DUKE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/forcematter01buch ' FORCE AND MATTER v v — OR PRINCIPLES OF THE NATURAL ORDER OF THE UNIVERSE. WITH A SYSTEM OF MORALITY BASED THEREON. A POPULAR EXPOSITION Prof. LUDWIG BUCHNER, M. D., FORMERLY MEDICAL LECTURER AT THE UNIVERSITY OF TUBINGEN. Translated from the Fifteenth German Edition, enlarged and revised by the Author. REPRINTED FROM THE FOURTH ENGLISH EDITION. NEW YORK: PETER ECKLER PUBLISHING CO. 1920 Contents 31 •'Preface to the First Edition v Treface to the Fifteenth Edition ix vForce and Matter i Immortality of Matter 14 Immortality of Force 21 Infinity of Matter 31 Value of Matter 46 Motion 58 Form 67 Immutability of Natural Laws 74 Universality of Natural Laws ..... 89 ’/The Heavens . 104 Periods of the Creation of the Earth .... iry Original Generation 129 Secular Generation 145 The Fitness of Things in Nature (Teleology.) . . 172 Man 197 Brain and Mind 209 Thought 241 Consciousness 247 Seat of the Soul 255 Innate Ideas . 275 The Idea of God 301 Personal Continuance 316 Vital Force 337 The Soul of Brutes 351 Free Will . . . ' . . , . . . 366 v/frlorality 379 Concluding Observation 391 Appendix 397 445890 To the dialectician the world is an idea, to the bel esprit a picture, to the en- thusiast a dream, to the scientist alone it is a truth — Orgks. The criterion of a true philosopher is that he is not a professor of philosophy. The plainest truths are those precisely upon which man hits last of all. — Lud- wig Feuerbach. Experience and observation must be our sole guides ; we meet with them in the case of physicians who have been philosophers, but not in the case of philoso- phers who have not been physicians.— Lamettrib. We must have facts and a positive philosophy, based upon nature and reason.— H. Tuttle. And if the inscription on the ancient pyramid of Sal's says, “ I am all that is, that was, and that will be ; no mortal man has yet raised my veil," it might be re- plied thereto : “ Modern science has removed the veil and has discovered that Force and Matter were, are, and will be. — F. J. Pisko. The number of errors is unlimited, truth alone is but one.— P h. Sfiller. It nettles men to find that truth should be so simple. — G oethb. Preface to the First Edition.* Now what I want is — facts. — Boz. T HE following pages do not claim to form a system, or an aggregate exhaustive treatise. They are scat- tered thoughts and ideas, collated from the almost boundless province of the empirical study of natural philosophy, yet essentially connected with, and mutually completing, each other. A merciful judgment at the hands of my confreres is claimed for them on account of the dif- ficulty to which an individual is necessarily subject in grap- pling with the innumerable mass of materials spread over the vast fields of natural science. If these pages may ven- ture to claim any merit or characteristic, it is that of representing a determination not to shrink with dismal horror from the simple and unavoidable consequences of an unprejudiced contemplation of nature from the standpoint of empirical philosophy, but to admit of the truth regard- less of what may follow. We cannot make things different from what they are , and nothing seems to us more pre- posterous than the attempts of some distinguished naturalists at introducing orthodoxy into natural science. We do not pretend to bring forward anything absolutely new or any- thing that has never been heard of before. Similar views and views cognate to ours have been taught in all ages, and some of them were laid down by the oldest Greek and Indian philosophers ; but their groundwork, which is * Written at Tubingen in the year 1855. VI PREFACE. necessarily empirical, could only be supplied by the pro- gress of natural science in the present century. It is therefore obvious that these views, in their present clear- ness and consistency, are essentially a trophy of modern times and closely connected with the new and gigantic achievements of empirical science. Indeed, scholastic philosophy, ever riding the high, though from day to day more and more emaciated horse, lays the flattering unction to its soul that these views have long been disposed of, and would fain consign them to the limbo of oblivion, with which object it has labelled them “ Materialism,” “Sen- sationalism,” “ Determinism,” and so on ; nay, the gentlemen of that school go so far, in their assumed supercilious superiority, as to talk of having given them “ the historical quietus.” But they themselves are going down day by day in the public estimation, and losing ground in their speculative hollowness before the rapid rise of the empirical sciences, which are making it daily more evident that both the macrocosmic and microcosmic worlds obey at every stage of their genesis, existence and subsidence, the mechanical laws which lie in the very nature of things. Starting from the recognition of the indis- soluble relation that exists between force and matter as an indestructible basis, the view of nature resting upon em- pirical philosophy must result in definitely relegating every form of supernaturalism or idealism from what may be called the hermeneutics of natural facts, and in looking upon these facts as wholly independent of the influence of any external power dissociated from matter. There seems to us to be no doubt about the ultimate victory of this real- istic philosophy over its antagonists. The strength of its proofs lies in facts , and not in untelligible and meaningless phrases. For in the long run there is no contending against facts; it is useless to “ kick against the pricks.” It need scarcely be said that our exposition has no connection with the idle fancies of the older school of natural philosophy. These curious attempts at constructing nature by thought PREFACE. VII instead of by observation, have so completely failed and have brought their advocates into such public discredit, that the very name of ‘ ‘ philosopher of nature ’ ’ is all but generally used at this day as the reverse of a flattering epithet. It is obvious that this reproach can only be levelled at a certain tendency or school, and not at natural philosophy in itself ; and there is now an almost general consensus of opinions that natural science must be the basis of every philosophy that lays claim to exactitude. “ Nature and experience ’ ’ is the watchword of the age. The failure of previous attempts of natural philosophers serves as the clearest proof of the fact that the universe is not the reali- zation of a uniform creative thought, but a complex of things and facts, which we must take for what it is, and not for what we may be pleased to fancy it. “We must ac- cept things as they really are,’’ says Virchow, “ not as we choose to imagine them.” We shall seek to present our views in a generally intelligible form and to base them on known or easily comprehensible facts, and in doing so shall avoid all those philosophical technicalities the use or rather abuse of which has justly brought all theoretical, and especially German, philosophy into discredit in the eyes both of the learned and unlearned. It is part of the very nature of philosophy to be mtellectually the joint property of all. Philosophical disquisitions which cannot be understood by every educated man, are not, in our opinion, worth the printer’s ink that is spent on them. What is thought clearly, can be expressed clearly and without circumlocution.* The philosophical mist which enshrouds the writings of learned men, seems rather in- tended to hide than to reveal thoughts. The days of learned tail-talk, of philosophical charlatanism, and of “ intellectual legerdemain, ” as Cotta strikingly expresses •“Men who belong neither to the highest nor to the lowest intellectual spheres,” admirably says the famous English physicist Tyndall, ‘‘often infer want of depth from perfect clearness. They find comfort and support in ab- stract and learned phraseology.” Vi 1 1 preface. it, are over by this time, or ought to be. May our German philosophy come to recognize that words are not deeds, and that, those who wish to be understood ought to speak an intelligible language. We shall meet with no lack of opponents, and of the bitterest, too. But we shall take no notice of any but those who meet us on the ground of facts and of em- piricism. Let the speculative gentry go on fighting one another from standpoints that are their own creation, but let them not run away with the strange notion that they possess the monopoly of philosophic truth. “Spec- ulation,” says Ludwig Feuerbach, “is philosophy in- toxicated. When philosophy shall have become sober again, it will be to the mind what pure spring-water is to the body.” Preface to the Fifteenth Edition. Comprehensive works, if not simply collated from the works of others, bnt having grown out of independent efforts, are at this day, as they were hereto- fore, made to suffer from the fact that the shadow they necessarily cast is seen more clearly than their bright side. They labor under this additional draw- back that, in order to accomplish their ends, they have to contend against perennial errors and prejudices which are not only firmly rooted in the minds of men, but command perfect strongholds in the shape of textbooks and Uni- versity chairs. How readily soever the younger generation may at any time have fallen in with the new teachings, the old school would still remain in existence by the side of the new and would not give way, until all its repre- sentatives and advocates had gone the way of the flesh. — Radenhausen. E IGHT and twenty years have passed away since the first edition of this book appeared. Many things have changed since then, both in the intellectual and the material worlds. A great political exhaustion has come in the wake of a great political impetus ; a general reaction of relaxation, recalcitrance and retrogression has followed a period of intellectual and material progression. This has produced some deletenous influence on the intellectual cur- rent originally induced by this book, and it seems as though the distance that separates us from the goal were now greater than ever. But who can tell how near the rising wave may be at hand, which shall once more carry us all onward ? The ocean of mankind moves according to the same laws as the sea that covers the greater part of the earth’s surface. It is in the innermost nature of both to ebb and to flow. In science also so many things have changed during these eight and twenty years, that it appeared imperative to re-write this book which has had so many readers, and has passed through seventeen German and twenty-two foreign editions. The author has spared no labor in bringing this last edition, as far as it is possible, up to the X PREFACE. scientific mark of the present age, and inserting new chapters with a view to connect the various orders of ideas represented in the individual sections with one another. When the book was first written, the empirical materials were not sufficient to form between them a body with clearly marked outlines, and the author was therefore under the necessity of confining himself to publishing them under the unassuming title of Empirical Studies on Natural Philosophy. Since then, the progress of science has been such that these empirical materials have so accumulated as to make it appear permissible to venture upon a bolder course, and endeavor to build up a more closely connected and more coherent fabric as a system of the natural order of the universe and as a more homogeneous theory of the world. Hence the change of the title of Studies into the more assuming and more promising epigraph of Principles of the Natural Order of the Universe. No doubt, the op- ponents will have a great many faults to find with this title ; they will urge that the empirical materials are not nearly sufficient for such an object, and that the gaps still existing in our knowledge are far too great and too numerous to be bridged over in such a manner by theoretical constructions. In their eyes, the whole mass of facts which militate in favor of a natural order of the universe, is of no value what- ever, because in some, nay in many, points absolute or relative obscurity still prevails. In this, as Du Prel very pointedly remarks, they resemble a chess-player whose king has only a few pawns left to cover him, but who will not own himself beaten despite the superiority of the men arrayed against him. But in the eyes of all truly competent men the game has long been lost, and the question whether the universe, as we see it, is the result of regularly working forces, having a causal connection with each other and therefore capable of being understood by human reason, or whether it is the work of an automatic, incomprehensible being that admits of no recognition by the reason of man, has long since been decided in favor PREFACE. XI of the former alternative. Every item of human knowl- edge, every page of practical experience, every conquest of science, gives but this one answer and makes the old theistic theory of the universe, which originated in the days when mankind was still in its first childhood, appear as a mere fable, engendered by the reverie of past ages. There- fore, the author cannot in fairness be taxed with pre- sumption, if he considers himself justified, after twenty-eight years of experiment and evolution, in raising his modest Studies to the rank of a system of the natural order of the Universe, based upon scientific principles. Nor will it be deemed unwarrantable arrogance or self-laudation on his part if he ventures to point out that the advances and con- quests made by science in the course of these twenty-eight years have in no one point controverted the theories put forward in the first edition, but have, on the contrary, confirmed them in various directions and in the most astonishing manner. This has especially been done in the department of natural philosophy by the wonderful dis- covery of spectral analysis and the universal recognition of the law of the conservation of energy and the transmutation of forces ; in the department of astronomy by the further discoveries on the condition and movements of distant heavenly bodies and the universality of natural laws ; in that of geology by the corroboration of Lyell’s theory of stability ; in anthropology by the demonstration of the de- scent of man from animals and of the antiquity of the human race on earth ; in the department of biology by the powerful influence of Darwin’s famous theory of evolution and by the facts that go to show the genesis of the lowest primal organisms, as well as by the entire abandonment of the baneful theory of design ; in that of anatomy by the discovery of the cell as the fundamental form of the or- ganic world, and by its being clearly proved that the brains of men and of animals are not fundamentally distinct from one another ; in that of physiology by those investigations on the localization of the functions of the brain which form XII PREFACE. a landmark in the history of science at large, and by the total rejection of the theory of vital force ; in the depart- ment of chemistry by the gigantic strides made by chemical synthesis ; in that of psychology by the searches made into the psychical and intellectual life of animals, and by the abandonment of the theory of instinct, induced by a clearer understanding on the laws of heredity. All these discoveries had either not been made, or were still in an embryonic state, when the author first put pen to paper in the year 1855 ; and yet this imperfect state of our knowl- edge did not prevent him, impelled, as he felt, by the want of philosophical unity, from getting at views which have received such a thorough confirmation and have been so fully complemented by the progress of science within a com- paratively brief space of time. On this account the author has felt justified in reinstating, either wholly or in part, various expressions and utterances contained in the first edition of this book, which appearing to him to go to rather an undue length, he had, under the pressure of the general and passionate opposition, expunged from the sub- sequent editions. For instance, in the chapter on Free Will contained in the first edition, there were certain re- marks — afterwards omitted — which dealt with the moral consequences of his views on natural philosophy. These remarks have been restored and amplified in this edition in a special chapter on Morality. The author has felt him- self all the more bound to do this, since one of the ob- jections most frequently urged against his views, is that he was destroying the old faith and putting no new one in its place. No doubt, the belief in the existence of a natural order in the universe is at least as good as, and in reality far better than, a belief in the existence of an order o t things antagonistic to nature, as has already been proved to demonstration by D. Strauss, in his famous book on The Old Faith and the New. Yet the author thought it right not to omit to supply facts which prove so very clearly that morality is compatible with a natural order ol PREFACE. XIII things, and to show to those who accept the new faith that, in doing so, they lose nothing in moral value either in their own eyes or in those of Society at large, but that on the contrary they have only to gain by it. The reader must judge for himself whether or not the author has suc- ceeded in furnishing this demonstration. The author has held that the prefaces to the editions published subsequent to the first, might be omitted with- out any detriment to the book. They have for the most part lost their former special interest, since the combats waged around the book have now exhausted their fury, and are not likely to rise again as before. In fact, the author is now so situated as to stand no longer in need of such commentaries, having in the meanwhile published a large number of additional writings, which further develop and complete the views laid down in Force and Matter in all essential points. . . . The author does not intend to enter on further polemics and controversies with his opponents, in the way he used to do ; for the fact of his enemies being so very numerous, he derives comfort and consolation from the old German saying, “He who has many enemies, is much honored.” Well does he know that, like all men, he is liable to error, but that, as Lessing says , — “ The value of a man does not depend on the truth he possesses or believes he possesses, but on the sincere labor he has bestowed upon getting at the truth ; for it is not the possession of, but the search for truth, that increases his strength and thereby makes him more perfect.” This sincere labor undertaken with the ob- ject of getting at the truth, or an ardent love of truth, simplicity and candor, could alone induce the author to issue this book, in which he has placed himself in such a keen and to him most distasteful opposition to the ruling ideas and authorities of his own time. It is not the present age, but a remote future which he himself will never live to see, that can and will do justice to his intentions. Looking at things in this light, he thinks he may bid farewell to the XIV PREFACE. host of those who have been his opponents, by quoting the following brief verses : — Wer richtet zwischen mir und Euch ? — Nicht ein Geschlecht, dess schwache Art, An alien Vorurtheilen reich, Von Eurer Hand erzogen ward ! Doch Einstens, wenn mit jaliem Fall Zusammenbriclit der Liige Reich, Dann spricht die Zeit zum Zweitenmal Das rechte Urtheil mir und Euch ! (Who shall judge between you and me ? Not a race of feeble type, rich in prejudices, and trained by your hand ! But some day, when the realm of lies shall have come down with a sudden crash, then shall time deliver an equitable judgment upon you and me !) As regards the verses that are scattered here and there through the book, they were mostly contained in the earlier editions, but had subsequently been struck out for want of space. The prefaces having now disappeared, there was no further reason for omitting them, and they have there- fore been reinstated. In those cases in which the name of the poet is not given, they are the author’s own pro- ductions. Finally, it may be noted that the book in its new shape is being issued simultaneously in German, in English and in French. Darmstadt , April , 1884. The Author. Force and Matter. “The universe, that is the All, is made neither of gods nor of men, but ever has been and ever will be an eternal living Fire, kindling and extinguishing in destined measure, a game which Zeus plays with himself.” — Heraklitus of Ephesus. “He to whom time is as eternity, and eternity as time, is free from all turmoil.” — J. Bohme. (Where there are three students of nature, there are two atheists.) U I ^ORCE is no impelling god, no entity separate from M the material substratum ; it is inseparable from matter, is one of its eternal indwelling properties.’ ’ “A force unconnected with matter, hovering loose over matter, is an utterly empty conception. In nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, in sulphur and phosphorus, their sev- eral properties have dwelt from all eternity.” — Moleschoti. “ Fundamentally, as is readily seen, there exists neither force nor matter. Both are abstractions of things, such as they are, looked at from different standpoints. They com- plete and presuppose each other. Isolated they are mean- ingless. . . Matter is not a go-cart, to and from which force, like a horse, can be now harnessed, now loosed. A particle of iron is and remains exactly the same thing, whether it shoot through space as a meteoric stone, dash along on the tire of an engine-wheel, or roll in a blood- corpuscle through the veins of a poet. Its properties are eternal, unchangeable, untransferable.” — Dubois -Reymond. “ Nothing in the world authorizes us to suppose the ex- istence of forces in and by themselves, without bodies, from which they can go out and on which they work.” — Cotta . 2 FORCE AND MATTER. “As we can think of no force without a material sub stratum, so we know of no matter which is not connected with a number of forces.’’ — F. Mohr. “ Force without matter is not a reality, and both by their union have made the world and all its phenomena. Without matter no force, without force no phenomenon, also without matter no phenomenon.’’ — Ph. Spiller. “We know of no matter which does not possess force, and on the other hand we know of no forces which are not joined to matter.’’ — Hceckel. “To regard matter as passive, and to suppose a force working on it from without, is so grave an error that it would not be possible to fall into it if inborn and mystical fancies did not cloud the mind. Matter and force, like force and matter, are no separable entities, but different conditions of one and the same thing. — F. Vignoli. “Matter and force are separable only in thought : in reality they are one.’’ — A. Mayer. “ We must hold firmly to the principle that matter and force are indivisibly joined together, so that force without matter has no independent existence.’’ — .S'. Cornelius. “ It is apparent that all attempts to isolate forces from matter, and vice versa , are only one-sided abstractions, depending on the notion that force and matter may be found in Nature as distinct entities, because in speech they are distinct words.” — Weis. “ The first and last word of Science will always be the indivisible union between or the identity of force and matter.” — A. Lefevre. With these quotations from well-known investigators, learned men, and authors, we commence a chapter that is to serve as a foundation for the subsequent investi- gations into one of the simplest and weightiest of truths, which is, perhaps, for that very reason, one of the least known and least recognized. No force without matter — • FORCE AND MATTER. 3 no matter without force. One is no more possible, and no more imaginable by itself than the other. Separated from each other, each becomes an empty abstraction or idea, which is only useful as showing two sides or manifes- tations of the same existence, the nature of which in itself is unknown to us. Force and matter are fundamentally the same thing, contemplated from different standpoints. In the material world we know of no example of a particle of matter not endowed with force or working by it. We must further admit on closer investigation, that matter as such could make no impression on our sense-organs or minds ; it can only do this by means of the forces united with or at work within it. A piece of lead held in the hand presses on it because of the attractive force of the earth and so produces the idea of weight. Neither can we imagine an ideal substance of forceless matter. Think of what original substance we may, a system of reciprocal attraction and repulsion must always exist between its smallest particles, and this is the cause of the subsequent changes, and the relationship of each particle with the others is regulated or controlled by forces which lend their properties to the combinations or forms arising therefrom. “A thing without properties,” says Drossbach, ‘‘is an absurdity, neither imaginable in reason nor experienced in Nature.” “ As water flows through the fingers,” forcibly remarks A. Laugel, “so disappears the idea of matter, as soon as we try to separate it from the idea of motion or of force, just as if we seek to part it from that of shape.”* Equally empty and untenable as the notion of matter without force, is that of force without matter. Only the superstition or ignorance of former centuries could regard * Hence comes it that we are learning more and more to regard Chemistry or the science which deals with matter (as was partly done in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries) as a branch or subdivision of Physics, the science which deals with force. Perhaps, and even probably, the distinction between chemical and physical forces lies only in this, that the first deals chiefly with the so-called atoms, minutest particles of matter, while the second deals chiefly with the molecules, groups of like or unlike atoms. Or, in other words, Chemistry may be regarded as the mechanics of the atom, Physics as the mechanics of the molecule. 4 FORCE AND MATTER. as possible the existence of forces in Nature which act apart from matter ; such possibilities are to-day wholly banished from science. Nothing can prove to us the real existence of a force, except the properties, changes and movements, which we become conscious of in matter, and these we call different “ forces ” according to the resemblances or differ- ences in such manifestations : any knowledge of them by other ways is impossible. If we try to think of an Electri- city, a Magnetism, a Weight, a Heat, a chemical affinity, etc., without the substances in which we have observed the manifestations of these forces, or without those material particles the molecular interaction of which gives rise to the manifestations — nothing remains to us save an empty idea, a word-sign, which we can only use in order to designate and separate off a certain class or group of material phe- nomena. Any real conception of what forces are in them- selves, or what force can be outside of matter, escapes us just as does the idea of what material bodies or matter would be without force. In strictness we cannot speak of Electricity, but only of the electrical condition of or of electrically excited matter. We cannot speak of Light, but only of shining bodies, of bodies giving light by vibra- tion ; nor of Heat, but only of a change in the reciprocal positions of vibrating atoms or molecules from their so- called statical condition ; nor of Weight, but only of bodies which exercise pressure by gravitation, and so on. All the so-called imponderables — -a name which desig- nated formerly as matter incapable of being weighed cer- tain forms of force, as Heat, Light, Electricity, Magnetism, are neither more nor less than changes in the reciprocal conditions or the active state of the minutest particles, changes which are transmitted from one body to another, from material to material, by a kind of contagion or trans- ference of motion. Hence forces, as Mulder well points out, cannot be imparted or made, but only excited, or changed from a latent to a free or cognizable state. Mag- netism cannot be transferred, as it would seem, but only FORCE AND MATTER. 5 evoked or opened up as we change the inner active condition of its medium. The magnetic forces are present in the molecules or smallest particles of the iron and are — as for example in a magnet— strongest exactly in the part where they are least or not at all noticeable from without, i. e. in the middle. Heat— that most ancient and essential force of Nature which is ceaselessly at work everywhere and can be changed into all other forms of force or can be obtained from them — is not, as was once thought, imponderable matter, passing from body to body, but molecular or atomic motion, an exceedingly swift, trembling, swaying or vibra- ting movement of the smallest particles or molecules of a body, whereby at the same time these particles recede from each other, while under the influence of the contrary or of cold they press more closely together. Heat and Cold are only to be distinguished by the fact that this molecular motion in a relatively cold body is less energetic than in one relatively warm. Heat is also generally manifested by the expansion, Cold by the contraction of the material ; we know, as Grove ( Correlation of Physical Forces') remarks, “nothing but the constant change of matter whereof Heat is the universal sign ; the entity Heat is unknown to us.’’ Similarly with Light , which, according to the latest dis- coveries, must be looked upon as identical with Heat, since the difference is only the difference’ in the number of the ether-vibrations and the vibrations of the molecules of bodies caused by these ; this is no imponderable matter, as was once supposed, but an inconceivably swift vibrating or wave-like motion of matter, of the atoms of the un- aggregated matter filling space and penetrating into all bodies, the infinitely rare light-ether ; a motion which according to circumstances is now Light, now Heat, now Electricity, now Magnetism, now chemical affinity. So also Sound , resembling Light in its motion, is no hearing- matter, carried by the air to the ear, but is only the moving air itself, which imparts its movement to our organ of hearing. 6 FORCE AND MATTER. The remarkable and brilliant prospects opening in the iuture to the force of Electricity do not rest, as was first thought, on the existence of a so-called electrical fluid, thac flows from body to body ; on the contrary, late investigation into electrical action teaches us to regard it as merely a change of condition of the universal material or matter. “ When we throw a glance around all the known groups of electrical phenomena or manifestations,” says Grove , “ we do not find a single one that cannot be relegated to a change of the molecules in the electrically excited substance. For instance let the charge from a Leyden jar be sent through a platinum wire ; it will be found that the wire has shortened, so that molecular change must have taken place. If the discharge is continued, the wire will at length rise into little folds or actual irregularities. A lead wire swells into knots, which press on each other, as bodies of a soft substance threaded against each other on a string. Further, metallic wires through which an electric current has been passed for a long time, gradually change their internal structure and become sometimes stronger, sometimes more brittle. Magnetism also changes the elasticity of iron or steel, and a bar slightly bent by its own weight straightens itself when magnetized.’ ’ In a similar way bodies are acted upon, according to Grove , ( mutatis mutandis) by all other forces. Thus, for instance, the chemical dissociation of compounds, whose elements are very weakly united, can be brought about by purely mechanical causes, e. g. by the vibrations produced by a sound in the air. In a still greater extent is this true of the vibrations of light, which bring about the most startling chemical reactions, sometimes decompositions of chemical com- pounds, sometimes unions of chemical elements ; as an instance of the latter we may take the explosive union of chlorine and hydrogen into hydrochloric acid by the action of sunlight, and of the former the decomposition of the carbonic acid of the air by the vegetable kingdom under the action of light. This also shows how the so-called latent FORCE AND MATTER. 7 forces or energies — among which, besides the chemical difference or affinity, must be reckoned the weight or general mass attraction and the cohesion or molecular force — can be changed every moment into living or active forces or can be drawn out of the latter, and how therefore in these also we can only speak of the condition or move- ments of molecules. Whether this condition manifests itself in a possible or in a real movement, whether only an activity or a true motion of the force-bearer results, makes in reality no difference. The time no longer appears far off when science will be able to derive all forces without exception not merely out of capacity for motion but out of motion itself. On these grounds the investigators and authors named at the beginning of this chapter define force as a mere property of matter or as its capacity for work. To put it more accurately. Force may be defined as a condition of activity or a motion of matter or of the minutest particles of matter or a capacity thereof ; yet more precisely, as an expression for the reaso?i of a possible or actual movement — differences which in reality alter nothing in the matter itself Force can no more exist without Matter, than seeing without an organ of sight, or a thought without an organ of thinking. “ No one has ever thought,” says Karl Vogt , ‘‘of maintaining that secretion can exist separate from the gland, or contractility separate from the musclefibre. The absurdity of such an idea is so striking that nobody has ventured to think of it in connexion with these organs.” “Not outside matter, or outside bodies is the supposed force or property found, but only within them ; and the thought that affinity (Force) has a separate existence outside the bodies in which it inheres or to which it gives the capacity for their particular demeanor, is so utterly monstrous, so wholly incomprehensible, that it is almost an insult to common sense to further enlarge upon it.” — A. Mayer. What general philosophic consequence is deducible from this simple and obvious fact? 8 FORCE AND MATTER. That those who talk about an independent or super- natural creative force, which has evolved the universe out of itself or out of nothing', are in antagonism with the first and simplest axiom of a philosophical view of nature, grounded on experience and reality. Neither can force create matter, nor matter force, for we have seen that a separate existence of these is neither empirically possible nor logically imaginable. But things which cannot be separated can never exist separately. That the universe cannot have arisen from nothing we shall find presently, when we treat of the conservation or eternity of matter and force. Nil is as much an empirical as it is a logical non- entity, a general negation of all existence. Never can nothing become something, nor something nothing. Ex nihilo nihil fit , et in nihilum nihil potest reverti . — Lucretius Carus. The universe or matter with its properties, con- ditions or movements, which we name forces, must have existed from and will exist to all eternity, or — in other words — the universe cannot have been created. If we are to accept such a creation it must first of all be proven to us how it is possible or imaginable that something can come out of nothing — which is an impossibility. It must further be shown how it is possible or thinkable that the creative force which is to be regarded as the cause of the universe, existed before the creation, without creating or without activity — and this is a still greater impossibility. The con- ception of an inactive creative force without any real existence besides itself is as impossible as that of Force without Matter. If however an original chaos is supposed, into which at a given time the creative force introduced order and reason, then is the idea of creation as such given up, and we come back to the eternity of the universe, which, as will be presently shown, excludes or renders superfluous any creative or regulating principle. What educated person, in the face of the discoveries of modern science, or even with a superficial acquaintance therewith, can seriously doubt that the universe is not — as used to be FORCE AND MATTER. 9 said in the phraseology of theological cant — governed, i. e. led or guided by a force outside itself, but that, in all its movements and transmutations, it obeys a manifest necessity of nature from which there is no exception? Never and nowhere, at no time, nor in the furthest realms of space to which our telescope reaches, can one fact be demonstrated with scientific certainty which contradicts this natural necessity and admits or necessitates the admission of an active self-conscious force, outside the natural order of the universe. If man will have a creative force, an absolute power, a world or original soul, an unknown x — no matter by what alias it goes — as the cause of the universe, then must he say, applying to it the idea of time, that it could exist neither before nor after the creation. It could not exist before it, for the reasons already stated ; it could not exist afterwards, because again rest and inactivity cannot be connected with the conception of such a force, and would abrogate it. A creative force that does not manifest itself and that shows no sign of its presence cannot exist, or at least cannot in any way be taken into account in our thought. De non apparentibus et non exisientibus eadem est ratio. (The non-apparent and the non-existent must be treated in the same way.) If the creative force after creation is to be regarded as sunk in eternal self- contented repose or in inward self-contemplation, this can only be taken as a philosophical fancy picture, without any real or trust- worthy basis. There remains only a third possibility, i. e. the super- fluous and monstrous conception that the creative force suddenly and without any definite reason emerged from Nothingness, created the universe (out of what?) and directly the work was done, sank back into itself, in some measure embodied itself in the world, or dissolved into the universe. Philosophers and laymen have always clung to this theory, because they hope in this fashion to reconcile the undeniable fact of an invariable and established order of nature with a belief in a supernatural, independent, crea- IO FORCE AND MATTER. tive principle. Most religious conceptions lean more or less towards this idea, but with this difference, that they regard the universal spirit as indeed resting after creation, but as a higher power which can at any time and at his own will suspend or alter the laws of nature. This may suffice for those who would solve the problem of the uni- verse by faith. But for those who here also take reason and logic as their rule, this conception is as inadmissible as its fellows. The very application of finite conceptions of dme to the creative force entails an incongruity ; a still greater one is its rise from the nil. A creative force that either creates itself or arises from nothing, and which is a causa sui (its own cause), exactly resembles Baron Miinch- hausen, who drew himself out of the bog by taking hold of his own hair. If, in order to avoid this difficulty, we give the attribute of eternity to the creative force, then this is merely another phrase for the eternity of the universe, which, as we have already seen, excludes or renders super- fluous every creating principle. The useless search of philosophers for a cause of the universe is a regressus in infinitum (a stepping backwards into the infinite) and re- sembles climbing up an endless ladder, the recurring ques- tion as to the cause of the cause rendering the attainment of a final goal impossible. At any rate the existence of the universe wfith its perfections and imperfections, with its for- ever and ever interacting processes of development and reversion, is a more possible and more intelligible concep- tion than the theory of a perfect self conscious creative force springing from a reasonless Nothing. If therefore the creative force cannot have existed before the universe came into being ; if it cannot exist after the same event; if it is not imaginable that it existed only for a moment; if Matter and Force (as will be presently shown) are indestructible, and if there is no matter without force, no force without matter — there can remain no doubt that the universe was not created, that it was not called into life by some will residing outside itself, but that it is eternal. FORCE AND MATTER. II That which has neither beginning nor end in time or space can have none in existence. That which cannot be de- stroyed cannot have been created. ‘ 1 Matter is uncreatable as it is indestructible.” — Carl Vogt. “If matter is inde- structible, then it is also uncreated.” — Spiller. “The Universe as a totality is without cause, without origin, without end.” — Du Prel. Simple and self-evident as may appear to us, in the present state of knowledge, the inseparability of the con- ceptions of Force and Matter, this has not always been so, and human reason only attained that simple idea after passing through many phases of ignorance or error. For the simplest idea of a matter, as Grove very well remarks, is generally that to which the human mind turns last ; and simplicity is the hall-mark of truth. ( Simplex veri sigillum.) According to one of the excellent essays of the English thinker Bence Jones, the conceptions of Force and Matter have passed through three separate and distinct phases of development, in the last of which we now are. In the first phase, men regarded Force and Matter as two wholly distinct entities and bestowed separate names on the self- existent forces of nature or their manifestations, regarding them as the results of the activity of certain supernatural beings ( vulgo gods). Thus earth, heaven, air, water, wind, stream, light, fire, sun, darkness, day, night, etc., each had its own spirit or god. Thus, among the Greeks, Zeus was the god of thunder and lightning, while his consort Hera represented rain and vapor ; Phoebus was the god of the day, his sister Artemis the goddess of the night, Uranus represented the sky, Gaia the earth, Poseidon the sea, Hephczstos the fire, Asolus the winds, Aphrodite the power of fascination, and so on. The ancient Indians, Chinese, Egyptians, Persians, etc., held similar views. The Greek philosophers, although several among them cherished very refined cosmological theories, generally made a very sharp division between Force and Matter and regarded the latter as moved from without, being itseh k, capable of movement 12 FORCE AND MATTER. — a theory which held its ground until the times of Des- cartes and Newton, owing to the vast influence of the Aristotelian philosophy. This first phase was followed by the second, in which, instead of a complete separation between Force and Matter, there was an incomplete sepa- ration of these concepts. Force was then united in some way to ponderable matter, but was fundamentally some- thing quite different, being itself a kind of matter that could not be weighed, i. e. an imponderable. From this theory resulted the famous but now discredited emanation or emission theory of light, according to which light con- sisted of minute imponderable particles, travelling with inconceivable rapidity. Heat was regarded as a fluid con- veyed from body to body : in similar fashion Electricity and Magnetism were looked upon as special electrical and magnetic fluids. The belief in the famous Phlogiston or combustible principle — which was supposed to be the cause of combustion, and which was set aside at the end of the last century by the discovery of oxygen — comes in under this head ; it is the same with the spirit of amber, which Thales gave as the reason for its property of at- traction, and so with many others. In the third phase only, the phase of modern thought, has it been recognized that there is no such thing as imponderable matter, and the unity, unchangeability and indestructibility of the force- endued atoms have been discovered. This is the phase of the unity and inseparability of Force and Matter, in which it is seen that, for instance, there can no more be matter without attraction or weight, than force of weight or attrac- tion without matter, and all known forces and activities only consist in the conditions or movements of the smallest particles of matter. Wherever matter is found, there must also be force in a state of motion, tension and resistance, and vice versd. Moreover we find, as might be expected, many stages of transition between these phases. The most difficult one to set aside is the dualistic hypothesis of Force and Matter in FORCE AND MATTER. 13 Biology, the Science of Life, which, in consequence of the complicated and therefore less easily traced relationships of the transmutations of organized matter, stands chiefly in the way of a more accurate theory. Thus, for instance, the famous physician, Paracelsus , did not venture to rep- resent the physical functions of nutrition, digestion, secre- tion, etc., as what they really are, the functions or activities of their proper bodily organs, but described them as the work of certain vital spirits. In similar fashion appeared later on the “ Archaeus ” or “stomach spirit” of van Helmont, Borelli’s “ nerve spirit,” Hofmann’s “life-sub- stance,” Haller’s “ irritability,” Stahl’s “Anima animata" and the whole host of names of nerve-force, imagination- force, vital-force, force of the circulation of the blood, etc., which in the science of life took the place of the imponder- ables of inorganic nature. Here, too, Force is considered as a subtle fluid substance or an imponderable elementary principle, whose previous union with material bodies was dissolved at death. We are sorry to confess that biological hypotheses have not yet completely got out of the second phase, and that the ghost of “vital force” — which will be fully dealt with in a later chapter — still haunts many wise heads, notably those of philosophers, while the physi- cal and chemical sciences have long since passed into the third and last stage. Immortality of Matter u From nothing nothing. Nothing that is can be annihilated.” — Democritus. “ It is an indubitable fact, proved by a thousand chemical experiments, that no ponderable bodies or elements can perish nor disappear, and equally that no new ones can originate, l he property that cannot perish in time cannot be evolved in time. That which cannot be destroyed cannot be originated. It follows that matter has existed from eternity, that it was neither created nor evolved, that its totality which is infinitely great can be neither increased nor diminished, and this also on the ground that the infinitely great cannot be increased by the addition of the finite, and that its characteristic of in- destructibility includes that of non-creation.” — F. Mohr. "Although in the course of ages catastrophes have taken place in the heavens, and still take place, although ancient systems dissolve and new systems are built up out of their ruins, yet the molecules of which these systems consist, the foundations of the material universe, remain unbroken and uninjured.” — C. Maxwell. “ Imperial Caesar, dead and turned to clay, Might stop a hole to keep the wind away ; Oh, that that earth, which kept the world in awe, Should patch a wall to expel the winter’s flaw ! ” Shakespeare. W ITH these words, the outcome of the keenest perceptive ability, the great Briton pointed out, three hundred years ago, a scientific truth, which despite its clearness and simplicity, despite its unanswera- bleness, has not yet attained that general recognition which is its due. Matter as such is indestructible, it can- not be annihilated ; no grain of dust in the universe can vanish from, and none can enter it. It is the greatest ser- vice rendered to us by chemistry that for the last hundred years it has taught us this indubitable fact, that the un- ceasing changes and transformations of phenomena, which pass daily before our eyes, the formation and destruction 04) IMMORTALITY OF MATTER. 15 of organic and inorganic forms and figures, do not consist of the formation of matter previously non-existent, nor of the destruction of matter then present, as was generally thought in earlier times, but that this change consists in nothing save in a continual and unbroken rotation of the same substance, of which the mass and the quality remain unalterable and identical for all ages. By the aid of the balance matter has been pursued through its manifold and hidden ways, and it has always been found to issue from a combination the same in mass and in properties as when it entered into it. The calculations which have been founded on this law of the indestructibility of matter have proved correct throughout. We burn a piece of wood, and at the first superficial glance it seems as if its particles had per- ished or been destroyed in fire and smoke. But this de- struction is apparent only, for the balance of the chemist tells us that not only have that wood and its constituent particles lost nothing, but that on the contrary the total weight of the constituents of the wood has increased : it shows us that the products, gathered and weighed, con- sisting of the gases evolved in combustion and the ashes left behind, not only contain all the matter of which the wood originally consisted, although in a different form and composition, but that in addition other materials are con- tained therein, with which the constituents of the wood united during the combustion. In a word, the wood by the occurrence of combustion has increased, not diminished the total weight of its constituents. ‘ ‘ The carbon of the wood,” says Karl Vogt, “ is imperishable, it is eternal and therefore indestructible, as are the hydrogen and oxygen with which it is combined in the wood. This combination and form into which it enters are destructible, but the ma- terial perishes not.” “ Carbon,” says Czolbe, (Neue Dar- siellung des Sensualismus — New Exposition of Sensation- alism — 1855) ‘ 1 which we find in the spar crystal, the wood fibre, or the muscle, can after the destruction of those bodies enter into other combination of different appear- i6 FORCE AND MATTER. ances, but as an element it can never be changed and never be destroyed.” If we bury a dead body we find years afterwards nothing in the place save a heap of bones mixed with earth. The sight awakens the belief that there is nothing more left of the former constituents of the body committed to the ground beyond these remains, but science tells us that in reality nothing, not' even the smallest particle thereof, has been lost, but that the whole change consists in this, that the elements have left their former combinations and have returned to the rotation of matter, to-day in this, to-morrow in that form to pursue their endless course. With full justification then did the bold fancy of the British poet fol- low the matter which once helped to build up the body of imperial Caesar to the point at which, in the shape of earth or mortar, it patched up a hole in a wall. With each breath that passes from our lips we exhale part of the food we eat and of the water we drink. They change so quickly that we may well say that in a space of from four to six weeks we are materially quite different and new beings — with the exception of the skeletal organs of the body, which are firmer and therefore less liable to change. The atoms, or the smallest particles of the chemical elements, change, but the manner of combination remains the same. Those atoms are themselves unalterable, indestructible ; to-day in this, to-morrow in that combina- tion, they build up by the variety of their positions or their unions the countless different forms in which matter presents itself to us, speeding from one to another in a ceaseless change and flow. At the same time, the quantity of atoms of a simple element remains on the whole unchanged ; not one of these particles of matter can form itself anew nor add to itself ; none that has once existed can disappear from being ; none can change its nature. An atom of oxygen, of nitrogen, of hydrogen, of iron, is everywhere and under all conditions one and the same thing, endued with the same inseparable properties or energies, and can never to all immortality of matter. 17 eternity become anything else. Be it where it may, it will be the same being everywhere ; however different the com- pound may be, it will issue from it on its breaking-up the same as it was when it entered into combination. But it can never originate anew nor vanish out of existence, it can only change its combinations. The same atom which to-day helps to form the haughty mien of a sovereign or a hero, may perchance lie to-morrow as the street-dust beneath his feet. The same atom which to-day drones in the brain of a sheep, may perchance to-morrow aid the thinking of a philosopher or of a poet. The same atom which to-day forms part of dirt or manure, may perchance to-morrow sleep with its fellows on the flower-bud as fragrant bloom. “A simple elemental atom ” says B. Stewart, “is really an immortal being and rejoices in the power of remaining unchanged and unmoved in its being under the mightiest attacks which may be levelled against it ; it is probably in a condition of ceaseless movement and change of form, but remains none the less evermore the same.” “An atom of hydrogen,” says the anonymous author of an essay on the Philosophy of Chemistry ( Revue Philosoph- ique, 1880, No. 6) “will ever remain a hydrogen atom, to whatever tests it may be submitted. If it enters into any combination, or leaves it again, it remains still the same, it always possesses the same properties. The necessary con- sequence of this is that the indestructible atom cannot be created.” This eternal and ceaseless ebb and flow of minute particles, changeless in themselves, has been called trans- mutation of matter by scientists, and science offers countless examples and proofs thereof. It is enough to remark of the changes and cycles through which matter passes in the Universe, and which man has partly followed by balance and measuring-rod, millionfold and ten millionfold, that they are without end and limit. Dissolution and generation, destruction and re-formation clasp hands everywhere in an endless circle. In the bread that we eat, in the air that we i8 FORCE AND MATTER. breathe, we draw in the matter that once built up the bodies of our forefathers ; nay, we ourselves give every day a portion of the matter forming our bodies to the outside world and shortly after we re-take this substance or matter similarly given off by our neighbors. Of the English we can literally say that they gratefully repay their forefathers who fell fighting for them and their freedom against the French Empire, by eating them as daily bread, for the bones from the battlefield of Waterloo were carted off in great quantities to England for manuring the fields, the yield of which was very much increased thereby. But, as we have said, no further proof is needed to demonstrate that matter is indestructible, and that it cannot therefore be created. How can that be created which can- not be annihilated ? Matter must have been eternal, is eternal, and shall be eternal. “ Matter is eternal ; it changes only its forms.” — Rossmcessler. The eternity of matter, or of substance, appears also from the following consideration : Science teaches us that an absolute vacuum cannot exist, and never can have ex- isted, while the infinity of space is set down by reason as axiomatic. Hence follows necessarily the -conclusion that space must have been filled with matter, and that this must have existed from eternity. It follows, in addition, as was shown in the preceding chapter, that the universe must be uncreated. A beginning and an end of the universe are as such inconceivable, and must be relegated to the limbo of spiritual or theological fancies. The phrases ‘‘mortal body” and ‘‘immortal spirit,” which have been repeated ad nauseam , are misnomers altogether. Exact thought might possibly reverse the adjectives. The body in its individual form or shape is indeed mortal, but it is not so in its constituent particles. Not in death only but throughout life it changes un- ceasingly, as we have seen ; but in the wider sense it is immortal, since not the smallest particle of it can be anni- hilated. On the other hand we see that what we call Immortality of matter. 19 spirit, soul, consciousness, disappears with the cessation of the individual combination of matter ; and it must appear to the unprejudiced mind that this action having been brought about by peculiar and very complicated unions, must come to an end with its cause, that is to say, with the cessation of those peculiar combinations. To-day the indestructibility or permanence of matter is a scientific fact firmly established and no longer to be denied. It is interesting to observe that former philoso- phers and thinkers also possessed a knowledge of this important truth, although in an incomplete form and rather as a presentiment than as a scientifically known and estab- lished certainty. The experimental proof thereof could only be yielded by our balances and retorts. Sebastian Frank , a German, who lived in 1528, says : “Matter was from the beginning in God, and is hence eternal and unending. The earth, the dust, every created thing indeed perishes ; but we cannot say that that perishes out of which they are created. Substance abides eternally. A thing falls into dust, but out of the dust is developed another. The earth, as Pliny says, is a phoenix and re- mains once for all. When it becomes old it burns itself to ashes that out of them a young phoenix may arise, the former but rejuvenated.” Yet more directly do Italian philosophers of the Middle Ages express this idea. Bernard Telesius (1580) says : “ Bodily matter is alike in all things and remains ever the same ; dark sluggish matter can neither be increased nor diminished. ” Finally, Giordano Bruno , (who was burned alive in Rome in 1600), remarks : “ That which was seed at first, becomes grass, hence the ear, then bread, nutritive juice, blood, animal seed, em- bryo, man, corpse, then again earth, stone, or other min- eral, and so forth. Herein we recognize therefore a thing which changes into all these things and essentially remains ever one and the same. Nothing appears to be really 20 FORCE AND MATTER. durable, eternal, and worthy of the name of a principle save matter only. Matter as the Absolute includes within itself all forms and dimensions. But the infinity of forms under which matter appears is not accepted by her from another nor as it were only in outward appearance, but she brings them forth from herself and bears them from her own womb. Where we say there is death, there is only the outgoing towards new life, a loosing of one union which is the binding into a new.” But a yet far more remote age was not unacquainted with the outlines of this truth, which now appears likely to become the corner-stone of every exact or experimental philosophy. Empedocles , a Greek philosopher who lived 450 years B. C., says : “ They are children or persons of narrow views who imagine that anything originates which before was non-existent, or that anything can wholly die or perish.” And again before him had the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras (B. C. 500-428) taught : ‘‘ Existence in space neither increases nor diminishes ; ” while his contemporary Democritus , the famous parent of the materialistic philoso- phy of the old world and of the theory of atomicity, formu- lated very plainly the hypothesis of the indestructibility of matter and defined the position as follows : “ Out of nothing arises nothing : nothing that is can be annihilated. All change is only the union and separation of particles. The varieties of all things depend on the varieties of the atoms in number, size, form, and arrangement,” etc. Immortality of Force. “In Nature nothing is lost, nor Matter, nor Force, nor mechanical work.” — P. A. Secchi. 11 No zephyr breathes, no wavelet ripples on the bank, but the movement thrills through all space.” — H. Tuttle. “ Out of nothing no energy can arise.”— Liebig. "Motion, Heat, Light, Magnetism, Electricity, chemical affinity pass one into the other; they are only different modes of one and the same original energy and each if not directly can yet indirectly be converted back again into the old form out of which it has been evoked.”— Du Prel. E QUALLY uncreatable, equally indelible, equally im- perishable, equally immortal as Matter is the Force bound up with it. United in infinite amount to the infinite mass of Matter, in most intimate union therewith, and like matter, it runs in an unresting never ending circle and emerges from each mode or union exactly the same in amount as when it entered in. As it is an indubitable fact that Matter can be neither newly created nor annihilated, but only changed in form, so must it be accepted as an absolutely certain experience that there is not a single in- stance in which a force has been brought out of nothing nor reduced to nothing, in other words born nor annihilated. In all cases in which forces make their appearance they can be traced back again to their sources , that is it can be shown out of what other forces or energies a given amount of force has been obtained directly or through transmutations. This transmutation does not proceed arbitrarily, but ac- cording to definite equivalents or weight-numbers, so that the minutest amount of force can no more be lost than the minutest amount of matter in the transformation of matter. 22 FORCE AND MATTER. While the indestructibility or permanence of Matter has been a known and settled fact for about a century past, this is not equally the case with the indestructibility or con- servation of Force, which, despite its great simplicity and ever self-evident character, has only been observed by scientists during the last forty years — and not without almost insuperable obstacles to general recognition being opposed at first to the new truth. We call it simple and self-evident, because it follows immediately and without further argument on the simple consideration of the relation- ship between cause and effect, and because a solitary instance in which the conservation of Energy failed, must have brought about the final stoppage of all motion in the universe ; in the second place because the law of the inde- structibility of Matter necessarily includes within itself the indestructibility of Force. When Lavoisier , in the year 1774, discovered the nature of combustion and put oxygen in the place of phlogiston or combustible air, the theory of the indestructibility of Matter and of the eternity or indelible nature of atoms was proved simply from the results given by the balance. Had the same theory of the relationship between Matter and Force been known then as it is now, the thesis of the indestructibility of Force would at once have been recognized as a necessary consequence. For if forces in the most general sense represent the properties of Matter, and if by means of them motion and change enter into life, then it is self-evident that the totality of forces present in Nature, whether static or dynamic, must also remain the same, that is can neither be increased nor lessened. But since scientists are a suspicious folk and will only accept that for truth which can be demonstrated by experiment or by calculation, and since it is far more difficult to measure and calculate forces than to weigh matter, so the rotation of forces, analogous as it was to and implied in the rotation of Matter, remained hidden for more than half a century, until in the year 1837 F Mohr distinctly noted it in his treatise “ On the nature of Heat." He was followed in the year IMMORTALITY OF FORCE. 23 1842 by R. Mayer , who first calculated the mechanical equivalent of Heat, and later on by the Englishman Joule (1843 — 49) who, without knowing of his predecessors, carried out during several years experiments on the relation between Heat and Work, or Heat and Motion, and by these experiments raised the connexion of these forces to an in- disputable theorem. But not until between 1850 and i860 and a long time after the publication of the first edition of this work, this theorem was recognized and demonstrated as regards the remaining forces ; it rejoices to-day in an uncontested recognition, so that, as F Mohr says, it has become the polar star whereby scientists now direct their course. According to this theory, no motion in Nature arises from nothing nor passes into nothing, and as in the material universe each individual form can only realize its existence by drawing upon a vast and never changing store of matter, so each motion forms the basis of its existence out of an incommensurable, never changing store of force and returns this borrowed quantity of energy sooner or later in some fashion or other to the Whole. A mode of motion may indeed be latent , that is to say, it may pass for the moment into apparent hiding, but it is not therefore lost, but has only passed into a qualitatively different, yet quantitatively equivalent state of force, out of which it again emerges in some way or other. In thus emerging, if it has changed , it has done nothing more than alter its form. For Force may assume very varied forms in the Universe, but remains still essentially the same. These different forms can pass one into another, but, as already intimated, without loss and according to the fundamental law of equivalents or equal values, so that the total sum of energy present neither increases nor diminishes, and only the totals of the different forces are changed. “The existing amount of F orce ’ ’ — says the author of an essay on the law of the Conservation of Energy in Wester- mann’s “ Unsere Tage" — “ remains changeless. We can 24 FORCE AND MATTER. change its effects at our pleasure, but only qualitatively ; in its quantity no increase nor diminution is in any fashion possible.” The science of Physics, or of the system of forces, of their changes and transmutations, makes us acquainted with seven or eight different forces, which in concert with matter and indivisibly united with it “form and build up the universe.” These are : Gravitation or the general at- traction between masses, including mechanical energy, Heat, Light, Electricity, Magnetism, Affinity or chemical relationship, Cohesion and Adhesion or molecular at- traction, Molecular Force — among which are generally reckoned Weight, Cohesion and Affinity as well as the so- called latent or static energies, and the rest as dynamic energies or as atomic and molecular motion. These forces can be transmuted into one another almost without ex- ception and in such a fashion that in the transmutation nothing is lost, but that the newly arising force is equiva- lent or equal to the original one and can perform new work as an independent energy. In the universe from which an inexhaustible store of energy comes to us, the forces are connected with the heavenly bodies, mostly under the forms of light and heat in the sun and the fixed stars; as mechanical energy in the planets revolving round their central orb, and as chemical difference, cohesion and magnetism in the ponderable materials of the bodies in the universe. Of the change or the so-called transmutatio7i of energy we here adduce some examples : By combustion or combination of various chemical ele- ments, light and heat are evolved. Heat may further be changed as steam into mechanical force, as for instance by being used in the steam-engine ; and mechanical energy can again be reconverted into heat by friction, and in the magneto-electric machine it can be re transmuted into Heat, Electricity, Light, and chemical difference. One of the commonest transmutations of energy is that of heat into mechanical force and vice versa. If two pieces of IMMORTALITY OF FORCE. 25 wood are rubbed together, heat and fire are produced. On the other hand, if a steam-engine be heated, then heat in turn is transmuted into friction and motion. The change of heat into mechanical motion and vice versd may be most strikingly demonstrated by a railway train. The heat obtained by combustion in the engine changes into the movement of the carriages. But what happens when the train stops ? Its mechanical energy cannot be destroyed, it can only be changed. The brakes are put on, and the train is thereby brought to a standstill, the motion being transmuted into heat, as is proved by the smoke and sparks caused by the friction. While by the combustion of coal in the steam-engine, chemical action is transmuted into heat, which in its turn is transformed again into mechanical energy, so in reverse manner can we transmute mechanical energy into heat if we make it drive a wheel which works a massive wooden cone within a hollow metal one that fits closely round it. This becomes heated to such an extent that we can thus warm a room by means of the energy obtained from a waterfall, a river or a windmill. In gunpowder, unsatisfied chemical affinities lie side by side. So soon as the igniting spark reaches it, the chemical differences are compensated, and heat, light, and mechani- cal energy are given forth. In the voltaic pile the chemical action between zinc and oxygen is transmuted into a current of electricity, and this may appear at the poles as heat and light, or again as chemical action in the voltameter. In the electric machine, the mechanical energy of the arms turning the disc, which itself results from an equaliza- tion of chemical difference (respiration), is changed into electrical tension and current, and this can again appear, ac- cording to circumstances, as attraction (mechanical energy) or as light, heat, and chemical action. The English philosopher, W. R. Grove, has constructed an apparatus by means of which, using light as the original 26 FORCE AND MATTER. force, he can develop simultaneously Jive other forms of force, viz. chemical activity, electricity, magnetism, heat and motion. It may indeed be accepted as a law that when a certain energy is evolved from a body, all other energies also manifest themselves as active therein. If, for instance, antimonious sulphate is electrified, it becomes at the same time magnetic, warm, radiant (if the excitation is carried over a certain limit), moved by extension and chemically active by decomposition, so that six different forces thus become active. Similar phenomena are seen in the electrification of metals ; it is only doubtful whether with them there is any chemical decomposition. In all these processes of transmutation, the calculated amount of force spent on one side agrees most accurately with that which is spent on the other. By means of an electric current, for instance, water can be resolved into its constituents, hydrogen and oxygen, and so much of these two gases is set free that by their combustion exactly as much heat is evolved as forms the equivalent of the electric current which was transmuted. In the impact of moving bodies, mechanical energy is generally changed into heat, as may be seen in the iron heated by the smith’s hammer or in two inelastic balls (as of lead) impelled against each other, which become heated by the impact, whereas, on the other hand, two elastic bodies (as billiard balls) do not become heated because they utilize the mechanical force imparted to them in the rebound. Or, when a cannon-ball strikes the side of an armored ship, a flash and a visible glow mark the spot struck, for the impact has changed the motion of the ball into intense heat, or the total motion has become heat. If two heavenly bodies were to rush against each other — an occurrence which must doubtless have often happened in the past, as it will yet happen — then a quantity of heat would be liberated by the shock, sufficient to reduce the total mass of those bodies to their original condition, i. e. to convert them into vapor. Like impact, the mechanical IMMORTALITY OF FORCE. 27 force of pressure or condensation develops heat, as may easily be observed in the pneumatic tinder-box or in coin- ing works. All molecules of a body, as they approach each other, set free the heat or energy which they before used in repulsion — whereby heat is evolved. It is thought, not improbably, that all the light and heat present in the universe arise from this source, and chiefly the most usual form in which energy is given forth, viz. the light and warmth of the central suns. All energies on this earth, whether in the organic or inorganic worlds, can and must directly or indirectly be derived from the beams of the sun. The flowing water, the driving wind, the passing clouds, the rolling thunder and the flashing lightning, the falling rain, snow, dew, frost, or hail, the growth of plants, the warmth and motion of animal and human bodies, the com- bustion of wood, of coal, etc., etc., may be referred without argument to the sun. By burning wood or coal, the total amount of the vanished sunshine laid up in these substances may again be evolved. The force which urges forward the locomotive, is a ray of sunshine converted into work by a machine, just the same as the work which creates thoughts in the brain of the thinker, or forges nails by the arm of the smith.* The tremendous force with which the tunnel of Mont *In 1857, Mr. Murray, of London published a biography of the famous English engineer George Stephenson, born 1781, died 1848, by Smiles, from which we take the following interesting account: "On Sunday, just when the company had returned from church and were standing on the terrace overlooking the railway station (Drayton,) a train rushed by, leaving a long line of white steam behind. ' Now,’ ’ said Stephenson to Buckland, the well-known theological geologist, "can you tell me what power moves that train?" — ‘Why.’’ replied the other, " I sup- pose it is one of your big engines.” — "But what moves the engine?” — " O, probably one of your stout Newcastle engine-drivers.” — " What do you say to the light of the sun?”— “What do you mean?” — " Nothing else moves the engine,” said the great engineer, "it is light which for thousands of years has accumulated in the earth — light which was inhaled by plants, that these during the time of their growth might fix the carbon, and which now, after having for thousands of years been buried in the coal-beds of the earth, is again brought forth and set free, to serve the great purposes of mankind, as here in this engine.” Assuredly a most remarkable utterance, considering the time in which it was made, and one instantaneously illumining a new field of science. 28 FORCE AND MATTER. Cenis or of St. Gothard was driven through the highest mountains, is nothing more than solar heat converted into mechanical motion. ‘ ‘ The heat wherewith we warm our dwellings,” says Liebig, “ is sun-heat, the light wherewith we turn night into day is light borrowed from the sun.’ ’ The light which is sent by suns to the non-transparent planets illuminated by them, does not perish on these, but is converted into heat, while, on the other hand, in- creased heat appears as light from the heated bodies, as may be easily observed by heating a bar of iron above a certain temperature. Magnetism can be manifested in the magneto-electric machine as an electric current, and this again in various other forms. Gravitation appears directly as mechanical energy and can then as such be converted into all the forms already mentioned. In every pendulum clock it can be seen that weight not only can be changed into motion, but also into heat, since the parts of the clock are warmed by the friction. Under such circumstances a given amount of energy is seldom completely and perfectly changed into another, but a part of it is either transmuted into other energies and is consequently not observed, or it is not transmuted at all. In the steam-engine, for instance, a large, indeed by far the greatest part of the heat produced is not changed into mechanical force, but emerges as heat with the escaping vapors or the condensation water or by the cooling of the parts of the machinery. In the fire-arm it appears as if a part of the mechanical energy were lost ; but it is only apparently lost as to the effect or intended object, because, in the first place, it warms the gun-barrel, and secondly is changed into the report. In similar fashion in an electric machine a part of the force is lost by being imparted as heat to the disc, the rubbers, etc. The word “lost” is, however, a misleading one, for in all these and similar cases not the smallest quantity of force is absolutely lost or IMMORTALITY OF FORCE. 29 lost to the universe, but is only lost to the immediate object and therefore seems to have vanished from the superficial glance. In reality the excited energy has only taken a different shape, the amount of which must be equal to that of the former. In general, all forms of force and motion can be completely and without loss transmuted into heat, while heat in each case can only be partially changed into the other modes. The examples by which this truth may be particularly demonstrated are countless in Nature ; they may all be summed up in the proposition : Force can be neither created nor destroyed — a proposition from which follows the indestructibility of force and the impossibility of its having as such either a beginning or an end. The result deduced from this newly discovered physical truth is the same as that deduced from the indestructibility of mat- ter ; the twain together have built up from eternity and will build up for evermore that totality of phenomena which we call the Universe. The “ circulation of force” must be placed side by side with the “ circulation of matter ” as its necessary corollary and its necessary completion, and it teaches us that nothing originates and nothing perishes, and that the secret of Nature lies in an eternal self-sustained circle, wherein cause and effect are united without begin- ning and without end. That only can be eternal which has been from eternity, and that which is eternal, cannot be created or made. “ Everywhere is change, nowhere is annihilation. In the organic as well as in the physical world, in living as well as in dead bodies, there is everlasting motion. Absolute repose is found nowhere. All is changing, and from the mould of the dust new life arises unceasingly.” — Tyndall. In judging this newly discovered physical truth and its consequences, it is certainly very interesting to find that Voltaire, known to be bitterly opposed to the teaching of his materialistic countrymen and contemporaries, required nothing further from them to convince him than exactly 3 ^ FORCE AND MATTER. this proof of the conservation of the energies of Nature. “ The materialists,” he says in his Traite de Mataphysique , Chap. II, “ must maintain that motion is inseparable from matter. They are therefore further compelled to maintain that motion can never be increased or diminished ; they must assert that a hundred thousand men set in motion and a hundred canons fired at one time, introduce no new motion into Nature.” This fact, which Voltaire held to be so impossible that he thereby thought to demonstrate the emptiness of the materialistic views, is to-day completely proved. How many similar arguments opposed to so- called Materialism will meet with a similar fate in days to come ! Infinity of Matter. “ Hence we recognize that it will never be possible to decide the dimensions of the final particles of matter ; our ideas are shut in between two infinities, between the infinite vastness of planetary space and the infinite minuteness of molecular structure.” — Secchi. “ Indeed the conception of the infinitely minute is as little capable of being grasp- ed by us as is that of the infinitely great. Despite this the admission of the reality of the infinitude both in the direction of greatness and of minuteness is inevitable.”— Dr. C. Jakob. “ The idea of space is only an unavoidable illusion of our Consciousness or of our finite nature and does not exist outside ourselves ; the universe is infinitely small and infinitely great.” — Radenhausen. A S matter is endless in time or eternal, so it is no less without beginning or end in space ; in its real exist- ence it withdraws itself from the limitations imposed on our finite mind by the conceptions of time and space, conceptions from which it cannot free itself in thought. Whether we enquire about or investigate the extension of matter in the minutest or the greatest, we nowhere find an end or a final form, whether we call to our aid experiment or reflexion. When the discovery of the microscope or the juxtaposition of magnifying glasses, opened up worlds un- known before, and revealed to the gaze of the investigator a fineness and minuteness of organic life and organic form- elements undreamed of until then, man cherished the audacious hope of coming on the track of the final organic element, perhaps on the very basis of existence. This hope disappeared in proportion to the improvement of our instru- ments. In the hundredth part of a drop of water was found a world of little animals, often of the daintiest and prettiest form, which moved, ate, digested, lived like every (31) 32 FORCE AND MATTER. other animal, and by the fashion of their movements left no doubt that they were not without the two chief marks of animal life, sensation and will. The smallest of these under the highest magnifying power are barely recognizable as to their outlines ; their internal organization naturally re- mains wholly unknown to us. It is also unknown to us, what yet smaller forms of living things can or may exist. “Shall we,” asks Cotta, “with yet improved instruments see the Monads as giants in a dwarf- world of still smaller organisms ?” The remarkable wheel-animalcule, formerly mistakenly classed among the Infusoria, which measures from to of an inch, has a gullet, toothed jaws, stomach, intestine, glands, ovaries, eyes, blood, vessels and nerves. A drop of sea-water contains a crowd of the most various and most curious forms, as balls, crosses, baskets, screws, stars, chess-like figures, horns, caps, helmets, etc., and each of these forms represents a perfectly developed independent living creature, endowed with sensation and power of movement. The swift Monad (Flagelleta) measures the twenty-four- thousandth part of an inch, and several millions of these maybe found in a drop of liquid. The vibriones, micro- scopic animals of the minutest kind, appear under magnifi- cation as heaps of tiny quivering, scarcely perceptible points or threads, sometimes straight, sometimes twisted like a corkscrew, and of these it is calculated that more than four thousand millions would occupy a cubic line. As to their near allies the bacteria, the so-called protista or original life-forms, which stand midway as to their nature between the plant and animal kingdoms, or the rod-like bodies which move quickly through the water by means of a fine and often scarcely visible vibrating flagellum and have lately been recognized as most dangerous vehicles of disease — of these, according to Prof. Cohn’s calculation, 663 millions go to a cubic millimetre, and 636,000 millions would be required to balance the weight of a INFINITY OF MATTER. 33 gramme or the five hundredth of a pound. The spores of i- fungus discovered on the vine in Italy are so small that a htman blood -corpuscle looks like a giant beside them under the microscope ; but the blood-corpuscle is itself so minute that the smallest drop of blood, a cubic-millimetre in size, contains more than five millions of them. The Ascaris (a round worm) lays about sixty-four millions of eggs, and almost as many ovules are produced by a single orchid. In all these minute bodies resides the organic energy of transmission or the tendency of the reproduction of a being resembling the parental form in all its finest peculiarities — a specially complicated collocation of the material elements of which we can form no conception, for our power of vision here comes to an end. Still less is the microscope able to give us any explanation as to the won- derful arrangement and internal conditions of animal or human seed, in which a single cell of microscopic minute- ness is able to determine the physical and mental nature or characteristics of a future being, often to the finest shades during the course of a whole life. Still all these bodies or objects, minute as they may be, are yet visible to our enlarged eyesight. But when we come to the newly discovered method of spectrum analysis and find it capable of revealing with certainty the presence of the third part of the thousand millionth part of a gramme - — five hundred grammes to a pound- — of a heavy body (as for example kitchen salt) in the air of a room, we have here a particle which lies outside the limits of our direct perception, even though we should largely increase the magnifying power of our microscopes. None the less must it be presumed that this particle is in turn composed of an indefinite number of atoms and molecules grouped together, and that the interspaces which separate these minutest par- ticles of matter from each other, must be as wide, as enor- mously great in comparison to their size as the interspaces which separate from each other the individual worlds. “The most powerful microscope,’’ says Professor Valentin, 34 FORCE AND MATTER. “will never bring within our view either the form or the position of the molecules nor even those of the smaller groups of atoms. A grain of salt which we can scarceb taste, contains myriads of atom -groups, which no humsn eye will ever see.” The English philosopher, Professor Thompson , has sought to determine the size of a zinc-mole- cule at the thirty-millionth part of a millimetre, and in this it must not be forgotten that the molecule may, and indeed must, be very large as compared with an atom ; while the diameter of a blood-corpuscle is reckoned to be only -j^Vo part of an inch, and that of the smallest Infusioria the fifteen- hundredth of a millimetre. But then, this number is merely the extremest limit of what we are able to compute on the ground of ascertained data. The same scientist has calculated that if a drop of water could be expanded to the circumference of the globe, which has a diameter of 8000 miles, and if each single water molecule were expanded to the same relative size, then each of these molecules or dis- tinct water particles, which are composed in their turn of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen, would only be about the size of a bullet! Professor Perty ( Die Natur , 1869) com- municates a calculation according to which a cubic line of organized substance must contain about 240,000 billions of elementary atoms ! But all this is far surpassed by the calculations which have lately been made by English and German scientists upon the molecular constitution of the lightest bodies known to us, viz. the gases. The so-called kinetic theory of gases, set up by Clausius and Maxwell, puts the number of molecules (the groups of atoms, atomic systems) in a cubic centimetre of gas or vapor at no less than twenty-one trillions , their relative distances from each other being from a three-millionth to a four-millionth of a millimetre ; and that 144 trillion molecules of the pure hydrogen gas weigh a milligramme (the thousandth part of a gramme). According to Cams Sterne there are six trillion molecules in a thimbleful of gas — a number of which Prof. Kundt endeavors to give an idea as follows ; INFINITY OF MATTER. 35 “ If a printing-press were able to print every day a lexicon containing three million letters, it would then have to work continually for 64,000 years in order to print as many let- ters as there are contained molecules in a thimbleful of air.” And it must not be forgotten that the individual molecules do not lie closely one on the other, but are so widely separated in consequence of their so-called “molecular spherules,” that according to Clausius they in reality oc- cupy only the three thousandth part of the entire space. The velocity with which these molecules vibrate among each other has been reckoned at 1698 metres per second for the lightest gas, hydrogen ; while those of the heavier gases vibrate with a similar relative velocity, but still ap- preciably slower. In a medium velocity of 477 metres the number of repulsions between the molecules is reckoned at 4700 millions per second. The ingenious English scientist Crookes , as is well known, has reduced enclosed gases by mechanical and chemical methods to such a state of rare- faction that he obtained the remarkable phenomena of “radiant matter’’ or the so-called “fourth state of aggre- gation of matter,” wherein the freer or unconstrained molecules move among themselves more easily and more swiftly. These phenomena prove that it was a great error to suppose that by such rarefaction could be obtained a vacuum or space emptied of air or even a condition of matter approaching thereto. For example, suppose a globe or a space from 13 to 14 centimetres in diameter, which according to the best authorities should contain about a quadrillion gas-molecules, exhausted to the millionth of an atmosphere, yet according to Dr. Kalischer ( Journ. Natur, 1880, Nos. 17 and 18) there will still remain in it a trillion molecules ! In order to give an idea of this vast number, the same writer makes the following cal- culation : If in such an exhausted globe a hole could be made of such minuteness that in each second a hundred million gas-molecules could enter through it, then must about 400 million years pass away before the globe would 36 FORCE AND MATTER. again contain air of the original density of the atmosphere, or would again contain a quadrillion gas-molecules ! We may learn the incredible rarefaction or extension of which matter is capable, as the resultant of its molecular or atomic groupings, by a glance at the calculations which have been made on the inconceivable rarity of ether — a substance, imponderable by the mechanical means at our disposal, which fills all planetary space as well as the finest interspaces within all bodies ; and also by those made on the density of certain celestial bodies, or on the original vaporous condition of our own solar system. Imagine the total mass or ponderable matter of our planetary system, including the sun, distributed over a ball which has for its circumference the orbit of Neptune, the outermost planet known to us — and the vaporous ball from which the system evolved must have had such an extension and very probably a much greater one — then the matter composing it would be so rare that the density of that primal mist would be only the 553 millionth part of that of our atmosphere; ac- cording to Radenhausen it would have one ten-millionth of the density of hydrogen, the lightest of all terrestrial bodies; according to Helmholtz , a single grain of solid earthly sub- stance would, if made equally rare, fill many million cubic miles. If we believe with many astronomers that the primal sphere of our solar system had in reality a radius of two billion miles, then the density of that primal matter could only have been the 600,000 billionth part of the density of hydrogen, whilst at the period that the ring of the earth- planet severed itself from the solar orb it must have already attained a density equal to the nine-hundredth part of that of hydrogen gas ! ! Cometic matter or the matter of which are composed these remarkable knights-errant of the universe, is, accord- ing to the calculations of astronomers, so fine or rare, that a cubic mile of it would scarcely weigh a few grammes, or borrowing the astronomer IV. Meyer's phrase, the comets, if compared with the planets relatively to their mass, INFINITY OF MATTER. 37 are scarcely as a paper snip compared with a cannon-ball. Light and fluid, however, as are these erroneously dreaded sky visitants, yet the ether — that excessively rare, to us imponderable substance, which according to the views of physicists not only fills the realms of space but fills also the tiniest interspaces of even the densest bodies, and which passes through glass walls and unceasingly flows around all atoms and molecules — this ether offers to the passage of the comets a resistance comparatively so slight, that its lightness or rarity far surpasses that of everything else that is known, and that we hesitate to state the figures, because they sound too audacious* An atom (from the Greek a and re/ivu, i. e. a thing which cannot be divided) is the name we give to the smallest portion of a chemical element or elemental matter, which we regard as capable of no further division, or the division of which we cannot conceive ; and we regard all materials or bodies as built up out of such atoms or out of groups of two or more of such constituting a common body, the so- called molecules, and existing and maintaining these char- acteristics by a changing system of mutual attraction and repulsion. Perhaps we are not mistaken if we regard a molecule as somewhat resembling in miniature the systems of the uni- verse and compare the separate atoms, out of which it is * Later physicists deny the existence of the ether and accept in its stead an excessively rare gas or rarefaction of ordinary matter. According to Secchi it consists perhaps of none but the primitive or true atoms of the unknown primal matter, from which were built up in separate sets or groups those we erroneously name elements or original matter, so that all forms of matter would thus be constituted from ether. According to Spiller ( Die Urkraft des Weltalh, 1876 — a book well worthy of study) the ether, as the universal force-endued matter, the one primal energy of the universe or the soul of the world, is the universe-will or the energy-matter, the unwearied architect to whom all atoms must yield obedi- ence without volition, and “ which without personality or self-consciousness dictates all natural laws from the gravitation of the greatest and most distant worlds to the chemical action of the body-forming and to us invisibe atoms of matter.” He calls his system Etherism or the system of universal ether. If the theory be accurate, that the matter filling the interplanetary spaces is only the remains of the former primal vapor, then it must be far rarer than it was originally, since the materials have been taken out of it for the making of the solid bodies evolved therefrom. FORCE AND MATTER. 38 built up, to the separate celestial bodies joined sometimes in pairs, sometimes in a system. But suggestive as is such an image, and appropriate as it seems to throw a wel- come light upon a large number of chemical and physical problems, on the phenomena, properties and activities of matter, we must yet admit that the word “atom’'’ is only a name for an artificial idea resulting from the craving of our mind for limits in space, and which we require for the sake of scientific objects. The science of chemistry especial- ly seems impossible without atomicity, and every theory or concrete representation in it must be at an end without this. But yet atomicity is and remains a scientific hypothesis, and we are wholly without any real grasp of the thing that we call an atom. We know nothing of its size, its weight, its form, character, color, etc.; we know not if it is elastic or fusible, if it is angular or spherical, etc. ; although spec- ulations as to the shape and properties of atoms have not been wanting. No one has seen the atom, and no one will ever see it ; speculative philosophers deny its existence because they cannot admit that a thing can exist, the divis- ion of which cannot be imagined, and they declare that it is impossible both logically and empirically. In fact the unlimited divisibility of atoms or of the molecules built up from them can be doubted when looked at either from a theoretical, a metaphysical, or an empirical point of view, and it can only be maintained that we are not in a position to divide them further by the chemical and physical forces known to us. If for instance chemistry teaches that a molecule of quicksilver is a hundred times as heavy as a molecule of hydrogen, then must the former in comparison with the latter have a comparatively large size and hence must be divisible. It has also become very probable through recent investigations that the substances hereto- fore regarded by us as elements or original bodies are noth- ing of the kind, but are themselves compounds, and that the so-called atoms therefore consist of units of a higher grade, as the molecule does of atoms. Hence we must re- INFINITY OF MATTER. 39 gard the atom, if we desire to retain this idea, as being physically the type of the infinitely small.* Thus neither by observation nor by thought can we, in contemplating matter in minuteness, reach a point at which we can stop, and there is no likelihood of such a point being reached. 1 ‘ Everywhere we find, ’ ’ says Stewart, ‘ ‘ that the limitations of our reasoning faculties in respect of space and time shut out the possibility of our becoming accurately acquainted with these exceedingly minute bodies, which are none the less the raw material out of which the universe is built up.” On the other side of the present outposts of microscopical investigation the famous English scientist Tyndall, on the occasion of a meeting in the Philharmonic Hall, London, suggested a yet unmeasured field of scien- tific imagination. For we have here to deal with bodies so infinitely small, that in comparison with them the test ob- jects of the microscope are literally immeasurable. “As the distances in space of the planetary realms merely give us a dizzy notion of immeasurability, without leaving any definite impress on the mind, so the quantities with which we have to deal here, leave with us a dizzy feeling as to the minute.” Hence we can say nothing except that matter and therefore the universe are infinite in minuteness, and it matters little if our reason, accustomed to find quantity and limit every- where, should be startled by such an idea. As the microscope guides us in the world of the minute, so does the telescope direct us in the world of the vast. Here also astronomers audaciously dreamed of penetrating * Atomicity, or the explanation of the whole by the parts, was founded by the Greek philosopher Leukippus (500 B. C.) and developed by his disciples Democritus , Epikurus and Lucretius. Expelled from general knowledge by Christianity and from science by the Socratic philosophy, it was resuscitated and brought out again by Gassendi, Hobbes, Dalton and others (1592-1844,) while Lavoisier , to- wards the end of the last century, proved the indestructibility of the atom and founded thereupon modern chemistry. A modern speculative natural philosophy, somewhat fantastic in its methods, seeks to throw doubt upon the material exist- ence of atoms and to regard them as centres of energy. Particulars of this, as well as of the criticism of the Atomic Theory, will be found in the author's work JVatur und Geist, 3rd edition, p. 79, et seg. 4 ° FORCE AND MATTER. to the very limits of the universe, but the more they per- fected their instruments, the more immeasurably did the worlds expand before their astonished gaze. The light white mists seen by the naked eye in the vault of heaven were resolved by the telescope into myriads of stars, of worlds, of suns, of planetary systems ; and the earth with its inhabitants, so fondly and proudly deemed the very crown and centre of existence, fell from its fancied exalta- tion to a mere atom moving in immeasurable space. “All Dur experiments yield us not the slightest trace of a limit ; each increased power of the telescope only opens to our gaze new realms of stars and nebulae, which, if not consist- ing of galaxies of stars, are self- illumining matter.” — Grove. “ With each sharpening of our tools which bear our gaze into the waves of light of the furthest starry realms, new waves of suns break forth from the limitless ocean of the stars.”— IV. Meyer. “ Even with the most powerful teles- copes we see so many faintly-shining stars that we are unable to doubt that on the further side of these there are yet others which will become visible by larger instruments.’ ’ — G. J. Klein. “ From all these experiments we conclude that the depth of celestial space cannot be sounded, and that we shall never succeed in reaching its bounds. We should vainly strive by a cumulation of resemblances to give even an approximate idea of the immeasurableness of the starry universe.” — Secchi. The distances calculated by astronomers in space are so vast that our intellect grows dizzy as we contemplate them, and our fancy tries in vain to follow the conceptions sug- gested by them. Seeing that even the distances in our own solar system cannot be realized by our minds, how much less can those of the fixed stars, which are generally designated by the so-called “solar distances” (20 million German miles or I48'6 million kilometres) or by the time taken by light to travel across them. Thus in order to find a mathematical expression for the enormous distances in space, astronomers have adopted the so-called light-time t INFINITY OF MATTER. 41 based on the extraordinary velocity of light, which, as is well known, travels at the rate of 40,160 German miles per second (186,000 English miles Tr.). A second of light- time therefore means a distance of 186 thousand miles ; a year of light-time means nearly six billion miles (5,865,- 696,000,000). Now the distance of the fixed star nearest to us (a Centauri), the sun nearest to us outside our solar sys- tem (one of the brightest of the stars), is reckoned at about 3)4 years of light-time, or at 224,500 solar distances, or nearly 22 billion miles (21,996,360,000,000) ; the distance of the star 61 Cygni is about 400,000 solar distances, or 37 billion miles, or nearly 60 billion kilometres. The distance of the brilliant Sirius or of the dog-star of Aquarius from the earth is calculated at 17 light-years, or at more than a million times the distance of the earth from the sun. If we wanted to travel from the earth to the nearest fixed star we should require 30,000 years for our journey— supposing that we were able to move towards it in a straight line with the velocity of our solar system in space (i8)4 miles per second), and that it did not change its position. But the above-named stars all belong to those lying near to us, whereas the distant fixed stars are reckoned at a distance of hundreds and thousands of light-years. The number of these stars, or rather suns, lying outside our system, has been raised by the giant-telescopes of late years to about 20 millions, whereas we can see only some 4000 or 5000 of them with the naked eye ; and these countless suns are divided from each other by such spaces as we have above described, including the yet more countless satellites and sub-satellites which probably accompany them. But all these taken together do not form the universe ; on the contrary, they one and all belong to a definite and comparatively much limited star-system, beside which there are countless others and mostly larger systems in the universe. This system or republic of stars, of which our sun with its sat- ellites only forms a small part, or this island of worlds stretches in form like a somewhat strongly flattened lens 42 FORCE AND MATTER. through space, and is bounded at its periphery by two almost parallel annular aggregations of suns, which are visible to us in the form of the well-known via lacUa. The distance of these from the earth is calculated at from 4000 to 5000 light-years, that is to say, light would require this time to travel thence to us, while according to Madler's calculation it requires 9000 years to travel round the ring of the milky way from one end to the other. Our sun which is not quite in the centre of this system of fixed stars, but stands on one side, is 573 light-years from the centre of this ring and lies about a thousand light-years nearer to one side of the inner milky way than to the other. The whole system most probably revolves round a common and yet undiscovered fixed point or virtual centre. But even this is not enough ; the telescope informs us that this system with all its countless hosts of stars, with its distances and extensions escaping from our grasp, is yet but a finite limited part of the immeasurable universe, and that at distances, in comparison with which all the be- wildering dimensions of the ring of the milky way are infinitely small, there exist other world systems which lead their existence quite independently of ours. These are the so-called nebulae, those wondrous forms in the deepest depths of space, whose position, shape and condition show all imaginable variety, and of which, since W. Herschel first intimately observed them, considerably more than 6000 are known at present. Part of them by far exceed in their extension — although they often appear to the eye as mere shining dots and sometimes cannot be seen without the greatest difficulty — that of the milky way, and they like the latter must either consist of many millions and thousands of millions of celestial bodies or of planetary systems coming into existence. Their distances from us are so fabulous that they can only be reckoned by millions of years of light-time ; nay, some even are said to have been observed which must be at a distance of a hundred million years of light-time. These are indeed merely INFINITY OF MATTER. 43 phrases, with which we are unable to connect any idea, for we have no sort of terrestrial measure for them ; only the word “infinite” is and remains applicable here. “The universe, ’ ’ forcibly remarks the French philosopher Pascal , “is a circle whose centre is everywhere and whose circum- ference is nowhere.” If from these facts it is sought to draw any conclusion as to the antiquity of the world, it then cannot be doubted that the present order of the celestial bodies, that which we call in the widest sense the “ order of the universe,” must have existed for millions of years in the same or in similar order to that we find to day. In fact as we gaze at the firmament, we read thereon only the circumstances, the record of past minutes and hours or of times lying far behind us, and occurrences which perhaps took place before our earth separated itself as an independent body from the solar sphere, appear to us as present. When we observe a change in the sun, we can only say that such a change took place seven and a half minutes ago, for the light requires that time to travel from it to the earth. If Neptune, the most distant planet of our system, were de- stroyed by any catastrophe, it would only vanish from our sight four or five hours later, for that is its distance from us reckoned by “ light-times.” If the beautiful star Vega in the constellation of the Lyre were suddenly to cease to exist, we should none the less behold it shining in the sky for eighteen years to come, for the rays of light that strike our eyes in witness of its existence quitted it eighteen years be- fore. But the stars whose light is visible to us by the aid of our best telescopes are calculated to be at a distance of from 2000 to 3000 years of light-time, that is that the dying ray, which brings us the tidings of their existence, left its source about the time that Homer sang on our earth, or the great sages of Greece lived and taught. And when perhaps a hundred million years ago the first and earliest forms of life began to germinate on the young earth, then sprang from yonder furthest nebulae the ray of light which sinks 44 FORCE AND MATTER. to-day into our eyes as the witness of their existence ! ‘ ‘Yes, there can be no doubt that there are stars which give us no light simply because their rays have not yet reached our earth, and others again that lie so far away that their rays can no longer reach the globe, either because they have already ceased to exist or because the illuminating power of the ray cannot traverse the enormous distance.” — DU Prel. But that even these stars do not and cannot signify the limits of the world-filled realms of space can be deduced from the law of gravitation as well as from analogy. Empty, boundless space is an astronomical as it is a logical absurdity. ‘‘To suppose” says Grove {Correlation of Phys. Forces , 6th. ed. p. 125) ‘‘the stellar universe to be bounded by infinite space or by infinite chaos, that is to say, to suppose a spot — for it would then become so — of matter in definite forms, with definite forces, and probably teeming with definite organic beings, plunged in a universe of nothing, is, to my mind at least, far more unphilosophi- cal than to suppose a boundless universe of matter existing in forms and actions more or less analogous to those which, as far as our examination goes, pervade space.” If then we can find no limit to matter in the minute, still less are we able to find a limit in the vast ; we must there- fore pronounce matter to be infinite in both directions, in the great as in the small, and to be independent of the limitations of space and time. If the laws of thought postu- late an infinite divisibility of matter, if, according to them, it be also impossible to imagine a limit to space and nil beyond it, we find a remarkable and satisfying unanimity between the laws of logic and the results of our scientific investigations. We shall hereafter have an opportunity of proving the identity of the laws of thought with the mechanical laws of external nature on other points as well, and to show that the former are the necessary pro- duct of the latter. ‘‘ Beyond the range of human reason,” says Rade?ihausen INFINITY OF MATTER. 45 in his Isis, vol. IV, p. 172, “there is neither space nor time ; they are arbitrary conceptions of man at which he has arrived by the comparison and arrangement of differ- ent impressions which he has received from the outside world. The conception of space arises from the sequence of the various forms which fill space, by which the external world appears to the individual man. The conception of time arises from the sequence of the various forms which change in space (motion), by which the external world acts on the individual man, and so on. But externally to ourselves the distinction between repletion of space and mutation of space does not exist, for each is in constant transmutation, whatever is is filling and changing at the same time, nothing is at a standstill ” etc. “ Weder Anfang hat die Welt, noch Ende, Nicht im Raum, noch in der Zeit. Ueberall ist Mittelpunkt und Wende Und im Nu die Ewigkeit.” (“The world has neither beginning nor end, in space nor in time. Everywhere is centre and turning-point, and in a moment is eternity.’’) — Riickert. Value of Matter. " By an intellectual necessity 1 cross the boundary of the experimental evidence, and discern in that Matter which we, in our ignorance of its latent powers, and notwithstanding our professed reverence for its Creator, have hitherto covered with opprobrium, the promise and potency of all terrestrial life.” — Tyndall. “ The times are gone by in which man dreamed of spirit independent of matter. But the times are also past in which the spiritual was supposed to be degraded if it was only manifested through matter.” — Moleschott. “ Men have constantly endeavored to degrade matter, but have only succeeded in showing that the divine beauty of a fundamental constituent of their nature is hidden from them.” — Elements of social science. T HERE was a time when men, in a frame of mind hostile to earth and seized with a sort of mental and moral crapulence over the destruction of this present world, imagined that they saw approaching the end and ruin not only of political but also of all earthly things. In this mood they turned in thought to the wonders and delights of that other non-earthly world, which should recompense them for the intolerable tribulation of the present one. Hence arose, or at least found wider accept- ance that foolish conception which matter looks upon as a crude, dismal, inert Something, hostile or opposed to spirit ; it received support from the then ruling philosophy of Aristotle, which also regarded matter as incapable of independent motion and therefore as dependent on a moving reason ( vovc ). Thus religious fanatics began to vent their rage against their own bodies, which were re- garded as the chief obstacle to the higher mental or moral impulse. The earth was looked on as a vale of tears, Nature as a thing subject to the curse of the deity ; man’s 46 ) VALUE OF MATTER. 47 own flesh was the most contemptible of all and was to be injured and punished as much as possible. Had not the apostle Paul, the real founder of the new universal religion, expressly declared : “They that are Christ’s have crucified the flesh, with its affections and lusts.” “This whole island (Capraria)” says an ancient Roman historian at the time that Christianity was imported into a world doomed to destruction and hastening to its fall, “ is occupied or rather disfigured by men who shun the day. They call themselves monks or hermits, because they live alone and wish to have no witnesses of their actions. They avoid the gifts of fortune lest they should lose them ; and in order not to become unfortunate, they devote themselves to voluntary destitution. How absurd is their choice ! how preposterous their reason! to fear the evils of human con- ditions without being in a position to enjoy its pleasures ! This melancholy insanity must be the result of a disease, or else the consciousness of guilt drives these unhappy men to rage against their own bodies, upon which they inflict torments such as are assigned by the hand of justice to runaway slaves.”* In the Middle-Ages, that desolate period of rude noble tyranny and fanatical priestly dominion, so-called servants of God had carried things so far that matter was treated with great contempt and that they nailed their own bodies, * Compare the famous Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire of Gibbon, who writing on the monks and monasteries of that period, adds : " The freedom of the mind, the source of every generous and rational sentiment, was destroyed by the habits of credulity and submission ; and the monk, contracting the vices of a slave, devoutly followed the faith and passions of his ecclesiastical tyrant. The peace of the Eastern church was invaded by a swarm of fanatics, incapable of fear, or reason, or humanity ; and the Imperial troops acknowledged, without shame, that they were much less apprehensive of an encounter with fiercest Bar- barians.” And again: “They aspired to reduce themselves to the rude and miserable state in which the human brute is scarcely distinguished above his kindred animals ; and a numerous sect of Anachorets derived their name from their humble practice of grazing in the fields of Mesopotamia with the common herd.” He also quotes with regard to the effect of the monasteries on the em- pire the characteristic remark of Zosimus, “ that for the benefit of the poor, the Christian monks had reduced a great part of mankind to a state of beggary.” (See chap. XXXVII, Gibbon, for further details. 7 >.) Also, chap. X, pages 561 to 608, Gibbon’s History of Christianity. 4 8 FORCE AND MATTER. the noble work of Nature, to the pillory. Some crucified themselves, others tormented themselves ; crowds of flag- ellants or self-floggers wandered through the country, openly exhibiting their voluntarily torn bodies ; men strove by refined methods to ruin health and strength, in order that the spirit — -regarded as something supernatural, as something independent of matter — might gain the victory over its sinful bearer. The saintly Bernard , as Feuerbach relates, so lost his sense of taste by excessive asceticism, that he ate grease for butter, and drank oil for water. Rostan tells us that in many monasteries the superiors were in the habit of bleeding their monks several times a year, in order to subdue the rebellious passions which the divine service by itself was incapable of containing. But he also informs us that nature trampled upon sometimes avenged herself, and that in these living graves revolts were not uncommon, when the superiors would be threat- ened with poison and dagger. It has long been known what sad and wretched ascetics are still found among the poor people of India. The consequence is that their glori- ous land is a prey and they themselves have become the slaves of a small number of aliens. Such errors and perversions of right feeling are fortu- nately only possible at this day as generally condemned exceptions, or as follies commited by individuals instigated by fanaticism or insanity. A nobler view has shown us that, as Schleicher says, neither spirit nor matter exists in the sense that is generally supposed, but that there is only one which is equivalent to the twain, and that as we de- grade matter, we in the same proportion degrade the spirit; that as we dishonor nature, we injure the universal womb which has conceived and brought forth all of us ; that as we ill-use our body we ill-use our spirit, and that he who acts thus injures himself to just the extent that he in his foolish fancy imagined that he had benefited his soul. Let us form and cultivate our bodies or what is matter in us not less than our spirit, and let us not forget that the twain are VALUE OF MATTER. 49 inseparable, and that what we do to the one, the other also benefits by. The old Ciceronian saying : Mens Sana in corpore sano (healthy mind in healthy body) contains as much truth as its opposite : The mind builds its own body. On the other hand we ought not to forget that as individuals, as separate entities, we are only a fugitive part of the whole, which must sooner or later return into that whole. Nature, or matter in its totality, is the universal mother, evolving everything from herself and having everything restored to herself. 1st denn nicht, was ihr Materie nennt, Der Welt urkraftig Element, Aus dem, was immer lebt und webt, Empor zu Licht und Bewegung strebt, Und das dich selbst und die ganze Welt Im unergriindlichen Schoosse halt Und Alles gebiert und Alles verschlingt, Was bier nach Leben und Dasein ringt ? (All that is called matter is the primal forceful element of the universe, out of which all that lives and moves strug- gles upwards to light and movement, which contains itself and the universe in its unfathomable womb, which brings forth and devours up everything that here wrestles for life and being.) No nation knew better than the Greeks how to honor the purely human on its own account, and none knew better how to esteem life in contrast with death. Lucian relates : “When Dsemonax, a greybeard of one hundred years, was asked before his death how he desired to be buried he answered : ‘ Do not trouble yourselves, the corpse will be buried by the smell.’ ‘ But,’ said his friends, ‘would you then serve as food to dogs and birds ? ’ ‘ Why not ? ’ he answered, * so long as I have lived I have striven to serve men with all my power, and why should I not give something to the brutes after my death ? ’ ’’ Our modern society can certainly not raise itself to this point of view. It is thought grander to barricade the piti- 50 FORCE AND MATTER. ful corpse with flagstones for a century, or to shut it up in the family vault with beringed fingers, rather than to re- store to the Whole that which has been received there- from and which cannot be withheld in perpetuity. A medical theologian, Professor Leupoldt of Erlangen, maintains that those who from scientific reasons start from matter instead of from God, must really renounce all scien- tific ideas, because beings who are themselves only minute portions of nature and particles of matter, are incapable of penetrating into or of conceiving nature and matter. This reasoning is truly more worthy of the theologian than of the physician ! Have those who start from God and not from matter, ever been able to give us any intelligence about the laws of nature or about the properties and activi- ties of this matter which they regard so contemptuously? Could they tell us whether the sun moves or stands still? Whether the earth is round or flat ? What is God’s nature, or design? and so on. Can they give us the smallest scientific information on those great questions which are agitating the mind of every thoughtful person, as to the origin of the world and of man ? or as to the laws by which, according to them, the universe is governed? No! that were an impossibility. “To start from God in the study and investigation of nature’’ is a phrase without thought or reason, which signifies nothing and by which nothing is got. That melancholy method of investigating nature, of philosophically contemplating nature, which starting from theoretical premisses or metaphysical ideas, fancied that the universe could be constructed and the truths of nature ascertained by speculative methods, has fortunately been overthrown many a long day ;* and exactly the opposite plan, the investigation of natural laws and natural phenom- ena by the deepest study of nature herself and by the en- quiry into material facts and laws has yielded all those great results and beneficial effects in which we now rejoice * Bacon ofVerulam. the famous experimental philosopher, said in his days: “All purely logical explanations are worthless, since Nature far exceeds in fineness (subtilitas) all arguments drawn from inductive ratiocination.” VALUE OF MATTER. 51 both in spiritual and material respects. Then why should those who proceed from matter, or who base thereon their investigations, be unable to understand matter? On the contrary, we shall be able all the better to understand it and to control it, the more we endeavor to learn to know it in its infinite fineness and its incredible energy and capac ity, by means of observation, of investigation, of experi- ment. Experience has spoken here with sufficient clear- ness. The scientists, unfairly decried as ‘ ‘ Materialists, ’ ’ have not only made it possible for our mind to penetrate by thought into the All and to obtain scientific certitute on questions and things which appeared for ever sealed to it ; but we also owe it to them that the human race is more and more borne upwards in the mighty arms of matter, known and controlled through its laws, and that we can perform by it works and acts, which in former times seemed possible only to giants and magicians. Such results must silence envy, and the times appear gone by wherein a world falsely framed by fancy was deemed by men worth more than the real one. Even if many hypocritically turn their faces away from it, it is only done in pretence. In their deeds they manifest the contrary of their words. No one now tortures nor scourges himself, nor seeks asceticism in lieu of enjoyment. On the contrary each strives with all his powers to snatch the share of goods and of pleasures due to him, and offered to him by this life, beautified and exalted a thousandfold. To those, who nevertheless per- sist in turning their eyes to heaven rather than to earth, is applied the striking phrase of Ludwig Feuerbach : “The hypocrisy of self-infatuation is the cardinal sin of the age.” This is due more or less to those who, if not in every- day life, yet in theory and philosophy, continue to hold fast to that unreasonable idea of matter, already mentioned, as a dead, inert, dark, motionless, rough Something, op- posed to the spirit and either hostile or subservient to it, rightly designated as a ‘‘horrid dream ” by F. A Lange in his History of Materialism , and who from this theory de- 52 FORCE AND MATTER. duce consequences which put fancies in the place of realities, seli-deceptions in the place of truth. These foolish people utterly forget in their spiritualistic stultification that, as the study of the primal earth has clearly shown, matter (out of which they have themselves arisen) existed long before the spirit , and that all yet future forms, including reasoning beings, potentially or in capacity must have been contained in that primal world-mist out of which our solar system was gradually evolved with all its wonders and its inhabit- ants. They forget also that spirit can only exist on a substratum of organized matter, and that not the shadow of a proof can be brought forward to show that spirit can attain to an independent existence outside of matter. Further, they do not appear to know that all forces active in the earth, without exception, (including, of course, the spirit- ual ones produced by a definite arrangement of organized matter) ultimately arise from the sun and take origin in the form of light and heat coming to us by the vibrations of ether-particles. Lastly they overlook that which in fact is proved everywhere, that if spirit and matter were opposites they could not act upon each other, nor in any essential respect be transmutable. The simple solution of the problem lies in the fact that not only physical but also psychical energies inhere in matter, and that the latter always become manifest wherever the necessary conditions are found, or that, wherever matter is arranged in a certain manner and moved in a certain way in the brain or the nervous system, the phenomena of sensation and thought are produced in similar fashion, as those of attraction and repulsion are under other conditions. “ If matter can fall to the ground then it can also think,” — Schopenhauer. In the form of a stone it falls to the ground ; in the form of a muscle it con- tracts ; in the form of living nerve-substance it becomes capable of feeling and of thinking, or rises into self- consciousness. The development of mind from matter is indeed one of the the latest, most difficult and most com- plicated triumphs of physical forces, and is the product of VALUE OF MATTER. 53 a protracted toil, rising from step to step, through countless centuries, till reaching the height of humanity. Nor can we say what shall be brought forth of similar fruit by the coming ages ; we must confess that perhaps as yet we see only the incomplete, the imperfect, and that perchance we have no conception of what matter may yet be able to accomplish in its future evolution in mental phaenomena or faculties, by further complications and yet more highly developed forms of motion. “The opinion that spirit has created matter,” says the anonymous author of the Elements of Social Science , (London, 1854,) “is an utterly groundless hypothesis, founded on no shadow of proof. There is not the smallest analogy in its favor, and it would appear as if human reason were yet in its childhood. In how much is it the least more conceivable that spirit should be infinite than that matter should be ? It is indeed much more, infinitely more inconceivable ; for while we can find no possible reason why matter should not be infinite, but are forced to that conclusion by the study of nature, we can on the other hand find no possible reason in nature why spirit should be infinite, but are forced to the conclusion that it is not infi- nite. Spirit is a manifestation of life, and all life, by the law of its being, is subject to change and therefore to death. Spirit is perishable, for it is absolutely indivisible from the perishable forms of matter, and it is a wholly natural force, not foreign to other natural forces, but indivisibly bound up with all other in mutual interdependence. . . . The spirit which designs in man is indissolubly bound up with a living organized brain. To maintain that the designer of the cosmical plan is a pure spirit is to argue against all analogy. According to our experience spirit is without exception found in conjunction with a brain, and never creates matter. ... To separate matter from spirit, bodies from souls, is to destroy the truth of nature ; to place one above the other is a monstrous presumption which destroys the unity of the universe.” 54 FORCE AND MATTER. “ Divorced from matter,” says Tyiidall, “where is life to be found ? Whatever our faith may say, our knowledge shows them to be indissolubly joined. Every meal we eat, and every cup we drink, illustrates the mysterious control of Mind by Matter.” There are philosophers who, in order to escape from the consequences of these or of similar considerations, go so far in their spiritualistic presumption as to deny or to throw doubt upon the existence of matter as such. The logical fallacy thus made has been cogently exposed by Stanski (Sur la spontantite de la matilrc , Paris, 1873.) It lies in this, that the unknoiun idiosyncrasy of matter (compare the chapter on the infinity of matter) is taken for matter itself. We indeed do not know what matter is in itself, any more than we know what force is in itself. We do not even know whether matter is single and simple, or if it is made up of the 60 — 70 known chemical elements. But this we know with all certitude, that something is there which attracts, repels, resists, moves, evolves the phenom- ena of light or of heat, and that when this something is taken away, the phenomena or activities evolved by it come to an end. This something is that which we call matter ; the phenomena mentioned are its actions ; and the cause of these actions is the force inherent in the matter. It is really comical that these philosophic gentry, after they fancy they have demonstrated the non-existence of matter and have shown that it is merely a thing of thought, yet continue in their writings and expositions to speak again and again of matter and its effects. Did they care to be consistent, they should begin by denying their own existence, for this wholly consists of matter, and should regard themselves as non-existent appearances, or phenomenal modes of an unknown something, or as the product of their own imagi- nation ! With such ghostly antagonists one would readily waive all further discussion, even admitting — a thing which has never been seriously denied — that there are a number of properties of bodies which do not inhere in them as such, VALUE OF MATTER. 55 but which find their basis in the creation of our sense- organs. After all that has been said, it scarcely needs any further demonstration that matter in reality is not that empty thing, furnished with a set of negative attributes, which it was so erroneously represented to be, but in truth is the very opposite. Matter is not dead, inanimate or lifeless, but — as will be more fully shown in a later chapter — is in motion everywhere and is full of most active life. It is not shape- less ; but — as again a subsequent chapter will show — form, as well as motion, is its necessary and inseparable attribute. Nor is it crude, as badly informed people, using the word in a bad sense, will have it, but is so infinitely delicate that all conception of it fails us. It is not worthless, but is the common mother and generatrix of all that exists or is com ing into existence, and is thus of the highest importance. It is not senseless, spiritless or thoughtless, but is full of the most delicate sensibility and capable of the highest evolu- tion of thought in the living creatures that proceed there- from stage by stage. Neither is it unconscious, but in its gradual earthly process of evolution and development it evolves all imaginable stages of consciousness from the lowest to the highest. Further and lastly it is not unpro- gressive and eternally the same and unchangeable, as spiritualistic controversialists maintain, but brings forth ever increasing vital and intellectual forces by an ever higher and enhanced complexity of organic compounds. It seems to be only the impressions of our education, led ever in opposition to the progress of science along roads of spiritualistic fancies, which make it so difficult in the case of most people to see the simple truth, and to let the well- spring of fact come forth in place of phantasmic specula- tions and imaginations. Materialists — albeit since the first publication of this book the term has become to some extent current and at each fitting and unfitting opportunity the designation has been dragged in neck and heels, unsuited though as it is to FORCE AND MATTER. 56 the defenders of a philosophy which regards matter, force and mind not as separate entities, but only as different sides or various phenomenal modes of the same primal or basic principle — have been overwhelmed by their count- less opponents with a great number of accusations and charges, among which the reproach of (mental or moral) “ grossness ” has played a great part. They can, however, console themselves with the example of the great Greek philosopher Anaxagoras, who was compelled to leave Athens because, with a knowledge of nature or a foresight marvellous for his time, he declared that the sun was not a god, but a fiery ball, a glowing mass of stone. His great contemporary, the spiritualistic philosopher Socrates, spoke of him on account of this theory as an “ impious man ” — an epithet which, if well-merited, must now be applied to the whole educated human race. This, like thousands of similar examples, shows, as F. Mohr strikingly remarks, that more courage is needed to think with consistency or to proclaim new truths, than to charge at hostile cannons. For the rest, the whole struggle yet proceeding between Materialism and Spiritualism, still more that between Materialism and Idealism, must appear futile and groundless to him who has once attained to the knowledge of the un- tenability of the dualistic theory which always underlies it. All philosophical systems up to the present time have almost without exception been more or less dualistic, that is they have made a definite severance between matter and force, substance and form, being and becoming, movement and mover, nature and spirit, world and god, body and soul, earth and heaven, death and life, time and eternity, finite and infinite, — and all these things or conceptions have been placed in opposition to each other and been treated as antitheses, whereas modern science has shown that these oppositions do not exist in reality, and that the separation can only take place in thought. There is no matter with- out force, but neither is there any force without matter; there is no mind without matter, but neither is there any matter VALUE OF MATTER. 57 without mind ; there is no nature without arrangement, but there is also no arrangement without nature ; there is no earth without heaven, but neither is there a heaven without earth ; there is no time without eternity ; and there is no eternity without time ; there is no finite without infinite, neither is there an infinite without a finite. “ Natur ist weder Kern noch Schale, Alles ist sie mit Einemmale.” (“ Nature is neither kernel nor shell, but is both at the same time.”) — Goethe. Science is not idealistic, nor spirtualistic, nor material- istic, but simply natural ; she seeks to learn everywhere facts and their logical corollaries, without doing homage in advance to a system in this or in that direction. Systems can generally include not the whole , but only half the truth, and offer to investigation certain hard and fast lines which, in its irresistible progress, it is compelled, or may be com- pelled, to overstep every moment. “ Science,” says Grove ‘‘should have neither desires nor prejudices; truth should be her sole aim.” Motion. Tldvra f)ti (All things flow.) — H eraklitus ok Ephesus. Wherever our eyes dwell on the universe, whithersoever we are carried in the flight of thought, everywhere we find motion.— K. Zittei.. AH is dependent on Matter and Motion. — P. A. Secchi. Matter possesses one inherent quality; it is continual activity. — Gerhardt. To explain an appearance is to lead it back to motion and demonstrate the con- ditions of motion.— Bellingshausen. O NE of the strongest supports of the natural order of the universe and of a unified view thereof, is the knowledge that motion is a necessary and indispen- sable attribute of matter and of the whole organic and inorganic world. Physical astronomy teaches us with ab- solute certainty that the giant forms of the skies are in a state of constant change in shape and condition or consti- tution, like the forms of organic life on our earth ; and apparently the ceaseless movements which they execute among and against one another, controlled by the law of gravitation or attraction, are closely similar to those per- formed under gravity by the atoms and molecules, the finest constituent parts of each body or material form. For if, as Secchi says, the infinitely great is the province of the astronomer, while that which we may call the infi- nitely minute is the realm of the physicist and of the chemist, yet there is no distinction between the fundamental laws of mechanics which rule over each of these extremes. According to the same scientist, physicists to-day hold that motion is as indestructible as matter ; and if people have gradually arrived at the conviction that no atom of matter ( 58 ) MOTION. 59 is ever annihilated, he thinks they will also more and more recognize the indestructibility of motion as a fundamental axiom. In fact the English physicist Grove, in the before- cited work, (p. 16), proves conclusively that motion is the most evident state of activity or energy of matter, and that “ of absolute rest Nature gives us no evidence ; all matter, as far as we can ascertain, is ever in movement, not merely in masses, as with the planetary spheres, but also mole- cularly or throughout its most intimate structure : thus every alteration of temperature produces a molecular change throughout the whole substance heated or cooled ; slow chemical or electrical actions, actions of light or invis- ible radiant forces are always at play, so that as a fact we cannot predicate of any portion of matter that it is abso- lutely at rest.” The final result of his investigations is given by this scientist as that all the conditions of matter described by him are modes of motion ; or that all these conditions ‘‘are only matter moved or molecularly agitated in certain definite directions.” (p. 169.) Hence motion must be regarded as an eternal and in- separable property or as a necessary condition of matter. Matter without motion exists no more than matter with- out force ; motion without matter exists as little as force without matter. Nor can motion be deduced from any force, for it is the very essence of force itself, and can therefore have no origin, but must be eternal and in all places. Motion is everywhere in the universe, in the small as in the great. The conception of dead or motion- less matter is utterly untenable; it exists only theoretically or as an abstraction, and not in reality, like that of forceless matter. F Engels ( Streitschrift gegen Diihring , p. 40) speaks of a motionless condition of matter as “ one of the shallowest and most absurd conceptions, a mere phantasm of a heated brain.” According to him motion is the mode of existence of matter. Never and nowhere has there been matter without motion, nor can there exist any. Motion in the universal space, mechanical motion of smaller masses 6o FORCE AND MATTER. in the individual spheres, molecular vibration as heat or as electrical or magnetic action, chemical decomposition and composition, organic life — each single atom of matter in the world is in one or other of these modes of motion, or in many of them at the same time, at any given moment. All rest, all equilibrium is but comparative and has only a meaning as a transference from this or that definite mode of motion. For instance, a body may be at rest mechani- cally, i. e. in mechanical equilibrium on the earth ; but this does not prevent it from sharing in the motion of the earth as in that of the whole solar system, neither does it prevent its smallest physical particles from completing the vibra- tions necessitated by its temperature, or its material atoms from undergoing chemical change. Matter without motion is as impossible as motion without matter ; and motion is therefore as uncreatable and indestructible as matter itself. In fact we are incapable, either logically or empirically, of framing a conception of motionless matter, or of a mo- tionless body. When for instance a solid or heavy body, supported on a stand, continues in apparent rest, this rest is in fact but apparent, being in reality only an arrested or suspended motion, in which two equal and opposite motions balance each other. By removing the check the latent force can at any moment be re-transformed into dynamic force or work. The same holds good of an ex- tended spring or of compressed air, etc. Rest must then be conceived not as incapacity for motion, but only as the resistance between two equal and opposite motions. And then the apparently inert body is not completely at rest, but only appears to be so in relation to its immediate sur- roundings. For it not only revolves with the earth on its axis, but also with it in its revolution round the sun, and with the latter again round the great central sun or the great centre of the milky way. “ Everything,” says IV. Mayer ( Kosmographisch.es Skizzenbuch, p. 217), is en- gaged in motion with respect to its surroundings. Every- thing moves with the surface round the centre of the globe, MOTION. 6l with this round the sun, which ceaselessly whirls with us through space, and the mind becomes dizzy when it seeks to unravel this Gordian knot of interwhirling motions.” But even if this movement of our earth through space did not exist, the apparently inert body would yet appear to move, inasmuch as it takes part in the never-ceasing oscil- lations or vibrations of the interior and of the surface of the earth, which become apparent to our senses from time to time in stronger and more striking fashion as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, overthrows of mountains, emergings of islands, etc. The firm earth resting on such apparently unshakable foundations is in reality anything but stable and immovable ; it is only owing to the imper- fection of our means of observation or perception that we are not permanently conscious of these never-resting movements, nor in a position to control them. On the other hand the observations and investigations of geolo- gians have shown beyond doubt that a continuous slow ele- vation of one, and a corresponding subsidence of another tract of land occur, and that so far as we know, there is no point of the surface nor of the interior of the earth which can be regarded as being in a state of absolute rest. The lightest pulsation of the sea or the softest breath of wind is enough to impart vibrations to the surface of the globe and the objects thereupon. ‘‘As we,” relates W. Meyer {loc. cit.') ‘‘were assisting Prof. Plantamour in the autumn of 1877 at the Geneva Observatory in watching certain lately discovered movements which the point of support of a pen- dulum made with the pendulum itself, thereby influencing its period of vibration, we observed by a three-thousand- fold linear increase the very slightest breeze, which, press- ing against the strong sandstone wall of the low building from outside, set the wall vibrating.” But even if these cosmical and telluric influences, which impart some of the motions induced by them to apparently resting bodies, did not exist, they could not by any means be regarded as motionless, for their interiors are continually 62 FORCE AND MATTER. disturbed by a number of most powerful motions. For the most solid body owes its condition only to the mutual attrac- tive force of its minutest particles, which continually oscil- late or swing round the so-called centre of gravity, and without which it would at once fall to pieces. That these particles are never able to attain a condition of relative rest is proved by the universally present force of heat, which is known to be nothing more than a mode of motion and which, since all bodies without exception contain heat, keeps these smallest particles or molecules in a state of continual movement. With each change of temperature, however slight, is connected an internal motion ; and this influence is sufficient to keep the whole of nature and all its substances and forces in ceaseless motion and change. Heat must indeed be regarded as the sole moving principle in the constant rotation of energies, without the presence of which a state of equilibrium would long since have been reached and therewith universal rigidity have set in. “All the substances in nature,’’ says Clausius in an excellent treatise on the nature of heat, “ even when they appear to be perfectly at rest, are engaged in the most rapid internal movement, and these movements in the bodies are trans- mitted to the surrounding ether, so that all space is contin- ually traversed in every possible direction by wavelike vibrations, and the perception of the vibrations is what we term heat.” “ Heat and motion,” says Du Prcl, “ are the two factors out of which we must construct the laws of the cosmos.’ ’ But even this is not all ; for apart from heat-motions every body, however solid, undergoes a constant, though often slow and unnoticeable change, or transposition of its particles and its shape. Even the hardest and most solid body of stone, which serves as an example of rigidity and immutability, forms no exception to this rule, and is, as the researches of chemical geology have shown, in a state of constant inward change and transmutation, both on the chemical and on the physical side. As in the organic, so MOTION. 63 also in the inorganic world a constant change of matter takes place, and this may be best observed in the neigh- borhood of mineral springs. For it is chiefly water — es- pecially when it is in a heated and corbonate laden state — which initiates and assists each change, and it does so with unceasing and uninterrupted efficiency. After water it is the heat of the interior of the earth and mechanical pres- sure, and on its surface the influence of the atmosphere, which co-operate in a constant chemical and physical alter- ation and transmutation of the constituent particles of our ancient planet. This transmutation obviously occurs most actively and most energetically in the organic world, the very existence of which depends thereupon. Even the province of latent or hidden activity is no exception to this, and if our senses or our means of observation were sufficiently keen, we should be able to observe in this also a constant change of composition and of form, while the external appearance deludes us with the image of absolute rest. “Nothing,” concludes Hanste.in from his researches on protoplasm, the primitive form of organic life (Heidelberg 1880) ‘ ‘ is constant in shape and mass. Even the outline and the minute con- struction of the nucleus or seed, which perhaps are compar- atively the most constant in the cell, do not remain the same. Each moment the parts may alter in number and in form, the body may change its structure or position, each molecular group may now firmly hold together, now freely dissociate itself. Yet are the form and individuality of the whole thing steadily preserved. ‘ Everything escapes and nothing subsists.’ ” In a former chapter we dealt fully with the law of the conservation or indestructibility of force, in order to show that no kind of motion can originate nor disappear, and that motion must therefore be regarded as the primal con- dition or in some measure as the soul of matter. Before this law was known, it might well appear to the laity in many instances that a movement disappeared or was de- 6 4 FORCE AND MATTER. stroyed without leaving anything behind it, i. c. that it had passed into a condition of rest. This mistake is no longer possible, and this belief, founded on mere outward appear- ance, has been discovered to be one of the most radical errors which has ever ruled in science. Motion is as indestructible, as incapable of annihilation as force and matter ; it assumes other forms, other appearances, of which the new forms are equivalent to those from which they have arisen. It follows hence with absolute certainty that motion is as eternal and uncreatable, or as beginning- less, endless and originless as force or matter. Conserva- tion of force, conservation of matter, ceaseless change of motion, work and velocity — such is the general result of our present physical science. So well had the ancient natural philosopher Oken understood this — although he lacked the positive knowledge of the present day, — that he made this remark: “Motion is from eternity;’’ and on the same grounds the philosopher Descartes was led to say : “ Give me matter and motion, and out of them I will build the universe.’ ’ The well-known physical law of the “ inertia of matter ’’ does not mean that matter is inert in itself, but only that rest or motion once begun cannot of itself change into its opposite, without being counteracted by some other force or motion. Rest is therefore not the absence of motion, but the resistance between two motions. Absolute rest does not exist ; it is, as W. Meyer says, an exquisite dream, a phantom of hope which the world knows not, which is without an instance in Nature. Na- ture itself knows no death, but only change ; no destruction, but only the passing over into other forms of motion ; it is an eternally raging whirling sea of motion and of change. Ruhe willst Du ? Siehe doch, Wie so thoricht Dein Verlangen; Der Bewegung hartes Joch Halt die ganze Welt gefangen. Nirgendwo in dieser Zeit Magst Du jemals Ruhe finden, MOTION. 65 Und vom Fluch der Thatigkeit Kann Dich keine Macht entbinden. Ruhe kann es geben nicht Noch im Himmel, noch auf Erden; Und aus Tod und Sterben bricht Neues Wachsen, neues Werden. Alles Leben der Natur 1st ein Meer von Thiitigkeiten ; Ohne Rast auf ihrer Spur Must Du mit dem Ganzen schreiten. Selbst des Grabes dunkles Thor Gibt Dir Ruhe nicht hienieden, Und aus Deinem Sarg hervor Sprossen neue Lebensbliithen. (“Dost thou ask for rest? See then how foolish is thy desire ; the stern yoke of motion holds in harness the whole universe. Nowhere in this age canst thou ever find rest, and no power can deliver thee from the doom of activity. Rest is not to be found either in heaven or on earth, and from death and dying break forth new growth, new birth. All the life of nature is an ocean of activity ; following on her footsteps without ceasing thou must march forward with the whole. Even the dark portal of death gives thee no rest, and out of thy coffin will spring blossoms of a new life.”) The eternity of motion and its necessary existence were laid down as axioms long ago by the most ancient Greek philosophers who lived prior to the Socratic age. Especially did the atomists, Lenkippus and Demokritus and their famous diciples Epikurus and Lucretius, regard it as self- evident that the atoms, out of which proceed all existence, should be considered as having been in motion from all eternity. On the other hand, Anaxagoras (500 B. C.) was the first who divided spirit from matter, and derived motion from the activity of a reasoning ordering spirit (vovr.) He was followed by Plato’s pupil Aristotle, who also held mat- ter to be incapable of self-movement and maintained the 66 FORCE AND MATTER. necessity of the existence of a world-moving spirit or reason, or a primurn ?nobile, not moved by anything else. This opinion, which was thoroughly acceptable to the Chris- tian conception of God, was sustained by the powerful influence of the Aristotelian philosophy down to the times of Descartes and Spinoza. Thus, the great mathematician Newton , the discoverer of the laws of gravitation, considers matter as originating and set in movement by the will of God. Leibnitz (1646-1716,) one of the most comprehensive minds that ever existed, was the first to venture upon stat- ing once more that motion was self-originated. “Every- where,” he says, “there is activity, and I give it a firmer ground than does the ruling philosophy, for I am of opinion that there are no bodies without motion, and no substances without mighty energies.” According to this view, matter is neither dead nor inert, and is not impelled nor driven from outside in some fashion by some dcus ex machina, but has in itself force and resistance. The conception of dead matter is a mere abstraction, answering to nothing real, for matter, as we know experimentally, is everywhere full of life and motion and bears within itself its formative energies. Just the same view relating to matter was maintained by the materialistic philosophers of the eight- eenth century. According to Holbach ( Syst'cme de la Nature') the world is nothing more than matter and motion and an endless concatenation of causes and effect. Everything in the universe is in constant flow and change, and all rest is but apparent. Matter and motion are eternal. Diderot and his successors held the same opinions. And all this is entirely borne out by modern science. The investigation of motion is her peculiar task, and her province embraces everything that may be traced back to motion. Matter in motion or capable of motion is or must be her first and last word. “Eternal motion in infinitely manifold forms,” says L. K. Popow “grouping itself to- gether and dissociating itself, but never wholly disappear- ing — -that is the nature of the cosmos as a whole.” Form. The mass of living things does not present itself to us as the carrying-out of a reasoned, designed and followed plan, but as a historical result; that is, as the continually modified outcome of a number of causes which have acted successively, and in which there is a cause for each accident and each irregularity — the plan has no existence save in appearance. Forces necessa- rily work blindly, and existence arises from their co-operation. If any one imagines that nature works on a serial plan, he will find himself mistaken. The series is a result, not a thought, not a design of nature : it is nature itself. — It is however, perfectly obvious that if the forces of the whole universe constantly act uniformly upon our globe, their work must form a complete and perfectly graduated series — Jouvencel. This formative law is and remains a purely teleological, incomprehensible, im- material principle, in its essence identical with vital force. — Haeckel. Nature is generally more simple than our conception thereof ; we begin with very complicated theories and end with the most simple. — Du Prel. T HE idea of form can no more be separated from that of matter than can those of force or of movement be separated from it. A shapeless matter is a nonentity, neither logically conceivable nor empirically present in nature. Let anyone think of matter as he will, he can only think of it under some form, even if it be an embryological or incomplete one ; and experience shows that even that chaotic mass of matter or primal world-mist, which must be regarded as the embryo of future worlds and solar sys- tems, appears to the observer under the most varied forms. Form however did not spring from matter, as Minerva did from the head of Jove, but in the perfection in which we now see it is the result of slow and laborious evolution, which took millions upon millions of years in the doing. And indeed this evolution proceeded in such fashion that no doubt remains that we cannot speak even in the very (67) 68 FORCE AND MATTER. widest sense of a preconceived plan or a preordained formal order, but that all militates most emphatically in favor of Nature’s own action in the moulding of her form without any previous design. But since this action had occasion ever to develop itself under external circumstances that were slowly and gradually changing in every direction in a uniform manner and without interruption, it is obvious that an apparent order and an apparent plan should have arisen ; that is to say, that a perfectly graduated series of more and more perfect forms should have developed. Had these forms been in any way imposed upon nature from without or from above, or were they — to say the least — the outcome of preconceived ideas or of firmly-grounded principles, then would the processes be wholly incompre- hensible by which were shaped, step by step, the forms of the universe, or of the different solar and planet systems, or of our earth with its living organic or inorganic forma- tions. In all these formations do we behold so much in the shape of accident, irregularity, imperfection and depen- dence on changing circumstances or conditions that the theory of a pre-ordained formal arrangement is met by insuperable difficulties. On the other hand, the endless astonishing variety of formations in nature, in which an absolute repetition is never found, is the best proof of the eternal internecine conflict in matter, evoked by the conflict of the forces at work therein. Let anyone study the won- derful and beautiful forms of snowflakes or snow-stars fall- ing to the ground on a cold winter’s day, and he can con- vince himself that one day the forms are quite different from those of the day before or of the day after, although the conditions may differ but in the very smallest degree. Nevertheless this minute difference has sufficed to evolve these very different forms ; it shows that, as Cams Sterne (, Sein und Werden) says, ‘ ‘ each of these fugitive forms is the exact expression of a special complex relation between the moisture, motion, pressure, temperature, rarity, elec- trical tension and chemical composition of the air that pre* FORM. 69 vailed during their formation. With a many-sidedness of ideas, which anyone engaged in the drawing of patterns and designs for fabrics might envy, the intrinsic faculties of the simplest and most indifferent compounds we know of show themselves thus in opposition to the moulding influences of the outer world.” Still more does the gradual evolution of the organic world prove most conclusively — since herein the strife of forms in nature has reached its highest point — that form is nothing more than the necessary result of material actions and counteractions. Slowly and only with the help of an almost unending series of years have these organic forms attained their present perfection and variety, and now re- veal to us in this fashion all imaginable varieties and transitions, and a ceaseless interchange of form and mode of living, according to the variations of the external and in- ternal influences under which they lived or were constrained to live. Only through countless transitions and transfor- mations could they evolve the vegetable and animal worlds from the scantiest and most imperfect beginnings up to the present wealth of forms, and this we shall show and illus- trate more fully in a later chapter. None of these forms, whether they belong to our own age or to prehistoric ages, manifest in any one instance fixed character, which they preserve unchanged as a distinct type throughout varying external circumstances. On the contrary ; everywhere this type is easily changed, and there is no type of any organic group of which there cannot be found the most striking exceptions and variations. Indeed, by virtue of the proofs yielded by the theory of evolution, there can be no doubt, that the types, or organic phyla, which, at their furthest points, appear most severed from each other and of the most diverse kind, such as the birds and reptiles or the fishes and the higher Rotifera, are closely connected at their points of origin, and that everywhere a higher type can be educed from a lower, and a lower from one still further beneath it. All this shows that form is not a firmly fixed 7 o FORCE AND MATTER. nor a pre-ordained type, but is more or less accidental, that it is not original but proceeding from gradual amend- ment, not essential but superficial, and dependent upon circumstances without which a material entity cannot be conceived. A yet stronger argument in favor of this theory is found in the single fact that — as has been proved beyond doubt by modern biological science — the whole range of the organic world from the lowest to the highest, from the simplest to the most complex forms, has been made up of a single and very simple form-element and from its products, the cell , and that this simple form, which consists of enclo- sure, contents, and nucleus, arises again from a yet simpler original compound of matter, viz. the protoplasm, or forma- tive matter. This protoplasm or living matter, the re- markable vital properties of which are due to the peculiar chemical and physical properties of the carbon it encloses, and of its compounds, presents itself in a semi-coagulated, homogeneous form of larger or smaller bodies of albumen, capable of nutrition and reproduction, in which all organic functions are not, as in the higher animals, discharged by special organs, but are the immediate outcome of the un- formed organic material. These forms thus stand on the border-land between organic and inorganic bodies and clearly reveal to us how organic beings are gradually de- veloped out of more or less formless compounds of matter, through influences and circumstances which will be more fully investigated in a later chapter. * What the cell is to the organic, the crystal is to the in- organic world, although we must not allow ourselves to be led away into the false idea that the two kingdoms can be sharply divided off by this difference of shape, and that they can be separately built up on these foundations of completely distinct forms. For as the cell springs from the protoplasm, so does the crystal form itself out of the shapeless mother-ley or out of previously amorphous, i. e. formless bodies by mere re-arrangement of atoms, and, in FORM. 71 doing so, manifests very striking signs of an inner life, which do not allow us to look on it as a mere aggrega- tion of lifeless matter, but show manifold resemblances to the internal processes of plant and animal life. In point of fact, the remarkable proteid or albuminoid crystals, discover- ed by Reichert in 1849, or Ndgeli's so-called “crystalloids,” which behave exactly like organic bodies and exhibit all the peculiar properties of protoplasm, practically fills up the apparent gulf between cell and crystal or between the inorganic world and the organized cellular formations of the plant and animal worlds. In fact, a crystalloid can only be regarded as a crystallized cell or as a cell-like crystal ; we are constrained to agree with Nageli when, basing his opinion on such facts, he declares that the dif- ference between organic and inorganic is no other than that which exists between the simple and the complex. Under such circumstances it cannot surprise us to find that the lowest living things, which stand on the lowest steps of organic existence midway between plants and ani- mals, the so-called protista or primitive life-forms, manifest in their various shapes a startling approach to the inorganic world, and in contradistinction from the more highly de- veloped plants and animals, show mathematical outlines most closely resembling crystals and crystalline forms. “ If,” says Haeckel, ( The Realm of the Protista , pp. 38 and 46), ‘‘the formative power of the formless protoplasm calls forth our highest admiration among the remarkable Polythalamia, this is yet increased when we turn to the nearly allied Radiolaria. In these most interesting primal beings we meet with the greatest variety of beautiful and strange forms that can be found in the organic world. All possible types which could be placed in a promorphological system are found embodied in these.” — “ We have as yet no conception of the significance of these very varied, strange and exquisite forms, nor of the way in which they are shaped by the formless protoplasm of the Radiolaria.” From this common root of the plant, animal, and mineral 72 FORCE AND MATTER. realms that whole rich world of forms in nature with which we are surrounded to-day, has gradually developed by slow differentiation and improvement. “Just as with crystals,” says Jouvc 7 icel (. History of Creation , II, p. 308) “each tetrahedral and prismatic type is capable of passing by con- secutive modifications into ever more complex forms, so were the earliest primeval forms of life capable of taking on ever more complex forms by consecutive modifications. But as among crystals all forms, even the most complex, of any given type, are obtained by a very simple process of modification, viz. the formation of new faces by a con- secutive deposition of new molecules — so in the case of the living thing even the most complex forms can be evolved from a given type by a very simple process of modification, which consists in thei formation of new parts by a con- secutive addition of new cells.” We therefore require no mysterious “type-creating power,” no peculiar law of formation, no pre-ordained scheme of thought to account for the existence of form, but only a simple contemplation of nature as she is. Form is not a principle but a result ; it is not the execution of a predesigned plan, but the necessary product of the interac- tion of a large number of causes, contingencies or energies, which, blind and unconscious in themselves, yet working on everywhere and at all times without cessation, cannot but produce an apparently perfect and graduated order and succession. When the ancient philosophers of Hindustan and Greece could not reconcile the opposition between matter and form and sought, now to get out of the difficulty by the conception of an eternal form-design of matter, now by setting form against matter as the higher and ruling principle, now by treating both on terms of equality, but still as antitheses, it was scarcely possible to do otherwise at a time when the principles of the theory of evolution had barely dawned upon the human mind. To-day, when we are to some extent in a position to follow up the history of the endless events lying behind us, in ascending to thf FORM. 73 world-embryo of primal mist, it should be recognized that to exaggerate the importance of form as is still done by many scientists, is as much an error as to exaggerate the importance of matter. The former leads to Idealism, the latter to Materialism ; but the conception that form and matter are as indivisible as matter and force or as matter and motion can only lead to that unified conception of the world, based on the recognition of a natural and self- existent order of things, which, taking its stand on the progress of science, is destined to become, more and more the common creed of all men of culture. Immutability of Natural Laws. The government of the universe should not be regarded as the ordainmentof the world-order by an extramundane intelligence, but rather as the immanent intelligence of cosmic energies and their proportions. — Strauss. The energies working in matter work, so far as our observation extends, accord- ing to immutable laws, which never vary, but which always have been and always will be valid.— Th. Moldenhaur. If modern sceince denies miracles, it is only to reveal to us a world which is in itself an everlasting miracle.— A. Langel. T HE laws by which Nature works and acts in her endless movement, in her ceaseless being and becoming, in building-up and destroying, are not, as the child like phantasy of nations used to imagine them in ancient times and as weak and uncultivated minds still believe at this day, laid down and dictated to Nature by some lawgiver or lawgivers standing outside or above Nature, but are the natural and necessary expression of the interaction of all physical forces. By analogy with human activity and con- ditions the inaccurate and misleading name of “law” has been employed to express this fact. But this analogy is in- applicable, because the phenomena or facts of Nature, inter- linked by absolute necessity, have nothing in common with the arbitrary commands of a human lawgiver. The law of Nature does not exist beside nor outside matter or Nature, but is only, as stated above, an expression for the proper- ties or motions indissolubly united with it. While human laws necessarily presuppose a lawgiver or a controlling will, be it that of a single ruler or that of the community at large, it is not so in the case of natural laws, which are not imposed upon matter or upon Nature, but are inseparable from and identical with her very self. (74) IMMUTABILITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 75 Hence it follows — as has been proved beyond doubt by experience — that natural laws are immutable, that is to say, that they are inaccessible to caprice or to outside in- fluence, and that they must be regarded as being as eternal as matter and as Nature itself. Nothing can happen in the universe, be it the greatest or the least of things, except by the influence and as the result of natural laws. Rigid in- exorable necessity rules the whole and the course of Nature. “ Natural law,” says Moleschott , “is the most stringent ex- pression of necessity.” There is neither exception nor limitation here and no conceivable power is able to escape from this necessity. At all times and for evermore, a stone which is upheld by no support falls towards the centre of the earth ; never has a command been given, nor ever will such be given, bidding the sun stand still in heaven. The experience of more than a thousand years has pressed on observers the conviction of the immutability of natural law’s with ever increasing and at last with such absolute certainty, that not the least doubt can remain as to this great truth. Inch by inch has science, in seeking after light, won their positions from the ancient childish creed of the w r orld, — wrested from the hands of the gods their thunder and light- ning and the darkening of the stars, and has subdued under the controlling fingers of man the mighty forces of the old- world Titans. All that seemed incomprehensible, miracu- lous, caused by a supernatural powder, how quickly and how easily has the torch of investigation shown it to be the out- come of hitherto unknown or imperfectly estimated natural forces ; how swiftly did the might of the spirits and the gods melt away beneath the hands of science ! Supersti- tion must fall before cultured reason and knowledge must step into its place. With the most absolute truth and wfith the greatest scientific certainty can we say at this day : There is nothing miraculous in the world ; everything that happens, has happened and shall happen, happens, has happened and shall happen naturally; that is to say, in a manner that rests exclusively on the regular working FORCE AND MATTER. 76 together or interaction of materials that have existed from all eternity and of the natural forces united with them. No revolution of earth or sky, however violent, could have taken place in any other way ; no mighty hand, reaching down from the ether, raised up the mountains and limited the seas, nor traced their orbits for the suns and planets, nor created animals and men after its own whim and pleasure ; but all this was done by the very same forces which at this day still make seas and mountains, regulate the course of the worlds and bring forth living things ; and all this took place as the expression of the most stringent necessity. Where fire and water meet, there vapor must arise and exert its irresistible force on its surroundings. Where a grain of corn falls on the ground, there it must grow. Where the lightning is attracted there it must strike. Where two bodies with chemical affinity meet un- der certain conditions there they must combine, and under other conditions they must separate. When an organism suffers an incurable injury it must perish, and so on. Can there be any doubt about these truths? No one who has studied nature and his own surroundings even in most su- perficial fashion, and who knows the merest outlines of the acquisitions of natural science, can help becoming con- vinced of the necessity and immutability of the laws of Nature. “Everywhere,” says G. H. Schneider ( Der thierische Wille, p. 137 et seq.P) “we observe only immutable natural laws and blindly working causes. Hence the ghost of a personal, universal spirit, interfering in natural processes, has long been banished from astronomy, physics and chemis- try ; no chemist now thinks of ascribing the union of two elements to the will of a god, and no scientist now sees the manifestation of the divine will in any phenomenon of attraction or friction. The ignorant layman may believe in a personal god ; but the scientist or the educated layman, who is able to grasp the fact of adaptation without assuming the will of a personal god, would place his reason below IMMUTABILITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 77 that of the simplest peasant if he believed in such a one without foundation. . . . Belief in God is therefore almost confined at the present time to those so-called learned men who know scarcely anything about natural processes, and who are therefore compelled to fall back on the will of a personal god' for the explanation of the simplest physical processes.” etc. As with the doings of nature so is it also with the doings of man, which arise from natural causes and influences, and which similarly obey that inexorable regularity which rules throughout all existence and which admits of no exception. It lies in the nature of each individual being that it should begin, exist and perish, and no living thing has ever yet formed an exception to this rule. Death is the surest calculation that can be made, and is the inevitable fate or end of every individual existence. His hand is stayed by no mother’s prayer, by no wife’s tear, by no man’s wrath ; he snatches the blooming child from the arms of the des- pairing mother or the tender parent from the side of the helpless child ; he reaps terrible harvests and incessantly goes on heaping up hecatombs of perished lives, the destruction of which brings pain and anguish, trouble and poverty on the bereaved. “The laws of Nature,” says Vogt , “ are rude unbending forces, which know nothing of morality nor of compassion.” “Nature,” says Die Prel, “is neither cruel nor loving, neither tender nor hard-hearted; she merely acts according to laws, and in the whole uni- verse notan atom moves except by law.” No power in the Universe quells the wrath of the elements, contending against each other and against men with destructive violence; no command from on high checks the devastating fury of storm, water or burning sun ; no call wakes the dead from their sleep ; no angel lets the prisoner out of his dun- geon ; no hand stretched out from the clouds reaches bread to the hungry nor drink to the thirsty ; no sign from heaven grants supernatural knowledge ; no light from above gives comfort or solace to the despairing soul. “ Nature,” says 78 FORCE AND MATTER. Feuerbach, “answers neither the questions nor the plaints of man ; she inexorably flings him back upon himself.” And even Luther found himself compelled to say in his ingenu- ous way : “For we see by experience that God does not take care of this temporal life.” The same thought is expressed by Leopardi, the famous poet of Pessimism, in the following words ; “ Yet O Nature, as I understand the world, thou troublest not thyself in thy courses over our good nor over our ill.” We know of no “spirit that is independent of natural forces in its manifestations,” as Liebig terms it; for never has an unprejudiced and scientifically trained observer discovered any such manifestations. And how could it be otherwise ? How would it be possible that the unchange- able order and regularity in which all things move could ever have been destroyed, without making an irreparable rent in the Universe, without handing over ourselves and the world at large to an unfathomable and unspeakable arbi- trary will, and without making all human science appear as mere childish drivelling, all earthly effort as idle toil or as a useless striving after something that in a higher order of things would have been obtained long ago ? Above all, what object or significance could there be in this whole world, regularly appointed and developed as it is, if it were under the arbitrary influence of a higher power which could at any moment suspend or break through its laws or institutions at its own pleasure ? Such exceptions to the rule, such deviations from the normal order of things have been called miracles , and plenty of them have been put forward in all ages. Their origin is due partly to intentional fraud, partly to superstitious ignorance and to that strange longing for the wonderful and supernatural which seems indelibly wrought into human nature. How plainly soever the facts may speak, it is difficult for man to persuade himself that he is everywhere and under all circumstances surrounded by a network of uninfringible laws. The idea produces a feeling of op- IMMUTABILITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 79 pression within him, and he does not resign the hope of discovering some thing that might break through this network. The younger and the more uncivilized and uneducated the human race, the greater play must this desire, have had and the more numerous must have been the miracles wrought ; for as Radenhausen says : ‘ ‘ the more ignorant man is, the more miracles must there be for him.” Even at this day, among savage and ignorant nations and among the uneducated generally, there is no lack of miracles, and there remains rampant a belief in goblins and diablerie and in certain higher influences mocking the laws of nature; even the shocking belief in witches and the devil, under whose poisonous breath our unhappy deluded race had to suffer heart-breaking tortures for such a length of time, still prevails among the lower classes of our society, despite its vaunted high degree of civilization — not to mention the miracles and apparitions to which the priests treat the unthinking multitude every now and then in various places and which prove such great and highly remunerative attractions. It would be an insult t c the intelligence of our readers, were we to further expatiate on the physical impossibility of miracles. No educated man who has ac- quired but the most superficial knowledge of nature, still less a man proficient in science, can at this day believe in a miracle or in the possibility of anything happening in opposition to the recognized laws of Nature. We only consider it most remarkable that a man possessed of so much acumen and of such a clear mind as Ludwig Feuer- bach , should deem it necessary to use all his dialectic power to upset the Christian miracles. Where is the founder of a religion who did not think it incumbent on him to usher it into the world with a flourish of miracles? And did not in each instance the result show that he was right? What prophet, what saint has not worked miracles? What seeker after miracles does not even at this day find plenty of pabu- lum to satisfy his craving with ? And do not they also belong to the miraculous, those talking and dancing tables, 8o FORCE AND MATTER. those drum-beating spirits, those spiritualistic mediums and those beings of four-dimensions, who rejoice in so large a following and have inveigled even men of a serious turn of mind and men of learning into the meshes of their folly? In the eyes of science all miracles are alike, they are the outcome of an ill-regulated fancy, combined with an utter ignorance of the laws of Nature. “ There are no miracles in Nature,” says the famous Systbne de la Nature , ‘‘except for those who have not sufficiently studied her.” ‘‘Every miracle,” says Cotta , ‘‘if it really took place, would lead to the conviction that Creation is unworthy of the reverence with which we all regard it ; and were there any, mystics would have to infer from the imperfection of the things created, that the creator also is imperfect.” ‘‘Miracles,” says Giebel , ‘‘are the greatest monsters in the sphere of natural science, in which no blind faith holds good, but only the knowledge acquired by personal con- viction.” And Jouvencel, the French savant, says : “ I believe neither in chance nor in miracle, but only in phenomena regulated by laws.” Would any one have thought it possible for the clergy of a nation so intelligent as the English to have given in the face of the whole world a proof of such crass supersti- tion as they did in their controversy with Lord Palmerston which created quite a sensation at the time ? When they moved the government to have a day of national humilia- tion appointed for the purpose of averting the cholera, the noble Lord answered that the spread of the disease was owing to natural and partially known causes, and could be prevented very much better by sanitary measures than by prayer. For having given this sensible answer, Lord Palmerston was taxed with Atheism, a much more serious charge in England than anywhere else, and the clergy pro- nounced it to be a sin of the deepest dye not to believe that the Almighty could at any moment set aside the laws of IMMUTABILITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 8 1 Nature as he pleased ! Any commentary on this would be superfluous. Dogmatic works declare that the view that the world, like a wound-up watch, can go on regularly by itself, is a view unworthy of God ; in their showing, God must be regarded as the constant regulator, who either creates anew or gets the machine over all the hitches it is subject to. On that account, our great master of natural science, A. v. Humboldt , has been censured by some for having represented the cosmos as a complex arrangement of nat- ural laws and not as the product of a creative will. They might as well blame the natural sciences for existing, for not a single author, but science itself has taught us to re- gard the cosmos as a complex arrangement of unchangeable natural laws. Whatever theological interest or narrow-minded pedantry can urge in opposition to this, is controverted by the strength of the facts, which in this respect leave no room for any doubt. To be sure, our opponents know how to adduce plenty of facts on their side of the case. If we are to credit the accounts of the Bible, God created the world in six days and according to the contention of theological geologists, has never left off since, calling, ever and anon, new entities into being. To be sure, he once dried up the Red Sea, so that the Jews might pass over it, and in all ages he has frightened people out of their wits with comets and eclipses. The New Testament tells us that he actually clothes the lillies of the field and feeds the birds of the air. But where is the educated person who, at this day, beholds in these occurrences anything more than the results of nat- ural causes and conditions ? and who is ignorant of the fact that neither the lillies of the field nor the birds of the air could exist if the natural conditions of life remained unfulfilled ? And lastly, can it be regarded as a very dig- nified view of the Deity to imagine, as the great Newton thought himself compelled to believe, that God represents an extramundane power or force, which every now and 82 FORCE AND MATTER. then gives the world a push, adjusts a screw or does similar things, like Sam Slick the Yankee clock-mender? The theological theory makes out — and it could not very well do otherwise — that the world was created by God faultless and perfect. How then can it want repairing ? It stands to reason, therefore, that the conviction of the immutability of the laws of Nature is the same among all unprejudiced investigators, who only differ in the fashion in which they seek to make this conviction agree with the traditional belief in the existence of a personal omnipotence, or intelligence, or creative energy, or so-called absolute power. Both naturalists and philosophers have tried their hand at it for a long while in many different ways, but ap- parently with the same unsatisfactory result. Indeed, it was scarcely possible for these attempts at reconciling faith and science to prove successful, if carried on scientifically ; for they either contend against facts, or trespass on the province of theology, or entangle themselves in contradic- tions, or shelter themselves behind an impenetrable obscu- rity. Thus, for instance, the famous Oersted , the discoverer of electro-magnetism, says: “The world is governed by an eternal intelligence, which manifests to us its workings as immutable natural laws.” But nobody can comprehend how an eternal and ruling intelligence can be in unison with immutable natural laws. Either the natural laws rule, or the eternal intelligence rules ; working side by side, they would fall to loggerheads at every moment ; the rule of the latter would render the former useless, while the working of immutable natural laws admits of no exception nor of any personal interference, and therefore can never be set down as a system of government rule. On the other hand we cannot deny ourselves the pleasure of noting a sentence from the same authority for the benefit of those who hold that this recognition of the working of immutable natural laws must need produce a feeling of alarm and de- pression in man. “By means of this knowledge,” says Oersted , “ the soul obtains internal peace and unison with IMMUTABILITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 83 all Nature and is thereby relieved of that superstitious dread, which has its foundation in the idea that some su- pernatural powers can interfere with the order of the eternal course of Nature.” The same thought is expressed by W. R. Grove as follows : “To the educated man the feel- ing of acquired knowledge yields a higher satisfaction than the love of the miraculous ; ’ ’ similarly by Radenhaicsen : “ Self-reliance must increase with the knowledge that the world is ruled not by capricious, unknown spirits, but by known infrangible laws.”* Most signally have those failed who regard the supreme or absolute power as so interwoven with the things of na- ture as to cause everything that happens to take place by his direct influence, though in accordance with settled laws; or in other words, that the world is a state ruled by laws, a kind of constitutional monarchy. The immutability of nat- ural laws is such that in no place and at no time has an ex- * Ever since popular works have diffused the results of modern science among classes that had not been previously reached by it, cries of woe and lamentations innumerable have come from all holes and corners, complaining of the “disconso- late nature” of these results, and this wailing has, if it be possible, become even more frenzied since the appearance of the first issue of this book. Complaints of this kind are mostly uttered by ignorant people only. The exceptionless regularity which rules the World and Nature, and the limits of which cannot be overstepped by any individual, and the consciousness that nothing within us or around us is caprice, but that all is necessity, are on the contrary, calculated to produce in the mind of a rational being a feeling of humility, and at the same time one of repose, self-contentment and self-respect, and to yield an inward strength that does not rest on doubtful fancies, but on certain knowledge of the truth. How beautifully is this sentiment expressed by Virgil, in the famous lines so felicitously rendered by Drydeti : — “ Happy the man, who, studying Nature’s laws, Through known effects can trace the secret cause — His mind, possessing in a quiet state, Fearless of fortune and resigned to fate!” Any other opinion, which seeks to refer the destiny of man to its relation with an unknown, capriciously acting and ruling Something, degrades him to a mere toy in the hands of unknown forces, to a powerless ignorant slave of an invisible lord. “ Are we but sucking pigs, who are flogged to death with rods for princely tables, that their flesh may taste more savoury?” (Herault in George Buchner's Danton’s Tod .) — “ He who finds this theory of the universe comfortless,” forcibly remarks A. Wiessner (Der wiedcrerstandene Wtinderglaube, Leipzig, 1875,) “ philosophizes with wishes instead of with knowledge.” 8 4 FORCE AND MATTER. ception to them occurred, that under no circumstances do they reveal the working of a controlling hand, and that their interaction constantly takes place quite independent of all rules of a superior intelligence, now building up, now destroying, now apparently according to a design and now again quite blindly and in opposition to all laws of morality or reason. Some of the facts that are as obvious and as plain as day- light show that no guiding intelligence can be directly at work either in the organic or inorganic formations that are continually renewing themselves upon the earth. There exists in Nature a tendency to form, which is the outcome of a definite formula, and is so blind and so dependent upon casual external circumstances, that it often gives birth to the most senseless and aimless forms, that it is often in- capable of surmounting or conquering the smallest obstacle it meets in its way, and that it frequently obtains the very opposite of the effect which it ought to obtain according to the laws of reason or intelligence. We shall take the op- portunity of adducing an abundance of examples of this in a subsequent chapter, viz. in that on Teleology. It thus happens that the theory alluded to has found the fewest adherents among naturalists, who have daily and hourly opportunities of satisfying themselves of the purely me- chanical action of physical forces. A rather larger number of people have given in their adhesion to a compromise which consists in submitting to the force of facts and ad- mitting that the present play of physical energies is wholly mechanical, utterly independent of any impulse received from without and in no way arbitrary, while contending, on the other hand, that this state of things could not have existed from all eternity, but that a creative power, endow- ed with the highest intelligence, both created matter and imparted to it those forces and laws, binding them up with it by an indissoluble union, according to which it should work and live ; and that, having done all this, the creative power gave to the universe the first impulse to movement IMMUTABILITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 85 and thenceforward subsided into inactivity. ‘ ‘ There are many naturalists, ’ ’ says Rudolf Wagner ( Ueber Wissen und Glauben , 1854,) who believe in an original creation, but who maintain that since the creation the universe has been left to itself and preserved by the excellence of its intrinsic mechanism.”)* In an earlier chapter, we have already expressed at some length our views as to the ten- ability of this theory, and shall have to revert to it again hereafter in dealing with creation in detail. It will there be shown that the traces of a direct creation can nowhere be found among the facts at our command, but that every- thing rather compels us to set aside such an idea and to look upon the eternal changeful play of physical forces alone as the primal cause of all evolution and decay. “I am of opinion,” said the famous Kepler long ago, ‘‘that we should try every other method of explanation first, before we take refuge in the admission of creation (that is, in miracle,) for when once miracles are admitted, every scientific explanation is out of the question .” It is no part of the object of this work to take much no- tice of those who seek and find in the province of religious faith an explanation of the problem of existence and a sat- isfaction of their moral wants. We are only busying our- selves with that world which is accessible to our means of *This view has been gone into at greater length and with more detail by the famous scientist G. A. Him in his interesting little book entitled : La vie future et la sciejice moderne (1882.) He says: “ For the scientist the only necessary act of the creative omnipotence is the creation of the form-producing elements with their properties, and a first compound of these which may have had no re- semblance to those forms now under our eyes. It is the Fiat lux for everything that fills space ; matter, force, life. . . . For the scientist the universe, as it is now before us, is the result of a gradual evolution. The elements that were originally scattered throughout space, have gradually approached each other to build up definite forms ; but the whole universe was virtually in the condition of a primal mass of vapor and has evolved thence according to the definite laws impressed upon the elements. To say that earth, moon, sun and stars were created severally as complete bodies, is as ridiculous in the eyes of a scientific man as if, for ex- ample, one were to say to any one who is not a scientist : ‘ A tooth has been created for your child.’ In a word, for the scientist Creation is reduced to a single act of the creative omnipotence, while it appears to the layman as a series of separate acts ; and a perfect abyss lies between these two views.” 86 FORCE AND MATTER. intelligence, and can find no scientific reasons compelling us to believe that behind this world there is another, a higher one, independent of the influence of the laws of Nature and perhaps arranged in an entirely different fashion. But for this very reason we have not the remotest intention to im- pugn the rights of those who fancy that they can find in such theory any comfort for their souls. Let every one believe whatever and as much as he likes, and let his fancy have free scope where science forsakes him ! Faith and knowledge belong to two entirely distinct provinces, whose boundaries are constantly changing, and the change always takes place at the expense of the former and not of the lat- ter. There are departments which, but a hundred years or so ago, were wholly under the sway of religious faith, and which at this day are occupied by science ; and as time goes on, this will continue to be the case to an ever increasing extent. “ It is impossible, ” says Virchow , “to calculate faith scientifically ; for science and faith exclude one another.” Theology and Natural Science cannot walk peacefully side by side, and a theological or ecclesiastical natural science does not and cannot exist until men drop down ready-made from heaven, and until the telescope gazes into the meetings of the angels. He who cannot put up with this and with the naked truth, may cling to faith, but for scientific investigations truth is the only avail- able standard. Nor is truth arid or disconsolate ; for it is in the very nature of true knowledge to restore more with one hand than what it seems to take away or destroy with the other. It is not therefore necessary that those who love the truth more than they do Plato or Socrates, should follow the well-known advice of a distinguished nat- uralist, who suggested that people might have two separate consciences, a scientific one and a religious one, which for the sake of peace should be kept strictly separate, seeing that they cannot possibly be made to agree with each other — a system which is technically known by the name of book-keeping by double entry. He who considers such a IMMUTABILITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 87 double entry as necessary or desirable for the repose of his conscience, and does not shrink from its logical difficulties, may always put it in practice on his own account, but he should not seek to introduce it into science, nor into the rational view of Nature. Our English neighbors have suc- ceeded in managing this affair far better than the German scientists, by inventing the well-known distinction between first and secondary causes. No more of that unnatural setting-up of two separate methods of thought or of that inixing-up together of the natural and the religious view of the universe. Everything passes off in a natural and regular way ; a break in the connection of causes and effects is not possible, since one secondary cause is neces- sarily linked on to another ; and if this connection is not found or discovered everywhere, it yet exists and its dis- covery is the aim of science. But human science does not and cannot get beyond this search into secondary causes, since the totality of existence and the order that rules it, depend in the last resort on a supreme or first cause, which does not indeed interfere with the ordinary course of events, but which nevertheless rules, guides, and governs everything — and is not to be found out by knowledge , but by faith only. This first cause is synonymous with God, and here begins the province of religion, of the church, of the worship of God, which has nothing to do with sci- ence as such, and on which the investigator can wholly turn his back while searching into secondary causes. In this theory God does not, as he does in the German view, play in some measure the part of a stop -gap, but rather that of the sole ruler enthroned above the universe, who does not mix in the natural course of things, but is quite contented so long as his laws are in force everywhere and secondary causes are at work. This theory has the one great advantage that without touching upon or entirely banishing the idea of God, it yet makes it perfectly unnec- essary for science, and leaves men free to investigate natu- ral laws without misgivings. Scientific men are thereby 88 FORCE AND MATTER. enabled to hold fast to their Christianity and yet to allow themselves the most perfect freedom of investigation within the province of science. It is true that a sound logic will never be able to admit that from the existence of the so- called secondary causes can be deduced the existence of a supernatural force or power independent of natural forces, which moreover never gives the smallest sign of its exist- ence, and with which science has nothing to do. Credulous spirits or minds who feel unable to manage without some spiritist fealty, may amuse themselves with the fancy that behind the impenetrable veil of phenomena a man stands with a rod in his hand, with which he will one fine day scourge all those who during their lives have not been suf- ficiently obedient slaves. But thinking and liberty-loving spirits will rather delight in the idea that the universe is in reality a republic rather than a monarchy , and that it is self-governed in accordance with eternal and immutable laws. “Wir haben lang genug geglaubt, Wir wollen endlicb wissen.” (Long enough have we believed ; now we want to know.) Universality of Natural Laws. The old myths disappear, and the isolation of natural phenomena ceases as we come to understand that a few great natural laws bind together and regulate all the diversities that exist in the universe. — Girard. The spectroscope teaches us that everywhere the same material works in the same way, so that we can designate force and matter, supposing them not to be identical, as the corner-stones of the universe.— N. Lockyer. The universality of terrestrial laws is above all doubt, as far as science is con- cerned. — Dii Prel. W HEN the progress of astronomy had made it clear that sun, moon and stars are not lights fixed on the firmament for the purpose of giving light by night and by day to the dwelling places of the human race, but that they are bodies existing for themselves — when it became moreover apparent that the earth was not a footstool for the feet of God, but a dot or a speck in the universe, a star amid billions of other stars, to most of which it is very much inferior both in size and importance,* the human mind, having been deprived of the chance of drawing fanciful pictures of things within easy reach, did not hesitate in giving all the more scope to its fancy in regard to things far away from these. Distant regions were then invested with the glory of miracle and of paradise ; remote planets or fixed stars were populated with races having ethereal bodies, exempt from the oppression of matter and from the natural laws that obtain with us. Those who had taught that this * Among the billions of stars which fill the vast realms of space there are only five, or at the most seven (Mercury, Venus, Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,) to wh jse inhabitants, if such there are, the existence of our earth would be recognizable, either with the naked eye or by the help of enormous telescopes. For the worlds of fixed stars, lying outside our planetary system, it stands to reason that it must be altogether unrecognizable. (89) 90 FORCE AND MATTER. earthly life was a preparatory school for a better life else- where (without being able to explain why there should be such a preparatory school,) hastened to open to their pious sheep a glorious, boundless vista of a career, rising by schools and by classes, from planet to planet, from sun to sun, wherein the industrious and pious should be ever at the top, but the lazy and godless, as usual, always at the bottom. Even sober-minded men of learning did not scruple to allow a pretended “soul-substance” of the de- parted to pass from star to star with the swiftness of light, although they did not seem to have borne in mind that such journeys, despite the fabulous velocity of light, considering the enormous distances and the extreme cold of the ethereal space, must have taken up terribly long periods of time, spent with the least possible amount of comfort.* However charming such progress from the fourth class to the third, from the third to the second and so on, may appear to minds inured to school discipline, a sober study of Nature, based on experience and observation, cannot acquiesce in these extravagant phantasies. In the present condition of our knowledge with respect to the worlds surrounding our earth, we can declare with perfect assurance that the same materi- als, the same forces, the same physical laws, with which we on this earth find ourselves moulded and surrounded, are found in the All which is visible to us, and that they are at work in all places in the same fashion and with the same inherent necessity as in our immediate proximity. Natural philosophy and astronomy have furnished us with complete proofs of this in sufficient number ; astronomical science indeed could not exist as such, if the universality of ter- restrial laws were not recognized. Let us first consider Gravitation , that universal primal and fundamental force of Nature, by which are regulated the movements and the general mutual effects produced by all bodies in the universe upon each other. The laws by which these movements and effects take place, or the laws *Compare the chapter on “ Innate Ideas.” UNIVERSALITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 91 of motion and attraction, are invariable in all the realms of space into which the telescope peers and which are reached by calculation. The movements of all, even the most distant, bodies take place according to the same laws by which bodies thrown on our earth move, by which a stone falls, a cannon-ball flies, or a pendulum oscillates. When we see the countless atoms of dust dancing in our room in the light of the sun their movement is governed (as Dii Prel remarks) by the same law which guides the movements of the stars in the furthest realms of space to which our eyes can reach by aid of the most powerful instrument — that is, by the law of gravity. All astronomical calculations re- specting the most distant planets and their movements have been based on this known law, and they have proved correct. Everybody knows that by the aid of this calcu- lation, astronomers foretell eclipses of the sun and of the moon, transits of planets, etc., with unfailing certainty as to the day, hour and minute, and calculate hundreds of years in advance the appearances and re-appearances of comets, those well known knights-errant of space, having for their orbits now an ellipse, now a parabola, now a hyperbola ; and they do so despite the many disturbances and irregu- larities to which the movements of these bodies are liable. Astronomers have even succeeded by calculations based wholly on the law of gravitation or rotation in determining the presence of stars which were only discovered by the telescope when it was known in which direction they were to be looked for. Thus, in the year 1846, the French astronomer Leverrier came on the track of Neptune , until then unseen by any telescope, in directing his attention to the disturbance shown by the neighboring planet Uranus in its orbit. When, in consequence of this, Galle, at Berlin, turned his telescope towards the specified place, he found the planet of which both the spot and the mass had been already determined. Just the same thing has happened within the last few years in the case of the intramercurial planet Vulcan, which has not yet been seen with complete 92 FORCE AND MATTER. certainty, but the existence of which is scientifically proved. But that which, more than everything else, proves that the laws of gravitation or attraction exist in the remotest regions of fixed stars, which are separated from us by many billions of miles, just the same as these laws are in force in our solar system or on our earth, is the study of the remarkable double stars , which have become better known only of late years. These are situated so close together that they can only be distinguished from each other by means of the most powerful instruments, and re- volving around each other. In their singular movements they obey the law of gravity, as do the planets of our solar system. Thus, the presence of a second body near the splendid fixed star Sirius ( a in Ca?iis Major) now known to be a double star, was deduced from its peculiar move- ments on the basis of the law of gravitation, twenty years before Clark discovered the star itself at Boston, on Jan. 31, 1862. It had revealed its existence, thanks to our con- viction of the universal force of gravitation, before ever a human eye had gazed upon it. “If anywhere” said the astronomer M. IV. Mayer , ‘ ‘ we have in this discovery the most conclusive argument in favor of the universality of attraction between masses in the universe.” Indeed, the existence of these remarkable double stars shows that while in the fathomless depths of space the creative force of Na- ture seems to love to reveal itself in very much the same variety as here on our earth, yet it never, nor in any place, follows any laws unknown to us, or others than those to which it would have entrusted the building-up and the governance of the world. On the contrary, all these mar- vellous worlds have been evolved according to the same simple laws as those which built and rule our little earth. Astronomers, confidently relying on the laws of gravita- tion, do not hesitate to authoritatively lay down the exist- ence of dark or to our eyes imperceptible satellites of some of the fixed stars, e.g. Procyon , as the consequence of their peculiar movements. UNIVERSALITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 93 It may also be remarked that the physical condition of all the planets whose proximity to our globe renders pos- sible a sufficiently exact determination of their surfaces, is similar or analogous to that of our earth. Venus has high mountains ; Mars has continents and seas, summer and winter. The moon has mountains, plains, valleys and vol- canoes like the earth. All the planets of our system have seasons, days and nights as we have, although their relative lengths vary. Besides, they are all spherical in shape, like the earth ; i. e. they bulge out at the equator and are flat- tened at the poles ; like the earth, they are more or less inclined on their axes and have the double motion of rota- tion and translation ; all these are signs of a similar origin. Hence the genesis of our globe yields us a sure analogy for the history of the origin and evolution of the other planets. The laws of light , no less than those of gravitation, are the same throughout the universe and the same as on our earth. Light, whether solar or artificial, has throughout the same composition and the same velocity, and its re- fraction takes place everywhere in the same way. The light sent to us by the most distant fixed stars through a space of many billions of miles, is distinguishable in nothing from the light of our sun ; it follows the same laws and is of the same composition. So little doubt is there among learned men on this head that the different coloring of the light proceeding from fixed stars enables them to decide with absolute certainty, on the one hand as to the temper- ature, condition and stage of development of these stars, on the other as to their individual and relative movements in space. Thus we are likewise in a position to determine according to terrestrial processes the areas of the umbrae and penumbrae arising from solar and lunar eclipses. Even the ring of the planet Saturn throws a shadow on it and receives in its turn a shadow from the planet. Lastly, the photographs taken of individual fixed stars prove that the light emitted by them contains, like sunlight, chemically 94 FORCE AND MATTER. active as well as luminous rays. The same remark applies to the heating rays, as has been shown by very delicate instruments. Like the laws of light, the laws of heat are the same throughout the universe, heat being the commonest and most widely distributed form of energy known to us, and being at this day universally regarded as merely another form of light. The heat coming to us from the sun or from the other fixed stars works exactly according to the same principles as the rays of heat do which are emitted by our earth or by the hot-springs found therein. On caloric cir- cumstances depend the solidity, the fluidity, the gaseous condition of bodies ; therefore these conditions must exist everywhere upon similar terms, so to speak. It has been shown in a preceding chapter that the other forces of nature, such as electricity, magnetism, mechanical power, chemical affinity, etc., are so closely bound up with caloric circumstances and stand to these in such intimate relation- ship, based upon reciprocal interchange, that they cannot be separated from one another ; therefore must all these forces exist where warmth exists, that is to say, everywhere. This is especially true of the relation of heat to the form and manner of chemical combination and dissociation, which must necessarily proceed throughout the universe in a uniform manner, since the experiments carried on by the help of spectral analysis have proved to demonstration the universal distribution of chemical elements identical with those existing on our earth. But long before this most recent and interesting method of investigation had become known, the same conclusion had been arrived at by the study of those visible and tangible messengers from another, non-terrestrial world, which we designate as meteorites or meteoric stones. Chemistry has not been able to discover a single element not present in our world in these remark- able bodies, the cosmic origin of which was for centuries regarded as a preposterous myth, while people on the other hand believed firmly and steadfastly in downright impos- UNIVERSALITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 95 sible things and events. These bodies are hurled to us from other worlds or from the primal ether, in all proba- bility from the very depths of the space pertaining to the fixed stars, possibly as pieces or remnants of shattered planets or dissolved comets. Among the twenty-one ele- ments or chemical groups found in these bodies up to the present time, there is not a single one alien to those of our own globe, and the substances predominant in them, such as iron, silicon, oxygen, are the very ones which also predominate on the surface of the earth. Daubree has also discovered that the similarity that exists between these meteorites and the terrestrial minerals increases in proportion as we penetrate more deeply into the crust of the earth, and that several of the minerals found at the greatest depths (such as olivine, herzolite, serpentine,) are in composition and condition almost identical with the me- teorites ; and lastly, that in closer proximity to the surface of the earth minerals are found which are formed of con- stituents similar to those of the meteorites, but oxidized (united with oxygen,) and thereby having their mineral character changed. Daubree further succeeded in artificially obtaining from terrestrial stones substances closely resem- bling meteorites. The investigation of meteorites has shown moreover that the crystals distributed throughout their internal structure are formed according to the very laws of crystallization which we recognize in terrestrial crystals, and that their forms in no wise differ from those known to us. Even the microscope, as Moldenhauer re- marks, ( Das Weltall und seine Entwicklung , I, p. 7), has not failed to render aid in this direction. “ It appears in the structure of the meteorites, those little bodies that fall upon us from far-off unknown regions, that the internal construction of alien inorganic masses is essentially identi- cal with that of our own.” These facts alone would be sufficient to prove that — in the words of Professor Spiller — “ the unity of the forces of Nature extends to the very atoms of matter,” and that 96 FORCE AND MATTER. the formative force for each material and for each atom of matter is the same in the whole universe.’’ But that which was only raised to high probability by the investiga- tion of meteorites, has been made almost into a certainty by spectral analysis, that ‘ ‘ language of light ” as it has been rightly termed, the glance of which pierces through the chemical constitution of the most distant stars. Above all things it has taught us that the mass of the sun — and indeed nothing else could be expected from the fact of all the members of the solar system deriving their origin from the same primal mist — contains no other chemical elements in its ardent or incandescent integument than those which exist in our earth. These elements, as everyone knows, are sodium, iron, calcium, magnesium, chromium, nickel, barium, zinc, cobalt, manganese, titanium, aluminium, strontium, lead, copper, cadmium, cerium, uranium, po- tassium, vanadium, palladium, molybdenum, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen. There is still some doubt about the presence of a number of other known elements, such as indium, lithium, rubidium, caesium, bismuth, tin, silver, beryllium, lanthanum, yttrium, iridium, silicon, sulphur, car- bon, etc. Probably all the metalloids (non-metals) are to be found in them ; other heavy metals, such as gold, silver and mercury, may be present in the deeper parts of the sun or of its envelope, inaccessible to spectral analysis. The chem- ical composition of the solar envelope offers generally the greatest resemblance to, or analogy with, the chemical constitution of meteoric stones.* Of course, astronomers have not contented themselves * It must not be forgotten that one material, or one substance has been dis- covered in the solar spectrum that corresponds with no terrestrial one, and which has therefore been named helium. But according to the distinguished spectro- scopist Norman Lockyer, helium is apparently nothing more than a modified form of hydrogen ; and besides, Professor Palmieri of Naples states that he has lately discovered the helium line in the spectrum of the lava of Vesuvius. In point of fact it is very possible that an element, the presence of which has not yet been discovered on the earth, may play an important part elsewhere, and on the other hand an element predominant with us may only be present to a slight extent in the composition of other stars. The general identity or unity of materials is therefore open to no doubt whatever. UNIVERSALITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 97 vith merelj using the spectroscope — which is able to yield such positive data on the chemical composition of the most distant bodies — To investigate the sun, but, despite the great difficulties involved, it has been turned also to account in the study of the planets, comets, fixed stars, nebulae, falling stars, etc. The result has been materially the same throughout. These enquiries have proved the truth of the theory propagated by earlier astronomers, viz. that the so- called fixed stars are nothing but actual suns, in the atmos- pheres or luminous envelopes of which are found again in an incandescent condition those known bodies, some of which have already been mentioned, like iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium, tellurium, antimony, bismuth, mer- cury, hydrogen, nitrogen, etc., etc. Hydrogen appears to play the chief part in most of the fixed stars, and to cause the same violent eruptions and whirlwinds in them as it does in the sun. If all the substances found in the sun have not yet been shown to exist in the fixed stars, this probably results from the faintness of the spectra, arising from the immensity of the distances. The same remark applies to the yet more distant nebulae or to those glowing masses of gas which astronomers regard as systems of worlds in course of evolution, and the spectra of which denote principally hydrogen and nitrogen. The comets have also been analyzed by means of the spectroscope, notwithstand- ing the dimness of their light which renders accurate observation very difficult, and carbon and hydrogen have been discovered in them. Even falling stars have been submitted to the same analysis, and it is claimed that car- bon, as well as glowing vapors of sodium and magnesium, have been discovered in them. It need hardly be mentioned that the light of the planet, being borrowed from the sun, must show the same composition as that of the sun itself. These discoveries form landmarks in the history of science and are worthy of being placed side by side with the great- est discoveries of all ages. They prove that matter is essentially identical not only within our solar system, but 98 FORCE AND MATTER. in the whole universe, down to the regions of dxed stars and nebulae. Now seeing that identity of substances must necessarily imply identity of forces, and thac “the special form in which a substance produces its regular effect is the direct outcome of its chemical condition” (Dii Prel,) no doubt can remain as to the similarity of materials and forces throughout the universe and as to the similarity of develop- ment in our solar system and in the most distant heaven of the fixed stars — a view which is now thoroughly accepted by all scientists who have concentrated their attention on the study of this question. Professor Kirclihoff himself, the famous discoverer of spectral analysis, has stated his conviction “ that the substances and forces in the whole universe are essentially the same.’’ All these facts and observations — with those already given at the beginning of the chapter — prove to demon- stration the universality of natural laws, a phrase which is indeed but another expression for the regular working of matter and of its forces, arising from its chemical and physical nature, and these laws cannot therefore be con- fined to our globe, but must act in a similar fashion throughout the entire universe. In no part of that space, boundless though it may be, is there a loophole left for imagination to bring one of its wild fancies into the world and to indulge in one of its dreams of some fabulous existence, subject to none of the ordinary limitations. The visible universe surrounding us is an infinite whole, com- posed of the same substances, borne by the same energies, swayed by the same immutable natural laws.* Oerstedt rightly maintained, in treating of the identity of mental and physical laws, that this universal application of the laws of Nature which are conceived by reason, presup- * Should the opinion of natural philosophers and chemists be confirmed a view often expressed and becoming more and more probable that in reality there is but one matter and there is but one force, and that what we term sub- stances or forces are only different modifications or phenomena or condition of the primary matter and the primary force, the proposition laid down above must become still more simplified. UNIVERSALITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 99 poses also a fundamental equality of the conceptive faculty of the intellect throughout the universe. Should reasoning beings exist outside of our planet — and this is probable enough, since it is difficult to see why the same or similar causes should not, under the same or similar conditions, produce the same or similar results everywhere — their thinking power must necessarily be the same as, or similar to, ours, although in degree or development it may vary to almost any extent. The principles of the physical development of man are also likely to be on the whole iden- tical. So great, however, is the diversity of the individual worlds in point of mass, temperature, density, illumination, physical condition of the surface, etc., and so far do the phases of development diverge from each other in the in- dividual stars, that we have a perfect right to assume also the possibility of an endless diversity in the respective organization of the inhabitants of each individual world. We know that adaptation to the surrounding conditions of life is one of the foremost factors in the formation and pro- gressive development of organic beings, and the history of our own earth proves that relatively small differences in the physical condition of the surface of the globe, which have accrued in the course of geological periods or epochs, have been attended by the most radical changes in the fauna and flora of the earth ; and from this we may infer that there exists an infinite variety of biological phenomena in the cosmos. In this respect, however, positive or scien- tific data are so entirely wanting that all further speculations on this topic should be cast aside as aimless and useless. One thing only, as we have said already, can be stated with comparative certainty, and it is that the identity of cosmical substances and laws admits of the inference that the fundamental principles of physical and mental phenom- ena, of organic and inorganic life, must be the same every- where ; and that throughout the cosmos, wherever the material conditions are found for the genesis or evolution of living or organized beings, this genesis or evolution IOO FORCE AND MATTER. will take place with the same energy and abundance as it does in our earth. In the planets or moving stars especially, which on mechanical principles must accompany the fixed stars, or other suns, as our planets do our sun, though perhaps on a few of them only, the possibility of life at certain times and under certain circumstances must show or have shown itself very much as it has in this earth of ours ; for “the formation of living matter denotes nothing but the setting in of the effect when the given causes are sufficient.’’ (Dii Prel.) As far as our own planetary sytem is concerned, it must be admited that the circumstances conducive to the production of living and rational beings, similar to those on earth, are rather limited ; for the period at which such a development becomes possible can only occur on the large or external planets when the sun shall have so far cooled down that it can no longer heat and light them suf- ficiently, and it is therefore quite possible that the conditions without which no production of a vigorous process of life can take place, are fulfilled on none but the so-called inner planets. The greater number of planets revolve as inert worlds round a central sun, which is only able to maintain life on some of them for a comparatively short time. On comets and meteorites it is obvious that no life is conceiv- able. The question has been propounded : May not the inhabitants of other planets be possibly endowed with a higher or richer organization of their senses, and thereby be susceptible of impressions which we are not sensitive enough to receive? This possibility, supported as it is by the fact that the mental powers of man can only be regard- ed as the gradually developed result of a process of life that is adapted to its surroundings, may well be admitted with- out in any way affecting the general results laid down in the foregoing. “ And if,” says Zeise (Das Endlose der grossen und der kleinen materiellen Welt , Altona, 1855,) “as there is not the least reason to doubt, more highly- organized living beings exist in remote worlds, these would yet, in their UNIVERSALITY OF NATURAL LAWS. 101 superior development as rational beings, undoubtedly resem- ble the earth-man in regard to intellect, since in the whole universe only one intelligence can be imagined which is the same everywhere — an intelligence which makes all physical laws appear as intellectual laws.” “ In the life of the mind,” says Ph. Spiller ( Die Urkraft des Weltalls , 1876,) ‘‘there must eventually be some features of absolute unity, despite the diversity that may exist in its organization. The laws of thinking are no doubt the same throughout the universe." That mind and nature must, in the last resort, be the same, that physical and mental laws must be identical, is essentially involved in what has been said in preceding chapters as to the relations between matter, force and movement. Could it be otherwise, considering that Nature’s laws themselves have created the mind and that the same forces are at work in it which rule the world and Nature? Hence the laws of thought of our minds must be in unison with the most recondite principles of the laws governing in Nature, and hence the laws of thought are also the laws of the universe. The laws of thought themselves must there- fore be looked upon as pure natural laws and as the result of a development that accrues from the laws of nature and from natural history. Human reason or mental activity is in some measure as the mirror which reflects the All, it has gradually proceeded from that broken interaction which goes on between the organism and its environment during cosmical and geological periods. Beginning at the lowest step of sensibility or of capacity for sensation, the human as well as the animal mind has raised itself gradually, through countless stages of action and reaction, to its present height, and in doing so has acquired those well-known forms of thought, which in the eyes of those who are un- able to appreciate the principle of evolution in its full strength, appear erroneously as innate ideas preceding all experience. ‘‘The fulcrum of the argument,” says Oerstedt, ‘‘that 102 FORCE AND MATTER. the laws of nature are laws of intelligence, lies in the fact that irom laws of nature known to us we are enabled by thought to deduce others which experience brings again be- fore us, and that, when this does not happen, we find in the regular course that we have blundered in our inferences. Hence it follows that the laws of thought by which we draw inferences apply also to Nature itself.” “ The laws of thought flowing from the human brain,” says Ph. Spiller {loc. cit.) “ have no logic other than that which is to be found in the laws of the Universe. Conscious human mathematical reasoning is none other in essence than unconscious physical thought. It results also herefrom that logically thinking heads, far away from one another, have discovered this almost at the same time.” Paul von Lilienfeld expresses this same thought with even greater force in the following words : 1 1 The necessary laws of thought and of matter are one and the same. Thought is a condensed motion, and since the human or- ganism is but an involution of physical forces, thought must also be regarded as merely the condensed action of physical forces.” This theory agrees of necessity to the fullest extent with those results of the empirico-philosophical conception of Nature which we shall deal with in a subsequent chapter on innate ideas and on the gradual mode of evolution of human and brute intelligence. Knowing nothing of so- called absolute and superhuman ideas or conceptions implanted into it by a supreme power, but deriving all knowledge, thought, sensation and volition from the millionfold repeated impressions of the surrounding world, the laws prevailing in the latter cannot but be reflected or reproduced in some measure in the former ; or, as Carus Sterne expresses it, the human mind is nothing but a more or less faithful lens which brings to a focus the rays of knowledge dispersed throughout Nature. Although it may be difficult or impossible to disentangle or lay bare in each UNIVERSALITY OF NATURAL LAWS. IO3 individual instance the manifold interwoven threads of these relationships, yet no doubt appears to us to rest on the matter as a whole. “ Dieselbe Ordnung waltet iiberall : Im wechselvollen Reigen der Gestirne Gebietet das Gesetz nacli Mass und Zahl, Wie in des Menschen denkendem Gehirne.” (F. Krasser.) (The same order rules everywhere ; the law of measure and number rules in the changeful hosts of the stars as it does in man’s thinking brain.) 'I he Heavens. The conception of “ heaven ” as a definite spot in space can be looked upon by science as nothing but a procreation of empty heads. — Ph Spii.ler. The idea of an Almighty Power which acted as an impulse at a definite moment, is so antagonistic to all our notions of the working of physical forces, that we can give to such a possibility no right of citizenship within science. — A. Bernstein. The thought of a bodiless force hovering over the chaos of the elements as a creative spirit belongs to the dreams of visionaries. — E. Harless. E VERY schoolboy knows to-day that the heaven is no blue vault suspended over the earth, with holes in it through which the fiery sphere of the universe gleams in the shape of sun and stars, but that, in looking at it we are gazing into an incommensurable and almost empty space without beginning and without end, the vast desert of which is interrupted only by single stars or groups of stars, few in number and infinitely far between, and in which e.g. our own solar system, despite its gigantic extent, appears as a mere dot in the infinitude of space. Therefore, if the religious theory of the universe teaches us that after the conclusion of our earthly career we are destined to “go to heaven,’’ astronomical science informs us on the contrary that we are already in this dreamed-of heaven, surrounded in the far distance by countless worlds and world-systems similar to our earth or our solar system. Out of more or less formless masses of vapor or mist — spread originally over many billions of miles, the constituent materials of which must have been of a rarity far beyond our concep- tion — individual rotating points must have issued, in which the atoms drew more closely together, and thence these (104) THE HEAVENS. I°5 worlds and world-systems must have evolved by a process of condensation increasing step by step, and have gradually rolled themselves together in compact masses or organized systems. These masses are constantly in both individual and reciprocal motion in space ; this motion is obviously combined and complicated in the most diverse ways, yet controlled in all its phenomena and modifications by a single natural law of which we have spoken heretofore and which applies everywhere, viz., the law of gravitation or attraction. All the large or small worlds without exception and with- out the very slightest deviation that could by any possibility be regarded as being in contradiction to the simple me- chanical principles of their motion, follow this perhaps most important and most widely diffused of all natural laws, to which every substance is subject, and which can be ob- served directly in every individual body and in every particle of a body. Such a contradiction or such an exception must be regarded as an absolute impossibility, and the existence of a fact in opposition to that law would be a miracle as great as any other physical miracle. In reality no such exception nor deviation, pointing to the working of an ex- tramundane power or of an arbitrarily ruling or governing hand, could ever be scientifically demonstrated. On the contrary it has been shown that all such motions, so far as they are not affected by interruptions that are beyond com- putation, can be ascertained, determined and foretold with mathematical accuracy and certainty. As far as the teles- cope reaches and as far as man is able to espy the laws of the heavens — and this has been done to the extent of billions and trillions of miles — he has met everywhere with the same law, the same simple, mechanical principles, the same mathematical formula, and the same phenomena that are subject to computation. But never has been found the slightest trace of an arbitrary finger ordaining the spheres of the heavens and appointing the courses of the earths, the suns, and the comets. ‘ ‘ I have searched through the heavens,” says Lalande , the great astronomer, “and 106 FORCE AND MATTER. nowhere have I found a trace of God.” And when the Emperor Napoleon asked the celebrated astronomer La- place , why not a word was said of God in his Mecanique celeste, the latter answered: ‘‘Sire, je n’avais pas besoin de cette hypothese.” The further astronomy advanced in the knowledge of the laws and phenomena of the heavens, the further it repelled the idea or hypothesis of a su- pernatural cause, and the easier it became to trace back the origin, grouping and motions of the heavenly bodies to the simplest possible phenomena induced by matter and by the laws of its motion. The mutual attraction of the smallest particles rolled the worlds together, and the laws of attraction with their primal motion gave rise to that system of reciprocal revolution which we now perceive in them. Many indeed who have reached this point, refuse to look for that initial impluse in matter itself, preferring to trace it to the touch of some supernatural finger which is supposed in some fashion to have stirred the general incho- ate world-materials and imparted motion to matter. Thus even the great Newton pretended to see the finger of God in the tangential or lateral motion of the stars; and Laplace himself could not refrain from exclaiming: ‘‘O philoso- pher, show me the hand which has thrown the planets on the tangents of their orbits ! ’ ’ But even in such a remote position, personal creative force cannot hold its own. The principle, demonstrated in a former chapter, that there is no matter without motion, and that eternal matter implies eternal motion, is in itself sufficient to put an end to this difficulty. There can be no doubt that throughout space motion has existed from all eternity and will exist for evermore, that all bodies without exception are subject to a regular succession of origin and decay, and that each traverses a cycle of origin, existence and death, which occupies enormous periods of time, and eventually melting away again into the so-called cosmic mist, re-enacts the process either in the same or in a sim- ilar fashion. Thus it happens that an eternal and eternally THE HEAVENS. IO7 existing change takes place throughout the space of the universe. But even apart from this general principle, it is by no means impossible or even difficult to conceive the manner in which that particular kind of motion took place which gave, or must have given, the primal impulse to the process of globular aggregation referred to. The very slightest dissimilarity of size or of attractive force or of the relative positions of the atoms in the primal state would have been sufficient to induce the origin of the first centres of con- densation. The necessary contraction of the incipient ball of mist by cooling, or by irregular radiation into the cold space around it, must have sufficed to draw the atoms together in different ways and thereby initiate in certain places the process of condensation and motion which would eventually lead to the formation of individual bodies. It may be that there was a lateral attraction from neighboring bodies at work, which produced in some portions of the ball of mist increased condensation and agglomeration in that one direction and eventually caused it to rotate on its own axis. Possibly there were also chemical affinities at play, inducing certain atoms, after the cause of the original dispersion had ceased to act, to draw near to one another and form new substances, in such a manner that the larger, overpowering the smaller ones that surrounded them, at- tracted these towards themselves and thus gave rise to further chemical processes, favored by the higher tempera- ture resulting from the increase of density. By the irregu- lar accumulation of larger or smaller masses coming from different sides a displacement of the centre of gravity be- came inevitable. Hence currents set in within the various parts of the sphere of gas, and these eventually resulted in a rotatory movement which led to the formation of individ- ual spheres moving in regular orbits. In point of fact, the telescope has revealed to us the existence in the sky of such rotating mists, or spheres of mist of annular spiral form. The whole build of the so-called spiral mist-masses FORCE AND MATTER. io3 goes to show that those remarkable bodies are in a state of revolution, in the course of which enormous currents of incandescent matter descend in spiral lines upon the central masses, producing in doing so, whirling and circling move- ments, which eventually lead to the formation of spherical planets. Besides, this rotatory of revolving motion exists so generally throughout space and is so universally per- ceptible among all aggregated cosmic masses as to clearly point to the presence of some universal cause, that is to say of some physical necessity. According to Spiller , there exists in reality no rectilinear but only a curvilinear motion in space. The velocity of this motion must obviously in- crease in proportion to the increase of the density of the cosmic mass. The further development of this revolving cosmic mass into articulated solar and planetary systems also proceeds on purely mechanical principles and in accordance with known physical laws. Acceleration of the velocity of the induced motion by curtailment and contraction- — -a lens- like flattening of the aggregated sphere of mist with a greater condensation at the centre — the separation of equatorial zones of vapor by vibration or centrifugal force, like that which is still to be found in the case of the planet Saturn — these zones finally broken up and the separated portions rolling into spheres (planets, moons, etc.) — grad- ual cooling down of these separated bodies to various degrees — all this in accordance with Kant and Laplace’s famous and now universally accepted nebular hypothesis — these are the simple means by the aid of which Nature has obtained and still goes on obtaining her great aims of world -formation, which are computed to the extent of myriads of years. For even now astronomers, starting from the most solid foundation, see in the so-called nebulae in the heavens the various stages of development of our own solar system or revolving worlds arising from wide- spread masses of mist, which will gradually, by increasing condensation and rotation, develop into various planetary THE HEAVENS. IO9 or solar systems. “Who,” says Professor Forster , ( The Beginning and End of the World , p. 18), “can see the so-called spiral or whirling mists without the conviction of their inherent motion at once forcing itself upon him ? ” There are indeed many nebulce in the sky which are merely groups of stars and which can be resolved into such by the observer with the help of powerful instruments. Then again there are others, essentially different from these, which cannot be resolved into separate stars and which clearly consist of cosmic or primal world- masses in different stages of development. Some of these have nuclei, which have already separated themselves from the whole mass in the shape of more solid centres ; others have annular forms, and so on ; by comparison of earlier and later observations of the same nebulse it has even been possible to recognize certain changes that have been going on in them. A great number of these nebulae appear to have a double motion, resembling that of our sun and of its planets, and are likely to develop like these in the end. Nay, thei'e are actually criteria which go to show that even within the limits of our own planetary system there are remnants of that mass of mist from which that system must originally have sprung. More recent searches into the analysis of light have fully confirmed and proved the theory of the primal world-mist, put forth by Herschel and Laplace, and have shown that there exists in space genuine mists endowed with inherent luminous properties and being nothing more than glowing masses of gas. The only force which lies at the base of all these formative processes and movements is nought but attraction — attraction, which condenses the mists, which forms suns and planets out of them, which regulates their movements and finally evolves from the induced condensa- tion heat and light, the sole and ultimate source of all phenomena of life. All these observations and facts give us the right to con- clude, judging from analogy with that which has already been discovered, that certain phenonema which take place I IO FORCE AND MATTER. in the heavens and the explanation of which is still more or less wanting, do not represent exceptions to the general laws of Nature, and that the cause of their peculiar kind of motion lies either in themselves or in the ordinary laws of matter. We are all the more justified in doing this, if we bear in mind that there are so many irregularities and so many things more or less fortuitous, nay, looking at them from the point of view of design, actually aimless or inex- pedient in the order of the universe and of its individual organs, which go directly against the theory of the working or interference of a higher intelligence or creative power, analogous to the laws of the human mind. If, as must be assumed according to the teleological idea of the world, a personal creative power, guided by definite aims, meant to create worlds as dwelling-places for intelligent thinking beings worshipping his omnipotence, why should there be these huge, vacant and useless tracts of space, in which but here and there isolated suns and earths swim as almost im- perceptible dots — resembling a handful of globules thrown into the vast ocean ? * Why then are not the other planets of our solar system (with perhaps the solitary exception of Mars) adapted to be likewise inhabited by men or by man- like beings? Would not the formation of many smaller planets have been much more calculated to secure the objects of life, seeing that, as shown heretofore, the so- called outer or larger planets are in no way suited for ever developing life ? Why is the moon, our everlasting com- panion, with its craters and burnt-out volcanoes, left without water and without atmosphere, and therefore inimical to all organic development ? f Why is not the sun, the sur- *The famous astronomer Tycho de Braht, who died in the year 1608, “ put the place of the fixed stars as not far beyond the orbit of Saturn, the outermost planet according to the knowledge of his time ; for the idea of wide starless tracts of ether would not have agreed with his conception of a creator pervading all space." — F. Nobbe. t According to more recent views the moon is really thought to have an atmos- phere, but one of such rarity that its density is only from i-200th to i-40oth of that of the earth, so that it must be quite unfit for the existence of animals, plants, or human beings. The other physical conditions of the moon’s surface are also THE HEAVENS. Ill face of which is 12,500 times greater than that of the earth, inhabitable as it was once thought to be ? and why are the fixed stars, scattered through space in incalculable millions, in a similar condition ? If it should be said that these suns serve to enlighten and to warm their inhabited planets, then must it not be forgotten that in this case the means and the end stand in a most startling contrast to one another and that our own sun, for instance, the centre of our planetary sys- tem, is constantly squandering uselessly huge quantities of light and heat in the cold realms of space, while our little earth, the supposed centre of the universe, receives of all this but the 2300-millionth part or even less, and the whole of the planets between them are benefited to only the 230- millionth part of this enormous waste of force. Nay, what is the object, from a teleological View, of the change of day and night, which necessarily results from the relation of the sun and earth ? If such a change is necessary for the life of the creatures inhabiting the earth, why should the polar zone have a day and a night lasting each six months, and why should the necessary darkness of the night be broken by the influx of moonlight ? In the well-known inclination of the axis of the earth towards the plane of its orbit, known by the name of the angle of the ecliptic, which is the cause of the change of the seasons, many perceive a design of heaven intended for our welfare. But they do not consider that they are con- such as to make it absolutely impossible for the moon to be inhabited. According to Nasmyth the surface of the moon, which is now known to us with perfect accuracy, offers nothing but a desolate waste, a terrible desert which no human imagination can realize, and in which life resembling that of our terrestrial home, with perhaps the exception of certain minute forms, is quite impossible or incon- ceivable. A fearful heat reigns close to the ground during the day, which lasts 336 hours, and a frightful cold beyond the ground and during the equally long night. There are to be found but crude forms, dead materials and the soundless play of mighty forces I Wherefore this great development of energy without any visible aim of life? For as a mere illuminant of our nights the moon clearly fulfills its duty but very imperfectly, for it changes, and over and above this it may be the cause of terrible earthquakes. Besides, the question why the moon should always turn the same side to the earth, is utterly unanswerable from a teleological standpoint. I 12 FORCE AND MATTER. founding effect: and cause, and that our organization would most probably be different were the inclination of the ecliptic different or non-existent. Besides, this very angle of the ecliptic, the object of such mistaken praise, does not even seem to be in any way conducive to our advantage ; and if it were in our power to change this slope of the axis of the earth towards the plane of the earth’s orbit, we should most certainly do it and thereby bring about a greater equality in the seasons. For if the earth’s axis were perpendicular to its orbit, there would be in our lati- tude, for instance, a perpetual spring, calculated in all probability to lengthen human life. Why — we must ask still further — did the sun show its beauty to the earth day by day, why did the moon shed its silvery beams over the world, why did the glorious stars and constellations shine in radiant beauty on it during those untold ages of the past in which no creature existed on its surface to turn these glorious arrangements to account, to admire them and meditate on their object ? What is the meaning of the irregularities and of the striking differences in the size and distances of the individual members of our solar system, and why is there an absence here of all order, symmetry or harmony, beauty, regularity, law, in regard to size, density, position, habitability, etc. ? Why have all the comparisons, analogies, speculations, founded on the number and formation of the planets, such as the great Kepler earnestly engaged in, proved to be mere idle phan- tasies ? What is the object of the so-called asteroids, or smaller planets, with their orbits crossing each other, of which considerably more than two hundred are known at this day, although it is not very long since rambling philos- ophers thought that they could demonstrate on speculative grounds that no further planets could exist in the recog- nized astronomical gap between Mars and Jupiter? What duties do the countless meteors or meteorites discharge which cross the earth’s orbit and do so much mischief in their descent ? or the innumerable comets with their ever- THE HEAVENS. 1*3 changing paths, which only seem to exist for the purpose of aiding and abetting in the worst kind of superstition, and of which, to use Kepler’s phrase, the heavens are as full as the sea is of fishes ? or those thousands of suns with- out planets, the so-called twin stars, which revolve eternally round each other or round a common centre? Finally, why is our planetary system so arranged that, having originated in time, it must perish in time, and with it all that is great, all that man has ever accomplished or ever done on earth, must subside again into the chaos of eternal oblivion ? * If — as the theists make out — the world or the cosmos were created or governed by an eternal reason, or as they are wont to say, designed by intelligence, how can all these contradictory facts be explained? and why did not the eternal reason give the planetary systems an order from which its object and meaning could be recognized without any doubt? Why did not the everlasting creative power write his name in starry letters in the heavens, and thus put an end to all those doubts that torture and trouble the human breast, to all those endless controversies about his own ex- istence, which have caused so much pain and grief to poor humanity, groping for ever in darkness? Why should he hide himself from us and lay snares for our reason, which inveigle us into endless doubtings and discomfort of every sort? How could God, if he existed, quietly witness all the sad results of this uncertainty about his own existence, seeing that he could so easily put an end to them ? These thoughts, these questions and strictures might be multiplied ad infinitum; but multiplying them would change nothing in the result, that no unprejudiced investigation of * According to the most modern veiws of astronomers, which are strongly sup- ported by the discoveries made by the help of spectrum analysis, all solar and planetary systems pass through a life-cycle of origin, existence and decay, oc- cupying thousands of millions of years, and reiterating itself eventually in the same or in a similar manner by renewed decomposition into cosmic mist (primal world mist ) Throughout all space a perennial change is going on and has gone on from eternity. U4 FORCE AND MATTER. Nature, wherever it may search, can discover any trace of a supernatural influence either in space or in time. The renowned “harmony of the universe” rests, as has been shown already, partly on imagination or ignorance, partly on the same causes by which, as will be more fully explained in subsequent chapters, the apparent design in other natural phenomena, especially in the organic forms living on our earth, is brought about ; and if, without prejudice to the views stated above, a certain order and regularity must be recognized in the phenomena of the sky, such order is but the necessary and unavoidable result of the process of evo- lution in the heaven itself, which could never have existed as such without such order. For a chaos, which in the course of ages is neither developed nor decomposed, must ever remain a chaos, while a movement once begun must neces- sarily in the course of immense periods of time, and by the gradual excision of all that is incapable of life or unsuitable, as also by reciprocal adaptation of individual beings, give rise to the genesis or survival of such forms as are suited for their surroundings and therefore capable of life or suit- able therefor. When the unsuitable has perished long since, the suitable remains. Therefore, the suitable movement or position of any individual heavenly body is but an individ- ual instance of movement, and all movements of such a body which are unsuitable or which collide with the move- ments or positions of other heavenly bodies must be gradually eliminated or cut off, until those only remain which do not bring about their own destruction by irregu- larity or incompatibility with a definite order; so that in the end the whole vaunted beauty and order of the universe amount to nothing but the mechanical relation of physical forces. In a most ingenious work entitled Kampf urn's Dasein am Himmel , ( Struggle for existence in the heavens') — Berlin, 1874; 3rd revised edition, Leipzig, 1882 — Dr. Karl Freiherr Dii Prel first and very successfully sought to apply to the astronomical world the Darwinian principles which have in modern times become the standard THE HEAVENS. US for judging the organic world. According to him, the apparent design in the arrangement of our planetary system is merely the result of a very long process of evolution, and is to be regarded as the simple outcome of the fact that all planets which did not follow regular orbits, left the system, or re-united themselves to the sun, or were flung off into long-stretched paths along which they subsequently travel- ed as comets and groups of meteorites. It is probable that the sun originally possessed a much larger number of satellites, many of which were eliminated in this manner ; this possibly accounts for the great gaps that exist in the system. Only in the group of asteroids does this pro- cess of elimination appear to be still incomplete, since this group, being a portion or broken-up fragment of some planet, shattered to pieces by some cause unknown to us, has not been as long in existence as the remaining planets. In the case of comets also, which must be regarded as a direct offspring of the sun, Dii Prel holds that this process is as yet far from being complete. He regards them as the youngest members of the system, while the planets are the oldest and the asteroids lie midway between the two classes. But everything in this (and other) classes that is incapable of fitting into the general system and into the order that reins in it to a certain extent, must, in process of time, be eliminated or crowded out. ‘ ‘ Thus the physical struggle which commenced by the law of gravitation, ends with those marvellous combinations of mighty stars, at the sight of which we scarcely forbear from coming to the conclusion that their movements must from the very first have been regulated by an all-wise design. And yet we can only at- tribute this orderly result to the aimless working of physical forces, which here, as everywhere, act according to the principle of adaptation and must infallibly evolve harmony in the end.” None the less this harmony is by no means complete, despite the great regularity of the movements in our solar system. One planet keeps constantly pulling at the other 1 1 6 force and matter. and striving with more or less success to influence its course. The moon drags at its mother-planet whose oceans it often raises up to devastating tides and whose intestines, if a modern theory be true, it stirs up to destructive com- motion. Comets and meteorites drive their path right across the system, bestowing no benefit on it, but only in- juring it. The supreme force of the sun alone keeps the whole system in tolerable order. We close this chapter with the same words with which Dii Prel concludes the preface of his interesting work : ‘ 1 Epicurus of old said : The Gods dwell in the interspaces of our knowledge of the world.” “Nie hat der Geist des Menschen mehr geglanzt, Als da er unbekannte Welten mass, Da er in jenen Hohen, unbegrenzt, So wie in einem offnen Buche las. Den Himmel hat er zu sich hergezogen, Den Schleier aufgehoben von den Fernen, Und wenn sein Geist ihm iiberall gelogen, Dort fand er ew’ge Wahrheit in den Sternen.” J. F. Castelli. (Never has man’s spirit shone more brilliantly than in measuring unknown worlds and in reading, as in an open book, those illimitable heights. He has drawn the heavens down to himself, he has lifted the veil from the distant, and if his spirit deceived him everywhere, he yet found eternal truth in the stars.) Periods of the Creation of the Earth. Modern geology has shown that none of the so-called geological formations are spread over the whole earth, but that all formations have taken place simul- taneously at every period ; it has also shown that they are still progressing all over the world and will continue to progress for ever. — F. Mohr Things happening to-day are merely the copy and reflex of things that happened in former times. — Isnard. The forces now at work in the world are the same in quality and quantity which brought about geological changes in the most distant ages — Lyell In the time-piece of Nature thousands of years are but a single beat of the pendulum ; they are but what a second is to us. — H. Tutti.e. A FTER the earth had separated itself as an individual self-existent body from the rotating primal mist and begun its rotatory motion around the remaining central mass, a number of changes began in its interior which tended to produce a continually increasing condensation of its mass in the centre and a simultaneous refrigeration on the outside. Whereas the ancients, in their imperfect cos- mogony, taking the earth for the centre of the universe, fancied that in the course of the supposed division of the solid from the liquid, the fire rose to heaven in order to form the radiance and glow of the firmament, it in reality receded slowly deeper and deeper into the bosom of the earth, and now betrays its presence only by the ever in- creasing heat of the interior of the earth, by hot springs, volcanoes, etc. The outside of the earth, on the contrary, becoming more rigid and forming a crust, assumed more and more the characteristics of apparent solidity and im- (117) 1 1 8 FORCE AND MATTER. mutability which it has at this day. Fierce conflicts took place between fire and water, after the water had precipita- ted itself on the surface of the earth as a hot primal ocean from the watery mists surrounding the globe, and had uni- formly spread over its surface. Out of these conflicts, and by virtue of influences destructive on the one hand, con- structive on the other, of forces partly physical, partly chemical, partly representing the working of inferior organ- isms, there arose, in the course of enormous periods of time, earth-formations and strata which are accessible to our investigations, and in which geologists read the history of the earth as in an ancient chronicle. The day-book of Nature, it is true, is not so complete and uniform as to require merely to be read off ; on the contrary, it is in the highest degree imperfect, full of gaps, continually inter- rupted, and written in many different spots all over the surface of the earth ; its leaves are in many ways damaged or put out of order by subsequent events ; individual letters are destroyed or rendered illegible, so that it needs no little trouble and no little keenness to fill up the gaps to some extent, to interpret accurately the obliterated passages and to get at their true connection. Indeed, such an interpretation would probably have been impossible, if scattered solid fragments and remains of the earlier world of living organisms, such as mussels, teeth, scales, bones, feathers, shells, plants, etc., — the so-called fossils — had not resisted destruction, and had not, by giving to each geological formation a definite and easily recognizable character, served in some measure as guides or clews through the labyrinth of that geological chronicle. This circumstance, in connection with erroneously inter- preted geological facts, unfortunately gave rise to the famous theory of geological catastrophes and revolutions which, for a length of time, ruled supreme in science. As an out- come of this theory, it was imagined that from time to time a complete change was caused in the surface of the earth by gigantic revolutions and catastrophes, accompanied by PERIODS OF THE CREATION OF THE EARTH. 119 the destruction and subsequent new creation of all living things to be found thereon, and that this proceeding had been repeated some thirty or fifty times in the history of the earth. Fire and water, each after its fashion, were sup- posed to have co-operated in destroying the world of living things at a blow, and to have afforded the creator, after the elements had quieted down again, an opportunity of setting to work his creative omnipotence in establishing a new order of things. The names of the famous French scientists Baffon (1707 — 1788) and Cuvier (1769 — 1832) are most closely connected with this theory of cataclysms ; it was also believed in by the famous naturalist Agassiz, who died a few years ago, and it still musters numerous adherents, though rather in theological than in specially scientific cir- cles. The greater number of the ancient philosophers, like Heraclitus, Plato, etc., also looked upon the history of the globe in a similar fashion and had an idea of periodical catastrophes and new creations of the world, recurring at intervals of a larger or smaller number of thousands of years ; whilst others, whose tendency was of a more ma- terialistic nature, such as Anaxagoras, Okellus, Democritus, and his disciples Epicurus and Lucretius expressed even then an opinion that the cosmic process ever followed its regular course and that the violent changes were confined within very narrow limits. This theory of catastrophes, as will be easily seen, afforded the theological tendency in natural science a welcome pre- text for calling in the co-operation of a supernatural power, by whose impulse or permission those revolutions were thought to have been brought about, in order that the earth might be led through various stages of gradual im- provement to a form suited for certain objects or designs. It was supposed that this power had intervened frequently and directly, or that a continual and new creation had taken place, at stated periods, and that new and improved organic beings and species had sprung up after each suc- cessive destruction. The Bible was thus borne out when 120 FORCE AND MATTER. it said that God had visited the earth with a deluge in order to destroy the disobedient human race, wallowing in iniquity, so that he might put a better one in its place. God was thought with his own hand to have raised moun- tains, dried up oceans, created living things, and so on. All these fancies about the intervention of an indepen- dent, supernatural, and mysterious power in the course of the earth’s history have turned out to be mere illusions and dreams, when looked at by the light of sober scientific thought. With the same keenness of vision with which astronomical science pierced through and discovered the conditions of the furthest realms of space, the eye of geo- logical science ranged backwards over a past of millions upon millions of years, the unlifted veil of which had hid- den the history of our globe from man’s ken in a mysterious gloom which readily lent itself to superstitious reverie ; and, in so doing, it discovered the clearest evidence of the fact that this history owes its existence throughout to none but the simplest and most natural processes, which may in many instances be traced with the greatest scientific accu- racy. The theory of the so-called periods of creation of the earth, which in former days were so frequently and so readily spoken of, and which even at this day a cosmogony based on childish error would feign identify with the biblical days of creation — was found to be altogether inadmissible, and the whole past of the earth appeared as the present of our globe, unrolled. It is the great glory of the eminent English geologist, Sir Charles Lyell , who died only a few years ago, to have been the first who proved convincingly that the catastrophes or revolutions, on which had been built up the theory of the periods of creation, were never universal, but purely local, in point of fact that no geolog- ical convulsions had taken place simultaneously over the whole surface of the globe, but that the past history of the earth is only a continuous and gradual process of evolution, springing from the same forces, phenomena, and diminutive changes which are actively at work at the present time in PERIODS OF THE CREATION OF THE EARTH. 121 the formation of the surface of the earth, and which day by day keep going on under our very eyes. It is true that this process generally goes on in such a slow, gradual, im- perceptible manner, that the period of time allotted to our observation and experience is much too short for us to ac- quaint ourselves with the great results of its working. No doubt it must at first sight have appeared as though the changes of which we see such powerful traces on the surface of the earth, must have originated in powerful convulsions of its interior ; but riper experience and observation teach us the very opposite. “ For the earth,” says Burmeister in his excellent History of Creation , “ is entirely formed by forces which we find active in their full strength even at this day : it has never been subjected to evolutionary ca- tastrophes essentially more powerful or entirely different from those which affect it now ; on the other hand, the length of time in which the changes have taken place is immeasurable The gigantic and startling nature of the terrestrial evolution lies only in the huge periods of time during which it has been proceeding,” etc. In fact, the main solution of the apparent enigma lies in the enormous periods of time through which the history of the earth extends. As a drop of water ever falling on the same spot will in time perforate a stone, so forces apparent- ly weak and scarcely perceptible on a small scale produce incredible and seemingly miraculous results when working through long periods. Now, as formerly, the earth is con- stantly changing under our very eyes; constantly terrestrial strata appear and disappear, volcanoes are ignited, earth- quakes rend the ground, mountains rise or collapse, whole continents are levelled up or slowly recede again into the bosom of the earth, islands rise and sink, the sea retreats from the terra firma or overflows other lands, rivers change their courses, now tearing away tracts of land, now laying down fresh soil on other spots; to this very day, the count- less myriads of plants and animals are still actively engaged in gradually building up the crust of the earth, while water, 122 FORCE AND MATTER. wind, and storms seek to pull down again what has been built up * All these slow and natural effects produced by natural causes at different times and in different places, which effects have needed so many millions of years to evolve themselves, we now behold united into one grand collective picture, and so striking and powerful is the im- pression wrought upon us by this picture, that we are driven, as it were, to the thought of, or the belief in, a ceaselessly creating power ; whereas in reality everything has occurred in the most natural fashion, as the necessary sequence of cause and effect. No doubt, the difference between individual geological formations is very great, so great, indeed, that they cannot directly depend on each other, but must have been separated by protracted geo- logical periods. In taking up a diagram of the strata of the surface of the earth, one notices at the first glance that rocks of such various structure and mineralogical compo- sition cannot be the result of a closely connected formative process, but that long pauses must have intervened, in the course of which important geological changes, upheavals and subsidences, alterations of oceanic currents, differences of sedimentary deposits, etc., must have taken place. During the upheavals the waves also began to carry on their process of destruction, so that whole tracts of land with the organ- isms embedded in them were washed away again, and the whole geological and paleontological record must necessa- rily have suffered a complete break in that particular spot. To those who look only at the surface of things and who have no understanding of the intimate connection of things, this break may appear as real and as a proof of a new creation having taken place ; but the rational and enlight- ened mind of an educated man, aided by scientific training, *Any one who wishes to acquaint himself with the practical evidence of these fuCts, can find it in the following works: Burmeister, “ Geschichte der Schop- fung;” Rossmassler, "Geschichte der Erde;’’ O. Vogler, "Erde und Ewigkeit;” F. Mohr, "Geschichte der Erde;’’ Lyell, "Principles of Geology,” and "Antiquity of Man;” lastly, in the author’s works, " Natur und Geist,” and “Die Darwin’sche Theorie.” PERIODS OF THE CREATION OF THE EARTH. 1 23 will judge very differently indeed. It knows that the inves- tigation into the history and the stages of development of the earth, like the investigation into the laws of the heavens, is unable to find anywhere the traces or the workings of a supernatural power, holding a position independent of the natural connection of things ; that investigation has, on the contrary, proved that everywhere and in all periods of that history the same materials, forces and physical laws were active as those by which we are now surrounded. No- where, nor in the remotest periods of the past, has this investigation found a spot which, when reached, it became necessary to put a stop to scientific research or to accept the notion of unknown or supernatural forces ; everywhere have been found the same laws, the same matter, the same processes accessible to scientific analysis. “ Historical re- search (into the history of the evolution of the earth) has led to the conclusion that the past and the present rest on exactly similar bases ; that the past developed in a fashion identical to that in which the present rolls on, and that the forces which are active on our earth have been the same from time immemorial.” — Burmeister. ‘‘This immutable identity in the nature of phenomena gives us a certainty that fire and water have had the same energies at all periods as they have now and will have henceforth ; that gravita- tion, and hence the phenomena of weight, electricity, magnetism, and the volcanic activity of the interior of the earth, have never been different from what they are now. ’ ’ — -Rossmassler. “ Nature almost always works in dumb silence ; cataclysmic convulsions and violent destruction are but exceptional. The catastrophes which authors have crudely painted from fancy, are either exaggerations or have never taken place at all. There have been great changes, and vast upheavals ; but for the most part with less tumult than fanciful authors have made about them, and they have certainly not taken place by means of any but the normal and known forces of nature.” — H. Tuttle. Hence the human mind, enlightened by scientific training, 124 FORCE AND MATTER. no longer needs that mighty hand which, working from without, as men were once obliged to believe, rouses the incandescent spirits of the bowels of the earth to a sudden tumult, which pours the waters of the deluge over the globe and from time to time moulds the whole system to his pur- poses as the sculptor does the plastic clay. If these objects, as theists would have us suppose, were really the gradual preparation of the surface of the globe for the living creatures that are to exist upon it, more particularly man- kind, it is quite impossible to understand why divine Om- nipotence, which must be regarded as the cause of all these changes, should have needed such efforts and such round- about ways to attain its end, and why it should not, or could not, have done at once and without hesitation what appeared to be good or expedient for the realization of these designs. It requires a stupendous amount of imag- ination for any one to deem it possible that the divine Omnipotence or supreme Intelligence can have found it necessary to use such vast periods of time and work such fearful catastrophes, involving in each instance the exter- mination of all living creatures in existence, to finally carry the earth and its inhabitants, through a cycle of transitions and improvements, to its last and highest goal, which is no other than that of forming a suitable dwelling-place for the most highly organized of animals, man. Can a power which we look upon as unlimited and absolutely perfect, knowing everything and foreseeing everything, be subject to such narrow limitations and require, as it were, such protracted training and rehearsals, before it can attain its objebt or accomplish its will ? And what reason could such a power allege for the continually recurring destruction of a whole creation and world of living things, if not the need of constant self-improvement, which is in diametrical oppo- sition to its omnipotence, perfection and omniscience? This is so clear, so obvious even to the intelligence of a child, that a savage belonging to the Bechuanas, (who inhabit the interior of South Africa,) when Moffat, the mis- PERIODS OF THE CREATION OF THE EARTH. 1 25 sionary, was trying to make him understand the Christian idea of creation, replied with a sneer : “If you really think that only one being created all men, you must admit that this being gradually improved as it went on creating. At first it tried its hand at the Bushman, then at the Hottentot, then at the Bechuana, till in the end it succeeded in making the white man.” Hence there is no other explanation of the events con- nected with the story of the creation of the earth than that which lies in the natural facts themselves. Only the inevitable and endless difficulties which Nature had to over- come in the gradual formation of the crust of the earth and of its organic population, which difficulties could only be mastered in vast periods of time, can offer us a satisfactory solution of the problems with which the genesis of the organic as well as the inorganic worlds taxes our perspicacity. The actual length of the periods needed for the earth to attain its present condition can be fairly well estimated in consulting the computations geologists have made respect- ing single phases thereof, or respecting the length of time necessary for forming individual strata. Thus, for instance, according to Professor Bischoff's calculation, the formation of the carboniferous strata required a period of more than a million, and according to Chevandier from 600,000 to 700.000 years. This figure, however, applies only to the formation of coal itself, so that it would be necessary to add the time required for the formation of the nearly 10,000 feet of “grit” (sandstone, conglomerate and shale.) Pro- fessor Philipps ( Life on the earth , i860) computes that the oval-beds of South Wales, including the grit, took about 500.000 years to form. The time required for the develop- ment of the strata of the tertiary period, ranging from 3000 and 5000 feet in thickness, must have been at least 350,000 years, while, according to a calculation made by A. von Humboldt, the guano deposits, some of them nearly 100 feet thick, consisting of the excreta of sea birds, must have taken nearly three times as long to form. The calculation 126 FORCE AND MATTER. of the English scientist Croll , quoted by Grove, make it certain that since the last glacial period (falling at the end of the tertiary or at the beginning of the post-tertiary period) no less than 100,000 years must have elapsed — “a space of time apparently not very long, if measured by geological eras, but probably very much longer.” The same author estimates the duration of the so-called Eocene or Miocene, the first two subdivisions of the great tertiary period, at from one million to several millions of years prior to the year 1800 of our era ! It is obvious that we encounter much higher numbers, when we come to consider the periods it must have taken to form the entire stratification of the earth’s surface, such as we know it ; these periods must count by many millions of years. Lyell considered that they represent a total of 560 million years. This figure may be and probably is excessive, and we shall be nearer the mark if we assume a period of a hundred million years to have elapsed from the time when the first living forms appeared on the earth and the oldest stratified rocks were deposited, down to the present day. According to Helmholtz this figure, or even a smaller one, is near enough for the entire age of the world as an individual planet, while on the other hand some scientists, such as Falb , Klein , etc., bring the number up to 2000 million years. As regards the age of the solar heat, it appears from astronomical researches that our earth cannot have existed as an inde- pendent planet for more than a hundred million years, while on the other hand Prof. Bischoff , judging by experi- ments with a molten and slowly cooled disc of basalt, has come to the conclusion that the originally incandescent mass of the earth must have required at least 350 million years to cool from a temperature of 3600° down to 400°. Blayidet and Vinot , two French scientists, have obtained yet higher figures, grounding their calculations on the physi- cal theory of light. They estimate the age of the earth at the enormous number of about 6000 million years. If we take our stand on this number as a basis, we find that the PERIODS OF THE CREATION OF THE EARTH. 1 27 age of Neptune, the oldest planet of our solar system, would come up to 42,000 million years ! What endless periods of time must have elapsed since the original mist of our solar system had become sufficiently condensed for Neptune to separate itself from its equator in the form of a ring of vapor! Now, whether one or another of these calculations be the more accurate, they show in any case what endless periods of time our dwelling-place the earth required, in order that, after passing through innumerable and scarcely perceptible transitions, it should at length become what it is now ; and this is to be accounted for only by the theory of a gradual and very slow development, and not by that of the personal intervention of an omnipotent entity. The numbers quoted above lead us to another inference, which is this : In con- nection with the immeasurable distances which the astrono- mers have discovered in the universe and from which our powers of imagination derive problems they are unable to cope with, the immensity of the periods alluded to brings home to us the necessity of recognizing the illimitability of time and space, that is to say, eternity and infinity. Should the conceptions of religion, which represent God as eternal and infinite, be preferable when carried to their logical ends, to the theories of science? Does the rabid fanaticism of priests, which invented the eternity of hell-fire, surpass scientific research in boldness of thought? “What- ever may be said of the end of the world, it is all as vague as the legend of the beginning, which the infantile mind of nations invented. The earth and the universe are eternal, since eternity is an essential property of matter. But matter is not unchangeable, and because it appears in varied forms man’s limited intellect, while yet unillumined by scientific research, holds it to be finite and destructible.” — Burmeister. “Aeonen komraen und Aeonen gehn, Doch unbeachtet rollen sie voriiber; Denn was sind selbst Aeonen, wenn gesehn, Der unbegriff’nen Ewigkeit geniiber?” Helionde. 128 FORCE AND MATTER. (Ages come and ages go, rolling past unnoticed ; for what are even ages in comparison to unconceived eter- nity ?) That which modern science, armed with the most mag- nificent appliances, teaches as an almost irrefragable fact, man had learned some thousands of years ago by logical thought, unsophisticated by the religious and philosophical prejudices of our enlightened age, and it seems inconceivable that such a simple and necessary thought as that of the eternity of the universe , could ever have faded away from the human mind “ Almost all the ancient philosophers are agreed in regarding the universe as eternal. Ocellus Lukanus says expressly, in speaking of the universe, that it has always been and evei will be. All unprejudiced persons will feel the force of the axiom that out of nothing nothing comes. Creation, in the acceptation in which the word is used by the moderns, is a theological subtlety.” (Systeme de la nature , premiere partie, Note 7.) “ None of the gods has formed the world, nor has any man ; it has always been.” (. Empedocles , 450 B. C.) Original Generation. It is certain that the appearance of animal bodies on the earth is the expression of such forces, and a function of these, resulting with mathematical certainty from the existing conditions.— Burmeister. One thing may be unhesitatingly proclaimed by modern science, viz., that organ- ized things are no more the results of separate creations than the so-called unorganized ones ; that they are nothing more than special forms in which universal matter appears, and from which, like all the other individualized bodies, they have gradually evolved. — V. Graber. It appears to me that every rational physiologist, provided he admits such a thing as the genesis of life, is compelled to trace it to a peculiar aggregation of chemical and physical forces.— V irchow. It is not to be doubted that in the early history of our earth organisms must have been produced abiogenetically ; the origin of living things must necessarily have sprung from inorganic matter. — W. Wundt. T HERE was a time when the earth as a fiery ball was not only incapable of producing living things, but actually hostile to the existence of any vegetable or animal organisms in close proximity to its surface. Not until after it had gradually cooled down and become solidi- fied, and after the surrounding watery vapors had been precipitated on it, did the crust of the earth assume a form and condition which in its further development prepared the possibility of the origin and existence of manifold organized forms. With the formation of water, and as soon as the temperature permitted, organic life also evolved. At first it appeared but in the lowest and most imperfect forms, but in the course of long periods and in keeping with the development of the earth itself, it unrolled itself gradually into the whole wealth of forms, shapes and indi- viduals which now inhabit the surface of the globe, and which inhabited it throughout the almost endless duration (129) 130 FORCE AND MATTER. of pre-historic ages. This we infer with absolute certainty from the fact already mentioned in the preceding chapter, that every stratum accessible to our investigation contains within itself the clear and partially well-preserved remnants, traces and relics of the vegetable and animal organisms which existed at the period of its deposition. For those ages of the deepest scientific ignorance are long gone by and will never return, in which these remains were looked upon as mere Lusus natures , i. e. when it was thought that Nature had amused herself in representing the forms and features of living animals in stone, or when they were thought to be ruins left by the Mosaic deluge. The times are also gone by in which it was held almost universally that all the various kinds of lower animals or plants, down to the Infusoria, had arisen without parents from the mere interaction of the elements or by what was called spontane- ous generation.* The more progress science achieved by the aid of the microscope, the narrower became the bounds within which the belief in spontaneous generation, once so widely spread, receded ; until at last a halt was made at the simplest form-element, from which all aggregated organic beings originate without exception, viz. the cell. The English physician Harvey , the famous discoverer of the circulation of the blood (1619,) laid down this important principle : Omne vivum ex ovo (all that lives is from an egg,) and this principle was subsequently expanded into: Omne vivum ex vivo (all that lives is from the living ;) it being understood that the propagation not only takes place through the germ previously procreated by similar parents, but also more directly from existing parental bodies, by the processes of fission, buds, shoots, free cell formation, etc. ’Aristotle thought that eels were generated in inud ; Ovid assigned the same origin to frogs, and Pliny in his Natural History made all insects spring from the dust of caves. Even as late as the Middle Ages it was thought possible to pro- duce snakes and mice in the laboratory ; fishes, frogs, snakes and rats were be- lieved to be generated spontaneously, and it was seriously contended that the black or mourning-duck originated in the rotten wood of old ships or from a mussel (Lefias anatxfera.) Even at this day, popular superstition still clings to the idea of a spontaneous generation of all kinds of vermin, (fleas, bugs, etc.) ORIGINAL GENERATION. I 3 I This phrase means therefore that life, or anything living, can never originate spontaneously, nor from the mere ag- gregation of its elements, but only as the continuation of an already existent identical or similar life. In modern times, as the cell became recognized as the ultimate organized form-element, or as the organic unity, the theory of it was formulated more accurately by Virchow , in the words : Omnis cellula ab cellula ; that is to say, there is no organ- ized cell which has not originated from a previously existent cell of the same or of similar kind. But as it was found in the further course of these researches that the cell was a somewhat variable form, that it was not always the same, but sometimes showed one kind of ingredients, sometimes another, a yet more exact distinction was drawn, and by directing attention to that part of the cell which seemed the most constant, the so-called nucleus, the phrase was again changed to : Omnis nucleus e nucleo, or each cell-nucleus originates from another nucleus. But whatever formula was given to the theory- — or may be given to it in the future — the thought or principle lying at the root of it is that organ- ized forms cannot originate spontaneously, and that one or more organized individuals or units must have been present in order that a new one should originate. The stories of the Old Testament expressed this truth, already known in its broad outlines, in an allegorical form, by making two of every kind of animal enter the ark to be saved from the universal deluge. For those who are not contented with biblical stories, several questions must arise in the face of such facts, viz., where and how did the origin take place ? What was the primal generation of organized things ? If all organized beings have proceeded from previously existent organi- zations, from parent forms, how did the first parents arise? Did these arise spontaneously, merely by the fortuitous or necessary concourse of the elements under certain condi- tions, or were they called into existence by the voice of an external power, by a supernatural creative act? And if the 132 FORCE AND MATTER. first be the case, why does the same thing happen no more at this day ? This weighty question has long occupied philosophers and scientists, and has given scope for the most varied and most extensive controversies. Before we enter upon a closer investigation of this question, we must first remark in regard to the axiom quoted heretofore : Omne vivum ex vivo, (All that lives is from the living), that whilst it is true so far as the vast majority of all organisms is concerned, it cannot under present conditions be accepted as holding good throughout. In spite of numerous and very carefully made experiments, in spite of the severest efforts made and discussions carried on among scientific men, the disputed question of generatio