, per cent. Area of Surface in square feet, per cubic foot of Soil. Finest clay Finest clay soU Loamy clay soil Loam Sandy loam Sandy soil 52-9 48 49-2 44-1 38-8 32-5 173,700 110,500 70,500 46,600 36,900 11,000 " As a rough figure to remember, the surface of the particles in one cubic foot of an ordinary light loam may be taken as about an acre ; this will increase as the soil approaches more and more to clay, and diminish as the soil becomes increasingly sandy." (A. D. Hall.) Air of the Soil. — The pore space in an ordinary soil, together with worm burrows and other relatively large cavities that may be present, is more or less full of air. The oxygen required by the roots of plants to enable them to breathe is derived from this air, and thorough ventilation of the soil is absolutely necessary if crops are to flourish. The air in the soil also plays an important part in the complex changes that are in- cessantly going on, largely as the result of the activity of microscopic organisms, and by which the store of available plant food is continually being increased. The object of drainage is to increase the volume of soil through which air can freely circulate. Water of the Soil. — A large proportion of the water which a soil is capable of holding may be termed ' free,' 24 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS i.e., it drains away with greater or less readiness. But after its removal a great deal of water still remains, clinging to the particles of soil by means of ' surface tension.' The meaning of this term is difficult to under- stand without a special knowledge of physics, but it will suffice for our present purpose to state that at the surface of a layer of water, where it is in contact with air, the molecules of water are drawn inwards by the attraction of deeper water molecules more powerfully than they are drawn outwards by the attraction of the air. It follows from this that the film of moisture adher- ing to a particle of soil may be compared to an elastic membrane on the stretch, and therefore trying to con- tract inwards. The water thus tightly held by the soil is of primary importance to plants, as it constitutes the plant food absorbed by the roots. Soils differ very much from one another as regards their capacity for taking up water. This is greater in proportion to the amount of clay and humus present. The most favourable or ' optimum ' amount for plant growth is from 40 to 50 per cent, of the total capacity. Soils may suffer as much from containing too much water as from possessing too little. By draining, on the one hand, and by suitable tillage, on the other, it is possible for the cultivator to exercise some control over the moisture in the soil. Crops, especially in droughty weather, draw largely upon the stores of moisture within the soil. To such an extent is this the case that cropped land generally gives up more moisture than it would if left in bare fallow. In the case of a crop of barley grown at Rothamsted there was removed from the soil more water [equivalent to 9 inches of rainfall] than had evaporated in the same time from an adjoining bare fallow. The powerful action of a crop in robbing a soil of its moisture is mainly due to the rapidity with which water evaporates during daylight from the surface of the leaves. A deep- rooted crop, like sainfoin or lucerne, may be more effec- tive in drying the soil than a shallow-rooted crop, such as barley or oats. CAPILLARITY 25 The water which evaporates from leaves goes off as pure water vUpour, the substances dissolved in the water when it leaves the soil remaining behind in the plant, and aiding in its nutrition. Experiments have led to the conclusion that from 250 to 300 .lb. of water are evaporated from leaves for 1 lb. of dry matter added to the plant. Sometimes the evaporation of moisture from the leaves goes on more rapidly than the roots take up fresh supplies from the soil. This state of things may often be seen in a mangel field on a hot sunny afternoon in July or August, when the leaves are all limp and drooping. As evening approaches, and the evaporative power of the sun's heat is lessened, the supply of water from the soil again equals the demand of the leaves, and the latter resume their crisp character, because their tissues become turgid with water. The maintenance of a suitable degree of moisture in the soil depends largely upon its physical condition, and especially upon its capillarity. No physical property is more familiar than that of capillarity, or capillary attraction. When a lump of sugar is held with one corner dipping in a cup of coffee, the brown liquid quickly suffuses the whole lump. When a fresh wick is allowed to dip into the oil-reservoir of a lamp, the oil speedily travels up the fabric. These are instances of capillarity, and the phenomenon is dependent upon the presence of innumerable very fine tubes (Lat. capillus, a hair). As the internal diameter of these narrow tubes increases, so does the power of capillary attraction diminish. Myriads of such tubes exist in the soil ; and the finer the soil the more delicate, and consequently the more efficient, do these tubes become. On the other hand, the coarser a soil, that is, the more inferior the tilth, the more do the delicate narrow tubes give place to others of wider bore. However dry axid parched ai cultivated soil may happen to be, it is not necessary to dig very deeply before moist soil is reached. By digging to a greater depth, the water table, or line of water level at the place, will be penetrated ; and it will be seen that from 26 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS the water-level upwards the earth is moist, though the actual soil may have lost all, or nearly all, its moisture. The fact that such a soil is not moist up to the surface is partly due to evaporation, though it is a question not so much of evaporation as of capillarity. The capil- lary tubes, having lost most of their moisture by evaporation, have crumbled into other more open tubes, too broad for the water to travel along, and hence the surface soil has been deprived of those myriads of minute invisible conduits which would have enabled it to con- tinuously draw its supplies of moisture from the reser- voir below. Had the surface soil been kept in a state of fine tilth — and this can be done by stirring it sufficiently frequently — the moisture would have travelled up from below to replace that which evaporated. When rain falls upon the soil, some of it sinks down to replenish the stores below ; but, during the period of active growth, and particularly in a droughty season, there is a movement of moisture irom. below upwards. This moisture replaces that lost at the surface by evaporation; and its direction is such that it tends to keep the soluble plant food where it is wanted, that is, about the roots of the plants. If enough water be poured into a saucer in which stands a flower-pot full of earth, the surface of this mould will at length become moist, the water having travelled upwards by capillarity. But here another important point has to be con- sidered. If all the capillary tubes are open to the surface, evaporation can proceed from them so freely that the underground store of moisture may be insuffi- cient to supply the continuous demand. Hence, again, it is desirable to keep the surface soil, by frequent stir- ring, in such a state that the capillary tubes are broken, or interrupted, a little below the surface. In this case the mere superficial covering of mould acts as a soil mulch; and, like a layer of leaves, or grass, or farm- yard manure, it protects the moisture beneath. Hence an occasional slight stirring of the superficial soil serves to conserve rather than to dissipate the underlying moisture, and such operations as hoeing and raking (harrowing) may be usefully resorted to even in very hot weather. PANS 27 In cases where, from frequent ploughings at the same depth, what is called a ' plough pan ' has formed, or where a layer of farmyard manure has accumulated beneath the soil, the overlying soil soon becomes dry, and speedily suffers from drought. The explanation, of course, is that the surface soil has been cut off from capillary continuity with the moisture-laden eiarth below, and there has been no upward current of moisture to replace that which has been lost by evaporation at the surface. When land has been ploughed time after time, to the same depth, it is no unusual thing for a hard layer or plough pan to form. It opposes the passage of water, and the roots of plants are unable to penetrate it. The repeated sliding of the base of the plough at one depth, and the treading of horses and men along the furrow, are the cause of the consolidation to which the pan is due. It is necessary that all such hard or indurated pans should be broken, and this is effected either by the sub- soil plough, the trench plough, or the steam cultivator. The subsoil plough breaks and stirs the subsoil without bringing any of it to the surface. The deeper-working trench plough acts more thoroughly, but at the risk of bringing up to the surface objectionable matter. The incorporation of subsoil with soil is a procedure to be adopted only with great caution. Natural pans are formed by chemical agencies. On calcareous soils, or where lime has been freely used, this material may form a lime pan at a moderate depth from the surface. The changes are similar to those which take place when lime and sand harden in mortar. In soils containing an undue proportion of oxide of iron, this material is washed into the subsoil, and cakes the particles together into an iron pan. In the same way the links of an iron chain may be cemented into one piece by iron rust. Peaty or moorland pans occur in heath and bog soils, and may arise from the accumula- tion of salts of iron beneath the surface. The subsoil plough ajid, in the case of lime pans, the trench plough, must be set to work to reduce these obstructive layers. 28 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS and thereby promote the percolating properties of the soil. Temperature of the Soil. — The germination of seeds and the general growth of plants can only take place within certain temperature limits, which vary some- what with the species. The lower limit is known as the minimum temperature, the upper limit as the maxi- mum, between which is a most favourable or optimum temperature. The following tables (compiled from various authori- ties) will illustrate this question : — Table IX. — Temperatures of Growth {in degrees F.). Plant. Mustard . . . Barley ... "Wheat ... JIaize Kidney bean Melon ... Minimum. 32 41. 41 4!i 49 65 Optimum, Maximum. 81-0 99-0 S!^■e 99-8 8.50 108-5 ii2(; 115-0 92-6 115-0 ; 91-4 m-0 ', Table X. — Temperatures of Germination {in degrees F.). Plant. Minimum. Oiitimum. ^Maximum. Wheat 32 to 41 77 to 88 88 to 110 Barley 40 77 to 88 100 to 110 Oats 32 to 41 88 to 100 Pea 38 to 41 — — i Scarlet runner 49 91 115 ! Maize • ... 49 91 115 1 Cucumber and melon ... 60 to 65 SS to 99 110 to 120 From such facts as the above it is obvious that investi- gations on the temperature of the soil are of practical importance, because they throw light upon when and where to sow various crops with the prospect of reason- able yield. TEMPEEATURE PF THE SOIL 29 *< The heat of the soil is mainly derived from the sun, by the fall of warm rain, and by the condensation of water vapour. Loss of heat is chiefly the result of radiation into the air, conduction into the air or the subsoil, and evaporation from the surface. The balance between gains and losses varies from time to time, and consequently the temperature of a given soil at any given depth varies also. The variations are more marked near the surface than lower down, and there- fore shallow-rooted are more affected than deep- rooted plants. Not only crop plants, but also the micro- scopic forms that bring about various important changes in the soil are affected by alterations in temperature, and a low thermometer not only checks the growth of higher forms, but also retards or suspends the activity of some of the lower forms which are engaged in the production of plant food. The amount of heat gained by soils depends upon a number of factors, of which aspect is one' of the most important. In our hemisphere slopes facing south receive most heat from the sun and, other things being equal, bear the most forward crops. Colour is also an impor- tant matter, for the heat absorbed is greater for dark soils than for light. So much heat is lost by surface evaporation that anything which checks this helps to maintain the soil at a higher temperature. A covering of vegetation, mulching, or stones on the surface, all act in this way, and wind screens have a similar effect. It is also clear that a well-drained soil loses less mois- ture by evaporation than an ill-drained one, and is therefore warmer. CHAPTEE IV. SOURCES OF LOSS AND GAIN TO SOILS The soil is ever changing. It is continually giving up matter, and as constantly receiving fresh matter. That crops rob soils of some of their ingredients is proved by 30 SOURCES OF LOSS AND GAIN TO SOILS burning the plants and analysing their ashes, which yield substances identical with some of the mineral matters of the soil, and different from anything which is contained in the air. The soil loses water, partly by direct evaporation from the surface into the air, but more especially through supplying that which the plant gives up by evaporation (transpiration) from the leaves. A still more serious loss is that which is effected through the medium of the water— drainage water — ^which flows away from the soil. Such water carries with it particles of soil — fine earth — in suspension, and it inflicts even a greater loss upon the soil by dissolving certain sub- stances and carrying them away invisibly in solution. By analysing drainage waters, and comparing the results with analyses of the rain waters which fall upon the soil, it has been possible to arrive at many useful facts concerning the behaviour of soils towards substances which are of importance as sources of food to crops. It has been ascertained that some of these substances are easily ' washed out ' of the soil, and are therefore commonly present in the drainage waters. Other useful substances, which are known to be present in the soil, are usually found in the drainage waters in only minute quantities; the soil exercises what is called a retentive power over these, since it retains or keeps hold of them. The substances of agricultural interest which are most readily carried away in solution by drainage waters are sodium and calijiumi chlorides and nitrates, and, to a less degree, sodium and calcium sulphates. The most important of these are the nitrates — ' nitrate of soda ' and ' nitrate of lime,' as they are commonly termed. On the other hand, most fertile soils possess a great retentive power for ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid; consequently, salts of ammonia and potash, and phosphates generally, are rarely found in any quantity in drainage waters, except under excep'tional conditions. It is the clayey part of the soil which exerts the retentive influence upon these soluble bodies, and, when rain falls upon the land, the effect of its solvent pro- perties is to cause a more equable distribution of these substances, rather than to wash them out. DRAINAGE WATER 31 Experiments have shown that the expulsion of soluble salts from the soil takes place most freely when the percolation of moisture is the most rapid, so that a heavy rainfall, restricted to a few days, does far more harm in washing the soil, than would the same amoimt of rainfall spread over a month. The richness of drainage waters in nitrates is, in the climate of England, greatest in early autumn, whilst it diminishes through the winter, and is least in spring. The summer is, nevertheless, the season when nitrates are most abundantly produced in the surface soil ; but, as little drainage occurs in summer time, owing to the temperature encouraging a high rate of evaporation, the nitrates at that season accumulate in the soil. As the autumn advances, drainage becomes active, and the washing out of the nitrates commences ; the first drain- age is not, however, always the richest, because the nitrates are most abundant at the surface and must be displaced by rain, and allowed time for diffusion, before they can appear in quantity in the drainage water. Shallow soils are most quickly washed out, whilst deep soils, possessing a larger mass for the diffusion of the nitrates, part with them more slowly and uniformly. At Bothamsted, Hertfordshire, fexperiments have been made to find out what quantity of nitrogen may be carried away in drainage waters. Three drain-gauges were sunk in bare soil, each occupying a surface area of y^^^^ of an acre, but extending to depths of 20 inches, 40 inches, and 60 inches, respectively. All the water that drained through the gauges was collected, and the quJtntity of nitrogen contained in it was ascertained in the laboratory. It was found that the annual amount of nitrogen in the form of nitrates removed in the drainage water was, on an average of four years (1877 to 1881), 45'51 lb., 36-32 lb., and 43-59 lb., respectively per acre from the three drain-gauges, the mean of all being 41-81 lb. per 'acre, which is the amount of nitrogen contained in 268 lb. of ordinary nitrate of soda. Supposing — and this is a fair and reasonable supposition — that the drainage water contained at the same time 0*5 part of nitrogen per 32 SOURCES OF LOSS AND GAIN TO SOILS m million in the form of organic nitrogen and ammonia, this gives a total of 43'77 lb. as the quantity of nitrogen removed in one year, from an acre of uncropped soil, in drainage water which amounted to 17'281 inches. Such a quantity of nitrogen is equal to that contained in an average crop of wheat or barley; its loss to the soil in the drainage water is thus a matter of grave import- ance. Though such loss may be, and probably is, con- siderably less in an ordinary agricultural fallow, occur- ring in rotation, than in the Rothamsted drain-gauge experiments, the loss must clearly be a very serious one whenever the season is wet. It has been estimated that, upon the farm soil at Rothamsted, as much as 80 lb. of nitrogen, as nitric acid, is formed in an acre of land during a whole year's bare fallow. In the drainage experiments just referred to, the mean annual amount of nitrogen per acre, carried away in the drainage waters over a period of thirteen years was 37 lb. By bare fallow is meant an interval between the crops upon a soil, during which space of time no crop is grown upon the land. It is a period of rest. Bare fallow can only be thoroughly successful in a dry climate, in which case the active production of nitrates, which takes place in a fallow, will doubtless greatly increase the fertility of the soil for the succeed- ing crop. In a wet climate the practice of bare fallow must result in a rapid diminution of soil nitrogen ; hence farmers have introduced what are called ' fallow crops ' and ' catch crops,' the effect of which is to intercept the nitrogen which would otherwise be lost, and could only be replaced by the use of expensive manures. One method by which a crop will greatly diminish such loss has already been noticed, namely, by largely increasing the amount of evaporation from the leaves (transpira- tion), and thus diminishing the amount of drainage. Besides the drainage waters from bare fallow land, those from variously manured soils cropped with wheat have also been collected and examined at Rothamsted. Wheat is a crop which, so far as is known, is entirely dependent for its nitrogen upon the nitrates in the soil. SOURCES OF GAIN 33 The average results for three years show that an un- manured soil upon which wheat was grown yielded only 3-9 parts and 4'5 parts respectively of nitrogen, as nitric acid, per 1,000,000 parts of drainage water. On the other hand, a bare soil kept free from weeds afforded lO'V parts of nitrogen, as nitric acid, in 1,000,000 parts of drainage water. So that there was about two and a half times as much nitrogen washed out from the bare soil as from the soil upon which the wheat was grown. The much lower proportion of nitrates in the drainage wate»-of the wheat land was partly owing to the ex- haustion of the nitrogen of the soil'by growing succes- sive crops of wheat without manure, but it was chiefly due to the fact that the crop made use of the nitrates which would otherwise have been lost in the drainage water. So great is the demand of the wheat crop for nitrates that, during the period of most active growth, and for some time after, no nitric acid, or the merest trace only, could be found in the drainage waters col- lected from several of the plot^ in the whe^t field in which the experiment was made. The sources of gain to the soil are to be sought in the land itself, in the atmosphere, in the residues of crops, and in the application of manures and of other dressings. ' In the land itself a slow conversion of subsoil into soil is always in progress, owing to the natural agencies that have been described. In certain circumstances it is found desirable to hasten this change by ploughing deeply enough to break the subsoil. In the case of a local or indigenous soil every gradation may be seen (fig. 1) between the free-working surface earth at the top, and tte hard unweathered bed-rock at various depths beneath. The soil itself is a transition stage between the rock, which is the parent of the soil, and the finely divided or soluble matter which is usually carried away in the waters that drain from the soil, or ^n the case of dissolved matter — is exported from the farm in the form of crops. The stones and other coarse fragments in the soil are continually undergoing reduction to smaller size, and adding thereby to the ' fine earth ' or mould amongst 34 SOURCES OF LOSS AND GAIN TO SOILS which the roots of plaats can travel in search of food. Every change of temperature; that affects the soil, every frost that disrupts its particles, every shower of rain that soaks' into its interstices, and every current of air that blows across its surface — -each does its work in re- ducing the soil to a finer meeha^ical condition. To these natural causes must be added the powerful agents of disintegration which man has at his command in the plough and other implements of tillage. Table XI. — The Maximum, Minimum, and Mean Amounts OF Certain Constituents in Sixty-nine Samples of Rain Water in Parts per Million. Total Solid Matter Carbon inor- ganic Matter ■ Nitrogen as Chlo- rine. Or- ganic Matter Am- monia ♦3!l" Total all M- Ni*^"- trites f"*°- Hard- ness. Highest pro- 1 portiou ... ( Lowest pro- ( portion ...j G-2 3-72 0-21 0-66 003 ]-2« 004 0-44 001 1114 0-13 16-5 0-0 160 0-0 Mean, 69 sam- 1 pies ... ) 33-1 0'90 019 0-37 0-14> 0-70 31 4-7 ' The mean of 34 samples. Bain, as a source of gain to the soil, supplies on the one hand most of the water upon which our crops are dependent for their growth, and on the othei'- hand it carries down from the atmosphere certain ingredients which, though small in relative quantity, yet represent a significant addition to the stores of fertility within the soil. As rain condenses, and falls through the air, it dissolves some of the gases which are psresent in :the atmosphere. In rain-water, collected in the country, nitrogen? ^d oxygen are the chief gases dissolved, together with a small quantity of carbonic acid and a still sm^^ej; amount'of ammonia. The rain further con- tains certain .sfli^ Substances gathered in the course of its descent. S^mte> of thes^, as "the chlorides, sulphates. COMPOSITION OP RAIN, DB-W, AND HOAErFROST 36 and nitrates of sodium, calcium, and ammonium, are dissolved by the rain; others, as particles of dust and soot, are merely mechanically held, and give to rain- water its usually dirty appearance. As a rule these various substances are present only in very minute quantities. An example of what rain-water may actually contain is shown in Table XI., which affoyds information con- cerning the composition of ram-water collected at Table Xn. — The Maximum, Minimum, and Mean Amounts OF Certain Constituents in Seven Samples or Dew AND HOAB-FKOST, in PARTS PER MILLION. Total Solid Matter Carbon inor- ganic - Matter Nitrogen as Chlo- rine Hard- ness. Or- ganic Matter Am- monia m. trates and Ni- trites Total Nitro-. gen Highest pro- ) portion ... f Lowest pro- 1 portion ...J 800 26-4 4-50 1-95 1-96 0-26 2-31 107 0-50 0-28 4-55 1-66 8-0 3-5 25-0 130 Mean, 7 sam- ) plea ... / 48-7 2-64 0-76 1-63 0-40' 2-7.9 6-3 19-0 ' The mean of 4 analyses. Kothamsted. It indicates that nitrogen may occur in rain in the forms of nitrates, nitrites, ammonia,- and or- ganic matter. The carbon and nitrogen in the organic matter represent the soluble matter extracted by the rain from the organic dust with which it has come in contact in the atmosphere, or on the surface of the col- lecting vessels. The mean proportion of nitrogeii to carbon is about 1 : 5 (0'19 to 0"90), so that the organic matter brought down in rain is of a decidedly nitro- genous character. The chlorine of rain-water is due to the presence of common salt. It will be seen that the total solid matter (33'1 parts) dissolved in rain-water is considerably greater than the sum (5'4 parts) of the c 2 36 SOURCES OF LOSS AND GAIN TO SOILS constituents -which are specified in the table ; the remain- ing matter is made up partly of sulphates, -which form a large ingredient of rain--water. Inasmuch as dew and hoar-frost are also sources of soil-moisture, the composition of several samples, like- ■wise collected at Eothamsted, is given in ■ Table XII. By comparing th® figures of this table -with those in Table XI. it -will be learnt that these small deposits, condensed from the lo-wer layer of the atmosphere, con- tain on an average three or four times the amount of organic carbon, organic nitrogen, ammonia, and nitric Table XIII. — Average Composition of Samples or Rain PKOM Various Disteicts op England and Scotland, in Paets pee Million. Nitrogen as Chlorine. Sulpliurio Acid. Ammonia. - ^Mc England, country places, inland... „ towns / Scotland, country places, sea coast „ „ „ inland... ., towns „ Glasgow 0-88 0-19 4-25 0-22 0-61 0-11 0-44 ' 0-08 3-15 , 0-30 7-49 0-63 3-88 8-46 12-24 3-28 5-7.0 8-72 5-52 34-27 5-64 2-06 16-50 70-19 acid found in the rain-water. The total quantity of solid matter, and the amount of chlorides, are also larger, but the difference is much smaller than in the case of the other ingredients. The mean proportion of organic nitrogen to carbon is 1 : 3i, as compared with about 1 : 5 in the rain-water. The composition of rain-water varies, however, very considerably according to the locality in which it is col- lected, as may be learnt from a study of Table XHI. The rain of towns exhibits a large increase both in ammonia and sulphuric acid, and a smaller, though a considerable, increase in chlorides and nitrates. Chlorides are most abundant in the rain collected at the sea-coast. Eain collected at Valentia, on the west coast of Ireland, yielded as much as 47-35 parts of chlorine per million. HUMUS 37 Independently of the carbonic acid gas which rain dissolves in its passage through the air (p.^34), nitrogen is by far the most valuable addition that rain makes to the soil. It is brought down chiefly in the two com- binations of ammonia and nitric acid, in which forms farmers pay large prices for nitrogen when th.ey pur- chase such artificial fertilizers as sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda (pp. 118-19). Analyses of rain-water made at nine different places in Europe, between the years 1865 and 1880, gave an average of 10-23 lb. of nitrogen per acre per annum brought down in the rainfall, the least quantity being 1-86 lb. per acre at Kuschen and the greatest 20-91 lb. per acre at Proskau. The total quantity of nitrogen supplied in the annual rainfall at Eothamsted is probably 4 to 5 lb. per acre,- which is considerably less than the average of 10-23 lb. above mentioned. Table XIV. — Weight and Composition of Residues of Ceofs. Lb. per acre. Crop Residue. Nitrogen. Phos- phorio Acid. Potash. Good oloTer,— roots Oats, — roots and stubble ... Timothy grass, — roots ; 6503 2200 ~ 2240 65-0 26-0 311 '27-0 28-0 7-0 240 8-4 The remains of plants, particularly their roots, which accumulate in the soil, are an obvious source of gain, and serve to confer, especially upon the surface-soil, some important characters. , It is this plant refuse which constitutes the main source of the humus, which is an indispensable constituent of all fertile soils. In Table XIV. are some figures showing, in certain cases, the ascertained weight of crop residues (water-free) per acre, together with the quantities of nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash contained by these. 38 SOURCES OP LOSS AND GAIN TO SOILS Table XV. shows the weight of roots, stones, fine soil, and water contained in one acre of land, to a depth of nine inches, at Rothamsted, in a field that had been in grass for nearly thirty years. The proportion of stones is higher than in any of the arable fields at Rothamsted. It is seen that, after nearly thirty years, more than 4^ tons of air-dried roots had accumulated per acre within a depth of nine inches from the surface. These roots gave on analysis 0-75 per cent, of nitrogen, equiva- lent to 78 lb. of nitrogen per acre. Table XV.— Roots, Stones, Fine Soil, and Water in One AoKE OF Grass Land, Nine Inches deep. Lb. Tons. Per cent. Roots, etc Stones, etc Fine soil (di-y) Water 10,400 = 4-6 904,387 = 403-7 1,908,978 = 852-2 543,150 = 242-6 0-3 26-9 56-7 16-1 Total 3,366,915 = 1,503-0 100-0 The intentional application in the course of tillage of natural manures and artificial fertilizers is an obvious source of gain of material to the soil. Dressings of clay, chalk, lime, marl, etc., upon soils that respectively need them are equally substantial sources of gain. The nitrogen contained in humus is known as organic nitrogen, that is, nitrogen combined with carbon. In this form it is scarcely, if at all, available as plant food ; in order to become so it has to undergo a chemical change known as nitrification. This change results in the conversion of the nitrogen by oxidation into nitric acid, the combination of which with some soluble base in the soil, such as lime, or potash, or soda, produces a nitrate, which can be taken up in solution by the. rootlets of plants. A plant is cap^le of acquiring nitrogen from the soil in the form of either nitric acid or ammonia. U a matter of fact, however, the process of nitrification BjfiCTEBHA OF SOIL 39 ia so constantly going on that far more nitrogeo is taken- up itf tbe form of nitrates than in any.o^her form.- ■ ' , > Nitrification is brought about through th« vital activilgr of certain organisms that live in the soiL They belong -to a group of living bodies (bacteria) which are BO small that the highest powers of the microscope are necessary to discern them. Ammonia is converted into nitrous acid and nitrites by two organisms named Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus, and nitrites iato nitrates by another called Nitrohacter. Under the influence of ,the nitrifying bacteria, and of other organisms, the organic matter in the soil is converted into yrater, carbonic acid, and ammonia, and the latter finally into nitric acid. '■ •' i ^ , > . . The conditions most favourable ' to the activity i of the nitrifying bacteria are that the soil-.sh^U be moist, and porous enough to permit free access of air. The latter is indeed essential to them, and many other aerobic forms. The temperature must be sufiiciently high, nitrification being most active in the summer months, and ceasing as the freezing point is approached. The soil must contain some baseivith which tlje nitric acid produced can com- bine; usually this base is furnished by the lime of car- bonate of lime, so that much of -the nitrogen which enters plants does, so ast nitrate of lime (calcium nitrate) in solution. .Jlpo,much n^oisiture operates against nitri- fibation, andfiiji^a water-lQggec(,'soil, si^ch as a peat-bog, nitrification wiU go^,iafee,plaq,e^ an appreciable extent, because the access-f>^ir is j^revented. It has long been^tojOwn that leguminous plants (clover, peas, beans, etc.) add- to the nitrogenous plant-food in the soil, and thus play a very important, part in the rotation of crops. The- matter was not fully understood until 1886, when Hellri'egel and Wilfarth showed that the numerous small swelliiigs, or nodules, present on the roots of such^ plants contain innumerable bacteria (Pseudomonas radici'cola) capable of 'fixing ' the riitrogen contained in the air of the soil, with the ultimate pro- duction of nitrogenous compounds serving. as plant-food. Soil in which a leguminous crop has been grown 40 SOURCES OP LOSS AND GAIN TO SOILS contains enormous numbers of Pseudomonas in a resting stage, and able to become associated with the roots of a subsequent and similar crop. Advantage has been taken of this fact in reclaiming barren heath land, in- capable without special treatment of growing such plants as clover or beans to a profitable extent. After suitable tillage in preparation for, say, clover such land has been ' inoculated ' with 8 cwt. per acre of soil from a clover field. When sown with clover an abundant crop has resulted. Several partially successful attempts have also been made to prepare laboratory cultures of Pseudomonas for the purpose of treating seeds and inoculating soil. Nitragin was the first material of the kind. It was pre- pared by Nobbe in various forms supposed to be adapted to different leguminous species, it being assumed that Pseudomonas radicicola exists in a number of ' races,' associated with distinct species. None of these prepara- tions have BO far attained practical success. It has since been discovered that there are other nitrogen-fixing bacteria which live in the soil, the most important being Azotoiacter chroococcum, a widely distri- buted aerobic form, dependent for its activity on the presence of calcium carbonate. In opposition to the process of nitrification which is constantly going on in the soil, there is also a process of denitrification, whereby nitrogenous compounds are broken down with the ultimate liberation of free nitrogen into the air. This takes place when a large amount of organic matter is present. It is the work of certain bacteria which only thrive when free oxygen is excluded, and are therefore termed anaerohie. Fungi of the Soil. — The complex chemical processes that are constantly^ going on in the soil are not only associated with b'acteria, but with moulds and other fungi that are abundantly present. The action of these affords a promising field for research in which compara- tively little has so far been done, and the same is true for the myriads of microscopic animals (Protozoa) that also live in the ground. KINDS OF SOIL 41 It is, however, desirable to say a word on mycotrophic plants, e.g., heath and many trees, in which the, roots are covered by a feltwork of delicate fungus fibres, to which the general name of mycorhiza has been ap- plied. There can be no doubt that these are concerned with the preparation of plant-food for the forms with which they are associated, and it is not impossible that in some cases they are able to fix free nitrogen, though that remains to be proved. The intimate connection between two forms of life for mutual benefit, as ex- emplified by mycorhiza and by the bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants, is termed mutualism or symbiosis. CHAPTER V. IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS Fob. general purposes the most useful soils are the loams, and the best kind'of soil is that indicated on page 15. Garden soils, that have long been subjected to spade cul- ture and' generous manuring, are of this character. As a rule, however, soils are more or less deficient in one or more useful properties, and this is notably the case in the soils of farms which undergo the usual course of field cultivation. It is the object of the cultivator to, make good such deficiencies, and so to bring the soil into better condition. This may be effected in various ways. Soils consisting to an undue extent of one ingredient are poor. A soil which includes an excessive percentage of clay, or of sand, or of peaty matter, needs some corrective before it can be cultivated to the best advan- tage. The most obvious course to pursue is to apply to the soil, and to mix with it, that in which it is deficient Hence have arisen various processes for improving the soil, such as chalking, liming, claying, and warping, to which may be added paring and burning, and green manuring. 42 IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS Peaty soils, and others containing too much organic matter, become what is 'termed ' sour,' owing to the excess of organic acids which develop in the land as the vegetable matter decomposes. Lime, by combining with such acids renders them harmless; hence chalk or, if more convenient, quicklime, is carted onto such land, allowed to crumble, then spread and ploughed in. Marl is cla-y containing variable quantities of car- bonate of lime ; it may be called a calcareous clayj. The chalk marl of Farnham contains 66 per cent, of carbonate of lime, the clay marl of Kimmeridge has 34 per cent., and the Keuper marl of Worcestershire 8 per cent. Marl is put on land chiefly for the sake of the lime it brings with it, but on sandy soils it is useful for increasing their coherence and water-holding capacity, on account of the clay it includes. Old marl pits are common in parts of Cheshire, and elsewhere. By warping is meant the covering of land with the sediment deposited from silt-laden streams or floods. It is practised in Lincolnshire and adjacent districts, usually on the flat borders near the mouths of sluggish rivers. The warp makes a rich top-dressing for the land, and its, effect will be seen for from 15 to 20 years. In, the notable case 'of the valley of the Nile, the crops are dependent upon the annual overflow of the river, not only for manure, but alsoJor moisture. Paring and burning are occasionally resorted to on clay soils, and on soils that have become very foul from the presence of couch and other troublesome weeds. The surface is pared off, gathered into heaps, and fired, the ashes — ^partly of plants and partly of burnt earth — being returned to the land. A stiff clay soil may be rendered more open and porous if heaps of the clay are burnt to a ruddy broyrn colour, and then mixed again with the land. Clay that has been burnt does not, when mois- tened, resume its plastic character. The plasticity of clay is due to combined water, and this is driven off in the process of burning. Paring and burning destroys weeds, improves the draining capacity, and renders the silicates more soluble, potash being set free. But, on DRAINAGE OF SOILS 43 the other hand, it destroys organic matter, including nitrogenous compounds. Green manuring is a simple way of improving a soil that is deficient in organic matter or humus. Upon a light sandy soil, for instance, the seed of a quick-growing crop, such .as mustard or vetches, may be s6wn, and when the plant has attained a convenient height it is ploughed in. The crop thereby returns to the land not only all th6 matter it took from the soil, but a jnuch larger quantity of carbonaceous material which it ob- tained from the air. Leguminous crops (beans, clover, lucerne, etc.) possess an additional advantage, in that they collect from the air not only carbon by means of their* leaves, but also nitrogen, through the medium of the bacteria in the root nodules (p. 35). Such crops, therefore, may serve as sources of nitrogen to the soil. » Though vegetation cannot thrive upon a soil that con- tains no moisture, it does not follow that because a soil is filled with moisture it is therefore well adapted to plant growth. Everything depends upon the condition in which such moisture exists. If it is stagnant, that is, if it takes the form of standing water, the soil will, for practical purposes, be barren. What is required is that the moisture in the soil should take the form of moving water, carrying with it plant-food in solution, and drawing after it the atmospheric air. It is to pro- mote this flow of water — especially of rain water — through^ the soil,- that the operation of draining is resorted to. ' Varibus indications serve to show when land needs draining. After a fall of rain, the water collects in puddles upon the surface. Upon arable land, the crops are poor, and ill-coloured in the- spring time, whilst such weeds as horsetail, coltsfoot, and bistort ' spring up. Land of this kind works badly under the plough, and it is difficult to prepare seed-beds upon it. Upon undrained grass land, rushes, sedges, tussock grass, and similar weeds usurp the place of the desirable grasses. Plovers, starlings, and other insectivorous birds commonly frequent land that needs drainage. 44 IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS Ill-drained soils are always cold. The water with which the land is charged slowly evaporates into the air. In the conversion of water into vapour a large amount of heat is consumed, arid it is the sun's heat, that would otherwise warm the land and promote plant- growth, which is thus diverted. Independently of this, water has a greater capacity for heat than most other substances, that is, to raise . its temperature a given extent, water requires more heat than othSr bodies. Land is drained with the object of promoting the percolation of water and air. Sandy soils by their texture, some soils by their slope, and others by the character of their subsoil, are said to be naturally drained. Many soils, on the other hand, have to be subjected to a system of artificial drainage, usually by means of pipes, before they arrive at the best condition for successful cultivation. These drain-^iles, or drain- pipes, are made of burnt clay, and unsound ones should always be rejected. The pipes are placed end to end at suitable depths, with a gentle inclination of not less than 1 in 220,~ along the . entire course, in the direction of the surface. There is a relation between the depth of drains and their distance apart — ^the nearer they are laid to the surface the closer are the lines of drain-pipes brought together. In a very light soil, a single drain at a suit- able depth may serve to control a large area; whereas, in a stiff clay, the drains may need to be laid only 15 feet apart, and not more than 3 feet below the sur- face. In practice, 21 feet is an ordinary distance apart on heavy land, with a depth of 3 or 3^ feet. On light lands the width between drains may be extended to about 60 feet. In determining the direction of drains, it does not follow that the greatest slope available should absolutely be taken. In land that drains freely, the water that fills the drain-pipes comes from below rather than from above. It is a familiar fact, proved in the sinking of wells, that at a certain depth water is reached. The surface of this underground water— the water-table (p. 25)-^oscillates, approaching nearer to the ground after heavy rains and DRAINS 46 receding farther downwards after drought. The chief function\of drains is to tap this reservoir of underground water, add so prevent the water-table fromTrising to such a height ijhat moisture would stagnate around the roots of plants ind thus hinder their growth. In caseB of artificial draining it is necessary that ditches and other opeQ watercourses should be kept clear and unobstructed. Attention to this point will often lead to the disappearance of defects at some dis- tance away. Main drains should be 3 inches lower than furrow drains, and the outlets should be turned slightly down stream, and be brick-faced, with a grating to guard A vV Fig, 2. — Plan or Drains. F, furrow drains, not moi« than 600 feet long, and from 16 ta 60 feet apart ; M, main drain ; O, ouUet. against the entrance of rats. To prevent the accumula- tion of sediment, furrow drains should never enter a main drain opposite each other (fig. 2). The number oi outlets should be as few as possible, and every outlet and drain ought to be marked on a plan of the farm, so that, if lost sight of, any one of them can be traced. Where springs occur they must be drained a few inches lower than the rest of the land. In places where there is a risk lest roots of trees or of hedgerow plants should enter drains, and thereby choke them, it is well to use socketed pipes, with cemented joints. The various acts of tillage, such as ploughing, 46 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS harrowing, rolling, hoeing, etc., are all directed to the amelioration of soils. The primary improvement they effect is in the mechanical condition of the land, but, as a consequence of this, the weathering agencies get freer access to the recesses of the soil, and the result is an addition to the store of soluble plant-food. CHAPTER VI. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS IMPLEMENTS FOR WORKING SOILS The implements in use at the beginning of the last century were of a primitive and clumsy type, wood having been largely employed in the construction of those parts now made with iron or steel. They were built with FlO. 3. — SINGLE-FURKOW PLOUGH. i., beam. B, handle or stilts. 0, handle stay or brace. D, quadrant head. B, Bliding-head. p, draught chain. G, breast or mould-board. H, breast stay. 1, mould-board-rest. K, ehare. L, land wheel. M, land-wheel standard. N, furrow wheel. o, furrow-wheel standard p, coulter. Q, coulter clip. R, skim-coulter. little regard to sound mechanical principles, conse- quently they were heavy in draught and deficient in execution. Improvements have gradually been made, but, as may be gathered from the successive volumes of the Journal of the Boyal Agricultv/ral Society of England, with striking rapidity during the last three-quarters of THE PLOUGH 47 \ a cent^kry. The spade and other hand implements are described elsewhere (p. 92). The Plough. — The early Egypfian plough had a share, or, strictly speaking, an iron point, , but no coulter or wheels ; the early^ Greek plough had wheels as well as a share. The Bayeux Tapestry illustrates the Saxon ploughs of\ the eleventh century as having coulters, shares, and, wheels. But none of these old ploughs •turned a furVow ; and it was not until the middle of the seventeenth century that the rude plough of antiquity was improved in any important particular. Eveh then the progress was slow, and such improvements as were effected were usually' confined to limited districts. Fio. 4. — Paets or Plough. A, drag weight and chain. b, hake and chain. 0, spanner. The mould-boards continued to be made of wood, and it was not until 1760 that Small introduced the Scotch swing plough, of which the beam and handles were made of wrought iron and the mould board of cast iron. Wooden mould-boards were still commonly used until about 1830. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the last century the self-sharpening chilled cast-iron plough- shares, the same as those now universally used, were invented, and plough bodies were made which could be taken to pieces, and the parts replaced by the plough- man in the field. Since that time there iiave been no radicAl changes in the principles governing the construction of ploughs, although great advance has been made in perfecting the different parts. The parts of the common plough (figs. 3, 4, 5)— many 4e AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS or all of which are present in other ploughs — taken in the order in which it is convenient to fix them when putting the plough together, include the beam, to which are fitted the handles or stilts at the back end, and Elili,i,aiiililia illii A. side-CFip, or land-cap. B, slode, 0, breast ; D, its rest, or 'footing. Fio. 5.— Parts of Plotjoh. E, caet frame, or body, r, frame coupling. G, breast coupling. c^Iir' Fig. 6. — Forms of Ploughshares. A, for square work m loams B, paring share for skimming a.nd land free from stones. stubbles. (.', pointed share for stony land. (fig. 4) the hake and chain (sometimes called the bridle) at the front end. The beam carries all the parts. PLOUGH8HAEES 40 The handles are for steering and balancing the plough, whilst the hake and chain provide the means for attach- ing theVplough to the Whipple trees. The hake has notches by means of which the chain may be adjusted as required ; if the plough will not draw into the ground readily thfe chain is lodged in one of the upper notches ; whilst if the tendency is to draw in too deeply the chain is linked iii one of the lower notches, thus causing the plough to run without undue inclination either into or out of the' soil, and relieving both horses and man of undue or uniecessary strain. The hake can be moved sideways along the quadrant head, which is provided with holes and a pin in order to fix the hake in any required position. If the plough runs away from the unploughed land, the hake must be set to the right ; and if it runs too much to the land, the hake must be set more to the left. In many ploughs the hake head (fig. 4) is replaced by a draught chain attached to the beam in front of the body and the vertical and lateral adjust- ment is obtained by means of the sliding head (see fig. 8). Both systems have their advantages and advocates. The frame or body (fig. 5, b), which carries the whole of the ploughing parts except the coulters, is bolted ,to the beam. The share (fig. 6), the object of which is to make the horizontal cut of the furrow, is fitted on the fore-end of the frame, or on a lever neck, which is made adjust- able, so that, by raising or lowering the rear end of the lever-neck the share is set at a sharper angle, the better to enter hard ground, or made to run level as desired ; this is called ' altering the pitch of the sharp. ' A few manufacturers in Great Britain have recently in- troduced what is called a bar point share (fig. 7). This consists of a strong-steel bar about a yard long, chisel- pointed at both ends, which can be reversed and ad-., vanced as wear takes place, the wing of the share being a separate wearing part. It is claimed for the ploughs fitFed with such bar point shares that they will face rocky land better than anything else. c The slade is attached to the under sid.e of the body, its duties being to support the plough, and to make it 50 AGRTCUI,TUBAL IMPLEMENTS run steadilj'. The object of the side-cap or land-cap is to take the thrust of the breast against the land side and to keep the earth from falling into the furrow. w 02 H M o m m\ t^ The breast or mould-board is bolted to the frame, and kept adjustably ligid by means of the frame and breast couplings and the breast-stay. The rest supports the PLOUGH WHEELS 61 breast 6a the under side, and, taking the friction, pre- vents wear on the bottom of the breast, and is itself replaced ^t trifling cost. The lever-neck, when used, is attached to the frame under the breast. Many ploughs, however, are without a lever-neck, in which case the shares are made more or less pitching, in order to suit the nature of the soil. The wheels are fixed to the fore-end of the beam by a cross-bar ancl beam-clasp. The cross-bar is attached at right angles to the fore part of the beam by means of Fio. 8.— Plough Wheels. the beam-clasp, which is held in its place by a set screw. The large or furrow wheel is placed on the right of the cross-bar, and the standard which carries the wheel is held in position by wheel sockets and set screws (fig. 9 e). It runs in the furrow, and regulates the width of the furrow slice. The small or land-wheel is similarly at- tached on the left of the cross-bar, and runs on the unploughed land to control the depth of the ploughing. The ploughing is'' regulated by the manner in wl^ich the wheels are set. If it is desired that the furrow should be ploughed deeper the land wheel is set higher, and 62 AGRICULTURAl, IMPLEMENTS vice versd. The width of the furrow is regulated by ,the furrow wheel, the furrow widening in proportion as the furrow wheel is set further from the beam. The width of the furrow is, in fact, determined by the distance or width between the cut of the coulter and the track of the furrow wheel. The details of the wheel fastenings vary according to the district, some localities having a preference for one form or another, but the above description gives the general principles of the adjust- ment for width and depth. The wheels are fixed to the fore end of the beam by one or more cross-bars, or by sliding axles to the lower end of the wheel standards, as shown in the illustrations (fig. 8).- - The coulter is attached to the beam by means of the coulter clip and loops (fig. 9, d). Some skill is required to fix the coulter in the correct position, as it is neces- sary to place it at different angles according to circum- stances, but, as a rule, the point of the coulter should be set so that it is almost close to the share point. The coulter makes the vertical cut of the furrow slice. The skim-coulter, which is attached to the beam slightly in front of the coulter, is really a plough in miniature (fig. 9, c). It pares off the top of the furrow on the left side, when this is rendered desirable on account of plant growth upon it, or when it is necessary to cover in dung or other material lying on the surface. The small breast of the skim-coulter turns the loose material into the horse-walk, where it immediately becomes buried by the furrow. Another method, frequently followed, of fitting the plough together, is to begin with the body, consisting of the frame, the slade, the share — either with or with- out lever-neck — ^the breast, and the couplings which attach the breast to the frame. These practically make the plough. The beam is attached to the implement for the purpose of drawing it through the ground, for the fixing of the wheels for regulating the depth, and for attaching the coulter to make the clean vertical cut The handles are put on to the rear end of the body for the purpose of guiding the plough. WORKING THE PLOUGH 63 In working the plough the following instructions should be observed: — Plougks with two wheels should, in turning the land's end, be bWlauced on the furrow wheel. In ploughing the last furrow, the land wheel is turned inwards or drawn up out of the way. "Dn wet, sticky soil, where the land wheel clogs, a slide foot may be used instead of the wheel, and a short Fio. 9. — Parts or Plough. A, coulter (w, hole for attaching drag weight and chain — fig. - 4. A). B, diso-eoulter. c, skim-coulter. D, coulter clip and loope. E, wheel socket and set screws. breast, which turns the furrow more quickly, will be found preferable to a long breast. In very hard land, ploughs go more easily if the draught chain is lengthened three or four feet. When the ground is hard or stony, a share with a long point should be used, and, as the point wears off, the lever-neck-^if present — ^must be raised higher. On clay or soft land, or when ploughing without wheels, a. share with short point should be used, and the lever-neck fixed lower. The head or draught chain should also be lowered, so as to prevent the wheels cutting into the ground. 54 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS The skim-coulter should be set so as only just to clear the herbage on the surface — the shallower the better; the hinder part should not be too high from the ground, but set as level as possible. In ploughing the coming- back furrow, after drawing the first on the ridge, the skim-coulter should be set moderately deep, so as effectually to bury the grass. A drag chain should be used on ley ground, as also when ploughing in green crops, stubbles, and long dung. On reaching the end of a furrow the plough should not be lifted by the ploughman to the next piece, but should be brought out by simply pressing on the handles, thereby using them as a lever. The plough is tfeus turned over on the right-hand side, balanced on the large or furrow wheel, not the small or land wheel, 1 ; .. : k; t^ T i / \ i 1 ; ivi 1 i- A M B Q F ' N C •« ■ 22 ya rds— 1 , — > "(- Fio. 10.— -Diagram showing Mode or Ploughing [NOTB. — MB = B Q = Qi' = rN = N o = 5i yards.] and so drawn towards the next piece. The turning can be done by a boy, being a matter of skill rather than of strength. The breasts of ordinary ploughs are fixed on the right-hand side, so that they turn the furrow slice on the right-hand side only. It is therefore necessary to work in ridges or lands, the width of which may be varied from 8 feet to 66 ffeet, according to the climate and nature of the soil. Perhaps the best mode of ploughing in dry climates with such ploughs is in 22-yard lands, as illustrated in fig. 10. Step off from the lefl^hand boundary of the field 22 yards, as shown in the diagram. Divide this into two equal lengths of 11 yards each, M Q, Q N. Divide BEST MODE 'OF PLOUGHING 56 again that portion nearest the hedge or boundary into two equal lengths of 5| yards, M Bj B Q. Upon the centre line A B of this, throw a furrow slice from each side to form the ridge A B. Keep ploughing round the ridge B, in the direction of the arrows, till 5^ yards of ridging or gatliering are done each side, as shown in the diagram. This first piece being finished, step out 22 yards, B C, from the middle of the ridge A B ; this distance will extend 5^ yards beyond the first new ridge C S. Proceed to make ridge C S, and plough round it 5^ yards on each side, as in the former case. There will then be 11 yards, Q N, of unploughed land between the two ridges A B and S 0, which proceed to plough out (casting or splitting), first on one side, and then on the other, until the work is finished in the middle, where there will be an op6n furrow F. Now proceed to step out 22 yards, from the ridge C S, to get the centre for the new ridge (shown at D W), make a ridge on D W, and plough round it 5^ yards on each side as before, then 5^ yards on the right side of ridge C S being already done, there will be 11 yards of unploughed land between the two ridges C S and D W, which ploaigh out as before. From D, step out 22 yards to form the centre of another ridge, and so on until the field is finished. If it should happen that an odd piece is left over on one >side, a separate ridge must be made for it. Where the fields are large, set out all the ridges first, so that several ploughs can work together in the same field. Change the position of the ridges at every fresh ploughing, beginning the new ridges in the old furrows. In the diagram, B A, 0. S, are ridges ; F is a furrow. On heavy soils, as it is often impossible to get the surface-water away quickly enough, unless the land is laid up' in ridge and furrow, the mode of setting out the lands differs. The distance from the crown of one ridge to the crown of the next varies according to the nature of the land. Where a strong loam rests on a rather stiff subsoil, 10-yard lands may be sufficient; the same soil with a very retentive subsoil would not be safe in more 66 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS than 7-yard lands ; whilst a clay soil resting on clay should not be laid up in more than 6-yard lands, and even 5-yard or 4-yard lands are practised. The smallest lands are laid up for wheat, when, to avoid treading on the seed-bed, they are ploughed so as to be just as wide as the corn-drill; the horses then walk up the open furrows, so that all treading, and consequently puddling are avoided. Of course, these are flat, so that the drill runs evenly over them. Fig. 11. — Forms op Fueeows. (1) Rectangular furrow, unbroken; (2) crested furrow, unbroken; (3) wide furrow, broken. The three forms of furrows shown in fig. 11 are those most commonly employed. The rectangular furrow (1) is obtained by a flat cutting share, and an upright coulter, so that the sole of the furrow is flat. The crested or high cut furrow (2) is obtained by using a share which is raised on the wing side, and an undercut coulter. In the latter furrow a larger surface is exposed to the influence of the weather, and it is therefore frequently adopted in winter ploughing, or where broadcast sowing TYPES OF PLOUGH 67 is practised. The wide broken furrow (3) is the work of the digging breast plough, which is specially suitable for the purpose of producing tilths. Land turned up with the digging plough is reduced to a light condition, which makes it practically ready for planting, though if left exposed to the weather any heavy rain is likely to beat it down to a ' sad ' condi- tion, requiring the work of a cultivator or other imple- ment to open it up. If the ploughed land has to lie for a time, angular furrows (fig. 11, 1 and 2) are preferable, as they withstand the beating down efiects of heavy rain. The following are the points of good ploughing : — 1. The furrows must be straight. 2. The ridges must be well set. 3. The lands shotild be of equal size and the number of fur- rows in each should be the same. 4. The furrows should be neatly packed, and all surface rubbish well coveired. 5. The work must be well finished. The types of plough in use in this country and in various parts of the wo"rld are exceedingly numerous, and differ in their most ess.ential features, such as the shapes of the cutting and turning parts, wheel fasten- ings, beam, handles, etc., and no universal plough has yet been found which will suit all the varying conditions of soil an'd climate. For our purpose here ploughs may be divided into four classes, viz. : — 1. Single-furrow ploughs, one of which has just been described in detail. 2. One-way ploughs, including turn-wrest, balance, and turn- over ploughs. » 3. Double-furrow and multiple ploughs. 4. Special purpose ploughs. Of these. Class 1 may be subdivided into ploughs for narrow unbroken work, and ploughs with short breasts for wide broken work, commonly known as digging ploughs. In the case of the latter, the coulter, rest-iron, breast-stay, and side-cap, are often found not to be necessary. The shin of the breast, and the skim-coulter, make the vertical cut, which, however, not 58 AGEICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS being exactly perpendicular, does away with the neces- sity of the side cap. The digging plough invferts the land, and, as it has a short concave breast, it throws the soil loosely over and pulverizes it, tlius effecting very similar work to that of the spade. The share is Fia. 12. — Shaebb 01' Digoinq Plotighs. For mixed Soil — A, Reveisiblo pointed ; b, Cap pointed. usually fitted with a chisel point, though this is not in- variably the case. Some of the renewable points f6r the shares are shown in fig. 12. Single and double or multiple ploughs are used in the breaking up of land as well as in the subsequent operations. Fig. 13.— Diso Plough. Under special purpose ploughs are classed the double- breasted ridding or bouting ploughs, the subsoil, potato raising, trenching, and other special ploughs and their purpose is' dehoted in the name. A sQmeWfhat*'re(;ent development is the disc plough. The sharfe and breasit^oft the ordinary plough is replaced by a large steel concave cutting disc (fig. 13). In some TYPES OF PLOUGH 59 parts of the world this implement is reported to suit the conditions of soil and climate. Single-furrow ploughs are again subdivided into swing ploughs, one-wheel ploughs, and two-wheel ploughs, and ploughs with a gallows or loose fore- carriage. The one-wheel implement is used on sticky land, where it assists the holder to keep the plough steady without greatly interfering with the nature of t'&e work done. The two-wheel plough (fig. 3) is much more com- monly used, and, when properly set, leaves compara- tively little for the holder to do. The furrow-slice with this class of ploughs is turned over by a cast-iron or steel mould-board, which is made on the lines of a twisted strap, or somewhat like the screw of a steamer. This mould-board, drawn through the land, causes the cut slice to turn over, and at the same time consolidates it more or less by pressing it against the preceding one. Two wheels are usually attached to digging ploughs, turn-wrest ploughs, and most of the special purpose ploughs. Ploughs with a gallows fore-carriage and ploughs with a loose fore-carriage facilitate the turning at the headlands, but lack the simplicity of the fixed wheels. One-way Ploughs. — Where ploughs of this type are used, one setting is sufficient, as all the furrows are turned in one direction, thus avoiding the loss of time " and extra treading caused by finishes. The turn-wrest plough (fig. 14) is used on hilly land, being worked horizontally along hillsides and turning the furrows all in one direction, thus obviating the necessity of turning any of the furrows uphill. The great extension of market gardening and fruit farms has led to the ex- tended use of the horse balance plouglj, as the land between the rows can be easily ploughed, as well as small pieces of land between the crops not yet harvested. Double (fig. IB) and multiple ploughs are used to economize both horse and manual labour. Double-furrdw ploughs are frequently employed to break whole land, and now that they are made lighter, and with special arrangements for turning at the headlands, they might 60 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEIMENTS be used more frequently than is at present the case. The. turning, and also regulation of depth of working, are facilitated by connecting the wheels with a lever, which adjusts their position. They also do good work Pig. 14. — Ttjrn-wkbst Plottoh. upon land that ias been once moved. In' some districts they are largely used, aijd oi^en. result in a saving of horse labour, as three horses will plough two furrowg, whereas, with a couple of single-furrow ploughs, four FlO. 15. — DOTJBLB-PUEEOW PLOUGH. horses are required. Multiple ploughs, which turn three or four small furrows, are adapted for turning over light tilths, and for paring stubbles after harvest, and are much more economical than single-furrow ploughs. TYPES OF PLOUGH 61 Special purpose ploughs include many varieties, and attention may be directed to those most commonly used. The double-breasted or ridging plough is employed for laying up land in ridges for root growing, and for mould- ing up potatoes. The subsoil plough, either single or double, is made to travel in the furrows behind an ordinary plough, the tine running along the horse-walk several inches deeper than the land has already been ploughed ; or the tine is sometimes fixed to the common plough, and the ploughing and subsoiling are effected in one operation. In this way land which, a few inches below the surface, has been rendered hard through com- pression or from natural causes, and has formed what is known as a pan (p. 27), becomes loosened. As a result the roots^of plants can extend more deeply, excess of water can drain away more readily, and the upward flow of moisture by capillarity (p. 25) is not checked. The potato-iaising plough is used for splitting open potato ridges, thereby exposing the tubers, so that they may be readily picked up. In order to facilitate the ex- posure of the potatoes, the breast takes the form of a raiser, a few prongs being substituted for the double- breast of the moulding plough, so that the earth, falling through the spaces between the prongs, leaves the tubers on the surface. To render the Work more per- fect another raiser is fixed in the place of the slade. If the hinder raiser is taken ofE an efficient moulding-up plough results. Gripping ploughs are usefully employed on grass land to cut grips, or shallow watercourses, for promoting sur- face drainage; work which is not efficiently done by or- dinary ploughs. For grass land on stiff soils a mole- draining plough for horse draught will render great service in getting rid of surplus water at small cost, and the effect will last for years. Trench Ploughing.— For fruit planting it is often desirable to plough to depths far beyond the ordinary farm work, and for this purpose special heavy ploughs which work to a depth of 18 inches are made, to be drawn by horses. 62 AGBICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS Cultivators are used (a) for breaking up whole land, and (b) for stirring it after it is ploughed. They differ from ploughs in that they do not invert the soil. The variety of implements known as cultivators, grubbers, scarifiers, or scufflers, and horse hoes, is in- finite, and there is no exact definition possible. At the one extreipe we find the single-row hoe for one horse, as shown in fig. 16, and at the other the heavy scuffler or cultivator requiring six horses, or the horse hoe with ten or more tines for hoeing wheat or roots. All these implements are usually provided with broad or narrow Fio. 16.-*SiNGLE-R0w Root Hokse-hob, ok Gkubbek. A, draught hook. E E, wheel and standard. B, beam. F F F, knife standards. c, frame. " G g, clamps for two side knivee, D D, handles. h h. h', front knife. shares or points according to the nature of the work required. The form of the tines, the framework upon which they are fixed, the wheels, carriage, etc., have- perhaps received more attention from implement makers than the parts of any other farm tool, and hence in a short summary it is impossible to describe them. Harrows, however mac^e, whether for light or heavy work, do not possess wheels, and this feature distinguishes them from cultivators. The cultivator, scarifier, or scuffler (fig. 17), is more often used with chisel points than with broad shares; HARROWS 63 its duty is to break up furrows, so that the lighter harrows may work more freely. Habsows. — The curve-tined drag harrow is usually worked after the scuffler, and is one of the most useful of the tillage implements. It stirs the land and helps to form a good tilth, -whilst by the curved form of its tines it drags out cduch, and is thus most useful in ail cleaning operationsi. Straigh!}-tined>drags are used- to level down furrows on light chalk soils, when there is much long rubbish or haulm which requires burying, and which, if dragged out, would prove troublesome. They are not adapted for clearing la,nd of weeds, such as couch, jrfiich have extensive underground development Fio. 17. — Cultivator. Light harrows are commonly made on thje zig-zag principle, whereby the tines are so arranged that, while the whole of the surface of the. land is operated ^pon, no two tines follow ia exactly the same tract (fig. 18). Heavy sets of harrows are made for working , with three horses, intermediate sets for two horses, whilst the lightest seed harrows, used for the final, covering in of the seed, require only one horse to draw them, . Har- rows take the place in field culture held by the rake in garden work. ^i„■ _ Chain harrows are construoted* so. that they are ;^te flexible. They are convenient for gatherings cbiieh. 64 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS which they free from any adherent soil in the operation. They are equally useful for harrowing pastures, for which purpose those with points are best adapted. RoLLEas AND Pbessebs are "made in many forms, though the main feature of rotation round an axle is common to them all. The heaviest are generally called clod- crushers or presses, and are used to reduce large clods to a size more convenient for treating with other im- plements, and also to bring the clods into a condition D D D Fio. 18. — Zigzag Harrow. A a, draught beam. A, B, c, A, whippletree. B, hake. ^ D, D, D, tine marks. 0, draught chain. E, E, B, teeth or tines. more susceptible to the influence of the weather. Clod- crushers are made with discs revolving on a main axle. In the case of the Cambridge roller the discs are ar- ranged so that the cylinder presents a transversely fluted surface. Other pressors are made with serrated discs which present a broken surface, the outside of the cylinder being notched so that the clods are chopped fay the rough edges. Smooth cylinder iron rollers are usually made in two or more sections, the cylinders being placed end to end BOLLBRS 65 on an axle. One advantage of making the cylinder in sections is that in case one portion meets with an acci- dent or is worn out sooner than another it can be re- d o SS° 2 2 ^ Isl grig's 1 o 9 sl|v|l:a ft I .4 'S £ o -S-S » ® F JJ a) M rt H— ' Cb ^ •'S — — .! g sis? si placed at less cost. What is of great importance is that it is more convenient at the end of the" field to turn the roller round, when in sections, than when in one D 66 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS long cylinder, for while in this operation one end is going forward the other revolves backward, thus pre- venting the ' screwing ' up of the soiI\ and often of the crop, which is liable to occur if great care is not exer- cised in turning. These rollers are made in various sizes to suit the requirements of different kinds of work. Wooden rollers, though comparatively little employed since the introduction of iron rollers, are very useful in special cases, as when it is desired to break small clods without consolidating the soil more than is absolutely necessary. They consist merely of cylindrical boles of wood attached to a frame, the axle being an iron gudgeon let into the wooden cylinder, and rotating in the upright sides of the frame. IMPLEMENTS FOB SOWING SEED AND DISTRIBUTING MANURE DaiLLs. — The machines used for sowing seed may be classed as follows: — 1. Cup drills. 4. Chain drills. 2. Tooth and brush pinion drills. 5. Force feed drills. 3. Disc drills. 6. Potato planter. The cup-drill (fig. 19) is the one in most common use in Great Britain. A long box is mounted on a frame to carry the seed. This box is divided into an upper chamber, or 'hopper, which connects with a lower chamber by ports or apertures regulated by slides, and through the lower a spindle runs from end to end. On the spindle several discs fixed transversely carry small spoons or cups set near the outside rim, at right angles to the direction taken by the discs. These cups pick up the grain as they revolve (the motion being generally given to the spindle by a nave gearing attached to the travelling wheels) and jwur it into funnels (fig. 20), the latter being connected with spouts, which drop the seed into the track made by the coulters. These are generally attached to a mortised bar in the fore part of the frame. Each coulter works independently, but various appliances in the form of weights, springs, etc., are attached to OBILLS 67 regulate the depth ,to which the coulters cut and at which the seed is deposited. Fig. 21 affords a side view of the driving gear, the travelling wheel, being repioved from the axle, for the sake of clearness. Except in the Fio. '20.— C^P Dbilii, V4BTI0AI, Section (on larger Scale), SHOWING PAETS. A, frame. a', iron aide for supporting oorn box. B, outline of travelling wheel, c. axle/ D, hind barrel or roller, for winding lever-chains. B, lever-ohain. r, vl, fore and hind levers. 0, a', fore and hind coulters. H, com box. 1, box-regulator. J, worm wheel. details of raising the seed, most drills are constructed on plans very similar to that just described. D 2 K, vertical rack. L, regulator-crank. l', spindle with worm gearing into worm wheel J. M, cup wheel. N, hopper, or funnel. ^ o, o, conductors, or spoute. o', spherical cup connecting con- ductor with coulter. p, lever weight. Q, lever joint. R, steerage tongs. 68 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS Tooth and brush pinion drills have the bottom of the Beed box pierced with holes, which are covered by a revolving pinion having teeth alternating with brushes, whose revolution sweeps out the seed. These drills are only suitable for level fields, and their use is restricted to special districts. Fio. 21.- -Cup DbhIi, Sidb Elevation (on larger Scale), SHOWING Driving Gear. 22, cog-wheel on oup-barrel. 53, drop bearing for eupporting cup-barrel. 58, catch for retaining drop bear- ing in position. a', see fig. 20. z, see fig. 19. A, index plate. B, B, grooves for bolt D. 0, fixed stud of radiue-arm. D, bolt by which radius-arm is held fast to index plate. NPl, cog wheel on counter- shaft. np3, intermediate wheel. Disc drills are similar to pinion drills,- the pinion being in them replaced by a disc having waved edges, which alternately open and close the holes in the seed box, bringing forward some seed at the same time, as an endless screw might. These are also unfitted for hill- side work. STEAM CULTIVATION 69 I Chain drills are provided with an endless chain, on which the seed from the hopper falls, and is thereby conveyed to the discharging funnel. Force feed drills have the bottom of each seed hopper closed by a small spirally-grooved roller, which, re- volving as the machine trav:els onwards, supplies seed in a regular stream to the discharging funnel. Potato planters are drills which are made with hoppers to contain the potatoes, and an endless chain, carrying a series of cups, which passes through each hopper, every cup taking up a potato in its passage. The potatoes then fall into a tube, through which the endless chain itself returns, and as each cup emerges from the bottom of this tube, a potato drops into the furrow. Mould boards are attached so as to imme- diately cover the sets with mould. Abttficiai, Mamube Distbibu:tobs are made in several forms, and may be divided into broadcast and rotary distributors. The broadcast distributor delivers the manure to the ground along a strip, the width of which is equal to the length of the hopper. In the rotary distributor the manure is spread by the centrifugal force imparted by revolving horizontal discs, and the width covered is dependent on the speed of the discs, the weight of manure, etc. Machines for sowing seed and manure at the same time are also made. STEAM CULTIVATION Ploughing, cultivating, harrowing, and drilling may all be done by steam-driven implements, and, in so far as large implements are suitable for working the land, very clever adaptations of horse implemeifbs have been made. A few years since it was confidently stated that steam cultivation would supersede horse work, -but this expectation has not been realized. The large imple- ments which are requisite where expensive engines are employed are too heavy and work too clumsily and too coarsely, besides treating the land too roughly ; more- over, whilst stirring the land thoroughly, they injure 70 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS it 80 much at times that farmers find it more econo- mical to support a full team of horses than to lay out part of theit money in steam tackle. There are some operations which may be economically done by steam if they are well timed, but in an uncertain climate like that of England, and on comparatively small tracts of land, the occasions are few. Where steam cultivation is resorted to, it is generally done — like steam thresh- ing often is — by men who own the tackle, and do the work for farmers at an agreed price per acre. The best work is done by the steam cultivator, which is a huge grubber, and in dry seasons, whether in autumn, spring, or summer, this may be employed very satisfactorily, if not worked to too great a depth, in breaking up land, and thus forwarding the horse work. It is then particularly advantageous, as by its means large tracts can be broken up on fine days during seasons when there is not much weather favourable for cleaning land. The steam drag-harrow is a broader implement than the cultivator, but is lighter in construction, and is fitted with a large number of smaller tines, which work similarly to those on the ordinary horse scuffler. It is very useful for stirring land already ploughed or broken. Its great breadth renders it capable of covering many acres in a day, and it is specially valuable as a means of forwarding horse work in spring. Steam cultivation, as already explained, involves a large outlay, but considerable progress has been made in ploughing by direct traction, the light motors being driven by either steam or internal combustion engines, using petroleum, petrol, or alcohol. Thp light motors are made for the single-furrow machine, and of greater power for working multi-furrow ploughs, and which, besides ploughing, will haul loads, or, by a belt, can be used for driving machines. So much work of this kind has been done in the Colonies and foreign countries that motor ploughs for working the various depths and widths required have led to the design of special ploughs, adapted to meet these requirements, and to withstand the pull of the IMPLEMENTS FOR SECURING CROPS 71 tractors. Two main types have been -evolved since the introduction of steam ploughing, viz., (1) balance ploughs, and (2) following the ordinary types of horse implements, single and multiple ploughs, the latter making from two to ten furrows. IMPLEMENTS FOB SECURING CROPS The scythe, sickle, fagging-hook, and pea-hook were formerly relied upon for cutting the whole of the corn crops, but the greater portion is now cut by horse machines. The scythe is still used when com is badly stornvbrofcen, and sometimes, in preference to the horse machine, on barley. It is also employed on a somewhat large scale for mowing crops intended for hay. The sickle IS now rarely seen. The bagging-hook or fagging- hook, continues to be used with some frequency, espe- cially for cutting beans. The pea-hook is the best implement for cutting field peas. The various hand implements are further described on p. 92. HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS Reaping Machines may be classed as : Manual- delivery reapers; Self-delivery reapers; Binders. Manual-delivery reapers require the asBietaace of a man to clear the machine of the sheaf. Self-delivery reapers discharge the sheaf by means of revolving sails. Binders cut the corn, gather it into sheaves, and tie the sheaf with string. The manual-delivery reaper is the least complicated of these machines, as the work to be done consists of little beyond cutting the corn. A simple frame, carried on one or two wheels, to which is attached the finger- beam, in which the knife works, is all that is essential. The crop is held up against the knives by the workman, and a small slatted rack controlled by his feet receives the com as it falls; by lowering the rack the sheaf glides off. It is a drawback to this machine that the sheaves must be moved before it. can work round the field again, for they fall in the track the horses have to walk along. These reapers are now only used to a limited extent. They are very light in draught. 72 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS The self-delivery reaper (fig. 22) is more intricate than the manual-delivery implement, as provision has to be made for causing the sails to revolve. The delivery of the sheaf is effected by the sails, which bring the corn to the knives, and then cast it free from the machine at the side. This side delivery of the sheaf leaves the horse-walk clean, so that if the crop is wet when cut, or contains green weeds, or if hand labour cannot conveniently be found at the time, it need not be tied, but the whole field may continue to be cut without hindrance. The force expended in working the sails, although much lessened by the improved construction of the machines, is nevertheless great; consequently the draught is much heavier than that of the manual-delivery machines. The binder is a very intricate machine, and is the result of the application of a larger number of mechanical principles than are to be found in almost any other machine used upon the farm. Its construction has now. reached a high degree of perfection, con- . sidering the many different operations which have to be carried out simultaneously. Viewing the size of the machine and the various acts it performs, it is rela- tively of easier draught than the self-delivery machine. Making allowance for slight variations, the following is the manner in which the binders perform their work. The cut grain is first carried to one side of the machine and then lifted over the driving wheel by means of endless webs, or canvas aprons; these deliver it to an incline, down which it falls, until stopped by a lever which opposes its further progress. Against this the grain is ' packed ' until a bundle big enough for a sheaf has accumulated. Then the lever which is ar- ranged to yield before a predetermined pressure, gives way, and in doing so puts the ' binder ' into gear. A curved arm, the exact equivalent of -the needle of a sewing machine and threaded with string under a given tension, rises from beneath the ' incline and encircles the bundle with a cord, the end "of which it leaves in the grasp of the knotter. Finally, this clever device aBAPERS 73 "i^i u • iH hi M iri It t-fliais ^" us CD t£ 00 m Q ^ £3 p* .§ rt -"^ s w M hi O h. ° ■ 0} a) ja_; o •« y^eo 5- oooTo jH « S2 ■ is|-| galls' -oocno i-H N CT M C^ CI — -a -s •» S i bs "d 43 "fa: rH P -n §■318 5 j^ -SS ■3.SS»aKjso..& aei ; np.^ 74 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS first ties and then cuts the string band, leaving the sheaf free to be thrown- off the machine by a pair of arms provided for that purpose. Pig. 23. — Mowing Machine. A, B, 0, r>, E, F> <}> H, 1, K, L, M, N, O. track 'board, offside (or divider) shoe, finger beam. fin|;ers. main shoe wheel, axle, plate to ditto. bracKet to main .shoe, swing beam. connecting rod. » crank wheel, crank guard, main frame, whippletree bracket, slide to ditto. p, draught rod. Q Q, travelling wheels. R, ratchet pinion. S, guard to spur wheel. T, tipping lever. u, lifting lever. V, lifting quadrant. w, lifting chain. X, extension piece, Y, seat. z, seat spring. Ai, pole bracket. Bl Bl, stays to swing beam. Mow;iNO Machines, used for cutting grass and ' seeds,' are very similar to the manual-delivery reapers, but there are two travelling wheels (fig. 23) in the place of the single wheel now used on all reaping machines. The mower has an independent gear-frame, from which the HAYMAKER AND HAY-KICKER 75 Fig. 24. — Haymaker. A, road wheels. v, fork-head bar. g, hood. B, tines or forks. e, cover of gear H, ehatts. 0, spring tor fork- box. I, seat. heads. v, guards. Fio. 25. — Hay-kiokee. A, outside fork covering the wheel track, B, a double fork. 0, lever for putting the machine in and out of gear. D, handle for raising and lowering body of machine. B, driving crank. 76 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS cutter- a te :s« •3 "" STEAM AND OIL ENGINES 8B it will be noted that the collecting trays, spouts, etc., are inclined, but to keep the material steadily moving these inclined surfaces are given reciprocating motions, which are obtained by cranked shafts and wood springs, called suspenders. Various accessories may now be fitted to the modern threshing machine, among which the most generally used are chaff sifting and bagging apparatus (one of which is shoiyn fitted to the machine in fig. 29), and straw trusses for tying the straw into bundles as it is delivered from the shakers. This latter is a develop- ment of the sheaf binding apparatus of the harvesting machine. . Steam Engines. — A view of a farm locomotive, or traction engine, which supplies steam power for thresh- ing, chaff cuttiag, grinding, hauling, and a variety of other purposes, is given in fig. 31. These locomotives are increasing in general use, and on many farms are taking the place of the well-known portable engines, which are drawn from place to place by horses, and which are so largely employed in all parts of the country. Oil Engines. — These convenient motors are now very largely used. They are specially valuable where work is intermittent, as is usually the case in a farmyard, as they can be started at a few minutes' notice, without the long delay involved in getting up steam. Another advantage is that they do not require constant atten- tion while running, as is the case with a steam engine. For stopping the engine, moreover, it is only necessary to turn off the supply of oil, so that there is little or no waste. These engines usually run on what is known as the 'Otto ' cycle : a section is shojyn in fig. 32. The process of starting and working una engine is as follows: The vaporiser is raised to a dull red heat, by means of the coil lamp shown. The fly-wheeLis now pulled round This opens a valve, through which, as the piston moves forward, air is drawn into the cylinder. When the piston moves backward this valve is closed, and the air in the cylinder is compressed and forced through the 86 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS narrow neck at the back of the cylinder into the vaporiser. In the meantime the gearing has caused a small pump to send a jet of oil into the heated vaporiser. The hot walls of the vaporiser immediately convert the oil into vapour, and the compressed air forced in by the piston supplies heated oxygen sufficient to make a mixture that will cause the necessary explosion. The explosion thrusts out the piston, the products of com- bustion following it into the cylinder. On the return of the piston a valve is opened, and these products are forced into the exhaust pipe. With the next movement J WATER JACKET V. VAPORISER, T OIL TANK P OIL PUMP. Fig. 32. — Oil Engine. of the piston the cycle begins again. The heat generated by the explosion and the compression are sufficient to keep the vaporiser hot. Where only a small amount of power is required Petrol Engines are sometimes used, and these are very convenient, starting as they do at a moment's notice, in the manner now so familiar in connection with motor cars; but it is doubtful whether such a highly inflam- mable liquid as petrol should be placed in unskilled hands, or in the vicinity of such combustible materials as are usually found in a farmyard. WINNOWING MACHINES «7 Winnowing Machines (fig. 33) are used for the further cleaning of the already partially cleaned corn, thereby rendering it more marketable. In the best machines, the winnower is strong enough to separate the light grains from the heavier, whilst smaller heavier seeds are removed by being passed over screens or riddles, Fio. 33.— Corn Winnowino A, handle. B, main wheel. 0, fan. D, pulley on fan axle to drive elevator. E, wheel driving large roller. F, wheel driving email roller. G, hopper. H, screw to regulate feed. 1, riddle frame. J, riddle. OR Dressing Machinb. K, screen under riddle. L, spout from which stones, sticks, &o., are delivered. M, tailing corn. n, screenings. o, chaff. p, elevator cups. Q, strap to drive elevator. R, spout where dressed corn 13 delivered into sacks, s, lifting handles. which contain the good grain and allow the impurities to fall through. Too many kinds of these machines are provided with a blast which, though strong enough to blow out chaff, is incompetent to separate the grains of different density. Such machines have to rely entirely on the screens for effecting the separation, which they do indifferently well. 88 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS Various Screens, such as the 'Boby,' and rotary screens, generally not fitted with a blast, are used with good effect (see figs. 34 and 35). The rotary screen FiQ. 34. — Adjustable flat Corn Screen. 0, etone separator. H, adjustable bed. 1, shoe frame. K K, screen frame. L 1, rollers for shoe. M, adjusting screw. hopper. fly wheel. crank. lever for adjusting feed gear wheel and pinion. turning handle. ' w« '•>Ui>«j 1^ fjisi'l'lll PiQ. 35. — Adjustable Rotary Screen. ~SB A, screen barrel. B B, hollow shaft containing abe other cleaning machines. , IMPLEMENTS FOR PREPARING FOOD FOR STOCK Chaff Cuttskb are used to cut hay and straw into short pieTses, partly to aid mastication and digestion, [■ Fio. 36. — Stbam-bowbr Chaff-cutter, with Sifting, Dusting, and Bagging Apparatus. A, driving pulley, ..on which e, shafts. runs belt -from thresher, or direct from engine. B, elevator trough, or bagger, o, end of feed box. D, front travelling wheel. F, riddle for sifting out the imperfectly out material. G, chaff bags. H, lever to stop and reverse the feed. large knives, inch lengths 00 AGRICULTUBAL IMPLEMENTS but more especially with a view to economy, as hay and straw are much wasted when they are given in the long state. Besides, it is possible to mix other foods, such as meal, cake, and roots, more economically when there is a bulky mass of short dry material to stir them among. Chaff is therefore generally looked upon as a vehicle for conveying these foods to animals, in addition to being a food in itself. Chaff cutters are made in all sizes, from small hand-worked implements up to powerful steam-driven machines (fig. 36) carrying half a dozen capable of cutting the straw into half- as fast as it can be passed through the largest thresh- mg machines. The material to be cut is placed in a long trough, and is drawn forward by m e an s of cogged and . fluted rollers to the knives. The latter are arranged radi- ally on a fly- wheel, cutting from the centre out- wards, and pass rapidly by the face or mouth of the feeding box. The arrange- ment of the such Pig. 37. — Tuenip-outtbr. I, handles for carrying matihine. K, top hopper. L, wrench, or spajMier. M, pricker. N, bottom hopper. o, adjustable bearings, tniyes is that there is no intermission in the cutting, for as one knife is finish- ing its cut the next has already commenced to operate. A, handle. B, fly-wheel, c, iron body. D, hopper grate. E, auxiliary handle. V, cast frame. o, thumb ecrew. H, wooden legs. TURNIP-CUTTERS AND CORN-MILLS 91 PULPEBS are The larger machines are usually fitted with a riddling and a bagging apparatus, which sift out the dust and dirt from the chaS and elevate the latter into bags. All machines are now fitted with some form of safety device, to prevent the possibility of the attendant's hand being drawn with the hay, etc., between the rollers to the knives. TTTttNIP-OtTTTERS, Or usually made with a disc wheel fitted with knives of various forms, to produce slices, fingers, or pulp. Many machines are fitted with devices for removing earth or other foreign matter adhering to the roots. OoKN Grinding Mills are made in several forms, perhaps the oldest being the Millstone, which has Fig. 38. — Tuknip-ctjttbk Babkel. A., spindle passing through centre of barrel. B, steel pl^te. c, acute-angled knives. D, cast barrel to which the steel plates and knives are attached. been used from time immemorial, and is still sometimes used on large farms. This form produces an excellent sample of meal, but at a considerable expenditure of time and power, and it is not well adapted to grinding the variety of produce that is generally used on a farm. Mills with a pair of vertically mounted flat discs, with tangential grooves formed on their faces, are very largely used; they are very economical of power, and easily adapted to grinding a variety of produce, and are usually fitted with a spring arrangement, which permits of an increase of the space between the discs, to allow for the passage of hard foreign bodies through the mill without injury to the discs. The material •fo be ground is led into the centre and the meal escapes at the circumference. Mills ■ similar to the above, but with conoidal discs, are also made, and are very satisfactory. 92 AGRICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS Another form of mill that is largely used has a conical grooved roller, which revolves on a horizontal axle against a concave with similar grooves, the material to be ground being fed into the small end of the mill, and the meal escaping at the large end. These mills are economical of power, and easily adapted to various materials. Eoller Mills, with rollers either grooved or smooth, are largely used, and are specially adapted to crushing oats. HAND IMPLEMENTS Small implements are as necessary as the larger ones on farms, and are of still greater importance on allot- ments and small holdings, and especially in gardens. The spade is used for breaking up the ground. It is forced into the soil by the pressure of the foot, and the earth, commonly called the spit, is lifted out and inverted, the result being much the same as in plough- ing, but more thorough in character. The spade is held by the handle in the right hand, while the left hand grasps the heft lower down. The left foot is then ap- plied, the spade is thrust into the ground, and the spit is lifted out and rapidly inverted by a sharp action of the wrist. The shovel is very similar to the spade, but, as it is not used for breaking hard ground, it is made less rigid, whilst the sides are slightly turned up so as the better to hold loose material. Porks.— The 3- and 4-tined forks are used not only for digging ground, but for filling dung carts, and for spreading dung or other material upon the land. Those with short handles, similar to the handles of spades, are far superior to those with long handles, as they afford the workman much more power over the tool, and he is better able to use his wrist to give a sweeping stroke while spreading dung; at the same time they are more convenient for digging. The neck should curve sharply, thereby forming a crank which affords leverage, and thus aids the efforts of the workman. ^ "Fig. 39. — Cavino or Pookino Fork. FORKS AND BAKES 93 Forks with two prongs or tines fixed into a long handle are often called pitchforks. The fanner applies the term pitchforks only to those which are made with specially long tines and handles, so as to render them convenient for raising or pitching hay and corn on to wBiggons or carts. The shorter ones are called emptying forks, as they are used for emptying the carts. A skilful workman uses his wrists very freely, whereas a novice uses them but slightly, and works clumsily and laboriously. Caving forks, cocking or pooking forks (fig. 39) are shaped very much like dung forks, but have excep- tionally long tines set widely apart, while there is a continuation of the tines behind the tread piece. The continuation extends several inches and then curves upwards and forwards, forming a scoop. They are particularly useful for collecting cavings, or for gathering together (or pooking) short barley into heaps ready for pitching. Rat;es are used for collecting short material, such as hay, and for levelling the surface of land before or after sowing seed. . The best form" of rake is made with a Wooden head or crosspiece attached to a long handle, the head having inserted into it, at short inter- vals, small steel tines or teeth. This kind of rake is light enough for using in the hayfield, and strong enough for collecting couch or twitch, whilst it is very durable. The rake should not be used with a chopping or hoeing action, but should be so held that the handle rests gently in the left hand. The right hand should grasp the handle near the top, and the left hand lower down, the knuckles of both hands being turned downwards. The right hand should retain its hold firmly, but the rake should slide freely between the thumb and finger of the left hand. The wrists must be worked pliably, freedom of action being thus obtained. ^ 94 AGRICULTUBAL IMPLEMENTS Daisy rakes, with close-set wedge-shaped teeth, are frequently used on the farm for collecting the heads of Dutch clover when the crop is grown for seed. Hoes are used for cutting up weeds in crops, and for loosening the surface of the soil in order to promote plant growth. The best form of hoe is (fig. 40) that fitted with a long curved or ' swan ' neck. Any other mode of attaching the blade to the handle prevents the free use of the hoe on all except very clean, dry, and friable soils, as the weeds .or earth clog, and thus hinder the workman in making a long stroke. Where other forms are used, it is only possible to make short chops, instead of long strokes. Hoes for use in wheat and barley crops should be from 4^ to 5^ in. in width ; for peas, 6 to 8 in. ; and for beans and root crops, 9 in. in width. Several forms of cutting tools are used for reaping „ ,„ „ „ and mowing corn. A few FIG. 40.-SWAN-NEOK Hoe. ^^^^^ ago there seemed great probability that large machines would totally supersede these, but since there has been an increase in the quantity of land let out in small holdings and allot- ments, the" manufacture of small tools for harvesting purposes has revived. The scythe consists of a long curved blade (fig. 41)- fixed at something less than a right angle to the snaith or handle. The shape of the snaith varies in different localities, but the object aimed at is to make a snaith which permits the workman to swing the scythe with an easy curved sweep; for this reason perfectly straight handles are in many districts not used. The angle at which the blade is laid to the snaith has to be regulated according to the height of the workman and the nature of the crop to be mown. This is effected by means of large nails and strips of leather used for packing between the ring and the snaith. The sward should be cut at the same height through- out. The ribbing often seen in fields after the crop is SCYTHE 96 cleared is evidence that the workman has not mown skilfully. The point of the blade should be laid in flat, and the stroke should be carried through completely to the end. If a man makes a scooping stroke he leaves perhaps a foot, at both the commencement and end of the stroke, which will have to be mown through, and for this reason it is very annoying for a good scythe- man to have to follow a bad one. When mowing, the man should place his legs wide apart, so as to bring his back into the best position for it to exercise its strength, for mowing should be done by means of a body stroke rather than by the arms. The arms should act chiefly as guiding or connecting rods between the man and the scythe, in the same way as a skilful oarsman exerts his powers from the back, and by the use of his legs, instead of pulling the stroke through with his arms. Fig. 41. — English Scythb. The early part of the stroke is easily made, as the natural swing of the scythe is sufficient to cut that section of the sward, but as material collects it becomes more difficult to complete the stroke, therefore the body must then be in a position to exert its force most freely. This is achieved when the man stands near to the finish of the stroke — i.e., as far as practicable from the coeq- mencement. Young beginners make the end of the stroke with the left hand too far in advance of the left leg (which should be a little in the rear of the right). After the first half of the stroke the left hand should be drawn sharply round and near to the left leg. It is want of attention to this point which causes difficulty to beginners. ' The whetting of the blade is an important detail in mowing. The whet-stone should be laid flat^against the 96 AGfBICULTUBAL IMPLEMENT8 blade, and drawn steadily along it. If the stone is not laid flat, an angle is made with the blade, the edge of which is rapidly lost, so that recourse to the grindstone is soon rendered necessary. The sickle is the typical harvest tool, but is now rarely used on large farms. The sickle, or leaping hook, consists (fig. 42) of a short, curved blade, with finely serrated edges, and fixed into a short handle. Reaping is done thus: — The reaper grasps a handful of corn in his left hand aA about a foot from the ground, and bends back the straws away from him. He next places the sickle behind the handful, so as to partly surround it, and draws the irnplement towards him, sawing the Pio. 42.— Sickle, South of Fio. 43.— Bagging Hook ob England pattern. Faoging Hook. straws asunder. The handful is then drawn out, and several such handfuls form a sheaf. The curve of the hook varies somewhat in different districts. . The fagging hook, or bagging hoq^, is .aggd-^farajt- ting cereal and bean crops ; aJso-, 'when more strottSly ' made, for cutting furze. Ihe fagging hook (fig. !43) is very similar in -shape to the sickle, but is iflade without a serrated edge. In som&Ji»fc«ict8~*fee blade is preferred slightly cranked near to the handle, whilst in others the crank is di8pen,';*H with. The cutting of the corn is effected by fija**?*! ^ping the stems, and then collecting them by jr^ "^^Sf the hook. The leg of the workman is used ii^^^^^.eiiag the sheaf, the corn being worked up agaj/* S^^^ Fagging is a convenient way of cutting whiji^^* ^^rop is badly laid. Beaping is more often practizCi' when the corn is standing upright. TILLAGE 97 The pea hook (of which fig. 44 shows the blade and socket, the latter made to receive a wooden handle) is used for cutting peas. This crop lies about the land so much that mow- ing is impracticable, because many of the pods would be cut off and lost: The ^pea hook is in reality a short - bladed fagging hook set in a long handle, without any crank. Occa- sionally peas are cut with a short hook, but the work is then more laborious. An old sickle blade, with several inches of the pointed end broken off, is always highly valued for use as a pea hook, on account of the good ' temper ' it has acquired. Fio. 44.— B-EAN OR ,PiiA Hook. Fig. 45. — Switch Bill or Slashbe. Hedge slashers and switch bills are formed (fig. 45) of a short stout blade fixed into a long strong handle. The blades, sometimes straight, are far more often slightly curved. They are used for trimming and laying, or layering, hedges. CHAPTER VII. TILLAGE One of the primary conditions of success in farming is the proper and intelligent cultivation of the soil. By tillage we mean the ordinary processes of cultivation by which we stir the soil and prepare it for the recep- tion of crops, so that they may flourish to the best advantage. To bring about the conditions necessary for the successful growth of crops the soil must be porous and in a fine state of division; it must be clean and free from weeds; and it must contain sufficient supplies of plant food and moisture. As a preparation for these 98 TILLAGB conditions the soil has to be loosened and turned over, so as to allow air, rain, frost,, wind, and sunshine to exercise their pulverizing influence. This work is most effectually done by the spade or fork, and may be seen to best advantage in the garden. The earth, dug out to a depth of 8^ or 9 inches, is thrown forward, thus leaving a trench, behind which fresh spits of mould are dug out and turned over. This method of hand cultivation is well suited to «mall areas, but where whole fields have to be dealt with, as on the farm, it is far too costly. Hence the farmer, having to culti- vate extensive areas of land in a short time, has re- course to the plough. The plough and harrow perform in field culture the same operations as are far more thoroughly effected by the spade and rake in garden cultivation. In preparing a tilth the ground is usually first of all turned over by the plough, and this is then followed by the cultivator, harrow, roll, and fiarrow, in the order named, the horse-hoe being used after the crop is up to stir the soil between the rows. The operation of ploughing inverts the soil, burying manure, weeds, and any other vegetable growth, and exposes a large surface to the beneficial action of the weather. In the operation of cultivating the object is to stir and loosen the soil without actually inverting it, and the implements employed for the purpose are called cultivators. Harrowing is carried out with the object of dragging out couch and other weeds previously uprooted so as to clean the land, and also for the purpose of reducing the surface to a fine condition after the other imple- ments. The lighter harrows are also used for covering seed immediately after sowing. Rolling breaks up the clods and gives a level surface to the land. It also consolidates the soil. Rolling the land in spring when it is dry has^he effect of improving the capillary powers of the soil so that it is able to raise more moisture from below. This is a very im- portant matter where young seeds are germinating in the ground. AUTUMN CULTIVATION 99 Hoeing is carried out with the special object of destroying weeds, and it also stirs and loosens the soil. In dry weather keeping the hoe going between the rows of a growing crop and moving the soil to the depth of one or two inches makes a mulch on the surface which will tend to check evaporation of moisture from below, and convey it instead to the roots of the growing crop. The plough and other implements of tillage _ have been described in detail in the preceding chapter, where their various forms and different methods of use are explained. Tillage opebations are most conveniently discussed under 'the headings of autumn, winter, spring, and summer work, according to the time of the year the preparations for the various crops are most actively carried out. Autumn Cultivation. — In the late summer and early autumn the clover and ' seed ' leys are generally ploughed, in preparation for the succeeding wheat crop, together with any land intended for winter beans and vetches ; a coating of dung being applied previously where necessary. In the case of wheat on the lighter soils the furrow when turned is usually furrow- pressed or rolled, and the seed is then either sown broadcast and harrowed in, or the soil is first worked down with the drags and harrows, the seed being sub- sequently drilled and covered with a double stroke of the harrow. The most important part of autumn cultivation, however, consists, when the weather is favourable, of breaking up' the stubbles and making an attempt to remove a coating of couch and other weeds in prepara- tion for next year's fallow crops. Winter beans are generally grown on the stronger soils, and it is advisable to put them in as soon after harvest as possible, so that they may be well established before winter. This crop, as a rule, follows oats or barley, and the seed can either be ploughed in — a small drill or hopper being attached to every second or third plough for the purpose — or, after ploughing, the furrow E 2 100 TILLAGE can be harrowed down and the beans then drilled and harrowed in. Other crops sown in the early autumn are winter rye, winter oats, and winter barley, the cultivation re- quired for these being simple, as in the case of wheat. Thus the land is ploughed and the seed is sown broad- cast on the furrow, or the furrow is first harrowed down and the seed then drilled, in both cases the seed being subsequently harrowed in. Winter Cultivation. — Towards the end of the year and during winter the prinoipal work consists in plough- ing. The land intended for roots, and which, under favourable circumstances, has been subjected to a series of cleaning operations during the autumn, is deeply ploughed, so as expose the furrow to the ameliorating effects of the weather for as long a period as possible before moving it again. Winter ploughing also includes turning over the stubbles and other land intended for spring corn, and breaking up the ground which has been fed off after roots with sheep. Spring Cultivation.— In the spring from February on- wards an active period of work commences on the farm, including the actual preparation of the tilths for and drilling of spring corn, the cross-ploughing and culti- vating of the root fallows, and a- continuation of break- ing up the land after the sheep folds, where this has not already been accomplished. There is a great demand for horse labour on the farm at this period of the year, and consequently the endurance of the teams is greatly taxed. . The mangel fallows next call for attention, and the land, which should have been cleaned and ploughed early for this purpose, must be worked down to a deep mellow tilth, being fine underneath, but firm at the time of sowing. Cleaning operations may also be necessary, especially if the weather of the preceding autumn was unfavour- able for the purpose, on the root-fallows intended for swedes and turnips; and as summer advances the seed beds for these crops must be prepared. The actual pre- paration of these tilths is often a matter of some SUMMER CULTIVATION 101 anxiety, and calls for much skill and experience on the part- of the cultivator; and the order in which the various implements, particularly the harrow and the roller, should follow one another at the finish often requires great nicety of judgment to decide. Summer Cultivation.— On the heaviest soils a bare or dead fallow is sometimes taken during the summer, although the practice is not nearly so common now as it was formerly, and much of the land of this descrip- tion has gone out of cultivation, or been laid down to grass. Where the system is still followed frequent ploughings and stirrings are given, so that the large clods on the surface are moved about and thoroughly baked under the influence of the sun's jheat, and thus the couch and other weeds contained in them are des- troyed. The exposure to the sun and rain, with alter- nate baking and moistening, causes the clods to gradually shatter, and in this way towards autumn a tilth composed of fine particles and small clods is ob- tained, which is very suitable as a seed bed for the suc- ceeding wheat crop. Another important operation carried out during the summer months is the process of ' intertillage,' or hand-hoeing and horse-hoeing between the root and certain other crops, so as to destroy weeds and stir the first few inches of the soil. To explain the best method of obtaining a tilth and cleaning a field, it will be advisable to take the case of a wheat stubble which is foul with couch, and intended to carry a crop of swedes the following year. After har- vest, if the weather is favourable, the first thing to do is to pare the stubble shallowly either with the paring ploughs or broad shares, so thai a section of some two inches in depth is removed from the surface. Or, if steam cultivators are available, they may be set to work to break up the stubble, working it in two direc- tions at right angles to one another. Whatever imple- ment is used the object is the same — to detach a thin layer of soil from' the surface, which is afterwards worked with the drags to further disintegrate it. It is then generally rolled, harrowed several times with medium harrows to separate out the couch and weeds. 102 TILLAGE and the rubbish thus drawn out is afterwards collected on the surface with chain harrows. The couch and other refuse is then burnt in small heaps and the ashes spread. The number of times the various implements will have to be used to effect the above purpose will depend to a large extent on the circumstances of each case, and also on the condition of the soil. If the weather still holds fine a second series of operations may be advis- able, commencing again with ploughing, and following with the other implements, so as to remove a further coating of couch and weeds. Even a third set of clean- ing operations may be necessary where there are very foul spots in the field. The next thing, provided the soil is fairly retentive, is to apply a good dressing of dung, where this is available, and have it spread on the sur- face, and then follow /by giving the land a ploughing as deep as possible according to the nature of the soil. This ploughing is called ' winter ploughing,' because it exposes the furrow to the pulverizing effects of atmos- pheric agents during the winter months, so that it be- comes well shattered before it is moved again in the new year.' In the early spring, if the land is clean, it may only be necessary to work the furrows across at right angles with the cultivator, so as to break them down, and thus obtain a suitable mixture of clods and finer particles, which can afterwards be further reduced with the lighter implements when preparing the actual seed beds. These conditions, however, are not always obtained in prac- tice, and in the majority of cases, where the soil has settled down and run together, it will be found neces- sary to cross-plough it in the spring, and in some cases a third ploughing is essential before a suitable tilth can be obtained for sowing. It is a mistake to plough again in spring if it can possibly be avoided, as, in the case of heavy soils, the fine surface tilth which has been obtaifaed by the winter's frost is lost ; while turning over light soils in spring, especially in dry weather, allows the drought to enter, and causes them to become too loose and open. In cases where it has not been possible to carry out CULTIVATION OF HEAVY AND LIGHT SOILS 103 autumn cultivation, and the land is very foul, it will be necessary to conduct a series of cleaning operations in the spring, even at the risk of losing the winter's tilth, or letting the drought into the soil. A way in which it is easy to make a mistake in spring cultiv^ation is when the winter furrow is first broken up, and there are a number of large clods below the surface, to try and force a tilth on the top by means of the roller and harrow. If this is done the soil will be too dry and open below, and unsatisfactory results will be obtained at seed time. ' After moving the winter furrow, time should be allowed for the larger clods to be exposed to the weather, and the soil should not be worked again till it is in a suitable condition, when drags and the cultivator will further reduce it, producing a mass of fine particles undernea/th with a layer of coarser fra^^ents on the surface. After this the harrow and roller will prepare the actual seed bed, consisting of a deep, mellow, firm tilth, composed of fine mould, on the sur- face of which is a layer of small clods, which will act as a mulch. A good tilth may. be recognized by its smooth, even surface, which is comfortable to walk on, and suificiently firm to prevent one from sinking into it. The soil should be worked to an even depth all over the field, and a stick pushed in should sink to the same depth at any point. When moved, a fine mould should be found below the surface, free from any large clods, and containing sufiicient moisture for the germination of seed. The land should be clean and the surface free from annual weeds. There are some main difieiences between the culti- vation of heavy and light soils. Clay soils must never be worked when wet, for if this is done the particles tend to run together, and afterwards to bake into hard lumps, which it will be almost impossible to bring down again into a suitable tilth. ~ Ploughing at the proper time and making use of the forces of nature by exposing the soil to the disinte- grating effects of the weather, especially frost during 104 TILLAGE the winter, are the best means of breakmg d&wn a clay soil and obtaining a suitable tilth in the spring. Exposure to changes of temperature in summer, so that the clods are alternately baked by the sun and then moistened by rain, will cause them to shatter and come down into a fine condition. , Autumn cultivation is specially suitable for clay soils, as the land then is in its best condition for working, and can afterwards be left exposed for the winter. Clay soils are naturally firm and close in texture, and the aim of the cultivator should be to lighten them up as much as possible, and this can be done to a certain extent by the application of dung in a ' long ' or fresh condition, and the ploughing in of any vegetable refuse which will take some time to decay. Lime also has a beneficial efiect in improving the texture of clay soils. In dealing with light SOilS, on the other hand, the main object is to get them firm and sufficiently consoli- dated. For this reason sheep are almost indispensable to the light land farmer, for, besides manuring the land where they are folded, they also consolidate it by the even and regular treading of their small hoofs. Light soils very easily dry out, especially in the spring time, and it is therefore a mistake to over- cultivate them at this season of the year, as drought is liable to get in, rendering them too dry for seeding pur- poses. Cleaning operations carried out too late in the spring should also be avoided for the same reason. Farmyard manure on light soils should be applied in a well-rotted condition, as long, strawy dung would render the soil too light or ' hover,' and also tend to let in the drought. After cultivation, or inter-tillage, refers to work that is carried out after the crop is sown. Thus wheat is generally harrowed and rolled in spring, with the object of breaking the crust which often forms on the surface during winter, and also consolidating the soil round the roots of the young plants. Barley and oats are some- times treated in a, similar manner. The hoe and the horse-hoe are the principal imple- ments, however, used in after-cultivation, and they MANURES AND MANURING 105 must be kept going among the root crops throughout the summer till the plants become too large in the rows to allow their passage. It was Jethro Tull, a Berkshire- landowner, farming at the beginning of the eighteenth century, who introduced one of the most important im- provements ever made in agriculture by growing crops in rows, so that the soil could be stirred between them. The advantages of this method were afterwards recog- nized, and led to a revolution in husbandry practices, so that it became possible to grow large crops of roots, providing abundance of succulent 'food for stock during the winter. The beneficial effects of moving the soil between the rows of a growing crop are, therefore : (1) to destroy weeds ; (2) to break up any pan and to allow the air to enter the soil; and (3) to form a mulch on the sur- face which will retain the moisture rising from below. From the above we see that the chief objects ol tillage are therefore : — 1. To clean the land by dragging out and destroying couch and other weeds growing therein. 2. To expose the soil particles to the disintegirating action of the weather, thus obtaining a suitable tilth for the germination of seed, and the development of a healthy root system. 3. To break up the soil and improve its miechanical texture, whereby the movements of air and water within it will be assis'ted. The process of rendering soluble some of the dormant plant food present will also be hastened. 4. To bury farmyard manure together with stubble and any vegetable rubbish on the surface so that it may decay and add to the stock of organic matter in Uie soil. 5. To destroy insect pests. CHAPTEK VIII. MANURES AND MANURING The system of manuring by means of stock is the back- bone of farming. The animals are either fed on the land, or the manure from the steadings is spread upon the fields. The land is thus manuied through the stock, 106 MANURES AND MANURING and the nature and quality of the food supplied to the stock, equally with the character of the stock that are fed, will have a direct influence upon the value of the manure. The relationship between soil and stock is con- veniently indicated in the subjoined diagram : — Crop *- Stock I i Soil-* Manuee Only a portion of the food that an animal receives enters into the composition of its body. A considerable proportion is consumed in maintaining the heat of the body, and is lost, in the form of carbon dioxide and water vapour, from the lungs and the skin. The remainder, including the greater part of' the nitrogenous and mineral matter, passes from the animal in the form of solid and liquid excrement, and it is these which are capable of being returned with much benefit to the soil. In former days, when no manufac- tured feeding stuffs or artificial manures were purchased, the fertility of the soil was kept up solely by means of this refuse matter, and it was to avoid rapid exhaustion of the soil that tenants were bound in their leases not to sell any hay, or straw, or roots, but to consume these on the farm, in order that most of the mineral and nitrogenous matter they took from the land might be returned to it When cattle or sheep are grazed upon the land, their excreta fall at once upon the soil, so that more useful matter is thus recovered than when food is consumed in the farmyard. In the latter case various sources of loss arise before the manure reaches the land. Young growing animals are building up their muscles and bone^. Hence they extract more nitrogen and phosphorus from their food than is the case with adult animals whose increase in weight is chiefly of fat. As fat contains neither nitrogen nor phosphorus, the manure of grown-up fatting' animals is more valuable than that of young growing stock. FARMYAED MANURE 107 In the same way, cows in calf, or cows in milk, make a demand upon the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash of the food, such as does not arise in the case of oxen or barren cows, and the manure is the poorer through the absence of those ingredients which go to build up the calf or to form the milk. FARMYARD MANURE Where cattle are fed at the homesteads, as on arable farms, and even on grazing farms at certain periods of the year, their excreta take the form of farmyard manure, or 'dung.' This consists of the straw or other material supplied to the animals as litter, mixed with Table XVI. — Chemical Composition of Farmyard Manure.* Water 75-42 ' Organic matter 16-52 ■ Oxide of iron and alumina . •36 Lime 2-28 Magnesia •14 Potash •48 Soda •08 ' Phoaphorio acid . •44 Sulphuric acid •12 Chlorine . .. •02 Carbonic add, etc 1'38 Silica v 2^76 10000 ' Containing: nitrogen 59 equal tojammonia -72 2 equal to phosphate of lime -96 or generally, 65 to 80 per cent, water, -4510 '65 per cent; nitrogen, ■i to -8 per cent, potash, and -2 to '5 per cent, phoaphorio acid. their solid excreta, ^and saturated with their urine, the whole trodden into a more or less compact mass. As this dung contains a large proportion of the manurial matter yielded by crops grown on the farm, as well as * This is a good average (taken from the Woburn Experiments) of well made farmyard manure, produced by bull()cka in feeding boxes receivmg cake and corn. 108 MANUBEiS AND MANURING by purchased foods, it is a precious material, and is the chief mainstay of the fertility of the farm. Much, therefore, depends upon the skill with which a farmer manages this product. Farmyard manure is distinguished by the fact that it contains all the constituents which the land requires in order to grow crops. Of inorganic ingredients it possesses potash, soda, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, silica, chlorine, phosphoric acid, and carbonic acid, all of which are found in the ashes of crops. The organic constituents are represented by various nitrogenous compounds which give rise to ammonia and humic acids, the "Matter forming a considerable part of the dark- coloured vegetable material, or humus, from which, by means of nitrification, nitrogen is supplied to growing crops. The complexiby of its composition helps to render farmyard manure a perfect, as well as a general manure. The average composition of the solid and liquid excreta of farm animals, as shown in the following table (from A. D. Hall), is worth noting:^ Table XVII. — Percentage Composition of Excbeta. Animal. Excreta. Water. Nitrogen. Phosphoric acid. Potash. Horse SoUd .. Liquid .. 75-0 90-0 0-56 ]-52 0-35 trace 01 0-92 Cow ...j Solid .. Liquid .. 860 91-5 0-4i 1-05 0-12 trace 004 ^ 1-36 Sheep ... 1 SoKd .. Liquid .. 57-6 86-6 0-72 1-31 0-44 001 — Pig ... { Solid .. Liquid .. 76-0 97-6 0-48 0-60 0-68 014 0-3B 0-70 The solid excreta chiefly contain phosphoric acid, lime, magnesia, and silica, with comparatively little nitrogen. The liquid excreta, on the other hand, are almost destitute of phosphoric acid, but abound in alkaline salts (including potash), and in nitrogenous FABMTABD MANURE 109 organic matters, including urea and uric acid, which yield ammonia on decomposition. These facts show clearly that the most valuable con- stituents of dung are contained in the urine of live stock. The straw or other litter absorbs this liquid, though some of it is liable to drain sCway unless a large quantity of litter is employed. A loss thus arises, and, a still greater loss is incurred if, in the course of the fermentation of dung, a dark brown liquor is allowed to trickle from the mass. This liquor contains not only the constituents of the urine, but the valuable solid matter which has become soluble. As straw will absorb any ordinary liquids, an en- deavour should be made to restrict its absorbent powers entirely to the excreta of the animals, and for this purpose the litter should be kept out of reach of rain or other water. The washing out from the manure of its fertilizing ingredients will at the same time be pre- vented. For the better preservation of dung, there- fore, covered yards have been devised. A portion of the farmyard is covered with roofing, and though this in- volves considerable expenditure at the outset, the cost is found to more than repay itself ia the better quality of the manure. In a covered yard the floor and gutters can be so disposed as to cause drainings- from the heap and urine from the cattle byres to flow into a tank, whence the liquid may be taken as occasion requires, or else pumped back on to the heap. Tanks are some- times provided in open yards. An advantage of a covered yard is that dung may accumulate in it to a considerable depth, beneath the treading of the stock, which helps to make the mass uniform in texture and quality. The use of roughly chaffed straw and peat-moss litter will aid in the forma- tion of a weU-consolidated bed of dung. Sooner or later, the manure — unless for special reasons put upon the land at once — finds its way to the ' dung-heap,' though this will happen more fre- quently in the case of an open yard. In the dung heap two sources of loss have to be guarded against— drainage and excessive fermentation. no MANURES AND MANURING Fermentation is the name given to those chemical changes, brought about by the action of bacteria, which result in making the manure ' ripe ' or ' mellow,' and better adapted to the immediate use of growing plants. It is a process of oxidation, and can only take place where there is free access of air. Heat is produced by the union of oxygen with the ingredients of the dung, and the more rapid the fermentation the greater is the heat. It is obvious then that fermentation may be con- trolled by increasing or diminishing the quantity of air that gains access to the heap, the oxidation being most active when the manure lies loosely, and least so when the heap is compressed. Most of the nitrogen in uiine is present in the form of a compound called urea, which, in the course of fermentation, is altered into carbonate of ammonia. This, being a volatile substance, passes off into the air, and a serious loss to the manure heap of its most valu- able element, nitrogen, may thus occur. Even free nitrogen gas may pass off, if the heap becomes too dry. In such cases the compression and moistening of the heap are desirable. The losses in making and storing farmyard manure have been found, as the outcome of a number of ex- periments spread over different years at the Wobum Experimental Farm, to be, on an average, 15 per cent, of the total nitrogen of the food used during the making of the dung, and 19 per cent, more (making 34 per cent, in all) in storing. As this applies to the most favourable conditions, the loss, under ordinary circumstances, must be put at 50 per cent, of the nitrogen of the food, and this is the figure adopted by Lawes and Gilbert in their tables. Unfermented dung is known as 'fresh' or 'long' manure, the straw in it having undergone little altera- tion. Well fermented dung is termed ' rotten ' or ' short ' manure. Eotten is more concentrated than fresh manure, and contains a larger proportion of soluble ingredients, for which reason it is more immediately available as plant-food. FARMYARD MANURE 111 It is characteristic of farmyard manure to leave in the soil a large, though slowly available residue of food at the disposal of future crops. It is the nitrogen of the liquid excreta of animslls that is first rendered useful to plants within the soil, then that of the finely divided matter which passes intermixed with some secretions in the solid excrements, and lastly that of the litter. The physical effect of farmyard manure upon soils is as important as its chemical influence. The general rule according to which short and well-rotted dung is applied to light open soils, and long fresh dung to heavy com- pact soils, is one intimately associated with the mutual physical relations of soil and manure. The fresher the dung the less ready are its constituents to enter into combinations available as plant-food; and in this form a stiff clay soil is well adapted to hold or retain it till the occurrence of those chemical reactions which result in rendering the nutrient ingredients of the manure pre- sentable to the plant. The older and the more rotted the dung, before application, the more promptly are its f ertilizirjg ingredients available ; and, as light porous soils are deficient in retentive power, it is well they should receive dung in an advanced state of decom- position, and at a time when the crop^is ready to pake use of it, loss of manurial substance by means of the drainage waters being thus avoided. Furthermore, long or green manure helps to open up stiff soils ; and the fresh straw provides air channels along which the atmosphere can find its way into the interstices of the soil, oxidation being thereby promoted. Conversely, ■ the application of short or much-decomposed dungi to a light or sandy soil has the "beneficial effect of making it firmer and of rendering it less rapidly permeable by water. ARTIFICIAL MANURES Of the essential constituents of their food which cul- tivated plants obtain from the soil, it has been stated (p. 19) that those which are liable to become temporarily exhausted include nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, 112 MANURES AND MANURING / and lime. It is chiefly with the objeqt of supplying any deficiency in one or more of these — particularly of the first three— that manuring is resorted to, though, even in this case, the main source of tiiese substances is still to be sought in the store of fertility which has accumu- lated in most cultivable soils. It is partly for the privi- lege of drawing upon this reservoir of plant-food that the tenant farmer pays rent to his landlord. Year by year the soil doles out from its vast stores of insoluble matter small quantities dissolved in water, and there- fore available as the food of crops, and to these the farmer adds contributions of his own in the form of natural and artificial fertilizers. The latter help to maintain the condition of the soil, as distinguished from its fertility. It is quite possible for a soil of low natural fertility to be brought into a high condition. It is the natural fertility inherent in a 'soil which is given in exchange for rent, whilst the ' condition ' depends upon the additional fertility which the tenant brings upon the land at his option. Artificial manures possess the advantage of, present- ing a large quantity of fertilizing material in a small bulk. They *ere formerly described as portable manures, because, as compared with farmyard manure, they are easily carried from place to place. In other words, the carriage of a given quantity of nitrogen, or of phosphorus, from one place to another would cost far less in the form of an artificial fertilizer than in that of farmyard manure. Some artificial fertilizers contain only one valuable ingredient, and are then spoken of as nitrogenous, phosphatic, or potash manures, as the case may be ; others, such as Peruvian guano, contain- more than one. Peruvian guano is the excrement of fish-eating sea- birds which has accumulated in the rainless districts of Peru. In former years it was a rich ammoniacal manure, but as the best deposits have been worked out its character has altered, and it is now richer in phosphates and poorer in nitrogen. The higher qualities still obtainable yield from 8 to 10 or 12 per cent, of ammonia, and the poorer grades only about 4 per cent.. FISH GUANO^BONBS 113 and even less, with, however, from 30 to 50 per cent, of phosphates. The better qualities, when available, are a valuable top-dressing for corn crops. The lower qualities are cheap enough to be used for any of the purposes to which fine bone-meal is applied. The lower class guanos are the residues left after the more soluble ingredients of high-class guanos "have been washed out by rain. From 1 to 3 per cent, of potash may be pre- sent, beside& a variable proportion of insoluble stony matter, derived from the rock on which the guano is deposited. After having been driven away, the birds are now returning to some of the islands, where they are forming fresh supplies of guano. Fish guano is rather inappropriately named, as it is not a real guano. It is obtained from fish-curing establishments, and consists of fish offal, sometimes of whole fishj dried and ground. Fish guanos, according to their s(^rce, yield from 6 to 10 per cent, of ammonia, and from 10 to 15 per cent., or even more, of phosphate of lime. More correctly speaking, therei are two kinds of this fertilizer ; one with a high percentage (10 to 11) of nitrogen, and a low percentage (11 to 15) of phos- phate of lime ; the other with a low nitrogen percentage (5 +o 6), and a high percentage (30 to 40) of phosphate of lime. Fish guanos often contain fish-oil, which renders them less serviceable as manures, because it delays decomposition. Bones are essentially a phosphatic manure, though they also yield a certain amount of nitrogen. The quality depends upon the treatment of the bones before their application to the soil. Coarsely crushed bones decom- pose but slowly, and occupy some years in yielding up their fertilizing ingredients. Eaw bone-meal of good quality contains from 45 to 50 per cent, of phosphate of lime, with nitrogen equal to 4j or 5 per cent, of am- monia. The more finely-ground the meal the more speedy is its action. Bones that have been steamed at high pressure, to deprive them of the gelatine used in glue-making, contain much more phosphate of lime (55 to 65 per cent.), but nitrogen equal to only about 1^ or 2 per cent, of ammonia ; these steamed bones 114 MANURES AND MANURlNty are often ground into a fine flour befMe use. Bonea are chiefly used as a manure fox turnips and swedes, and for top-dressing pasture land. Table XVIII. gives analyses of average samples of bone-meal and steamed bone. Table XVIII. — Composition of average samples of Bone-meal and Steamed Bone. Bone-meal. Steamed bone. Moisture ' Organic matter Phosphate of lime Carbonate of lime, magnesia, etc Insoluble siliceous matter ' Containing nitrogen Equal to ammonia 10-43 32-30 48-40 7-20 1-67 12-41 15-07 6117 10-17 1-18 100-00 3-71 4-51 100-00 1-08 1-31 To hasten the action of bones, and so to get a more prompt return from their application to the land, Liebig proposed that they should be treated -with sulphuric acid. The result is that the insoluble (tribasic) phos- phate of lime -which they contain is converted into a new compound of phosphoric acid, which readily dis- solves in water.* Dissolved bones are thus produced. Peruvian guano is similarly ' dissolved ' by means of sulphuric acfd, and to it sulphate of ammonia is fre- quently added, thus producing a strong active manure. It was found that the same process could be success- fully applied to mineral phosphates, the resulting soluble compound being called a mineral supeiphoS' phate, to distinguish it from the dissolved bones which have just been referred to. Attention was first turned * The term ' superphosphate ' is applied to this compound and the calcium sulphate, etc., with whieh it is mixed (see Table XIX.). It does not imply, as might be supposed, that an unusually large amount of phosphoric acid is present. MINERAL PHOSPHATES 115 to mineral phosphates when it was realized (about 1840) that bones owed their value as a manure to the presence of phosphate of lime. The minerals known as apatite and phosphorite first received attention, and material of the kind imported from Estremadura (Spain) was used in 1843 for field trials in England. Apatite from Canada and Norway has also been employed to some extent. An important advance followed the discovery in 1845 of phosphatic nodules known a? ' coprolites ' in the Cambridge greensand. These were extensively worked, as were similar deposits in the Crag. Compe- tition with foreign phosphates of similar nature, but occurring in larger quantity, ultimately ruined the native industry. The phosphates of Lahn (Germany) were largely worked for some time, but contain too great a proportion of oxide of iron and alumina. The objectioa^o the Belgian phosphates from near Mens is the low percentage (40 to 50) of phosphate of lime. The Somme phosphates from North France are superior to both the preceding, containing, as they do, but little (1 to 2 per cent.) oxide of iron and alumina, and a large amount (up to 70 per cent.) of phosphate of lime. Florida phosphate, containing, 70 to 78 per cent, of phos- phate of lime, and very free from the oxides mentioned, is of still greater value, but the most important source of this kind of mineral matter is now North Africa. There is here an important deposit at the base of the Eocene, and extensively mined in Algeria and Tunis. It probably exists in Morocco, and is found in Egypt, though it is there of less 'Value than in the first-named countries, where it contains from 55 to 65 per cent.- of phosphate, without much iron or alumina. Mention must also be made of the ' crust ' guanos, from which the nitrogen has been almost or entirely washed out. These are chiefly found in the West Indies (Sombrero, Curagoa), the Pacific (Ocean and Christmas Islands), and Bolivia. The Christmas and Ocean Islands' deposits, containing 80 to 86 per cent, of phosphate are the most important ones now worked. In manufacturing superphosphate the raw materials are finely ground, and then treated with dilute oil of 116 MAJSrUEES AND MANURING vitriol (sulphuric acid), which results in the production of monobasic (soluble) phosphate of lime and sulphate of lime. The oxides of iron and alumina present in some of the mineral phosphates are undesirable, because they interfere with a proper mechanical condition of the manufactured product, and also lead to ' reversion,' i.e., the conversion of soluble phosphate into insoluble or ' reverted ' phosphate (intermediate di-calcium phos- phate). There is consequently a certain amount of deterioration during storage. Analyses are given in Table XIX. Table XIX. — Composition of average samples of Minbeal Superphosphate op Lime and pure Dissolved Bones. Moisture... » Organic matter and water of combination ... Monobasic phosphate of hme equal to tribasic phosphate of lime (bone phosphate) rendered soluble by acid Insoluble phosphates... Sulphate of lime, allcaline salts, etc Imoluble sihceous matter ' Containing nitrogen ... equal to ammonia Mineral super- phosphate of lime. Pure dissolved bones. 16-24 8-97 17-42 (27-28) 3-08 49-61 4-68 12-06 32-06 14-65 (22-94) 20-95 18-87 1-41 100-00 10000 309 3-75 Eecent experiments have proved that it is not abso- lutely necessary that mineral phosphates should be ' con- verted ' into superphosphates in order to be available as plant-food. If ground to a very fine powder they will also answer the purpose, though less satisfactorily and less rapidly. The most economical and certain way of utilizing mineral phosphates is still to change them into superphosphate before applying to the land. Even when the conditions are such that a non-acid or undis- solved manure is to be preferred, other sources of phosphorus are still available in the form of bones, BASIC SLAG 117 guano, fish-guano, and basic slag, all of which are better than ordinary mineral phosphate, however finely ground. It is necessary to distinguish between dissolved bone and the mixed manures sold as dissolved bone-compound. The latter consist of mineral superphosphate mixed with variable quantities of bone, blood, etc., and usually yield considerably less ammonia than genuine dissolved bone. Basic slag, basic cinder, or Thomas phosphate powder, is a by-product, containing the phosphorus which is removed in the smelting of ii:on by the Thomas- Gilchrist process. Ground down to a very fine powder, it makes a cheap and useful phosphatic manure, which has been extensively applied on large tracts of moor- land in Germany. Its efiiciency largely depends on very fine grinding. From 80 to 90 per cent, of well-ground basic slag ■ should pass through a sieve having 10,000 meshes to the square inch. The phosphoric acid of this artificial form of mineral phosphate exists in a more readily available condition than that of the tribasic phosphate of lime of natural mineral phosphate. Good basic slag contains from 14'to 20 per cent, of phosphoric acid. Phosphatic manures that have been acted upon by sulphuric acid generally contain some amount of free acid, and are therefore distinguished as acid phosphatic manures. The various kinds of superphosphate, includ- ing dissolved bones, are examples. The other phosphatic manures, which have not been treated with acid, are called non-acid phosphatic manures. Ground coprolites and basic slag are examples. In some cases an ^cid phosphatic manure, in others a non-acid phosphatic manure, will be the more advantageously applied to the land. As a rule, if the soil is fairly rich in lime, a super- phosphate or s^me similar dissolved manure will be found the most efiicacious and economical means of ap- plying phosphorus. On the other hand, for soils deficient in lime, it would probably be better to use bone-meal, raw phosphatic guano, or basic slag. These, therefore, should be applied to soil, a sample of which will not 118 MANURES AND MANURING effervesce when tested with dilute hydrochloric acid. Moorlands, heaths, and many sandy soils are usually known to be deficient in lime, as, on the other hand, chalky and marly soils are known to contain it in suffi- ciency. It is to the loams of uncertain character that the test should be applied. ' Nitrate of soda is an artificial fertilizer of the highest value, for it is readily soluble in water, and the nitrogen it contains is in a form in which it can be immediately appropriated by the plant. Consequently its action is prompt, and it is only applied to land on which there is a growing crop ready to make use of it In the absence of a crop, the nitrate is liable to be washed out of the soil, and its value thereby lost. Large natural deposits of nitrate of soda are found on the soil in Peru and Chili, and the salt is purified by dissolving and recrys- tallizing it. As sold in the trade it contains about 95 per cent., and sometimes more, of pure nitrate of soda, equarto about 15| per cent, of nitrogen, or 19 per cent, of ammonia. The following is the analysis of an average sample of nitrate of soda : — Moisture ..'. ... 2-59 Chloride of sodium (common salt) 1'22 Other impurities '36 1 Pure .nitrate of soda ... 95-83 lOO-OO There still lingers a prejudice against the use of nitrate of soda, because it is said to act as a ' whip,' or a 'scourge,' and to 'exhaust the soil.' As a matter of fact, nitrate of soda supplies an indispensable plant- food — nitrogen. But it is only productive of its best effects in promoting the growth of crops wh-en the other essential elements of plant-food are also available in sufficient quantity. Either, therefore, the soil must be in good condition, maintained by the liberal use of dung, or other artificials must be supplied to supplement the action of the nitrate. In the case of corn crops, for example, it is very commonly used in conjunction with Superphosphate. SULPHATE OF AMMONIA 119 Nitrate of socia is put on the land as a top-dressing to the growing crop. Besides corn crops, it is specially suited to mangel. The proper amount to use is generally about 1 cwt. per acre. When used with superphosphate, the two fertilizers should not be mixed till just before use, or a loss of nitric acid may result. This may -be altogether avoided by sowing the superphosphate with the seed,, and subsequently top-dressing the young crop with nitrate. Common salt (chloride of sodium) is the chief impurity of nitrate of soda, and is sometimes added as an adulteration. Sulphate of ammonia, a compound of ammonia and sulphuric acid, is the great rival of nitrate of soda. It is perfectly soluble in water, but less quick in its action than nitrate. At the same time it is richer in nitrogen, of which it contains about 20 per cent., equal to from 24^ to 25j per cent, of ammonia. Good samples yield more than 95 per cent, of sulphate of ammonia. It is a refuse product . of gas-works, the ammonia, which results from the distillation of coal, being passed into oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid), with which it combines. Sulphate of ammonia may be used for all purposes to which nitrate of soda is applied. As, however, the salt has to undergo nitrification in the soil, in order that its nitrogen may be converted into nitrate, sulphate of ammonia may be applied to the land- somewhat earlier than would be~prudent in the case of nitrate of soda, without risk of loss by drainage. In dry weather nitrate acts the more quickly, in wet weather there is not much difference between the two, and in very wet weather there is the risk lest the nitrate may get washed out of the soil before the crop has been able to make full use of it. Which of the two is the more economical manure depends greatly upon the relative market prices, it being necessary to ascertain in which form the unit (1 per cent.) of^ nitrogen can be purchased the more cheaply. Calcium cyanamide and calcium nitrate, now largely used, have obtained their nitrogen from the atmosphere by electrical means. The former is prepared by passing nitrogen gas over calcium carbide in the electric furnace. 120 MANURES AND MANURING [t contains 19 to 20 per cent, of nitrogen. Calcium nitrate is manufactured by making nitrogen and oxygen combine in the electric arc, and then treating with lime the nitric acid produced. It contains 13 per cent, of nitrogen. Dried blood, shoddy, hoofs and horns, etc., are or- ganic manures derived from animal refuse. They are all nitrogenous manures, and are nearly insoluble in water. Their nitrogen, therefore, is yielded ^ up but Blowly in the soil, -where they must undergo decom- position. Dried blood is the most rapid of these slowly- acting manures ; it contains nitrogen equal to from 12 up to 16 per cent, of ammonia. Hoofs and horns are the slowest in their action, which may, however, be much accelerated by grinding them to a very fine powder; they yield about 16 to 18 per cent, of ammonia. Shoddy or wool waste varies in value according to the quantity of wool present, and may contain from 3 to 14 per cent, of nitrogen. Hoofs and horns are used in market gardens and hop yards, shoddy is chiefly applied to hops, and dried blood is a good fertilizer for fruit trees, besides being also used for cereals. Soot, much employed as a top-dressing for corn crops, is a nitrogenous rnanure which owes its fertilizing pro- perties principally to the preseilce of a variable quantity of salts of ammonia, representing from 2 to 5 per cent, of ammonia. A good sample will contain at least 4 per cent. The amount of ammonia depends largely upon the extent to which the soot is mixed with ashes and other refuse. Of the foregoing manures, average samples will con- tain the percentages of nitrogen stated : — '.Sulphate of Ammonia. Dried Blood. Shoddy. -Soot. Nitrogen equal to ammonia ... per cent. 20-72 25-16 per cent. ; per cent. 10-03 ; 4-75 12-18 5-77 per cent. 4-14 oO.I POTASH MANURES 121 Other Organic manures, such as rape-cake, mustard- cake, damaged cotton-cake, and similar refuse feeding- cakes, are found to be especially useful on light land deficient in organic matter. They not only give bulk to the soil, but supply it also with nitrogen, the quantity of the latter varying according to the kind of cake. Fresh sea-weed contains from -3 to 1 per cent, of nitrogen, with some potash. Potash manures are less expensive than was formerly the case, when potash was obtained almost exclusively from the ashes of plants, especially of young twigs of trees. Potash salts are now procured in quantities from Stassfurt and other places in Germany, where they form thick deposits resting upon rock salt. Of these salts the best known is kainit, a mineral composed of potas- sium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, potassium chloride (muriate of potash), and water, usually with magnesium and sodium chlorides. An average sample gave on analysis 12-56 per cent, of potash, equal to 23'25 per cent, of sulphate of potash. Muriate of potash is the commercial name of chloride of potassium, hydrochloric acid having formerly been called muriatic acid. It is much richer in potash (75 to 90 per cent, pure) than kainit, and, where the saving of carriage is an object, it may be used in preference. Sulphate of potash (90 per cent, pure) is also a salt largely used for supplying jyotash to crops. Pasture lands are often much benefited by the use of potash salts, and so are clover, potatoes, and root crops. 1 Potash manures cannot be advantageously applied to so wide a range of soils as are improved by nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers. Heavy lands do not, as a rule, respond to potash, because there is usually sufficient of this ingredient available in clays. Light soils, on the other hand, generally yield better crops after treatment with potash salts. As peaty soils are wanting in potash, reclaimed bog lands also pay for applications of this ingredient. Common salt, as used in agriculture, is the same material as, in a purer form, is known as table-salt. 122 MANURES AND MANURING Chemically, it is chloride of sodium. Its action in the soil is not understood, and is probably as much physical as chemical, for most plants can grow healthily in the absence of either or both of the elements of which it is composed. Salt is usually applied as a top-dressing, in conjunction with nitrate of soda, and it appears to check the tendency which corn crops betray in the direction of rank growth when nitrate is freely used by itself. Cab- bage and mangel crops are often much benefited by the application of salt, though in certain districts this is not the case. The useful effect is largely due to the fact that the salt retains moisture in the land for the use of the crop, and so is very beneficial in dry weather. In localities near the sea some quantity of salt is derived from the wind, and may act as a fertilizer. In certain soils the use of salt leads to the formation of a pan (see p. 27), possibly through the attraction of moisture. If present in too large a quantity, salt renders soils sterile. G-ypsum, or sulphate of lime, is the same material as plaster of Paris. Of plant-food it contains lime and sulphur, and hence gypsum is suited to crops like turnips and clover, which require a considerable quantity of sulphur. As, however, superphosphates always contain sulphate of lime, which is one of the products resulting from the treatment of mineral and other phosphates with sulphuric acid, the application of gypsum is un- necessary when superphosphates or dissolved bones are used. As a rule, gypsum can only be usefully applied to soils poor in lime. There is room for the exercise of considerable skill in the applicatioii of artificial manures, as regards both time and method. It is very necessary to remember that the object is not so much to manure the land as to feed the crop. Of the fertilizers put into the land by the cultivator of the soil, only those portions are effec- tively utilized which are subsequently recovered in the crop. All that is not so recovered is lost, and the outlay upon it has been incurred in vain. The properties of a fertilizer afford a safe guide to the time and method of its application. Thus, soluble and rapidly-acting manures are preferably applied in the spring, when there MANURES FOR SPECIAL CROPS 123 is the prospect of a vigorously growing crop ready to make use of them. The most striking example is afforded by nitrate of soda, which should never be applied till the crop is, as it were, naturally waiting for it; if not promptly taken up by the plant, it can hardly escape being washed out by rain. The same remarks apply in only a less degree to ammoniacal manures, for, though fertile soils have a great retentive power for ammonia, yet the latter is so soon converted^ into nitrates that it is liable in this form to be lost. Slowly-acting manures, like bones, fish guano, and shoddy, may be Safely applied in the autumn, as the process of nitrification requires in their case a considerable time. As phosphatic and potash manures are held by the soil, so that there is very little risk of their being washed out, the time of their application may be determined according to convenience. Phosphates, for example, are very commonly sown with the seed, the one operation serving both for the seed and for the finely-divided fertilizer. As far as practicable, manures should be reduced to the condition of a fine powder before application, not only to ensure their more rapid action but also to secure a more uniform distribution. With the same object artificial manures are often mixed with gypsum, ashes, sand, or fine dry soil, especially if intended to be broad- casted by hand. On light open soils, of little retentive power, manures that are only slightly soluble should be used, otherwise they are liable to be speedily washed out. MANURES FOB SPECIAL CROPS As wheat occupier; the land about twice as long as oats or barley, it is usually able to obtain a sufficiency of phosphates in the dung employed to manure the crop and in the residues of phosphates which exist in the soil. But on light soils, especially if only a moderate dressing of dung has been given, some phosphatic manure may be added at the time of sowing in autumn. 124 MANURES AND MANURING Three cwt. of superphosphate per acre on land rich in lime, or 2 cwt. of phosphatic Peruvian guano, or 3 cwt. of fine bone-meal, on land poor in lime, should suffice. In spring, wheat is top-dressed with nitrate of soda, at the rate of 1 to Ij cwt. per acre, but several moderate applications are better than one large dressing. Barley and oats should, at the time of sowing, receive the same dressings of phosphatic manures as recom- mended for wheat. They may also be top-dressed with nitrate of soda, though this fertilizer must be cautiously and sparingly used in the case of barley if the pro- duction of malting grain is the object in view. Barley following wheat may be more profitably manured than barley following turnips which have been fed off by sheep receiving cake. ' In Scotland, and in the northern counties of England, root-crops are manured more heavily than in the south. In the north, with a colder climate and a later and shorter season, from 10 to 15 cwt. per acre of artificial manures are profitably used for turnips, whereas in the south not more than 3 or 4 cwt. can be usefully employed. Turnips and swedes usually receive a full dressing of dung, notwithstanding which, artificial phosphates should also be used. They are specially valuable in helping the young turnip plant through the most critical period of its life, and thus in carrying it beyond the risk of destruction by the ' fly ' or other insect enemies. Moreover, these cruciferous roots are more responsive than any other crop to phosphatic manuring. On land containing a sufficient supply of lime, 3 to 5 cwt. per acre of superphosphate may be drilled in with the seed, whilst on soils poor in lime 5 or 6 cwt. of basic slag may be similarly applied. Nitrate of soda will not be required unless only a very moderate dressing of dung has been given, in which case 1 cwt. of nitrate per acre may be thrown between the rows after hoeing out, or ' singling.' It is the practice in Norfolk to grow the greater part of the swedes and almost all the turnips with artificial manures only, no dung being applied. MANURES FOR SPECIAL CROPS 125 The mangel crop responds less freely to phosphatic manuring than is the case with turnips. Therefore, where a heavy dressing of dung has been given, the addition of phosphates is not recommended for good soils. If, on the other hand, only 10 to 12 tons of dung have been^ used per acre, then 3 cwt. of superphosphate on land rich in lime may be given per acre, and 5 or 6 cwt. of basic slag, or 3 or 4 cwt. of phosphatic Peruvian guano, or of fine bone-meal, on land poor in lime. It is generally considered in Norfolk that phosphate? have very little beneficial action upon mangel, when dung is used. For this crop nitrate of soda is preferable. Beyond the nitrogen they receive in dung it is not economical to apply nitrogenous manures to leguminous crops. On the other hand, phosphatic and potassic fer- tilizers may be profitably used, and, in some classes of soil, gypsum also, as these, crops are capable of taking up comparatively large quantities of lime. Botation grasses, or ' seeds,' usually pay for nitro- genous manuring, notwithstanding "the presence of clover in the crop. As a large and immediate yield of fodder is looked for, rather than the production of fine herbage and a close greensward, liberal dressing may be resorted to. Nitrate of soda, at the rate of 2 cwt. per acre, and sometimes to the extent of 3 cwt., or more, may be put on in dressings of 1 cwt. per acre at a time. On soils containing a sufiiciency of lime, 2 or 3 cwt. of superphosphate or of dissolved bones may be used. Where lime is scarce, 3 .cwt. of bone-meal or of phosphatic Peruvian guano, or 5 cwt. of basic slag, will be found effective. On light soils, deficient in potash, 2 or 3 cwt. of kainit per acre, or 1 cwt. of sulphate of potash per acre, may be used. In the manuring of permanent grass land the propor- tion which it is desired to maintain of leguminous to gramineous herbage must be kept in view. The best manure of all is farmyard manure, though for an occa- sional crop of hay artificial manures may be used; they should, however, be resorted to with caution. Too free an employment of nitrate of soda, for example, would unduly favour the grasses at the expense of the clovers. 126 MANURES AND MANURING About 1 cwt. per acre of nitrate of soda, or of sulphate of ammonia, constitutes a moderate dressing. The phos- phatic manures mentioned for rotation grasses, with kainit for light lands, will ft* found suitable for per- manent pasture. Basic slag, bones, guano, and other undissolved manures, are best applied to pastures in the autumn. The most profitable way, however, of improving grass land is to manure it by feeding stock upon it with cake. If cattle or sheep are fed on the land with plenty of cake, there will be no need for the direct application of nitrogenous manures. The only artificials then required will be phosphates, and perhaps potash. For hops and fruit, shoddy, rape-dust, and bulky nitrogenous manures, such as fish manure, hoofs and horns, etc., are dug in during the autumn. Phosphatic manures are also used as for grass lands, the dressing being increased when dung is scarce. Plants of the cabbage tribe, including kale and kohl rabi, are gross and greedy feeders, so that bulky organic manures may be supplemented by guano. Three or 4 cwt. per acre of nitrate of soda may be used, and, in some cases, salt. Where potash is deficient, kainit should be used. In dry weather a top-dressing of 3 cwt. of salt to the acre will be found very useful, as it attracts moisture to the plant. PART II.— THE PLANT. CHAPTER IX.- SEEDS AND THEIR GERMINATION Most farm and garden crops are raised from seed, though some, such as potatoes, are not. It is difficult to see what changes are taking place when the seed is in the ground, but it is easy to make seeds grow under conditions permitting continuous observation. One method is to take a clean piece of red roofing tile and place it in a shallow dish. The seeds are laid upon the tile, and water is gently poured into the dish to rather more than half the thickness of the tile. The dish, covered with a board or slate, is put on a shelf in a warm cupboard, and the seeds examined daily. The tile being unglazed the water soon rises to the upper surface, and moistens the seeds. During the first day or two these will swell, as may be proved by comparing them with dry seeds. Then the skin or coat will be seen to have burst, and a small whitish structure to protrude. The seeds have sprouted or germinated. Broad beans may be conveniently selected for observation. First, examine the dry seed. Notice the hard smooth coat, and, at one end, a blackish mark (the hilum) where the seed was attached to the pod. Carefully slit open the coat with a penknife, and peel it off. That which is left consists of two similar halves, which are laid apart by pushing the knife blade between them. These are the seed-leaves, or cotyledons. Further examination will show that the seed-leaves are attached, not to each other, but to a, short spindle- shaped structure lying at the margin of the seed, and almost hidden till the seed-leaves are forced apart. This structure is called the nxis. 128 SEEDS AND THEIR GERMINATION Next, take a bean that has lain on the moist tile for a day or two. The penknife now strips off an outer leathery coat, beneath which .is a much thinner trans- parent one. The outer coat is the testa, the inner one is the endopleura. These can easily be made out in a nearly ripe bean or a cooked broad bean. They are also brought into view in peeling a walnut. Each day the bean which appears to be most ad- vanced should be taken off the tile and examined, cutting it if need be for this purpose. In the course of a week or so it will be seen that the axis has grown considerably. That end of it (the plumule, from Lat. plumula, a little feather) which was turned in between the flat faces of the seed- leaves will begin to develop small leaves. It is, in fact, the primary shoot — i.e., the main stem with its leaves. The other end (the radicle, from Lat radix, a root), which was more towards the outer margin of the seed, will also have lengthened,_and fine threads or fibres will have grown out from its sides. It is the primary or main root. Fig. 46 shows the parts of a pea seed, twice the natural size. Several germinated beans may be planted in the ground, or in a flower-pot, and still kept under daily observation. Before long the curved plumule will peep above the soil, shoot up rapidly, gradually straighten itself, and expand its leaves. By pulling up the you^ng plant, or seedling7 it will be found that the radicle has developed into the primary root, bearing fibrous secondary or lateral roots. The seed, then, consists of a dormant plantlet (con- sisting of plumule, radicle, and cotyledons) covered by protective coats. What makes the bean seed germinate? A sack of beans may be kept in a barn, or a bin of beans in a Fio. 46.— Seed or Pba DISSECTED. o, cotyledon. B,, radicle, or young root, p, plumule, or young shoot T, teata, underlaid by the endopleura. TEMPERATURE OF GERMINATION 129 shop, for an indefinite time, and they will not begin to grow. If, however, by some chance they got wet, sprouting or germination would begin. This shows that moisture is necessary in order that germination may take place. To prove this, some beans may be placed on a tile that is dry, and is kept dry, while other beans are put on a moist tile. The beans on the dry tile will undergo no change. But the presence of water is not the only condition. It will be remembered that the tile in its dish was put in a warm cupboard. If, in the winter time, another lot of beans had been placed on a tile, and the dish with its water had been left out of doors, where it was nearly cold enough to freeze the water, germination would have been much slower, and it might not have begun at all. Hence it is learnt that a certain degree of warmth — a certain temperature — is necessary in order that germination may take place. It has been proved that seeds do not usually germinate below a tempera- ture of 37° F. (the freezing point is 32° F.). But the temperature is different for difierent seeds. Thus, wheat and barley will not germinate below 41°, nor will peas below 44°, maiz6 below 49°, nor pumpkin seed below 56°. Hence, if wheat were sown at the end of November, as it sometimes is, and if the winter were so cold that for weeks the thermometer did notarise above 40°, the wheat would not germinate, though sufficient moisture might be present. In the same way, as there is for each kind of seed a certain minimum \emperature beZow_ which it will not ger- minate, so there is a maximum temperature above which it refuses to do so. This higher limit of temperature is 140° ' for barley, 102° for peas, 108° for wheat, and 115° for maize and pumpkin seeds. Between these extreme temperatures there is, in each ease, a temperature most favourable to germination, but this^ optimum temperature is not necessarily midway between the two. For wheat, barley, and peas, it is about 89°, for maize and pumpkin seeds it is 93°- The plants named have only been selected aa 130 SEEDS AND THEIR GERMINATION examples, and the figures are collected in the following table : — TablbXX. — Temperature of Germination {in degrees Fahr.). Seeds. Minimum. Optimum. Maiimum. Wha«t 41 8» 108 Barley 41 89^- 104 Maize 49 93 ., 115 Peas y 44 • 89 ■• 102 Pumpkins -56 93 . 115 For seeds in general, the minimum temperature ranges from 40° to 55°, and the maximum from 100° to 116°. The optimum temperature lies between 79° and 94°. Another condition of germination is the presence ol air, though this can only be actually proved by means of chemical apparatus. Still, if a small wide-mouthed bottle is filled with broad beans, a little water poured in, and the mouth tightly stopped, the beans will be seen to begin germinating. After a while, however, they will wither. The reason is that the small bottle could not hold much air, and, of that which was there, the oxygen has been used up by the germinating seed, and the supply exhausted. The process of germination involves oxidation, ajid ceases when oxygen gas, which makes up one-fifth of the atmosphere, is no longer" available. In the small bottle the oxygen gas has dis- appeared, and carbonic acid gas has taken its place. Boot and shoot. — Various other facts may be learnt from the germinating beans. Take several sprouted beans and plant them one by one upside down in the ground — ^that is, with the radicle towards the surface of the earth and the plumule pointing downwards. At the same time, for comparison, plant a few more ger- minated beans upright in the ground. Let the seedlings grow till they have formed green shoots above the ground, then pull them up for examin- ation. In the case of the inverted seeds, the plumule, PLAiNT FOOD 131 or ascending axis, or shoot, will have curved completely round in order to find its way into the light. At the same time the radicle, or descending axis, or root, will have curved over the top of the seed and commenced to grow downwards into the soil and away from the light. Compare one of these curved seedlings with a straight one from a bean that was planted upright. This property of the shoot to grow towards the light, and of the root to grow into the soil is a most important one. Were it otherwise, and if all seeds required to be planted upright, the labour of sowing small seeds like those df clover, and turnips, and onions would be enormous. Plant food. — Let some of the germinated beans remain on the moist tile ; do not plant them at all. After a time they will begin to wither, and eventually they will die. Smaller seeds, like turnips and clovers, will die much more quickly. Probably, at the same time, they will become covered with a delicate mould,, due to the growth of a fungus. Why does the seedling left upon the tile die, whilst the one planted out lives? On the tile the plant has at its disposal nothing but air and moisture. The other plant not only has these, but it is brought into touch with the soil. That it comes into very close contact with the latter is shown by pulling up a growing seed- ling, and observing the extent to which the particles of soil cling to the delicate root-hairs that clothe the roots. It is reasonable to conclude that the planted seedling is able to obtain from the soil something which the seedling on the tile could not get. This, indeed, is the case. The soil contains plant food — i.e., a very dilute solution of certain mineral substances (see p. 19) — and it is owing to the lack of this food that the unplanted seedling perishes. At this stage another question suggests itself. The unplanted seedling dies because it cannot obtain from air and water such food as will enable it to live and grow. But the seed, when first placed on the tile, was supplied with nothing but air and water at a suitable degree of warmth, and yet it began to grow. Whence T 2 132 SKEDS AND THEIB GEHMINATIOK came the food, other than that in air and water, which permitted of this earliest growth) The answer is that the material, other than that in air and water, required for the purpose of germina- tion, is supplied by the seed itself. The thick, fleshy seed-leaves, so well seen in beans and peas, are not only the first leaves of the young plant, but they con- tain a store of nutriment which is used up in enabling it to commence its independent or individual growth. It had already undergone some growth while it was connected with the plant which produced it, that is, with its parent. In view of its subsequent independent growth, the parent plant supplies its offspring — ^the seed — with nutri- ment that shall enable it to make a start in life on its own account, by carrying it through the earlier stages of its existence, till it is sufficiently supplied with organs, in the form of leaves and rootlets, which will enable it to obtain food for itself. Seeds like tie bean. — Many well-known seeds are constructed on the same plan as the bean. They consist of an axis, bearing a pair of fleshy leaves stored with food, the whole wrapped up or enclosed in a couple of close-lying coats. Such a seed is merely a young plant in an envelope. Of this nature are the seeds of all leguminous or pulse crops, such as beans, peas, clover, sainfoin, lucerne, vetches, furze, etc. So are the seeds of all cruciferous crops, such as turnips, cabbages, radishes, mustard, and cress. There is another large group of seeds which differ in structure from seeds of the bean type, though there is no essential difference in their mode of growth. As a convenient example of this group a grain of wheat* may be taken. Germination of wheat. — Let some grains of wheat be germinated and otherwise examined in the same way as the bean seeds. The grain will swell, and in due * Ajb will be explained in th« B«c|uel, grains of wheat and other cereals are really fruiti, i.e., eeeSe with something else in addition. STRUCTURE OF WHEAT GRAIN 133 course, from one end of it, rootlets will be seen to protrude, whilst close by will arise the plumule or shoot. Dissected with a penknife, however, the wheat grain (fig. 47) is at once seen to differ from the bean. At the base of the grain, on the side away from the groove or furrow, a small oval patch is noticed. This may easily be detached, especially from a grain that has been soaked in water for a day. Remove this little patch from several grains- and put these on the germinating tile with some other grains. The latter will germinate. The former never will. Hence, in the removal of the tiny structure at the base of ,the grain, the living part of the grain has been taken away. Think now of the bean seed : what is its living part? It is the axis with its seed-leaves— the young plant; and it is this which grows into the robust bean plant. Similarly, it is the tiny structure which can be lifted away from the grain on the point of a penknife that grows into the slender wheat plant. This minute structure, then, corresponds '^with all t. flowering glums that is contained inside the protective enve?opmg ^the envelope of the bean. It is the germ perica^. or embryo plant (fig. 47, p, a), the a, endosperm, plantlet, consisting, as in the bean, o, Bcutellum of an axis (plumule and radicle), ,^; S^'o^J embryo, which m this case is attached to a single seed-leaf, or cotyledon. The central part of the latter, (scutellum) is applied to the endosperm, while its sides are folded back so as to wrap round the axis. When the wheat grain is crushed the germ falls out, and millers call it the 'chit.' It is made up of a great number of very small thin-walled cells, and, on account of its oily nature, it is less friable, and therefore less easily powdered, than the rest of the grain, Fio. 47' — Section OF Grain of Wheat. 134 SEEDS AND THEIR aERMINATIOH It is now apparent that whilst the bean seed con- tains nothing but the embryo of the future plant, the wheat grain contains the embryo and something in addition. This additional matter, scraped out with a knife, is seen to be made up chiefly of the w^hitish powder- known as flo^r (fig. 48, d). As the growth of the germinating grain progresses, the grain gradually loses this mate- rial, which is called upon to supply the first food for the germinating seed. What, then, is really the difference between such types of seed as are illus- trated by the bean and the wheat grain % Obviously this, that in the wheat grain there is a minute embryo resting against a much larger mass of food material (endosperm), this lying outside it; while the bean seed con- tains nothing but a large embryo, the size of which is due to the food material stored within its fleshy seed-leaves. The term albuminous is applied to seeds which contain, besides the em- bryo,^ a store of food {endosperm) lying outside seeds which,- like the bean, contain are called exalbumvrums. The In the exalbuminous X-300 PxG. 48.— Section or Outbk- MOST Paet of Wheat Grain (magnified 300 times). i, epidermis, with an underlying series of cells almost ob- literated by pressure. B, cells with thick walls. A and B are more or leas coloured, B giving the brown colour of bran. 0, thick-walled gluten cells filled with fine-grained protoplasm and containing granules of albuminoid nature. D, thin-walled cells, filled with starch granules (flonr), form- ing the mass of the grain. it ; while those nothing but an embryo, difference is merely one of position. seed the nutriment is entirely stored in the embryo ; in ALBUMINOUS AND EXALBUM1MOU8 SEEDS 135 Albuminous seeds vary considerably in respect of the relative size of embryo and endosperm. Sometimes the embryo is • very minute,- as in the iris and the poppy. In such a seed as the bindweed, on the other hand, the embryo is relatively large. The position of the embryo in the albuminous seed likewise varies. In wheat it lies at one side of the base, in the sedge it is central, in the chickweed it is coiled round the store- of nutriment, in seeds of the onion and of the potato it is coiled up in the mass of nutriment. Besides the seeds that have just been' named, the following are also mentioned as affording easily obtained examples of albuminous seeds : Buttercup, violet, Bpur]?ey, celery, parsnip, carrot, plantain, buckwheat Fio. 49. — Section of Sbbd OF Buckwheat. T, testa. EN, endospenu (or albumen). E, embryo, consisting of an' axis and two cotyledons. 0, the cotyledons folded back. Fig. 50. —Section op, Seed OF Beet. T, testa. E, endosperm. EM, embryo, with its two cotyledons. (fig. 49), dock, sorrel, mangel, beet (fig. 50), sedges, and all cereals and grasses. The seeds of the castor oil plant, procurable at any ohemist's shop, are particularly useful for examination on account of their large size. Of exalbuminous seeds, besides those of leguminous and cruciferous plants, noticed on page 132, may be mentioned such familiar seeds as those of the maple, sycamore, horse-chestnut, apple, cherry, vegetable marrow, cucumber,, pumpkin, sunflower, yarrow, together with the walnut, hazel-nut, beech-nut, and acorn. [36 SEEDS AND THEIR GERMINATION The green colour of plants. — Return now to the young bean plants and learn from them one more lesson. The sprouting bean upon the tile is white. When it is planted out, the shoot that at length peeps through the soil is also white. As it straightens itself it turns green, and keeps this colo\ir till after flowering. If a watch be kept upon the ground in which seeds are sown, whether in the field or in the garden, it will be observed that the young shoots as they 'work their way out of the soil are white, or nearly so, but that they speedily turn green. , Moreover, if a vigorous seedling be pulled up, it will be seen that whilst the part above ground is green, the part below ground is white. In the soil it is always dark ; above the soil it is not. This suggests that light may have an effect in producing the green colour, and it is easily proved that it does. If a bean seedling is planted in a flower-pot and put in a dark cupboard, although it continues growing for some time it does not turn green, but it may be caused to do - so by bringing it into the light. When a branch of a geranium or fuchsia is diverted into a dark box for a time it loses its green colour. If a slab of wood or stone has been laid flat upon garden turf for a week or two, the grass will be found quite blanched when the slab is lifted, and will only slowly reacquire the green colour. The green colouring matter or pigment, the presence of which is usually most noticeable in the foliage leaves of a plant, is called chloiophyll. It is easily extracted from dried parsley leaves by means of alcohol. Malting. — The process by which barley is changed into malt is one of germination. The barley grain is placed under suitable conditions of moisture and warmth, with free access of air. It soon begins to sprout, and at the same time a chemical change is set up inside the grain, resulting chiefly in the conver- sion of starch into malt-sugar. Most of the floury material contained in the grain is starch, an insoluble compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. But plants are usually incapable of consuming solid food; their nutri- MALTING 137 meat must be in the fluid form. During germination the starch, which is insoluble, becomes changed into malt-sugar, another compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but soluble in water. On account of its solu- bility the sugar can be carried in solution to the young growing plant, and, there made use of as food. But the object of the maltster is attained when a portion of the starch is converted into sugar, and at this stage he kills the" young plant by suddenly raising the tempera- ture above the limit of 104° (see p. 130). In the place of living barley-grains filled with insoluble starch there are now dead malt-grains containing soluble malt-sugar. The malt is steeped in water, which, by dissolving the sugar, is converted into the sweet wort from which beer is made. What are known as malt-combs consist of the radicles of the young plants, which are removed by screening. . ... v^. I? ® Fia. 51.— DiSINTBOEATION OF A GRAIN OF WHEAT Starch by Diastase (highly magnified). A, B, C, S, G, represent successive stages. The conversion of the starch into sugar (fig. 51) is brought about by the activity of a substance termed diastase, a member of a very important group of bodies, known as ferments or enzymes, which are protein com- pounds (see below). Starch is a good example of the group of substances which chemists term carbohydrate^, that is, compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the two latter being present in the same relative proportions in which they combine together to form water — namely,^ two volumes of hydrogen to one of oxygen. But although starch makes up a large proportion of the reserve materials of most seeds, whether albuminous or exalbu- minous, other kinds of carbohydrates are present. Many seeds also contain fats or oils — ^linseed, rape- seed, poppy-seed, coco-nut, and Brazil nut are examples. 138 SEEDS AND THEIR GERMINATION Fats, like carbohydrates, consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but the oxygen is present in a relatively smaller proportion than that in which it occurs in carbohydrates. All seeds include, amongst their reserve material, certain compounds called proteins (or proteids), which are distinguished from carbohydrates and fats by con- taining nitrogen and sulphur, together— in some cases —with phosphorus. Seeds, then, are storehouses of rich concentrated food, consisting of proteins, carbohydrates, and often of fats also. Many of them are specially cultivated as affording nutritious food for men and animals. It is for this reason that the cereal grains, such as wheat, barley, oats, maize, rice, etc., and the pulses, such as beans, peas, lentils, etc., are so largely grown. In the ordinary course of nature, the stored-up food in these seeds would be utilized in starting the young plant on its independent existence, but man steps in and diverts this food to his own purposes. The changes which take place in the seed during germinatidn, and result in converting its stores of nutri- ment into soluble plant-food, are very complicated, and not yet thoroughly understood. It has been proved, however, that diastase is only ond of a number of fer- ments, the activity of which effects the transformation of insoluble seed-stuff into dissolved plant-food. Fer- ments that convert starch into sugar are known as amylolyiic (i.e., starch-dissolving), while those turning proteins into a soluble form are termed proteolytic (i.e., protein-dissolving). Anybody who has witnessed a wet harvest will have had an opportunity of seeing wheat or barley grain sprout in the ear. Warm, wet weather causes the grain to germinate before it can be carried off the field. This suggests a highly interesting question. Before flowers are formed on the parent plant, no trace of seeds can be found. The seed is produced by the flower, and obviously grows till it has attained maturity; that is, till the' seed is 'ripe.' Why does not the seed, under ordinary circumstances, continue to BHOOT AND ROOT 139 grow ? Why does it stop growing when ripe 1 Why is there what may be called a resting staye? These are puzzling questions, and it is not safe to say more than that the resting period depends on the condition of the ferments. Diastase and other ferments are present in the germinating seed, but in very minute quantities. It is characteristic of them that extremely small quantities are capable of effecting extensive chemical change, and that they are neither changed nor destroyed by their own activity. Exposure of the seed to conditions of moisture and warmth, which are recognized by experi- ence as ' favourable to germination,' have the effect of exciting the ferments into activity, the result of which is that the stores of insoluble material are rendered' available as plant-food, and are transported in solution to the seats of growth. A fresh seed is a living thing — it is alive just as much as a hedgehog which lies motionless throughout its long winter sleep at the bottom of a hedgerow. Inside the seed is the living plant in its resting stage — the embryo. In contact with the embryo, or within its substance, is the material which will constitute its first food when it resumes growth. CHAPTER X. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS- ROOTS, STEMS, AND LEAVES Shoot and Root. — When studying the seed we found that the plantlet this contains consists of plumule and radicle, which grow upwards and downwards respec- tively during germination (p. 130), becoming the asceTuUng axis and descending axis of the mature plant. The convenient term shoot is used to designate a stem with its leaves, and we may therefore speak, of the plumule as the primary shoot, while the radicle is the 140 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS primary root. From the sides of these axes secondary - shoots and roots arise, which in their turn may give off branches, and so forth. The final result, as a rule, is a complicated plant-body, which- stretches its branches in all directions into the soil, on the one hand, and into the air, on the other. Meaning of the Branching Form of Green Plants,— If we compare an average green plant with an average animal we shall see at once that the former is fixed and more or less branched; while the latter moves about and is compactly shaped. The primary reason for these differences is to be found in the nature of the food, and before proceeding to consider in detail the different kinds of root, stem, and leaf, as regards their shape and structure, we shall find it instructive to make a few simple physiological enquiries. Living Substance, or Protoplasm. — The essential part of every organism, whether plant or animal, consists of an exceedingly complex substance called protoplasm, often known as 'the physical basis of life.' In higher plants it is commonly obscured, so to speak, by the products of its activity, such as cellulose, wood, and ctirk, but by means of the microscope its presence can easily be demonstrated. If, for example, an uninjured stinging-hair from the leaf of a nettle be so examined, the interior of its swollen base will be found to present an interesting and remarkable spectacle. Lining the firm external membrane there is a clear layer of semi- fluid substance surrounding a central space filled with sap. This layer is drawn out into branching threads or strands, which traverse the central space. If one such strand be closely examined under a high power of the microscope it will be found to contain innumerable granules, which by their constant movement enable us to discover that the substance of the strand is flowing this way or that. The semifluid contents of the base of the hair, which are in a state of such restless activity, afford a good example of living substance, or proto- plasm. Metabolism. — Protoplasm differs from non-living sub- stance in being the seat of a constant series of chemical METAiBOLIBM 141 changes, to which the term metabolism (Greek, metaboU change) is technically applied. The reason is to be sought in the fact that living matter constantly dis- plays various forms of activity — e.g., movement — as seen in the nettle-hair, and, still more obviously, in animals. Such activities would be impossible without a supply of actual or kinetic energy, as may be illustrated by the case of a mill-wheel, which is made to turn round by the actual or kinetic energy of moving water. Such - energy is obtainable in various ways.- In the mill-stream, for example, it is set free when the sluices of the mill- dam are opened, and the water allowed to escape. The head of water^in the mill-pond represents so much stored or potential energy, which becomes kinetic energy when the sluices are opened. Similarly a highly com- plex unstable chemical substance may be regarded as a store of energy, which is liberated when the substance breaks down into simpler compounds. High explosives, such as cordite, afford an excellent illustration. The kinetic energy by which projectiles are driven is derived from their sudden decomposition or explosion. In the living plant or animal the requisite kinetic energy results from the breaking down of complex unstable protoplasm into simpler and simpler substances, the ultimate chemical result being water, carbon dioxide (COj), and simple nitrogenous substances, which, being too stable to decompose further, and therefore useless to the orgemism, are known as waste products. That part of metabolism which is concerned with down- breaking processes is known as destructive metabolism, or more briefly a'S katabolism. It is clear tha/t if the process of waste just described were not in some way compensated, the living organism would rapidly become smaller and smaller, and ulti- mately perish. Katabolism, however, is always asso- ciated with and balanced by constructive metabolism, or anabolism, including those metabolic changes by which simple substances are built iip into more and more complex ones,' the ultimate result being proto- plasm. At the same time there is a conversion of kinetic energy into potential. The entire cycle of chemical 142 STBUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS changes in the organism is conveniently represented by means. of a diagram known as the metabolic staircase (fig. 52). Food and Feeding.— From what has just been said, it is clear that, if wasting of the body is to be coun- terbalanced, materials for the upbuilding or constructive processes must be taken in from the exterior. These materials constitute the food. In the case of a green plant they consist of carbon dioxide (COj), water, and simple mineral substances in solution. It is important to notice that such food is entirely of gaseous or liquid nature, and is absorbed by the general surface of the body. There is no internal digestive cavity. We can now see why an ordinary plant is of branching form. This is a means of increasing the surface by which food can be P/fOTOfLA3M Fig. 52. — Mbtabolio Stairoasb. E E, kinetic energy. p E, potential energy. absorbed. The leaves collectively present a l9.rge area for taking in carbon dioxide from the air, while the root- system comes into contact with a considerable amount of soil, and is able to absorb a large quantity of water with dissolved mineral substances. It must not be for- gotten that food provides the material for growth, as well as for the repair of. waste. Animals, as will appear in the sequel, require more complex food than green plants. It is partly solid in form, hence the necessity for an internal digestive cavity. Not being everywhere present, the animal has to seek it, hence a compact shape and powers of loco- motion. Leaf-green or Chlorophyll.— The two sides of the metabolic staircase for green plants (fig. 52) are of BREIATBING OR RESPIRATION 143 equal length, and we can broadly say that as much kinetic energy is converted into potential during its constructive processes as potential into kinetic during the down-breaking or destructive processes. In cases where growth is taking place the former kind of con- version must obviously predominate, for the formation of new protoplasm means increased storage of energy. At first sight, therefore, there would appear to be no available surplus of kinetic energy produced for car- rying out the various bodily activities, while in growing organs, as just mentioned, more kinetic energy is trans- formed into potential during anabolism than is liberated during katabolism. Compensation of waste, to say nothing of growth, would indeed be impossible if the green plant were not able to draw upon an outside source of kinetic energy. Such a source, however, is afforded by the kinetic energy of the sun's rays, which are utilized in the first constructive stage, where water and carbon dioxide enter into a chemical reaction by which non-nitrogenous organic matter is produced, while at the same time free oxygen is liberated. This may be roughly represented thus: — H,0 + 00. = OHO + O,. The green colouring matter, or chlorophyll, of leaves and young stems enables the protoplasm of these parts to use the kinetic energy of sunlight for the purpose indicated. The exact way in which chlorophyll is able to do this is still a matter for conjecture, and affords one of the most difficult problems in plant physiology. A very small amount of observation will show that leaves are of many different shapes, and are arranged in a large number of ways. Shape and arrangement alike have reference to advantageous display with regard to air and sunlight. Breathing or Eespiration.— The breaking down of the complex substance of the living body, by which kinetic energy is rendered available, is essentially a process of slow combustion or oxidation. In order that it may go on with sufficient rapidity it is necessary that free 144 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS oxygen Bhould be introduced into the syBtem. Breath- ing or respiration is concerned withal) this intaking of; free oxygen, (2) the removal from the body of the waste product carbon dioxide. It is very important to clearly understand that plants and animals breathe in exactly the same way, and nothing could be more erroneous than the second part of a state- ment sometimes met with to the effect that ' animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide, while plants breathe in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen.' This mistaken idea has arisen from the fact that green plants, in the presence of sunlight, give out oxygen as ^ by-product during the first step in the constructive processes (p. 143). The amount is so large that it entirely swamps, so to speak, the carbon dioxide simultaneously given out as a results of breathing. During the night, how- ever, the latter process becomes obvious, and this is why green plants are undesirable in a bedroom. ' We are now in a position to successively consider roots, stems, and leaves. In all cases we shall find a close relation between form and use or function. ROOTS Characters of Roots. — Young roots are pale in colour, while old ones are brown, owing to the presence of a protective coating of cork. Chlorophyll is never present, and would indeed be useless,' for roots grow away from the light and into the ground, where their work is done. Another negative character of roots is found in the absence of leaves. In ordinary language thei^nama ' root ' is given to any part of a plant growing under- ground. We shall see, however, in the sequel that many apparent roots are really underground stems (p. 151). The root is further characterized by certain pecu- liarities of structure. It possesses a firm central axis, or vascular cylinder, containing elongated tubulai elements of two kinds — (1) some with firm, woody walls, constituting the wood, and (2) others with soft walls, FUNCTIONS OF ROOTS 14S Roof hair* Fig. 53. — Cross-section of YouNO Root (magnified). arrangement. making up the bast. Wood and bast, in the vascular cylinder of the young root, have a radial arrangement, i.e., when looked at in a cross section (fig. 53) they are situated on different radii. We also -find that the delicate tip or growing point of a root is covered by a thimble- shaped root - cap, which serves as a protection while it is pushing its way through the soil. The growing point of a stem has no such cap, and its tender young cells are protected merely by their position in the heart of a bud. Branch - roots arise deep within the tissues of the parent root, gradually forcing their way to the ex- terior. This again must be regarded as a protective Kinds ol Boot. — There are two chief kinds of root. One is the primary or tap-root, well seen in the radish, carrot (fig. 54), parsnip, shepherd's purse, etc. It is the developed radicle of the seed (fig. 56). The other is the fibrous root, of whiph the onion, lily (fig. 60), wheat (fig. 55), barley, and all grasses afford good examples. Many of the fibres of such roots are adventitious, i.e., they grow from the stem. All kinds of roots are modi- fications of one of these types. But even tap-roots are furnished with a large number of lateral roots or root- fibres, and these again with root-hairs, as may be seen by pulling a young bean plant — and many other plants ^out of the ground. Functions of Boots. — Boots have a mechanical func- tion, or duty — that of fixing the plant in the ground. They compete with one another for the plant- food contained in the soil, and the intensity of this competition may be realized by looking at the under side of a piece of turf, when innumerable root- fibres will be seen matted together. Tap-roots are able to use the food which is contained in the deeper layers 146 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS of the soil, and this is one reason why weeds like plan- tains and dandelions are so well able to compete with grasses, or to flourish in hard, dry ground exposed to the sun. Fibrous rooted plants, such as many grasses, are dependent on the food contained in the surface layers of the soil. Fio. 54. — Root of A Carrot Seed- ling, the etout tap-root being thedirect result of the growth of the radicle. Fig. 55. — Germinating Wheat Grain, i *he side (adventitious) rootlets and radicle (b) covered with root- hairs. On the left, a grain sprouting. A, plumule. Fio. 56.— Seed- ling Plant of Speedwell, illustrating th« direct prolon- gation of the radicle in a dicotyledonous eeed. It is the young roots, with their delicate hairs, that are chiefly engaged in obtaining plant-food from the soil. These are made up of cells, through the walls of which solid matter cannot pass. Consequently all the food that enters the plant from the soil must do so in 1 The ' X 3 ' on the illustration indicates that it is drawn three times the natural size. USMOSI8 147 solution by means of diffusion of liquid, technically known as osmosis. If a piece of bladder or parchment paper, free from holes, is made into a sort of bag, filled with a solution of sugar, tied up, and placed in a vessel of water, this kind of diffusion can be readily observed. After a time the bag will swell up and become tense or turgid, showing that water has diffused into the bag (endosmosis). But, to a lesser extent, sugar solu- tion has diffused out of the bag (exosmoais), for the water in the vessel has acquired a sweetish taste, and the presence of sugar can be proved by suitable chemical tests. A root-hair is comparable to such a bag. Its fluid contents (cell-sap) correspond to the sugar solution in the bag, while the available plant-food, or weak solution of mineral substances in the soil, corresponds to the water outside the bag. As. the amount of liquid plant-food diffusing into the hair is greater than the amount of cell-sap diffusing out, it is clear that the hair will be kept in a swollen or turgid state. It does not burst, however, for some of its contents diffuse into the underlying parts of J;he root, and by this process the crude sap, or solution of plant-food absorbed from the soil, ultimately reaches the woody strands of the vascular cylinder. Thence it passes along similar strands through the stem and into the leaves. The liquid that diffuses into the soil, from the root- hairs is slightly acid, partly because it contains in solu- tion carbon dioxide, which is being breathed out, and partly because it contains certain vegetable acids. This liquid helps to dissolve the particles of soil, and we can therefore say that roots help to prepare plant- food. If a polished slab of limestone is sunk in a flower- pot containiag a plant and left for some weeks, the roots of the plant will spread out on the polished sur- face, and, by dissolving a film of limestone, etch their own outline upon it. In a good many cases the root serves as a store- house of nutriment that the plant can draw from when necessary. Good examples are afforded by the swollen tap-roots of turnip, carrot, parsnip, radish, and sugar beet. In the last case the stored material is in the form 148 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PlrANTS of a solution of sugar. This is the source of beet sugar, now 80 largely used to replace the cane sugar derived from the sugar cane. ^ Water Culture. — ^A sprouting bean may easily be suspended so that its radicle hangs in a vessel of water. If certain substances are dissolved in the water the plant will continue growing, its leaves will turn green, and it may even produce flowers and fruit. The sub- stances which the water should contain — though in very weak solution — are chloride of potash, nitrate and phos- phate of lime, sulphate of iron, and sulphate of magnesia. By this method of water culture is learnt what sub- stances plemts require, and what they do not require, to be supplied them through their roots. It is thus proved that the presence of potash, lime, magnesia, iron, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and sulphuric acid in the soU is absolutely essential to the growth of agricul- tural plants. STEMS Characters of Stems. — The plumule of many seedlings grows vertically upwards as the primary shoot, and obviously consists of an axis, the stem, bearing flattened expansions, the leaves. That a stem should thus bear leaves is one of its primary characters, while an ordinary overground or aerial stem grows towards the light, and, when young, is green from the presence of chlorophyll. One or two structural points also require notice. As already mentioned (p. 145), the delicate growing point at the end of a stem does not possess anything compar- able to a root-cap, nor is a young stem traversed by a central vascular cylinder like that found in a root Wood and bast fibres are associated in compound strands, known as vascular bundles, in each of which the wood is nearer the centre of the stem than the bast. This arrangement is technically known ,as collateral, bast and wood, in any one bundle, being on the same radius as seen in a cross-section, while in a young root the wood and bast are disposed racUally — i.e., on different radii (p. 146). NODES AND INTERNODEB 149 It is convenient to notice here that in the young stem of a Dicotyledon the vascular bundles, as seen in the cross-section, are arranged in a ring, while in the stem of a Monocotyledon, whether young or old, they are scattered. In the former, too, there is an actively dividing layer (cambium) of thin-walled cells, by which thickening is effected, We have seen (p. 145) that branch roots arise deeply within the tissues of the parent root. ■ This is not the case with branch-stems, and it must be added that each of these arises in the axil of a leaf — i.e., in the upper angle between the base of the leaf and the stem. Nodes and Internodes. — The regions of a stem from which leaves grow out are called nodes. The name (L. A B Epide Bast- Pirh Cambium A, Dicotyledon. B, Monocotyledon. 0, a vascular bundle from B. Medullary Ray Fig. 57.— Ckoss Sbotion op Young Stems. nodus, a knot) has been derived from cases whe^e, as in grasses, there is a definite swelling at such places. An internode (L. inter, between ; nodus) is part of a stem between two successive nodes. In its very early con- dition the shoot is known as a bud. Here the internodes have not yet elongated, and the incipient leaves are closely crowded together. A bud may be either terminal (at the end of a stem) or axillary (situated in a leaf-axil). Both are well seen in a branch of horse chestnut after the leaves have fallen. Such winter buds are destined to form the shoots of the following year. Kinds of Stem. — We can broadly distinguish between overground or aerial stems, and underground or 160 BTBUCTURE AND FUNCTlONfl OF PL.AN'l'B subterranean stems. Among aerial stems the most typical is the erect kind, which grows straight into the air. But there are many other sorts, such as irailing, creeping, and climbing stems. Climbing stems are particularly interesting, because they enable a thin stem to advan- tageously display its leaves to the sun and air without the expenditure of material necessary in the case of erect forms, though some of these — e.g., grasses — by adopting the hollow pillar principle make a small amount of material go a long way. The means of climb- ing are very diverse. In ivy we find adventitious roots growing from the stem for this purpose. Tviining stems, which wind round and round a support, are exemplified by hop, convolvulus, and dodder. Briars climb or rather scramble by means of hook-like prickles. And we may •\ ■W Fio. 58. — Stolon os Carnatiun. also find slender sensitive tendrils, as in the vine, Vir- ginia creeper, and pea. In the two first-named plants the tendrils are modified parts of the stem, while in the pea they are specialized parts of the foliage leaves. A stolon is a branch of the stem growing out from a leaf axil just above the ground (fig. 58), extending almost horizontally along the surface, and developing roots and leaves where it comes in contact with the soil. In time the connecting part of the stolon dies, and an independent plant results. Gardeners imitate this in the operation called ' layering,' when they bend down a branch from a shrub, and peg it to the soil, thereby causing it to develop roots, and so to form a fresh plant. Gaps in shrubberies can thus be filled up from the shrubs already present. The currant and goose- berry give off stolons, as also do the creeping buttercup UNDERGROUND STEMS 161 and white clover. Various grasses are enabled to rapidly extend, owing to their property of developing stolons, which are admirably adapted for insinuating their slender extremities between other pasture plants, and rooting at intervals. Plants that produce stolons are termed stoloniferous. To get a good idea of stolons, examine the beautiful prostrate shoots sent out by white clover (fig. 82), or by the creeping buttercup. The runner is a long slender stolon/ which, having attained its full length along the ground, strikes root from the tip, where it develops a new plant (fig. 59). A parent strawberry plant, if allowed room, will thus develop around itself, by means' of runners, a number of offspring. As the runners die these offspring become separate plants, capable of 'repeating the process Fio. 59. — Rtjnnbb of Strawbesrt. We next come to underground or subterranean stems, many of which are familiarly called 'roots.' A potato is known to bear ' eyes,' and when potatoes are cut into sets for planting, the gardener takes care to cut in such a way that each set shall have an ' eye ' or two. The ' eye ' is really a leaf-bud, as may be proved by examining a sprouting potato, and careful examination will show that it grows from the axil of a small scale- like leaf. Consequently the potato is a stem ; that form of underground stem called a tuber, which is really a swollen branch. Other examples of tubers are seen in the Jerusalem artichoke and earth-nut. Next, examine an onion freshly drawn from the ground. The fibrous roots are seen growing down- ward, and the edible part of the plant— popularly, the ' root ' — is found to consist of the thick whitish fleshy 152 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS bases of leaves overlapping each other around a very short axis or stem (the ' plate ' or disk), the internodes of which remain undeveloped. Such a structure is termed a bulb, and other examples are afforded by hyacinth and lily (fig. 60). A hyacinth growing in water in a glass shows clearly the distinction between the bulb and root. It may be asked how the glass - cultivated hyacinth gets the food wherewith it develops its stem and sweet- smelling flowers. The answer is that the food is stored up in the bulb. The ' solid bulbs ' or corms of crocus and cycla- men mostly consist of a thickened stem, with some scaly leaves on the outside. The term ' bulb ' is often applied, but not correctly, to the turnip and the mangel. These are really bulb-shaped roots. • Many plants possess an elongated underground stem which grows horizontally or obliquely in the soil, send- ing out adventitious roots from its under surface and leaf-buds fron) above. Such stems vary much in thick- ness, according to the species of plant, but they are all included under the general name of ihizome (fig. 61) or root-stock (fig. 62). A stout, thickened form is seen in the horse-radish and the primrose, a much slenderer type in the couch grass, and an intermediate variety in the mint. When the leaves of a "primrose die down as the summer advances, the root-stock still lives beneath the ground. Moreover, it very slowly travels along, for, as its front end grows forward its hinder part gradually decays. The different kinds of what are termed creeping, running, or scaly ' roots ' are all varieties of the rhizome Fig. 60. — Bulb of Lily. A, buds or young lateral bulbs. B, plate or disc (the true stem) from which root- fibres grow down. UNDEBG-ROUND STEMS 163 or root-stock. They rapidly extend through considerable portions of the soil, and, when they have once got a hold of the land, are very difficult to extirpate. They are always perennial — ^that is, they go on living from year to year — so that they continue alive in the soil through the winter, at a time when there may be no indication of their presence above ground. At every Pig. 61. -Underghound Stems and Vertical Leaf shoots OP Couch Grass. -Fig. 62. — Rootstocks, or creeping underground Branches, ' OF Mint. joint of these subterranean stems buds are produced, some of which grow up above the ground and bear leaves, flowers, fruit, and seed, whilst others form new underground shoots. In this way these structures form a dense bed or layer of interlacing stems beneath the surface of the ground. To cut them to pieces by the hoe or plough is useless, for it only serves to establish 154 BTBUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS new centres of growth, as every little portion bearing a bud is capable, of individual development. Where land is infested by such underground stems, the only remedy is to pull them bodily from the soil. This is the kind of work which the scarifier does upon land foul from the presence of couch grass, some of the slender rhizomes of which can often be pulled out many yards in length. Although the underground stem (fig. 61) of the couch- grass is a pest upon arable land, the same kind of structure may, under special circumstances, be applied to useful purposes. Thus, the slender creeping stem of the sand sedge is valuable for binding together the loose sands of the seashore. Fia. 63. — Sticker op Elm. A.B, ground line. d, sucker. c, trunk of elm tree. E, young elm shootB. An underground branch growing obliquely towards the surface, on reaching which it develops roots and leaves, is called a sucker (fig. 63). Examples may be seen around the rose, the raspberry, the elm tree, and other plants, which are incorrectly said to multiply ' by the root.' With the spade, remove the soil from such a sucker, and it will be seen to be only a creeping branch underground. As the sucker rots, the plant it produced becomes independent. A gardener accelerates this inde- pendence by cutting through the sucker with the spade. In doing this he propagates the plant ' by division.' The various modifications of the stem that creep either along or beneath the surface of the ground should LEAVES 166 be carefully studied by the cultivator. From their posi- tion they are frequently overlooked or ignored, whereas the ^vegetation that takes place in the soil is quite as important as that which is conspicuously developed above it. • Functions of Stems.— The chief uses of the stem are to display the foliage leaves to best advantage as regards sun and air; to display the flowers so as to give them a good chance of cross-pollination; and to dispose the fruits in such a way that the seeds may be dispersed by various agencies. It also serves as a means of communication between roots and leaves, and frequently acts as a storehouse of'^-food. The last function is most obvious in the case of under- ground stems. In many cases, too, the stem plays an important part in vegetative reproduction, where propa- gation takes place without the agency of seeds, as by stolons, runners, suckers, etc. LEAVES Characters and Kinds of Leaves.-^AU leaves are ap- pendages .of the stem, taking origin at the nodes, and, in the large majority of cases, flattened in shape. The following kinds of leaf are recognized:— (1). Scale-leaves. — These are eapecially charaoterietio of under, ground stems. They are well seen in the potato tuber (p. 151.), and in some bulbs, such as those of lily and tulip (soaly Ibulbs), serve for tiie storage of food. (2). Foliage-leaves. — These are the ordinary green leaves of plants, and will be considered in some deitail. (3). Bract. — This name is applied to simple scale-like leaves in the axils of which flowers arise. Obvious examples are seen in Composites and Umbellifers. (4). Flower-leaves. — These make up most of the flower, and will be dealt with in the next chapter. Characters and Kinds of Foliage-leaves. — Examina- tion of foliage-leaves from dicotyledonous plants will show the presence of some or all of the following parts : (a) an expanded blade or lamina, (h) a leal-stalk or 156 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS petiole, (c) a sheath that claspa the stem, (d) outgrowths known as stipules, at the junction of petiole and sheath. Sessile leaves possess no stalk, and a leaf devoid of stipules is said to be exstipulate. The leaves of dicotyledons vary greatiy in arrange- ment and shape, but in all cases we shall find the result to be exposure of surface to sun and air without undue overlapping. They are said to be alternate when only one is attached to a node, opposite when there are two. A very interesting case is afforded by rosette-plants, such as daisy, dandelion, and plantain, where the inter- nodes of the stem are undeveloped, so that the leaves are Crowded together. Examination of one of the plants named will show that the leaves are so arranged as to take full advantage of air and light, while at the same time the surrounding plants are shaded and killed. Any- one who has removed a plantain or daisy plant from a lawn must have noticed the bare patch due to this cause. In simple leaves the blade is one piece, while in compound leaves it is divided into leaflets. The latter are either palmate, when all the leaflets are attached to the end of the petiole (e.g., horse chestnut), or pinnate when they are disposed in a feather-like way, as in rose and many leguminous plants. . The leaves of monocotyledons are usually simple and atalkless. The sheath is commonly well developed, and a scale-like outgrowth, the ligule, is often found on the upper side at the junction of blade and sheath. This is well seen in grasses (fig. 117), where the characters of the ligule are of great importance in helping to dis- tinguish between different species. Structure of Foliage-leaves. — Conducting strands of wood and bast — i.e., vascular bundles — pass from the stem through the leaf-stalk (if present), and branch out in the flattened blade, where they are commonly known as 'veins.' In monocotyledons the chief veins are more or less parallel, while in dicotyledons they soon break up into a complex network. > When a section through the blade of a leaf (fig. 64) is examined through a microscope, it is seen that the STRUCTUBE OF FOLIAGE LEAF 167 upper part consists of rows of elongated cells placed side by side— palisade cells they are called. As the lower surface is approached the cells are more loosely aggregated, bo that spaces — air-spaces — exist between them. Both the cells in this spongy tissue of the leaf and the palisade cells are green, owing' to the fact that part of their protoplasm consists of chlorophyll granules, permeated by the complex sub- stance known as chlorophyll (see p. 136). Palisade cells Fio. 64. — Section or a Leaf (magnified). A, cuticle, B, epidermal cells, of upper surface. 0, palisade celljs. D, cells of spongy tissue. . E, intercellular spaces, or air cavities. F, epidermal cells of under surface, o, stomata opening on surface of H, epidermis, or skin, of lower surface. and spongy tissue are together known as mesophyll, which is traversed by the vascular bundles of the leaf (not shown in fig. 64). The reason the under side of the leaf is^ usually paler in colour than the upper surface is that the green cells of the upper side are more closely crowded together. Over the whole leaf there extends a thin transparent skin, the epidermis. But the epidermis is not entire, for it is dotted with innumerable minute apertures called 168 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS stomata (Or. stoma, a mouth), each itoma being formed by a pair of kidney-shaped cells, with their concave sides towards each other. By the straightening or bend- ing of these ' guard cells,' the size of the stoma is controlled, and it is dependent upon external conditions of light and moisture. As a rule the stomata are far more abundant on the under than on the upper face of the leaf. Functions of Foliage-leaves. — The most important function of foliage-leaves is carbon assimilation. Their chlorophyll granules are able to use the energy of sun- light in bringing about a reaction between the carbon dioxide absorbed from the air and the water that has been taken from the soil, with the formation of organic matter (see page 143). The intercellular spaces of the leaf are full of air, and directly continuous with the exterior by means of the stomata. The mesophyll cells can therefore readily obtain the carbon dioxide they require for their constructive work, and can as easily get rid of the oxygen formed as a by-product. The first visible product of assimilation in the leaf is starch, as can readily be proved by soaking in iodine solution a leaf that has for some time been exposed to sunlight, when it" turns to a blue-black colour This is a well-known laboratory test for starch. Foliage-leaves also play an active part in breathing or respiration, during which free oxygen is taken up and carbon dioxide eliminated (see p. 143). The inter- cellular spaces of the leaf obviously promote this func- tion by supplying air to the mesophyll cells. Transpiration. — If some freshly-gathered leaves are put under a cold dry tumbler, the inner surface of the tumbler becomes covered with moisture. This is because the leaves are constantly giving up water vapour. They at length wither — i.e., lose their turgidity — because they get no fresh supply of moisture. The evaporation of moisture from leaves, in the manner described, is called .transpiration. The quantity of water which thus passes through a plant, from the soil to the atmosphere, is very great. A maize plant was observed to give off between May 22 and September 4, a period of 16 weeks, as UUBATION OF UFE 159 much as 36 times its weight of water. Barley, beans, and clover, during &■ months of their growth, transpired more than 200 times their (dry) weight of water. A large oak tree will transpire from 10 to 20 gallons of water in a day. Land under crop gives up more water per acre than an adjacent bare fallow, because of trans- piration. In a hot, droughty summer the land around trees suffers most, on account of the great demand for moisture to supply that lost by the leaves. If laid out, side by side, the leaves of a big tree would cover several acres. A sunflower, 5 feet high, will transpire from a pint to a quart of water during a hot summer day. As sunflowers are of quick growth they are some- times planted around cottages in swampy situations to diminish the risk of ague. A few words are here necessary regarding the physio- logical meaning of transpiration. We have seen that roots absorb a very weak solution of mineral substances from the soil (p. 147), and this crude sap travels up to the leaves through the wood of the vascular bundles. As a considerable amount of mineral matter is used up in the constructive processes, especially when active growth is taking place, a constant stream of crude sap is essential. We may therefore look upon transpiration as a means of getting rid of the superfluous water in this crude sap. By ferment action the starch formed in leaves is converted into a soluble form, largely sugar, and the elaborated sap, containing this and other products of constructive activity, is carried from the leaves to places where it is needed. In this conduction the bast of the vascular bundles plays an important part. DURATION OF LIFE Annuals. — Many plants spring up from the seed, pro- . duce their leaves and flowers, fruit and seed, all within tBe space of one year, and then die. Such plants are called annuals, and examples are seen in wheat, barley, oats, ry€, brome grasses, buckwheat, beans, peas, vetches, and 'trifolium.' 160 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS Biennials. — Another group of plants is distinguished by requiring two years, or at least two seasons, for this work. During the first season they grow up from the seed and develop what are called their vegetative organs — ^the organs of growth. Then there ensues a period of rest, followed by the development of the reproductive organs — that is, the flowers, producing fruit and seed. Such plants are called biennials, because they need a portion of two years to accomplish the changes between sowing and fruiting. Examples are seen in the so-called ' root crops '—^turnips, swedes, cabbages, and their allies ; and in parsnips, carrots, celery, lettuce, mangel, and beetroot. Both annuals and biennials are usually prolific pro- ducers of seed. The effort involved in forming so large a quantity of seeds at one time is so great that it kills the plant. But, though the individual dies, ampje provi- sion is at the same time made for the preservation and perpetuation of the species, for each seed contains a new plant in miniature. One reason why the production of seed is so exhaus- ting to the parent plant is that each seed contains a store of very rich food which the parent has had to supply. A seed, therefore, is a reservoir of nutriment, and man cultivates seed-bearing plants in order that he may step in and secure the food in the seed, either for himself, or for his domesticated animals. During the process of ripening there is a steady migration of nutrient material from the other parts of the plant into the seed. From the leaves and stem of a wheat or bean plant, for example, most of the nutritious matter is carried away in solution and deposited in the seed. During the later days of their lives, such plants cease to take food from the soil or air, and they are capable of completing the ripening of the seed provided they can get a sufiicient supply of water. Wheat, cut before it is dead ripe, will complete the ripening of the grain while standing in stook. • In the case of biennials there is a resting period between the two seasons of growth. Let turnip seed, for example, be sown in June, and by the autumn a PERENNIALS 161 well-shaped root will be formed. This root may be left in the field through the winter, and in the following spring it sends up leaves and flowers, produces fruit and seed, and then dies. But a great change has taken _ place in the root, for it is now small and shrivelled. The root, indeed, serves as a temporary reservoir of the nutriment which is afterwards consumed in forming the seed. The reason the cultivator grows such crops as turnips, carrots, parsnips, mangels, etc., is that he can interfere at this resting stage, and utilize the store of food for himself or his live stock. It is not necessary that the roots of biennial crops, intended for the production of seed, should remain in the ground all the winter. They may, if desired, be taken up, and planted out again in spring. By this means it is possible to make a selection, and to reserve only the most desirable specimens for, the growth of seed. Perennials. — This name is giVen to plants that live for more than two years. Examples are seen in sainfoin, 'lucerne, white clover, furze, yarrow, prickly com- frey, plantain, asparagus, and pasture grasses. AFso, in the gooseberry, currant, strawberry, raspberry, plum, cherry, apple, pea^, and timber trees. In such perennial plants as lose their leaves during winter, there is, before the fall of the leaf, a migration of nutrient materials from those organs into the stem (certain regions of a tree trunk, for example), which serves as a reservoir. The leaf-buds of deciduous trees are formed in the autumn, and when they commence to open in the spring, their first food is derived from the reservoir of nutriment in the stem. It is because this supply of ready-made food is close at hand that leaf-buds expand so rapidly under the influence of the increasing temperature of spring. Leafless trees should be examined for their buds in the winter. Those of the beech, ash, horse- chestnut, and willow are very beautiful, but the buds are equally noticeable on other timber trees and on orchard fruit trees. Various parts of the plant, it has been seen, may serve as storehouses of nutriment. The seed always contains a reserve of plant-food ; in biennial plants, the « 162 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS root acts as a reservoir; and, in perennials, the stem. Many such reservoirs have a special interest, because they are diverted by man to his own purposes. The tuber of the potato is stored with food, chiefly starch. The bulb of the onion and the young shoot of the asparagus are other examples. CHAPTEE XI. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS- FLOWERS, FRUIT, AND SEEDS FLO WEBS Stkitctube and Function of Fiowebs. — The flower is a shoot that is specialized in relation to the iormation of seeds. It consists of flower-leaves of various kind, crowded together on a shortened region of the stem known as the floral receptacle or torus, which is the swollen end of the flower-stalk or peduncle. This crowd- ing of flower-leaves on a short thick piece of stem is due to suppression of internodes. A comparison may be made with the rosettes of foliage-leaves seen in such plants as daisy, dandelion, and plantain {see (p. 156). The flower of a buttercup is a simple and convenient type with which to make a start. Four different kinds of flower-leaf will be found attached to the receptacle (fig. 65). Beginning at the outside, these are: (1) Five small green sepals arranged in a circlet or whorl, and collectively termed the calyx. (2) A whorl of five large yellow petals alternating with the preceding, and together constituting the corolla. (3) A large number of thread-like stamens, each with a thickened end. (4) A number of small flattened carpels, making up what is known as the pistil. The function of the flower is to produce seed&, and as only the stamens and carpels are directly concerned STRUCTURE OF FLOWERS 163 with this, they are conveniently termed essential organs, while the investing corolla and calyx together constitute the perianth. The relative positions of these different kinds of flower-leaf can be indicated in a ground plan or floral diagiam (flg. 65, b). A closer examination of the essential organs here becomes necessary. A stamen is seen to consist of a stalk«or filament, bearing a thickened two-lobed anther. When the latter is ripe it splits open, and fine yellow dust (the pollen), escapes to the exterior. It consists of minute pollen-grains, which may be regarded as mah. Sepal Petal Sepal' Flower Sl-alk Car Pehal Shamans .Fio. 65. — Flowbe of Buttbeoup and Floral Diaoram. A, diagrammatic vertical section. B, floral diagram. B, receptacle. Turning now to the carpels, we shall find a roughened sticky patch, the stigma, at the end of each, and just below this a narrow region, the style, which merges into an underlying swollen ovary. By crushing or cutting open the ovary we shall find that it contains £» minute rounded body. This is arf ovule, which, under favour- able circumstances, may become a seed. Examination of prepared longitudinal sections through ovules will show the following parts: (1) A stalk (funicle) attaching the ovule to the ovary, and serving to convey nourish- ment to the developing seed. (2) An external skin (integument) extending from the base of the ovule to its tip, where, however, a minute aperture, the micropyle (fig. 66) is left uncovered. (3) A cellular mass, the nucellus, making up the interior of the ovule. (4) A o 2 164 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS, OF PLANTS Pistil / Sr^J« Pollen Tub OVULE clear egg-shaped bag, the embryo-sac, within the nucelluB, adjacent to the micropyle. (5) A spheroidal egg-cell, or female cell inside the embryo-sac, close to the micropyle. The remaining contents of the embryo- sac, for' our present purpose, may be neglected. Pollination and Fertilization (fig. 66).— The stigma is rough and sticky, so that pollen-grains may adhere to it. Their transfer is technically known as pollination, and when it has taken place the stigma is said to be poKtuited. This is an essential preliminary to the formation of seeds. In cucumber and vegetable marrow, for in- stance, the flowers are of two kinds — (a) male, or staminate, devoid of pistil, and (6) female, or pistil- late, devoid of stamens. If pollen is prevented from reaching the stigmas of the female flowers, no fruit will be set and no seeds will be formed. We must therefore enquire what takes place after pollina- tion has been effected. It will be found that after reaching the stigma a pollen grain swells up and germinates, send- ing out an excessively delicate pollen-tube, the tip of which bores through the style, enters the ovary, and makes its way to the micropyle of an ovule. A minute quantity of the living matter (protoplasm) with a male nucleus (derived from one of two nuclei contained in the pollen-grain) passes into the egg-cell, and the male nucleus fuses with the female nucleus which this contains. The process is termed fertilization (or impregnation), and the egg-cell is said to be fertilized (or impregnated). It now undergoes numerous divisions to form an embryo or plantlet, while the rest of the ovule becomes the remaining part of Fig. 66. — Vertical Section op Flowbe, illustbatino Pol- lination AND Fertilization. R, receptacle. FLOWERS AND INSECTS 165 the seed. The ovary also undergoes changes, which convert it into a fruit. Broadly speaking, therefore, a fruit is a matured ovary and a seed a matured ovule. The fusion of male nuclear matter with female nuclear matter that constitutes fertilization is the essential part of sexual leproduction, alike in plants and animals. Flowers and Insects. — Lei us now return to the yellow corolla, which makes the buttercup flower so conspicuous, and enquire the meaning of this. Near the narrow base of each petal a small pit can be seen, covered over by a yellow scale. A- little care will enable us to prove that the pit contains a sweet fluid (nectar), and is, intact, a nectar-gland (nectary), while the scale is a nectar-cover that prevents the secretion from being washed away by rain. By watching growing buttercups in sunny weather we shall find various small insects crawling about the flowers, some licking the nectar, and others devouring the nutritious pollen, of which the very numerous stamens produce a great quantity. Observations of other kinds of conspicuous flowers will show that they, too, are visited by insects, to which they offer similar attractions. It would seem, therefore, that by the possession of nectar and super- fluous pollen the buttercup is adapted to- the visits of insects, and the conspicuous corolla, advertising desir- able booty, attracts their attention. As a single butter- cup plant bears many blossoms, and numerous plants often grow near together, the collective colour effect is very considerable. The odour of many flowers constitutes another means of attracting insects, and even butter- cups probabli^ possess a honey-like smell perceptible to these little creatures. It may be taken as a general rule for temperate climates that conspicuous flowers — ^many of which exhale a distinct odour — attract insect visitors, i.e., are insect- loving (entomophilous), and provide food for their guests. Important services are rendered in return, aa will now be explained. Self- and Cross-Pollination and Fertilization. — The flowers of buttercups and most other flowering plants are bisexual, containing both stamens and carpels. It 166 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS follows, therefore, that pollination of the latter, and its sequel, fertilization, may be effected either (1) by pollen from the same flower, or (2) by pollen from some other flower of the same species. That is to say, either self-pollination or cross-pollination may take place, to be followed by self-fertilization or cross-fertilization, as the case may be. It appears that healthier and more vigorous seeds are produced by crossing, and this ex- plains why flowers lay themselves out to attract flying insects, for these unconsciously carry pollen from one blossom to another, and often effect cross-pollination. The buttercup flower attracts a miscellaneous set of insects, and as its outer anthers are ripe at about the same time as the stigmas become receptive, insect visitors do not regularly and automatically effect cross- ing, as in some other cases. The green calyx of the buttercup flower has nothing to do with pollination, but serves as a protection to the more delicate internal flower-leaves, especially before the bud expands. One or two other characters of the buttercup flower require notice. In the first place, its sepals and petals are regularly arranged with regard to a set of imaginary lines radiating from the centre, like the spokes of a wheel. The flower is therefore said to display radial symmetry, or to be regular. In the second place, it will be seen on examining a vertical section of the flower that sepals, petals, and stamens all grow out from the receptacle hdow the pistil. In technical language, the flower is hypogynous. In this case the pistil is said to be superior, and the calyx inferior. For comparison with the buttercup it will be instruc- tive at this stage to consider a few other types of flower. Take, for example, any of the cross-bearing or cruciferous flowers, such as wallflower, cuckoo flower, cabbage blossom, charlock, hedge-garlic, etc. These are obviously regular, and sufliciently conspicuous to suggest that they are adapted to the visits of insects, which is, in fact, the case. It is convenient to distinguish between the bach and front of a flower, nearest to and furthest from the main axis respectively. The terms CRUCIFEROUS FLOWERS 167 posterior and anterior are applied to flower-leaves at the back or front, as the case may be, while those at the sides are lateral. The arrangement of parts in the cruciform flower is as follows I (1) Calyx, of four distinct sepals in two alternating whorls of two each, an outer of anterior and posterior sepals, and an inner of lateral sepals. , (2) Corolla, of four distinct petals, arranged obliquely like a Maltese cross, whence the name ' cruciferous ' (cross- .bearing) as applied to plants bearing such flowers. (3) Six stamens in two whorls, an outer made up of a short lateral stamen on each side, and an inner of two pairs of long stamens, placed back and front respec- tively. (4) A pistil composed of two lateral carpels fused together. The double stigma indicates what has taken place. Stamens and petals are hypogynous, pistil superior, and calyx inferior, as in buttercup (see p. 166). When calyx, corolla, and stamens "have been removed some little swellings will be observed on the receptacle. These are the nectaries. Insect visitors alight on the platform afforded by the corolla, and probe for nectar, often effecting crossing as they go from flower to flower. An interesting explanation can be given of the reason for long and short stamens in the crucifers. The anthers of the former protrude from the flower, so that their pollen easily adheres to insects and often effects crossing. The anthers of the short stamens, on the contrary, only reach the level of the stignia, thus secur- ing self-pollination in the event of crossing not having taken place. Cruciferous flowers, as compared with buttercups, are an example of reduction in the number of stamens, and even more so in the number of carpels, while the latter are fused together, an advance on the simpler state of things exemplified by the buttercup. A pistil is termed apocarpous when its carpels are not united, syncarpous when they are more or less fused together. As a third common type of flower, characteristic of leguminous plants, we may take that of the pea or bean, and shall at once be struck by the fact that it is not regular, but two-sided, or, to use the technical 168 STftUCtUM: AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS term,, irregular (figs. 67 and 68). It is a case of two- sided or bilateral symmetry, as contrasted with the radial symmetry of buttercup and wallflower. This means more marked adaptation to the visits of insects, especially those, such as bees, of higher kind, with well- developed sight and smell, and elongated mouth-parts, capable of probing deeply for concealed nectar. The parts of the flower are as follows: (1) A gr«en cup-shaped calyx, made up of five fused sepals, one of which is anterior. (2) A large, showy, butterfly-shaped (papilionaceous) corolla, composed of five petals, to which fanciful names are given. They are : (a) a large upright FiQ. 67.— Pea Blossom (with papilionaceous corolla). A, Alee. 0, Carina, Pig. 68.— Paets of a papilionaceous Coeolla. s, Standard. standard (vexillum) at the back, (b) a pair of wings (aloe), which serve as an alighting platform for insect visitors, and (c) an anterior keel (carina), which shelters the essential flower-leaves, and consists of two petals with distinct stalks but united limbs. (3) Ten stamens, con- sisting of two whorls of five each. A posterior stamen is quite distinct from the rest, but the stalks of the remain- ing nine are fused into a tube, surrounding (4) the pistil, which is termed simple, because it consists of a single carpel, that matures into the familiar pod. The latter is of considerable interest, because it shows that carpels are really folded leaves. By holding a young pea PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWERS 169 pod up to the iight we shall see that there are two thickened edges, the peas or seeds being next one of these. Carefully split open the pod along this edge (the ventral suture) and spread it out, when it will not be difi&cult to realize that we have before us a modified leaf, bearing seed along its edges. The thickened edge of the pod away from the seed is clearly the midrib of this leaf. An even clearer demonstration of the real nature of carpels is furnished by marsh marigold (Caltha), columbine (Aquilegia), or larkspur (Delphinium), all relatives of the buttercup. The stigma and anthers of pea or bean are so close together in the tip of the keel that self-pollination would seem inevitable. As in a great many other flowers, however, this is for some time prevented by a simple device. The stigma and anthers do not mature simultaneously. Such a flower is termed dichogamous, and it is clear that either the anthers may first be ready (protandrous) or else the stigma (protogynous). The former is true for pea, bean, and the large majority of cases. Suppose, now, that a bee, attracted by the colour and fragrance of the blossom, alights upon the wings and clings to the standard. The pressure exerted will cause first the stigma and then the anthers to protrude from the tip of the keel. If the under side of the bee has already been dusted with pollen from a flower pre- viously visited some of tihis will probably be transferred to the stigma, and then a fresh supply of pollen will be brushed from the anthers, and very likely carried to , another flower. In pea and bean the nectar is secreted at the base of the pistil within the staminal tube, and this explains why the posterior stamen is free. The proboscis of the visitor can be thrust into the tube on one or other side of the free stamen. (In some flowers — e.g., gorse or furze — related to the pea and bean — there is no nectar, and only pollen is offered to insect visitors. In such cases the posterior stamen is not free, and the filaments of all ten stamens are fused together.) Upon the standard can be seen a number of coloured streaks, 170 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS which converge below, and, as it were, point out the way to the nectar. Streaks, dots, and other markings ■of this kind are known as nectar-guides, arid they may be seen in very many different kinds of flower. Pansy, forget-me-not, pelargonium, and azalea are striking instances. Examination of a vertical section through a pea or bean flower shows that sepals, petals, and stamens do not— as in buttercup or wallflower— grow out from the receptacle below the pistil. The receptacle, indeed, instead of being conical, is broadened out into a very shallow cup, to the centre of which the pistil is attached, while the sepals, etc., spring from the margin. The riower is not, therefore, hypogynous (see p. 166), but perigynous — i.e., the sepals, etc., are grouped around the pistil, which, however, is not fused with the recep- tacle. Rose, blackberry, and cherry are more markedly perigynous than the pea or bean, for in them the receptacle is a comparatively deep cup. A number of plants bear ' incomplete ' flowers, in which the perianth either consists of a single whorl (e.g., beet and mangel) or is entirely absent (e.g., hazel). Such flowers are small, greenish, usually odourless, and gene- rally devoid of nectar. As might be conjectured from these characters, they are not adapted to insect visits, and in many of them pollen is transferred from flower to flower by the wind — i.e., they are wind-loving (anemophilous). Self-pollination is also of frequent occurrence. Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. — In all the flowers so far described it will be noticed that the whorls of flower-leaves are mostly in twos, fours, or fives. This is one feature of the great group of Dicotyledons, which are further characterized by the ring-like arrange- ment of the vascular bundles in the young stem, net- veined foliage leaves, and two cotyledons in the seed. Even a cursory examination of liliaceous plants (e.g., lily, tulip, onion) and grasses will show that they do not conform to this type. In a lily or tulip we shall find three petal-like (petaloid) sepals, three petals, six stamens in two whorls of three each, and a pistil of three carpels fused together. In grasses the perianth DEVICES FOR SECURING CROSSING 171 is much reduced, but the stamens are usually three in number. The foregoing belong to the group of Mono- cotyledons, in which many of the flower-leaves are in threes, the vascular bundles in the young stem are scat- tered, the foliage-leaves are parallel-veined, and the seed possesses but a single cotyledon. Cross-Pollination and Cross-Feitilization. — Cross-pol- lination and its sequel cross-fertilization are secured by a large number of different devices, which have gradually come into existence by a process of evolution. The most certain method is exemplified by plants in which the flowers are unisexual, being either staminate (male) or pistillate (female). Sometimes these male and female flowers are found on different plants (dioecious), as in willow, or both may occur on the same plant (monoe- cious), as in hazel. Pollen is transferred from one flower to another by various agents, of which wind and insects are the most important. In typical wind-pollinated flowers — e.g., many trees and grasses — the stamens possess very slender filaments, to which the anthers are but lightly attached, so that they are moved by the least .breath of air. The pollen is dry and easily scattered, some- times being liberated by sudden spring-like movements of the stamens, as in nettles. The stigmas are com- monly branched and hairy, protruding well out of the flower to catch the wind-borne pollen-grains. Wind- pollinated flowers are inconspicuous, odourless, and devoid of nectar. Insect-pollinated flowers provide pollen or nectar, or both, for their visitors, which are attracted by various colours and odours, while structural arrangements of various kinds ensure, in greater or less degree, the transfer of pollen from one blossom to another during the visits received. i Examination of numerous types of insect-pollinated flower enables us to make out a series of specializations of increasing complexity, by which crossing is rendered more and more certain as the scale is ascended. Eegular flowers, with free flower-leaves, yellow or white in colour, and readily accessible nectar, may be con- 172 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS sidered as comparatively unspecialized. The buttercup is a good example (see p. 162). Such flowers attract a miscellaneous set of short-tongued insects, which do not effect crossing with any certainty. Even in such cases, however, the fact that at least some of the anthers ripen before the stigmas have become receptive (or, more rarely, the converse) secures some amount of crossing. From simple cases like those just indicated we can trace specialization along several lines, the net result being that the larger and more intelligent long-tongued insects (especially hover-flies, butterflies, moths, and bees) are attracted with greater frequency, while the more stupid short-tongued insects are excluded. At the same time the arrangements for reception of visitors render crossing more and more probable. As already mentioned, yellow and white are the most primitive colours, though it must be added that the latter is also found in flowers adapted to attract moths, as it is conspicuous at dusk. Eed and reddish-brown (as in pink and wallflower) attract butterflies, while blue and purple (as in larkspur and monkshood) attract bees. Bright blue, as in speedwells, is sometimes an adaptation to the visits of hover-flies. Irregular flowers are more specialized than regular ones, as well seen in larkspur and monkshood, which are relatives of the buttercup. Other good examples are the butterfly-shaped blossoms of pea, bean, etc. (see p. 168), and the lipped or labiate flowers of foxglove, snapdragon, sage, and mint. Fusion of parts, and deeply concealed nectar, also mark specialization. The union of petals in the labiate flowers just named is a case in point, such union giving rise to a tube, at the bottom of which nectar is usually found. Specialized flowers are so constructed that an insect visitor is bound to touch anthers and stigma, and as this means economy of pollen some of the stamens can often be dispensed with. Among Monocotyledons, for ex- ample, the full number of stamens is six, as in lily, but the more specialized iris only possesses three, while ARTIFICIAL POLLINATION 173 orchids, the most complicated of all flowers, usually have but one. The massing together of numerous flowers of the same kind greatly enhances conspicuousness and largely increases the chance of iasect visits. Hence, in all probability, one important reason for the evolution of flower-groups, or inflorescences, in the majority of species. Obvious examples are aJEEotded by foxglove, wallflower, lilac, elder, and cow parsnip. Small flowers, individually inconspicuous, when thus aggregated, col- lectively make up a mass of colour that is easily seen from a distance. The most notable case is that of Composites, such as thistle, dandelion, and daisy. What at first sight appears to be a single flower in plants of the kind is really, an aggregate of numerous minute "flowers or florets. Striking colour-effects on a large scale are produced by. association of numerous plants of the same species. Gorse, heather, and buttercup are good illustrations. The massing / together of flowers distinguished by some marked odour may also secure visits, even though there may be no particular colour-effect. The delicious fragrance exhaled by lime-trees, for example, attracts innumerable bees. Artificial Pollination. — Pollen can, of course, be transferred by human agency, should the necessary insects be scarce or absent. When cucumbers, vege- table marrows, or melons, alh forms with unisexual flowers, are grown in frames, the gardener often ensures pollination by ' dusting ' the female flowers with the male ones. It also frequently happens that certain fruit-trees, such as peaches, apricots, and nectarines, come into flower before bees are abundant. In such cases it is usual for a small camel-hair brush to be - used for transferring pollen. This method is commonly employed for the production of new varieties, which often excel those previously exist- ing. By selecting two plants of the same species, both possessing exclusive ^characters which it would be desir- able to combine in the same plant, and by cross-fertilizing them and raising fresh plants from the seed, cultivators have been able to establish many of these. Some -of 174 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS these crosses are of great commercial value, particularly in the case of cereals and potatoes. Many beautiful modifications of florists' plants have been in like manner originated. Self-Pollination and Self-Fertilization. — Although cross-pollination and cross-fertilization are promoted in a great variety of ways, and the latter appears to be neces- sary at intervals for maintaining the vigour of the species, they are probably not of the paramount importance once supposed, for a large number of naturally pro- duced seeds capable of germinating into healthy plants result from self-fertilization following self-pollination. This is especially true for unspecialized flowers like the buttercup, where the chances of cross- and self-pollina- tion are about equal. It also frequently happens th^ self-pollination is provided for should failure of insect visits or other cause have prevented crossing. In fox- glove, for instance, the purple corolla, to which the stamens are attached, falls off and drags the anthers over the stigma. And, as already mentioned, the short stamens of cruciferous flowers appear to be a special provision for selecting self-pollination (see p. 167). There are also many small flowers (e.g., chickweed, groundsel, and wheat) where self-pollination is the rule rather than the exception. Dog-violet, wood sorrel, and some few other plants, even bear, at the end of the ordinary flowering season, small special flowers that never open (i.e., are cleistogamous). The anthers of these pro- duce a small number of pollen-grains, from which pollen-tubes grow directly into the stigma. FRUITS AND SEEDS Botanically speaking, a seed is a ripened ovule, containing a dormant embryo or plantlet, while a fruit is a matured ovary, containing one or more seeds. But in ordinary language the terms seed and fruit are much more loosely applied. Thus, a grain of wheat or rye is popularly called a seed, though it is -really a fruit, being the matured ovary of a wheat or rye flower. FRUITS AND SEEDS 175 By scraping off a thin coat, corresponding to the wall of the ovary, the true seed is laid bare. The cultivator employs the term ' seed ' to denote ' that which is sown,^ rather than to indicate the ripened ovule. It commonly happens, however, that the seed, as sown, is the true botanical seed, as is the case with cabbages, turnips, rape, mustard, cress, beans, peas, clover, and onions. In all these cases, the ripened ovule is sown. But in the case of ' seed potatoes. ' nobody could regard the tubers which are planted as true seed. In the case . of the following crops, what the cultivator sows is really the fruit and not the seed. Umbelliferous plants, such as carrot, parsnip, celery, parsley, caraway. Composite plants, such as sunflower, yarrow, lettuce, endive, dandelion, chicory. Other plants, such as wheat, rye, buckwheat. Sainfoin is sown either as ' unmilled,' that is, the wrinkled pod containing the seed, or as ' milled,' the pod having been removed and the true seed alone being sown. In yet other cases, the fruit, with something more is sown as the ' seed.' This is so in beetroot and mangel, as well as in barley and oats and most of the true grasses. Kinds of Fruit. — True fruits are conveniently divided into dry and succulent, each of these groups being further subdivided. A few of the commoner kinds may here be considered. A. Dry Fruits. — These are either indehiscent or dehiscent. In the former case the wall of the fruit gradually decays after sowing, in the latter it splits open to liberate the seed. I. Indehiscent Dry Fruits. (1) The achene is developed from a single carpel, its* wall is of horny texture, and it contains but one seed. The buttercup flower produces a group of achenes. (2) The term caryopsis is applied to the fruits of cereals and grasses. It contains only one seed, like an achene, but differs from this in being derived from a syncarpous ovary — i.e., it consists of more than one carpel. (3) The nut is a ripened syncarpous ovary, its wall is woody, and there is usually a single seed. Hazel is a good 176 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS example. II. Dehiscent Dry Fruits. i(l) The follicle is a single ripened carpel, contains several seeds, and splits open along the side which bears these (i.e., ventral suture). A flower of marsh marigold, columbine, lark- spur, or monkshood, produces a group of follicles. (2) The pod or legume, characteristic of leguminous plants, chiefly differs from the follicle in the fact that it splits open along both sides. Pea, bean, broom, and gorse, will serve as examples. (3) Cruciferous plants possess a distinctive fruit, often known as a pod, which is termed a siliqua if long (fig. 69), and a silicula if short. It results from the ripening of a syncarpous ovary composed of two carpels (see p. 167). These have fused together by their edges, but the contained cavity is divided into two by the growth of a partition known as the replum. When the fruit opens the carpels separate' from below upwards, leaving the seeds attached to the replum (fig. 69). The fruits of wallflower, cuckoo- flower, cabbage, turnip, mustard, and charlock are siliquas ; those of shepherd's purse and candytuft siliculas. (4) The capsule is developed from a syncarpous ovary made up of two or more fused carpels. It opens in a variety of ways Fig. 69.— Petjit ^q liberate the seed. Examples are rCRUclpBR^ afforded by the fruits of poppy, chick- ous Plant, weed, foxglove, primrose, scarlet pim- pernel, lily, and tulip. B. StrccirLBNT Fruits include many of the fleshy forms to which the term ' fruit ' is most commonly applied in ordinary language. There are two chief types. (1) In the drupe or stone-fruit, such as plum, cherry, or peach, the hard wall of the single ' stone ' is the innermost layer of the fruit, and the kernel is the seed. Blackberry and raspberry are aggregates of small drupes or drupels. (2) The berry contains a number of small hard seeds, the coats of which are thickened to, form protective investments. Examples are grape, currant, and gooseberry. DISPERSAL OP SEEDS 177 Spurious Fruits. — The foregoing are true fruits — i.e., matured ovaries, with their seeds— but a number of well-known fruits are termed 'false' or .'spurious,' because they include some other part of the flower in addition. The flesshy part of a strawberry, for example is the enlarged and juicy floral receptacle. In this case the small brown bodies scattered over the surface, and often supposed to be seeds, are the true fruits (achenes). Apple, pear, and quince are also spurious fruits, in which th« 'pips' are the seeds, the core the matured ovary, and the flesh the developed floral recep- tacle. A good example of spurious dry fruits is afforded by the so-called ' seeds ' of Composites, such as yarrow, dandelion, thistle, and sunflower. Such fruits super- ficially resemble achenes, and contain only one seed, . but they are composed of two carpels, and their outer- most layer is really the floral receptacle. Dispersal of Seeds. — Some plants may be said to scatter their own seeds, as in broom, where the ripe pods suddenly burst open and fling them to a distance. In many cases the wind serves as an agent of dis- persal, which is but too well-known to cultivators in the case of thistle, dandelion, and groundsel. Here the fruit is crowned by a circlet of ''feathery hairs (pappus), supposed to represent a specialization of the calyx. Many fruits or seeds are studded with hooks or prickles, by which they cling to the fur or wool of quad- rupeds or the feathers of birds, and thus get transported to a distance. The fruits of goosegrass or cleavers (Galium aparine) illustrate > this possibility. Succulenjb fruits and spurious fruits, again, are largely eaten by birds, and the seeds, being protected by firm inves1> ments, often escape digestion, and secure a chance of germinating at some distance from the parent plant. Such arrangements as those described help to pre- vent plants from being smothered by the springing up of their own offspring close to them, and a small per- / centage of seeds reach spots where they have some chance of germinating and attaining maturity. 178 CULTIVATED PLANTS CHAPTER XII. CULTIVATED PLANTS For purposes of convenience farmers have devised a classification of crops which is well adapted to the end in view. For example, ' root crops ' include turnips, swedes, mangels, and others. Grain crops, or straw crops, comprise such plants as wheat and barley, beans and peas. The only objection to this arrangement is that it may lead the beginner to make incorrect inferences. Thus, it is sometimes supposed that the manuring suited to one kind of root crop is equally suited to another — that what is good for the turnip, for example, is also good for the mangel. But this is not so, nor does it necessarily follow that it should be so. In the botanical classification of plants the attempt is made to arrange together those plants whose struc- tural characters most nearly resemble each other. In this way natural groups are formed, the members of each of which are believed to have sprung, in the remote past, from a common ancestor. Beans and peas are easily seen to possess a strong family likeness, and so are wheat and barley. On the other hand, there is great lack of resemblance between the bean plant and the wheat plant. Plants which are allied to each other usually require the same kind of food. They are often liable to attack from the same kinds of insects, and to fall a prey to the same kinds of fungoid and other parasitic pests. Hence the use to the grower of learning the relation- ships of plants. The method followed here is, first, to describe the crop plants individually in their botanical sequence, by discussing them in connection with the natural orders to which they severally belong, and subsequently (chapter xvi.) to deal with them from the cultivator's point of view. Advantage is taken of this arrange- ment to notice the commoner weeds in connection CRUCIPER^ 179 with the cultivated plants to which they are most nearly allied. Other weed plants are referred to in chapter xiii. CRXJCIFER^.— The plants of this order are usually herbs (a shrub in the case of the wallflower), with leaves ar- ranged alternately. The flower and fruit have already been described (pp. 167 and 176). The crucifers possess a pun- gent flavour, stimulating and sometimes acrid, but never poisonous ; and are antiscorbutic. Notable quantities of sulphur and nitrogen are present, and these, in union with other elements, form a volatile acrid oil (such as oil of mustard). The unbear- able odour which arises from a decaying heap of cabbage stumps is due in a great part to the formation of sulphuretted hydrogen and ammonia. By cultivation. Fig. 71. — Seed ob Penny Ckess, Thlaspi arvense, L.l Pig. 70. — Shepherd's Puksb Oapsella Bursa- Pastor is, D.C. On the left above is the magnified fruit (a silicula). the strong flavours of cruciferous plants have been toned down, and thereby rendered agreeable and acceptable to the palate. Familiar crucifers are the wallflower, stock, candy- tuft, sweet rocket, honesty, and Aubrietia of gardens; also the woad. Amongst the weeds are shepherd's purse (fig. 70), an annual growing everywhere ; the cuckoo-flower, a lilac-flowered perennial, common in moist pastures and meadows ; hedge-mustard, or Jack- in-the-hedge, a white-flowered plant with heart-shaped 1 In this and gabsequent sinLilar illustrations of seeds the imall figure indicates tlie natural size. 180 CULTIVATED PLANTS leaves, frequent in hedgerows in spring, and emitting, when bruised, a powerful onion-like odour ; charlock, a yellow-flowered annual, closely allied to mustard, and one of the worst weeds of arable land ; the wild radish, an aainual weed of cornfields; and the penny cress or Mithridate mustard (fig. 71). The cultivated food-plants of the Cruciferse are numerous and important. They include the turnip, cab- bage, and their allies, all belonging to the genus Brassica; mustard; cress; radish; horse-radish; water- cress; and sea-kale. Turnips, in their many varieties, are distinguished by the extent to which the root is developed into a handsome globe-like structure, often, but incorrectly, called a 'bulb' {see p. 152). The leaves are rough and transpire very freely. Turnips are extensively grown as food for sheep and cattle, the roots and leaves alike being eaten by stock. Turnips are likewise an important garden crop, whilst turnip-tops, as the leaves are termed, are boiled for table use. The Swedish Turnip, or Swede, is the most valued of the turnip family, being both more hardy and more nutritious than the common kinds of turnips. Swedes are distinguished from other turnips by the leaves being smoother and of a bluish colour. Transpiration is much less than in ordinary turnips. But the most obvious distinction is that the swede usually has at the crown of the root a ' neck ' (fig. 72), from which the leaves spring, and which is absent from the other kinds of turnips. Swedes also keep much better over the winter, and resist frost to a greater extent. The two chief groups of swedes in the market are the Green-top and the Purple-top, the varieties of the latter being most gene- rally grown. Purple-top swedes may again be generally divided into Tankard, Intermediate, and Globe-shaped varieties. The Tankard-shaped roots, as a rule, grow well out of the ground, and their keeping qualities are supposed to be only moderate. They generally have names assigned to them which denote great size, such as Elephant, Giant, etc. The Intermediate sorts are SWEDES AND TUBNIPS 181 between the Tankard and Globe varieties in shape, and grow to a certain eitent out of the ground; their keeping qualities are looked on as better than those of the Tankard. The Globe-shaped varieties are charac- terized by small necks, and generally grow well buried in the ground. Swedes take a leading position amongst rotation crops, but are never grown merely as a catch- crop. They usually follow the wheat crop, and take the place of the fallow or cleaning crop of the rotation. Fig. 72.— Swkdb. Fia. 73.— Tubnip. Notice the ' necft ' or ' collar ' of the Swede. most of the cleaning operations being carried out during the time the land is being prepared for sowing the swede seed. Turnif)s include all varieties of these cruciferous root crops, excepting swedes. They do not possess either the hardiness or the feeding value of swedes. They are often grown as catch-crops, or may be taken in the rotation instead of swedes when it has become too late in the season to sow the latter. The existence of 182 CULTIVATED PLANTS numerous varieties of turnips renders it easy to make a selection suited to the time of sowing. For early feeding it is usual to grow one or more of the soft white-fleshed early varieties of poor keeping quality with purple, grey, white or green skin, such as the Purple-top Mammoth, Pomeranian White Globe, and Lincolnshire Red Globe. Some of the Hybrids are also suitable for early use if sown at the beginning of June, particularly the Centenary, All the Year Round, and the Yellow Tankard. For late autumn and winter feed- ing, the hardier kinds of White Turnip, such as the Imperial Green Globe and Hardy Green Round, are grown, together with the Hybrid varieties, of which the Purple-top and Green-top Aberdeens are perhaps the best known. For sowing after corn crops, such as early peas, or others which have been harvested early in August, the Stratton Green Round, the Greystone, and the Early Six Weeks are well adapted. Turnips are an exceedingly useful crop on light chalk soils, where they probably form 'the bulk of the root £rop. The Hybrid, or yellow-fleshed varieties, are sup- posed to be crosses between the turnip and swede. The leaves are like those of the turnip, but the flesh in colour, firmness and keeping qualities more resembles that of the swede in character. Bape, Cole, or Coleseed, is a pl3,nt very closely allied to turnips and swedes. In fact, if neglected, these latter are liable to lose their large shapely roots, and to revert, the swede to the form of the smooth-leaved summer rape, and the turnip to that of the rough- leaved summer rape. In the case of the cultivated rape, it is the foliage and not the root which has been the object of improvement. Two kinds of rape are com- monly grown, the Dwarf, or summer variety, and the Giant, or winter variety. The Dwarf is largely used on chalk soils, where it is often grown after a catch-crop. The Giant is better suited to stronger land, and it yields immense crops on rich fen soils, where it is taken as a main crop in the rotation. To a great extent the Dwarf rape takes the same place as turnips, ajid the Giant rape as swedes. Rape is valuable in affording CABBAGES 183 green food for forward Iambs ill February and March, when there is usually a scarcity of soft succulent fodder. The Cabbage has been modified in so many ways by cultivators that numerous varieties have resulted. But these are all reducible to the following four groups : — (1) The Close or Drumheaded varieties, which form a compact head by the dense overlapping of the leaves — as in the Common Cabbage, and all other hard-hearted varieties. (2) Those of straggling open habit, due to a long upright branching stem, developing numerous leaves or sprouts, but not forming a ' heart ' — as in the Thousand-headed Kale (fig. 74). Fig. 74. — Thousand-headed Eals. Pig. 75. — Kohl eabi. Leaf-stalks cut oS short. (3) Those in which the stem divides and forms, in the middle of the plant, a dense head of imperfect flowers — as in the Cauliflower and Broccoli. (4) Those in which the stem is abnormally developed at the base, so as to look like the ' root ' above ground, as the Kohl rabi (fig. 75), which used to be called the Turnip-rooted Cabbage. 184 CULTIVATED PLANTS In cultivation, all kinds of cabbages are better if transplanted as seedlings, their hard tough roots not being readily withered. In this respect they differ from sw;edes and turnips, the soft succulent roots of which would be liable to wither were transplanting attempted. Hence, where cabbages are grown, whether in farm or garden, it is desirable to have a seed-bed from which the transplanting may be effected as is found convenient. Common or Close-headed Cabbages can be divided into two classes according to the shape of the head — viz., (i.) Ox-hearts, with oval or heart-shaped heads; and (ii.) Drumheads, which are of a flattened spheroidal shape. The Ox-hearts occupy less space, and can be planted closer together than the Drumheads. There are at least five well-recognized types of the common cabbage — the Imperial, the Enfield Market, the Drunl- head, the Tom Thumb, and the Eed or Pickling Cabbage. Those of the Imperial type are the earliest of the field cabbages, and should be planted out, 18 in. by 24 in. apart, in autumn or early spring, so as to be fit for feeding in June and July. Those of the Enfield Market type, planted out at the same time, 2 ft. by 2 ft. apart, will be ready for feeding when the Imperials are finished. The Drumhead, or cattle cabbage, is a very heavy-cropping variety, and is usually ready for feeding between September and Christmas ; it is trans- planted between. February and July, each plant being allowed 3 ft. by 3 ft. For late spring and summer use the plants are set out in October and November from sowings made in July and August. The Tom Thumbs are garden cabbages, grown to produce the small heads known as CoUards. They often follow on the land a crop of peas or onions, harvested very early in the summer, and are planted out from 12 in. by 12 in. to 15 in. by 15 in. apart. Of Red Cabbage there are two kinds, the Ox-heart Pickler and the Drumhead Pickler, .the former being the darker and the better. kind for pickling. They are planted out 18 in. by 24 in. apart, and, besides their use for pickling, they are equal to KALE, CAULIFLOWER, AND KOHL RABI 185 any other kind of cabbage as sheep-food. The Savoy is a very hardy cabbage, which will stand the coldest winters. The Thousand-headed Cabbage or Thousand-headed Kale (fig. 74) is the variety of sprouting cabbage mostly grown on the farm. Like the common cabbage, it may be transplanted, from May to July being the best time, though generally it is found more convenient to drill it on the land where the crop is to mature. It is a heavy cropper, but the mistake is sometimes made of feeding it off too early, before the plants have had time to throw out their abundant lateral branches. The garden varieties include Cottager's Kale, Curly Kale, and Brussels Sprouts. The Cauliflower and Broccoli are market-garden and kitchen-garden crops, and are not cultivated on the farm for stock-feeding. They are transplanted, and treated generally in the same way as other kinds of cabbage. The whitish coral-like structure in the middle of these plants consists of the over-developed inflor- escence, made up of an immense number of imperfect flowers. Eohl rabi (the name is German and signifies cahbage- turnip) develops above ground a large globular stem (fig. 75) upon which scars are left by the bases of fallen leaves. The green vairiety is almost exclusively grown, the bronze kind being but seldom cultivated. The big-topped sorts are more hardy than the short- topped forms. The latter come quickly to maturity, but are unable to face the severity of winter, and are only available for autumn feeding. The seed-beds aje sown in March or April, and transplanting is effected as soon as convenient. Or, the seed may be drilled, and the young plants hoed like turnips. Kohl rabi is especially useful for soils in a dry climate where there is a difii- culty in getting a good growth of swedes, or for filling in gaps in the mangel crop, and, even for this purpose alone, it is worth while having a small 'seed-bed in readiness upon arable farms. The tops of the hardy varieties of kdhl rabi make delicious table vegetables in January. 186 CULTIVATED PLANTS There is a marked similarity amongst the seeds of all plants of the turnip and cabbage kind (genus Brassica). They possess a purplish-black colour, and a general resemblance to small shot. One reason for this simi- larity, notwithstanding the many external differences between the plants themselves, is that the ' efforts of the cultivator have not been directed to effecting modi- fications in the seed. His endeavour, by selection and otherwise, has been to modify the root (turnips and swedes), the stem (kohl rabi and cauliflower), . or the leaf (cabbages and kale). Had the iinprovement of the seeds of these cruciferous plants been the object in view, it is possible that as many easily recognizable forms of seed could have been established as there are of beans, or peas, or of wheat graiiis. In each case, it is the part that is to be specially used as food that has been modified. The plants of the genus Brassica are all yellow- flowered and biennial. Sometimes, in cultivation, the plants become precocious, and exhibit a tendency to shoot up their flower-stalks in the first season. This should be checked by nipping off the flower-shoot, thereby compelling the plant to restrict its energies to the production of root, or stem, or leaf, as the case may be. Mustard is a quick-growing, yellow-floWered annual, - cultivated for ploughing in green on light soils as a preparation for wheat. Where sheep are kept, it* is preferable to let them consume the crop on the land, and then to plough. In Cambridgeshire and the adjoin- ing counties the crop is grown for its seed, from which the mustard used as a condiment is obtained. Thickly sown and allowed to germinate, the green cotyledons make the salad mustard, usually eaten with the simi- larly grown cress, another agreeably flavoured crucifer. The troublesome weed charlock, with the blossom of which cornfields often become yellow in early summer, is sometimes called wild mustard ; it is the plant most closely related to mustard. The radish must be regarded as a salad plant. The roots are either fusiform (i.e., spindle-shaped) or napiform CARYOPHYLLACE.E 187 (like a turnip). In the latter case it is called the turnip- radish, and its colour is usually white or red. The radish is exclusively a garden plant. The horse-radish, which is quite distinct from the radish, is a garden plant, grown for the sake of its pungent rootstock, the white flesh of which is scraped down to form an agreeable condiment with roast beef. Sometimes the roots of the poisonous monkshood have been employed by mistake instead, with fatal results. Watercress is a white-flowered salad herb growing naturally in 4>rooks and streams, whence it is collected in the spring and summer months for sale in towns. It is also cultivated in specially prepared shallow streams, where a sufficient supply of running water is available. CARYOPHYLLACEffi,— The plants of this order are herbs with opposite undivided leaves. In the flower, the four or five sepals are either, joined or free, and the four or five petals are free. There are usually eight or ten stamens, and the fruit takes the form of a capsule, ^_ inside which the albu- minous seeds clustered are around central Fig. 76.— Seed OF Chickwbbd, Stellaria media, L. Fig. 77.— Seed of NAEKOW - LEAVED MousB-EAB Chick- weed, Oerastium triviale, Link. and upon a peg. This is chiefly an order of weeds, the only cultivated food plant it includes being the spurrey. Several beautiful garden flowers, as the pinks, carnations, and sweet- williams, belong to it. Amongst the weeds are the white or red campions and catch-flies of fields and hedges, ragged Robin, the stitchworts, and the sandworts. The chickweed (fig. 76) is a common annual surface weed of gardens and arable fields ; it is a light green plant of loose straggling habit, and has an alternating line of delicate hairs along the stem. The narrow-leaved mouse-ear chickweed (fig. 77) is 188 CULTIVATED PLANTS common in pastures. The com-cockle (fig. 78) is the most troublesome caryophyllaceous weed, as it grows in corn- fields to about the height of the corn, with which it gets harvested. Its blackish wrinkled seeds, known as ' cockle,' are easily seen in a sample of corn, which should not be sown till cleaned of them. Com-cockle (fig. 78) is an annual, with pale purple flowers, and is Fio. 78. — CoEN-cocKLB, Githago Fig. 79. — Spueekt, segetum, Desf. Spergula arv&nsis, L. On the left, the enlarged pistil, On the right, the enlarged with five styles. leaf and calyx. recognized by its woolly calyx-teeth (sepals) being longer than, and stretching beyond, the petals.. The seeds of bladder campion, a white-flowered plant known by its inflated calyx, are found in samples of clover and grass seeds. Spurrey, or corn-spurrey (fig. 79), is a white-flowered annual plant of creeping habit, with narrow fleshy leaves arranged in circlets. It grows as a weed in cornfields, LiNACEiE 189 and is found naturally upon poor sanidy soils. It is for such soils, upon which little else will grow, that the cultivation of spurrey, either for sheep food or silage, has been recommended. The seed is sown about April, and the crop is cut or fed when in flower. The seed usually found in the south of England has a papillose or dotted surface ; fig. 80 shows the rarer form of seed in the northern counties. 9 ^ Fio. 80. — Seed of Spubbey, SpergiUa arventU, L. lilNACESi is a small order, interesting as in- cluding the flax plant (fig. 81). This is a slender annual herb, growing from one to two feet high, possessing narrow alternate leaves and deep blue flowers, the petals which expand in the morning falling off in the evening. A field of flax in bloom is a beautiful sight. The flattened albuminous seeds (linseed) are closely packed together in a spherical capsule. The tough stem of the plant con- tains the valuable flax fibre from which linen is made, whilst the crushed seed yields linseed oil, and the residue is compressed into oil-cake (linseed cake), used for feeding cattle. The boiled seed added to a mixture of chopped roots and chaff, is also often employed for feeding cattle in winter. Flax is but little grown in England; it is much more largely cultivated in Ulster. Fro. 81.— Flax, Linum usitatissimum, L. On the right beleas are stripped on the farm, and the green haulm is either employed as fodder, or made into silage. Peas have weak straggling sterna furnished with tendrils, by the twining habits of which the plants are pulled up into the light and air, and in garden cultivation sticks are planted along the row to afford them support. In field cultivation, ho-\vever, sticks are not used, and the plants spread amongst^ each other in the same way as vetches. They are a somewhat uncertain crop. Most varieties of garden pea have a white blossom ; while field peas have bluish-purple flowers. (Common BEANS 191 field varieties are the Maple, the Early Maple, the Part- ridge, the Early Dun, and the Common Grey. Prussian Blues and many varieties of white peas, originally intro- duced as garden peas, have found their way into field culture. Amongst the soft or wrinkled peas grown as vegetables are the British Queen, Fortyfold, Ne Plus Ultra, Telegraph, and Yorkshire Hero. Peas are a crop suited to light land, and, when grown in a rotation, they follow barley, and thus give the land a rest from clover. Beans are grown as a field crop, yielding the familiar Horse Bean'; also, as a garden crop, the Broad Bean or Windsor Bean. Horse beans include 'the large ticks or negro beans, the small ticks, and the common variety. Beans are more hardy than peas, and have a stiff upright mode of growth. They are also a more certain crop than peas, but require a stronger, deeper soil. The more hardy kinds, sown in the autumn, are called winter beans; the more delicate varieties, sown in February, are called spring beans. Field beans are drilled or dibbled in rows, IB to 24 inches apart. Under favourable conditions they produce pods almost down to the ground, as a result of the free admission of light a^j^d air. By the time the crop is ready to be harvested for its seed, the haulms are well-nigh black, so that beans are a black straw crop. Bean straw is used for feeding, and is often mixed with pea-haulm for the purpose. Broad beans are grown in the garden for the sake of their unripe seeds, which, like green peas, are boiled for table use. The Scarlet Runner Bean (Kidney bean) is a garden plant, with a long twining stem and bold scarlet flowers. It is a native of Mexico, and is cultivated in English gardens as an annual for the sake of its unripe pods, which are sliced and cooked for table use. The part that is eaten is, of course, the immature ovary con- taining the unripe seeds. The dwarf French beans are varieties of the kidney bean. The Haricot bean, largely used as food in France and Italy, and to some extent in England, is another variety. 192 . CULTIVATED PLANTS Clovers are members of the genus Trifolium. Their leaves are made up of three leaflets (whence the name trifolium). Notice, in a clover field, how the leaves of the plants close up at sunset, thereby offering the smallest surface possible to the cooling effects of radia-' tion during night; this is an example of what Darwin called the sleep of plants. The numerous small papiliona- ceous flowers are aggregated in dense heads. Clovers are not cultivated as food for man, but are amongst the most common of the farm crops grown either for green forage or for hay. The clovers usually found in cultivation are named in the following table : — I Botanical Name. ' Common Name. 1 Colour of Flower- head. Trifolium repens Trifolium pratense Trifolium pratense perenne Trifolium hybridum Trifolium incarnatum Trifolium minus White or Dutch clover Broad i clover Cow-grass Alsike 'Trifolium' Yellow suckling clover White. Red or purple Do. Pink and white Crimson. Yellow. White clover, Dutch clover, or honeysuckle clover, Trifolium repens (fig. 82), receives its specific name of repens in allusion to its creeping habit, numerous prostrate stems or stolons being given out at the crown, and helping to spread the plant in all directions. The fruit is a flat pod, containing three or four seeds (fig. 83) of a sulphur or orange colour. It is a well- established perennial plant found in old feeding pastures of prime quality, in which it helps to form a rich turf of close bottoin-herbage. If sown by itself it is usually folded with sheep, as its habit does not permit of its being profitably cut with the scythe. But sheep should, for the first few days, only be allowed on the crop when their appetite is partly satisfied, otherwise they eat so much that they become hoven or blown, through the accumulation of gas in the stomach. A luxurious growth of white clover often follows a dressing of lime or OLOYBRS 193 phosphates on poor grass land, especially on soils natu- rally deficient in these ingredients. This, no doubt, is due to the weak clover plants, already existing in the pasture, being stimulated directly or indirectly by the dressing applied. Red or bioad clover, TrifoUwm pratense (fig. 84), is also known as purple or meadow clover. It has a fine head of purple flowers, is a very robust plant with a slightly downy sur- face, and its leaflets bear a whitish horse- shoe-shaped or trian- gular mark. The fruit is a one- seeded pod, so dif- ferent from the ordi- nary -pods of the Leguminosee that it must be specially Fig. 82. — White Clovxb, Fig. 83. — Sbbd of Trifolium repent, L. Whitb Clover. examined. It does not open lengthwise, but is divided into an upper and a lower half. The upper is a smooth shining cap, and the lower is a small thin- walled box, by the tearing of which the seed is set free. Some of these curious pods are often present in samples of red clover seed, though, as they are easily separated, they ought not to be. The seed (fig. 85), viewed in bulk, is bright and shining, and has a purplish tinge. A good seed is of a dark purple colour at one end, gradually shading down to a light yellow. Bed clover is commonly grown as a hay crop, but it is also folded with sheep. On good soils it will stand two or more years. This is the clover which is specially 194 CULTIVATED PLANTS susceptible to ' sickness,' a disease associated with the presence of minute eel-worms in the stem of the plant. As ' clover sick ' land usually requires some years in order to sufficiently recover to carry clover again, it is not advisable to grow it — certainly on light open soils — more than once every ten or twelve years. A healthy crop of red clover generally affords a most abundant yield. [Clover-sickness is sometimes due to a fungus.] Cow glass (Trifolium pratense perenne) is not a true grass, but is a variety of the red clover, which, though slower in arriving at maturity, is pos- sessed of a more lasting character, aad is usually less liable to clover sickness. It is, there- fore, well adapted for use in a mixture of seeds intended to remain down for some time. Being Fig. 84. — Hbd Clover, Trifolium pratense, L. Fio. 85. — Sbbd of Red Cloveb. later than th« red clover, it usefully supplements the latter, as it comes "in season after the red clover has been cut once, and before it isi ready to fold or to cut again. But, as it is cut late, cow grass yields only a moderate aftermath. Cow grass is thus an ex- ample of a ' single-cut ' clover, whereas the other variety is a ' double-cut ' clover. It is not possible to distinguish the seed of common red clover from that of cow grass. CLOVERS 196 Alsike clover (TrifoUum hyhridum) is a smooth peren- nial plant with hollow stems. Its whitish and pinkish flow«rs are arreunged in loose heads on long stalks, the plant thus presenting an appearance intermediate between that of white clover and that of broad clover. The pod is short and contains from one to three small dark green seeds (fig. 86). Alsike grows freely on most soils, and will thrive on wet land unsuited to the older varieties; it is particularly free from clover sickness, so that when occasion arises it forms a yery useful substitute for broad clover. Crimson clover — scarlet, carnation, or Italian clover — TrifoUvim incarnatum ,(&S- 87), is the plant which Fio. 86.— Sbbd op Alsike. Fig. 87.—' Trifolium,' Trifolium incarnatum, L. With enlarged floret. farmers call 'trifolium.' It is characterized by its elon- gated velvety head of dark crimson flowers. There are three forms generally grown in this country — the Early Bed Trifolium, the Late Bed, amd the Extra Late Bed — in addition to whiich there is a white-flowered variety, T. album. It is erssentially a single-cut clover, and is commonly grown as: a catch-crop, the seed being merely harrowed in upon a, cereal stubble directly the corn crop is off the ground. The trifolium is fit for feeding in May and -June, and after it has teen folded _by sheep it may be broken up tg be followed by root crops. 196 CULTIVATED PLAINTS Yellow suckling clover, or lesser yellow trefoil, Trifolium minus (fig. 88), is a small annual yellow-flowered species, of much less size than the clovers that have already been described. It is a smooth plant, with slender flower-stalks. It is often grown in association with rye-grass, and begins to shed its seed freely after midsummer, especially in hot dry seasons. The hop trefoil (Trifolium proeumbem) has a rather prominent head of primrose-coloured flowers. In each corolla, the vexillum (fig. 67) is bent back somewhat, giving the whole head the appearance of a small yellow hop-cone. It grows chiefly on limestone soils, and is not cultivated. The zigzag trefoil, Trifolium medium (fig. 89), with a head of rose-purple flowers, and a straggling zigzag stem, takes possession of the soil with great rapidity. Fro. 88. — Yellow Stjoklino Clover, Trifolium minus, Sm. With enlarged floret and fruit. Fig. 89. — Seed of Ziozao Trefoil, Trifolium medium, L. The true clovers belong exclusively to the genus Trifolium. An allied genus, Medicago, contains several species which are popularly regarded as clovers, though they are not really so. In Medicago, ^s in Trifolium, each leaf is broken up into three leaflets. But the flowers of Medicago are arranged in compact racemes, a number of short-stalked florets springing from a common axis, so that the result is not unlike a clover-head. Again, the pod of Medicago is usually either curved or spiral, whilst in Trifolium it is nearly straight. Two species of Medicago are of agricultural interest. TREFOIL AND LUCERNE 197 Trefoil or yellow clover, Medicago lupulma (fig. 90), also known as black medick or nonsuch, and called ' hop ' by farmers, has some resemblance to TrifoUum minufs. But the whole plant is hairy or downy, the florets form- ing the head are numerous and very bright yellow, and the curved pod (fig. 90) be- comes black as it ripens, none of which characters are true of TrifoUum minus. More- over, in trefoil the corolla falls away after flowering, and the black roughish kid- ney-shaped pod is exposed to view, whereas in the yellow suckling clover the brown withered remains of the corolla embrace the pod. The seed of trefoil has a yel- lowish-brown, shining ap- pearance ,- each pod contains one seed. Trefoil does not possess the high feeding properties of the true clovers. When cultivated, it is usually in a ^mixture of seeds in- tended to remain down for a short period only. It is thus grown, especially on light chalk soils, in association with rye-grass. Lucerne, Medicago sativa (fig. 91), is a plant which at first appears to be very distinct from the trefoil just described. But an examination of the characters of their flowers and fruits shows their close relationship. Lucerne, however, is a taller, more robust plant, with loose racemes of bluish-purple flowers. The fruit (fig. 92) is a spiral pod, turned on itself two or three times, and containing a number of kidney-shaped seeds. Being a very deep-rpoted plant, lucerne is well qualified to thrive in dry soils and during droughty seasons. It is best sown by drilling, or by transplanting, as if sown broadcast it is impossible to get between the plants to clean the land. The crop will stand for a number of years, an9 is Pig. 90.— TREFOit, Medicago Iwpulina, L. On the left the black curved pod enlarged ; on the right an enlarged floret. 198 CULTIVATED PLANTS used chiefly for green soiling (see p. 263), though in some districts it is made into hay. It affords excellent fodder for horses. Two other leguminous plants largely grown are sain- foin and vetches. Sainfoin is culti- vated as a main crop, but this is hardly the case with vetches, though they are sometimes taken as a maia crop on heavy land. Fro. 91. — Ltjoernb, Medicago , saliva, L. Fio. 92. — Twisted or Spiral Pod (lequmb) or Lucerne. Sainfoin, Onohrychis sativa (fig. 93), is a robust plant, with a stout woody rooij, a long handsome leaf of 12 to 20 leaflets, and bold elegant racemes of large pink flowers. There are few prettier sights on the farm than a field of sainfoin, such as can be seen in chalk districts, in full bloom. The fruit is a large wrinkled pod, con- taining a single kidney-shaped seed of chocolate-brown colour. Sainfoin is allowed to remain down for from three to seven years, and is either grazed by stock or mown for hay. But, if folded too soon, sheep bite the heart out of the plant, and the crop is seriously injured. There are two cultivated varieties of sainfoin — (1) 'The Common or English Sainfoin, which gives only one cut of hay in the year, and is of a more perennial character than the other, lasting some five years or VETCHES OR TARES 199 more under suitable circumstajices ; and (2) The Giant or French Sainfoin; which is more luxurious in its growth at first, and gives two cuts of hay per annum. This variety, however, is short-lived, not lasting more than two seasons^ Vetches or taies, Vi aid in binding loose soils together It is a perennial, and grows to a height of about one fpot. Chicory or succory, Ciehorium Jntyhus (fig. 105), is a native perennial, growing to a height of three feet or more, and bearing heads of handsome blue flowers, which are given off the stem in pairs. It has been cultivated on a moderate scale as a cattle food, the foliage being used for this purpose. The root, dried and ground, forms the chicory sold by grocers, and often FiQ. 104. — Yarrow or Milfoil, Achillea Millefolium, L. Fio. 105. — Chicory or Succory, CicJiorium Intybue, L. mixed with coffee. Its young blanched leaves are used as a salad, as are also those of the closely related endive. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) is the commonest of all salad plants grown in English gardens. The varieties of this agreeable plant are very numerous, differing in size, texture, colour, and period when in season. Lettuce is a yellow-flowered biennial, and ripens its ' seed ' the 212 CULTIVATED PLANTS year after it is sown, though precocious plants are liable tc run to top in the same season, unless the flowering shoots are nipped off. The dandelion {Taraxacum officinale) makes an excel- lent addition to a salad, and there is no reason why this plant should not be as largely cultivated for this pur- pose in England as it is in France, where it is also sent to the table cooked. The sunflower (Relianthus annuus) is a stout upright annual, bearing large terminal heads of flowers It is cultivated for its seeds — really the fruits — which have a high feeding value. The Jerusalem artichoke (Selianthut iiiberqsus) is closely allied to the sunflower, which it much resem- bles in general habit, but the solitary terminal yellow flower heads are smaller. It is a perennial plant, some- what diflicult to get rid of when it has once taken pos- session of the soil. It is grown for the sake of its tubers, which were formerly used for many purposes to which the potato is now generally applied. It is both hardy and productive, and is grown from sets like the potato. The artichoke (fiynara Scolymus), though a composite, is quite a distinct plant from the foregoing. Its large gashed leaves, two or three feet long, and of a grey colour, are very noticeable. A stout stem, three or four feet high, carries flower-heads, at the base of which are numerous thick overlapping scaly leaves (bracts). Many compositaceous weeds are furnished with stout perennial rootstocks, which are difficult to extirpate. On meadow land the only safe measure to adopt is to pull them up bodily. But both annual and perennial Compositse are, in the case of many species, furnished with an easy means of dissemination of the ' seed.' The florets are so crowded together that the calyx is often reduced to a mere ring of hairs, termed a pappus (see p. 177), surmounting the fruit, and as the fruit ripens the petals and stamens wither away. Although this structure is not present in all Compositse-jnot in the daisy, for example — it is obvious that those compositaceous weeds which possess it have a ready means of spreading themselves over the land. Hence, SOLANACE^ 213 any measures directed to getting rid of such weeds must be put in operation before the flower heads have ' gone to seed.' Amongst the commonest composite weeds are various species of hawkbit (Leontodon) and hawkweed (Sieracium), all of which are yellow-flowered perennials. Other yellow-flowered species are sow-thistles (species of Sonchus) and groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), some of which are annuals and others perennials. The corn-marigold (Chrysanthemum segeium) is a handsome yellow-flowered annual weed of cornfields, whilst the closely aUied yellow and white ox-eye Marguerite, G. Leuecmthemum (fig. 106), of meadow land is a perennial, as is also the daisy {Bellis perennis), with its troublesome rosette of leaves lying close to the ground and usurping the ^ .„. place of useful pasture plants. The < gji^D ' of Ox- scentless Mayweed (Matricaria inodora) is bye Daisy, a white-flowered annual common in corn- Chrysanthemum fields, as is the stinking chamomile UucardUmum, (Arvthemis Cotula). Purple-flowered composite weeds include the various prickly thistles (Carduus, Onopordon, and Carlina), which are either biennials or perennials, and the perennial knapweed (Centaurea nigra), with its hard blackish head conspicuous before flowering. Another knapweed, the beautiful blue-bottle or cornflower (C. Cyanus), is an annual weed in cornfields. The burdock (Arctium Lappa), a coarse purple-flowered biennial growing in waste places, is the largest-leaved British plant, and is often — but quite incorrectly — called wild rhubarb. The burs, which catch in the clothing and in sheep's fleeces, are formed by hooked points upon the bracts of tjie flower heads. SOLANACE^,— The most familiar example of this order is the potato, the flower of which should be ex- amined. The five sepals are all joined together, as are the five petals; while the five stamens, with their very conspicuous orange-coloured anthers, arise from the short corolla tube. The two carpels join together to form a S14 CULTIVATBD PLANTS two-chambered ovary, as may be seen by cutting it across trajisversely, and the fruit is called the potato ' apple ' or potato ' berry.' The potato {Solanum tuberosum) is cultivated for the sake of its underground stem, or tuber (see p. 151). In Jersey and Guernsey it is extensively grown under glass, in order to secure the early market when prices are high. For ordinary purposes of cultivation the crop is grown from tubers, which may be cut up into ' sets ' before planting. New varieties are obtained by sowing the true seed, but it takes several years to establish a fresh strain. The introduction of these new forms is neces- sary, inasmuch as each variety appears in time to decline in value, becoming less prolific and reliable. It is obvious that it is only by the cross-fertilization rendered possible in the flower that new strains can be originated; no cross-breeding can be practised when propagation is continued year after year by means of the tubers only. British Solanacese comprise the foul-smelling hen- bane (Hyoscyamus niger), the woody nightshade or bitter- sweet (Solanum Dulcamara), and the deadly nightshade (Atropa Belladonna). These plants all possess poisonous principles, and are, therefore, dangerous, as are also the leaves and fruit of the potato. Consequently potato haulm is burned, and is never used as food. Other poisonous or highly narcotic plants of the order are tobacco (Nieotiana Tabacum) and thorn-apple {Datura Stramonium). The red capsicums and the smaller red chillies, seen in pickle-jars, are fruits of this order. The dried capsicums, when ground, yield Cayenne pepper.' The tomato {Solanum Lycopersicum), or love apple, is cultivated for its fruit, a handsome red or yellow berry, which is used either as a salad, a culinary vegetable, or as a constituent of sauces. In England it thrives best when trained against walls, but since it cannot be relied upon to ripen its fruit out of doors, it is exten- sively grown under glass, and, being an annual, it is raised from seed. It is a weak, trailing plant, with soft stem, winged leaves, and yellow flowers. Observe the odour of its foliage, almost as powerful as that of henbane — a weed of waste places. LABIATE 216 The egg-plant or aubergine (S. esculentum) is another introduced member of the order, cultivated for its egg- shaped fruit. LABIATE is an order of greater interest to gar- deners than to farmers. To it belong many of the sweet- smelling and savoury herbs, such as sage {Salvia offici- nalis), mint (Mentha viridis), thyme (Thymus vulgaris), marjoram (Origanum onites), balm (Melissa offidnalis), horehound (Marruhium vulgare), lavender (Lavandula vera), and rosemary (Bosmarinus officinalis). It also includes such weeds as white deadnettle (Lamium album), red dead- nettle (L. purpureum), hemp nettle (Galeopsis Tetrahit), bugle (Ajuga reptans), and self-heal (Prunella vulgaris — fig. 107). The plants of the order are recognized by their square stems, opposite leaves, two-lipped corollas, four Fio. 107. — Seed OF Self-heal, Prunella vid- garit, L. Fig. 108. — Seed op Viper's BtroLOss, Echium vuigart, L. FiQ. 109. —Seed or ScoKPiON Grass Myo- totis arvensie, Hofem. stamens — ^two long and two short — and fruit of four nut- lets (commonly called ' seeds ') at the bottom of a persistent calyx-tube. BORAGrIN£iE, like Labiatee, have a fruit of four nutlets, but their leaves are not opposite, nor are their corrollas two-lipped. To this order belongs the prickly comfrey (Symphytum asperrimum), an introduced plant, producing an abundance of coarse herbage employed for green soiling of cattle (p. 263) or for making silage. The crop is grown from the divided rootstocks, which are planted at regular distances, and yield three or four cuttings a year. Other members of the order are the common comfrey (Symphytum officinale), the purple- reddish and cream-coloured flowers of which are seen by 216 CULTIVATED PLANTS the sides of streams; the corn gromwell (Lithospermum arvense), an annual weed of cornfields; the blue-flowered borage (Borago officinaUs), employed to flavour claret- cup ; viper's bUglOSS (Echium mdgare — fig. 108) ; the forget-me-not (Myosotis palustris), and the allied weeds known as scorpion grasses (M. arvensis, etc., fig. 109). CHENOFODIACE^ is the name of the order of which the mangel wurzel, beetroot, and spinach are members. The various species of goose- foot (Chenopodium) (figs. 110 and 111), which are amongst the commonest annual weeds of arable land, likewise belong to this order. The flowers of chenopodiaceous plants are small and greenish, and possess no petals. Examine some mangel seed. The ' seed ' of com- merce consists of the ovary, with its seeds, imbedded in • the swollen base of the perianth, which thickens and Fig. 110. — White Goosefoot, Chenopodium album, L. With enlarged flower. Fig. 111. — Seed of White Goosefoot, . Chenopodium album, L. hardens as it ripens, becoming angular and somewhat woody. Hence, when a mangel or beet ' seed ' is set to germinate, it is not unusual for two or three shoots to appear from it. In cultivation, two or three young plants are likely to spring up at the same spot, and this renders the ' setting out ' of the mangel plant difficult, whilst it helps to account for the frequently ' patchy ' appear- ance of the crop. To promote regularity of sowing, the MANGEL AND BEET 317 mangel ' seed ' is sometimes broken in a mill, whereby the true seeds are set free, and are thus enabled to fall more uniformly from the drill. The mangel, the sugar beet, and the garden beet are all improved modifications of the same original' wild plant (Beta maritima), whose natural habitat is on sea shores. Three main types of mangel are cultivated— the long red, the yellow globe, and the intermediately-shaped tankard. Botanically, the mangel is far removed from the swede, which it rivals in feeding properties and excels in keeping qualities. The crop is not suited to ' feeding on thef ground, but is best stored for spring and summer consumption (see p. 461). An additional reason for storing it is that it will not stand the winter if left in the ground. Mangel is sown earlier than turnips or swedes, and the crop has a longer period for its growth ; it has a much more deeply penetrating tap-root, throws out a less proportion of its feeding roots near the sur- face, ajid exposes a comparatively large area of leaf to the atmosphere. With its more extended root range it is less dependent on frequency of rain when growth is once well established, and it thrives under a higher temperature than the turnip. Hence the midland, eastern, and southern districts are much more suitable for the crop than the north-west or north of England, or than Scotland, where it is comparatively little grown. Where, however, soil and climate are favourable, much heavier crops can be grown than of turnips, provided very large dressings of farmyard manure are employed. The proportion of leaf to root is, as a rule, very much less in the mangel than in the turnip, but .more than in the swede. The garden beet is grown as a salad plant, and its dark crimson colour renders it a suitable addition to red cabbage in the pickle-jar. The sugar beet is much cultivated in Germany, Austria, and France, sugar being extracted from the juice of the roots, and the refuse pulp affording a valuable cattle food. It is a much smaller root than the mangel, and as it grows almost entirely buried in the soil it is a more expensive crop 218 CULTIVATED PLANTS to raise. On the stronger soils it is necessary to raise them with forks, or with some special digging machine, as is done on. the Continent. Another point to be noticed is that the smaller and rougher roots generally contain the higher percentage of sugar, and though these are consequently best for commercial purposes, they give a comparatively small yield per acre. POLYGONACEiE is an order rendered sufficiently familiar by such well-known weeds as the docks and sor- rels, together with the snakeweed (bistort) and knot- grass. Like the chenopods they have incomplete flowers, the petals being absent, but the sepals frequently assum- ing a reddish, pinkish, or whitish tinge. The order is characterized by the presence of a membranous sheath (a form of stipule) surrounding the stem at the base of each leaf-stalk, and by the fruit having the ap- pearance' of a polished triangu- lar nutlet — like a very small beech-nut. The presence of dock and sorrel ' seeds ' (figs. 112 and 113) in samples of cultivated seeds is thereby easily detected. Buckwheat (Polygonum Fagopyrum) and rhubarb {Bheum hylridum) are two polygonaceous plants, neither of them native, cultivated in Britain. The black triangular ' seeds ' of buckwheat are occasionally sown to afford a crop either for ploughing in green or for folding with sheep. The seed is valued as food for poultry and pheasants. Bhubarb, grown for the sake of its succulent leaf-stalk, containing oxalic acid, affords, an excellent example of the sheathing stipules of the order. The docks and soriels (species of Bumex) are all perennial weeds, growing from stout rootstocks, which require to be pulled up bodily in order to suppress these plants. This is the operation of ' docking,' frequently necessary amongst growing crops of com. Docks and Fia. 112.— 'Seed 'OF Common Sorrei., RuTnex Acetosa, L. Fig. 113.— 'Seed' OP Sheep's Sok- KBL, Eumex Ace- tosella, L. DRTICACE^ 219 sorrels are common weeds of grass land, more of hay- fields than of pastures. Knot-grass (Polygonum aviculare) (fig. 114) — often called ' redshank ' from the colour of the sheathing stipules — and the climbing bistort (P. Convolvulus), with its dark leaves and its convolvulus-like habit, are amongst the commonest weeds of cornfields, and often occur on other arable land. UBTICACE^, the stinging-nettle family, is the order to which British botanists refer the hop (Humulus iMpuhis) Fig. 114. — Knot-grass, Polygonum aviculare, L. Fig. 115.— Hop, Humulut Lupulus, L. (fig. 115). This plant grows wild in the hedgerows, but its cultivation is practised chiefly in Kent, the only other counties in which hops are grown to any extent being Sussex, Surrey, Hants, Hereford, and Worcester. In 1913 there were 35,676 acres of hops in England, of which Kent alone grew 21,944 acres, or more than three-fifths of the whole. Hops are a very expensive crop to grow, are specially liable to insect attacks and fungoid diseases, and are cultivated differently from any other English crop. The plant has a twining habit, and stout poles are thrust 220 CULTIVATED PLANTS into the ' hills ' in spring in order to give support to the bine, the young shoots of which are at the outset tied to the poles. The lateral growth of the bine is en- couraged by strings of cocp-nut fibre stretching from pole to pole, whereby the side shoots get plenty of light and air. Systems of ' wire training ' are now commonly used, the wires being strained to posts permanently fixed in the ground. This is sometimes spoken of as the ' Tele-, graph system,' and has many advantages over the old poles, as there is a better access of light and air to the growing bines, .and it is easier to wash the hops when trained on wire. Again, the picking from the wire and stringwork system is simpler, as it is only necessary to cut the string when throwing the bine down. In picking from poles, on the other hand, the bine must be cut first, and this premature cutting often involves bleeding and consequent weakness. The hop has unisexual flowers, the male plants car- rying the staminate flowers in loose pale green panicles, whilst in the female plants the pistillate flowers are gathered into heads made up of closely packed bracts. It is in these that the bitter principle of the hop (lupulin) is found, and, after flowering is over, the^y enlarge into the head or ' cone ' which is gathered by the hop- pickers. • LILIACE^ constitute a beautiful group of flowering plants, of which the lily, tulip, and hyacinth are familiar examples. The flowers possess three sepals and three petals much alike in shape, size, and colour. There are six stamens and three carpels, the latter uniting to form a three-chambered superior ovary containing numerous seeds. The onion (Allium Cepa), which belongs to this order, is cultivated as a garden crop rather than a field crop. •It is grown for its tunicated bulb (similar to fig. 60), the white fleshy overlapping scales of which are made up of the bases of the leaves. It is used either as a vegetable, as a salad, or for pickling. The crop requires considerable care in cultivation, a well-prepared seed- bed especially being necessary. The seed, in germinat- GHAMINE^^ 221 ing, keeps the tip of the' shoot inside the seed-coat tor some time after emergence above the ground. The shallot (Allium ascalonicum) is a variety of onion with a flat side, due to two or three bulbs growing together. The leek (Allium Porrum) does not bulb proportionately to the same extent as the onion. It is used chiefly for cooking. Asparagus (Aspara^s offlcinaUs) is a liliaceous plsint, with a creeping matted rootstock throwing, up annual shoots, which are eaten young as a culinary vegetable. The culture is of quite a special character. Good prices are obtained in early spring for asparagus, which is tied up in bundles for the market. It is a native of maritime coasts. The wild onion, or crow garlic (AUium vmeale), is an exceedingly objectionable weed in cornfields, as the presence of garlic in a sample of wheat detracts largely from its value. Garlic is easily recognized, both by its general resem- blance to the onion and by its unmistakable odour.. It is cleared out from a growing crop by the expen- sive process of hand-pulling, pjg 116.— Meadow Saffron, Meadow SaSron (Colchicum Colchicum autumnaU, L. autumnale) (fig. 116) is a With pistil and fruit enlarged, poisonous weed that grows occasionally in meadows and pastures. The slender leaves alone are thrown up in spring, and the pale, purple flowers appear in autumn, after the leaves have died down. CrRAMINi!^. — Of the natural orders of plants this is by far the most important and the most useful to the agriculturist, including as it does all cereals and grasses. Wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, rice, and millet are 222 CULTIVATED PLANTS gramin£Ous plants cultivated mainly for the sake of their grain. Meadow and pasture grasses, such as rye grass, cocksfoot, foxtail, timothy, etc., are gramineous plants grown for their nutritious herbage, which is either consumed green, or is first converted into hay or silage. The sugar-cane arid the bamboo are examples of gramineous plants grown for yet other purposes. Pull up a grass plant by the root and examine it. Notice that the root con- sists of a large number of more or less coarse threads, called root-fibres. In some species, as barley, these spread out near the surface of the ground; in others, as wheat, they penetrate more vertically into the soil. The upright stem in a grass plant is called the culm or haulm (fig. 117). In most species the culm is hollow, save at the bases of the leaf-sheaths — the joints — ^where it is solid. Many grasses develop a prostrate stem, or stolon (fig. 150), which at intervals sends root- lets downwards and leaf-shoots up- wards, and thus gives rise to a num- ber of independent centres of growth. Such grasses are described as stoloni- f erous ; fiorin (p. 236) and meadow fox- tail (p. 239) are examples. Observe that the leal in most grasses is long, jiarrow, and strap-shaped, coming to a point at its free end. It varies in different species between the fine slender (setaceous or bristly) sheep's fescue, and the broad flat leaf characteristic of cocksfoot, or of the great reed (fig. 120). Hold a grass leaf between the eye and the light, and notice the parallel ribs extending from tip to base. Follow the leaf downwards to where it embraces the stem by means of its Uaf-sheath. In most kinds of grasses the leaf-sheath is split Pro. 117.— Part OP UPKIGHT Btbm OF Grass Plant. A, culm, seen within the split leaf-sheath. B, ligule. c, C, joints, D, part of lamina or leaf -blade. leaf seen in STBUCTURB OF GRA.8SKB 223 down the front. Closely similar grasses are some- times distinguished by the rough or smooth surface of the sheath. ' , By pulling the leaf slightly away from the stem, and looking at the place where the leaf joins its sheath, a thin whitish outgrowth is in most species brought into view. This is the ligule (fig. 117), and it is worthy of note, because, on account of variations in its size and shape, it is frequently of use in affording a means of distinguishing between grasses that are otherwise much alike. For example, grow some plants of wheat, barley, and oats, till they are about six inches high, and then compare their ligules. That of wheat not only sur- rounds the culm, but its ends overlap, and they are hairy; in barley the ends of the ligule similarly overlap or cross each other, but they are naked; whilst in oats the ligule is so short as to extend only part of the way round the culm. Notice, also, the ligules in the three common meadow grasses: — BoughHBitialked meadow grass {Poa trivialis), ligule long and pointed. Smooth-fi'talked meadow grass [Poa pratensis), ligule blunt. Wood meadow grass (Poa nemoralis), ligule none, absent. Again: — Fine 'bent grass (Agroatis vulgaris), ligule short, blunt. Morsih bent grass [Agroatia alha), ligule long, acute. The most distinctive characters of grasses are to be found in the flowers, and for these the ear or panicle (the inflorescence) must be examined. Take an ear of some large-flowered grass, such as oats. The nodding structures at the ends of the delicate branches are called spikelets. Break off a spikelet and examine it. At its base are seen two large boat-shaped leaves — called the empty or outei glumes — almost, but not quite, opposite each other. Between these outer glumes are embraced two or more little flowers — or florets, as they are better termed, on account of their small size. Each floret has, at the base, two chaffy leaves, nearly opposite to each other. The larger and lower of these is called the flowering glume, the smaller and upper is the palea or 224 CULTIVATED PLANTS pale (figs. 145-6), though sometimes they are called the oiiler pale (i.e., the flowering glume) and the irmer pale respectively. The flowering glume at its edges embraces the pale. An awn, or bristle, is seen to arise from the middle of the back of the flowering glume of the lowest floret. Between the flower- ing glume and pale are con- tained (fig. 118) the three stamens, from the anther- lobes of which comes the Pro. 118.— A Per- fect Ploebt of THE Oat (en- larged). At the back is seen the pointed pale (the flowering glume being re- moved). FlO. 119. — DiSBEOTBB Ploeet op Wheat (enlarged). o, o, outer glumes, which enclose all the florets of a epikelet. Parts of a single floret : F, flowering glume. P, pale. L, lodicules (representing perianth of ordinary flowers. s, the three stamens. T, the pistil, comprising an ovary surmounted by the two feathery styles. male fertilizing material or poHen. In the heart of the floret, between the filaments or stalks of the stamens, is seen the ovary, which eventually ripens into the grain. STRUCTURE OF GRASSES 225 In most grasses the florets are piuch smaller than they are in the oat, and there exist various modifications of the parts just enumerated. In the wheat-plant, how- ever, the florets (fig. 119) are large, but the spikelets which contain them have no stalks. The presence or absence of stalks to the spikelets determines, to a great extent, the appearance of the ear or panicle of a grass. Where the spikelets are not supported by stalks, but rest directly upon the stem or axis, there results the close* narrow ear seen in wheat, couch grass (fig. 158), barley, barley grasses (fig. 160), rye, and rye grasses (figs. 148-9). Where the spikelets are upon long stalks, which spread out- ward from the axis, such panicles as those of oats (fig. 189), oat grasses (fig. 144), meadow grasses (figs. 141-3), fescue grasses (figs. 131-2, and 135-6), brome grasses (figs. 156-7), bent grasses (figs. 137-8), quaking grasses, hair grasses (fig. 159), Yorkshire fog (fig. 161), reeds (fig. 120), and cocksfoot (fig. 124) result. Sometimes the stalks of the spikelets are very short, and lie so closely against the stem that the panfcle looks as if the spikelets were without stalks, though examina- tion shows this is not really the case ; examples are seen in dogstail (fig. 126), foxtail (fig. 139), timothy (fig. 155), and, to a less extent, in sweet vernal (fig. 153). ~ It will be noticed that just as the ear or panicle of a grass or cereal is made up of spikelets, so is each spikelet made up of one or more florets. In order that there may be no uncer/-.ainty as to what I Fig. 120. — Common Reed, PhragmiUa communis, Trin, With enlarged spikelet and floret. 226 CULTIVATED PLANTS is me^nt by a spikelet, look at fig. 131 (meadow fescue grass), and count the spikelets, which, in this illustra- tion, number twenty-three. In the specimen of barren brome grass, illustrated in fig. 157, there are fourteen spikelets shown. In the specimen of perennial rye-grass (fig. 148) eighteen spikelets may be counted. In most of the illustrations of grasses, moreover, an enlarged view of a single spikelet is given. The awn is a bristle which usua% springs from the back of the flowering glume (or outer pale), above referred to as helping to enclose the floret. The awn may arise from the base (as in wavy hair grass, fig*. 146), or from the middle of the back (as in sweet vernal grass), or it may be a mere prolongation of the tip (as in dogs- tail, fig. 127) of the flowering glume. ' Bearded ' wheat is awned, beardless or smooth wheat is not awned. The awns, like the ligules, afiord a means of distinguishing between species of grasses that are otherwise much alike. Thus, Italian rye grass (fig. 149) is awned ; peren- nial rye grass (fig. 148) is usually not awned. The fescue grasses (Festuca, figs. 135-6) are mostly shortly awned; the meadow grasses (,Poa, figs. 141-3) are never awned. In barren brome grass (Bromus sterilis, fig. 157) the awn is long ; in soft brome grass (Bromus molUs, fig. 156) it is short. In Yorkshire fog (HoUus lanatus, fig. 161) the awn is hidden, in creeping soft grass (Holcus molUs) it is exposed. The true seed of cereals and grasses never, as such, finds its way into commerce, the grain, as in wheat, being really the fruit. The commercial ' seed ' of rye is similar to that of wheat, but in the case of barley or oats there is something more, for the flowering glume and pale have hardened on to the grain, so that the ' seed ' in this case is the dried floret, in the middle of which is the fruit. The ' seed ' of many grasses, as it occurs in commerce, consists similarly of the entire floret, this being the case with the ' seed ' of cocksfoot (figs. 128-9), dogstail (figs. 126-7), fescues (fig. 134), rye grasses (fig. 133), meadow grasses, sweet vernal, timothy, and others. In some cases the 'seed ' consists of even more than this, for it includes the entire spikelet. An RUSHES AND SEDGES 227, example is afforded by foxtail seed, to gather iKhich it is only necessary to strip the spikelets (fig. 139) off the ripe ear. Hence the term ' seed,' as applied to grasses, must be understood in a special sense — the fruit or grain enveloped in ' chaff '■ — and as by no means imply- ing the true botanical seed, such as is exemplified, in the commercial seed of clovers, trefoils, turnips, and cabbages. In short, the term ' seed,' as applied to grasses, means simply 'that which is sown.' Fia, 121. — Common Rush, Juncus communis, Meyer. With enlarged floret and fruit. Fio. 122. — Field Wood-rush, Luzula campestris, Willd. With enlarged floret and fruit. The only commonly occurring plants which are liable to be mistaken for grasses are rushes (nat. ord. JTJNCACE^) aad. sedges (nat. ord. CYFEBACE^) ; they have no feeding value. Rushes usually have dark green rounded stems, taper- ing to a point, and enclosing a continuous or inter- rupted pith. The leaves, if developed, are either flat or like the stem. The brownish flowers of rushes contain six stamens, surrounded by six scaly leaves. They are, I 2 228 CULTIVATED PLANTS therefore, qurt,e different from those of grasses, and have rather 'the structure of a very diminutive tulip flower. Moreover, they are never aggregated together in spikelets. The true rushes (Juncus, fig. 121) grow natu- rally on poor wet lands. The wood-rushes (Luzula, fig. 122) occur upon heaths, meadows, pastures, and shady places. Their foliage is more grass-like than that of the rushes, but their leaves always have a cottony appearance, due to the presence of long wavy white hairs. Sedges (Carex, fig. 123) are at once distinguished from grasses by their solid triangular stems, by their entire leaf-sheaths, and by the absence of ligules. In grasses the stems are usually round and hollow, and their leaf-sheaths are split in front. The anthers of grasses are notched (figs. 118-19) at the ends; those of sedges are not. The cotton-grass or cotton-sedge (Eriophorum), growing on moors and bogs, develops cottony heads, which look in the distance like tufts of white wool. The term ' grass ' is erro- neously applied to certain plants which are not members of the natural order Graminese. Thus, cotton-grass and carnation-grass (fig. 123) are really sedges. Knot-grass (fig. 114), a trouble- some weed on arable land, is a near relation of the docks and sorrels. Goosegrass (fig. 165) is the cleavers, hariff, or whip-tongue, growing in hedgerows. Rib-grass is the plantain. Scorpion-grass is one of the blue-flowered forget-me-nots. Arrow-grass belongs to the water plan- tain family. Scurvy-grass and the whitlow-grasses are cruciferous plants. The grass of Parns^ssus is a member FlO. 123.— PiNK-LBAVBD Sedge, or ' Carnation- ORASS,' Carex panicea, L. With male and female fiowere enlarged. CULTIVATED GRASSES 229 of the saxifrage family. Cow-grass is a clover — the much-valued Trifolium pratense perenne. Grasses, very closely allied to each other, may never- theless possess widely different properties. Thus, wheat is botanically related to the troublesome weed couch- grass (fig. 158), whilst meadow foxtail (fig. 139) is allied to the field pest known as slender foxtail, of hunger- weed (fig. 140). In describing the grasses of agricultural value it will be convenient, therefore, to refer to the weed-grasses respectively allied to them. . Though the characters of the panicle, spikelets, and florets afford the readiest means of identifying grasses, it must be remembered that during the greater part of the year these plants are not in flower. Hence, it is necessary to study the leaves and rools of grasses, and to en- deavour to identify the several species by the characters of these alone. In many cases this is not diflicult. The cultivated grasses are here described, as . a, matter of conveni- ence, in the follow- ing order : Cocks- foot, Dogstail, Fescues, Fiorin, Foxtail, Meadow Grasses, Oat Grasses, Eye Grasses, Sweet Grasses, Sweet Vernal, and Timothy. As has been inti- mated, however, incidental references are made to such weed-grasses as are generically allied to any of the foregoing. Fig. 124.— Cocksfoot, Daclylit glomerata, L. With enlarged spikelet on the right. 230 CULTIVATED PLANTS Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata, L. ) is easily recognized. Its spikelets are crowded together into thick clusters — hence the specific name ' glomerata ' — and they are all turned to one side (fig. 124). It is a large, coarse- growing, and often unsightly plant, rough or harsh to the touch. The leaves are very characteristic — ^broad, thick, juicy, bluish-green, and their basal parts white and flattened near the ground. It is tall, and of quick growth. After having been once mown, and par- ticularly if growing in a deep, rich soil, its foliage becomes luxuriant and abundant. To this latter cir- cumstance is attributed the freedom with which it grows in orchards (whence it is termed Orchard Grass in the United States) and near farm buildings. It is less suitable for pasture than for meadow, because on account of its tufted habit it forms dense cushions or tussocks, which, owing to the strength of the stems, render the whole plant liable to become uprooted by grazing animals. Cocksfoot has a fibrous, much- branched, and deeply descending root, so that it is scarcely sensible to drought, provided the soil is suflS- ciently deep. It grows successfully in almost all soils, except dry sands and heath lands, generally thriving better in damp and heavy soils than in such as are light and dry. Cocksfoot is never sown alone, for its tufted growth would result in the formation of a^ patchy irregular sward. It should be cut, if practicable, before flower- ing; otherwise the stems becoine hard and woody, and therefore less acceptable to animals as fodder. In meadows where cocksfoot makes up the chief part of the herbage, the time for commencing to mow should be determined by the condition of this grass. It fur- nishes a very abundant aftermath, or second growth. The commonest impurities of cocksfoot seed (figs. 128 and 129), namely, the seeds of meadow fescue (fig. 134), yellow oat grass (fig. 145), and rye grass (fig. 133), are far from being injurious, and .two of them are of higher commercial value than cocksfoot seed itself. More pre- judicial are the seeds of brome grass and of certain weeds of the composite family, particularly ox-eyes DOGSTAIL GRASS 231 (fig. 103), groundsel, ragworts, nippleworts, and hawk- weeds. Seeds o£ umbelliferous weeds are also found in badly cleaned samples of cocksfoot. Dogstail (CynosuTus cristaius, L.). — Crested dogstail grass, though of sparse habit, aids in the production of a good ' sole ' in the turf ^of pastures. It is essentially a pastoral plant, and is nqt of great value in the hay- field. In association with the narrow-leaved fescues it is an irnportant constituent of many of the best sheep pastures, while its withered culms may be seen in quantity at the fall of the year in old deer - parks, unless the turf has been closely grazed in spring and early summer. The appearance of the panicle is so charac- teristic (fig. 125) that it is not likely to be confounded with any other native species; its peculiarity is the presence of a pec- tinate (or comb-like) bract at the outer base of each spikelet. The leaves are rather narrow and taper upwards, and the sheaths near the ground have a yellowish white colour. Dogstail is widely distributed in the pastures of the British Isles, but it never occupies a leading place in the bulk of herbage produced. The plant seems to be most at home on compact, dry soils, and thrives above a chalk subsoil. The roots are hardy' and penetrate deeply, hence dogstail is little susceptible to drought. ' FiQ. 125.— Dogstail, Oynosurus eristatus, L. With enlarged spikelet and, on left, two of the pectinate bracts. 232 CULTIVATED PLANTS The seed of dogstail (figs. 126-7) is easily identified by its elegant attenuated form, and its bright yellow colouring. The usual impurities are seeds of Yorkshire fog (the small shining grey-shelled ' seeds ' that have fallen from the dried spikelet), sheep's fescue, and blue moor-grass (fig; 130). ? /] S^ W W^ Fig. 126. Pio. 127. Fio. 128. Fig. 129. Fig. 130. ' Seeds " (much enlarged) of (figs. 126, 127) dogatail ; (figs. 128, 129) cocksfoot; and (fig. 130) purple Molinia~ (blue moor-gpass). The Fescues (Fesiuca) comprise an important group of grasses, several of which are of recognized agricul- tural value. They may be conveniently divided into the broad-leaved fescues and the narrow-leaved fescues. The broad-leaved forms include Meadow Fescue (Festuca pratensis, Huds.), Tall Fescue (F. elatior, L.), and Spiked Fescue (F. loliacea, Huds.). These are all, however, modifications of one type, and that type' is best represented by meadow fescue (fig. 131), FESCUES 233 which is a grass of moderate size, with flat rich green leaves, and a liodding panicle turned tp one side. Tall fescue is larger and more robust, often attaining a height of six feet, and found naturally on the borders of water courses. Spiked fescue (fig. 132) is a more slender plant than meadow fescue, and in its panicle the spikelets are either without stalks, or have only short ones, thus conferring upon the ear some external resem- blance to the ear of perennial rye grass (Lo/mm pere/nne, Fig. 131. — Meadow Fescue, Festuca pratensis, Huds. With a single spikelet on the right. Fig. 132. — Spiked Fescue, Festuca loliacea, Hnds. With a single spikelet on the left. fig. 148), whence the specific name of 'loliacea.' The seeds of meadow fescue and rye grass are much alike in appearance. On comparing the two (figs. 133-4), it is seen, however, that in meadow fescue the fragment of stalk at the base is usually longer, slightly separated lengthwise from the pale, circular in transverse section, somewhat attenuated in the middle and thickened at the free end. In rye grass, on the other hand, the 234 CULTIVATED PLANTS // VM corresponding structure is usually shorter, closely applied to the pale, elliptical in transverse section, and not narrow in the middle. Meadow fescue, is a valuable constituent both of meadows and of pastures, though it is much rarer in old pastures than was at one time supposed. It is rather a deep rooting plant, and thrives best on damp clayey or marshy soils. It is an admirable grass for irri- gated meadows, and, on the other hand, has not much capacity for withstanding drought. Its habit of growth is in compact tufts, from which, in favourable situations, the stems rise to a height of from two to three feet, and are fur- nished with long broad leaves. Sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina, L.) may be taken as the type of the narrow-leaved fescues. It fornis a thick tufted herbage (fig. 135) of very fine leaves — so fine that they are often described as setaceous (Lat. seta, a bristle), and in the United States this grass is known as Pine Bunch Grass. It is a common grass on light limestone pastures, and on chalk downs grazed by sheep, and in such situations it helps to form a close carpet of turf. I I) Fio. 133.—' Seed OF Rye Grass. Fig. 134.—' Seed ' OF Meadow Fescue. (Both ten times the natural size.) FESCUES 236 The panicle is not unlike that of some of the meadow grassefs (Poa, figs. 141-3), from which it may be distin- guished by its short awns, the meadow grasses being free from awns. Festuca ovina is susceptible of consider- able variations, determined by circumstances of soil, situation, and climate. The commonest modifications are : — Festuca duriusoula . Festuca rubra . Festuca heterophylla Festuca tenuifolia . Hard fescue. Bed fescue. Varioua-leaved fescue. Fine-leaved fescue. Hard fescue (Festuca duriuscvia, L.) is bo named in allusion to the fact that the spikelets become hard as Fig. 135.— Sheep's Fescue, Festuca ovina, L. With enlarged spikelet on the right. Fig. 136.— Hard Fescue, • Festuca duriuscula, L. With enlarged spikelet on the left. they ripen. The grass (fig. 136) is a valuable constituent of sheep pastures, where it helps to form a close bottom to the' turf. Its habit, however, is not tufted, and its 236 CULTIVATED PLAJSITS herbage is tender, juicy, and relished by stock. The leaves are of a deep bluish-green colour, stiff, and rolled up almost into a cylinder. Hard fescue seed may be usefully included in mixtures for permanent pastures upon all soils that are not very wet. Being the com- monest of the narrow-leaved fescues its seed is the cheapest. Red fescue {Festuca rubra, L.) derives its name from the colour of the sheaths of the lower leaves, which, when the plant is spread open for the purpose, are seen to be of a dull red. A more robust plant than hard fescue, it has at the same time a creeping habit, which helps it to withstand drought, and suits it to poor soils. Like most of the narrow-leaved fescues, this variety does not make sufficient bulk to be of much use in the hayfield, but it is unquestionably serviceable as- a con- stituent of the bottom herbage in pastures, where it is readily grazed by stock. Its seeds are larger than those of hard fescues. Various-leaved fescue {Festuca heterophylla) has, as its name implies, leaves which are not uniform in size and shape. Its foliage varies somewhat between the narrow- leaved and broad-leaved types of fescue. The upper leaves are broad, but the root-leaves are harsh and slender, and are enveloped in loose brown sheaths, whilst the general habit of the plant is tufted. It comes into profit fairly early in the season, and thrives best upon calcareous soils, even when they are moist or shady. Fine-leaved lescue, or slender-leaved sheep's fescue (Festuca tenuifoUa), is a typical constituent of sheep pastures. Its folded, thread-like leaves are so attenuated* that the entire plant presents a wiry appearance. Never- theless, it is juicy and palatable, and there is no grass more relished by sheep. It is deep-rooted, and is naturally suited to poor, dry uplands. It is useless to sow it on rich soils, as it gradually disappears. Florin (Agrostis alba, L., var. stolonifera), -or creeping bent grass, is a stout broad-leaved grass, sending out prostrate stems or stolons (p. 150), which creep amongst the other herbage, and develop rootlets wherever an BENT GRASSES 237 opportunity offers. Hence, under favourable circum- Btances, the plant increases with considerable rapidity. Its interrupted panicle (fig. 137) of innumerable small spikelets is characterized by the well-defined intervals between the points from which the clusters of branches arise. Fiorin thrives in moist poor soils, both sandy and peaty. It can hardly be described as a favourite food for cattle, but it is useful in that it affords a green bite far into the autumn. It cannot be recommended as Fig. 137.— Fioein, Agrostis alba, L., var. stolonifera. With enlarged spikelet on the left. Pig. 138. — Common Bent, Agrostis vulgaris, L. With enlarged spikelet-os the left. a hayfield grass. The seed of fiorin is very liable to contain the seeds of other species of Agrostis, which are practically indistinguishable from it, and it is often ergoted (p. 3&3). r The Common Bent, or the fine bent grass (Agrostis vulgaris, L., fig. 138); and- the Marsh Bent (Agrostis alba, . L.) are two weed grasses, often included in the common term, twitch, or sqflitch. They occur abundantly in poor meadows, and as weeds in some descriptions of arable 238 CULTIVATED PLANTS land. When a wheat crop is cut, the land is often found to be covered with bent grasses. Meadow Foxtail (Alopecums pratensis, L., fig. 139) is one of the early grasses, and may often be found in ear by the middle of April. The ear has much the appearance of a round tail ending in a point, and if drawn from base to tip, between finger and thumb, it feels soft and silky. By doubling the ear upon itself, at about the middle of it» length, it will be seen that each spikelet has a very short stalk, and that the spikelets are thickly crowded along the axis. The silvery grey colour of the ear is largely due to the silky hair or bristle (the awn), which springs from the flowering glume of the solitary flower within each spikelet. The leaves are soft, green, succulent, and very numerous ; they are long, broad, and strongly veined. Fox- tail throws up much herbage in the early spring, and thus affords valuable grazing at a period before many of the other grasses are ready. Though a tall fine grass, it is less robust than cocksfoot; at the same time it is less unsightly. A perennial grass, of early growth, and affording abundance of excellent forage, this is a most useful species for permanent pasture. Scarcely any grass resists better the cold of winter, and even late frosts affect it but slightly. It appears to thrive equally well Fig. 139. — Meadow Foxtail, Alopecurus pratensis, L. With enlarged spikelet on the left. MEADOW FOXTAIL 239 in sunny and in shady situations, and therefore grows luxuriantly in orchards, where indeed its precocKhis growth may become well advanced before leaves appear upon the fruit-trees to intercept the sun's rays. On thin, light soils it gradually disappears, whilst it flourishes best on deep heavy lands. On damp soils and on irrigated meadows it does equally well, but stagnant water is inimical to it. Meadow foxtail spreads itself by means of short prostrate stolons, given off in all directions from the base of its stem. These stolons develop rootlets at intervals, and consequently this grass is quite free from that tufted habit which prevents such" grasses as cocks- foot from 'forming an even sward. Meadow fpxtail shares with sweet vernal the distinction of being the earliest-flowering of all the useful grasses. On a good soil it is quite capable of yielding three cuts in the year. In the year of sowing, however, the yield is only moderate ; it is better in the second year, and acquires its greatest development in the third year. As a forage crop, therefore, foxtail is never grown by itself. Asso- ciated, however, with meadow fescue, cocksfoot, rye grass, and alsike clover, it is well adapted for several years' ley, and for permanent pasture. The ' seed ' of meadow foxtail, as it occurs in com- merce, consists of the spikelet (see fig. 139) with its con- tained structures. It is frequently gathered unripe, and this accounts for the low germinating percentage which samples often give. Common impurities of foxtail seeds are the ' seeds ' of Yorkshire fog (Eolcus lanatus, fig. 161), and creeping soft grass (Eolcus mollis). Though possessing a close apparent resemblance to the seed of foxtail, they may yet be easily distinguished from it, both by the character and distribution of the fine hairs, or cilia, upon the glumes which enclose the grain, and by the nature of the awn. Sometimes it happens-that meadow-foxtail seed is adulterated with the seed of its near ally (Alopecurus agrestis, L., fig. 140), variously termed slender foxtail, black bent, or hunger-weed. The ' seed ' of this latter, how- . ever, is less ciliated along the keels of the outer 240 CULTIVATED PLANTS glumes, and is usually darker in appearance than the seed of meadow foxtail. One other adulterant, only found, however, in foreign foxtail seed, is the seed of the exotic ciliated melic grass, Melica ciliata, L., but this is at once recognized by the extraordinary extent to which its glumes are fringed with delicate white hairs (cilia). Floating foxtail (Alopecurus geniculatus, L.) is an elegant little grass found in water meadows, shallow ponds, and other damp situations. Its stem is too Xveak to grow upright, and it therefore rests upon the ground or upon the adjacent herb- age, being recogniz- able by the sharp joints, or 'knees,' which give to it a zigzag appearance. When in full flower, the pollen covers its neat and shapely little ear with an orange-brown dust. Floating foxtail is never very abun- dant ; and though not an objectionable grass in the moist localities which it frequents, it cannot be said to possess any special agricultural value, nor is its seed to be obtained upon the market. Slender foxtail (Alopecurus agrestis, L., fig. 140) is one of the worst pests of the farm. It is a troublesome weed of arable land, especially in cornfields, but rarely invades the meadow or pasture. It possesses the general habit 6f the valuable meadow foxtail, but is less robust, and its ear, besides being more slender, is blotched with Fio. 140. — Slbndbe Foxtail, Alopecurus agrestis, L. With enlarged spikelet on the right. MEADOW GRASSES 241 black — hence th^ name of black bent commonly applied to it. Another fa/miliar name, and one indicative of its bad character, is that of hunger-weed. It may be found in ear in May and June, and, if not removed before it sheds its seed, further trouble may be looked for in the follow- ing sea^n. Cases are recorded in which fields of wheat have been quite diestroyed by this pest. A caution has already been given as to the occurrence of its seed in samples of meadow-foxtail seed. Meadow glasses (Pod) are characterized by the graceful tree-like branching of the panicle. In general appearance they are somewhat suggestive of the fescues (figs. 135-6), but they never bear awns, as many of the fescues do. The most widely dis- tributed member of the group, the an- nual meadow grass (Poa annua, L., fig. 141), is a weed spring- ing up wherever op- portunity may offer. It invades bare spots in pastures, occurs in gateways and on gravel walks, gi:ows in the crevices be- tween paving stones, and flourishes on walls and roofs. An examination of a specimen of annual meadow grass will bring into view the leading characters of the genus Poa. Near the ground the stems are flat- tened", the leaves are short jyith^blunt ends, whilst the ligule is long, pointed, whitisli, and clasps the stem. The whole plant is limp and pale-coloured, and the leaves are often waved. Its small size, and the brief duration Fig. 141. — Annual Meadow Gkass, Poa annua, L. With enlarged spikelet on the left. 242 CULTIVATED PJLAJ^TS of its life, serve to render Poa annua practically valueless to the farmer. The species of Poa of agricultural interest are the smooth-stalked meadow grass, the rough-stalked meadow grass, and the wood meadow grass. -Notwithstanding their general similarity, it is not difficult to distinguish between these three species. For example, the ligule (see p. 223) is long and pointed in Poa trivialis, obtuse but prominent in Poa pratensis, and prac- tically absent in Poa nemoralis. The leaves of Poa pratensis are broader and blunter than those of Poa trivialis. If the plant is drawn through the hand, Poa pratensis is found to be smooth, whilst Poa trivialis is rough. Smooth - stalked meadow grass (Poa pratensis, L., fig. 142) thrives naturally upon dry soils of good quality. It is rather a surface- rooted than a deep- rooted plant, is of creeping habit, and withstands drought. Being a grass of early growth, it is, on that account, a valuable constituent of dry pastures. When raised from seed its produce during the first year is but small. This is the Kentucky Blue Grass of the United States, p. 223) is long and pointed in Poa trivialis, obtuse but 143), formerly called Orcheston Grass, prefers strong moist soils, and is a conspicuous ingredient of the herbage of deep rich pastures. It is, perhaps, less hardy than Poa pratensis, and it is particularly addicted to Fio 142.— Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass, Poa pratensis, L. With enlarged spikelet on the left. OAT GRASSES 243 shady situations, so that, in pastures and meadows where it occiirs, it may generally be found in abundance beneath trees. Fine robust specimens occasionally spring up in the rich soil of kitchen gardens, especially amongst bush fruit. Wood meadow grass, or evergreen meadow grass (Poo nemoralis, L.), is less common than the two preceding species, whilst the costliness of pure samples of the seed operates against its extensive use for agricultural pur- poses. There is consider- able similarity^ amongst the seeds of these three Poas; They are all 'webbed' at the base — those of Poa pratensis most, and those of Poa ne- moralis least — though in some samples the web has been re- moved by the web- bing machine. In the case of Poa praiensis, indeed, the woolly ' webs ' cause the seeds to adhere together in fluffy masses. Amongst the impurities or adulterants in samples of Poa seeds are the seeds of annual meadow grass, of tufted hair grass (Aira ecespitosa, L.), and of blue moor grass (Molinia carulea, Moench, fig. 130). What the buyer has chiefly -to guai-d against, however, is the risk of accepting the seed of one species of Poa for that of another and more expensive kind. Oat grasses belong to the same genus {Avena) as the cereal oats, which some of the native species closely resemble in habit, though they are usually inferior in FlO. 143.— ROUQH-STALKBD MbADOW Grass, Poa trivicUis, L. With enlarged spikelet on the light. 244 CULTIVATED PLAMTS size. The most important species are yellow oat grass and tall oat grass, both of which are of agricultural value ; and downy oat grass, narrow-leaved oat grass, and wild oat grass, which are weeds. Yellow oat grass, or golden oat grass {Avena flavescens, L.), is one of the most gleeful of the British grasses (fig. 144). Its leaves are slender, flat, pale green, and covered with short hairs, which can easily be seen by holding a specimen up to the light. The stem is clothed with delicate hairs pointing d o w n- wards, which help in distinguishing the grass before it protrudes its ear. The panicle is of a shining yellow colour, and glitters in the sun. Up to the time of flower- ing the ear is very compact, and is beautifully shaded with green and gold, whilst the delicate silky awns look like streaks of silver. As the flowers develop, the entire panicle spreads out into a tree-like form, it is at this stage that Avena ftavescens forms one of the most elegant midsummer objects in meadows. When the blooming time is over, and the seeds begin to ripen, the panicle closes up again, its lovely colours disappear, and it becomes brown and withered. If panicles in the three stages— before flower- ing, in bloom, and after flowering — are placed side by side, it is at first difficult to believe that they belong to the same species. Avena flavescens is a valuable grass, Fig. 144.— Yellow Oat Grass, Avena flavescens, L. With enlarged spikelet on the left. and- OAT GRASSES 245 both for forage and for hay. It occurs naturally in pas- tures, hayfields, and water-meadows, in all of which it is a desirable constituent. Its seed (fig. 145) is costly, and that of the wavy hair grass (Aira fiexuosa, L., fig. 146), which somewhat Pio. 145. — ' Seed ' op Yellow Oat Grass (enlarged). A, inner face, showing pedicel or stalk of next ' seed,' with a row of hairs on each side. B, side view, showing on the right the flowering glume, with its twisted awn arising Irom^above the middle of the baclf, and its oleft tip; and, on tlie left, the pale with its free end cleft. ' 0, back view. In A the pale faces the obser- ver, and in c the .flowering glume. Fia. 146. — ' Seed ' of Wavy Haie Grass (enlarged). A, inner face, showing pedicel or stalk of next ' seed,' with a tuft of hairs on each side. B, side view, showing on the right the flowering glume, with its twisted awn arising from near the base of the back ; the pale is hidden by the flowering glume. 0, back view. In A the pale faces the obser- ver, and in c the flowering glume. 246 CULTIVATED PLANTS resembles it, has been known to be fraudulently substi- tuted for it. The wavy hair grass is a product of poor heaths and sands, and is incapable of establishing itself in good meadows or pastures. Tall oat grass, or false oat grass (Avena elatior, L., or Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv., fig. 147), may frequently be found in or near the hedgerows bordering grass- lands. Though often regarded as a weed, yet, in its proper place, and in association \yith other grasses, there is little doubt it possesses agricul- tural value. Foreign agricul- turists appreciate it more than do British farmers. It thrives best on medium soils and clay loams, where, being a robust plant, it attains a height of 3 to 4 feet. It can be found in ear from early summer to late autumn, i|s spreading panicle* being made up of pale purplish spike- lets, always of a shining appear- ance. The bitter flavour of the plant is hardly noticeable when it is con- sumed in conjunction with other grasses. It is specially liable to attacks of smut,(p. 390). A variety of tall oat grass, called ' onion couch,' forms from two to five bulb-like swellings, which are modifications of the short intemodes, at the base of each culm. It is sometimes a troublesome weed on arable land. Of the weed oat grasses, the downy oat grass (Avena Fio. 147.— Tall Oat Grass, Avena elatiOr, L. With enlarged spikelet on the right. RYE GRASSES 247 puhescens) is characterized by the dense covering of close- set hairs, which impart to the plant a downy appear- ance. It may be found in dry pastures, especially in chalk districts. It is readily distinguished from the valuable yellow oat grass, thus : — Downy oat Spikelets Ligule. grass Avena pubescens, L. Few, large. . Long, pointed. Yellow oat i grass Avena flave^cens, L. Many, small. Short, blunt. The narrow-leaved oat grass (Avena pratensis, L.) has still larger spikelets than Avena pubescens, but its lower leaves though harsh and rough, are not hairy. The wild oat grass, or havers (Avena fatua, L.), is a weed of corn- fields, and much resembles the cultivated oat. Its spike- lets are large, and the contained florets are furnished each with a long twisted awn, and with a number of reddish-brown hairs, pointing forward at the base. The stem is smooth, but hairy at the joints. This plant is an annual, growing from seed each year, and dying on the approach of winter. The Bye grasses (Lolium) are very extensively culti- vated. Perennial rye grass (Lolium perenne, L.) is an abundant species in rich old English pastures, and in laying land down to permanent grass it is nearly always included, the proportions varying according to circum-- stances. Italian rye grass (Lolium itaUcum, A. Br.) is not a grass of permanent pasture, but is profitably included in mixtures for one or two years' leys, and thrives remarkably well upon sewage-dressed lands. Perennial tye grass (Lolium perenne, L., fig. 148) can scarcely be mistaken for any other species. The flattened ear looks almost as if it had been passed< through a press. The^ spikelej;s, free from stalks, are given off alter- nately on either- side of the stem, to which they are attached edgewise. Each spikelet has only one outer glume, the place of the other being, in effect, occupied by the adjacent portion of the stem or axis. The glossy dark-green leaves of rye grass glisten conspicuously in the sunlight. A prominent midrib extends along the back of each leaf, and, as the leaf is traced downwards 248 CULTIVATED PLANTS to its sheath, it is found to be doubled on itself like_ the contiguous faces of a sheet of notepaper. Moreover, the leaf-sheaths are seen to be distinctly flattened or compressed, and frequently to possess a reddish or purplish tinge at the base. By the foregoing characters rye grass, before it is in ear, can be distinguished from meadow fescue grass, the leaf of which has no prominent midrib, and is not doubled upon itself, nor are its leaf; sheaths compressed, but round. The flattened leaf- sheaths of rye grass enable the plant to accommodate itself readily to the tread- ing of live stock, and to thrive under the hoofs of animals, arid this may be one reason for the abund- ance of perennial rye grass in well- grazed pastures. Rye grass is likely to be found wherever the soil is rich enough to grow it. Hence it commonly occurs amongst the herb- age of roadsides, where the soil is enriched with the washings and^ the scrapings from the surface of the road. Rye grass is one of the most valuable plants of our grass lands, and in- clay-land pastures it is invaluable. It tillers, or stools out, very freely, by which is meant that numerous leaf-buds arise above the crown of the root, and develop vigorous leafy .shoots, so that the plant forms a thick close sward. It easily supports frequent grazing, or pulling by hand. Trampling or treading does it no harm, but rather enhances its useful propensity to Fio. 148.— Perennial Rye Gbasb, Lolium perenne, L. With a single spikelet on the left. RYE GRASSES 249 tiller j this is the reason it gives better results as a pasture plant than as a hayfield plant. The yield varies considerably with season and soil, and according to the manuring and preparation of the land. Many varieties of rye grass have been named^auch as Pacey's perennial, Devon eaver, etc. — but they present no well-marked or permanent differences. Though pre-eminently a grass of permanent pasture, rye grass is ?ilso largely employed in mixtures of '.seeds ' for one or two years' ley, intended to af- ford a "hay crop, and also to provide tem- porary pastures. If only on account of its prompt and luxu- riant tillering, rye grass should usually be included in mix- tures of seeds in- tended for good soils. The seed of com- merce (fig. 133) comes chiefly from Scot- land and the North of Ireland, where rye grass is cultivated upon a large scale. . It is collected by the pio. 149.— Italian Rye Grass, seed merchants, and cleaned a second time, special care being taken to remove seeds of Yorkshire fog (Eolcus lanatus, fig. 161), soft brome (Bromus mollis, fig. 156), and rat's- t-ail' fescue (Festuca sdivroides). Rye-grass seed is also liable to contain seeds of plantain (figs. 171-2), buttercup, and sorrel (figs. 112-13). On account of its low price, it runs but little risk of' adulteration. Nevertheless the seed of soft brome is sometimes sold in bulk as that of rye grass, but the fraud is one which is easy to disoover. It use more often to happen that rye-grass seed was 149. — Italian Rye LoKum iialicum. With a single spikelet on the right. 250 CULTIVATED PLANTS itself substituted for an apparently similar but more expensive seed, that of meadow fescue, for the sake of the extra profit. (iS'ee figs. 133-4.) The rye-grass seed itself is classified into several commercial sorts, accord- ing to weight, purity, and germinating capacity. As the better qualities possess, in general, a greater weight, it is the weight which serves in England as a guide to the value of the seed. Italian rye grass (Lolium itaUcum) is a larger and more robust plant than perennial rye grass, and it affords an earlier cutting, or bite, in the spring. Its florets (fig. 149) are invariably awned, as may be seen in the ' seed,' whilst those of perennial rye grass (fig. 148) very rarely carry awns. It is exclusively used for alternate hus- bandry, for which purpose it scarcely has an equal. On rich d,amp soils, that can be irrigated with liquid manure, Italian rye grass yields enormous crops, equally valuable both for soiling purposes (see p. 263) and for hay. It may be grown alone, or in association with cocksfoot, timothy, or broad clover. Dairy cows, grazed upon a temporary ley of Italian rye grass, give a great yield of milk, the flavour of the butter or cheese from which is excellent. This species is never found in old pastures. Darnel (Lolium temulentum, L.) is an occasional weed of cornfields. It is distinguished from the other rye grasses by the circumstance that the solitary outer glume is longer (fig. 150) than the spikelet to which it belongs. Poisonous or intoxicating properties have been attri- buted to it. Sweet grasses {Glyceria) occur naturally in water meadows, and in the Fen districts, and are seldom raised from seed. In the grass lands which they frequent, they constitute acceptable and palatable additions to the herbage, and are, as their name implies, distinctly sweet. The floating sweet grass, or floating manna grass ^Gly- ceria fluUans, Br.), is a slender and graceful grass (fig. 151), liable in certain stages of growth to be mistaken for the spiked fescue {Festuca loliacea, fig. 132), which grows in association with it. The spdkelets of the sweet grass are, however, longer, and contain a larger number of florets than is the case in spiked fescue. The reed SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL GRASS , 251 sweet grass (Glyceria aquatica, Sm.) is a far stouter plant (fig. 152), and shows a disposition to grow in the water- courses, and along their borders, rather than to spread itself over the meadow. Sweet-scented vernal gras^ (Anthoxanthwm odoratum, L.) is one of the earliest grasses to come into flower, and it may often be gathered in ear at the beginning of Fig. 150. — Darnel, Lolium Wia. 151. — Floating Sweet temuhntum, L. GtBass, Glyceria fluitans, Br. With a single spikelet on the With a single spikelet on the right, and enlarged floret on right, and enlarged floret on the left. the left. April. It is a plant (fig. 153) of sparse habit, and, though it may be found in water-meadows, h'ayfields, pastures, copses, and hedgerows, it never constitutes more than an insignificant proportion of the total herbage. If the stalk of this grass is chewed, a sweet lavender-like odour, similar to that of new-mown hay, is perceived. This odour is given Out in the process of drying, and to 252 CULTIVATED PLANTS it the agreeable scent of a freshly-mown hayfield is attri- buted. On the sheep-grazed Downs of the South of England, sweet vernal grows in association with sheep's fescue. The leaves of sweet vernal are flat, broad, and somewhat hairy, but the grass is not of coarse growth. Examine some of the florets and notice that they have only two stamens each, instead of three, as is the case with Fig. 152. — Beed Sweet Fig. 153. — Sweet Vbbnal Grass, Grass, Glyceria aguatica, ■' Anthoxanthum odoratum, Tj. Sm. With enlarged spikelet With enlarged cluster of three on the left, and enlarged spikelets on the left, floret on the right. the florets of most species of grasses. The function of sweet vernal, both in pastures and in hay, is probably that pf a condiment, as it is capable of imparting a flavour to the associated herbage. It grows in compact tufts, tillers freely, and continues to throw up its leaves until late in the autumn. The awns are hygroscopic, so that if some of the ' seeds ' are placed upon the warm FUEL'S VERNAL GRASS '253 moist palm of the hand, they will commence to writhe and wriggle about in a curious fashion. Some of the seed of commerce comes from Central Germany, these being derived not from plants specially cultivated for the purpose, but gathered in glades and copses. It is therefore obtained only by, long and fatiguing labour, and genuine samples are necessarily of high price. Derived from such sources, however, the seed is seldom pure, being usually mixed with seeds of other plants growing in the same localities, notably the seeds of woodrush (fig. 122), sheep's sorrel (fig. 113), and sheep's fescue-(fig. 135). In the district of North Luneberg, Prussia, there is frequently found growing in rye crops a bad annual weed, allied to sweet vernal, and known as Fuel's vernal grass (Antlwxanthum Piidii). This forms such dense tufts that the scythe can scarcely cut them, and hence the mowing of the rye is rendered difficult. /Large quan- tities of the seed of Fuel's vernal grass are exported from Hamburg, and this worthless mate- rial finds its way into commerce as the |jM seed of the true sweet vernal. On account .Y| of this origin, the seed of Puel's grass * often contains the long-pointed grains of rye, as well as the long-awned seeds of the wind grass (Apera Spica-venti, L.), the ^^®| 1^.— Seed seeds of cornflower, and of the annual Scleranthus ' knawel (fig. 154). It is not altogether easy annims, L. to determine whether a solitary ' seed ' is that of Anihoxanthum odoratum or of A. Puelii, but viewed in the bulk the latter is of a distinctly lighter brown colour than the former. Fuel's grass is of little value. During its first year it permits scarcely any of the grasses near it to develop, whilst its dense tufts help to smother them. If, hpwever, it is not allowed to shed its_seed, it usually disappears in the second year. The seed of sweet vernal is sometimes adulterated with that (fig. 146) of the wavy hair grass (Aira flexuosa), but the latter is readily recognized by the lower half of its prominent basal awn being twisted. 254 CULTIVATED PLANTS Timothy grass, or meadow catstail (Phleum pratense, L., fig. 155), derives its more familiar name from Timothy Hanson, by whom the cultivation of this grass was introduced from the United States of America about the middle of the eighteenth century. It is a native British species, and is relished by all classep of farm stock. The only grass that timothy might be mistaken for is meadow foxtail, there being a general resemblance between the ears of these two species. A brief examination will serve to show, however, that they are really very dif- ferent. The ear of timothy is green and rough, whereas that of foxtail is. silvery grey and smooth ; the florets of fox- tail carry silky awns, those of timothy are awnless. Foxtail is an early grass, timothy a late one ; the former will have gone to seed almost before the latter ap- pears in ear, as timothy does not usually flower till July. The leaves have a greyish-green colour, and they are broader, and — especially when dried — gtiffer, or more rigid, than those of foxtail ; hence there is no difficulty in picking out the leaves of timothy from a sample of hay. Timothy is a perennial grass, with well-developed fibrous roots. Sometimes the base of the stem immediately above the root-fibres becomes bulbous, especially on poor land. Although timothy prefers a cool and even damp soil. Fig. 155.— Timothy Grass, Phleum pratense, L. With enlarged spikelet and, on its left, the contained floret. TIMQTHY GRASS 256 it yet resists drought very well, but yields in this case smaller produce. . At the same time, it suffers less from the cold of winter than do several other cultivated grasses, and hence it is useful upon soils where other forage plants are liable to be killed by the winter's frosts. It succeeds best upon cold clays, and is specially valu- able for reclaimed peaty soils. On dry soils, and upon shallow calcareous lands, it yields a very uncertain pro- duce. Experiments prove that timothy responds freely to liberal manuring, and even a poor, light, sandy soil, when dressed with sulphate of potash, was found to give a much increased yield of this species. Grown by itself, timothy produces a somewhat irregular sward of moderately close tufts. Associated with other grasses, or with clovers, it gives an abundant produce, for its hay is heavier than that of any other cultivated grass. It should be mown before flowering, otherwise its fibres become woody, and its hay is heavier and harder. The first cut is usually more productive than the second. Whether grown alone or mixed with clover, timothy is more useful as green forage than as hay, because, even if the crop has been cut at the most desirable time, this species always hardens in drying. The chief supplies of timothy seed are derived from North America, and, in part, from Eastern Germany and Austria. The American seed is usually much purer than the European, a circumstance no doubt due to the extensive cultivation of timothy as a crop by itself in North America. The raw European seed commonly con- tains fronf 10 to 20 per cent, of impurities, consisting of harmless particles of soil and vegetable fragments, and of the seeds of bad weeds. The ' seed ' of timothy consists of the grain, closely invested by the light" drab-coloured flowering glume and pale. It is small, neat, and compact, and as there is no other seed which at all closely resembles it, adul- terations or impurities in samples are easily detected. Timothy seed is used in making ' artificial ' jams, to which it imparts the appearance of genuine strawberry ' seeds ' (p. 177). 256 CULTIVATED PLANTS Various weed grasses have already been referred to, but it is necessary to notice certain others, such as the Brome Grasses, Couch Grass, Hair Grasses, Meadow Barley Grass, Quaking Grass, and Yorkshire Fog. They cannot be said to be wittingly cultivated by the farmer, but they frequently intrude, as uninvited guests, upon his domain. The Brome grasses, native species of Bromus, are all weeds. They are handsome grasses, with elegant lance- shaped spikelets, each containing four or more awned florets. By far the most com- mon is (fig. 156) the soft brome grass (Bro- mus moUis, L.), a too abundant constituent of the herbage of water meadows, hay- fields, and temporary leys, though but rarely found in old past^ires. It sheds its seed in June, and is thereby enabled to m.aintain its position in the hay- field. Its spikelets are covered with short hair, which serves to distinguish it from the smooth brome grass (B. racemosus, L.) that frequently grows beside it. The rye brome grass (B. seca- linus, L.) is a tall weed of cornfields, with a loose, somewhat drooping panicle. Barren brome' grass (B. sterilis, L., fig. 157) is chiefly a roadside grass, and lurks beneath fences and hedgerows ; its spikelets are darkish, flattened, and long-awned. Hairy brome grass (B. asper, Murr.), another denizen of the hedgerows, is the tallest of the bromes, often towering above the tops of the hedges. It has a large drooping panicle, with nodding spikelets, and the' Fig. 156.— Soft Buome, Bromus mollis, L. With a single spikelet on the right. COUCH GRASfi 257 stem is densely clothed with coarse hairs pointing down wards. Upright brome grass {B. erectus, Huds.) is a short-awned grass found in fields, but chiefly in waste places, upon chalky soils. Couch grass (Triticum repens, L., fig. 158) is exclusively a weed of arable land, and its presence in permanent grass lands need only be looked for during the first year or two of their existence. Its vigorous underground stem (p; 152) grows with great rapidity, and sends forth roots and shoots at such frequent intervals that one plant is capable of speedily infesting a large area. ' The name ' couch ' probably means 'quick' (i.e., living), in refer- ence to the vitality, and great difficulty of eradication, of this particularly noxious kind of grass. The labour of cleaning land from couch is chiefly directed to removing these trou-- blesome underground stems — if they -are merely cut up and left in the ground, each fragment will commence to grow as an independent plant. In Italy these stems, which are juicy, sweet, and nourishing, are collected, washed, and sold as food for horses. Couch grass in ear may often be found in the hedgerows of arable fields, where it serves as a great propagator of rust (pr 386). The spikelets have no stalks ; thay are, (like those of wheat) set broadside on the stem, and each is furnished with two outer empty glumes. By the two last-named characters, an ear of couch grass is readily Fig. 157. — Barren Bromb, Bromus iterilis, L, With a single spikelet on the right. 268 CULTIVATED PLANTS distinguished from an ear of rye grass (compare figs. 148 and 158). Bearded wheat grass {T. caiiinum, Huds.) is a long-awned ally of couch grass, from which it differs ' in not having a creeping underground stem. It occa- sionally appears in old pastures, but is not a cultivated grass. The Hair grasses (Aira) make up a pretty group of plants, but they are all weeds. There are half-a-dozen native species, though, as a rule, only one is met with upon the farm — the tufted hair grass, or tussock grass (Aira coespitosa, L., fig. 159). It grows chiefly in wet meadows and pastures, forming dark unsightly tufts or tussocks, termed in some districts ' bull faces ' or ' bull pates.' Cattle seldom touch the hard, rough, flat leaves. Up to the time of flowering the panicle is exceedingly beau- tiful, owing to the brilliant silvery lustre of the purplish spike- lets. At the time of flowering the panicle spreads wide open, and does not close again, the effective result of its compact appearance when young being thereby lost. Draining and manuring operate against Aira ccespitosa, and hand pulling, or chopping with an adze, is some- times resorted to, the root being left to wither on the ground, or thrown upon the compost heap. The wavy hair grass (A. flexuosa, L.) is nanled in allusion to the wavy branches of its panicle. Its shining purplish or brownish spikelets may be seen in dry Fio. 158.— Couch Grass, Tritipum repens, L. With a single spikelet on the right. QUAKING GRASS AND YORKSHIRE FOG 259 woods and on sandy heaths, but seldom elsewhere. Its ' seed ' is shown in fig. 146. Meadow barley grass (Hordeum pratense, Huds.) has the appearance (fig. 160) of a dimiilutive plant of the cereal barley. It is not cultivated, as the long rough awns are unpleasant, and may prove injurious, to grazing animals. It occasionally occurs in hayfields and pastures, but is seldom abundant. The allied wall barley, or way bent (B. murinum, L.) is a weed of gravelly roadsides. Quaking grass (Briza media, L.) is too well-known to need description. It grows usually on poor meadows and heaths, and throws up but little, herb- age. It seldom oc- curs in rich old pastures and gene- rally disappears as a result of draining and liberal manur- ing. Its , panicle, with the beautiful, purplish, nodding, boat-shaped spike- lets on their slender stalks, is an exceed- ingly elegant object — it is easy to see in quaking grass what is meant by a ' spikelet.' Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus, L., fig. 161) is a widely distributed weed grass. The whole plant has a delicate woolly covering, whence it is also known as meadow soft grass. This external coat, the flaccid character of the plant, and its bitter flavour combine to render it dis- tasteful to stock. Its panicle, which remains closed up to the time of flowering, is a pretty object, with its K 2 Fio. 159.— Totted Hair Grass. Aira coespitoaa, L. With enlarged spikelet on the right. 260 CULTIVATED PLANTS various shades of colour, ranging from greenish to pur- plish. The panicle spreads out at the period of flowering, and as the seeds ripen it assumes a brown and withered appearance. Yorkshire fog is very common in water meadows and in inferior' hayfields. It is less abundant in rich pastures, from which it is sometimes entirely absent. As it ripens its seeds early, hay containing much Yorkshire fog may be the means of disseminating this pest on arable sheep farms. The hay being fed in Fig. 160.— Meadow Barley Grass, Fig. 161. — Yorkshire Fog, Sordeum pratense, Huds. Holcus lanatus, L. With enlarged spikelet on the right. With enlarged spikelet on the right. troughs to the sheep, the seeds of the Yorkshire fog fall out upon the ground, with the result that rows of Holcus lanatus spring up in the places where the troughs have stood. Yorkshire fog should be discouraged in favour of better grasses, and care should be exercised lest its ' seed ' be inadvertently introduced, either as an adul- terant, or as an impurity, in mixtures for sowing. The closely allied creeping soft grass (E. mollis, L.) is much less common. It frequents hedgerows, copses, THE CEREALS, 261 and waste places, seldom intruding upon either the meadow or the pasture. Whilst Holcus lanatus is equally woolly all over, S. mollis is more woolly at the joints than on any other portions of the plant; by this means, and also by the awns (p. 226), the. two species can be distinguished the one from the other. THE CEREALS Most of the forms of wheat in cultivation are varieties of Triticum sativum. The greater number of these are beardless, the remainder are bearded or awned. The soft beardless wheats are divisible into groups, accord- ing as the ears are white, reddish, or red ; and the white and red varieties are again classed in accordance with either the smooth or downy character of the chaff. Of the smooth-eared wheats, whether white or red, the final division is determined by the colour of the grain — white on the one hand, red or yellow on the other. White wheats, as a rule, require a better soil and climate, and are less robust than the red varieties. The quality of the grain is better, and they produce the best flour. Ked wheats, on the other hand, are more vigorous and generally yield better. They can generally be grown uifder less favourable circumstances as regards soil and climate. Wheats of the better class, as regards both quantity and quality, are the produce of alluvial plains and fertile valleys. The wheat grain is the true fruit (p. 175) of the plant, and the flowering glume and pale do not harden on to it. The term 'chested,' a.s applied to wheat, denotes the numj)'er of mature grains which are formed in each spikelet (p. 225). In three-chested wheat, for example, three florets in each spikelet produce ripe fruits ; in four- chested wheat, four florets, and so on. Barley (Hordeum vulgare) furnishes the varieties of two-rowed barley and six-rowed barley, the former dis- tinguished as S. distichum, the latter as S. hexastichum. 262 CULTIVATED PLANTS It is a bearded cereal, the awns being long and rough, and assuming a beautiful purplish tinge at their free ends. The grain, as harvested, comprises the true fruit, closely invested by the light yellow flowering glume and pale. Peel these off a grain of barley, and the structure which remains is the equivalent of the wheaf grain. When barley is subjected to a milling process whereby the outer fibrous coats of the grain are removed, the product is called pearl harley. Barley is specially note- worthy for the flaggy, or l^afy, nature of its straw. Bare is the name of a coarse, hardy, four-rowed barley grown in Ireland and the North of Scotland. Oats (Avena sativa), like barley, have the grain in- vested in the flowering glume and pal«, though they adhere less closely, and are therefore more easily removed. The varieties Commonly cultivated are : (1) the Common Oat, which has a spreading panicle, and (2) the Tartarian Oat, which is characterized by a one-sided panicle. By drying in a kiln or oven the separation of the coats of the grain is facilitated, and, after the husk has been removed in a mill, the groats or grits which remain are ground into oatmeal. The ' colour,' in the case of white and black oats respectively, is that of the dried flowering glume and pale. Rye (Secale cereale) produces a grain or fruit similar to that of wheat, though less shapely, and without so well-defined a groove. It remains loose inside the flower- ing glume and pale, which do not adhere to it. There are a number of winter and summer varieties of rye, the former, the more commonly used, are sown in the autumn ; the latter are sown in spring, and are quicker growing and less productive. Young rye, growing in the field, may be recognized by the purplish tinge of the stem, between the root and the first leaf. Of the four cereals that have been enumerated, wheat is exclusively grown, and barley and oats are commonly grown in this country for the sake of their grain. In many districts, however, each of the two latter is sown in autumn, for spring feeding as a green crop, and in such cases is usually associated with vetches, or some other leguminous crop. The ' winter barley ' thus culti- MAIZE AND CANARY GBASS 263 vated is the six-rowed variety. Green wheat, on the other hand, is but very rarely fed on the ground. It seldom happens, except in the case of ' proud ' wheat — that is, a crop which, owing to the effect of a mild open winter, has grown somewhat luxurieuntly and unevenly. Such a crop may be fed off by sheep in early spring, in order that it may start uniformly upon its course of summer growth. The free propensity to tiller, which is characteristic of the wheat plant, enables it to grow vigorpusly after being grazed. Rye is nearly always grown as a green crop for spring feed, either alone or in association, and is seldom left to ripen its grain in this , country. Maize, or Indian corn (Zea mays), and SOrghum (Sorghum saccharatum) are gramineous plants, which are cultivated as cereal crops in warm Coun- tries. They are of robust growth, with stout succulent stems and broad _ flaggy leaves, and attain a con- siderable hefght." In the warmer parts of Eiigland they have been cultivated to a ■ very limited extent in order to afford material for green soiling^^^ihaA is, for cut- ting and feeding in the green state to qattle and sheep. Canary seed is the product of canary grass (Phalaris canariensis, L., fig. 162), a native species which is very sparsely cultivated in a few districts in the south-east of England. It occupies the place of wheat in the rota- tion, but there is only an uncertain market for the ' seed,' which is used as food for cage birds. The plant is easily -raised by sowing a few grains of 'canary seed,' and is sometimes found growing on rubbish heaps where bird- cages are cleaned out. Fig. 162.— Canary Grass, Phalaris canariensis, L. With enlarged spikelet on the left, and enlarged floret on the right. 264 WEEDS CHAPTEK XIII. WEEDS A WEED has been defined as a plant growing in the wrong place, so that a potato-plant is a weed if growing in a cornfield, as is a wheat-plant in the kitchen garden. Weeds commonly usurp the place of the crop it is desired to grow, and cultivators have to devote much time and trouble to their suppression. As weeds are, in many cases, the natural produce of the soil on which the culti- vator wishes to grow some special plant which would not spontaneously appear there, this circumstance tells in their favour. A fertile farm kept free of weeds is said to be in a clean condition, and it requires the highest skill of the farmer to maintain such a condition. Much of the elaborate working which arable land undergoes is directed to the extirpation or suppression of weeds, whilst, in the case of permanent grass land, other means have to be adopted. Some of the commonest weeds have already been noticed in the preceding chapter, in connection wit6 the cultivated plants to which they are most nearly allied. There remain certain other weed-plants \>rhich it is con- venient here to specify in connection with the natural orders to which they belong. IlAinTNCTTLACE.a;.— An order distinguished by hav- ing in each whorl of the flower the individual parts all distinct from each other; the sepals are not joined together, nor are the petals (which are absent in some species), nor are the stamens, nor the carpels. To this order belong the buttercups (species of Banunculus), known also by such names as kingcup, crowfoot, spear- wort. Buttercups grow as a rule on good land, and are amongst the commonest weeds of pastures. The marsh marigold (Caltha pdlustris) of water meadows, the pheasant'S-eye {Adonis autumnalis) of cornfields, and the wood anemone, or windflower (Anemone nemorosa), are' also members of the order. Excepting pheasa,nt's-eye, which is an annual weed, the plants named are perennials. GERANIACE^ 265 PAPAVERACE^.— To this order belongs the poppy {Papaver Bhceas), one of • the very few scarlet flowers native to this country. It is an annual plant, the fruit of which — known as the poppy head — contains an enor- mous number of seeds (fig. 163). The poppy is a most persistent weed of corn- fields. Examine a specimen in bud and one in full flower, and notice that the calyx, consisting of two sepals, forms a „ ^^*'- ^5?"~ kind of cap, which fall's to the ground Papaver ' before the crumpled petals can expand. Bhceas, L. Observe the many-rayed sessile stigma resting upon the ovary; and cut across the ovary so as to bring into view the turned-in margins of the many carpellary leaves (see p. 176), which do not, however, meet at the centre. The opium poppy (P. somniferum) is allied ~ to the field poppy, and, in India, opium is obtained by collecting the juice which e'xudes from the walls of the unripe 'heads,' when these are gashed with a small knife. FTJMARIACE^.— A closely allied order to the pre- ceding, but this has only six stamens in the flower, whilst the tips of the petals adhere together. Several species of fumitory (Fumuria) are very common annual weeds of arable land. They have much divided pale green leaves, and pale red (or white) corollas becoming darker at the tips. GEBANIACE^.— There are about a dozen native geraniums, or cranesbills, the latter name referring to the extent to which the dry fruit l^gthens in tne course of ripening. One of the commonest weeds in gateways, and under walls and hedgerows, is the strong-smelling pink-stemmed Herb Robert (Gera- nium Bobertianum). Two or three ^^S' ^^^' — ' ^^^^ ' °^ ,, . 1 , ,„ ,, J ,_ Small-flowered other specieis, notably the dove's- Cranesbill foot cranesbill (G. nwlle) and th? Oeranium pusUlum, I., cut-leaved cranesbill ( To prepare th^ surface of the land for the seed, the land is generally rolled first. After sowing, the seeds should be covered by lightly ' brushing ' or harrowing, and then the ground should be firmly rolled down in two directions. Drilling/ grass seeds with the seed-drill is now some- times adopted, especially on light soils, and has certain 286 GRASS LAND AND ITS MANAGEMENT advantages in a dry season ; but it is important that the ground should be rolled down tightly afterwards. The skilful after management will determine to a large extent the success of a young pasture. The chief point during the first few years is to get the long-lived grasses predominating, and to encourage the develop- ment of an even sole or bottom to the pasture. This can be done to a certain extent by keeping down the top grasses and allowing nothing to run to seed so as to weaken the growing plants. As soon as the corn crop is off it is sometimes found that the young herbage is very forward, especially after a damp summer. It may, therefore, be necessary to top it with a mowing machine, or cattle may be turned on, but it is advisable to k«ep sheep off a young per- manent pasture for the first two seasons. It is a good plan to pve a newly laid-down turf a dress- ing of farmyard manure or compost during the winter after the com crop is removed, or if this is not con- venient, an application of artificial manure may be used to stimulate the growth of the plants. Such an arti- ficial mixture should be a complete one, and contain the three chief plant-foods, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, and may consist of: — Superphosphate 3 cwt. Kainit 2 ,, Guano 1 „ or with soils well supplied with potash,' the following may be used : — Steamed bone flour 5 cwt. Nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia ... 1 ,, * These mixtures should be used at the rate of 6 cwt. to the acre. It is a good practice to mow a permanent pasture the first year after_ sowing ; but care should be taken to make a liberal return in the form of manure to com- pensate for what has been taken off. Grazing the land with bullocks which are receiving an additional allowance of food in the form of cake GBABEl MIXTURES 287 and corn will be found a very beneficial treatment as soon as the pasture^ is estasblished. Feeding beasts take very little out of their food, and when they are receiving cake the fertility of the soil actually increases. Young and milking stock, on the other hand, are not so suitable for grazing on pastures while they are form- ing, as they make much greater demands on the land than feeding stock. MIXTURES FOR SOWING LAND DOWN TO GRASS Attention has already been drawn to the necessity for using clean mixtures when sowing down land to grass. The old custom of mixing the sweepings of the hay loft with a few purchased seeds to make up a mixture for sowing was often responsible for distribut- ing weeds and worthless grasses over the farm. Although ready-made seed mixtures, adapted for any purpose, can now be obtained from most of the leading firms of seedsmen, still it is to the farmer's advantage to know something of the common grasses and clovers, and the proportions in which they should be mixed to suit his particular soil and climate, whether for permanent pas- ture or temporary ley. A knowledge of these matters will often lead to a considerable saving where a large area has to be sown. In making any selection each grass and clover should be considered with regard to its habit of growth, durability, and adaptability to soil and climate. A number of experiments have been carried out of late years by the local' Agricultural Colleges with the object of ascertaining the best seed mixtures for various pur- poses on the soils in their particular, districts. The mixtures recommended as a result of some of these trials together with others advocated by certain leading authorities, are given below, and may be used as a basis of selection for any particular soil. Where the object is a ' temporary ley,' and the seed- mixtures are intended to remain down for a short period only — say, one to four years — the quicker growing 288 GRASS LAND AND ITS MANAGEMENT and shorter lived grasses and clovers are chosen for the purpose. Thus in certain districts for a one year's ley broad red clover is sown by itself at the rate of Table XXII. — Sbed-Mixtubes foe Permanent Pastures. ** (Quantities recommended for sowing per acre.) it is 0) 3 1 "s 1 g II. .1 a .H a ■a 2 " i^i I. a ■2 g %» S '^1 . ^1 II 1| "1 I- -4-> .2 1 1' lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Italian rye-grass — — 7 4 4 — 2 Perennial rye-grass... 18 18 14 3 — 2 Timothy 2 ■ 2 2 1 . — 3 1 Cocksfoot 4 3 2 2 6 7 4 Meadow fescue 4 2 2 2 6 2 Tall fescue — _ — \ i 3 1 Hard fescue — 2 _ 1 2 1 1 Sheep's fescue — 2 — - — 1 — Meadow foxtail '2 2 — 1 — 10 — Fiorin..': _ — — — _ 1 — Tali oat-grass — — — i 3 — 1 Golden oat-graas — — — i h — \ Bough-stalked poa . — 1 if \ ' 1 Smooth-stalked poa — 1 — 1 2 — — Crested dog's-tail — — — \ 2 — Broadred clover — _ — — 1 — Perennial red clover 4 4 H 2 1 Alsike clover ■I .? 1 H 2 1 U White clover 2 2 2 '2 I 1 Trefoil 1 2 Lucerne — _ 1 ^ Sainfoin — — — 5 _ — _ Burnet — — — 4 8 — — Chicory 1 2 Sheep's parsley — — , 1 Yarrow I 1 1 \ Kidney vetch — — — — 24 40 n 39 45 34 331 45i 12 to 16 lbs. to the acre. In other cases a certain amount of Italian rye grass, varying in quantity from 6 to 14 lbs., is sown along with the red clover. When MANAGEMENT OF OLD PASTURE 289 the intention is to leave the ley down for more than two years, a certain amount of perennial rye grass, timothy, cocksfoot, perennial red clover and white clover are added to the mixture. The following are examples of suitable mixtures for ' temporary leys ' : — Table XXIII. — Seed-Mixtures for Temporary Leys. (Quantities recommended for sowing per acre.) 1 Year. 2 Years. s 3-4 Years. Italian rye-grass Perennial rye-grass Cocksfoot Timothy Broad red clover Perennial red clover Alsike ^hite clover ... Trefoil ' lb. « 8 2 2 lb. 4 6 2 2 6 2 2 2 lb. 6 12 2 2 . ^ 4 2 2 2 18 26 32 MANAGEMENT OF OLD PASTURE LAND The management of old pasture land is spoken of best under the headings of (a) Cultural operations on the surface; (b) Grazing; (c) Manuring. The cultural opeiations on the surface include chain- harrowing and rolling. These should be carried out during the latter part of winter and early spring. By chain-harrowing moss and ' fog ' are dragged out, so that air can enter the soil, while dung and molehills are distributed over the surface. By rolling the land is consolidated and pressed around the roots of the herbage after the disruptive effects of the winter frosts. The slovenly practice of allowing the droppings of horses and cattle to remain undisturbed upon pastures cannot be too strongly condemned, and any manure on the L 290 GRASS LAND AND ITS MANAGEMENT surface should be constantly scattered from time to time by knocking with forks. Unless this is done the underlying plants are for a time destroyed, and un- sightly rings of dark rank herbage spring up around them. Weeds also, which grow up in unsightly patches and usurp the surface during the summer, must be destroyed by the systematic use of the spud and the scythe. Grazing is an important industry in many parts of the country. On the first-class ox-pastures of the Midlands, and in some other districts, cattle are considered to feed better by themselves during the summer than when grazed with other classes of stock. On some dairy pastures, also, Bheep, if grazed at the same time, are thought to deteriorate the value of the pasture for the horned stock. The best returns cannot be obtained from other grass larfds, however, without a judicious mixture of horses, cattle, and sheep; and it is found in practice that one class of stock will graze after the other and browse over coarse patches of herbage growing round the manure left by the former stock. Much skill and careful supervision are therefore necessary on the part of graziers in regulating the number and kinds of stock fed upon the land so as to obtain the best results, and to keep the grass eaten down evenly. The chief objects are : (1) To keep the stock improving; and (2) To maintain the fertility of the pasture. Stock must not be put on too early, however, or kept on too late, otherwise the animals will be wan- dering about looking for a bite, and there will be a danger of some of the finer bottom herbage being torn out. The date when cattle can be turned out in spring will depend largely on the season, but, as a rule, pastures in the South of Englarid are ready to receive stock about the end of April. Further north, cattle are not turned out till the middle of May, or even later. Manuring Old Grass Land.— A number of experi- ments on the manuring of grass land have been con- MANUBING OLD GRASS LAND 291 ducted of recent years, the most important of these being a set of experiments which have been carried out at Rothamsted for a period of over half-a-century. In this case an old grass field was divided into a number qf plots, and each plot has received the same manurial treatment each year, and has been cut for hay. -These plots are of much interest, as not only do the returns show a difference in the yield of hay obtained each year, but an inspection shows an entire change in the Table XXIV.— Showing Effects of Various Manures on THE Yield and Composition or Hay at Rothamsted. Botanical Composi- Yield tior per cent. , ' Plot. Manure. ' of - i Hay. V o a "H 1 o s« bo ja o Cwt. 3 Unmanured .21-5 34-3 7-5 58-2 1 Nitrogen only as ammonium salts ... 34-7 77-6 1-4 21-0 17 Nitrogen only as nitrate of soda 3.5-6 4H-8 3-4 52-9 7 Mineral manures, no nitrogen 40-9 20-3 55-3 24-4 4-2 Phosphoric aoid and nitrogen, no p(Jtash ^ 36-8 91-5 — 8-5 9 Complete manure, nitrogen as am- monium salts 54-8 91-2 1-3 7-S 14 Complete manure, nitrogen as nitrate of soda 60-8 88-8 3-7 7-5 11-1 Complete manure, excess of nitrogen^ 66'8 99-2 — 0-8 botanical composition of the herbage of the several plots, which at the commencement of the experiment was of a similar character. The effect of this long-continued manuring on the yield and botanical composition of the herbage of the various plots is well shown in Table XXIV., which gives the average yield for fifty-three years, and also the character of the resulting herbage, as shown by a botanical analysis in 1902, the forty-seventh year of tha experiment. i 2 292 GRASS LAND AND ITS MANAGEMENT Certain facts are shown by this table. Thus, if grass land is mown each year without any return in the form of manure not only will the yield be small, but there will be a great preponderance of weeds in the composi- tion of the herbage. One-sided manuring, only supplying nitrogen or only phosphoric acid, however successful at first, will eventually result in increased impoverishment of the land. Nitrogenous fertilizers encourage the growth of the grasses at the expense of the clovers. Mineral manures, and particularly potash; encourage the growth of leguminous plants, and enable them to make headway against the grasses. These experiments also show that any special manur- ing or treatment folloYred continuously will encourage the growth of certain species of plants as against others, and the best results are therefore obtained by the treatment first selected. In a similar way laying up land for hay will encourage the development of the stronger grasses ; whereas when a field is grazed the finer bottom grasses will have the advantage. Taking these facts into consideration, it therefore seems advisable to keep certain lands for mowing each year and to graze others, rather than to follow the custom of alternately haying and mowing, in which case certain grasses are encouraged one season and repressed the next. Again, it is a waste of money to lavish expensive dressings of manure on poor grass-land unless a proper herbage is present to take advantage of suck treatment. In such cases the character of the herbage must be first slowly reformed by judicious treatment ; and it is only when the better grasses and clovers have been encouraged to appear that it will pay to use complete dressings of manure. Taking into account the above facts it will now be possible to deal separately with the question of manuring pasture and meadow land respectively. Manuring Pastures.— Pastures of the better descrip- tion, such as old feeding pastures, require very little manuring, as the stock being fattened on such land remove few fertilizing ingredients from the soil. When MANURING PASTURES 293 cake and corn are fed the fertility actually increases in these soils. It is a mistake to use heavy dressings of farmyard manure on land of this description, as it will encourage the growth of the coarser grasses and weeds to the exclusion of the clover. In old pastures an abund- ance of white clover is generally in evidence; and this will accumulate nitrogen- in its growth and store it in the surface soil. The cheapest method of supplying nitrogen to pasture land, therefore, is by encouraging the growth of clovers. Most grass lands, especially on soils naturally deficient ■in lime, will pay for dressings of this material from time to time. The beneficial action of lime is particu- larly noticeable on grass land where organic' matter has accumulated through the decay of vegetation and addition of dung, and the soil is consequently some- what sour. The application of lime in such a case is often followed by a luxurious growth of grass and clover, owing to the acidity being neutralized and reserves of plant-food being rendered available for the use of the plant by the action of the lime. Lime may be applied to grass land in the form of quicklime, but one of the handiest forms to use at the present time is ' ground lime,' which can be purchased in bags, and is in a sufficiently dry state to sow from a manure drill, by which means a small dressing can be evenly distributed. Ground lime may be used at the rate of 10 to 20 cwti per acre on grass land. It is a practice with the graziers in the better dis- tricts to make a compost heap of road scrapings, clean- ings from ditches and other refuse about the farm. This is mixed with lime and turned over two or three times, after which it is applied as a top dressing to grass land with the most beneficial results. Good pasture land, although rich in nitrogen, is some- times deficient in mineral ingredients, and, therefore, additions - of potash and phosphates in some form are often .advisable. Such a dressing might consist of — Superphosphate 3 cwt. Kainit 2 ,, 294 GRASS LAND AND ITS MANAGEMENT . applied at the rate of 5 cwt. per acre early in the year ; or, especially on soils deficient in lime, 5 cwt. of basic slag put on in the autumn will have a good effect in maintaining the quality of the herbage. Poor pastures, with a thin herbage on clay, sand, or chalk, require special treatment in each case to im- prove them. As has already been stated, it will not pay to use expensive dressings of manure on these pas- tures till the herbage has been slowly reformed. In the case of poor clay land, as at Cockle Park, in Northumberland, a heavy dressing of basic slag up to 10 cwt. per acre will often have the efffect of stimu- lating a strong growth of the weak clover plants which are languishing in the soil through deficiency of phos- phates. When this has been effected nitrogen will begin to accumulate in the surface soil, and the better grasses will gradually assert themselves as the clover disappears. After the herbage has been thus reformed a more liberal manuring may be followed, including caking through the stock grazed upon the land. Poor sandy soils often require supplies of potash in the form of kainit, in addition to phosphates, to improve them. In these cases steamed-bone flour is a good form in which to supply phosphates. Thin pastures on chalk soils require very liberal treatment to improve them. They will stand plenty of dung and heavy cake feeding, as well as complete dressings of artificial manures. In many cases it is doubtful whether pastures of this description can be economically improved- On limestone soils, such as are found on the Cotswold Hills, superphosphate will often be found to give good results in improving the herbage. Manuring for Hay. — In the case of land which is ^id up for hay the object is to obtain a bulky crop of strong growing grasses all coming to maturity, as far as pos- sible, at the same time. With this object in view it is advisable to manure heavily, using large dressings of farmyard manure and complete dressings of artificials. Where a field is cut regularly for hay each year, the most economical system of manuring seems to be a dress- MANAGEMENT OF MEADOW LANt) 2d5 ing of farmyard manure (some 10 tons per acre) every third or fourth year, and applications of complete mix- tures of artificial manures during the intervening periods. Such a mixture would consist of 3 cwt. per acre of superphosphate and 2 cwt. of kainit applied early in the year, followed by 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda as soon as the grass showed signs of starting growth. On some of the stronger soils where there is sufiBcient available potash, basic slag seems to give better results than superphosphate as a manure for the hay crop. In such cases 5 cwt. per acre of basic slag put on in the autumn, followed by 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda when growth starts in the spring, may be looked on to give good results, kainit being omitted. MANAGEMENT OF MEADOW LAND A permanent meadow is a fi«ld which is mown annually for a hay crop. The land may be grazed early in the year, and then the stock are turned off some time in April, aiid it is shut up so as to leave' time for the grass to grow previous to cutting. Before finally shutting up it is a good plan to chain-harrow the field BO as to spread the dung, and also to roll it to con- solidate the soil round the ^oota> of the plants. At the same time all sticks and stones, which otherwise might cause trouble at the time of mowing, should be picked off the surface and removed. The various sorts of hay commonly met with in this country are :'— (a) Upland or meadow hay ; the produce of permanent grtusa land. (6) 'Seeds' hay which is yielded by temporary leys, sown with grass and cIoTer seeds. (e) Water-meadow bay obtained from irrigated meadows. This as a rule requires a good deal more making than ordinary meadow hay, and often has to remain in large cocks or ' summer ricks ' in ' the field before being finally carted home. GRASS LAND AND ITS MANAUBMHIWT HAYMAKING Haymaking is the operation whereby grass and clover crops are converted into dry fodder. It includes the three processes of (1) Cutting ; (2) Making ; (3) Carrying. Cutting. — Meadow hay is essentially a straw crop, the object being to secure it before the grasses begin to ripen their grain — that is, before the nutrient ingre- dients in the stem have migrated upwards to aid in matifring the seed. Hence, hay should be cut at about the time the bulk of the grasses are coming into flower — that is, just before the pollen dust can be freely Bbaken from them. The mowing machine is now very generally employed for cutting hay, though the scythe has still to be used in water meadows and on embankments. The introduc- tion of the mowing machine has increased the risk lest too much grass be cut at one time for the available hands to deal with, so that this is a detail requiring attention. The labour of mowing with the scythe is very severe, and it brings into play nearly every muscle in the body. An experienced workman will mow from I acre to 2 acres per day, according to the heaviness of the crop. The line or row of cut herbage as it falls upon the ground is called the swathe. There is- a notable difference in the mode of cutting by the scythe and by the mowing machine. The simpler implement effects the clean cut of a knife. The machine, which works on the scissors principle, not only cuts, but crushes or bruises at the same time. The cut of the scythe is regarded as being the less injurious to the standiiig plant, and some farmers always prefer the scythe for meadow hay. Making. — The conversion of green grass into hay is effected by loss of moisture, which is brought about partly by the sun's heat and partly by the wind. How great is this loss may be gathered from the circum- stance that freshly-cut grass contains from 70 to 80 per cent, of water, whilst hay has only from 14 to 16 per cent. To promote the escape of water vapour HAYMAKING 297 it is necessary for the cut herbage to be turned over and shaken out, in order to expose as large a surface as possible to the air. At the same time, the work should be carried out in such a manner that, on the approach of rain, the material can be ■quickly gathered together, so as to expose the least possible surface to its action. Hence there is plenty of room for skill in the operation of hajmiaking. The grass falls from the mower in thick swathes, which, if left undisturbed, would at length rot inside. Therefore they must be tedded — i.e., shaken out or turned over in some way. This is done either by the hand-fork, or by means of a tedding machine, or a swathe-turner. It must here be remembered that the methods of haymaking have undergone considerable changes of recent years. Formerly the grass was all cut with the scythe, and afterwards tedded out with the fork. The process of haymaking in these circumstances being entirely carried out by hand was tedious and expensive. The next step in advance followed on the introduction and development of labour-saving machinery, when the mowing machine, the horse-rake, and the 'tedder' came into common use on the farm. More recently other implements have gradually been added to assist in the hayfield, so that we now have the 'swathe-turner,' 'side-delivery rake,- 'hay-loader,' and ' sweep-rake,' together with the ' elevator ' and hay-fork, which can be used under suitable conditions to minimize labour in saving the hay crop. A large portion of the hay crop is made in the southern portion of England in the ' swathe ' by means of the swathe-turner. When sufficiently dry the swathes can be run together by means of the side-deliveiy rake into parallel rows across the field known as ' wind-rows,' which can easily be split up into cocks when necessary as a protection from the weather; or the hay can be loaded directly from the wind-row into the carts and waggons. During a wet summer, how- ever, and when the crops of grass are heavy, the teddei 298 GRASS LAND AND ITS MANAGEMENT will be found to be a machine that it is almost impossible to dispense with. The process of making meadow hay when the tedding machine is used may be described as follows. The crop, when ready, is cut with the mowing machine, the grass being left in the swathe, so that the water may evaporate from the surface. The next day it is ' tedded,' or spread out in a thin layer over the surface of the ground to dry. Sometimes when the grass is cut early in ttie morning, and the weather is fine, the tedder is set to follow immediately after the mowing machine. The next operation is 'hacking,' or collecting the hay together into small wind-row^s, which may be run together into little ' pooks ' or ' cocks ' for the night. The following morning these are thrown out into beds as soon as the ground is dry, and the tedding machine may be again set to work^ along these beds, if necessary. The hay is then collected by means of the horse-rake into large wind-rows, which can be run up into large cocks for the night, or the hay can be carried direct from the rows as circumstances require. If put into large cocks, these should be turned over the next day as soon as the ground is dry, and if the weather is fine the hay should be fit to cart the same day. The foregoing instructions apply to a period of fine weather, and would occupy a period of some three days. When" the weather is unsettled or catchy, how- ever, the period for carrying out these various opera- tions has to be considerably extended ; and it may be necessary to continue the process of throwing the hay out into beds, and cocking it up again for several days in succession. If hay is carted before it is ready, it may cause serious trouble by overheating when put together in the stack. Carrying.— The hay is carted from the field to the stack in carts or waggons, the material being loaded on to these by hand. In some cases a machine of American origin, working on the elevator principle, and CARRYING HAY 299 called a hay-loader, is used for picking up and putting the hay on to the carts, thereby making the process of haymaking less dependent on manual labour. Another labour-saving implement, also introduced from America, the use of which is gradually spreading, is the sweep-rake. This machine, which consists of a large frame on wheels drawn by two horses, is able to sweep up the hay out of the cock or wind-row and take it straight up to the rick, thus saving the expense of carting. Its use is restricted, however, to cases where the stack is built in the same field from whence the crop is taken. The time when hay is fit to carry and put into the stack will depend very largely on the bulk of the crop and the character of the herbage. When hay is com- posed of grasses of a somewhat dry and benty nature, it is not necessary to be so careful about its condition when carting as when dealing with a crop in which there is a large percentage of bottom growth and clover. In this latter case discretion must be used, as otherwise excessive heating, and in some cases spontaneous com- bustion may take place in the stack. In the damper climate of the north of England and Scotland the custom is to put the hay up into large cocks or ' summer ricks ' in the field, containing half a load to a load, with the object of allowing the hay to dry more thoroughly and sweat to a certain extent before it is carted some weeks later to the large rick. This method also has the advantage of saving time in securing the hay crop at a busy time of the year, the final carting and building into stacks being left till a favourable opportunity presents itself. The ordinary stacker, or elevator, will be found most useful for emptying the carts on to the stack, and will save a lot of manual labour in pitching, especially when the stack rises in jieight. The hay-fork worked by means of a pulley from a cross-piece attached to a long pole set in the ground, will also be found a valuable implement when stacking hay, as it is able to raise a large part of a load from the cart on to the top of the stack at one lift. 300 GBASS LAND AND ITS MANAGEMENT Care must be taken in building a stack that the middle is kept as high as possible, otherwise the roof will become too flat when the stack settles down, and the thatch will be unable to remove the water sufficiently rapidly. The walls should also be carried up in such a way that the eaves stand well out from the base, so that the drip from the roof may fall clear of the sides. General Haymaking Rules. — To obtain the best results attention must be paid to the following points in carry- ing out the process of haymaking. Throughout the entire operation the crop should be dealt with as gently as possible. Turning and shaking out are, of course, necessary to assist the process of drying, but rough handling should be avoided. Grasses are covered with a delicate waterproof coating of waxy material, and when this is broken or injured water will soak into the stalks, and the quality of the hay will be much damaged by the soluble ingredients being washed out. This loss is especially liable to take place when half-made and tedded hay is washed by rain. The proper time to cut is when the bulk of the grasses and clovers are coming into flower, and before they set their seed. In this connection it must be remembered that any loss of weight in the crop by early cutting will be gained in the aftermath. Much greater damage, however, will be done to hay by cutting and allowing it to be washed for days by rain than by allowing the grass to become somewhat old before cutting. In making clover hay great care must be taken to handle it as little as possible, and it must not be tedded, otherwise much loss may occur by breaking ofi the fine leaf. It is best, therefore, to let the crop remain a few days in the swathe after it is cut to allow the upper surface to dry thoroughly, and then to gently turn it with the hand-rake or swathe-turner, so that the under surface may be exposed. After a time it may be turned back again, and then gently put together in rows — three or four swathes being put into one row — from which, when QUALITY OF HAY 301 fit, it should be carted direct, and putting it up into cocks should be avoided, if possible. Lastly, it is a good rufe to observe, and one of great importance now that, by means of the mowing machine, so much grass can be cut in a. day, that no more hay should be got on the ground than the staff at command can work. Sweating. — ^When put together in the rick certain chemical changes take place in the new hay which give rise to the production of heat and sweating. The amount of heat developed in a stack will often laf gely determine 'the quality of the hay when it is cut out. The fermentation which takes place in the stack is brought about by the starch in the grass being changed first into sugar, and then passing tlirough the successive stages of alcohol, acetic aldehyde, and finally acetic acid. Overheating is due to an excessive development of a suffocating, inflammable gas known as acetic aldehyde, and where this occurs not only may the hay be charred and its qualities for feeding spoilt, but spontaneous combustion may even take place in the stack. A good sweating will often improve the subsequent quality ajid palatability of hay of a somewhat coarse character when put together, but the fermentation should stop at the sugar stage ; and to obtain this the hay must be dry and in good condition when stacked. The temperature of the stack can be tested by means of a thermometer, and a good sweating can be safely allowed up to 140°" F. Danger is to be expected, how- ever, if the temperature rises above 150° F. Where this occurs it may be necessary to cut a hole in the stack to allow the air to enter, or even in- some cases to turn the stack over again. The quality ol hay is judged by its odour, its colour, arid its general appearance. Hay that has been well saved has an agreeable aromatic odour, almost lavender- like, whilst its colour is pale green. Its appearance is uniform in all parts of the stack, and there is no sign of mildew. When a stack heats, the middle is, of course, 302 GRASS LAND AND ITS MANAGEMENT browner thau the outer parts. As it increasea in age, hay acquires a fuller and more pronounced odour, its colour deepens, and it cuts out from the stack in more compact form. The desirable qualities" which have been mentioned are absent from hay that has been badly washed in the field, or has been put into stack when too damp, and has consequently heated to too great an extent, and perhaps has subsequently become mouldy. Such hay acquires a very dark colour, it has an unpleasant odour, and samples from different parts of the stack are likely to be uneven in quality. Its feeding properties aire lessened, and its jqlling value is diminished. Another method of judging hay, too little followed, is based upon its botanical composition. The student should not be satisfied with learning to identify plants as they grow in the meadow. He must proceed a step farther, and be able to recognize them, and even frag- ments of them, as they occur in the dried state in the stack. Separate a bundle of hay into gramineous, legwni- nous, and miscellaneous heaps, and then 'try to identify the species present in each heap. The panicles of the grasses will be recognized without much difficulty, and by practice it becomes possible to identify the leaves and culms as well. ' Seeds ' hay, ordinary rheadow hay, and water-meadow hay can respectively be identified by an examination which results in the recognition of the species of plants present. To take two extreme cases, hay consisting largely of rye grass and clover would at once be accepted as superior to hay in which the woolly stems and leaves of Yorkshire fog, and the brown withered fragments of sorrel, were abundant Hay is considered as ' new ' up to Michaelmas Day (September 29), and, in some districts, till it is a year old. A load of old hay is 36 trusses, and as the truss weigBs 56 lb. (i cwt.), the load will weigh 18 cwt. A load of new hay, at 60 lb. per truss, weighs 19 cwt. 1 qr. 4 lb. A load of straw, at 36 lb. per truss, weighs 11 cwt. 2 qr. 8 lb. In each case the load is 36 trusses. Preferably, hay and straw are sold by the ton, and not by the load. ENSILAGE 303 ENSILAGE The process of preserving green fodder in its succu- lent condition, .instead of first drying it into hay, is called ensilage. The silo is the receptacle ia which the preserved material, to which the name of silage is given, is stored. It is only within comparatively recent years that the process of ensilage has been practised on any extensive sca,le in this country, _ but during that time tne operation has been much simplified. It was, for example, formerly thought that an air-tight receptacle must be available in order to make good silage. So far, however, is this from being the case, that silage is now made without any receptacle at all, the heap or stack of the material itself constituting the silo. But, though the practice has been modified, there has been no change in the principle, the leading feature of which is the exclusion of air from the mass of green herbage. In the case of farmyard manure it is a familiar fact (see p. 110) that the more tightly the dung-heap is com- pressed — that is, th? more completely the atmospheric air is excluded— the slower are the changes that take place within the heap. On the other hand, the greater the freedom with which air permeates the mass the more rapid is the fermentation. In ensilage the object is -to imitate, and indeed to improve upon, the tightly pressed dung-heap, and, by excluding the air, to pre- vent oxidation, which brings in its train fermentation, decay, and loss. The more thoroughly the air is ex- cluded, the greater is the success in making silage. Grass is the material usually converted into silage, and, in wet seasons unfavourable to haymaking, much useful provender has thus been saved which otherwise would have been lost. The process is, however, equally applicable to any other kind of ^reen herbage. If put into specially built silos, the herbage is often cut into chaff first, as it then packs more closely, thus promoting the exclusion of air. In stack silos the material is put up in the long state. Specially built silos are constructed of brick or stone, and may be above ground or' below ground. Chalk-pits, 304 GRASS LAND AND ITS MANAGEMENT gravel-pits, and other excavations, particularly if on sloping ground, which facilitates filling, may likewise be adapted as silos. In all such cases, the chopped herbage requires to be well packed and trodden, especially at the sides, so as to completely fill the receptacle. Even then, the shrinkage which takes place may create an air space between the mass of herbage and the sides of the silo. The silo stack possesses the advantage of cheapness and simplicity, and nothing beyond ordinary care is necessary to ensure success. For the purpose of making such a stack or clamp, grass may be mown when the majority of the plants are in bloom; clover when the whole crop is in flower; peas and vetches just when the pods are forming, but before they commence filling ; oats and other cereals when- the grain commences to form; and rough trimmings from banks and ditches at any time when they can be used to form the top layer. In selecting a place for the clamp, advantage should be taken of hillisides, so that the ' drawing-up tongue,' leading on to the clamp, may be as shallow as possible, thereby lessening the quantity which will require turning up when finishing the clamp. It is best to cart imme- diately after the grass is cut, unless the material be exceptionally succulent, as is the case with sewage-grown grass; the weight of the fresh herbage thus helps to ensile that below it. The material should be carted together in such a way that the horses and carts cross it, thus consolidating it; and a roller, drawn by one or more horses, should be used to press it down, and make it more easy for horses to cart over. The carts, roller, and horses would not provide sufiicient weight to com- press the mass at once into the compact condition in which it comes out as silage, and whi_ph weighs from 50 to 60 lb. per cubic foot. But when fermentation takes place, the fibre in the material softens, and readily undergoes compression. Not more than three days should be allowed to elapse before carting fresh material upon the heap, otherwise the surface of the latter will become mouldy. This point must also be considered with reference to the ENSILAGE 306 sides, which should be kept hand-pulled, or pared, daily, failing which the portion taken ofE the sides will be in a mouldy condition when put on the top. The greatest care must be taken to keep the sides upright, ajid they should receive additional rolling on the top in order that they may be properly compressed. The carts should be led round as near the sides as possible for the same reason. It will be found necessary to maintain the sides higher than the middle, as it is impossible otherwise to keep the stack in proper shape. When all the material has been brought to the clamp, the inclined plane of herbage which formed the tongue should be turned up so as to ensure that the whole of the top shall be of uniform height when it has settled. The clamp should be covered as soon as possible, for less waste will result than when it is allowed to become dried on the top. If, during intervals of making, the surface dries, it should be watered, in order that an even sample may result. As to weighting, it is a common practice to build a hay- stack on the 'top of the silo stack to provide the pressure required, and this answers admirably. As there is waste at the sides of all silage, it is advisable to build large stacks or silos, so that the extent of the sides may be proportionately lessened. Another cheap and efficient method of making silage is to dig a pit in the ground 3 to 6 ft. deep, cart over it, and tread it with horses and men on the outside. Roll it, and cover it all over — sides and top — with the mould from the trench, and knock it down lightly. A stack of hay built upon it then makes a capital covering. If care is taken to pack the material close to the walls, the loss is considerably less in the case of silage made in silos than when it is made in the stack, there- fore small quantities are more successfully preserved in the specially constructed silo than in the stack. Silage may be fed to cattle at any time it may be required after it is once put together. It will keep good for years if well secured. Inferior hay may be got rid of by chaffing it up with silage before offering it to stock. Whether sour silage or sweet silage results from the 306 GRASS LAND AND ITS MANAGEMENT operation of making is determined mainly by the tem- perature at which fermentation takes place within the mass of herbage. Silage is sour or sweet according as there is much or little of certain organic acids present. These acids are principally acetic, lactic, and butyric. If an open-air silage stack is viewed in section from top to bottom, the lower layers will be seen to be greener than the upper, whilst the colour gradually becomes browner towards the top, which will be almost of a burnt coffee colour. The bottom layers have been converted into green or sour silage because the pressure of the material above has excluded the air, and fermentation has taken place at a low temperature, there not having been sufficient air to supply the oxygen for a high tem- perature fermentation. As less weight was applied to the upper portion, there was freer access of air to it, and more-^ir was retained among the mass — hence a higher fermentation. The colour thus affords an indi- cation oi the temperature at which the fermentation took place. It is generally recognized that silage made at a temperature below 120° F. is ' sour ' silage, whilst that which has not risen above 90° F. is commonly spoken of as ' low-temperature sour,' and that which has ex- ceeded 90° F. as ' high-temperature sour.' Between 120° and 130°, there are generally veins or seams of sweet and sour silage intermingled. ; From 130° to 140° a shade of brown is discernible. Between 140° and 160° it is decidedly brown ; and above 160° it is over-heated, and very similar in appearance to over-heated hay, whilst the flavour denotes burning. In any case, fer- mentation ceases as soon as all the available oxygen is used up, the air that exists amongst the herbage being then rich in Icarbonic acid gas. Inasmuch as fermentation is a process chiefly of oxidation, the loss of solid matter falls mostly upon the carbonaceous compounds (the carbohydrates) of the herbage. The total quantity of nitrogen remains about the same, although some of it is converted into a form in which it is less available as food. When ' sweet ' silage is produced it is due to the higher temperature FARM CROPS 307 having killed the living organisms which, under condi- tions of less heat, set up an acid fermentation. The loss of solid matter is probably greater in the making of ' sweet ' silage-. The odour of sweet silage, however, being vinous or aromatic, is far from impleasant. ' Sour ' ' silage, on the other hand, has a powerful and not an attractive odour, which is readily absorbed by milk freshly drawn from the cows. Therefore sour silage should not be allowed to lie about the stalls of dairy cows, nor should people handle it immediately before milking. Though ensilage affords a most useful alternative when the weather is too unfavourable to permit the saving of hay, it should not be regarded merely as a substitute for haymaking. Silage caji be made in all ' kinds of weather, and it is capable of affording a suc- culent and jiutritious food to stock at all seasons of the year. Consequently it possesses a special value in seasons when there is a dearth of roots. OHAPTEK XVI. FARM CROPS The soil, or ' land,' as it is more commonly tesmed by _ those who work it, is divided, for agricultural purposed, into grass land and arable land. Grass land is subjected to very little cultivation; it cannot be stirred deeply, as the growth upon it is per- manent. The acts of cultivation are limited^ therefore, to harrowing and rolling. Arable land undergoes frequept turning and stirring, these operations being necessary to provide suitable seed-beds for the crops, the seed for which is in most cases sown at least once a year. It is unusual to grow the same kind of crop frequently on the same land, it being more economical to grow a variety of crops. 308 FARM CROPS ROTATION OF CROPS Experience has shown that, by growing different kinds of crops in a particular order, reliable results may be looked for. In this way there have arisen recog- nized systems of cropping which are called rotations. The advantages of rotations are : — 1. They result in crops of greater vigour. When crops of the same kiad are grown continuously on the same land they are more liable to be attacked by insect and fungoid pests. Bepeated cropping of the same kind causes the crops to lose vigour, so that they are ren- dered less able to withstand such attacks. Therefore, fresh kinds of plants should be introduced upon the land. This variation of the order takes away the food of insects which infest a particular crop, so that, by the time this crop is grown again, the insects have either died out, or have gone elsewhere in search of food. 2. They are economical of manure. Different crops require different kinds of manure, so that an alteration in cropping allows plants of the various orders to take Mp^ the manurial foods in the respective proportions in which they need them, some crops requiring more of one kind, and others more of another. A balance is thereby main- tained amongst the manurial ingredients in the soil. 3. Well-arranged rotations allow of an economical distribution of labour, whether applied to the cleaning of the land, the sowing of the seed, or the application of manures. 4. Some varieties of plants (clovers, etc.) store up food, from the air or soil, which becomes available for the use of succeeding crops. Other crops (root crops, etc.) are restorative, not in themselves, but because they are usually fed to live-stock upon the land. Some (wheat, barley) are of such a nature that, while they are still growing, other kinds may be seeded in amongst thein, and so may become established, thereby avoiding loss of time. Shallow-rooted crops are alternated with deep-rooted ones, because they draw their food from different regions of the soil. ROTATION OF CROPS 309 5. A variety of crops is essential where cattle and other live-stock are kept. The most typical rotation is the Norfolk or four- course systexa. This is as follows :— First year: Autumn-sown cereal crop. — Wheat. Second year : Fallow crop. — Eoots : Turnips, mangels, caibbage, potatoes, etc. Third year: Spring-sown cereal crop. — Barley or oats. Fourth year: Leguminous crop. — Clover, in mixture or alone ; peas, beans. Fifth year: Same as first — and so on. The general arrangement, therefore, is such- that about half the land is under white straw crops, whilst the other half is carrying green crops and clover, and the rotation may be thus represented : — EOOTS -WHEAT BARLEY X / CLOVBE This rotation is suitable for many classes of soil,^ for, where one of the crops named would not be likely to prosper in a particular case, another one of the same general character could be substituted which would do so. There are many rotations extending over from four to eight years, but it will be found on examining a classified list of such rotations that they are to a great extent founded on this four-course system, and that the chief differences are in the extension of the time during which the clover or ' seeds ' crops are allowed.to stand, and in the introduction of a wheat crop, or of some other exhausting crop, after roots, before barley is sown. Shorter rotations are also known, but they are practised less frequently than in bygone years, as the soils to which they are applicable are now found to be unprofitable when under any form of arable culture ; con- sequently, this class of laud has, to a great extent, 310 FARM CROPS gone out of cultivation. Nevertheless, the two-course system — (1) wheat, (2) beajis — does exist, though, as an occasional bare fallow has to be taken Which upsets this order, it can scarcely be regarded as an exclusively two- course system. An examination of the four-course shift serves to show how admirably a well-arranged rotation adapts itself to farm practice : — First year : Wheat. — The wheat follows clover. Sheep can find but little food on the clover after September, therefore at this period it is ploughed. By employing the horses at this time of year the work in the spring is lightened, which is a very important matter. The clover stores up in its roots and stubble a large quantity of food ingredients, particularly nitrogen and potash, which are ready for the use of the wheat crop. These and othter ingredients have been extracted partly from the air by the broad leaves and root-nodules of the clovers, and partly from the soil by their deep-searching roots, which are capable of striking vertically into- the land for some yards. The wheat crop provides straw for thatching, and for fodder and litter for cattle. If the clover ley is wanted for the sheep in the latter part •of autumn or beginning of winter, a crop of oats may be substituted for wheat, as oats can be sown in the spring : this is not an uncommon practice in Scotland. Second year: Fallow crop. — The land has carried, during the three previous years, crops which have afforded but few opportunities of deep stirring or clean- ing, provision for which must be made. Two out of the three crops have been exhaustive, so that a restorative crop is advisable.' A bulky crop of succulent food for sheep and cattle is required at the same time. All these are provided for in fallowing by means of a fallow or root crop. After the spring corn is sown, work is required for the horses and men, and they can be em- ployed on the fallows with' great advantage. Perennial weeds are drawn out by the implements of tillage, and annual weeds are destroyed by surface hoeing after the crop is up. ROTATION OF CROPS 311 Besides the practical advantage arising frem the opportunity which the growth of roots affords for the cleaning of the land, the benefits of growing this crop in rotation are further due to the large amount of manure applied for its - growth, to the large residue of the manure left in the soil for future crops, to the large amount of matter at once returned as manure again in the leaves, to the large amount of food pro- duced, and to the small amount of the most important manurial constituents .of the roots which is retained by the animals consuming them, the remainder being returned to the land as manure. . Third year: Spring-sown cereal crop. — Barley and oats thrive best When seeded early in the spring. There is consequently little opportunity of cleaning the land. Such crops are therefore adapted to follow the fallow or cleaning crop. In some seasons when, on account of the weather, but little work can be done upon the land, it is difficult to prepare a seed-bed. This difficulty rarely arises after fallowing, as the land has been thoroughly turned, stirred, and lightened only a few months previously, so that nothing beyond shallow ploughing is necessary to form a seed-bed. Thin furrows are more easily reduced to a tilth than are thick ones, as the weather has better opportunities of mellowing them, and less horse-power is necessary to apply the mechanical force required to bring the clods within the influence of wind, rain, and frost. Barley flourishes best when the seed-bed is just deep enough to cover the seed well, and when the subsoil is fairly light, but firm enough to afford efficient root-hold to the plants. When the land works rather badly, so that the mellow tilth required by barley cannot be obtained, oats may be substituted. They are more vigorous, and are not so susceptible to injury when sown on a somewhat moist and rough seed-bed. Again, when the land is too heavy for barley, oats may serve as the crop sown at this period of the rotation. At this stage a comparison of wheat and barley, which normally occupy the alternate second years of the rotation, is instructive. Wheat, as a rule, is sown in 312 FARM CROPS autumn, in a heavier and closer soil, and has a period of four or five months in which to distribute its roots, and thereby get possession of a wide range of soil and subsoil, before barley is sown. Barley is seeded in a lighter surface soil, and, with a shorter period for root development, is in a much greater degree dependent on the stores of nutriment within a very moderate depth ; it is, in fact, a ' surface feeder.' It has, therefore, to rely more especially upon the surface soil for its nitro- genous, and particularly for its mineral, supplies. As a result, barley is more benefited by the direct appli- cation of mineral manures, especially of phosphatic fer- tilizers, than is wheat under similar conditions of soil. As both crops are exhaustive of the nitrogen of the soil, they alike require — in the ordinary course of farm- ing — ^nitrogenous manures, whilst the spring-sown crop, barley, needs superphosphate also. Besides its position in the ordinary course of rotation, barley may be grown in direct succession to wheat on the heavier soils, and, provided the land is clean enough for a second com crop, will then yield well both in quantity and in quality. Fourth year: Leguminous crop.— Where possible, a restorative crop should be taken after an exhaustive one, especially where sheep-feed for summer use and hay for winter use, are required. These conditions are complied with when a clover or ' seeds ' crop is intro- duced. Clovers require firm seed-beds, and these are available when the clovers are sown after barley. As the clover^ crop is intended to lie for some time, it should be sown" not long after the land has been cleaned by being fallowed. As a rule, the clover is actually sown immediately after the fallowing. As it requires to be in the land a full year before it can give-a return, it is sown about the same time as the barley or oats, so that the two crops are on the land at once, the clover establishing itself whilst the barley is maturing. In this way there is a saving of a year, which would be lost if the clover were sown on uncropped land. Should the land be clover-sick (p. 350), the difficulty is met by planting beans when the soil is heavy, and peas when TYPICAL ROTATIONS 313 the soil is light and friable, thus giving the land a rest from clover, and allowing an opportunity for it to become healthy again. Also, if the land is considered too foul for clover, beans or peas may likewise be taken, as an opportunity is thereby afforded of cleaning the land slightly before seeding, and of cleaning it more thoroughly vby a bastard fallow (i.e., a short fallow at the end of summer) immediately the crop is cut, and before wheat is sown. In Norfolk, where comparatively few beans and peas are grown, red clover is usually taken once in eight years. In the intermediate fourth year, a mixture is sown of trefoil, white and alsike clovers, and rye grasses, the crop being very often fed, and not cut for" hay. The foregoingindicates the principles of a well-known rotation, and^of one which is found easy to work, though it does not follow that it is in all cases the best. Others are adapted to suit particular circumstances, and a sound farmer should be competent to introduce a modified rotation to meet his special requirements. The following are examples of rotations, being mostly adaptations from the four-course followed in various parts of the country. 1. 8-course lotation suitable lor heavy soils formerly followed in the vale of Gloucester: — 1st year. — Fallow crop (vetchea followed by bastard fallow) 2nd Oats. 3rd , Beane. 4th Wheat. 5th , Bare fallow. 6th Oats. 7th , Clover. 8th Wheat. 2. 5-course rotation used on the better loams in the Midlands : — 1st year. — Roots (swedes). 2nd ,, Barley (seeded with clorer) 3rd ,, Clover. 4th ,, Wheat. 5tb -,, Oats (manured). 314 FARM CROPS 3. S-course rotation followed on limestone soils of the Cotswold Hills : — lat year. — Roota (swedea). 2nd ,, Barley or oats (seeded). 3rd „ Seeds ^mown). 4th „ Seeds (grazed). 5th ,, Wheat. 4. 6-course rotation suited to damp climate of the north-west of England: — 1st year. — Roots (swedes and sometimes potatoes). 2Dd ,, Oata (seeded). 3rd ,, Seeds. 4th „ Seeds. 5th ,, Seeds. 6th ,, Oats or wheat. 5. 5-course rotation used on deep marly loams in Cheshire : — lat year. — Roots (largely consisting of potatoes). 2nd „ Wheat (seeded). 3rd ,, Seeds. 4th ,, Seeds. 5th ,, Oats. 6. 6-course rotation adopted on good limestone soils in Derbyshire : — 1st year. — Roots (turnips and swedea grown with artificials). 2nd ,, Barley or oats (seeded). 3rd ,, Seeds. 4th ,, Seeds. 5th „ Wheat (manured with farmyard manure). 6th „ OatB. 7. Wiltshire 8-course rotation suited for sheep- farming : — Ist year. — Oatch-crop (such as veitohes, trifolium, etc., followed by late sown turnips). 2nd ,, Roots (swedes). 3rd „ Wheat. 4th ,, Barley. , 5th ,, Roota (preceded by an early catch-crop such aa winter ryef). 6th ,, Barley (seeded). 7th ,, Clover and seeds. 8th ., Wheat. ' CORN CROPS 316 CORN OBOFS Wheat. — The wheat crop generally follows ' seeds,' peas or beans, or potatoes, and is occasionally taken after roots fed off in the autumn, bastard fallows, or bare fallows. Before seeding, the dung should be carted out on the land at any convenient time after harvest, or directly the hay is off, so that it may be ploughed in. The soils best suited for the growth of wheat are those of the heavier description, such as the clays, when properly drained. Wheat als^o requires a dry climate and plenty of sun to bring it to maturity, and therefore it is better adapted to the south and east of England than to the more humid districts of the north and west. After 'seeds,' the preparation of land for wheat is generally simple, for it is not advisable to stir the furrows unless a thorough cleaning is intended. The land is therefore only ploughed and, on very light soils, ring- or furrow-pressed. The seed is either drilled or sown broadcast, and harrowed in. After peas or beans, the land is usually ploughed and stirred to get out couch, and left to consolidate, wheat being found to stand the winter best on a firm seed- bed. Just before seeding, the surface is harrowed, care being taken not to reduce the clods more than is abso- lutely necessary, as when the land is left in a fine state on the surface it runs together, forming a cement-like covering on drying in the spring, or, as it is frequently called, a ' winter cap,' which is often very hard and troublesome to break. If not broken, it effectually prevents lie wheat from growing freely. After potatoes the land is often light, and the aim should be to consolidate it, without reducing it too much on the surface. A shallow ploughing to make the bed even and level is in some cases practised, whilst in others the land is merely drag-harrowed into a seed-bed, thus retaining as solid a bottom as possible. After roots which have been fed off, the land should be ploughed very shallow, so as to retain firmness below, only suflScient soil being moved on the surface to permit 316 FARM CROPS the seed being covered. Occasionally, on heavy land, it is advisable to sow the seed broadcast behind the sheep, and 'plough it in.' When this is done, it is only necessary to plough to a depth of from 1 to Ij inch, letting the furrow fall flat. No harrowing is required until spring, as the frosts will cause the land to shatter, thus providing a proper surface. After bastard and bare fallows the corn must be drilled ; otherwise it will not be properly covered by the soil. The seeding should take place early; in fact, this is the earliest of the wheat land to be seeded. As the plant generally grows quickly and stoutly, thin seeding i» advisable ; 5 pecks per acre are sufiicient on a fallow in September, where 8 to 10 pecks would be necessary on the same land if it were in clover ley not broken up until the end of October. The land, for some time before seeding, should not be deeply stirred, but be allowed to consolidate. The surface consolidation should be effected by harrowing, to prevent its becoming too fine, though there are occasions when wheat land becomes light and puffy, and when pressing with rough clod- crushers is necessary. Wheat should be sown on a moist seed-bed, but care should be taken not to harrow the surface too much, or too soon after rain, especially on ' running ' land. On heavy land, water gutters should be made to carry off surplus water ; if this is neglected the wheat at the bottom of the ' lands ' will die out during winter. Wheat is generally pickled or dressed with a solution of copper sulphate or ' bluestone ' before being sown, for the prevention of Certain fungoid diseases, such as bunt and smut (see p. 390). One pound of copper sulphate dissolved in 1 gallon of water will be sufiicient to steep 4 bushels of wheat. Subsequent Cultivation. — Wheat requires very little attention during winter. If attacked by insect pests, such as wireworm and leather-jacket, or if the land is very loose, it is advantageous to roll it, so as to con- solidate the soil around the roots ; but on the mafority of soils, except the most friable and easily dried, it is impos- sible to work the roller in winter. In spring much benefit HARVESTING OF WHEAT 317 results from rolling and harrowing. Horse-hoeing and hand-hoeing are also practised in some districts with advantage, though the drilling is sometimes so badly done that the horse-hoes cannot be worked without destroying a portion of the plant. Nevertheless, ex- cepting upon certain soils of peculiar character, the wheat crop is greatly improved by hoeing, and the land remains cleaner subsequently, as not only are annual ■vveeds destroyed, but seedling plants of couch and docks are killed. Hand-hoeing wheat costs from 3^. 6d. to 4s. 6d. per acre. Often in the spring the young wheat plant turns a sickly yellow colour- and appears to be going off. When this is the case a top dressing of some quickly-acting nitrogenous manure, such as nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, should be applied at the rate of about 1 cwt. per acre. This will generally have the effect of restoring the colour and the vigour of the crop. Harvesting. — ^Wheat should not be allowed to ripen before it is cut. When the straw immediately below the ear assumes a yellow tinge, it is time to commence cutting. If left until it is perfectly ripe, the quality of the grain is injiired by the increase in the thickness of the bran- (fig. 48) and a corresponding decrease of flour inside ^t, without gain in weight or bulk. The grain is also liable to be 'whipped' out by strong winds if the crop is allowed to stand too long. Cutting somewhat later has certain advantages, however, when the grain is to be used for seed purposes, as a thin skin is then of no advantage. The yield in these circumstances is also greater, the sample plumper, and the seed well matured. Some discretion is needed as to the degree of ripeness which the 'kernel,' or grain, is allowed to attain, for, if the weather is very hot and the straw is very thin, the sap ceases to flow upwards so early that the grain feeds but little from the straw and fails to mature; examples are hot iafrequently seen on thin chalk soils. On rich loams, where the straw grows stout and thick, the cutting may be commenced when, the straw becomes only slightly yellow. Cutting wheat green has quite gone out of fashion. 318 FARM CROPS Wheat is usually cut by reaping machines; but occasionally, in wet seasons, when the crops are storm- broken and twisted, the scythe or the fagging-hook is necessary, as the machines are liable to cut off the ears BO closely that they cannot be gathered by horse-rakes, and are therefore lost. Manual labour is always more highly paid in harvest-time than at other seasons, and perhaps the most common practice when the work is done by the day is to double the ordinary wages. In those districts where the men receive no extra sum or bonus at Michaelmas, it is customary among farmers to pay more during harvest to the jiermanent hands employed on the farm. The extra wages are, in fact, a sort of retain- ing fee to insure a plentjful supply of workmen at that busy season. Work is often let by the piece, so that the men are paid in accordance with what they actually do. In one way or another the earnings of labourers in dif- ferent districts vary from £4 to £8 per harvest month. From this it may be gathered that the cost of the dif- ferent operations connected with harvesting varies very much according to custom, and what is looked upon in one locality as an excessive wage is not considered great in another. For instance, tying wheat costs in some districts 3s. per acre, whilst as much as 5s. per acre is given in others, and, in the case of badly-laid, crops, Is. or more is occasionally added to this. Cutting by means of a machine costs about 2s. per acre, more or less, according as the weather is favourable for the work: this, with 3s. 6d. for tying and stooking, brings the total cost to 5s. 6d. per acre. Mowing, tying, and stook- ing generally costs from 6s. to 10s. per acre; but, in some years, many farmers give as much as 20s. per acre where the crops are much storm-broken. By the' use of the binder, cutting and tying costs from 33. to 4s. per acre. Wheat should not be tied when it is in a wet con- dition; but as it has to stand in the stook for a long time, it is not greatly injured if it is tied whilst the weeds in it are still green. The sheaves should be set up in stocks or shocks immediately after they are tied. The steoks should be composed of not more than twelve STACKING OF WHEAT 319 sheaves, six on each side of the shock, and so placed that the sun may shine equally on both sides. The stocks must be arranged in such a way that whilst the butt ends of the sheaves stand well out on the ground, the ears are brought together at an acute angle, in order that the rain may shoot off themj dtherwise the mois- ture will soak into the sheaves, and great damage will result to the grain. The practice of clubbing the sheaves into a round heap, forming a large flat surface of ears, is most injudicious, and is generally the result of laziness on the part of the men, or of carelessness on the part of the farmer. * Wheat is rarely flt for stacking in less than a week after it is cut, and in dull seasons it may require to be left a fortnight before it is safe to stack it. If stacked too soon it will ferment, and the grain will become mouldy, or acquire a permanent odour,, which will cause the flour made from it to be unsaleable. The carting and stacking without an elevator require a man and a lad to load, and four men to empty the carts and make the stack. They will clear from 8 to 15 acres per day, according to the size of the crop. Wheat should not be carted while the insides of the sheaves are wet, and great care, should be taken that they are dry beneath the band. If the sheaves have been thoroughly dried a heavy dew need not prevent carting, nor need a slight rain put a stop to the operation. AH stacks should be laid on a bottom which allows the air to circulate freely under them. In building, it is necessary that the middle of the stack be kept con- siderably higher than the walls, as, in the process of settling, the middle, owing to the greater amount of pressure, sinks more than the outside. If the* stack settles in such a W9,y that the inner portion becomes lower than the outer, the butts of the sheaves on the external face will be higher than the ears ; consequently, whenever rain falls on them it will be conducted to the middle of the stack, instead of being at once shot to the ground. After the stack has settled sufficiently — which is very little in the case of a properly built stack — it should be thatched with straw, or covered in with 320 FARM CROPS one of the modern substitutes for thatch, such as corru- gated iron. A well-built stack sufiers little from rain even when unthatched, while one which is badly con- structed often suffers considerably when it is thatched. The cost of thatching is Is. per square of 100 square feet. Taking one crop with another, the harvesting on a farm is often let at about 10s. to 12s. per acre, the master finding machines, horses, and boys to drive the horses during carting. Wheat is now all threshed by machinery. When an ordinary eight-horse set is employed, with an elevator (fig. 27) to lift the straw, one man is required to tend the engine, another to feed the machine, another to cut the bands, two men to throw up the sheaves, two men on the straw-stack, one to look after the corn and cav- ings, and one to fetch water and ql^ar away the chafi. Boys may be employed in the place of men in the latter light jobs, but the equivalent of nine to ten men must, be provided. In a day of ten hours, from eighty to one hundred sacks of corn, according to the crop and yield, should be threshed. The modern threshing machines are made with very efficient cleaning apparatus, so that nothing but corn need be left in the sample. Owing, however, to care- lessness and other causes, rubbish finds its way into the sack, and must be removed. A well-cleaned sample always sells more easily, and commands a more remunerative price, than the same sample containing impurities. Hence, in practice, it is found advisable to further clean grain, although it has been treated as well as the threshing machines are able to do it. With this object the corn is dressed or winnowed (fig. 33), or is passed through machines which perform both operations at the same time. Wheat is now sold by weight, but the standard varies very much in different markets. The weight of an imperial bushel is 63 lb., and the net weight of a quarter (8 bushels) is 504 lb. The average natural weight of a bushel is 61^ lb. The average yield of wheat in Great Britain is some 30 bushels of grain to the acre, although good crops may OATS 321 reach as much as 50 bushels, or more. The yield of straw will vary from 30 to 35 cwt. Oats. — Oats will grow on most soils provided there is sufficient moisture; the question of climate being really more important for their successful growth than that of soil. They are well suited to the damp climates of the north of England and Scotland, as they require less warmth and sunshine than wheat or barley. In the dry districts of the south they prefer the stiffer soils, but in wet climates the best results are obtained on the lighter loams. Oats may also be grown at considerable elevations above the sea level, and they are generally the first corn crop taken after breaking up grass-land. Seeding.;r-Oats, as a corn crop, are almost always sown in the spring, but in a few light-land districts they are popular as an autumn-sown crop. If sown in the autumn, they should be put in early, so as to become well established before the frosts begin. The spring- sown oats, which may be taken after roots, leys, potatoes, and other crops, should likewise be seeded early. After the opening of the year, no opportimity when - a fitting seed-bed can be obtained should be missed. It is advisable to put the seed in on a well- prepared seed-bed, but, if the land is judiciously worked, it is not absolutely necessary that the finest tilths should be made, as the plant is robust, and if the surface should be a little coarse the fault may generally be corrected by subsequent harrowing and rolling. Hence, there is nothing of a very special nature in the preparation of the seed-bed for oats. Seeding may be continued late in the season, although the earlier-sown crops almost invariably yield best; but a fair crop of oats may be obtained when it would be too late to sow barley with the expectation of obtaining a paying crop. Thus, when the root crop is not cleared by sheep until too late for barley, quickly maturing varieties of oats may be profitably sown. Oats may be either sown broadcast, or drilled. Drilling, of course; permits of better opportunities of cleaning the 322 FARM CROPS crop subsequently, and on land troubled with annual weeds- this is of much importance. The after-cultivation of oats is similar to that of wheat, and if the land is loose and open after planting it may be advisable to harrow and roll just when the young plant is coming through. Harvesting. — Oats should not be allowed to become thoroughly ripe before cutting; in fact, they are best cut as soon as the grain is fairly filled, as the latter has great power of absorbing nutriment from the stout straw characteristic of the crop. It is advisable to cut oats when there is a light yellow shade noticeable throughout the field; the straw below the neck will still be green. The warning given previously in reference to the early cutting of wheat on poor land is applicable to oats. The crop is cut, sheaved, and stocked in the same way as wheat. Oats, however, require to be in the stook for a greater length of time than wheat, for they retain mois- ture longer, and. readily ferment when stacked. Fer- mented oats are distinguished from others by their brown skins, and are not so valuable because they have an injurious effect on animals which consume them. The straw makes an exceediagly useful fodder, especially when chaffed. The yield of oats may vary from 40 to 60 bushels of grain per acre, according to the crop, and the straw from 30 cwt. upwards. Barley. — This cereal requires more careful cultivation than any of the other cereal or corn crops. It is so very necessary that a. uniform sample at harvest should be obtained, that care must be exercised in every operation before and during the growth of the crop. Barley is grown more in England than in other parts of the United Kingdom, and climate and season play an im- portant part in determining the value of the crop. The dry climate of the south and east of England appears to be more particularly adapted to the production of first-rate malting samples, and the crop seems to give the best results on the lighter soils, especially those on the limestone formations. Strong clay soils and soils of a peaty nature are not so well adapted to the growth REQUIREMENTS OF BARLEY 323 ^of barley. Barley is most commonly taken after roots ; but, as it is found that after a heavy crop of roots has been fed on the land the soil is too high in condition, and is consequently likely to produce an over-rapid and unreliable growth, and a coarse, uneven sample of grain, unfitted for malting purposes, it has become the practice with many farmers to first grow a crop of wheat after the roots. Barley grown upon a wheat stubble generally yields a far superior sample to that obtained after roots fed by sheep, and, since wheat has been so cheap, barley often follows ' seeds ' in place of wheat. The former practice allows the high condition of the soil to be reduced, and the inequalities in the feeding- oif of the roots to be rectified, before a barley crop is taken. This is good farming so far as it can be adopted ; but the extent to which the system is applicable is limited, because wheat is not often a paying crop when planted in the spring, and the land, on which it is grown must necessarily be that from which the roots are fed off before December. Oats may be substituted upon the later-fed-off ground with advantage. Barley is also grown after potatoes, and occasionally after tilths made during autumn, which have been produced under autumn cultivation. Whatever the previous crop, it is very necessary that a thorough tilth should be prepared. The best tilths are those which are obtained by the soil having been exposed in the furrow to the effects of frost during winter, hence the land should be turned as early as cir- cumstances will permit. It is useless — in fact, harmful — to stir this land in winter, and it should be left alone on all occasions except the special one afforded during moderate frost, when, if turned, the furrow is un- doubtedly very much mellowed. After roots, unless the land has been badly trodden and ' poached ' whilst being fed off by sheep, so that the sheSp have sunk into the depths of the fallow ploughing, the ploughing for barley should not exceed more than 3 to 4 inches in depth. Barley requires a ' kind ' seed-bed, but it is essential that it should also have^ firm hold for its roots ; and this is not obtained when a deep. light tilth M 2 324 FARM CROPS is prepared, as is not uncommonly the case. The tilth must be light, free from excessive moisture, and must be obtained without puddling the ground below the immediate surface, or the free percolation of rain-water will be impeded, and though to outward appearances there may be reason to expect a healthy growth, an unsatisfactory crop will result. If there is time in the spring, the land may be ploughed again; but this is not often convenient, and it is more common to work the land to a tilth by means ot repeated stirrings and harrowings, using the implements in the usual order of scarifier, drag-harrow, harrow, and roller, following up the next workings by dropping the heavier imple- ments, until, as the time for seeding approaches, the lighter harrows only are used. Seeding. — Barley should be drilled, as it is more evenly deposited .in the land than when it is sown broadcast on the surface and harrowed in to unequal depths. When the seeding is effected at different depths the germination is uneven, as some of the seed may not reach the moisture, while other falls to the proper depth, and some goes too deeply. A crop which comes up unevenly makes a bad start towards producing a uniform sample of grain, suitable for malting. The seed should be harrowed in so as to be lightly covered, and if the soil is not left sufficiently ' kind,' fine, and mellow on the surface, this must be rectified by harrowing or rolling as occasion permits, both before and after the plant is above ground. After Cultivation. — Barley may bte rolled or harrowed with advantage, provided the land is dry, at the time that the blade is appearing above ground; and again when the plant is about 3 inches high, and the second strong shoot is commencing to grow. If the work is done at other periods, there is danger of the plant being smothered. In some districts barley is never hoed, but, as in the case of wheat, if the work is done under favourable circumstances it proves profitable. Harvesting. — Barley should not be cut until it is fully ripe, or a uniformly germinating sample for malting will not be obtained. The straw should be white, and the HARVESTING OF BARLEY 325 ear should hang on one side, becoming ' sickle-headed,' a term used to denote that the ear has curved down- wards. The grain should be hard, and the skin covering it should be wrinkled into a fine network. If the skin is smooth, or contains colour, it will not attain the clear, light shade so necessary for a perfect sample of malting barley. Barley is considered to be benefited by being exposed to alternate sunshine and light rain or dew for two or three days after cutting, as the grain becomes more mellow and improves in colour. For this reason it is held preferable to cut barley by the scythe if good weather can be ensured, for by turning it twice the whole of the ' kernels ' become bleached to the same extent, thus avoiding the 'two colours' which maltsters complain that they get in a sample which has been sheaved, thereby preventing the inner por- tion of the sheaves from benefiting from the mellowing effect of genial weather after the crop is cut. In the north of England, however, both opinion and practice are the reverse. Barley is fit to Stack much sooner when it lies loosely than when bound in sheaVes ; especially is this the case when there is much green material, such as clover or weeds, present, as the sun and wind have a free oppor- tunity to exercise their influence, which is impossible in a tightly bound sheaf. Much smaller loss also is believed to result when the scjrthe is used in cutting the crop, as there need be no ears cut off short on a fairly -up- standing crop ; whereas, with a machine, there are always dropping ears which are snipped off and lost. Here, again, however, local -opinion is at variance, for North Country farmers consider that there is more waste with the scythe than with the machine. Many farmers strongly support the custom of tying barley, and a great point _in favour of the practice is that, when the barley is bound, there is much less trouble to cart, stack, and thresh it. But it is' not uncommon, during wet periods, for the sheaves to become saturated, and it is then found necessary to untie them, and spread them out to dry. The flaggy nature of the straw is much more likely to cause the water to be absorbed than is the case with 326 FARM CROPS wheat ; therefore the fact that the sheaves are stooked is not sufficient to guarantee the safety of the crop. A short supilly of labour has compelled many farmers to use the binder; and this is now the general method of cutting in most districts. It seldom happens that barley comes out of a stack in the same condition as it went in ; it is usually better or worse. If carted in good condition it improves; if stacked when damp it deteriorates. It is therefore very necessary to cart it when in good condition. As it readily spoils, it should be stacked whenever an opportunity should offer. As wheat is much less likely to be injured in the field, the carting of wheat should always give way to the carting of barley when the weather is favouralsle. Barley stacks should be thatched as soon as possible, as the flaggy straw prevents the water from running off the roof, where it soaks in and does much damage. Care should be taken, during both stacking and threshing, that inferior barley does not get mixed with that which is bright and good, for a very small quantity of bad barley is capable of deteriorating a large bulk to the extent of many shillings per quarter. Barley, of all corn, requires to be well prepared for market, and, in addition to the ordinary winnowing, it is advisable to put it over the ' Boby ' screen. The weight of an imperial bushel is 66 lb,, which is about 2 lb. in excess of the average natural weight. The average yield of barley is from 32 to 40 bushels of grain, and some 20 cwt. of straw per acre. Eye. — This cereal is not grown to any great extent for its grain in this country, but is sometimes used as a forage crop. It will grow in late districts and on poor soils unfavourable to the cultivation of other xorn crops. In the few places where it is grown as a grain crop it takes the place of wheat in the rotation, but where cul- tivated as a forage crop it generally comes in as arcatch crop before roots. The cultivation is similar to that of wheat, the land being ploughed, and a seed-bed firm underneath and not too fine on the surface being obtained. When grown for forage, it generally follows a corn crop, the stubble of PULSE CROPS 327 which is dunged and ploughed, and then worked down into a seed-bed with ,the drags and harrows. In either case it is, as a rule, sown in autumn, the seed being drilled at the rate of 2 to 3 bushels per acre. When consumed as a forage crop it has to be mown or eaten off in good time in the spring before the ear appears, for as soon as it gets at all old it becomes coarse and unpalatable to stock. , When harvested as a corn crop it is generally ripe before the other cereals — about the end of July or begin- ning of August — and cutting and subsequent operations in securing the crop are the same as in the case of wheat. The average yield of grain is from 24 to 32 bushels, and straw 30 to 40 cwt. per acre. PULSE CROPS Beans. — These are sometimes sown in the autumn, • and are then known as ' winter beans,' as the varieties used are hardy, and are able to withstand the cold of a moderately severe winter, though they are sometimes killed, especially if the land be wet from want of drain- age. Winter beans are fit for harvesting earlier than spring beans, and are less liable to injury from the green and black ' flies ' (aphides), which do much harm to late beans. As the ' flies ' do not, as a rule, appear until July, it is a decided advantage for the beans to reach a stage in which they are past injury. Beans do best on the stronger soils, especially those containing a fair percentage of lime; in fact, beans, as in the case of wheatj will grow on the heaviest clays in this country. The light soils in the drier districts are not so well adapted to their growth, and the crop is often disappointing in these cases. Beans are rather an uncertain crop, and liable to be affected by severe frost. They are, therefore, more suited to the genial climate of the southern portion of Great Britain. On heavy land beans are sometimes ' taken as a cleaning crop in the place of roots, and the 328 FARM CROPS success of the crop may then be taken as a test of clay-land farming. As noted elsewhere, beans, being a leguminous crop, form a good preparation for the succeeding wheat crop. The seeding is simple. A piece of land which has grown wheat on heavy soils or barley on the loams is dunged and ploughed immediately after harvest, and, after it has been harrowed to a rough seed-bed, the beans are drilled and covered in by harrowing. It is a common practice in the north of England to ridge up land in the same way as for turnips, the ridges being 24 in. apart. Farmyard or other manure is put into the ridges, the beans are sown broadcast, and the ridges are split back over the manure and the seed. The ridges are harrowed down just before the beans appear above ground, and thus the growth of weeds is checked. Or, in other cases, the ridges may be split back over the manure first, aifd then the seed drilled on the top of the ridge in a similar way to sowing mangels or turnips on the ridge. Another very simple method of planting followed on wet soils is ' ploughing in.' In this case a small seed hopper or drill is attached to the beam of every second or third plough, according to the distance apart it is required to place the rows, and the seed is simply dropped into the bottom of the furrow and covered as the work proceeds. ' Dibbling ' by hand is an old and cherished method of planting beans still followed in a few places, the beans being dibbled in the unbroken furrow and after- wards harrowed in. This method has the advantage in wet seasons of allowing the planters to get on to the land weeks earlier than it would be possible to put horses on for drilling purposes. It is very necessary to plant the beans early in the autumn, otherwise they are not so well able to with- stand cold weather. As soon after harvest as possible is, therefore, the correct time for planting beans. Never- theless, the greater portion of the bean crop is perhaps planted in the spring, bean-sowing being the first seed- ing operation after winter. When beans are drilled in HARVESTING OF BEANS 329 spring the land first requires harrowing with heavy harrows to produce a seed-bed. The seed-bed need not be particularly fine. After drilling, two or three har- rowings will be required to cover the seed with soil. With the exception mentioned above, beans are not sown broadcast, as it is impossible in that case to thoroughly clean the crop. After Cultivation.— Beans, which are drilled in wide rows on heavy land which cannot be worked during winter, should be cleaned by the hand-hoe and the horse- hoe. A thorough tillage should be effected, especially among the winter beans. A single-row horse-hoe is^the best implement for the purpose of loosening the ground, and this should be followed by the hand-hoe. On lighter soils, spring beans may be cleaned with a three-row horse-hoe, as the object is cleaning rather than tilling. The hoes should be kept going until the beans have grown so high that further working among them would be injurious. Harvesting. — Beans should be cut. when the leaf has fallen, but it is not till some time after cutting that the seed becomes brown and hard. The crop is occasionally mown, more often cut with a fagging-hook, and still more frequently with a reaping machine, though the hard stalks are very injurious to the knives. When the pods grow close to the ground, it is necessary to allow the crop to become riper than for cutting, and to pull the plants up bodily by hand. The cost of pulling is about the same as for fagging, 5s. to 6s. per acre. Beans are cut, and afford work for men, when the weather is too wet for employment to be found upon other com crops. They should be tied and stooked, and, after remaining in the stook for a long time, they are stacked in any but very w«t weather. A little outside moisture is not very detrimental, as the stout, stiff stalks allow air to draw freely through the stack. Beans should not be used as food until they have been stacked for the greater part of the year, and are better if allowed to stand over the summer ; the' threshing is best delayed until they are required. The sale weight is 19 stones net ( = 266 lb.) per sack of 4 bushels^. The straw, or haulm, 330 FAEM CROPS though not so valuable as pea straw, is nutritious, and the upper portion is very palatable. ' The yield of the bean crop is from 30 to 40 bushels of grain, and some 25 to 30 cwt. of haulm or straw per acre. Peas. — This crop grows best on the lighter descrip- tions of soils, such as the sands, gravels, and freer- working loams, especially when these soils contain a fair percentage of lime. Peas are occasionally drilled in the autumn, but the practice does not gain ground, most growers finding that the crop does as well when sown in the spring, Peas are, as a rule, planted on a barley stubble which is broken up in the autumn, very commonly after the con- clusion of the wheat-seeding. It is generally found that peas flourish best on a stale furrow, and that beans do best on a comparatively new furrow ; therefore m plough- ing in the autumn, the pea land should be turned over first. Peas are sown at different periods, according to the varieties. The field-pea, of which there are several sorts, distinguished by bearing a blue blossom, should be sown as early as possible in the spring. The white peas and round blues, such as the Prussian blues, all of which bear white flowers, should be got in next^some time during February or March. The soft, wrinkled peas, grown for culinary purposes, should not be sown too early in open field culture, and except for very early picking should not be put in until April, or, being tender, they will probably be injured by frost. Peas require a finely-prepared seed-bed, and should not be drilled when the land is at all sticky; the rdore tender varieties require comparatively better seed-beds than do the hardier kinds. It is rarely advisable to plough pea land a second time, but it should not be trampled on whjle wet below the surface, or a fine under-tilth will not be obtained. It is better to delay the seeding than to puddle the ground by trampling it too soon. If the land is harsh and unkind it should be stirred first with a scuffler, then with the drag-harrows, then with light harrows, and, if necessary, reduced by rollers. If the land is in a mellow state the drag-harrows HARVESTING OP PEAS 331 will be sufficiently heavy to stir it, and the lighter har- rows will perfect the tilth. The seed should be drilled whilst the land is friable, and covered in by sufficient harrowings to render the peas secure from birds. After Cultivation. — Peas should be harrowed just as the shoot begins to peep above the ground. If used at this stage the harrow destroys- many small weeds, and opens the soil immediately around the individual plants with beneficial effect. The crop should be harrowed and rolled when about 3 inches high, whilst hand-hoeing should be commenced early, and continued until the rows meet, and the hoes can no longer be worked. Harvesting. — Peas should not allowed to ripen before being cut, or many of the pods burst, and the peas fall out during the turnings to which it is necessary to sub- ject them while in the field. It is sufficient that the haulm should be yellow, and the pods tough and like- wise of a yellow colour. All peas should be cut with a pea-hook (p. 97), and should be worked up during the operation into small heaps or 'wads.' If the peas are mown by a scythe, the pods ard liable to be cut open, or to be left on the ground on the base of the haulm. Pea-hooking costs from 5s. to 8s. per acre. After the crop has lain in wads until these have become somewhat dried, the heaps must be turned over. From time to time they must again be turned, especially in wet or dull weather, when, if not turned, they become mouldy both in the middle and at the bottom of the wads. If carted before they are in fit condition, they become mouldy in the stack. It is particularly necessary that the softer or wrinkled varieties should be stacked in good condi- tion, or a very large proportion of the peas will be spoilt. When they are being threshed, care must be taken that they are not split, or they will be useless for seed purposes. It is often necessary, especially with the softer varieties, to take off the steel bar from the beaters to "avoid too hard hitting. A sack of peas (4 bushels) should weigh 19 stones (= 266 lb.). Pea haulm is the most valuable of the straw foddersj and is particularly suitable, when chaffed or steamed, for dairy cows and ewes. 332 FARM CROPS The yield of grain is from 30 to 40 bushels per acre, together with some 25 cwt. of straw or haulm. ROOT CROPS Preparation of the Land foe Root Chops. — This occupies to a greater or less extent nearly every season of the year, although the time at- which the work is most actively carried on is during the seasons of autumn cultivation (immediately after harvest), winter plough- ing, and spring ploughing, to which may be added early summer stirrings, when the actual seed-beds are pre- pared. (See chapter vii. on Tillage.) The process of cleaning is much more easily effected when the first stirring or ploughing is done on dry land in dry weather. The comminution of the land is very difficult when it is in a wet condition, and the endeavour in bringing land to a tilth is to work it so that none of the operations cause any portion of it to ' puddle ' or become annealed. When land is trodden upon or worked while it is in a wet or sticky condition it dries into harsh clods, and these clods, when reduced by force, as by rollers or harrows, do not fall down into a soft, mellow powder, but into small, angular particles which have not the power of retaining moisture during droughty periods. ^ A special effort should always be made to prepare a piece of land for the mangel crop, for mangel is best sown early in the spring, at a time when the perfect tilth required is often difficult to obtain. The most ap- proved method of preparing the land is to choost a piece which is nearly, if not quite clean, and to fork out any small pieces of couch, so that the work in the spring may be directed solely to the" obtaining of a tilth, without any hindrance being caused by cleaning. After the couching, the land should be dunged with long dung, and turned over in dry weather, when good working in the, spring will be ensured. It is not advisable to hinder the spring seeding of the cereal crops by employing the horses on the fallows ; PKEPARATION FOR ROOT CROPS 333 consequently, u'atil the greater portion of the corn is sown, it is not usiml to do much to the fallows. If, how ever, the work is forward, the fallowing operations will be made more easy if the land is ploughed or BCu£B.ed in March, provided the weather is favourable. Steam cultivators and steam drag-harrows are particularly valuable at this season, as by their use the greatest advantage from a short spell of fine drying weather can be obtained, inasmuch as a large tract can be worked. By using these heavy implements -first, the horse- work is greatly lightened,, as the most severe strain on the horses occurs during the first moving of the land. As the season progresses, the cleaning and tilth-preparing operations should proceed, and, if the dung has not been got on during winter and the earlier part of spring, it should be carted on whenever an opportunity should offer. Dung for roots, when applied in the spring, should always be put on in a rotten condition, as the crop will speedily need to make use of it, so that there will be little possibility of its fertilizing ingredients being washed out before the plant can take them up. The method of preparing a tilth on the root fallows has already been discussed in tie chapter on Tillage, but a few further remarks on the subject may here be added. The preparation of the land for the root crop must be carried out in such a manner as to result in the production of a deep mellow filth. Where the land per- mits it, the furrow should be ploughed at least 6 inches deep, and the whole of the land which is moved should be made into a friable tilth. If the land is wet, and in a moist, sticky condition below the surface, a proper tilth cannot be obtained unless the under side of the furrow is brought to the surface to be subjected to the disintegrating effect of the weather, the chief factors of which — rain, wind, sunshine, and frost — all help to shatter the clods. If heavy land is turned up when wet, and great care is not exercised in its management, it is liable to aggregate into ' nubbly ' brick-like clods, . unless there are a considerable number of alternating frosts and small showers to prevent this. At the same 334 FARM CROPS time, if circumstances permit, and the clods become quite dry, then, on being rained upon, they will lose their adhesive properties, and the particles will fall down to a fine mould. As it is uncertain, however, when the rain will fall, there is great risk in this latter process, as the season may become too far advanced before advan- tage can be taken of it, and the crop may not be sown soon enough to afford as large a yield as if sown earlier. The light frosts which often occur during spring are most useful, and should be utilized on all occasions. When frosts are Ijkely to take place, it is advisable to stir the surface with harrows, so that a moist side of the clod may be brought under the influence of the cold; and when the clods are in a frosted condition, which may perhaps only last an hour or two after sun- rise, a special effort should be made to move them, as they will break much more easily for being stirred while frozen. There is a large breadth of swedes and turnips sown in the north of England, where the land is not again touched by the plough, after the good stubble furrow which has been turned over in autumn or early winter. The land is allowed to become thoroughly dry, and is then broken up by grubbers and harrows to the depth of the winter furrow. Thus the friable soil, which has been exposed to the action of frost, is kept at the sur- face to hraird the turnips (i.e., to promote the growth of the seedling plants), whilst the moisture is likewise retained in a dry season. The cleaning and tilth-preparing operations for roots are carried out on practically the same lines as those recommended for autumn cultivation. As, however, fine seed-beds are required, the final operations must be performed more carefully and delicately, as there are fewer opportunities of correcting errors. Great care must be taken not to plough during wet weather, nor to harrow the land while it is wet or immediately before rain, or it will run together, forming a paste on the surface, which; on drying, will set like cement, and destroy the tilthy properties of the soil, whilst a large amount of fresh work, entailing a corresponding loss ]^PAEATION FOR ROOT CROPS 336 of time, will ha^ve to be done. It is impossible to convey on paper the, cir\j^mstances under which it is advisable to have the land "harrowed down on the one hand, or rolled down on the^.other, when leaving it. Trifling conditions with regardxto moisture, the amount of work put into the land, th« W^eather present and prospective, and various other circumstances, have to be taken into consideration, and can only be decided upon by observa- tion in the field at the time. Many crops of corn and of roots are seriously reduced in yield owing to the final working being done by the harrow instead of by the rjsller, and vice versd. The general principles to be observed are that it is injudicious to leave the land rolled down when it is moist, or when rain is expected before the surface has become ' hazelled,' or dried into the light-brown colour peculiar to land freshly stirred. It is unsafe to harrow it while very wet, as it can hardly fail to set hard if it dries quickly. If the land is dry and puffy, so that mois- ture may escape before seeding is commenced, and before the moisture which would ascend from below by capillarity has had an opportunity of Tising, it should be rolled in preference to harrowing. A good tilth retains moisture. If a tilth is fine it is able to draw up a large amount of water from below, but it must be sufficiently compressed for the particles of mould to touch one another on all sides, or the capillarity is weak; there- fore, very light dry tilths must be rolled. But if a tilth is consolidated while wet, then, instead of the particles being brought close together, so as to assist the upward flow of moisture, these particles will be, as it were, driven in amongst one another, forming a tough paste and destroying the .capillarity, so that the soil on the immediate surface will receive no moisture from below. As, moreover, the soil will be losing it by evaporation from above, the moisture will so effectually disappear, that any seed sown will be unable to germinate-until rain falls. Want of judgment in the management of the final workings is responsible for the greater portion of the losses of plant in root crops, as well as the indifferent growth of the plant 336 FABM CROPS when up. The knowledge required can only be obtained by constantly witnessing, or taking part in, the opera- tions themselves. It is considerations of this kind which, though apparently trifling, make all the difference between successful and unprofitable farming. Seeding op Root, Cbofs. — Root crops are sown on the ridge or on the flat, according to the district and climate. Th-e ridge system is that in which the land is laid up in ridges 2 feet 3 inches or more apart, and the seed is sown along the top of each ridge. This is practised chiefly in wet districts or on heavy land, the ridge shoot- ing off excessive moisture, which would otherwise be injurious to the growth of the crop. The flat system is carried out in dry districts, and on light dry soils. The moisture is retained longer during droughts than when the land is laid up in ridges into which the sun can penetrate. It is usual to put the dung on the land at some time previous to the final preparations for the seed-bed, when the roots are to be drilled on the flat, so that it may become incorporated with the soil; but, in the case of the ridged land, dung is applied just before the final ploughing. The land, already worked to a tilth, is ridged, ^nd the dung is placed in the furrows ; the ridge is then split back over the dung, thus forming a new ridge upon it, and on this the seed is afterwards drilled. Mangel Wttbzel. — This is the first root crop drilled. Where the land is free from annual weeds, the seeding may be commenced much earlier than if these pests are abundant. If this freedom from weeds has not been secured — and it very rarely is — it frequently happens, during cold seasons, that the weeds grow more freely than the mangel, and the crop becomes so foul that it is impossible to clean it without cutting up the plants, so that it becomes necessary to re-sow the field. Therefore, though the first week in April may be looked upon as a good season for drilling mangel in one dis.- trict, equally good farmers in another district would not put the seed in before the first or second week in May. Mangel does best on strong loams, though with lavish manuring it can be made to grow on almost any MANGEL WURZEL 337 soil It is a v^ry difficult crop to raise, because of the trouble involved in getting a full plant (p. 216). For this reason a little sweck seed is frequently mixed with the mangel seed; if the ipangel is a full plant the swedes are taken out, otherwise they are left to occupy the gaps. The transplanting of small-topped kohl rabi is a still better means of filling up such vacancies. A perfect tilth is necessary, and this when dried should be consolidated so that the seed can be deposited at a uniform depth. If the tilth is loose, the moisture does not rise sufficiently near the surface to promote germination of the seed, which must not be depo'Bited at a depth greater than from ^ inch to 1 inch in the soil ; otherwise it does not come up at all. The final working at the time of drilling must be regulated by the dryness of the tilth, and the probabilities of rain. The seed is sown either without manure, with liquid manure, or with dry-compost manure, as, in fact, are the seeds of all the rdot crops. Although mangels and turnips resemble one another as far as the cultivation of the ground is concerned at a preparation for the crop, they differ considerably as regards their manurlal requirements. The mangel may be described as a gross feeding plant, requiring a liberal *all-round manuring, containing the three essential ingre- dients of plant-food liable to run short in the soil — viz., nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. It is therefore generally grown with heavy dressings of farmyard manure, to which additional supplies of artificials are frequently addedr Mangels possess a strong tap-root, which strikes deeply into the soil, so that they are able to keep themselves fairly well supplied with mineral ingredients during the growing period, but they have difficulty in obtaining sufficient supplies of nitrogen when making rapid growth. In these circumstances it is the custom to apply some quickly-acting nitrogenous manure, such as nitrate of soda, at the rate of 1 to 3 cwt. per acre in two or three top dressings at short intervals. Artificial additions of phosphates and -potash are also often added at the time of sowing the crop, and although the effect of these is not so marked 338 FARM CROPS as in the case of a nitrogenous nianure, still it is a wise precaution on certain soils when bulky crops are being grown. On some land a dressing of common salt will be found to have a beneficial effect, and in these cases it will be unnecessary to use any extra supplies of potash. Manurial experiments carried out in many counties during the last few years tend to show that moderate dressings of dung — say, 12 tons to the acre — can be pro- fitably supplemented with a suitable mixture of artificial manures in growing mangels. In a number of trials carried out on various soils in Gloucestershire the following mixture of artificials in addition to dtmg gave the most profitable result — viz., 4 cwt. of superphosphate of lime, 1 cwt. of sul- phate of ammonia, 4 cwt. of common salt applied at the time of sowing, and Ij cwt. of nitrate of soda applied in two top dressings after the crop was up. In most cases it would be better to apply the common salt a few weeks prior to drilling. In sowing mangel, the rows are drilled at a width of 2 feet 3 inches or more on the ridge, and from 18 inches to 30 inches on the flat, according to the soil and its preparation. Swedes. — These are the most valuable variety of the turnip family. The preparation for this crop is chiefly made in spring, and though the seeding commences in the early part of May in some districts, it is not begun until the second week in June, or even later, in many others. This is because the early-sown swedes are specially liable to attacks of mildew, when grown on soils which soon become parched in seasons of hot, dry weather. If swedes have grown rapidly, and then receive a sudden check, the mildew attacks them, and may utterly destroy them. The early-sown swedes suffer most in this respect, as they are less vigorous. When land is ridged, it is inconvenient to make the ridges of less width than about 2 feet 3 inches ; therefore it may always be understood that crops of roots ,drilled on the ridge are drilled that distance or more apart. On the flat, however, it is not uncommon to drill them as near as 18 inches from row to row, though 2 feet is the most common distance. TURNIPS 339 Swedes and t\jrnips differ from mangels in being shallow-rooted, and therefore require their food in a soluble form near the surface. Phosphoric acid is the ingredient they have the most difficulty in obtaining from the soil, so artificial mixtures used for the swede crop should consist largely of phosphates in some form or other. Good crops of swedes and turnips can be grown with farmyard manure alone, but better results are generally obtained by using a moderate dressing of dung sup- plemented with some quickly-acting phosphatic manure, such as superphosphate of lime. Such a dressing would consist of some 10 tons of dung per acre, put on before- hand, together with 3 to 4 cwt. of superphosphate sown at the time of drilling. It is to be remeinbered, how- ever, that in the north of England larger quantities of artificial manure are used for the root crop than in the south. In some arable districts, such as the Cots- wold Hills, many acres of swedes and turnips are grown with artificials only, without any dung, and in such cases the usual dressing consists of some 4 cwt. of super- phosphate per acre, together witt ^ to L cwt. of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia. Where the soil is naturally deficient in potash, from 2 to 3 cwt. of kainit may also be allowed in addition. TuaNiPS. — There are several distinct varieties of turnips, and there are almost innumerable selections of these varieties, which are very similar in everything but their names. Among the most commonly grown sorts (see p. 182) are the Purple-top Mammoth, Pomeranian White Globe, Imperial Green Globe, Hardy Green Round, Lincolnshire Red Globe, Early Stone, Green-top Aberdeen, Purple-top Aberdeen, All the Year Round, Yellow Tankafd, Favourite, Early Six-weeks, etc. These can be sown so as to provide food from July to Christ- mas or later, if advantage is taken of the early maturing and frost-resisting properties possessed by individual varieties. If sown very late m the summer, they will resist frost, and throw up sprouts in the spring, which are very valuable as sheep or lamb feed in February * and March. A good tilth is necessary, and the earliest 340 FAEM CROPS varieties may be put in during April; but, for a main crop, May and June are usually the best months. Seed- ing may continue on the bastard fallows, and after green crops generally, until the middle or end of August. The stubble turnips, if sown at the latter date, are fit for feeding in the autumn. It is not an uncommon practice to sow the stubble turnips broadcast, but all early-sown varieties should be drilled, in order to allow proper opportunities for hand-hoeing and horse-hoeing. Cabbots. — These roots grow best on light soils free from stones. If grown on heavy soils they are trouble- some to dig up, and so much earth adheres to them that washing becomes tedious and expensive. As the young plants have very small tops, the crop is not suited to weedy land, for in cold seasons the weeds overgrow' the carrots, so that it is practically impossible to separate them. A few oats are sometimes mixed with the carrot seed before drilling, as they help to show up the rows after germination. A fine tilth, prepared • by the land being ploughed and dunged during autumn, and well stirred just before seeding, is necessary; and the seed should be drilled, in March or April, in rows from 12 to 18 inches apart. About 6 to 8 lbs. of seed per acre is required, and before sowing it should be well rubbed and mixed with dry sand or ashes, so that it will not clog in the drill, but will fall freely into the drill-rows. It should be harrowed in with light harrows, and not covered with more than an inch of soil. Carrots are particularly valuable as food for horses and dairy stock. In some districts a small quantity of carrot seed is sown with the mangel crop, as the carrot will often stand where the mangel fails, and it grows well in association with mangel. Pabsnips. — These roots grow more freely than carrots, and, though they require good preparation of the soil, their broader tops are better able to grow away from w«eds. The seed should be drilled in February and March, about 6 to 8 lb. per acre, in rows a foot apart. Much of the information which has been given in this section is presented in a condensed form in Table XXV., pp. 342 and 343. HARVESTING OF ROOTS 341 Subsequent Cultivation or Roots. — Roots require much attention after the seed is drilled. The chief operations are hoeing and horse-hoeing. The horse-hoe should be set to work as soon as the rows of young plajits afford a guide for steering ; and, in cases where the drill-rows have not been harrowed oiit, horse-hoeing may with great advantage be commenced before the plants are visible. It is, of course, necessary to set the hoes so that the small plants shall not be smothered. For this purpose hoes, which are so attached to the stem or standard that the mould is not thrown on to the rows, must be used. Although many specially formed hoes have been introduced to turn the mould inwards from the plant-rows, there is nothing superior to a broad V-flange hoe, with the stem placed some~ distance from the row, as even when the land is wet and there is loose straw t)r litter lying upon it, the hoe does not block. The horse-hoes should be put to work as fre- quently as possible, until the roots get so big that the horses cannot walk along the rows without injuring them. The manual labour consists of flat-hoeing — often dispensed with in the case of swedes and turnips — with a broad hoe alongside the rows, to clean such places as the horse-hoe misses, and of ' singling,' to SBt the plants out at regular distances, and to separate the plants so that there shall not be more than one standing together. Singling should commence when the plants have a width of about 3 or 4 inches across the leaves. The operation is rarely done perfectly at the first attempt, and it is usual for it to be done twice. The cost of the three manual operations varies from 10s. to 12s. per acre, according to the width between the rows. Where the rows are placed about 18 inches apart, the plants may be left from 14 to 16 inches from centre to centre; on widths of 2 feet 3 inches, a space of 11 inches is sufiScient. In some localities,,, roots are hoed into bunches, and afterwards singled by hand by women and children. Habvesting or Roots. — Swedes are gqt_ up in the autumn for storage in the field where they were grown, Sept. Not., ly in .; oc- inaa- n the owed) Bown. .; oe- inau- n the iriety Jan. white and nkled hand ■§s o v o i Middle of to end of oooasiona the spring eb. to Apri casionally tumu, whe winter(6-r variety is eb. to Apri casionally tumn, wh€ winter v is sown, leld peas, and Feb.; peas, Feb March; wri peas, Marc April, spt. and Oc end of Ja March. ft ft ft , m J) S => o g S S 344 FARM CEOPS or they are carted to the homestead. Pulling up and topping, and throwing the swedes into heaps — the ter- minal roots should not be cut off — costs 6s. 6d. to 83. per acre. Uove.ring the heaps in the field costs from Is. to Is. 6d. per acre in addition. The manual cost of carting off the roots is Is. to Is. Gd., according to the weight of the crops. These prices are somewhat ex- ceeded in the north of England, where wages are high. When stored, the roots should be carefully covered with a layer of straw several inches in thickness, and over this a layer of earth some few inches deep should be placed to keep out wet. The mangel crop is harvested some time in October or early November, when the leaves turn yellow, as it is very susceptible to frost. The roots should be injured as little as possible in lifting to prevent bleed- ing, and the tops are preferably twisted off. After remaining a day or two on the surface to dry, they are carted to the pit or clamp, where they are carefully stacked together, and then covered first with a layer of straw and then with a layer of earth to protect them from the weather during the winter. A ventilating shaft, con- sisting of a bunch of straw or a drain-pipe, should be inserted at a distance of every six or eight yards. Turnips are not usually stored, as, being soft, they are easily gnawed by sheep. When required for cattle they are pulled in the same manner as swedes. Carrots must be dug with a fork, and str;red in a similar manner to swedes. Parsnips may be left in the land until required, as they withstand severe frost. They, however, must also be dug. CRUCIFEROUS FORAGE CROPS Rape. — This is very similar in its management to turnips. Occasionally a small area is sown in March to provide early sheep-keep in July. This is generally left, after feeding, to produce a second crop in spring. There are two varieties, the Dwarf and the Giant. The Dwaff CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 345 is usually grown on thin chalk and other light soils; the Giant is more commonly grown in the Fens, where it is sown broadcast or drilled in June, and fed off in September. The greater portion of the DWarf rape is grown on land which has carried an autumn-sown catch- crop, and is drilled in May and June, at the rate of about 5 lb. per acre, in rows 15 inches apart. Kohl kabi, Thousand-headed Kaie, and Red and Gbeen Cabbages.— These all belong to the same family, and are a very valuable addition to the green forage crops of the farm. The chief advantages they possess over turnips are that they are not so liable to turnip- sickness and allied diseases, they are less affected by drought and frost, they are very nutritious and rarely upset the health of young animals, and they may be eaten at any stage of their growth with impunity. They also not only stand transplanting, but grow more freely as a consequence, thus affording longer time for the fallowing operations. Being in the first place grown in small compact seed-beds, they are more under the con- trol of the grower, who is able to defend them from insect attacks with greater success. Transplanting. — When cabbage, thousabd-headed kale, and kohl rabi are raised in seed-beds, they may be transplanted at various times, so that a supply of green fodder is available without intermission through- out the year. The seed-beds should be sown in March, April, and May to produce plants for transplanting through summer, and in August for autumn and spring transplanting. Kohl rabi should be grown in the spring seed-bed only, the other varieties may be grown in the autumn seed-l9ed also. By transplanting cabbages and kale from the autumn beds, a supply of green food may be relied upon to be fit for feeding from July to Christmas. Kohl rabi from the spring beds, transplanted in May and June, is fit for feeding from December to March ; kale transplanted in summer is at its best from March to June. The cabbage tribe flourishes particularly well on heavy land. The seed-beds should be carefully prepared, as a fine tilth is necessary, and the seed should be harrowed or raked in lightly. 346 FARM CROPS When plants are transplanted they are set out at various distances, according to the land and the variety of plant. Small early cabbages may be placed out at a distance of "2 feet apart in each direction; drumheads and red cabbages are best planted from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet apart. The above crops may also be drilled in the field in the same way as turnips, and afterwards thinned out with the hoe to the required distances apart. Thousand- headed kale can in this way be sown in March or April for use from October to March, and in August for late spring and summer feed. Drumheaded cabbage is often drilled in the spring for late autumn and early winter use. White Mtjstabd. — This is frequently grown as a catch- crop during summer,' with the object of providing green food for feeding off towards autumn. Some 15 lb. of seed per acre are generally sown broadcast after a fine seed-bed has been prepared. LEGUMINOUS FORAQE CROPS Vetches oa Tabes. -f-These are sown principally with the object of providing keep for sheep, and green fodder for cattle and horses in spring, although they are sometimes taken as a crop for seed. They generally follow a white straw crop of some kind, and in light land districts they are often grown as a catch-crop between two main crops in the rotation. There are two varieties, ' the Winter ' and ' the Spring,' the former of which is sown in the autumn and will stand the winter. By sowing at suitable intervals a succession of green food can be arranged on the farm for a large part of the year. The preparation of this crop is simple, a piece of corn stubble being ploughed after a dressing of farmyard manure has been applied and spread. The seed can then be broadcasted and merely harrowed in, or the land can be harrowed down first and the seed afterwards drilled at the rate of 2 to 3 bushels to the acre. When broadcasted rather more seed is generally used. LEGUMINOUS FORAGE .CROPS 347 The crop, when ready, is generally folded oS with sheep, the autfumn-sown crops usually being fed oft in May, and the spring-sown later in the summer, accord- ing to the date of sowing. When grown for seed the crop is cut and harvested in a similar manner to peas. Teifolium or Cbimson. Clover. — This is sown in the autumn as a catch-crop for spring and early summer keep. The cultivation is more simple than that required for any other crop, a corn stubble after harvest being merely well scratched with the drags, the seed then broadcasted on the surface, harrowed in, and finally'^ rolled. No advantage is gained by a more thorough cultivation for this crop, as, although it requires a fine seed-bed on the surface, it likes the land quite firm and tight underneath. Ploughing, in fact, would have an injurious effect on this crop by rendering the soil much too loose, so that it would be impossible to get an even plant. Ltjoerne. — The cultivation of this plant has increased considerably during recent years. It is a valuable crop- on many soils, especially dry calcareous loams, such as those overlying the chalk, where, owing to its deep roots striking into the interstices of the sub- jacent rock, it is able to obtain moisture, and throw up abundant© of green food in a dry season. It does not do so well on soils where the • subsoil is stiff and inclined to be wet. Lucerne is sown either by itself or with a com crop, with the object of remaining down a number of years. The best results, however, seem to be obtained where the crop is sown alone. Whichever way the crop is sown, the land chosen for the purpose should be in good con- dition, and a fine seed-bed should be prepared which is free from weeds. The seed is best drilled in rows at about a foot apart, so as to give an opportunity of cleaning the crop during its growth, for without hoeing the plant soon gives place to weeds. It is sometimes the practice to give an old lucerne ley a sharp harrowing in the winter with the heavy harrows, and this rough treatment seems in many cases to benefit the crop by 348 FARM CROPS Btirring the Boil around the roots. Lucerne is generally cut green for soiling, and after it is established several cuttings may be taken during the summer. The number of years a lucerne ley will stand will depend upon the length of time it can be kept free from weeds, which will eventually grow up and smother it. It must then be broken up. Sainfoin. — This is a crop of great importance to the flockmaster, especially on limestone soils, such as are found on the chalk and oolitic formations. It is very similar in its habits and cultivation to lucerne, and also, owing to its deep roots, it is able to resist drought. It is generally sown about April with a corn crop fol- lowing roots fed off with sheep. Importance should be paid to having the land quite clean before the seed is sown, otherwise there is a chance of the young sainfoin being choked by weeds. The seed is commonly drilled in the husk in the ' rough ' or ' unmilled ' state, as it is called, at the rate of about a sack or 4 bushels to the acre. Sainfoin is usually cut for hay the year after the corn crop is cleared, and the method of securing the crop is the same as for clover hay. There are two varieties of sainfoin, the ' Common,' which is used for long leys, and the French or Giant variety, which is short-lived and only lasts two years. Sainfoin leys are generally allowed to remain down from five to seven years, in some cases . longer, the length of time being determined by the growth of weeds, which, as in the case of lucerne, finally get the mastery. Land which has recently grown sainfoin seems, in some peculiar way, to become heartily sick of the crop, and it is impossible to grow it again successfully on the same soil till a number of years have elapsed. Sainfoin is a most valuable crop to wean lambs upon, and in certain summers, when the lambs do not seem to make headway on any of the other forage crops of the farm, and they are troubled with scouring, a change to a sainfoin ley will often have a beneficial effect, and they will begin to pick up in condition and lay on flesh. CLOVERS AND ' SEEDS ' 349 Both lucerne and sainfoin are crops more particularly suited to the warmer and more genial climate of the south of Englajid. TsEFoiL, Yello-w CxovEa, NoNStrcH, OB, Black Medick {Medicago Vupulina). — This is a plant that will grow on almost any soil, but is specially suited to poor soils in dry climates. It is therefore commonly grown in mix- tures of grasses and clovers on thin limestone soils, but on some of these soils, where it^is iiidigenous it assumes the character of a weed. Clovers and 'Seeds.' — Clovers, and ^ mixtures of clovers and grasses intended to take a place in a rota- tion, are almost always sown in amongst cereal crops, very often at the same time that the corn is sown, but occasionally after the com has made some progress in growth. On the other hand, they are but rarely sown on land which is not to carry a corn crop concurrently with them, for ' leys,' or ' seeds,' as they are commonly termed, require to be on the land a full year before they are fit to feed. Although there is occasionally, during the first year, some little growth which may be fed, yet it is not sufficiently reliable for the crop^to be sown with that object in view. The most common clovers grown in rotation are red or broad clover (TrifoUum praiense), cow-grass (T, praiense perenne), white or Dutch clover (T. repens), alsike (T. hybridum), and trefoil {Medicago lupuUna). All these are sown in one and the same manner. Seeding. — When sown in wheat, barley, or oats, which have appeared above ground, ' seeds ' may be broadcasted on the surface with a seed-barrow, and are then harrowed in very lightly with the lightest seed- harrows, or with a horse-rake. The horse-rake is pre- ferable on loose land, as it can be set so that too much of the surface soil is not disturbed, thereby preventing an excess of earth being thrown upon the seed, which cannot successfully germinate if buried to a greater depth than about half an inch. The harrows are most useful when the land is firm, as is frequently- the case where wheat is being grown. The seed may also be drilled with a light seed-drill, greater i-egularity of 350 FARM CEOPB germination being secured than by broadcasting. But, as the plants stand thickly in rows, they have not quite so good a chance of growing at subsequent periods, for they crowd one another. When drilled with a small- coulter drill, ' seeds ' are best rolled in. The seeding of clovers is often effected before the cereals are up, and they are then harrowed in during the final harrowing of the barley or oats. This is not always advisable, as sometimes the land ' caps,' or forms a hard surface on the top, which is injurious to both the corn and the clovers ; and when the clover has ger- minated it is impossible, without destroying it, to stir the land. For this reason it is most usual, on wet land, to sow the clovers just as the barley is appearing through the soil. Where the land is much troubled with apnual weeds it is wiser to postpone the sowing of the clovers until the corn has been hoed, and the usual custom in such cases is to sow the seed shortly before hoeing, so as to cover it in during the process of hoeing, harrowing being then unnecessary. When rye-grass or other grasses are sown as a mixture with clovers, the seeding is often effected in two operations, i# order to avoid undue proportions of seed in different parts of the field. This is, indeed, necessary when the seeds are drilled with a brush-drill, or sown with a seed-barrow, but not When they are put in with a cup- drill. When land is too frequently cropped with clover it becomes clovei-sick, and is unable to carry the plant to maturity, as the crop dies off during autumn and winter, a minute eel-worm (Tylenchus devastatrix) attack- ing it in the root and stem, and destroying its life. A deficiency of lime and potash is conducive to clover- sickness ; therefore, where there is reason to believe that these substances are lacking, they should be applied in the most convenient form in which they can be obtained in the locality. The surest method of preventing the disease is to refrain from growing red clover too fre- quently. This is best arranged by forming a sub- rotation of clovers in the general rotation. Thus, if red clover is taken in its proper position in the rota- CULTIVATION OF POTATOES 351 tion, but cow-grass or white clover is sown in its place four years after, and alsike grown four years later, then red clover again four years subsequently, red clover will only be on the land once in twelve years, and a plentiful supply of sheep-keep will be provided without risk of clover-sickne,ss. In some localities a mixture of alsike and white clover is sown when red clover is omitted. [Clover-sickness is sometimes due to a fungus.] After Management. — The after-management, ot the ' seeds ' crop is very simple. If the land is loose it is necessary to compress it in the autumn, by means of rollers, or by the treading pf sheep; but ' seeds' must not be fed too hard with "sheep at that season. Sheep are the most perfect compressors of the soil, as they pinch the mould around the roots, whereas other forms of pressure are usually applied in broad sections, which cannot fit into the inequalities of the land. Sheep should not be put on heavy land in a wet autumn ; but it is not often that clovers and ' seeds ' require con- "" solidating during such seasons. The ' seeds ' should be rolled in the spring, and, if it is intended that the crop should be converted into hay, loose stones should be picked off the land, or they will prove troublesome at hay-time. CULTIVATION OF POTATOES , Potatoes are a field crop of considerable importance in certain counties, such as Cheshire and Lincolnshire, parts of Yorkshire and Lancashire, and also in certain districts in Scotland and elsewhere. Although potatoes are often referred to as a ' root crop,' they are not roots at all from the botanical point of view, but the tubers are enlargements of underground stems, which- are stored with reserve food materials, to be used in carrying on future growth (see p. 151). Fresh plants are obtained by a vegetative growth or development from the buds, or eyes, contained in the tubers, and thus the potato differs from other farm crops which reproduce themselves by a process of fertilization and the forma- tion of seed. The potato, however, makes a fresh start 362 PAEM CROPS each year from the tuber, which, is really a portion of the old plant that has died down the preceding year. For this reason a new variety of potato generally begins to lose its vigour after a few years' growth, as is shown by a falling off in the yield and the crop becoming more susceptible to attacks of the potato disease (Phytophthora infestans). Suitable changes of seed from time to time, as regards soil and climate, will help to prolong the life of a variety, but on an average this does not last more than from twelve to twenty years, and often less. Taking the above considerations into account, it is of importance to the grower to. discover which varieties of- potatoes are best suited to any particular soil and district, and thus to increase the productiveness of the crop. Potatoes may be divided into early, second-early or mid-season, and late, according to the time they are ready to harvest. One of the most profitable branches of potato culture is that of growing early potatoes, provided they can be got ready very early in the season before the great glut of new potatoes from abroad and elsewhere floods the markets of the United Kingdom. Certain conditions, however, are necessary to be suc- cessful in the cultivation of early potatoes. One of these is a suitable climate, free from late spring frosts ; another is a deep, warm, well-drained friable soil, capable of being heavily manured. Methods must also be made use of to hasten the growth of the crop, such as putting the seed tubers into shallow trays or boxes, and allowing them to sprout previous to planting. In this way a growth is taking place in the box before the tuber is planted, and thus the grower can afford to wait a week or two longer for suitable weather before planting out in the field. A good deal of care and judgment must be used with regard to the regula- tion of light and temperature in the building in which the boxes are stored; the object being to obtain strong vigorous green shoots on the potatoes which will not easily break off. If the boxes are kept in the dark and at too high a temperature, long, weak, spindly shoots will be produced, which easily break off. Expo- sure to light and reduction of temperature will coun- CULTIVATION OF POTATOES 3B3 teract this tendency. Without the above necessary conditions the growing of early potatoes will be a very precarious business. Potatoes flourish best on deep loose friable soils, such as the lighter loams, especially when ■ they contain a fair amount of organic matter. Poor sandy soils, if heavily manured, will grow good crops, provided there is a sufficient rainfall, and even heavy clays, if suitably treated, may be made to grow them successfully. Big crops are often obtained from recently broken up grass land, -and the potatoes seem to revel in the mass of decaying vegetable matter derived from the old turf. Some of the choicest potatoes are raised on 'the old red sandstone and the marls and sands of the trias; those grown on the greensand are generally of good quality, and most of the liglit, mixed, gravelly loams produce high-clasis tubers. The rich fens and warp deposits yield immense crops, very good for -change of seed, but the quality for eating purposes cannot be depended upon. Some heavy soils grow fair crops of potatoes, but as a rule these are not suited to strong clays w-ith retentive subsoils, and it is often almost impossible to dig them on these soils in a wet autumn. The question of cultivation is a matter of very great importance. Although the methods may vary somewhat in different districts and on different classes of soil, there are a few points which are essential everywhere. In the first place, the land must be thoroughly worked to a good depth, and it is necessary that the crop should be moulded up two or three times during its growth. Where grown as "a field crop, potatoes, as a rule, take the place of roots and follow a grain, crop of some sort, often oats. The land may be ploughed lightly in autumn and worked so as to remove any couch near the surface, but in any case it should receive a deep ploughing before the end of the year, so that the furrow may be exposed to the beneficial action of the winter's frost. It may be necessary in some cases to plough again in spring, but this will all depend upon circum- stances and the state of cleanliness of the land. Farm- yard manure may be applied in the autunm before the If 354 FARM CROPS winter ploughing, or may be spread in a short or rotten condition in the furrow in the spring. This latter method is generally followed on light sandy soils with porous subsoils, where there is, a fear of a large proportion of the manure' being lost by washing into the subsoil if applied too early. Potatoes are grown on the ridge or on the flat, in the same manner as roots. When on the flat the rows are generally 20 to 30 inches apart, and a distance of 12 to 18 inches is allowed between the sets ; on the ridge the distance from row to row is 24 to 30 inches and the sets 10 to 15 inches, according to variety. The method of planting on the ridge is generally adopted in the damper climates of the north and west and on the heavier soils, whereas the flat system is more often followed on the drier soils of the south and east where the rainfall is less. The preparation of the seed-bed is similar to that for roots. When growing on the ridge, the land, after it has been deeply worked and sufficient mould has been obtained, is set up in ridges, as soon as the ground is dty enough in spring, by means of the double-breasted or ridging plough. The manure carts then follow, and the dung, in a rotten state, is thrown out into small heaps, which are afterwards teased out by means of forks along the furrows. Any artificial manure used is then generally sown over the dung, and the sets are then placed in the furrow at the required distances apart. After this the double-breasted plough splits the ridges, thus covering up the seed sets and the manure, and enclosing them in the centres of the newly-formed ridges. When grown on the flat the potatoes may either be ploughed in, the seed tubers being set in every third furrow and then covered with the ordinary plough, or the system of ' holing in ' with the spade may be adopted, in which case the land is first reduced to a tilth. In this latter case the land is marked out in lines across the field, and a man with a spade 'makes holes at regular intervals along the rows, a boy who accompanies him dropping a potato into each hole as SELECTION OF POTATO ' SEED ' 355 it is opened. They then return, the man making holes on a line parallel to the first, and as he does this he fills in the previous holes so as to cover the potatoes; in this way the whole field is planted. Potatoes may also be planted by dibbling them in. The dibble is a thick stick pointed at one end, with which holes are made in the ground, the potatoes being dropped into the holes and afterwards covered with, earth. During its growth the crop inust be kept clear of surface weeds by means of continual hand-hoeings and horse-hoeings, and it is often advisable, especially when growing on the ridge, to commence by running the light harrows over the surface, so as to break any crust which may have formed, and also to destroy annual weeds. When the tops are some 8 to 10 inches high, it will be necessary to earth up the rows by means of the moulding plough, and this will also have to be done a second", and perhaps even a third, time during the summer. The selection of seed is a matter of great importance for the success of the crop ; and the newer varieties should as far as possible be chosen which have been shown to be suitable to the soil and climate of the dis- trict. These, as a rule, are bigger croppers, more vigorous in constitution, and " give more profitable returns ; and there is also less fear of loss from disease. Change of seed from a different class of soil and climate at frequent intervals is advisable. Such a change usually results in healthier and heavier crops. The best results are to be expected from seed brought from a colder and more northerly climate ; seed from a warmer climate will give an earlier crop, but the growth will not be so vigorous. With regard to the best size of seed to use, medium sized sets which will pass through a 1| in. riddle, but not through a Ij in. will be more profitable to plant than either very large, or very small ones, although large sets will give a better yield. It is usually the practice to cut large seed-tubers, at least two eyes or. shoots being left on each set. The N 2 358 FARM CROPS results of recent experiments, however, tend to show that there is not much difference in the yield between planting whole and cut sets, when the same weight of seed is used per acre. It is a mistake to cut early and white-blossomed varieties, as these potatoes are more delicate and liable to decompose when cut. The usual time of planting is from March to the beginning of May, according to the season. The early varieties should be planted first, the second-early next, and the main crop last. From 12 to 15 cwt. of seed, according to the size, is the amount usually required to plant an acre, although in the potato-growing districts the quantity of seed used per acre is often greater than this. Potatoes are a surface-feeding crop, and require a liberal all-round manuring, containing the three essential ingredients — viz., nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash — to ensure an abundant yield. Manuring. — Good crops may be grown with artificials alone, without dung, especially after ' seeds ' or an old turf, but a dressing of farmyard manure is generally considered necessary for the early varieties. Potatoes require plentiful supplies of potash for their starch development, and where a mixture of artificials is used it should contain a fair proportion of some potassic manure. When large dressings of dung are employed artificial manures are not essential, but it is now considered more profitable to use a moderate dressing of dung — say, 12 to 15 tons to the acre — and supplement it with a complete mixture of artificials. Such an artificial mixture might consist of — sulphate of ammonia, 1 cwt. ; superphosphate, 3 cwt. ; sulphate or muriate of potash, 1 cwt. ; making, in all, 5 cwt. per acre. Kainit is sometimes employed as a manure to supply potash, but recent tests seem to point to the wisdom of sowing it some time before planting, so that any im- purities it contains may be washed into the subsoil, as these sometimes have a bad effect on young vegetation. COST OF CROPS 357 ESTIMATE AS TO COST OF GBOWINa CROPS IN A ROTATION Having considered the cultivation of the various farm crops, it will be interesting to examine a few figures showing the cost of production and returns which may reasonably be expected from the growth of a series of crops in rotation.' The ' four-course ' being the typical rotation, on which niost others are baised, seems a fair one to take for this purpose. It is evidently unfair to strike a balance on one crop of the rotation only, such as ' roots,' because, this being the cleaning crop of the rotation, a large proportion of the expenditure on cultivations and manures must be spread over the rest of the course and a part debited to each crop. It will thus be necessary to summarize the expenditure and returns on the whole rotation, so as to be able to draw definite conclusions as to the true financial aspect of the case. In the following estimates the costs of cultivation and produce obtained have been taken as representing a fair average of what might be expected on farms in the Midlands, where the soil is a medium loam, and capable of. being ploughed by two horses. In these calculations a horse is valued at 3s. per day and a man at 2s. Gd. ; harvest wages are taken at 5s. per day. FIRST YEAR (SWEDES). Coat per acre. £ 8. d. Ploughing in autumn (shallow) 8 6 Two draggingB at 1«. 6d 3 Rolling 1 Two harrowings at 9d. 1 6 Chain hariowing 8 Collecting and baming couch 3 FUling, carting and spreading dung, 12 loads at lOd 10 Winter ploughing (deep) 12 Bpring ploughing (croem Two cnltivatingB at le. 6d 8 3 358 FARM CROPS FIRST YEAR (SWEDES)— Co«( per acre—contd. I £ s. d. Dragging J Harrowing Rolling ... 1 Drilling seed and superphosphate 2 Seed, 2 lb. at 9d 16 Superphosphate, 3 owt. at Ss. 9 Harrowing after drill 9 Rolling after drill Horse-noeing 2 Hand-hoeing and singling 6 ' Horse-hoeing 2 Hand-hoeing (2nd time) ... 4 Horse-hoeing 2 Pulling, topping, cleaning and burying on field... 15 Rent, rates and taxes 15 1 3 9 9 £6 3 8 7fa9iiiwm m 18 tons of swedes at Ss. per ton (consuming value) £4 10 SECOND YEAR (BARLEY). Cost per acre. £ 8. d. Ploughing ... 10 Two harrowings at 9c ... 1 6 Rolling ... 1 Harrowing ... 9 Drilling ... 2 Seed, 3 bushels at 4s. . ... 12 Harrowing ... 9 Rolling ... 1 Weeding ... 1 Harvesting ... 12 Threshing and marketing, 4i qrs. at 28. 4d. ... 10 6 Rent, rates and taxes ... 1 5 £3 17 6 Beturns. £ 8. d. 4J qrs. of baj-ley at 28e 6 6 Straw at consuming value per acre ... 12 £6 18 COST OF CROPS 359 THIRD YEAR (SEEDS). Cost per acre. £ 8. d. Sowing ' eeedfi ' with barrow ... 6 ' Seeds ' mixture ... 12 6 Light harrowing 6 Rolling ..: 9 Haymaking ■ 12 Rent, rates and taxes 15 t Beturnt. 30 cwt. 'seeds' hay at £2 per ton (consuming value) Value of grazing, £2 11 3 £ s. d. 3 1 £4 FOURTH YEAR (WHEAT). Cost per acre. £ 8. d. Ploughing ... 10 Rolling ... 1 Two harrowings at 9d. ... 1 6 Two draggingis at Is. 6d. ... 3 U Harrowing ... 9 Drilling ... 2 Harrowing ... 9 Seed, 2^ bushels at 48. ... 10 Pickling seed ... 3 Harrowing (spring) ... 9 Rolling ... 1 Weeding ... 1 Carting and sowing manure ... 6 1 cwt. nitrate of eoda ... ... 010 Harvesting ... 12 Threshing and marketing, 4 qrs. at 2s. isd. ... 10 Rent, ratea and taxes ... ... 1 5 Returns. 4 qrs. of wheat at 32s. Straw at consuming value per acre, £4 9 6 £ 6 8. 8 14 d. £7 2 360 FARM CROPS SUMMARY. Coats. Roots (swedes) ... . Barley Seeds Wheat Returns. Roots (consuming value) Barley Seeds (consuming value) Wheat This represents a profit of £5 8s. Id. per acre on the whole rotation, or an average profit of aay £1 7s. Od. per acre per annum. £ B. d. . 6 3 8 . 3 17 6 . 2 11 3 . 4 9 6 £17 1 11 £ e. d. . 4 10 . 6 18 . 4 ,. 7 2 £22 10 CHAPTEE XVII. HARDY FRUIT CULTURE INTRODUCTION The commercial fruit-growers of this country may be divided into two classes — first, the individuals who make fruit-growing their business, and, secondly, those who treat it as a subsidiary- industry, though a none-the-less ' important one. Farmers may be included in the latter class, and the object in this chapter is not to deal ex- haustively with the many phases of fruit culture, which would be impossible in the space at command, but to put in simple language those principles of fruit-growing which are most likely to be of practical use to the agri- cultural student, as well as to the farmer who cultivates PLATE I. 1. Apple Teee in Bearing PLATE 1,— continued. 2. Bramley'3 Seedling Apple Trees in" Orchard. GRASS ORCHARDS 361 fruit partly for home consumption and also with a view to profit. It should be understood, however, that if fruit is to be a profitable part of farming, it must be treated seriously, and be given just that care and atten- tion in cultivation which, in the ordinary way, is accorded to every other crop that is grown. APPLES AND PEARS IN GRASS ORCHARDS (plate I.) In districts that are naturally adapted for fruit there is no part of a farm which offers greater possibilities for profit than a good orchard on grass, planted with standard trees of suitable varieties, but the gospel of orchard planting is not one to-be preached in all cir- cumstances, because attempts at forcing the hand of nature by planting orchards in places where soil and situation are unsuitable is only courting failure. The extent to which fruit is grown in the district, and the way trees flourish, are perhaps the best guides as to the adaptability of the locality, and it should be remem- bered that what is possible in a garden under the care of an expert is not so easy under the less controlled conditions of an orchard. Soil and Situation. — For obvious reasons it is desir- able that the orchard should- be somewhere adjacent to the homestead, and a slope facing to the south or south-west is an excellent situation. It is a fatal error to plant fruit trees in waterlogged soil, and if these conditions prevail draining should be the initial opera- tion. A deep and somewhat retentive loam is the best tor apples, and though pears will succeed under these conditions, they prefer a rather lighter medium. Trees and their Arrangement.— In planting a grass orchard the object is to get fruit from the trees above and grazing for' stock beneath, therefore strong standard trees should be selected in the nursery, with stems so long that the heads are out of the reach of animals. The best way of arranging trees is alternately, or in the form of equilateral triangles, and strong growing 362 HARDY FRUIT CULTURE varieties, which are the beat for orchards, should not be planted closer than 30 feet apart (fig. 174). Planting (fig. 175, 1). — ^All things considered, the fall of the year is the best time for planting, November and December being the most suitable months. Having marked out the site of each tree, the turf should be removed in a circle not less than 5 feet in diameter, and the top foot of soil be taken out. The next step is to break up the lower 1. .-|.... .-' J : v^. $•••••■ : t. t....:...l 1 ^ X A -j^ ■'4 : t-- -I---T X %. X ' '.1 ' :< I •• i I... Fia. 174. — Arrangement ov Orchard, showing trees planted in equilateral triangles, and in squares. soil in the hole with spade or fork, and then cut up the turf and spread it on the top of the lower soil. A little of the best soil should then be scattered over the broken turf, and the whole be, trodden down evenly. Everything is now ready for the stake, which may be of sawndeal 8 feet long and 2^ inches thick, and creosoted for purposes of preservation. After the stake has been driven firmly into the ground, the tree should be placed in position with roots spread out, and three or four inches of soil be spread over the latter PLANTING 363 and trodden down. As some sinking will take place, the soil should be left round the tree in the form of a slight mound, and on on account should the grass be allowed Fia. 175. — A Lesson in Planting. (1) 1, Subsoil broken up at the bottom of the bole. 2, Turf taken from surface, cut up, and placed underneath the roots. 3, Boots spread out in the soil. (2) Standard tree planted, etaked, and protected' with wire guard. to grow to within 2 feet 6 iaches of the stem, for several years. This is very irtiportant, as the growth of turf over the roots of newly-planted trees has a detrimental 364 HARDY FRUIT CULTURE effect on the development of the latter, amd weeds should be kept down by periodically hoeing. Tying and Protecting (fig. 175, 2). — It is essential that the tree should be fastened securely to the stake to avoid damage by chafing or rubbing, and a simple contrivance is to wrap a strip of old sacking round the stem and fasten it to the stake with tarred cord. If animals have access to the orchard some form of protection is essen- tial, and nothing is better than circular guards of stout wire netting, further strengthened by strands of strong barbed wire. These guards reach to the top of the stake, they can be easily removed if necessary, and they afford protection against ground game as well as stock. The First Pruning (fig. 176).— The prime object in prun- ing a newly-planted tree is to promote growth, and a much- debated point is whether the pruning should be done in the spring following the planting, or whether it is better to let the tree stand a whole year before it is operated on. The balance of evidence points to the conclusion that the best results are generally obtained with orchard standards when the first pruning is effected not in the spring following the planting, but a year later. The process is as foflows : Cut out weakly side shoots that are useless for making branches, leaving only the leaders, or main growths, and these, in turn, should be cut back to about one third their original length, always taking care to cut just above a bud on the outside of the branch. After-Pruning. — The process just described has for its object the multiplication of branches to form the head of the tree, and if there is a sparsity of strong shoots the leaders may be shortened again the second year to encourage more growth, but when the head of a standard tree is formed there should be no more shorten- ing back, and the pruning year by year should consist in removing superfluous branches that rub and cross each other, tending to crowd up the centre of the tree. If the trees are systematically treated in this way they never get into that hopelessly overcrowded condition which is the fault of so many trees in old orchards. PRUNING 366 Piuning Old Orchard Trees.— In dealing with an old tree that has been neglected in the matter of pruning considerable judgment is required, or more harm than good may be done, and the first thing is to remove all dead wood. The next operation is to carefully thin the inner branches where they are too crowded, the ■i:.-;a-SK5--iSS: Pio. 176. — First Peunin<3 op a Standard Tree. 1, The young standard. 2, Y6ung shoots cut back to about one- third their original length, each cut made just above an outside bud. 3, Result of the pruning : branches increased and foundation of tree' laid. object being to let air and light into the tree. No hard and fast rules can be laid down in dealing with a full- grown tree, but over-pruning should be avoided. Thick limbs should be cut with a saw quite close to the main stem, and if the rough surface left by the saw is smoothed over with a knife or chisel and painted with Stockholm tar, the young bark will quickly grow over the cut 366 HARDY FRUIT CULTURE surface and make a perfect heal. On the other hand, if rough snags are left, the latter decay, wet gets in, and hollows are finally formed in the main limbs of the tree. Manuring Orchards.— Generally speaking, it is not necessary to add manure to the soil when planting young trees, but if a mulching of decayed manure is after- wards placed over the roots it helps to conserve mois- ture and encourages surface root action. In addition to the benefit obtained from manure dropped by grazing animals, however, tree's in full bearing should have periodical dressings of- dung spread over the roots, and it is a good thing to empty the contents of liquid manure tanks under the trees in the winter when the ground is damp. Concentrated manures supplying phos- phates and potash are good for orchard trees, and a suitable mixture for application in the winter may consist of 4 cwt. of basic slag and 3 cwt. of kainit to the acre. Varieties. — When planting an orchard with a view to marketing the fruit, it is a great mistake to include too many varieties, because the result of this is that no bulk of any one kind of fruit is grown. The selection of varieties must to some extent be governed by local circumstances, but care should be taken to plant trees which, in addition to good bearing qualities, are pos- sessed of vigorous constitutions. A short list of apples and pears suitable for orchard planting is given below. A dozen good cooking apples :— Early. Succession. Late. Lord Groevenor. Bisraajck. Annie Elizabeth. Ecklinville. Warner's King. Bramley's Seedling. Grenadier. Lord Derby. Beauty of Kent. Pott's Seedling. Gascoyne's Seedling. Newton Wonder. A dozen good dessert apples:— Early. .Succession. Late. Devonshire Allington Pippin. Hormead Pearmaiu. Quarrenden. Cox's Orange Pippin. Christmas Pearmain. Beauty of Bath. King pf the Pippins. Blenheim Orange. Mr. Gladstone. Fearn's Pippin. Court Pendfi Plat. Yellow Ingestrie. STONE FRUITS IN ORCHARDS 367 Six good peaTs : — Doyenne d'ifew. Pitmaaton Duchess. Mtu-ie Louise Williams' Bon Louise Bonne of - d'UooIe. ChrStfen. Jersey. Hessle. STONE FRUITS IN ORCHARDS Chberies.— The cherry orchards in Kent and else- where afford evidence of the usefulness of this fruit in districts where natural conditions are suitable, but the trees should always be planted in sufficient quantity to merit the necessary expenditure in protecting the fruit from birds. Planting and Pruning. — Thirty feet apart, as advised for apples in orchards, is a good distance to allow between the trees, and the same method of planting may be applied. Cherries have a marked dislike to the knife, and after cutting back newly-planted trees, to encourage the formation of a good head, little pruning, other than the removal of any dead branches, IS required. Cherries flourish in a soil of a calcareous nature, and the grass in orchards should be kept down by close grazing. The following is a selection of six good varieties : — ^' May Duke. Elton Heart. Bigarreau Napoleon. Kentish Bigarreau. Black Heart. Black Tartarian. Plttms. — ^As a rule, plurds are grown more in culti- vated plantations than grass orchards, but in what are known as plum districts they succeed well under the latter conditions. Plums in orchards are better grown rather close together, 18 feet apart being a fair dis- tance. They should be planted in the same way as apples, and when established very little pruning is required. (For a selection of varieties, see p. S^S.)^ Damsons. — The damson is a fruit which seems to adapt itself to certain localities, and under suitable con- ditiras there is no fruit more useful. Damsons may be grown on the outskirts of plantations to provide shelter, also in grass orchards ; and in some parts trees planted 370 HARDY PBUIT CULTURE Planting and Cultivating., — Favourable weather in the autumn or winter should be chosen for planting, and though on land that has been recently cultivated the process of planting need not be so elaborate as that recommended for orchard trees, holes large enough to accommodate the roots should be prepared and deep planting should be avoided. All bruised parts should be trimmed off the roots, and the soil be pressed firmly round the latter. In the cultivation of plantations both horse and hand labour are employed with the desirable objects of checking weeds and keeping the surface soil in a crumbling condition. Pruning Half -standards. — Th^ methods adopted for orchard trees are applicable to half-standards in plan- tations, the object being to allow free growth after the heads of the trees are formed (Plate II.). Bush and Pyramid Trees' (Plate II.).— Young trees from the nursery may be shortened back, as advised for standards, either the spring following the plant- ing or a year later, and for several years it may be necessary to shorten the leading shoots about half-way, and reduce the side shoots in orde? to get well-balanced and shapely trees (figs. 178 and 179). It should be remembered, however, that the natural sequence of severe pruning is growth, and when the trees are well established the use of the knife may be well confined to the removal of overcrowded branches. GoosBBEBEiES. — ^Youug newly-planted gooseberries should have their leading shoots shortened back to en- courage more growth (fig. 184), but severe pruning should be avoided with established bushes, and judgment should be exercised in the pruning, which consists of thinning out the wood sufficiently to admit air and sunlight, and facilitate picking operations. Strong shoots of the previous season's growth may be shortened back a little, but as much young wood should be left as is consistent with the above principles. Bed Curkants. — Red currants fruit on spurs on the old wood, but at the base of the young side shoots, and the most profitable red currant bush is one that is furnished with seven or -eight main branches that PLATE II. Bush Apple. Half-Standard Pltjm. Pyramid Pear. RED CURRANTS 371 .produce fruit all the way down, with adequate space between them. After young bushes are planted the 1.» Fig. 178. — Forming a Btjsh Apple. (1) Maiden tree, out back to a. (2) Two-year old tree, showing the result of cutting; the shoote are now cut back to b to create growth. (3) Result of the s6Coi»d pruning : three-year old tree with well- formed head. Fig. 179.— Forming a Pyramid Tree. (1) Maiden tree ; a, point to which it is out back. (2) Two-year old pyramid, showing result of cutting ; 6, point to which shoote are cut. _ - (3) Three-year old pyramid, with perpendicular stem through centre. 372 HAEDT FRUIT CULTURE shoots should be shortened back (fig. 185), in order to get more branches, and when a sufficient complement is obtained the annual pruning consists of shortening back the side shoots on the main branches to within two buds of the base. The leading shoots must also be shortened, but a few inches should be left each year for extension. Black Cukbants. — These bushes produce most of their fruit on wood of the previous season's growth, and newly planted bushes should be cut hard the first year or two to encourage strong growth (fig. 186). The subsequent pruning consists of avoiding overcrowding by thinning out old branches that have little young wood on them, but as much young wood should be left as possible. Raspberbies. — Newly-planted raspberry canes, which can be put out a foot apart in rows, or in clumps 6 feet apart, three canes in a clump, should be cut back to within a foot of the ground, and the reasonable result of this is that the canes produce strong growths for the next year, which can hardly be expected if the cane is hampered by fruit-bearing the first season. When an established raspberry cane has borne its crop of fruit, however, it has done its work, and may be cut out at the end of the summer to make room for its successor, which may be left its full length till the following spring, when the unripened tip can be cut off. Logan Bebries. — This useful fruit has become deservedly popular in recent years, and is suitable for training on trellises and fences, and other places where its long bramble-like growths can ramble. The plant is very blackberry-like in habit, and pruning consists of thinning out the old growths each year, to make room for the young canes. Owing to its vigorous habit, rich soil is not desirable for logan berries. Manuring.— It is obvious that there is a big strain on the resources of the land in a fruit plantation, and deficiencies of plant-food must be made good by dress- ings of stable manure and applications of artificials. Phosphates and potash are the chief requirements of fruit trees, and these may be supplied by top dressings of 5 cwt. of superphosphate, or basic slag, according to PLANTATION VARIETIES 373 the nature of the soil, and 2 cwt. of sulphate of potash, to the acre. If trees are making good growth, applica- tions of nitrogen are unnecessary, but weakly specimens are helped by light surface dressings of nitrate of soda in the spring. PROFITABLE VARIETIES FOR PLANTATION CULTURE 12 cooking apples:— Early. Succession. Late. Early Victoria. Cellini Pippin. Lane's Prince Albert. Lord Grosvenor. Warneir's King. Bramley's Seedling Stirling Carstle. Bismarck. Annie Elizabeth. EcklinvUle. Gascoyne'a Seedling. Newton Wonder. 9 dessert apples:— WorcesterPearmain. Cox's Orange Pippin. Christmas Pearmain Beauty of Bath. King of the Pippins. Scarlet Nonpareil. Duchess of _ Allington Pippin. Hormead Pearmain. Oldenburg. 9 good pears: William's Bon ChrStftn. Doyenne d'Ete. Clapp's Favourite.. Doyenne du Comiee Pitmaston Duchess. Louise Bonne of Glou Morceau Jersey. Winter Nelis. Emile d'Heyist. 6 good plums:— Early Prolific. Victoria. Pershore. Czar. Pond's Seedling. Belle de Louvain. 6 good gooseberries t— May Duke. Keepsake. Crown Bob. Whinham's Industry. Lancashire Lad. Leveller. Red currants:— Raby Castle. New Red Dutch. 374 HARDY FRUIT CULTtfRE Black currants:— Boskoop Giant. Baldwin's. Lee's Prolific. Raspberries :— Superlative. Norwich Wonder. - Hornet. STRAWBERRIES FOR MARKET The commercial culture of strawberries is mostly con- fined to certain areas where natural conditions are suitable and pickers are available, the latter point being an important one if a large quantity of fruit is grown. Under favourable circumstances strawberries are not a difficult crop to grow, but the land should be clean and in good heart. Eooted runners are planted in the autumn or early spring, about 18 inches apart, with 2^ feet between the rows, which allows for cultivation, and about 12,000 plants are required to the acre. The plants last three or four years, as a rule, and cultural operations during the period consist of hoeing and manuring, littering with straw before the fruit ripens, and trimming off runners and old leaves after the crop is picked. Market growers do not favour many varieties, and those most widely grown are Royal Sovereign, Sir Joseph Paxton, Monarch, and British Queen in f&voured districts. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Picking, packing, grading, marketing, and storage of fruit are all items of importance to the Market grower, and each in its turn must receive due attention in order that the produce m%y be disposed of to the best advan- tage. In short, commercial fruit growing demands the exercise of practical knowledge and judgment, as well as business ability, and the idea which seems to prevail in some quarters that it is a short cut to wealth is an erroneous qne. It has its possibilities, and its prospects for the future are, on the whole, favourable, but in PLATE III. Palmette Verrier Trained Apple. Single Cordon APPLES. t^^^ .f - r . w^^^'ti''^'Pit- ^"^J^rwHoMra In ^"^^^^^ M^'-^f^^M .-''f-'M^e^ ^^^^fe.P^ ^m ^HS^KT,^ ' !m''^^ ^^Sb^^S ^BB^BHB^Mjjfty^wjMfcr ^^^i Mi tiORizONTAL Trained Apple. FRUIT IN THE GARDEN 375 taking up fruit-growing as a business venture due allow- ance should always be made for those circumstances which are uncontrolled by the grower. FRUIT IN THE GARDEN (plate III.) Most of the instructions already given are applicable to fruit in the garden, and the following hints have bearing jon points not already considered. Utilizing Wall Space. — Nothing js more pleasing or profitable in its way than a well-trained wall-tre,e, and yet the waste of wall space in the country is deplorable. Fan-trained trees, espaliers, and cordons can be ob- tained from a nursery for a few shillings each, and while the warmest positions may be accorded to peaches, nec- tarines, apricots, pears and dessert plums, a wall facing the north is a suitable position for Morello cherries. The planting of wall-trees entails some responsibility, for unless the work begun by the nurseryman is carried on, and due attention is paid to pruning and traming, the , tree quickly grows wild, and is an eyesore rather than an ornament. Espaliers and Cordons (Plate III.).— -Espalier apples and peats are well adapted for planting alongside garden walks where it is desirable to utilize space, and cordons, or single-stemmed trees, are useful for furnishing com- pai'atively low walls or filling spaces where there is not room for spreading trees. Most of the best varieties of , pears succeed admirably as cordons, which is one of the best methods of growing this fruit. Strawberries in the Garden. — The quickest method of establishing^a strawberry bed is to place small pots filled with soil round fruiting plants in the summer and peg the runners from the latter into the pots. These runners soon establish themselves in the pots, and if planted out in August or September they get established the same season, and bear a good crop of fruit the next. Root Pruning. — The pruning of roots is not infre- quently a necessity in garden fruit culture, and the 376 HARDY FRUIT CULTURE need of it is generally brought about by over-luxuriance in the growth of young trees, and the severe branch pruning to which older specimens are subjected, because the natural sequence of severe pruning is growth. The object of root pruning is to check the excessive vigour of growth and encourage fruit bearing, and the best way to treat an over-luxuriant young tree is to take it up in the autumn, shorten back the tap roots and replant it. In the case of an older tree a trench should be taken out some distance from the stem in the autumn, and by work- ing underneath in the direction of the tree the tap root will be found. This should be cleanly cut, and in filling up the trerich the uninjured fibrous roots should be laid out close to the surface and covered with soil. Summer Pruning. — Espaliers, cordons, bushes, and pyramids in the garden may be summer pruned with advantage, with the object of removing superfluous growth and diverting the sap towards the development of the fruit and the formation of fruit buds. Briefly expressed, summer pruning consists in shortening back lateral shoots to about five leaves from the base early in August, and this may be done by breaking the shoots over the blade of a knife. The shoots should not be shortened closer than five leaves, or the object of the operation may be defeated by the basal buds breaking into growth instead of remaining dormant; and the leading shoots should be left intact. The necessary shortening of the latter can be done at the winter pruning, and the shortened side shoots be cut a little further in. PROPAGATION OF FRUIT Stocks. — ^Apples, pears, and the various stone fruits are propagated by budding or grafting them on some kind of stock, which has a certain influence on the growth and habit of the tree. For instance, if an apple tree is worked on the wild crab stock, it is encouraged to grow a stout stem and is suitable for an orchard standard, but if worked on the broad-leaved Paradise BUDDING 377 stock the fibrous root action of the latter prevails, the tree comes into bearing more quickly, does not grow so vigorously, and is more adapted for a bush. It may be taken, then, that, with certain exceptions, the Paradise is the best stock for bush apples, and the more vigorous crab stock for standards. Standard pears are mostly worked on the common pear, and pyramids on the quince stock.* Dwarf cherries are generally budded on the Mahaleb stock, and standards on wild cherry (gean) seedlings, while peaches, nectarines, and plums are worked on different types of plum stocks. Damsons and some local varieties of plums are grown on their own roots. Budding (fig.' 180). — This is the favourite method of propagation with nurserymen, and stocks are budded close to the ground in July and August. To prepare the stock for the bud the operator cuts a T-shaped incision in the bark, which is raised slightly on either side to let in the bud. The bud is taken from a shoot of the cur- rent season's growth by inserting the knife an inch or so above a leaf and bringing it out an inch below. The leaf is cut off, but a portion of the stalk is left to hold the bud by, and the thin layer of pith underneath is removed with the thumb and finger, but this must be done carefully so as not to injure or drag out the inte- rior of the bud, which is the growing germ. The pre- pared bud must not be allowed to get dry before it is slipped into the incision in the bark, and this done it should be wrapped round with worsted. The swelling of the bud is an indication that it has taken, and when Fie. 180. — Budding. (1) Preparing the stock. (2) Bud in position. (3) Bud tied in. a, Taking the bud. B, Bud ready for in- sertion. 378 HARDY FRUIT CULTURE growth commences in the spring, the head of the stock should be cut off to within four inches of the union, this part being left to tie the growth to the first season lest it should be blown off. Fig. 181 represents a budded pear, in which the stock is used as a stake to support the young plant. Gbafting. — This operation serves two purposes ; it may be employed in propa- gation as a substitute for budding, though it is not so good, and also for the purpose of changing the character of established i;rees, which is the more valuable purpose served. Taking the Graft. — The graft or scion is a piece of young growth, about four inches long, and furnished with wood buds. April is the best month for graft- ing, but it is an advantage to cut the scions a month or two beforehand, and lay them in the ground in a shady part of the garden. Whip or Tongue Grafting (fig. 182).— This method may be employed in all cases where the stock and scion are about the same thickness, and it is highly important that the inner layers of the bark of the two be brought into direct contact with each other. To prepare the stock, make an upward sloping cut about two inches long, and midway in this make ^ downward cut in the slanting face. The scion is prepared in a corresponding manner, the tongue fits into the incision in the stock, and the two are bound together ready for the wax or clay. Grafting large Trees.— In cutting back a big tree for grafting the limbs should not be severed too close to the main stem, but at about the second pair of forks, and the tops of the branches should be made smooth with a knife after being cut through with a saw. When grafting an apple that is past the vigour of youth a strong growing variety should be selected, and there is none better for the purpose than Bramley's seedling. Pia. 181.— Budded Pear. GRAFTING 379 Crown Grafting (fig. 1*83).— The advantages of this ^nethod, suitable for big trees, is that there is no split- ting of the limbs. Two to four grafts may be put on each , branch, according to the thickness of the latter, and in preparation for the scion a sharp down- ward slit is made in the bark about three inches long. The scion i \ 3 4: Pro. -Whip Geaftino. (1) Stock showing upward cut. (2) Stock ready for the scion. (3) Scion pared down. (4) Scion showing tongue. (5) Scion fitted on to uie stock. Fig. 183.^ — Ceown Geafting. (1) Scion prepared. (2) Stock with bark slit and opened to receive scions. (3) Scions fixed, tied, and covered with wax or clay to exclude air. is prepared as in the case of the whip graft, but without the tongue cut, and, after raising the bark on either side of the slit in the stock, the graft is slipped into its position and tied round. Cleft Grafting. — There are some objections to this ipethod, as the stock must necessarily be split or sawn, and there is danger of the wet getting in and causing decay ; but, on the other hand, it has its advantages, partic\ilarly in windy situations, as the grafts are not so liable to blow out. 380 HARDY FRUIT CULTURE Either two or four grafts may be put on a limb, according to the thickness of the latter, and in prepara- tion the branch is split across to a depth of about two inches by means of a mallet and chisel. After making the cleft, a small wedge of wood should be inserted to keep it open, and after paring down the bark on either side of the cleft to get a smooth surface, the grafts should be pared down in the shape of a triangular wedge and slipped into the cleft, taking care that the inner barks of stock and scion are brought into immediate contact with each other. When the wedge is withdrawn the wood will come together, and hold the grafts securely in position. Grafting Clay. — In all the above methods of grafting it is very essential to exclude air from the points of union, and to effect this purpose some persons prefer the primitive clay ball, which is made by kneading damp pliable clay and cow-dung together into a paste, and mixing with it some short hay. If the hands are wetted and the clay is plastered round the graft in the form of a cone, it will stick as long as it is required.- Grafting Wax. — This is advised in preference to clay, as it is equally effective and more easily applied. The following is a good recipe for a grafting wax, to be used warm : — 1 pint olive oil. 1 lb. yellow wax. 1 lb. Burgundy pitch. 2 oz. resin. The ingredients should be put together in an old saucepan, melted down slowly, and applied with a brush, in a warm state, but not so hot as to injure the tissue of the bark with which it is brought into contact. Cuttings. — Gooseberries are readily propagated from cuttings taken in the autumn as soon as the leaves have fallen (fig. 184). Young weU-ripened shoots, 12 to 15 inches long, should be selected for the purpose, and they should be sever-ed just below a bud. The end of the shoot should be cut back a little, and all the buds down the stem removed except four or five at the top. The shoots from these CURRANTS 381 are intended to form the first branches of the young bush, and the remainder are removed in order to get the bush with a clean stem above the ground. Cuttings may be inserted four inches deep and about the same distance apart. It is important to make them firm in the ground by treading. The cuttings strike root in the spring, and vigorous young bushes may be trans- planted the following autumn. The remainder should have their shoots shortened back, and be left another year before they are removed from the nursery. //////////// Fio. 184. — Propagating Goosebeeeies. (1) Cutting with lower bude removed, and inserted 4 ins. deep. (2) Year old plant ; a. Point to which shoots are cut back. (3) Two-year old bush, showing the result of pruning. Bed and White Currants (fig. 185).— Cuttings of these fruits are prepared in the same way as gooseberries, but owing to the upright nature of the growth it is not neces- sary to have such long stems above the ground, and short sturdy shoots, about nine inches long, are suitable for the purpKjse. Black Currants (fig. 186).— Young shoots, eight or nine inches long, are suitable for cuttings, and the tips should be removed, but not the lower buds, as it is desirable in black currants to encourage young growths to spring 38a HARDY FRUIT CULTURE Fia. 185. — Pkopaqatinq Red and White Currants. ♦ (1) Cu1;ting with lower buds removed and inserted 4 ina. deep. (2) Year old plant; a, Point to which shoots are cut back. (3) Two-year old bush, showing resulta of pruning. y/////////)m/////o Fig. 186. — Propagating Black Currant. (1) Black currant cutting with none of the lower buds removed. ,2) Year old plant ; o, Point to which shoots are cut back. (3) Two-year old bush, furnished with young wood. FUNGUS PEST8 383 up from the base. To facilitate this, the young shoots on year-old bushes should be cut back to two buds, as this will encourage them to send up strong growths the season following. SucKEBS. — Raspberries: No fruit is more easily pro- pagated by suckers than the raspberry, and the opera- tion consists of ta^ng up young and medium-sized canes in the autumn with fibrous roots attached, and planting them where they are intended to grow. Logan Bellies. — These are readily propagated by divisions of the root in the winter, or if young growths are pegged down in the ground they quickly take root, and may then be detached from the parent and trans- planted. KuNNEBs. — Strawberries : If strawberries are intended to fruit the first year the runners must be rooted in pots, as already described (p. 375), but runners that have rooted in the soil will fruit the second year if taken up and transplanted in the autumn or spring. CHAPTEE XVIII. FUNGUS PESTiS Fungi belong to the Th^llophtta, the lowest division of the vegetable kingdom, in which the plant-body is not subdivided into root, stem, and leaf. One of the most familiar forms is the mushroom (Agaricus campes- tris), which grows naturally upon decaying organic matter in pastures. Examine oiie, and note the stipes or stalk, the pileus or cap, and, on the under surface of the latter, the lamellae or gills, from which arise the spores that produce fresh mushrooms. It is, in fact, a reproductive structure, and arises from a deli- cate fibrous mass, the ' spawn,' that lives underground. Both this and the mushrooms it produces are made up 384 FUNGUS PESTS of delicate branching threads or hyphse, closely com- pacted together, and collectively known as a mycelium. Yeast (^Saccharomyces Cerevmce), or barm, consists of innumerable minute yeast plants (&g. 187), which are likewise fungi. They consume oxygen and set free carbon dioxide, the conversion of solutions of sugar into alcohol, as in the brewer's vat, being an accompaniment of the process. Another familiar type of fungus is afforded by the bluish or greenish-white moulds, such as grow upon damp boots, or upon jam, or upon horse-dung in warm weather, or in the substance of a ripening cheese. Ex- amined with even an ordinary magnifying glass, the surface of such a mould can often be seen to be covered with a fine dust, which may be rubbed off with the finger. This dust is made up of ex- ceedingly minute spores, which can only be studied by means of the microscope. Under suitable conditions of warmth and moisture, the fungus spore, which is filled with living substance or proto- plasm, will germinate. In the act of germination there grows from the spore a delicate thread-like hypha, and, when a number of spores germinate beside each other, the hyphse, by interlacing, form a felt-like mycelium. This last- named structure may, however, be the product of a single spore. The germination of a fungus spore, it will be noticed, is a much simpler process than that of a seed. Every seed contains a dormant embryo, which is a sexual pro-