SMIT.H'S 
 
 mum GRAMMAI 
 
 PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 I) ASl) IMPROVKU, AND ADAPTKD TO illE I ^K 
 SCHOOLS IN THIi CONFEDERATE STATES. 
 
 SECOND EDITION, 
 
 IMCHMONM): 
 rUBLI^HED BY GEOKGK L. BIIKJOOI). 
 
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George Washington Flowers 
 Memorial Collection 
 
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 ESTABLISHED BV TH K 
 
 FAMILY OF 
 
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 PREFACE. ..^ 
 
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 ^ 
 
 The Grammar of Roswell C, Smith has been selecjted for suita- 
 ble revision and for republication by the Confederate publisher, 
 chiefly on account, of the simplicity of its introductory section, 
 .and the general favor which the book has received In our 
 schools. 
 
 It is much preferred, also, because, discarding the fancies by 
 
 which some writers are guided in their efforts to change the 
 
 grammatical nomenclature, and set aside the simple system, of 
 
 *^ Lindley Murray, it conforms very generally to the principles, 
 
 and most frequently employs the language, of that distinguished 
 
 »S^ and favorite grammarian. 
 
 The alterations made by the reviser need not be specifically 
 pointed out, as they will be apparent to the experienced teacher, 
 i» and to any who may take the pains to make a comparison. It 
 
 J^^ is believed that they will be accepted by all as decided improve- 
 
 <■ ments. They consist chiefly in changing the imperfect sen- 
 
 tences in which " answers " were frequently given, into com- 
 plete affirmations wherever practicable ; and in using Confeder- 
 ate instead of foreign names in the ♦< examples." 
 
i^ \:> j2-'(^,-cJ<<-t.^i 
 
 I ' 
 
RBtt 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 I. OF THE NOUN. 
 
 Q. What does the word noxin mean ? 
 
 Ans. The word noun moiins name. 
 
 Q. Wuat, then, may your name be called ? 
 
 1. A NOUN. 
 
 Q. What may all names be called ? 
 
 2. Nouns. 
 
 Q. Nashville is the name of a place; is Nashville a nonn? and if 80, 
 why ? 
 
 3. Nashville is a noun, because it is a name. 
 
 Q. Potomac is the name of a river; is Potomac a noun, and why ? 
 Q. Book is the name of something to read in ; is book a noun, and 
 why ? 
 
 Q. Will you now inform me what a noun is ? 
 
 4. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. 
 
 Q. Will you mention two nouns the names of persons ? two, the namei 
 of things? two, the names of different places? 
 
 Q. Will you tell me which words are the nouns in the following sen- 
 tences, as I read them to you? 
 
 " Thomas and Joseph are in the house.^' 
 
 " The horse and cow are in the lot." 
 
 " The hawk and the eagle have flown to the moun- 
 tain." 
 
 '' Trees, corn, potatoes, and apples, grow in the 
 fields." 
 
 II. NUMBEK. 
 
 Q. .What is the meaning of the word number — as, "The number of 
 buttons on your coat?" 
 
 5. Number means one or more. 
 
 Q. What does the word Hingidar mean ? 
 
 6. The word singular means one. 
 
 Q. AVhen, then, I apeak of one thing onlv, as chair, what number ia 
 it? 
 
 7. Singular number. 
 
6 EN'OMSH ORAMMAR. 
 
 Q. Wbat, then, does the singular number of nouns denote? 
 
 8. Tho singular number denotes but one thing. 
 
 Q. Of what number is book, and why ? 
 
 '9. Book is of the singular number, because it means 
 but one. 
 
 Q. Of what number is chair, and why? 
 Q. What does the word plural moan ? 
 
 10. The word plural means more than one. 
 
 Q. Of what number is lamjtt, and why ? 
 
 11. Lamps is of tho plural number, because it moans 
 more than one. 
 
 Q. Of what number is inkstand, and why ? 
 
 Q. By adding $ to ' • c we have doves, and e» to box wo have hoxei. 
 How, then, is tho plu; •! number of nouns usual!}' formed ? 
 
 12. The plural nunil)er is I'urmod l)y adding s or es 
 to the singular. 
 
 Q. Will you Ppell the plural of ounce / ijhins t icindoxc f theatre f an- 
 tccedf,'tf church? lahyrinthf 
 
 Q. How many numbers do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 
 
 13. Nouns have two numbers — the singular and plu- 
 i-al. 
 
 Q. Will you name a noun of the singular number? one of the plural 
 number? 
 
 "^ III. GENDER. 
 
 Q. What docs the word (jendcr mean ? 
 
 14. Gender signifies sex. 
 
 Q. What doe.s the word mciscnline moan ? 
 
 15. The word masculine means male. 
 
 Q. John is the name of a male ; of what gender or sex, then, is John t 
 
 16. Of the masculine or male gender. 
 
 Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the masculine gender? 
 
 17. The names of males are of tho masculine gender. 
 
 Q. What gender, then, is man, and why ? ■ 
 
 18. Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the 
 name of a male. 
 
 Q. Of what gender is uncle, and why ? father, why ? 
 Q. What does; yV;/»r»;r»ic mean? 
 
 19. Tlie word feminine mea-ns female. 
 
 Q. Susan is the name of a female; of what gender, then, is Susan f 
 
 20. Of the feminine gender. 
 
 Q. What nouns, then, are said to be of the feminine gender? 
 
 21. The names of females are of the feminine gender. 
 
 Q. What goiidor i» woman, and why ? 
 
 22. Woman is of the feminine gender, because it is 
 the name of a female. 
 
NOUNS. « 
 
 • Q. Of -what gender is aunt., and whj' ? daughter, why? 
 Q. "What does the word neuter moan ? 
 
 23. The word 7ieuter means neither. 
 
 Q. Chair is the name neither of a male nor a female ; what gender, 
 then, may it properly be called ? 
 
 24. Neuter gender. 
 
 Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the neuter gender ? 
 
 25. The names of objects that are neither males nor 
 
 • females are of the neuter gender. 
 
 ^. Of what gender is inkstand, and why ? 
 
 26. Neuter gender, because it is the name neither of 
 a male nor female. 
 
 Q. Oi what gender is bench f why ? chair ? why ? 
 
 Q. Parent, you know, is the name either of father or mother, that is, 
 it is a name common to both ; of what gender, then, shall we call such 
 nouns as parent, bird, etc. ? 
 
 27. Common gender. 
 
 Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the common gender? 
 
 28. The names of such animals as may be either 
 males or female^ are of the common gender. 
 
 Q. Of what gender is sheep, and why? 
 
 29. Sheep is of the common gender, because it is the 
 name either of a male or female. 
 
 Q. Of what gender is robin, and why? 
 
 Q. How many genders do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 
 
 30. Nouns have four genders — the masculine, the 
 feminine, the neuter, and the common. 
 
 Q. Will you name a noun of the masculine gender? one of the femi- 
 nine? one of the neuter? one of the common? 
 
 Q. Will you name the gender and number of each noun in the follow- 
 ing sentences as I read them to you ? 
 
 '< James and William." «' Slate and pencil." 
 
 'Uohn and the girls." "Women and birds." 
 
 IV. PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 
 
 Q. What is the meaning of the word common — as, "A common com- 
 plaint ?" 
 
 . 31. Co 111711071 means general. 
 
 Q. Although there are a vast many male children in the world, each 
 one may be called by the general name of boy ; what Rind of a nouu, 
 then, would you call boyf 
 
 32. A common noun. 
 
 Q. When, then, is a noun called common ? 
 
 33. When it is a general name. 
 
 Q. What does the word proper mean ? 
 
 34. It means y?^ ov imrticular. 
 
 M* Jo/tw, and 
 
b ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Q. John, yon know, is the name of a particular boy ; what kind of 
 noun, then, may it be called? 
 
 35. A proper noun. 
 
 Q. "Wlicn, then, may a noun be called proper ? 
 06. When it is a particular name. 
 
 Q. What kind nf a noun is Stmnu, and why? 
 
 37. JSvscm is a proper noun, because it is a particu- 
 lar name. 
 
 Q. "What kind of a noun is John, and why? 
 Q. What kind of a noun is rucr, and why ? 
 
 08. Miitr is a common noun, because it is a general 
 name. 
 
 Q. IIow many kinds of nouns do there appear to be, and what are 
 they? 
 
 Q. What kind of a noun \i<j\rl»h Mary t toxcnt Loudon? New Or' 
 leans f boat ? chain f 
 
 Q. Will you now tell nic which words are the nouns in the fcdlowing 
 sentences? which arc proper, and which common? also their gcuder and 
 number? 
 
 •' Thomas and John.' " King and queen." 
 
 "Susan and Mary." "House and barn." 
 
 V. PERSON. 
 
 Q. When a pcr-son, in ppcnking, says, " I, John, will do it," what per- 
 son do grammarians call J»hn t 
 
 39. The first person. 
 
 Q. When, then, is a noun of the first person ? 
 
 40. When it is the name of the person who is speak- 
 ing. 
 
 Q. When I sny, "James, mind your studies," what person do gram- 
 marinn.s cull James f 
 
 41. The second person, being the person who is spo- 
 ken to. 
 
 Q.' When, then, is a noun of the second person ? 
 
 42. When it is the name of the person who is spoken 
 to. 
 
 Q. "William, James has como ;" what person is William, and why? 
 
 43. Of the second person, because William is spoken 
 to. 
 
 Q. When I say, Willium, James has come," I am speaking to William 
 iiboiit James; of what person, then, is Jmnm, an<l why? 
 
 44. Of the tliini person, because James was spoken 
 of — that is, I was talking about James. 
 
 Q. Wlu.n, then, is a noun of ibe third person ? 
 
 ^Ji\. When it is spoken of 
 the name or'u 
 
CASES. - 9 
 
 Q. "Thomas, Rufus is in the garden." What person is Thomas f 
 why ? Is Rtifm f why ? 
 
 Q. How many persons do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 
 
 46. Nouns have three persons — the first, second, and 
 third. 
 
 Q. Will you inform mo which of the following nouns are proper, 
 which common; also their gender, number, and person? 
 
 "I, James of Eichmond." "Boy and girl.'' 
 ''llenry, study your book." "William and his sister." 
 
 VI. CASE. 
 
 Q. We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when he is fat, that 
 "He is in a good case;" and, when he is lean, that "He is in a bad 
 case;" what, therefore,, docs the word co.ve mean? 
 
 47. Case means condition, state^ etc. 
 
 Q. When I say "Charles strikes William," "William strikes 
 Charles," you may )»erfeive that the state or condition of Charles in 
 the fornier example is quite different from his stale or condition in the 
 latter: in the one, Charles strike!* ; in the other, he is struck ; what, 
 then, is nieant by the different cases of nouns? 
 
 4^. The diflt'rent relations ihey sustain to other words 
 in the same sentence. 
 
 Q. What does the word voinivative mean ? 
 
 49. Nominative means naming, 
 
 Q. When I say, "John strikes," he evidently does something; 
 what, then, may John be called ? 
 
 50. An actdr or doer. 
 
 Q. The actor or doer is considered the naming or leading noun. 
 In what case, then, is John, when I s-ay, "John strikes ?" 
 
 51. Im the nciminaiive case. 
 
 Q. What, then, is the ncuninative case of nouns? 
 
 52. The nominative case is ihe agent or doer. 
 
 Q. When I say, " The dog runs," in what case is dog, and why ? 
 
 6?i. Dog is in llie nominative case, because it is the 
 agent, actor, or doer. 
 
 Q. '' The cat catches mice." In what case is cat, and why? 
 
 Q. When I say, " Thomas is pursuing the thief," what is the object 
 here which Thomas is pursuing? 
 
 54. Thief. 
 
 Q. What does the word ohjectivf. mean ? 
 
 55. it means belonging to ihe object. 
 
 Q. In what case, then, may th%rf_ be reckoned, in the phrase, 
 "Thomas pursues the thief?" 
 
 50. In the objective case. 
 Q. What, then, does the objective case denote ? 
 57- The objective case denotes tlie object. 
 Q. When I say, " William whips John," in what ca- a is Joh7i^ and 
 why ? 
 
10 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 58. In the objective case, because John is the object. 
 
 Q. What does the word possessive imply ? 
 
 59. Possession, ownership, property, etc. 
 
 Q. When I say, " It is Johns slale," I me'an to say that John owns 
 the slate ; in what case, then, shall we reckon John^s'i 
 
 60. In tlie possessive case. 
 
 Q. What, then, does the possessive case of nouns denote ? 
 
 61. The possessive case denotes possession or owner- 
 ship. 
 
 Q. When I say, "Peter's knife," who owns or possesses the knife? 
 Q. In what case, then, is Peter^s^ and why ? 
 
 62. In the possessive case, because Peter possesses 
 the knife. 
 
 Q. In the example, "John's slate," you perceive that Jo/i;t'jends in 
 J, with a comma before it J what is the comma, and what is the*, 
 called in grammar ? 
 
 63. The comma is called an apostrophe, and the 8 an 
 apostrophic s. 
 
 Q. You also perceive that JoJui's is singular; how, then, do nouns 
 In the singular number usually form their possessive case ? 
 
 64. By taking after them an apostrophe with the letter 
 8 following it. 
 
 Q. "On eagles' wings." Here eagles^ is plural, and in the posses- 
 sive case ; how, then, do nouns in the plural usually form their pos- 
 sessive case ? 
 
 65. Simply by taking the apostrophe without the ad- 
 dition of s. 
 
 Q. But if the plural noun does not end in *, as " men's concerns," 
 how is the possessive case formed ? 
 
 6d. Just as the same case in the singular number is 
 formed. 
 
 Q. From the foregoing remarks, how many cases do nouns appear 
 to have, and what are they ? 
 
 67. Nouns have three cases — the nominative, posses- 
 sive, and objective. 
 
 Q. Dedi7/e sometimes means to vary the endings of a word; what, 
 then, do I mean when I ask you to decline a noun ? 
 
 68. To decline a noun is to tgll its different cases or 
 endincs. 
 
 Q. Will you decline Jb/t;?? 
 
 69. IS oniinative case, John. 
 Possessive case, John's. 
 Objective case, John. 
 
 Q. Will you decline hoy, in both numbers ? 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 70. Norn. Boy. Nom. Boys. 
 Poss. Boy's. Pass. Boys'. 
 Ohj. Boy. Obj, Boys. 
 
ARTICLES. ' 11 
 
 Q. When I say, " William's coat," you perceive that the noun coat 
 follows WillCani'sj by what is William's said to be governed, and 
 why ? 
 
 71. By coatf because it follows William's. 
 
 Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for governing the posses- 
 sive case? 
 
 ETTLE I. 
 The possessive case is governed by the following noun. 
 
 Q. "William's hat." Is William's a proper or common noun? 
 Why? (36.)* 
 
 Q. What is its person? why? (45.)* Its number? why? (8.)*. 
 Its gender? why? (17.)* Its case ? why? (61.)* What noun fol- 
 lows William^ s ? What word, then, governs William^s ? What is 
 the rule? 
 
 Q. When we mention the several properties of the different words 
 in sentences,- in the same manner as we have those of WilliaTti's, 
 above, what is the exercise called ? 
 
 72. Parsing. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 ^^ John's knife J^ 
 
 73. JohiVs is a noun, because it is a name — proper, because it is a 
 particular name — masculine gender ; it is the name of a male — 
 THIRD PERSON j ft is spokcu of — SINGULAR NUMBER J it means but one — 
 POSSESSIVE case; it implies possession — and it is governed by the 
 noun knife, according to 
 
 Rule I. Tke possessive case \s governed by the following noun. 
 
 Knife is a noun; it is a name — common; it is a general name — 
 NEUTER GENDER ; it is neither male nor female; third person ; it is 
 spoken of — singular number ; it means but one. 
 
 J^^ hf.t tlie learner parse the foregoing, till the mode of parsing th-e _ 
 nouu is so familiar to him that he can do it readily .^ without looking in t}ie 
 book. He may then take the following exercises, which are to be parsed 
 in a similar manner. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
 
 "Peter's cap." <^ Stephen's coat." »' Brother's knife." 
 "John's slate." "Father's house." " Boys' hats." 
 
 VII. OF ARTICLES. 
 
 Q. When I say, "Give me aboolc," I evidently mean no particular 
 book ; but when I say, " Give me the book," what do I mean ? 
 74. Some particular book. 
 
 * Refer back to this number. 
 
r2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Q. Which are the words thni make this ditTerence in meaning I 
 
 75. »4 and the. 
 
 Q. What are these little words called? 
 
 76. Articles. 
 
 Q. What, then, are articles? 
 
 77. Articles aie words placed before nouns to limit 
 iheir meaning-. 
 
 Q. What is the meaning of the word definite ? 
 
 78. Definite nrieans particular. 
 
 Q. "Give mc the I)ook." Here a particular book is referred to; 
 what kind of an article, then, shall we call the? 
 
 79. The definite article. 
 
 Q. What, then, is the definite article ? 
 
 bi). The definite article points out what particular 
 thincr or thinfrs are meant. 
 
 Q. The word In, when placed before words, frequently signifies «oiy 
 what, tlien, will iiidijiiiite mean? 
 
 61. Not definite. 
 
 Q. When I say, " Give me a knife," no particular knife is rrteant: 
 what kind of an article, then, may a be called? 
 
 82. Indefinite article. 
 Q. Why is it so called ? 
 
 83. Because it is not used before the name of any par- 
 ticular person or thin^. 
 
 Q. We say, "fl-??. apple," "aw inkstand," etc., in preference to "a 
 apple," "a inkstand," etc. ; why is this? 
 
 84. Because it is easier to speak, and also more pleas- 
 ant to tlie ear. 
 
 Q. What kind of letters do apple and i7dsta7idheg'\a with? 
 
 85. Vowels. 
 
 Q. In what cases do we use a7i instead of a? 
 
 86. Before words beginning with the vowels, a, c, i, o, u, 
 Q. In speaking, we say, " « man,'' not "«» man;" W'hen, then, do 
 
 we use a ? 
 
 87. Before words beginning with consonants. 
 Q. Which letters are consonants? 
 
 88. All the letters of the alphabet, except the vowels. 
 Q. How, then, do a and an differ? 
 
 89. Only in their use : a being used before consonants, 
 
 and an before vowels; both are called by the same 
 
 ntune. 
 
 Q. How many articles do there appear to be, and what are they? 
 
 90. There are two ariicli's — « or an, and the. 
 
 Q. It is customary to say, "a boy," not " a i/oi/s ;" also, "an ink- 
 stand," not "an ivlstands ;''^ of what number, ihen, must the noun 
 be, before which the indefinite article is placed ? 
 
 91. The singular number. 
 
 Q. What, then, is the rule for the indefinite article' 
 
ADJECTIVES. 1® 
 
 RULE II. 
 r/w iitdn/imte article a. or an belongs to nojcns of the singular number 
 
 only. 
 Q. We can say "the boy," and "the boys;" usin^ a noun either of 
 the sin«?ular or plural number after th? ; what, then, is the rule for 
 the definite article ? 
 
 RTTLE III. 
 The dqfiniu article the belongs to nouns of either the singular or plural 
 
 number. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 " The boy.'' 
 
 92. The is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit their 
 meaning — definite; it means a particular boy— and belongs to boy, 
 according to 
 
 Rule III. The definite article the belongs to nouns of either the sin- 
 gular or plural 7iuniber. 
 
 Boy is a noun ; it is a name— common; it is a general name — mas- 
 culine GENDiyi ; it is the name of a male-— third person ; it is spoken 
 of— and SINGULAR number; it means but one. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING rONTINUED. 
 
 " A hand." " An eagle." " The man." " The boys' hats." 
 
 " A man." " An insect." *' The men." " A man's cap." 
 
 "Amite." " An acorn." " The boys." ." Tiie girls' room." 
 
 " A month." " An ounce." " The mice." " The lady's box." 
 
 Vlll. OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Q. When I say, "John is iin obedient, industrious, and goofl boy," 
 I use certain words to describe boy ; which are they? 
 
 93. liidusfrious, obedient, and gcod. 
 
 Q. When I say, "a good man," to what word is the descrn:)itt5 
 word good joined or added ? 
 
 94. To the noun nian. 
 
 Q. What does the word adjvctive mean ? 
 
 95. The word adjective me^as joined or added to. 
 
 Q, What, then, shall we call sucii describing words as good, ohedi- 
 fiU, industrious, etc. ? 
 
 96. Adjectives. 
 
 Q. What, then, are adjectives '? 
 
 97. Adjectives are vi-ords joined to nouns to describe 
 
 or qualify them. 
 
 Q. " A wise man." Which word is the adjective here, and why? 
 
 Q. " Rnfiis is a good boy, but James is a belter one," Hom' are 
 Rufus and James spoken of here 1 
 
 98. In comparison with each other, 
 
 Q. The adjectives in the last example are good and bette/,- can you 
 tell me which of these v/opdt. denotes a higiiur dcgrpr exv^llence 
 than ibe othttr'' * 
 
14 BNOLieH GRAMMAR. 
 
 99. 1'he word better. 
 
 Q. What degree of comparison, then, shall we call better 9 
 
 100. Comparative degree. 
 
 Q. What, then, does the comparative degree imply? 
 
 101. The comparative degree implies a comparison 
 between two. 
 
 Q. -'William is tall, Thomas is taller, but Riifus is the 'tallest boy 
 111 ^cbool." What is meant hereby tallest? 
 
 102. Exceeding all in height. 
 
 Q. What does the word superlative mean ? 
 
 103. Exceeding all; the highest or lowest degree. 
 
 Q. What degree of comparison, then, shall we call tallest? 
 
 104. Superlative degree. 
 
 Q. What, then, does the superlative degree do? 
 
 105. The superlative degree increases or lessens the 
 positive to the liighest or lowest degree. 
 
 Q. When I say. =' James is u good boy," I make no comparison 
 between him and any other ; but simply assert, in a positive manner, 
 that James is a good boy. What kind of a sentence, then, would you 
 call this ? 
 
 106. A positive sentence. 
 
 Q. Of what degree of comparison, then, shall we call good? 
 
 107. The positive degree. 
 
 Q. What, then, dpes the positive degree do ? 
 
 108. The positive degree merely describes, without 
 any comparison. 
 
 Q. Will you compare great? 
 
 109. ^^ Positive great ', comparative greater; superla- 
 tive greatest." 
 
 Q. Will you compare wise in the same manner? 
 Q. Wise and great are words of one syllable ; how, then, are the 
 comparative and superlative degrees of words of this sort formed? 
 
 110. By adding r or er, st or est to the positive. 
 
 Q. Will you in this manner compare small? high? mean? 
 Q. Will you compare beautiful? 
 
 1 1 1. ^^ Pos. beautiful ; Cow/?, more beautiful ; Suj)- most 
 beautiful." 
 
 Q. IIow many syllables compose the word beautiful? 
 
 112. Three, 
 
 Q. How, then, are words of three, or more syllables than one, 
 usually compared ? 
 
 118. By placing inore and most before the positive. 
 
 Q. Will you, in this manner, compare industrious? t)ige?iiousl 
 dutifzd? 
 
 Q. Will you compare wise^ by using the words Itss and hast? 
 114. ^' Pos. w\se ] (7ow?7;. less wise.; <Sz//). least wise." 
 
 Q. Will you in like manner compare benevolent? distinguisJied? 
 dilatory ? . 
 
 Q. "Good mull, belter men, bc^t men." Which adjective here is 
 
ADJECTIVES. 15 
 
 the positive, and why? (108.) Which the comparative ? why? (101.) 
 Which the superlative ? why ? (105.) 
 
 Q. Good, you perceive, is not compared regularly, like great, beau- 
 tiful, etc.; and since there are many words of this description, I will 
 give you a list of the principal ones, together with others regularly 
 compared; will you repeat the comparative and superlative degrees, 
 as I name the positive? 
 
 115. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 Good, Better, Best. 
 
 , Little, Less, Least. 
 
 Much or many, More, Most. 
 
 Bad, ill, or evil, Worse, Worst. 
 
 Near, Nearer, Nearest or next, 
 
 Old, Older, Oldest or eldest. 
 
 Late, Later, Latest or last. 
 
 Q. From the foregoing, how many degrees of comparison do there 
 appear to be, and what are they? 
 
 1 16. There are three degrees of comparison — the posi- 
 tive, comparative, and superlative. 
 
 Q. Adjectives, you recollect, describe nouns ; to what, then, do 
 they naturally belong? 
 
 BULE IV. 
 
 Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe, 
 
 EXERCISES IN J'ARSING. 
 
 " A wiser child.''^ 
 
 117. ^ is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit their 
 meaning — indefinite; it means no particular child — and belongs to 
 child, agreeably to ^ . 
 
 Rule II. The indefinite article a or an belongs to nonns of the sin- 
 gular number. 
 
 Wiser is an adjective, a word joined with a noun to describe It — 
 "Po5. wise; Comp. wiser; Sup. wisest" — made in the comparative 
 degree — and belongs to child, by 
 
 Rule IV. Adjectives helong to the nonns which they describe. 
 
 Child is a noun; it is a name — common; it is a general name — 
 COMMON gender; it may be either male or female — third person; it 
 Is spoken of— and singular number; it means but one. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
 
 1 • 2 3 
 
 " A dutiful son." " An ugly child.'" <' The base man." 
 *' An idle boy." '* An irksome task." '* The whiter cloth." 
 
 " A foolish son." *' A mild reply." " Tho milder weather." 
 
 4 5 
 
 " The greatest nian." " The more (1) benevolent citizen." 
 
 " The wisest prince." " The most (1) suitable method." 
 
 •' The noblest man." " The least (1) dislruslfui friend." 
 
 (5 7 
 
 " A large, convenient, and (1) " The last choice." 
 
 airy habitation." '< The best man." 
 
 " The intelligent, indut^frious, " The nrare.'^t relations." 
 
 obedient, and (I) docile " Johnson's (2) large dictionary." 
 
 scholar.'' •' Murray's small grammar." 
 
16 ENGLISH ORAMMAIL 
 
 IX. OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 Q. When I say, " John goes lo school, John learns faot, and John 
 will excel," how can I speak so as lo avoid repealing John so 
 often ? , 1 // T L 
 
 118. By using the wQrd he in its place : thus, "John 
 goes to school, he learns fast, and he will excel." 
 
 Q. Whai lilile word, then, may stand for John? 
 
 119. He. 
 
 Q. What does the word ;>ro7?o?t>j mean? 
 
 120. Standing for, or instead of, a noun,. 
 Q. What, then, shall we call the word fts, above ? 
 
 121. A Pronoun. 
 
 Q. What, then, is a pronoun? 
 12-J. A pronoan is a word used for a noun, to avoid a 
 
 repetition of the same word. 
 
 Q. When James says, "I will study,*' you perceive thai /stands 
 for the person speaking; what person, then, is il ? (39.) 
 
 Q. When I say, " James, you must study," the word j/ou evidently 
 is applied to James, who is spoken to; what person, then, ought you 
 to be ? 
 
 123. The second person. 
 
 Q. When I say, " He (meaning William) should learn," what 
 person ought he to be, and why ? 
 
 124. The third person ; because it stands in the place 
 of a noun which is spoken of. 
 
 Q. If i invariably stands for the first person, yojf for the second, 
 and Ae for the third, how can we tell the different persons of these 
 pronouns ? 
 
 125. By the pronouns thennselves. 
 
 Q. What have these pronouns been called fro(n this circumstance ? 
 120. Personal pronouns. 
 jt:^ I will now give you a list of all the personal pronouns, which 
 you must carefully memorize. 
 
 DECLENSION OV THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 PinST PERSON. 
 
 127. Sing. Plur. 
 
 Norn. I. We. 
 
 Pass. My or mine. Our or ours. 
 
 Obj. Me. Us. 
 
 SECOND PERSON. 
 
 Sing. Sing. Plur. 
 
 Norn. Thou. ] (Nom. You. Ye or you. 
 
 Pons. Thy or thine. > or \ Posa. Your or yours. Your or your* 
 
 Obj. Thee. J ( Ohj. You. You. 
 
 THIRD PERSON MASCULINE. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 Nom. He. They. 
 
 Po.ts. His. Their or theirs. 
 
 Ohj. Him. Them. 
 
 1. To bo OTiitted lu parsing. 2. Jofu^ron's is governed by dictianviry, br 
 Rulol. 
 
PKONOVNS; 17 
 
 THIRD PERSON FEMININE. 
 
 fSing. Pliir. 
 
 Nom. Sh6. They. 
 
 Po'is. Her or hers. Their or theirs. 
 
 • Obj. Her. Them. 
 
 THIRD PKRSON NKUTEH. 
 
 Shi^. Plur. 
 
 No?/i, It. They. 
 
 Poss. Its. Their or theirs. 
 
 Obj. It. Them. 
 
 Q. Will yoii decline /in both numbers ? thou- or i/ou 1 he? she? it ? 
 
 Q. In what person, number, and case is F? ivc? my? miiie? our 
 ox ours? -nipf us? thou? yc? his? they? them? 
 
 Q. In what gender, person, number, and case is he^ she? it? his? 
 hers? her? him? 
 
 Q. How many numbers do pronouns appear to have, and what are 
 tliey ? 
 
 12S. Pronouns have two numbers; — the singular and 
 plural, 
 Q. How many cases, and what arc they ? 
 
 129. Pronouns have three cases — the nominative, the 
 possessive, and the objective. 
 
 Q. How many per.sons ? 
 
 130. Pronouns have three persons— ^the first, second, 
 and third. 
 
 Q. How many gender.s ? 
 
 181. Pronouns have three genders — tlie masculine, 
 feminine, and neuter. 
 
 Q. How many pronouns are there in all, of the first person? « 
 
 Q. How many of the second, and how many of the third? 
 
 Q. The pronouns of the nominative ca-se, singular, are called lead- 
 ing pronouns; how many of these are there? 
 
 183. Five — 7, thou or xfoxt^ //e, she^ it. 
 . Q. Why are not the possessive and objective cases of the singular 
 and plural numbers, also the nominatives plural, reckoned in the num- 
 ber of the leading pronouns? 
 
 134.' Because they are all considered as variations of 
 the nominative singular. 
 
 Q. To which of the pronouns is it customary to apply gender? 
 
 135. To the third person singular — he, she, it. 
 
 Q. Why are not the first and second persons each made always to 
 represent a differeni gender? 
 
 13(). Tiie first and second persojis being always pres- 
 ent, their genders are supposed to be known. 
 
 Q. As pronouns stand for nouns, what gender, number, and person 
 ought they to have ? 
 
 137. The same as the nouns for which they stand. 
 Q. What, then, m^y be <^onsidered a rule for (he agreement of the 
 pronouns? , 
 
 2 
 
IS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 RTJLE V, 
 
 Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, 
 
 in gender^ number, and person. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON PARSING. 
 
 Q. How many difTcrent sorts of woids have we now found, and 
 what are tht-y ? 
 
 138. Four — the Noun, ihe Article, ihe Adjectivck, 
 and the Pronoiw. 
 
 Q. The word parr, you know, means divisioTi : and xprrch, the power 
 of using words or lavgnage ; what, therefore, shall we call these 
 grand divixjons of words? 
 
 180 Parts of Speech. 
 
 Q. When, thrn, I ajilc you what pari of speech hoy Is, for instance, 
 what do ytui understand me to mean ? 
 
 140. The same as to ask me whether hoy is a noun or 
 not. 
 
 Q What part of apeccb, then, is WiUiam, and why ? (36.) 
 
 1. " He went to i*ehool." 
 
 2. "She went lo hvr task." 
 
 3. •• William went lo his* play." 
 
 4. "John rt'lnrned Irom his sc-hool." 
 
 f). ." I reqiie.>'t you to mind yonr studies." 
 
 G. "The book was mine, but now it is yours." 
 
 Q. Will you name the jKonouns in the six foregoing examples? 
 
 Q. How many aie there in nil? 
 
 Q. What is the gender, number, and person of those in the first 1 
 sei-oiid ? liiird? fourlli ? tilth? sixth? 
 
 Q. What is the jjendt-r of his, in the fourth sentence? why? (137.) 
 hi number? why? (137.) Its per>ou ? why? (137.) Its case ? why? 
 (01.) 
 
 Q. Will voii name the nonns in the first sentence ? in tiie second? 
 third ? fourth ? filih ? sixth? 
 
 X. OF THK VERB. 
 
 Q. When I hay, "Jame.s strikes William," which word tells what 
 Janiex iloe> ? 
 
 \4\ Strikes. 
 
 Q. The word inb mctms itord ; and as the words in all sentences 
 which tell wlini the nouni» do are the principal ones, what siiall such 
 word.- be c;illed ? 
 
 142. Verbs. 
 Q If, in the phra.se, " Williatn ^trikes James," we leave out the 
 word striArs, you perceive at once that the .xense is destroyed j what 
 rca>*on, then, can yoti ^ive for calling some words in a sentence veri*, 
 and other-j by a dillerenl name ? 
 
VERBS. ' ]9 
 
 143. The words which we call verbs are the most im- 
 poriant. 
 
 nn?wh^?''^'^"' ^^"'^'''^ ^"^ lesson.'^ Which word is the verb here, 
 
 144. Studies, because it tells what Wilham dues. 
 
 Q. When I sny, '« John sing;*," which word is the verl>, and why' 
 Q. When I say ''James strikes John," which word shows that nn 
 action IS performed ? 
 
 145. Strikes. 
 
 Q. Vyhai kind of a verb, then, shall we call striles? 
 1 40. An active verb 
 
 and wTy^"^ '""'' °^ ^ ^""'^^ '"' '''^^'^^' ^" *'^'' ^^"tence, "John walks," 
 
 147. Walks is an active verb, because it expresses ac- 
 tion. ^ 
 
 Q. "He beat William." Which word here is the verb? Is WiU 
 liam an agent or an object I 
 
 148. An object. 
 
 Te?b b!ii',"J/'-'' '"^^^%^-^"'J walks," «.«//:., it is trne, is an active 
 above, ue.ther can we supi,ly one: for we can not say. " ThL child 
 
 Retard .o'lb 'n'f ' ""'''?'' "^.^••*^^«'-«.' '^^ ^^^ ^^^ '"f'^rred froni this fact, in 
 regard to the nature of active verbs? 
 
 149 That some active verbs will take nouns after 
 them for objects, and others will not. 
 
 .,n^:Z^ """'" "*^^\"0!'"^'e V"' *"fler«n^-e. The term transitive me^n^ 
 passrvg ov.r; and when 1 say. " William whips Charles," the verb 
 W;.;;. shows that the action which William pe'rforms paseToverZ 
 2,>!7 '' ''^" "^•''''- ^^'''' '^^"^ °^' " ^^^l'' ^''-^' «hall we call 
 
 150. An active-transitive verb. 
 
 Q.^What, then, is an activc-tran.«itive verb? 
 
 151. An active-transitive verb is one that either has, 
 or may have, an object after it. 
 
 Q. Walks, we fbnnd. would not take an object after it : and a*; m- 
 LX^'""""' ""' ''^"'"-^ ""'"'^ ^''^^^ ^^h^"" ^^-^ ^«" su'ch verbs as 
 
 152. Active-intransitive verbs. 
 
 Q. ^Vbai, then, is an active-intransitive verb? 
 
 153. An active-intransitive verb is one that expresses 
 action, but will not take an object after it 
 
 terminTll^n". / '7' " ^/^^''' ''•" " "^ '^^"'^^ '^""'" ^'^ '-mmediately de- 
 af.e .ife how Vh '""'■' ^'^ «-''ve-transit.ve verbs, by the objects 
 rin2n.!h"d'^ ' "'"'""^ transitive, and intransitive verbs be dis- 
 
 154. When we can place him or it after any active 
 verb, and make sense, it is transitive; otherwise it is 
 intransitive. ' 
 
 J^;a.It:z rbTh.;:'"""-""'" " ■"'«'*-'' " ''»"■«•" which 
 
"^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 155. liema'ms^ sleeps, and is. 
 
 Q. These verb? do not imply acliou, like 6(iik-es, bi'ufs. etc.: what 
 do they imply ? 
 
 150. Existence, rest, or heixs^, in a certain stale. 
 
 Q. These verb.s, and others of similar character, have been called 
 venter (signilying neither) by grammarians, because they are neither 
 active nor passive. On a future occasion I will make you fully ac- 
 quainted with a passive verb. It is sufficient for our present pur- 
 pose that yon perceive the rea.son of the name of the neuter verb. 
 What is a neuter verb ) 
 
 157. A neuter verb is one that simply implies being or 
 existence in a certain state. 
 
 Q. Will you inform me now, in general terms, what is a correct 
 definition of a verb ? 
 
 158. A verb is a word whicli signifies actio.v or being. 
 
 Q. When I say, " 1 strike," in whnt number and person is strike, 
 and why ? 
 
 159. iStrike is of the first person singular, because its 
 agent /, is of this person and number. 
 
 Q. Hence you may j^erceive that verbs, in themselves considered, 
 do not have person and number; why, then, are they said to have 
 these properties at all .' 
 
 160. On account of the connection which they have 
 with their agents or nominatives. 
 
 Q. We say, " I write." and '' He writes ;*' hence you perceive that 
 the ending of the verb varies, as its agent or nominative varies ; what, 
 then, will be the rule for the nominative case ? 
 
 ^ RULE VI. 
 
 The nominative case governs the verb in nvmber and perso7i. 
 Q. If the nominative case governs the verb in number and person, 
 in what respect must the verb agree wdih its nominative (ase'? 
 
 EULE VII. 
 
 A verb must agree unth its nomiyiative case in nvmber and jierson . 
 Q. When I say, "James beats him," the pronoun liim is the object 
 of the action denoted h'<j heats ^ and is, therefore, in the objective case ; 
 what, then, will be a good rule for the objective case after active 
 verbs ? 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 Active-transitive verbs goverii the objective case. 
 
 Q. I will now give you the different endings of the verb love, in its 
 different number.s and persons. Will you repeat ihem ■? 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 161. First ])er8on, I love. First person, We love. 
 Second person, You love. Second person, You love. 
 Third person, He loves. Third person, They love. 
 
 Q. Will you repeat the variations of am? 
 
 Siuffular. Plural, 
 
 162. 1 Pers. 1 am. 1 Pers. We are. 
 
 2 Pers, You are. 2 Pers. You are. 
 
 3 Pers. He is. 3 Pers. They aro. 
 
VERBS. 21 
 
 Q. Will yon repeat, in ihe saixie manner, tlie variations ol" hate? 
 denire ? read? 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSIiVG. 
 
 " / study my lc><>ion." 
 
 1(53. /is a PiiONOUN, a word usod instead of a noun — personal ; it al- 
 ways denotes the same person (liie first) — first person; it denotes 
 the speaker — singular number; it means but one — '■'• Nom. I" — made 
 in the nominative cask, to study, according to 
 
 Rule VI. The nominatice case governs the vevh in vumbcr and per- 
 son. 
 
 Study in a VKUB ; it expresses action — transitive; it admits an ob- 
 ject after it — " I Pers, 1 ■study" — made in the first pkrson — singular 
 NUMBER, because its nominative /is, with which it agrees, agreeably 
 to 
 
 Rule VII. A i^crh vmnt agree loitJt its nominative case in nuviber and 
 person. 
 
 My is a pronoun, a word used for a nonn — personal; it always 
 represents the same person — first person ; it represents the person 
 speaking — ^'■Nom. I; Poss. my or ni'ne" — made in the possessive cask 
 — and governed by the noun lesson, according to • 
 
 Rule T. The possessive case is governed hy the following noun. 
 
 Lesson is a noun — common; it is a general name — neuter gender ; 
 it is neither male nor female — third person; it is spoken of — singu- 
 lar number; it means but one — and in the objective case; it is the 
 object of Ihe verb study, and governed by it, according to 
 
 Rule VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 
 
 exercises in parsing continued. 
 Transitive verbs. 
 
 1 
 
 " 1 lament my fate." *' He found a dollar." 
 " You regard your friends." •■ " She attends the school." 
 
 '* We desire yoni" improvement." " It retards the work." 
 
 " We love our children." " They shun vice." 
 
 " You make a knife." " Ye derive comfort." 
 
 2 
 " I love him." " She forsook you." 
 
 '' I lament her." " They annoy me." 
 
 " You assist them." " We took it." 
 
 " He struck her." " She relieved us." 
 
 " Joh7i reads his hookJ^ 
 
 His is n PRONOUN, a word used instead of a noun — personal; it 
 uniformly stands for the same person — masculine gender, third 
 person, singular number, because the noun Joh}i is, with which it 
 agrees, asrreeably to 
 
 Rule V. Pronoityi^ must agree with the noiina for ^vhich they 
 stand, in gender^ number, and ;?ffr.vo?i. 
 
 "^ Nom. he; Pass, his" — made in the possessive case — and gov- 
 erned by the noun book, according to 
 
 Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following notin. 
 
 ^5E@* The remaining words,,foc'<-, reads, and John, are parsed as 
 before. 
 
22 ENGLI5H GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING COMINUED. 
 3 
 
 *' Mary studies her lesson." " Virtue rewords its followers." 
 
 " The girls love their ijooUs." " A disobedient son grieves his 
 
 '* Good ehildren niiud their parents." 
 
 pnrenis." " The intemperate man loves his 
 
 " Sin de«'eives its votaries." dram." 
 
 _^^*' In par^ing personal pronouns we do not apply Rule V un- 
 less the uouns lor which they >iand are expressed. 
 
 l)itransitive verbs. 
 4 
 " I walk'." " You smile." " John swims." 
 
 "James runs." " Thev wini,-." * " Birds fly." 
 
 " William hops." '« We dance." " Lions roar." 
 
 Neuter verbs. 
 " William is (1) di.-»creel." (2) " John's wife is fortunate." 
 *' James is happy." «* John's brother is unhappy." 
 
 " He was studious." "The eagle's flight was sudden." 
 
 '' He became intemperate." "The scholar's duty is plain." 
 " Thou art wise." "The judge's pay is suflicient." 
 
 XI. INDICATIVE MOOD— TENSE. 
 
 Q When James says, " I will learn," he evidently means, by his 
 ma nner of speaking, to express his intention to learn; but when ho 
 ijays, •' I can learn," what does ho mean? 
 
 16o. 'J'hat he has liie nhility lo iearn. 
 
 Q. What does the word woo^ mean ? 
 
 If)6 iVood nwans manner. 
 Q. What, then, does the mood of verbs denote"? 
 107. The clifTirent rnaitner of ivpresenling actions. 
 
 Q. What does the word /'///■/(Va/ytc mean.? 
 
 168. Declaring or sliowing. 
 
 Q. Wlieii I say, '' William has studied," I declare some fact ; ia 
 what njood, then, shall we class has Htndicd? 
 
 1()9, 111 the indicative mood. 
 Q. Wiien I say, "Has William studied?" the only difllt-rence be- 
 tween this phrase and the fi>regoinp consists in a change in the order 
 o( the words, so as to show that a question is asked : in what mood, 
 then, shall we call has Wil/idm stitditUf 
 
 170 Indicative mood. 
 Q What, then, is the indicative mood used for? 
 
 J71. Tlie indicative mood is used for asserting or de- 
 claring a thing, or asking a question. 
 
 (1) Is is a verb; it ImplieH being — nkuter ; it is noitlier active nor jwesive. but 
 exjii esses Ifi'iiif; i>ieiely — 1 jieis. 1 uni; 2 jn-rs. Yuii iii«; 3;>C7-s. He r;>- Williiun is" 
 — made in tlie tiurd person singular, because H'i7/i(im, ilu uoniinativc, ia, und 
 agieea witii William, ncconiintr to 
 
 Rlle VIII. A verb must aqree with its nommative ccwc in 7iumber and person. 
 
 (2; Discreet belougs to William, by Rule IV- 
 
VERBS. 
 
 28 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 Q. Tn what mood is, "They do sing?" Why? (171.) 
 Q. What does the word tense mean? 
 
 172. Tense means time. 
 Q. What does ^j/-i?RCN< mean ? 
 
 17»^. Present means vow, 
 
 Q. When 1 say, " Tlie bird sings," I mean thai the bird sings now ; 
 in whcl tense, then, is sing ? 
 
 174. (n ihe present tense. 
 
 Q. What, then, is the present tense used for? 
 
 175. Tlie present tense is used to express what is 
 now taking place. 
 
 Q. In what tense is, '' The dog runs ?" Why 7 (175.) 
 
 Q. "James wrote." ".Tames has written." , These phrases denote 
 
 what is past ; in what tense are they ? 
 
 ^ 176. In the past tense. 
 
 ■-ijQ,. What does the word future mean— as, '= At some future time?"' 
 
 177. Future means yet to come. 
 
 Q. In what tense are the phrases, "I will com.e," "I shall have 
 come ?■' 
 
 178. In the future tense. 
 
 Q. How many grand divisions of lime do lljere appear to be, and 
 what are they ? 
 
 179. Tliere are three — the present, past, and future. 
 Q. When I say, "John wrote," is the action here spoken of past 
 
 and finished ? 
 
 180. It is." 
 
 What does imj^erfect mean ? 
 
 181. Unfinished o r iv compleie. 
 
 Q. "John v;as writing when I saw him." This denotes an action 
 unfinished in past time, and corresponds with \vhat is usually denom- 
 inated in Latin the imperfect tense: hence the origin of the name 
 selected by English jrrnminarians to denote action past and finished — 
 a term not at ail si(;ni(icant of an action finished in past time; what, 
 then, does the imperfect tense express ? 
 
 182. The imperfect tense expresses what took place 
 in past time, however dislanl. 
 
 Q. "Peter wrote yesterday, and has written to-day." Hero both 
 nets of wriliniT are past and iinisliedj but which has more immediate 
 refert-nce to the iiresenl time? 
 
 Ib;i. Has ivritten. 
 
 Q. To distinguish this tense from the imperfect, gramrr:nrinn8 
 have <'alled it the perlecl tense ; what, then, will the perfect tense 
 express ? 
 
 184. The perfect tense express(^s wlial lias taken place, 
 and also convej's an allusion to liie present time. 
 
 Q. " James had r««ad liefore I wrote." Here both acts are past and 
 finished ; l)ut whieii took place fust ? 
 \^o. The act of reading. 
 Q. What Joes the v,'ori.\ pl/'pet/ect mean? 
 
 18(3. More than the perfect. 
 
^1 , EN«Ll5iH URAMMAU. 
 
 Q. Wliai tense, then, shall we cull "James had reod .'" 
 
 187. The pluperfect lonse. 
 
 Q. "What, then, <lot;s llie pluperlVct ten$e express 2 
 
 188. Tiie pluperfect tense expresses what Imd taken 
 place at or before some past time mentioned. 
 
 Q. **John will come.'' This, you know, was called the future 
 tense; can you tell mc why ? 
 
 189. Because it implies I'me to come. 
 Q. What. then, does the future tense oxiiic?*? 
 
 190. The future tonse expres.ses what will take place 
 hereafter. 
 
 Q. " I shall have learned my lesson by noon." Here an action is 
 to talce place at a future time spcL-ilied or mentioned ; and since w« 
 already have one future tense, wj will call that the lirst and this the 
 second future tense; what. then, will the second future tetise ex- 
 press ? 
 
 191. The second future expresses what will have taken 
 place at or before some future time mentioned. 
 
 Q. What does si'nopsis mean ? 
 
 192. ./? concise and general view. 
 
 Q. I will now present you with a synopsis of all thedifferent tenses, 
 illustrated by the veb Icani ; will you repeal it? 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 103. Prcs. tense, \ learn or do learn. 
 
 Imp. tetiae, 1 learned or did learn. 
 
 Per/, tense, 1 have learned. 
 
 Plup. tense, I had learned. v 
 
 ^st Put. tense, I shall or will learn. 
 
 2d Flit, tense, I shall liave learned. 
 
 ^j^^ You shall next have the different variations of the foregoing 
 verb, in each tense of the indicative mood ; these I wish you to study 
 very carefully, that you may be able to answer the questions which 
 will then be aslced yoti. 
 
 194. 7^0 learn. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 TRESEN'T TEN.SE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1 Pars. I learn. 1 Pers. We learn. 
 
 2 Pera. You learn. 2 I'ers. You learn. • 
 .? Pers. lie. she, or it learns. 3 Pfrs. Tliey learn. 
 
 oa, 
 
 When we wish to express energy or positiveness*ihus-^ 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I do learn. 1. We do learn. 
 
 2. You do learn. 2. You do learn. 
 .3 He do»8 learn. 3. They do JHarn. 
 
VERBS. 25 
 
 IMPEEFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 1. T I«*ariied. 1, We learrnHl. 
 
 2. You learned. 2. You le;iriied. 
 
 3. He learned. 3. They learned, 
 
 OR, 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I did learn. 1. We did learn. 
 
 2. Yon i\iii learn. 2. You did learn. 
 
 3. He did learn. 3. They did learn. 
 
 PERFECT TENSB. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have learned. . 1. We have learned. 
 
 2. You havtr learned. 2. Ynu have learned. 
 
 3. He has learned. 3. They have learned, 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 Singular, Plural, 
 
 1. I had learned 1. We had learned. 
 
 2. Yon had learned. 2 You had learned. 
 3. ''He had learned. 3. They had learned. 
 
 FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Sitigular. ' Plural. 
 
 1. I shall or will learn, 1. We shall or will learn. 
 
 2. You shall or will learn. 2. You shall or will learn. 
 
 3. He shall or will learn. 3. They shall or will learn. 
 
 SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have learned. 1. We shall have learned. 
 
 2. You will have learned. 2. Ymu will have learned. 
 
 3. He will have learned. 3, They will have learned. 
 ***For the benefil of those. who choose to retain the second per« 
 
 son singular, as given in Ibrmer treatises, the following synopsis is 
 iDberted. 
 
 > SYNOPSIS. 
 
 195. 2d Pfirs. Siitg. Pres. Thou learnest or dost learn. 
 
 2d Vers. Si)ig. Imp. Thou learnedst or didst leara. 
 
 2d Pers. Si)/g. Perf. Thou ha.^t learned. 
 
 2d Pers. Si'/g. Phip. Thou hadst learned. 
 
 2d Pers. Siug. \st. Put. Thou >.halt or wilt learn. 
 
 2d Pers. Sitig. 2d Put. Thou wilt have learned. 
 
 Q. In what mood is, "I learn?" Why .^ (171.) In what tense? 
 Why? (175.) In what mood and tense i>*, "lie learns?" " W» 
 learn?" '* I did learn ?" "1 have learned ?" " I had learned ?' "I 
 shall or will learn ?" " I shall have learned ?" 
 
 Q. In wlial person and number is, ♦' f learn?" ** You learn?" 
 " We learu?" *• They had learned ^" " He shall learn ?" '• We bad 
 learned ?" 
 
 8 
 
26 T.NOLI6H GRAMMAR. 
 
 Q. What does the word avxiliary mean ? 
 
 196. Auri/iur}/ means helpinf^. 
 
 Q. in the phrase "'1 vill sing:," iri7/, yon perceiv««, is used to help 
 form the future tense of fhtg : icill is, therefore, called nu nuxiliary 
 verb*aiid ilie verb nhuj is reckoned the principal verb; what, iben, 
 are anxilifiry verbs ? 
 
 197. Auxiliary verbs are lliose by the help of which 
 are formed the diflerenl lenses, mocd.s, etc., of the prin- 
 cipal veibs. 
 
 Q. The nuxiliary verbs are not unfrcquently denoininnted the signs 
 of llie tenseM, because each tense has, in gcnenil. an auxii'ary pecu- 
 liar to itself; what, tl)en, is the siyn of the second future ? 
 
 198. Shal/ Qv tvill have. 
 
 Q,. What i?< the sicri of the first future? 
 
 199. Shall or will. 
 
 Q. What is the'siga of the pluperfe:! ? 
 
 200. Had. 
 
 Q. What is the fi\p\ of the perfect? 
 
 201. Have. 
 
 Q. What is the sign of the imperfect? 
 
 202. Did. 
 
 i.\. We can say, "I did strike yesterday," or, " I struck yesterday ;" 
 how. then, can we tell when a verb is in the imperfect tense without 
 the sig-n did ? 
 
 203. If we can place yesterday after the verb, and 
 make sense, it is in the imperfect tense. 
 
 Q. What is the sign of the present tense? 
 
 204. /)o, or the first form of the verb. 
 
 Q. From the foregninp, how n)any lenses does the indicative mood 
 appear to have, and what are they ? 
 
 205. Six — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the 
 pluperfectj the first and second future tenses. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 " They have arrived.^'' 
 
 206. They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun 
 — personal; it always represents the same person — 
 THIRD PF.R60N J it denotes the person spoken of — plural; 
 it means more than one — " Nom. he : Poss. his : Obj. 
 liim. Plural, Nom. they" — made in the nominative case 
 to have arrived, accord in j]^ to 
 
 RtiLE VI. The non)innti»e case ffuverna the verb. 
 
 Ifnre arrived is fl VKKB, a word that imj)lies action or being — active ; 
 it implies action — intkansitive ; it does not admit of an object — in- 
 dicative mood; it simply indicates or declares a thing — perkkot 
 te.\sk; it expresses what has just taken place — "1, I have arrived; 
 2, You have arrived; 3, He has arrived. /-*/»<;•«/, 1, We have arrived; 
 2, You liuve arrived ; 3, Tiiey have arrived "- -made in the third per- 
 
VERBS. 
 
 2f7 
 
 SON PLURAL, because its nominative thej/ is, and ag:ree* with it, ac- 
 cording to 
 
 Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and 
 person. 
 
 EXEnCISKS IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
 
 '* They had come." 
 
 '* We did go." 
 
 •' The bird will return." 
 
 1. 
 
 "The sun has risen." 
 
 " Dogs will light." 
 " Lions will roar." 
 
 '•James loves William." 
 •' Susan l)eat.s him." 
 "I have heaten iheni." 
 "She had beaten us." 
 "You shall assist him." 
 " It did disturb me." 
 
 Cohimbiis discovered America." 
 Piety promotes our happiness." 
 He will learn his lesson." 
 John did make great progress." 
 They do study their lessons." 
 ' Boys love sport." 
 
 "Do I disturb you?" 
 
 " Did they learn their lessons ?" 
 
 " Have they recited?" 
 
 " Does the instructor teach us ?" 
 
 " Had he dismissed him?" 
 
 Shall I expect your assistance?" 
 ■ Will a virtuous citizen commit 
 
 such (1) acts?" 
 ' Have you fouiid your knife?" 
 
 XEI. POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Q. What does " He may write," imply? 
 207 Permission or liberty to write. 
 Q,. What does " lie must write," imply? 
 
 208. Necessity of writing. 
 
 Q.. What does "He can write," imply? 
 
 209. Power or ability to write. 
 
 Q. What does " He should write," imply? 
 
 210. Duty or obligation to write. 
 Q. What does "He would write," imply? 
 
 211. Will or inclination to write. 
 Q. What does the word potential mean ? 
 
 212. ^^b/e or 'powerful. 
 
 Q. In what mood, then, do grammarians reckon can learn, may write, 
 and also vmst write, should write, etc.? 
 
 213. In the potential mood. 
 
 Q. Why are all these difTt-rent forms of representing actions con- 
 sidered to be in the potential mood — a name, as we have seen, peculiar 
 only to that form of the verb which implies power ? 
 
 2N. To I r^'vent multiplying moods to a great and al- 
 most numberless extent. 
 
 fn Adjectjvp. 
 
28 EKOLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Q. Whnt, then, does the potential mood imply ' , . . 
 
 *2Io Tlie poieiiiial iiiood implies possibility, liberty, 
 power, will, ohiicalion. or necessity. 
 - Q. Willi, are the ^igns of this inoo-l ? 
 
 2 Mi. Mai/, can, musty mii^hf, could, would, and should. 
 
 Q. W'liat (lues ihe wnr'l coujuriddon mean ? 
 
 *217. Unifhig, combining, or joining together. 
 
 Q. Veil reioliert that, in varyinjr the veri), we joined the pronouns 
 vitl) it ; lience this cxtTcise is called rnnjmjatiun ; what, then, tlo you 
 uiidtT-tand by the <-oiijii^iition of a verb? 
 
 'ilini. The conjuiraiion of a verb is the regular com- 
 binaiion and arrangement of its several moods, tenses, 
 numbers, and persons. 
 
 219. Coujugation of the verb Learx. 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 Singula): Plural. 
 
 1. I may, can, or must learn. 1. We may, can, or mii.«t learn. 
 
 2. You may, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or mnst learn. 
 
 3. He may, can, or must learn. 3. They may, can, or must lebru. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I miisht, could, would, or should 1. W« mifrht, could, would, or 
 
 learn. should learn. 
 
 2. You miirht, couJd, would, or 2. You mijiht. could, would, or 
 
 bhould learn. should learn. 
 
 3. He miirht, could, would, or 3. They micht, could, would, or 
 
 should learn. should learn. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may, can, or must have learn- 1. We may, can, or must hare 
 
 e'd. learned. 
 
 2. You njny. can, or mnsl have 2. You may, can, or must have 
 
 learned. learned. 
 
 3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have 
 
 learned. learned. 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I mipht, could, would, or should 1. We mifrht, could, would, or 
 
 liave learned. should have learned. 
 
 2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 
 
 should have learned. should have learned. 
 
 3 He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 
 
 should have learned should have learned 
 
VEUBS. 29 
 
 St/nopsia of the Second Person Siugular, icith Thou. 
 220. 
 Prcs. Thou mayst, canst, or must li'arn 
 J^r>p. '\huu ..lijrl.tsi, could.t, vvo-lds,, or shonldst learn, 
 y ^//. J ho„ n,;iysi. cnnst, or n.uM hsive learned. 
 / W Thou .n.jrhtsj cronidM, vvonldsi, o,- shouldsi have learned. 
 
 Q- in w hai n.ood i.s " 1 may learn ?" Wliy? UUy ) 
 fAV ^'"" '^J''^"* ^'^^^ synopsis with n ihouf he? toef yef youf 
 
 Q. In what mood, tense, number, and person is "I can learn i" 
 
 «' Wwf;:,:;:';,Tj";r."g^'' '""'" •' ''Ihavelearnedr "Heshallrun?" 
 
 vvii you oi.jijgate love in the same mood, and imnerfecl lense « 
 
 S fVn "" ''"'■^'^' '•'"•^** • ^'^"'^' '" "'*^ Plnperlecl teiiJe? * 
 
 C^. How many tenses has the potential mood? 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING, 
 "//e may return.'''' 
 
 if 7^^' ^f /'' ** PRONOUN, a word used instead of a noun— pfb^ovat • 
 It .nvar.ably represents the same P^^vson-^^,scvur,KcLZHTno' 
 resents a n.ale-THiRu pkrson j it denotes the person ^.S fn Ar ^' 
 GUL.R nua,ber; it implies l.ni' one-and in th^^A inT, ,^^^^ 
 
 'X": VT ^>7'-"^-- ^-''-non.native ca^rt^l^:;^^; fb; '' 
 nvLE Vl.— fhe uonnnaiire vnse govtnis the rerh ^ 
 
 J/uy return is a vf.rb; it in.plies action or beinf.r_ACTlVF • it imnl.V, 
 
 vhat maybl. --ow-'M Vuay o^c^m r^^^^^^ '« ^leno.es 
 
 turn; 3, Ue may or can ret n^'lmadr n ,' ' " """^ "" *''" '*" 
 
 .^ be<^se ijnominat- ^e'^iis,^;!::;;.^!:!::;-:^:^^^^^ 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
 1. 
 
 " He may come." n n , 
 
 " Me mijri.l ret i e " utu^'" '^"]' ^^""'^ «rithmetic." 
 
 " John <an assi'fme." t^'rr."'' '""^' *" '*'^'''*'" '''^ 
 
 "WiilKim must obey his instruc- " Th J lady could have procured 
 " We may have erred " u j ''*"* '''"•" 
 
 " j„h,.',. U.. .voum' ,„," .. ^i;''-„s Lt:;.!/"' ""•'^•" 
 
 2. 
 "I do rtMoice." htu 
 
 "Wedo|e:Mn" ^''*' .^"'V.'^'"''® ''''" ^''•'^'t the 
 
 <t T ,1 . II ■ . S«ho()|. 
 
 .Joliii wi I resume his lasL- " a \ ^ : ir i -n ^ . 
 
 " An indu.,riuu« boy will be rich." '^ "^'^ ^"^ ^''" *"** P°^"^y'' 
 
30 
 
 ESOLI8H GRAMMAR 
 
 XIII. CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB 
 
 Tu he. 
 
 222. When I say. "I am lU home," yon know lh:\t am is a verb, be- 
 cau>e it iin|)lies beiii? or existence j and since to be meaus lo exwt, the 
 verb am has been called the verb tu be. 
 
 223. INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I am. 
 
 2. You are. 
 
 3. He is. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I was. 
 
 2. You were. 
 
 3. He was. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I have been. 
 
 2. You have been. 
 
 3. He has beea. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I had been. 
 
 2. You had been. 
 
 3. He had been. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I shall or will be. 
 
 2. You shall or will be. 
 
 3. He shall or will be. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I shall have been. 
 
 2. You will have been. 
 
 3. He will have been. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 IMP.£RF£CT TENSE. 
 
 Plural. 
 We are. 
 You are. 
 They are. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We were. 
 
 2. You were. 
 
 3. They were. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We have been. 
 
 2. You have been. 
 
 3. Thev have been. 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 We had been. 
 You had been. 
 They had been. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We shall or will be. 
 
 2. You sh;ill or will be. 
 
 3. They shall or will be. 
 
 SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 We shall have been. 
 You will have been. 
 They will have been. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESKNT TENSE. 
 
 I may, candor mus-t be. 
 You may, can, or must be. 
 He may, can, or must be. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We may, can, or must be. 
 
 2. You may, can. or must be. 
 
 3. They may, can, or must be. 
 
VERBS. 581 
 
 IMPERFECT TKNSB. 
 
 St'ngidar. Plural. 
 
 1. I might, could, would, or should 1, We might, could, would, or 
 
 be. . should be. 
 
 2. You might, could, would, or 2. You inijiht, could, would, or 
 
 should be. • should be. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 
 
 should be. should be. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 SlngtUar. Plural. 
 
 1. I may, can, or must have been. 1. We may, can, or must have 
 
 been. 
 
 2. You may, can, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have 
 
 been. been. 
 
 3. He may, can, or must have been. 3. They may, can, or must have 
 
 been. 
 
 Pluperfect tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 
 
 have been. should have been. 
 
 2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 
 
 should have been. should have been. 
 
 3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 
 
 should have been. should have been. 
 
 224. St/nopsin of the Second Person Singular, loith Thou. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Pres. Thou art. Pres. Thou mayst, canst, or must be. 
 
 Imp. Thou wast. Imp. Thou migntsl, couldst, wouldst, or 
 Per/. Thou hast been. " should be. 
 
 Plnp. Thou had;!l been. ' Per/. Thou mayst, canst, or must have 
 
 1 Fut. Thou shall or wi!t be. been. 
 
 2 Fut. Thou wilt have been. PUp. Thou mightst, oouldst, wouldst, 
 
 or shouldst have been. 
 
 XIV. QUESTIONS ON THE FOREaOING CON- 
 JUGATION. 
 
 Q. Why is ow a verb? (15S.) What is It sometimes called ? (2-22.) 
 Why is it so called ? (222.) 
 
 Q. Will you give the synopsis of the verb to he with /through the 
 indicative mood ? 
 
 Q. Will you conjugate am in the present indicative? Imperfect? 
 Perfect? Pluperfect? I Future? 2 Future? Preseiit potenlial? 
 Imperfect? Perlecl ? Pluperfect? 
 
 Q. In what mood, tense, nuinl)er, and person is ''I am?" "Am 
 
92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 I?" "Yniiwere?" "T have been ?" " Have vou been ?'' " He may 
 
 0. ran be?"' ''We slioiil.l be?" 'Tie ni»y'h;ne been?" '-Tljey 
 fIioiiUI have been?" "Thou ^ho^llcl^l liave been?" "Tlion luayst 
 be ?■' 
 
 Q. Will you repeal ihe synopsis with fhon ? 
 
 EXEKCKSES IN PARSING. 
 
 " The girls were industrious.^'' 
 
 SSr*). Were \» o vkkb; il iinplie:* action or beinsr — jvei'tkk ; it is 
 neither ottive nor |ia>sive, expre>j'ing simply bein<: — indicativk 
 wood; il simply inclicnles or ileirlnres a thniff — impkhkkct tknsk ; 
 il expresse> pH>t tinu — " 1, 1 was ; 'i. Von were ; 3, He was. VInr. 
 
 1, We were ; '-i. Yon were ; ^, Tlit-y were, or giiU were" — made in 
 ihe THIRD PKKsoN Pi.i'RAL, becaus^e its nominative girla is, wi;h which 
 il jiprees, Hgreeably to 
 
 Ki'i.E VII. A verb must agree with its vomivative case in nvviber 
 and per.^ou. 
 
 Industrious is an ad.tective. a wonl jViined with a nonn to describe 
 it — •• iiidnsliions, tnorc indiistrions, ///^yA/ jndn.-inun!* "' — in the posi- 
 tive nEfJKKK ; il dfM-ribes, wiihoiil any eompiirison — and l)elong^ to 
 the nonn r/ii/a. aiTordinfi I" 
 
 \{ VUE IV. Adjccfivfs /"/oug to the iini'vs utn'ch tlit-y dtt'Cribe, 
 For /Aftiind g'li^, apply Ki.lk.s III and VI. 
 
 KXKUCiSKS IN TARSING CONTINTEP. 
 
 " William is attentive." " Am I youn^z ?" 
 
 ••John is stndioiis." •' Was I wron;> ?'' 
 
 " We are jealous." " IJave we been wielced ?" 
 
 "Thou art <lntiful.'' "Were ihry penitent ?" 
 
 '•Mary has been inlellijrent." " Wa^hin-zton was patriotic." 
 
 " The boys will have been dutiful." " Columbus was enterprising. 
 
 " Their e&lale was small." *' My wile's luolher is sick." 
 
 XV. OF T[^E ADVERB. 
 
 Q. When I say, "The bird flies swiftly," I do not mean by swiftly 
 to describe l>ird ; what does mi-ifily dosenbe ? 
 
 2i^(). 'J'Im' rimniuT of flying. 
 
 Q. To what p-.tri of s[)eech is swiftly joined in the phrase, "The 
 bird flies swiltly ?" 
 
 2ti7 To ilie vprh /lies. 
 
 Q. What does the word udrerb si<;nify? 
 
 'Z'Z^. Jitiiittl to ft ve.ib. 
 
 Q. What, then, slmll we call such words as swifilyl 
 
 ^'29. Advkkbs. 
 
 Q. " Joliii runs very swiCily. ' Which word here describes or 
 shows how swiMly .Tuhn runs 7 
 
 'im. Very. 
 
 Q. "Industrious, more industiioti.'*, most indu.strious." Which 
 words here tell how industrious ihe person is? 
 
 ii3l. More and vioat. 
 
*> 
 
 ADVERBS. 88 
 
 Q. In one of the laj«t two examples the nilverb trry qualifies or 
 de^(•ril)t^x xhv ailverl) svijily. In the other eHse the ailxerhs wore and 
 mwt qiiahly the adjective iiulu.strioi/s. What kind ol wuids, then, do 
 adveilts qualify or de-^erilie ? 
 
 28'2. Aclvfibs qunlify verbs, adjt^ciives, and oilier 
 adverbs. 
 
 Q. What, then, appears to lie a proper definition of adverbs? 
 2»W. Advt rbs are^vvords joined lo verbs, adjectives, 
 and oiber adverbs, to qualify or describe ihem. 
 
 Q. '-Jiihn visits me offe}/, but Thomas ofteiirrr In this example 
 "we ^'ee that adverbs may be compared ; will you, iherelore, compare 
 
 S0U71 / 
 
 2JM. " Soon, sooner, soonest." 
 
 Q. Will yon compare vixelyl 
 
 2^5. " Wif^ely, more wisely, most wisely. 
 Q. How do adverbs ending- in ly appear to be compared? 
 
 ^Z'My By ibe ttd verbs more and most. 
 
 Q. Will you. in this manner, compare ndmlrahly? foolishly? 
 
 Q. Many adverbs are compared like a<lieetiv«'> oJ' cuie ^yllable, as 
 souii ahove ; but iheje is a very considerable lunnber. the couipari>on 
 of which is not refrulaled by any jjeneral rule. The roilovvin<r li>t 
 embraces adverlis varioii>iy compar« d ; you will repeal the compara- 
 tive and superlative of each, as I name llie positive. 
 
 237. Positive. Comjiaiufive. Svjyerlative. 
 Often, oltener, oltenest. 
 Miicii, more, most. 
 Well, better, bt!st. 
 Soon, sooner, soonest. 
 Ju>tly, I). ore justly, most justly. 
 Wisely, more wisely, most wisely. 
 Justly, less justly, lea>t justly. 
 Badly or ill, worse, worst. 
 
 238. Note. — Advorlis, tl'Oiigh very numorows. niny nevorfliehBH be reducfd to a 
 few classes. Yuu will new read witli H)t< ritioii the following list, aud 1 will tLen 
 ask yoiri^onie queBtions resiu^ ting ea«li cIhss. 
 
 1. Of number : us •• ( nee. tvice, tlirire." etc. 
 
 2. or order : h8 ' First secondly, tjiirdly fcintlily. fiftlily. lastly, finnlly " etc, 
 
 3. Ofplt'ce: as-'Heie theie. where, elsewliere, iiiiywliere. sonii-Mlieic. nr-wliore, 
 ht>ieiii, whither, hither 4hitl'er, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, 
 bencc. th^n^e. whithersoever," etc. 
 
 4. Of time.. 
 
 Of time present : as •• Now, to-daj'." etc. 
 
 Of •inif. jiast: as •• Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, bitherto, long 
 feince. I'-iifr iijro.-'etc. 
 
 Of tivif in come: as '• To-morrow, not yet, bereafter, henceforth, henceforward, 
 by hihI by instant!)' prisei.tly. ininiedijifely, sriiii.Lhlwj^ys " etc. 
 
 <H' linip. ■iiidrfivife : a« '■ Oft often, ofttimes. oltoniinips. stiuietiines soon seldom, 
 daily, weekly. niMiithiy yeai ly. always, wlien then. < vt r n<ver, again." etc. 
 
 6. Ot quavlH}/: as-Ajucli. little, snfficiently. how niucb, bow k'^'^^ enough, 
 abundantly " etc. 
 
 ti. Of manner or qnaU'ly : as "Wisely, foolishly justly, unjustly qiiickl)*. slowly." 
 etc. Advcrlii^ of qn;ilily are tin- most nuniemuK kind: and tbiy an- penerally 
 lonncd by adding tin- teiiiiiiiuti( n tj/ to an adjoctiv*' or larficijle vr clmniiinK ff 
 Inxo ly : as. •• Tad liadly : cheerful ( lirci fully ; jib e. ably ; admiral le.admiiably," 
 
 7. Of doubt: BB •• reihapB, pcradveutme, yosfcibly. perchance." 
 
84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 8. Of afflrmation : as " Verily, truly, uudoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, 
 yes, Hureiy. indeed, really," etc. 
 
 9. Of negation : as •• Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all. in no wise," etc. 
 
 10. ■ ;f interrogation : as " How. why, wlierefore. whether," etc. 
 
 11. Of comparison : as " More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, 
 almost, little, alike." etc. 
 
 Whfjn a preposition suffers no chati^e. but becomes an adverb merely by its ap- 
 plication : as, when we' say, " Ho rides about ;" '' He was muir falling;" ** But do not 
 afti'r lay the blame on me." 
 
 There are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and the letter a 
 used instead of al, on, etc.: as '-Asido, athirst, afocrt, aliead, asleep, aboard, ashore, 
 abed, agrouud, afloat." 
 
 Q. Will you name two adverbs of number? two of order? two of 
 place ? two of lime present ? two of time past ? two of time to come ? 
 two of time indetinile? two of quantity? two of manner or quality? 
 two of doubt? two of affirmation? two of iiegation? two of interro- 
 gation ? two of comparison ? 
 
 Q. Adjectives de.scribe as well as adverbs ; how, then, can you tell 
 one from the other? 
 
 2:39. Adjectives describe nouns, but adverbs dascribe 
 or qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
 
 Q. Tliis fact should be remembered; you shall, therefore, have it 
 in the form of a rule: will you repeat u? 
 
 KULE IX. 
 
 Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
 
 Q. From bad we form the adverb badly; how, then, may a large 
 class of adverbs be formed? 
 
 240. Many adverbs are formed by adding ly to adjec- 
 tives. 
 
 Q. Will you, in this manner, form an adverb from wise ? from great ? 
 from sinful ? 
 
 EXERCISES IN PAPwSING. 
 '* The bird sings sweetly.'''^ 
 
 241. Sweetly is an adverb, a word used to qualify a verb, adjective, 
 or other adverb; in this example it qualifies the verb siugs, agreea- 
 ably to 
 
 Rule TX. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
 
 Sings, bird, and ike are parsed as before. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
 
 Adverbs qualifying verbs. 
 
 "The soldiers marched slowly." "They will return soon." 
 "The frirls sing delightfully." ''The boys write admirably." 
 
 "Henry improves rapidly." "Susan reads elegantly." 
 
 Adverbs qualifying adjectives. 
 
 " He was very attentive."' " James is more studious." 
 
 "John is quite busy." "Waller is m.ost studious." 
 
 "William is really studious." _ "Ellen is les.s happy," 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 85 
 
 Adverbs quallfyiv g verbs and other adverbs. 
 " You learn grammar very well." "James writes most elegantly." 
 ♦'The boys write too fast." " 1 will assist you most clieert'ully." 
 
 "He will come much/)ftener." 
 
 Adverbs promiscnonsly^ used. 
 "He has read once." "John is not happy." 
 
 "I will first remind you." " Wliiihor shall 1 fly?" 
 
 "I saw him yesterday." "My I)roiher sends me the paper 
 
 "1 have eaten sutficiently." monthly." 
 
 XVI. OF TtlE PREPOSITION. 
 
 Q. To say, "The cider is— cellar," would make no sense; can you 
 inform me what would make sense? 
 
 242. "The cider is in the cellar.*' 
 
 Q. By placing the little word iit after is, and before cellar, the sen- 
 tence is rendered complete; what office, then, does iii perform ? 
 
 243. A preposition connects words, and thereby shows 
 the relation between them, 
 
 Q. What does the word preposition mean.* 
 
 244. Placed before. 
 
 Q. What, then, may those words like iji be called, as they are 
 placed before other words to connect them with words preceding ? 
 
 245. Prepositions. 
 
 Q. What, then, are prepositions? 
 
 246. Prepositions are words nsed to connect words, 
 and thereby show the relation between them. 
 
 247. List of principal Prepositions. 
 
 Among: 
 
 around 
 
 amidst 
 
 athwart 
 
 after 
 
 about 
 
 against 
 
 across 
 
 above 
 
 at 
 
 by 
 
 below 
 
 between 
 
 beneath 
 
 behind 
 
 betwixt 
 
 beside 
 
 beyond 
 
 concerning 
 
 down 
 
 except 
 
 excepting 
 
 for 
 
 fro na 
 
 in 
 
 into 
 
 instead of 
 
 near 
 
 of 
 
 off 
 
 on 
 
 over 
 
 out of 
 
 respecting 
 
 to 
 
 towards 
 
 according to before 
 
 notwithstanding through 
 
 throughout 
 
 touching. 
 
 up 
 
 upon 
 
 under 
 
 underneath 
 
 unto 
 
 with 
 
 within 
 
 without 
 
 \ 
 
 Q. Will you mention the prepositions beginning with a? with 6 .^ 
 c ? d? e? f? i ? n ? o ? r ? t ? n ? w ? 
 
 Q. Will you now repeat all the prepositions? 
 
 Q. Do we say, " He works for I," or, " He works for me?" 
 
 Q. In what case is me? (127.) 
 
 Q. What case, then, follows prepositions? 
 
 248. The objective case. 
 
 Q. This fact is of sufficient importance to conglitute a rule ; will 
 you, therefore, repeat 
 
86 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. 
 
 BULE X. 
 
 Prepositions govern Ihe ohjerfive case. 
 
 EXEKCISES IN PAUSI^^G. 
 
 ^' Jo/ill Jbu>id hi.s hat in the rooiiy 
 
 240. hi is a prevosiiion, a word iisfd lo conned words nnd show 
 the relation between them; it here shows the relation between //oi 
 nn»l road. 
 
 liuad is a jroUN ; it is a name — co.inioN ; it is a general name — 
 KKUTKR gkndkb; it is neither male nor female — TiiiKr) person; it is 
 spoken of^ — singular numbkk; it means but one — objkciive case^ 
 it is the object of the relation denoted by the preposition t?/, and gov- 
 erned by It, atcortlin^ to 
 
 K-t'LE X. Prcpositioiis govern the, objective case.^ 
 "John ran throuijh the lioiise into ' "1 will seareh the house diligent- 
 
 the gTiirden." ly for him." 
 
 •' We have deceived him to cursor- " \W misihi learn the lesson be- 
 
 row." fore them.'' 
 
 "We came in season." "Accordm<i^ to my impression, he 
 
 "You ^t^ldy <rratnmar for your im- i> in fault." 
 
 provemenl in lan«^u:iofe." "Notwiihslandingrliis poverty, he 
 
 " From virtue to vice the progress was the deliuht of his ac- 
 
 is gradual." quaiutances." 
 
 "They travelled into France "On all occasions she behaved 
 
 • through Italy." with propriety." 
 
 " He lives within his income." "Of his talents we might say 
 
 " Without the aid of charity, he much." 
 
 lived very comfortably by his "We may expect a calm after a 
 
 industry." storm." 
 
 XVII. OF THE CONJQNCTION. 
 
 Q. When I say. "John — his book," the sense, you perceive, is in- 
 complete. Can you put a word into the blank which will complete the 
 sense.' 
 
 250. *' Jolin reads his boolc." 
 
 Q. Can you inform me what the foregoing expression is called? 
 
 251 A s<"titence. 
 
 Q. What, then, is a sentence? 
 
 252, A sitiience is a collection of words forming a 
 complt'ip sens*'. 
 
 Q. "Life is short." This expression is called a sentence; can you 
 tell me u hat kind, and why ? 
 
 25^5. li is a simple' sentence, because it makes sense, 
 and has but one nonjihative and one verb. 
 Q. What does the term compound mean ? 
 
 254. It means compo.sed of (wo or more things. 
 * The remaining words are parsed as boforo, 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 87 
 
 Q. "Life fs short, and art is long." This sentence is raade up of 
 two simple sentences; what, therefore, may it be called? 
 25'>. A compound senience, 
 
 Q. What, tiien, is a compound sentence? 
 
 ii5(i. A compound sentence contains two or more sim- 
 p!<^ sentences connected tocrether. 
 
 Q. .Whiit does the term conjunction signify? 
 
 257. Union or joining together. 
 
 Q. In tile conipoinul sentence, "John writes and William learns," 
 the simple sentences are joined together by the word and ; what, 
 then, may and be called?"' 
 
 25W A Conjunction. 
 
 Q. "The king and queen are an amiable pair."- In this sentence 
 words and not scntencres are connected by and j can you point out 
 the words so connected ? * 
 
 259. King and queen. 
 
 Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the use of 
 tbf conjunction? 
 
 260. A conjunction is used to connect words and sen- 
 tences together. 
 
 Q. When I say, " Five and four are nine," what do I mean? 
 
 261. Five added to four nnake nine. 
 Q. What, then, is implied by and? 
 
 26^. Addition. 
 
 Q. When I say, '' I will go, if you will accompany mc," what does 
 the conjunction (/'imply? 
 
 2()'>. Condition or siipposition. 
 Q. What does the word copulative mean? 
 
 264. Uniting, joining, ox Unking together. 
 
 Q. And, if, etc., are called copulative conjunctions; can you tell 
 roe why? 
 
 265. Because a copulative conjunction connects or 
 continues a sentence by expressing an addition, a sup- 
 position, a cause, etc. 
 
 Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class; will 
 you repeat them ? '^ . 
 
 266. And, both, because, besides, for, if, provided, 
 since, then, that, therefore, wherefore. 
 
 Q. When I say, "James and John will come," I mean both will 
 come, but when I say, "James or John will come," what do I mean ? 
 
 267. That eitlier James or John, one of them, will 
 come. 
 
 Q. Are the words in this sentence, then» joined or disjoined ? 
 26n. Disjoined. 
 Q. What word is it that expresses the disjoining? 
 
 269. Or. 
 
 Q. What part of speech is o«- ►" 
 
 270. Conjunction' 
 
38 tNGLlSH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Q. What does the word disjunctive mean 1 
 
 271. Disjoining or separating. 
 
 Q. What kind of a conjunction, then, shall we call or? 
 
 272. A disjunctiA''e conjunction. 
 
 Q. " James will come, but Henry will not." Here the two clauses 
 of the sentence are opposed to each other in meaning, and the word 
 7>>it separates these two clauses; what, then, does this word imply? 
 27'^. Opposition of meaning*. 
 
 Q. From the foregoing, what appears to be the use of the disjunc- 
 tive conjunction ? 
 
 274. The conjunction disjunctive connects sentences, 
 by expressing- opposition of meaning in various degrees. 
 
 Q. The following are the j>rincipal conjunctions of this class j will 
 you repeat them ? 
 
 275. "But, thanj though, either, or, as, unless, neither, 
 nor, less, yet, notwithstanding.'' 
 
 Q. Prepositions, you recollect, connect wordsj as well as conjunc- 
 tions; how, then, can you tell the one fr(>m the other? 
 
 276. Prepositions show the relation between words, 
 but conjunctions express an addition, a supposition, a 
 cause, or an opposition of meaning. 
 
 Q. " He and she write." In what case is he? she? 
 
 Q. The pronouns he and she, you perceive, are both in the same 
 case, and connected by the conjunction a.7id ; when, then, may nouna 
 and pronouns be connected by conjunctions? 
 
 277. When the}'' are in the same case. 
 
 Q. "She will sing and plays." How may this sentence Tie cor- 
 rected ? 
 
 278. She will sing and play. 
 
 Q. In what mood and tense is, "She will sing?" 
 
 Q. To say, "She play," is incorrect; play, then, in this example, 
 can not be in the present tense ; will you, then, inform me what ** She 
 will sing and play" means, when fully expressed ? 
 
 279. " She will sing and she will play." 
 
 Q. Here will play is in the future tense, as well usteillsing ; when, 
 then, may verbs, in general, be connected? 
 
 280. When tliey are in the same mood and tense. 
 
 Q. From, the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the rule for 
 the use of conjunctions in connecting words? 
 
 ETJLSXL 
 
 Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood and 
 
 tense^ and nouns or pronouns of the same case, 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 " John assists his father and mother^'' 
 
 280. And is a conjonctiokt, a word chiefly used to connect words 
 and sentences — copulative ; it coww^cX^ father and mother. 
 ilforf.^r is a Nouy ; it is a name — common; it is a general name — 
 
IKTERJECTIONS 39 
 
 FEMININE 6EKDER ; it fs the name of a female — thibb person; it is 
 spoken of — singular number ; it means but one — and it is one of 
 the objects of assists, and is, lliorefore, io tl)e objective, case, and 
 connected wi[h fatJ/er by the conjunction and, according to 
 
 Rniac XI. Coyijintctiovs nsitaUy conduct verbs of the same tnood and 
 tense^ avd vows or proiioitus of the same case. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
 
 " r will reward him and them at "She reads well, writes (3) ele- 
 
 some Allure til). e " gantly, and plays admirably on 
 
 "We in \i\\n (1) look for a path the piano-forte." 
 
 between virtue arid vice." '* Intemperance destroys the mind 
 
 " Reproof eiilier hardens or soft- and benumbs the senses of 
 
 ens its objects.'- man." 
 
 "In the morning of life we ea- "You may read this sentence 
 
 gerly pursue pleasiire, but first, and then parse it." 
 
 oltentimes meet (2) with sad "He has equal knowledge, but 
 
 disappointments." inferior judgment." 
 
 'A good scholar never mutters "John rises early in the morning 
 
 nor disobeys his instructor." and pursues his studies." 
 
 XVm. OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Q. When I exclaim, "Oh! I have inined my friend," "Alas! I fear 
 for life," which words here appear to ' e thrown in between the sen- 
 tences to express passion or feeling'/ 
 
 282. Oh! Alas! 
 
 Q. "What does ijiterjectioii mean ? 
 
 28J5. Thrown between. 
 
 Q. What name, then, shall we give si: '? vvovd'- ■:"- eh.' alas! etc.? 
 
 284. Interjections. 
 
 Q. What, then, are interjections? 
 
 285. Interjections are words llirown in between the 
 parts of sentences, to express the ja^pioDs or sudden 
 feelings of ihe speaker. 
 
 LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 1. Of earnestvess or grief: as, "O ! oh ! alas ! ah !" 
 
 2. Of rvovder : as, " lleallv ! strange ! " 
 
 3. 0/ cc/Zn/^: as, "Hallo"! ho! hem!" 
 
 4. Of attention: as, " Behold ! lo ! hark ! " 
 
 5. Of disgust: as, " Foh ! fy ! fudge ! away ' " 
 
 6. Of silence: as, " Hush ! hist ! " 
 
 7. Of covtem-pt: as, "Pish ! tush ! " 
 
 8. Of saluting: as, " Welcome ! hail ! " 
 
 (1) In vain means the same as vainly. It may, therefore, be called an adverbial 
 phrase, qualifying look, by Kule IX. 
 
 (2) Meet agrees with lue. understood, and is, therefore, connected viiihpunue by 
 the conjunction hut., according to liule XI. 
 
 (3) Writes Hud plays both agree with she. understood, and are, therefore, con- 
 nectedi tlie former with reads, and the latter with writes, by Rule XT 
 
40 KNOLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Q. Will yotj examine tho foresoins; li^t, and then name an inter- 
 jection of iirief' One oC \von<ler ? One of callins; ? One of attenlioii? 
 One of cJis53^n>t ? One of'silence ? One of >alnlin«r? 
 
 Q. How may an interjeclion generally be known? 
 
 M^a. By its taking an excUiiintJon point after it. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 *' O/i ! I have alienated my friend.^^ » 
 
 2S7. Ok is an interjection, a word used to express passion or 
 fe. ling. 
 
 The remaining words are parsed as before. 
 
 EXERCISKS I\ PARSING CONTINUED. 
 
 "Oh! I must go and see (1) my *' Strange! I did not know you." 
 dear father before he (2) dies." " II nsh I our instructor is at tlie 
 
 *' We eagerly pursue pleasure, door." 
 
 but alas! we often mistake "Fy! i»ow angry he is!" 
 the road to its (3) enjoy- 
 ment." 
 
 (1) The sense is, " I must go, and I must see; " tlui verb see, then, agrees with /, 
 understood, and is thoreroro, conuectod with must go, according to llule XI. 
 
 (2) Before an adverb. 
 
 (3) Apply, first, Kule V.; then, Rtile 1. 
 
RECAPITULATION. 
 
 COMPOSITION. 
 
 XlX. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 2SS. ExGLiSH Grammar teaches us to speak and write the English 
 language correctly. 
 
 289. Grammar is divided into four parts, namely: 
 
 290. 1. Orthography, . 3. Syntax, 
 2. Etymology, 4. Prosody. 
 
 •XX. OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 . * 
 
 291. Orthography includes a knowledge of the nature and power 
 of letters, and teaches how to spell words correctly. This part of 
 graniniar is usually learned from spelling-books and dictionaries. 
 
 292. Orthografhy means word-making or sjyelling. 
 
 XXI. OF ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 293. Etymology teaches how to form, from all the words in the 
 English language, several grand divisions or sorts, commonly called 
 Parts of Speech. 
 
 i3^4. It includes a knowledge of the meaning and use of words — 
 also their different changes and derivations. 
 
 295. Elyniology signifies the origin or jjedigree of words. 
 
 XXtl. OF SYNTAX. 
 
 296. Syntax teaches how to arrange or form words into sentences 
 correctly. 
 
 297. It includes a knowledge of the rules of composition, formed 
 from the practice of the best writers and speakers. 
 
 XIX. What does English gram- What does orthography mean? 
 mar teach ? 2S8. • -. 292. . 
 
 Into how many {jarts is it dirid- XXI. What does etymology 
 ed ? 2S9. . teach ? 293. 
 
 What are they? 290. What does it include? 294. 
 
 XX. What does orthography in- What does the word signify ? 295. 
 elude and teach? 291. XXII. What does syntax teach? 
 
 How is a knowledge of orthog- 296. 
 raphy usually obtained ? 29L What does it include ? 297. 
 
 4 
 
 ^^m' 
 
42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 298. Syntax signifies arraiiging or plachig together; or, as used in 
 grammar, sentence-making. 
 
 XXIII. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 
 
 299. The words of the English language are usually divided into 
 nine sorts, commonly called parts of speech, namely : 
 
 Noun, Pronoun, Preposition, 
 
 Article, Verb, Conjunction, 
 
 Adjective, Adverb, Interjection. 
 
 XXIV. OF NOUNS. 
 
 300. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing: as, w«», 
 ho n do 71 y knife. 
 
 301. Nouns are of two kinds, proper and common. 
 
 Common nouns are general names; that is, they are names com- 
 mon to all individuals of the same kind oi-sort : as, house, city, river. 
 
 302. Proper nouns are particular names; tiiat is, they are the 
 names of particular individuals of the same kind or sort: as, George^ 
 Richmond, Mississippi. 
 
 303. When proper names have an article placed before them, they 
 are used as conHuon names: as, " He is the Cicero of his age." . 
 
 304. When a proper noun admits of a plural, it becomes a com- 
 mon noun: as, "The tM^elve C«?.?ors," or, "The seven Jameses.^'' 
 
 ^his is obvious from the fact t+iat a proper noun is, in its nature, 
 descriptive of one object only, and, therefore, essentially singular. 
 Accordingly, the nouns Spaniard, Unropean, American , etc., are com- 
 mon nouns, as well as their plurals, S2) an iards, Europeans, Americans, 
 etc.* 
 
 What does the M'ord signify? V/hat is a common noun? 301. 
 298. Give an. example. 
 
 XXIII. How many difl'erent What does j^/t!;;^;?- mean ? 34; 
 sorts of words are there? 299. What is a proper noun? 302. 
 
 What are they? 299. Give an example. 
 What are .these sorts of words When proper nouns have an ar- 
 
 commonly called? 299. tide before them, how are they 
 
 XXIV. What does the word used? 303. Give an example. 
 noun mean?f Are proper names used as such 
 
 What is a noun ? 300. Give an in the jilural ? -304. 
 example. - Why can not proper names have 
 
 How many different kinds of a plural? 304. 
 nouns are there, and what are What do they become when so 
 
 they? 301. ^ used ? 304. Give an example. 
 
 What does the word common What kinds o/' nouns are Span- 
 
 mean? 31. iard, Americans, Spaniards? 304. 
 
 _ * Spain is tbo proper name of a country, and Spaniard has, by some gramma- 
 ritins, been called the proper name of a people; but the latter is a generic term, 
 characterizing any one of a great number of persons, in their connection with 
 ii^^Ain.—Encydopoedia. 
 t See I. l8( answer. 
 
NOUNS. 
 
 4S 
 
 305. Common nouns may also be used to signify individuals, by 
 the addition of articles or pronouns; as, ^*' The hoy is studious;" 
 " That ffirl is discreet." 
 
 300. When a noun signifies many, it Is called a noun of multitude, 
 or a collective noun ; as, " The people,^'' " The army." 
 
 307. Abstract signifies taken from; hence an abstract noun is the 
 name of a quality abstracted from its substance; as. knowledge, good-' 
 nesn, virtue, etc. 
 
 308. To nouns belong person, gender, number, and case. 
 
 XXV. PERSON. 
 
 309. When any person, in speaking, introduces his own name, it is 
 the first person ; as, " I^ James, of the City of Richmond, do give," etc. 
 
 310. The name of the person spoken to is the second person; as, 
 "James, come to me." 
 
 311. The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about, is the 
 third person; as, ''James has come." 
 
 XXVI. GENDER. 
 
 312. Gender is the distinction of sex. 
 
 313. Nouns have four genders — the masculine, the feminine, the 
 common, and the neuter. 
 
 314. The masculine- gender denotes the names of males';' as, man, 
 boy, etc. 
 
 315. The feminine gender denotes the names of females ; as, woman^ 
 girl. 
 
 316. The common gender denotes the names of such animals as 
 may be either male or female; 9.^, parent, bird. 
 
 317. The neuter gender denotes the names of objects which are 
 n^either males nor females; as, chair, table. 
 
 318. Some nouns,. naturally neuter, do, by a figure of speech, as it 
 is called, become masculine or feminine; as when we say of the sun, 
 *'J3e is setting," and of a ship, " A%e sails well," etc. 
 
 What eflect does the ose of ar- 
 ticles have on common nouns? 305. 
 
 What is a noun of multitude, or 
 a collective noun ? 30G. Give an 
 example. 
 
 What is an abstract noun ? 307. 
 Give an example. 
 
 What belong to nouns? 30S. 
 
 XXV. When is a noun of the first 
 persmi ? 309. Give an example. 
 
 When is a noun of the second 
 person ? 310. Give an example. 
 
 When is a noun of the third per- 
 son ? 311. Give an example. 
 
 XXVI. What does the word 
 gender mean ? 14. 
 
 What is gender as applied to 
 nouns? 31'-^. 
 
 What does the word masctdine 
 mean ? 15. 
 
 What does the masculine gen- 
 der of nouns denote? 314, Give 
 an example. 
 
 "What does feminine mean ? 19. 
 
 What does the feminine gender 
 denote ? 315. Give an example. 
 
 What does' the commcHi gender 
 denote? 316. Give an example. 
 
 What does neuter mean? 23. 
 
 What does the neuter gender 
 denote? 317. Give an example. 
 
 What is said of nouns naturally 
 neuter, in respect to gender? 318. 
 Give an example. 
 
 How many gender."? do nouns 
 have, and what are they? 30. 
 
44 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 319.. The English language, has three methods of distinguishing 
 sex, viz: 
 
 319-1. I3y different words : as, 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Bachelor, 
 
 Maid. 
 
 Husband, 
 
 Wife. 
 
 Boar, 
 
 Sow. 
 
 King, 
 
 ■ Queen. 
 
 Boy, 
 
 Girl. 
 
 Lad, 
 
 Lass. 
 
 Brother, 
 
 Sister. 
 
 Lord, 
 
 Lady. 
 
 Buck, 
 
 Doe. 
 
 Man, 
 
 Woman. 
 
 Bull, 
 
 Cow. 
 
 Master, 
 
 Mistress. 
 
 Bullock or 1 
 Steer, j 
 
 Heifer. 
 
 Milter, 
 Nephew, 
 
 Spawner. 
 Niece. 
 
 Cock, 
 
 Hen. 
 
 Ram, 
 
 Ewe. 
 
 Dog, 
 
 Bitch. 
 
 Sin O'er. 
 
 ■ Songstress or 
 
 Drake, 
 
 Duck. 
 
 •jiiijji^j J 
 
 Singer. • 
 
 Earl, 
 
 Countess. 
 
 Sir, 
 
 Madam. 
 
 Father, 
 
 Mother. 
 
 Sloven, 
 
 Slut. 
 
 Friar, 
 
 Nun. 
 
 Son, 
 
 Daughter. 
 
 Gander, 
 
 Goose. 
 
 Stag, - 
 
 Hind. 
 
 Hart, 
 
 Roe. 
 
 Uacle, 
 
 Aunt. 
 
 Horse, 
 
 Mare. 
 
 Wizard, 
 
 Witch. 
 
 31S 
 
 -2. By a differenc 
 
 e of termination: 
 
 a^, 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Abbot, 
 
 Abbess:- 
 
 Enchanter, 
 
 Enchantress. 
 
 Actor, 
 
 Actress. 
 
 Executor, 
 
 Executrix. 
 
 Admiuirstrator 
 
 Administratrix. 
 
 God, 
 
 Goddess. 
 
 Adulterer, 
 
 Adulteress. 
 
 Governor, 
 
 Governess. 
 
 Ambassador, 
 
 Ambassadress. 
 
 Heir, 
 
 Heiress. 
 
 Arbiter, 
 
 Arbitress. 
 
 Hero, 
 
 Heroine. 
 
 Baron, 
 
 Baroness. 
 
 Hunter, 
 
 Huntress. 
 
 Bridegroom, 
 
 Bride. 
 
 Host, 
 
 Hostess. 
 
 Benefactor, 
 
 Benefactress. 
 
 Instructor, 
 
 Instructress. 
 
 Caterer, 
 
 Cateress. 
 
 Jew, 
 
 Jewess. 
 
 Ohanter, 
 
 Chantress. 
 
 Landgrave,' 
 
 Landgravine. 
 
 Conductor, 
 
 Conductress. 
 
 Lion, 
 
 Lioness. 
 
 Count, 
 
 Countess. 
 
 Marquis, 
 
 Marchioness. 
 
 Czar, 
 
 Czarina. 
 
 Mayor, 
 
 Mayoress. 
 
 Deacon, 
 
 Deaconess. 
 
 Patron, • 
 
 Patroness. 
 
 Du ke. 
 
 Duchess. 
 
 Peer, 
 
 Peeress. 
 
 Elector, 
 
 Electress. 
 
 Poet, 
 
 Poetess. 
 
 Emperor, 
 
 Empress. 
 
 Priest, 
 
 Priestess. 
 
 How many methods are there in 
 English of distinguishing sex? 319. 
 
 Which is the first ; as hoy ? yirl? 
 319-1. 
 
 Will you spell the feminine cor- 
 responding to brother? 319-1. To 
 hoy ? nephew f wizard ? friar ? sir ? 
 drahe ? earl ? gander ? hart ? king ? 
 lad? man? master? singer? sloifen? 
 eon ? stag ? uncle ? 
 
 Will you spell the masculine 
 corresponding to maid? girl? ma- 
 dam ? daughter ? niece ? 
 
 What js the second method of 
 distinguishing sex; as, abbot? ab- 
 bess ? 319-2. 
 
 Will you spell the feminine cor- 
 responding to abbot? actor? adinin-% 
 istrator? haron? benefactor ? bride- 
 groom f conductor ? czar ? duke ? 
 emperor ? executor ? god ? governor ? 
 heir? hero? host? hunter? instruc- 
 tor? Jew ? lion ?. marquis ? patron ? 
 peer ? proprietor ? shepherd ? sor- 
 cerer ? sultan ? tiger ? tutor ? vis- 
 count ? votary ? widower t 
 
NOUNS. 
 
 45 
 
 Male. 
 Prince, 
 Prior, 
 Pro|)|iet, 
 Protector. 
 Pro|)rietor, 
 Shepherd, 
 Songster, 
 Soreerer, 
 
 Fe77iale. 
 Princesis. 
 Prioress. 
 Prophetess.- 
 Protectress. 
 Proprietress. 
 Shepherdess, 
 Songstress". 
 Sorceress. 
 
 319-'5. By prefixing a noun. 
 A cock-sparrow. 
 A nian-.servant, 
 A he-goat, 
 A he-bear, 
 A male child, 
 Male descendants, 
 
 Male. 
 Siillan, 
 
 Tiger, 
 Traitor, 
 Tutor, 
 Viscount, 
 Votary, 
 Widower, 
 pronoun, or adjective: as 
 
 A hen-sparrow. 
 
 A maid-servant. 
 
 A she-goal. 
 
 A she-bear. 
 
 A female child. 
 
 Female descendants 
 
 Female. 
 rSiiItaness. 
 I Sultana. 
 
 Tigress. 
 
 Traitress. 
 
 Tutorese. 
 
 Viscountess. 
 
 Votaress. 
 
 Widow. 
 
 XXVI r. NUMBER. 
 320. Number shows how many are meqnt, whether one or more, 
 ooo ;^"""^ ''^^^ ^"^^'o numbers, the singular and the plural, 
 Hi' J"*^ singular number expresses but one ; as, hoy. 
 o23. The plural number implies more than one; as, boys. 
 
 324. Some nouns are used in the singular number only: as, wheaL 
 gold, Hloth, pride, dnfifulness. J ' » y 
 
 325. Other nouns are used in the plural number only; as, helloioa, 
 scusors, liiiif/s, riches, etc. ■> ' 7 > 
 
 326. Some nouns are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheev ' 
 
 327. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding « to 
 the singular; as, -s/v),^', dove, ^j/,(;. doves. 
 
 32S. The-irregular mode of forming the plural is as follows- when 
 the noun singular ends in x.rch soli, «7i, or ss, we add cs to form the 
 plural; as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses. 
 
 Will you spell the masculine cor- 
 responding to abbess f czarina? 
 duchess ? ambassadress F heroine ? 
 huntress f poetess? prophetess? wid- 
 ow ? 
 
 What is the third method of dis- 
 tinguishing sex ; as, a 7)ian-servant ? 
 maid-servant ? 3 1 9-3. 
 
 Will you spell the feminine cor- 
 responding to male child? male de- 
 acetidants ? 
 
 ■ XXVII. What does the word nnm- 
 ber mean ? 5, 
 
 What does the number of nouns 
 show? 320. 
 
 What does singular mean ? 6, 
 
 What does the singular nwnber 
 of nouns imply? 322. Give an ex- 
 ample. 
 
 What does 7j/»ra? mean? 10. 
 
 What does the plural number 
 of nouns imply? 323. Give an 
 example. 
 
 How are wheat, gold, etc., used ? 
 324, 
 
 How are belloios, lunq^, etc., 
 used? 325. 
 
 What is said oi deer,sheen,e\.c. ? 
 326. ^' 
 
 How many numbers do nouns 
 have, and what are they f 321. 
 
 How is the plural number reg- 
 ularly formed ? 327. Give an ex- 
 ample. 
 
 When do we add es to form the 
 plural? 328. 
 
 Give an exaaiple. 
 
i6 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 329. Nouns ending in/ pr/e, change these lerminations into vea to 
 form the plural; a.s, loaf, loaves ^^ ivi/e, -wives. 
 
 330. When the noun singular ends in y, with a vowel before it, the 
 plural is formed regularly; as, key, kei/n ; delay, delays; valley, vaU 
 leys. But if the y does not have a vowel before it, the plural is form- 
 ed b}' changing?/ into res; a.s,/ly,^i'es ; beauty, heauties. 
 
 331. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any 
 general rules: — 
 
 Sing. Plur. Sing. 
 
 Man, Men. Penny, 
 
 "VVfoman, Women. Die, 
 
 Child, Children. Pea, 
 
 Ox, Oxen. Fish, 
 
 Tooth, Teeth. Cupful, 
 
 Foot, Feet. Spoonful, 
 
 Goose, Geese. Brother-in-law, 
 
 Mouse.' Mice. Court-martial, 
 
 Louse; Lice 
 
 „ ( Cow6 or ' 
 
 <^°^' 1 Kine. 
 
 332. Mathematics, metaphysics, pneumatics, ethics, 2>olitics, etc., are 
 reckoned either as singular or plural nouns. The same is equally true 
 of means, alms, amends. Antip>ode8, credenda, minutise, literati, etc., are 
 always plural. Bandit is now considered the singular of banditti. 
 The noun news is always singular. Many nouns form their plurals 
 according to the laws of the language from which they are derived. 
 The following are of this class : 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 Genius, Genii. (4) 
 
 Genus, Genera. 
 
 Hypothesis, Hypotheses. 
 
 Ignis fatuus, Ignus fatui. 
 
 T 1 f Indi( 
 
 Index, \ T , 
 
 Lamina, Laminae 
 
 Magus, Magi. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Pence. (1) 
 
 Dice. (2) 
 
 Peas. (3) 
 
 Fishes. (3) 
 
 Cupfuls. 
 
 Spoonfuls. 
 
 Brothers-in-law. 
 
 Courts-martial. 
 I Brothers or 
 { Brethren. 
 
 Sing. 
 Antithesis, 
 
 Appendix, 
 
 Apex, 
 
 Arcanum, 
 
 Automaton, 
 
 Axis, 
 
 Beau, 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Antitheses, 
 f Appendixes or 
 i Appendices. 
 
 Apices. 
 
 Arcana. 
 
 Automata., 
 
 Axes. 
 
 Beaux or Beaus. 
 
 ces or 
 xes. (.5) 
 
 What is the rule for it? 329." 
 
 What is the plural of loa/l 329. 
 
 Will you spell the plural of de- 
 lay? 330. valley? What is the 
 rule fbrformingthese plurals? 330. 
 
 Will you spell the plural of fly ! 
 330, beatity ? Rule for the pluVal'^ 
 
 Do man, looman, form their plu- 
 rals regularly, or irregularly? 331. 
 
 Will ^ou spell the plural of i^mji ? 
 teaman ? child ? ox ? tooth f foot ? 
 goose? mouse? louse? brother? die? 
 
 fish? spooonful? court-martial? 
 
 Will you spell the singular of 
 live? kine? coics ? brethren? oxen? 
 teeth? pence? j^^nnics? peas? fish- 
 es ? cupfuls ? brothers-in-law ? 
 
 What is the plural of pea, when 
 we refer to quantity? Offish? 
 
 What is the singular of banditti? 
 3.32. 
 
 In accordance with what laws 
 does antithesis form the plural? 
 332. 
 
 (1) Pennies, when the coin is meant. (2) Dies, for coining. (3) Pease and Jish, 
 raeamng quantities: but peas and fishes, when number is meant. 
 
 (4) Genii, -when denoting aerial or imaginary' spirits; geniuses, w-hen denoting 
 persons of genius. (5) Indexes, when denoting pointers or tables of coutentB ; in- 
 dices, when referring to algebrais quantities. 
 
• 
 NOUN 5. 
 
 47 
 
 Basis, 
 Calx, 
 
 Cherub, ] 
 
 Crisis, 
 
 Criterion, 
 
 Datum, 
 
 Diaeresis, 
 
 Desideratum, 
 
 Effluvium, 
 
 Ellipsis, 
 
 Emphasis, 
 
 Encomium, ] 
 
 Erratum. 
 
 Bases, 
 
 Calces. 
 
 Cherubim or 
 
 Cherubs. 
 
 Crises. 
 
 Criteria. 
 
 Data. 
 
 Disereses. 
 
 Desiderata. 
 
 Effluvia. 
 
 Ellipses. 
 
 Emphases. 
 
 Encomia or 
 
 Encomiums. 
 
 Errata. 
 
 Memorandum, ] 
 
 Metamorphosis, 
 
 Parenthesis, 
 
 Phenomenon, 
 
 Radius, 
 
 Stamen, 
 
 Seraph, | 
 
 Stimulus, 
 Stratum, 
 Thesis, 
 Vertex, 
 
 Vortex. 
 
 Membranda or 
 
 Memorandums. 
 
 Metamorphoses. 
 
 Parentheses. 
 
 Phenomena. 
 
 Radii or Radiuses. 
 
 Stamina. 
 
 Seraphim or 
 
 Seraphs. 
 
 Stimuli. 
 
 Strata, 
 
 Theses. 
 
 Vertices. 
 
 VoTtices or 
 
 Vortexes. 
 
 XXVIII. CASE. 
 
 333. Case means the different state, condition, or relation which 
 nouns have to other words in the same sentence. 
 
 334. In Enghsh, nouns have three cases — -the nominative, the pos- 
 sessive, and the objective. 
 
 335. The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, and always 
 the subject of the verb. 
 
 330. The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; as, '^' John assists 
 William ;" here John is the subject sj)olven of, or the nominative case 
 to the verb assists. , 
 
 337. The possessive case denotes possession, ownership, property, 
 etc. ; -as " William's book."' This case may be disting:uished from the 
 otheC-cases by the a]io.<trophe or the letter s. 
 
 338. A noun in the singular forms its possessive case by takiugthe 
 apostrophe and the letter « after it ; a.s, '"John's hat." 
 
 339. Plural nouns usually form their ])0ssessive case simply by 
 taking the apostrophe; as, *'0n eat;les' wings." 
 
 Will you spellthei)luralofo^^eic.? 
 appendix? arcaniun ? automaioTi? 
 axis? crisis? bat<is? criterion'^ 
 datum? desideratum 1 ejfinviuni? en- 
 comium? errutnni? genius? memo- 
 randum? 
 
 Will you spell the singular of 
 bases? beavx? cheriibs? ellipces? 
 genii? theses? farenlheses? stioii- 
 vli? strata'} 
 
 riow are mathematics, optics, 
 etc,, considered "in regard to num- 
 ber? 33-2. 
 
 Of what number in means? 332. 
 alms? amends? antipodes? liter- 
 ati ? vcws ? 
 
 XXVIII. What is the meaning 
 ol the word ca^e? 47. 
 
 What is meant by the case of 
 nouns? 333, 
 
 How many cases have nouns, 
 and what are they? 334. 
 
 What does nominative mean ? 
 49. 
 
 What is the nominative case ? 
 335. Give an example. 
 
 What do you understand by the 
 subject of a verb ? 336. Illustrate 
 it by an example. 
 
 What does possessive mean ? 59. 
 
 What does the posse^sive case 
 denote? 337. Give an example. 
 
 IIow may this ca.^ie be distin- 
 guished Crouj theotlier cases? 337. 
 
 How do nouns in the singular 
 form their possessive case? 338, 
 Give an example. 
 
 How do nouns in the plural'^ 
 339, 
 
48 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 340. When 'the plural of nouns does not end in s, they form their 
 possessive case by taking both the apostrophe and the letters; as 
 " Men's houses." 
 
 3il. When the singular ends in ss, the apostrophe only is added; 
 as " for ^o.od'/tess' sake;" except the noun lottncus; as '^' The witness'' s 
 deposition." 
 
 342. Nouns ending* in nee form the possessive by adding the apos- 
 trophe only; as, "For confidence' sake;"' because an additional « 
 would occasion too much of the hissing sound, or increase the diffi- 
 culty of pronunciation. 
 
 343. The objective case denotes the object of an action or relation. 
 
 344. In the sentence, ''John strikes him," Mm is the object of the 
 -action denoted hy strikes ; and in the sentence, "He went from Lon- 
 don to York," York is the object of the relation denoted by the prepo- 
 sition to. 
 
 345. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 Nominative case, 
 Possessive case, 
 Objective case, 
 
 Singular. 
 Mother, 
 M other's, 
 Mother, 
 
 Plural. Singular. 
 
 Mothers. Man, 
 
 Mothers'. Man's, 
 
 Mothers. Man, 
 
 Plural. 
 Men. 
 Men's. 
 Men. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 The 2'>ossessive case is governed by the following- noun. 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.' 
 ''John's ici/e retHrned.^\ 
 
 .346. John's is a proper noun, of the biascultne gender, the third 
 PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, POSSESSIVE CASE, and governed bj- wife, by 
 Rule I. 
 
 ■:, Wife is a coMAioN noun, of the feminine gender, the third person, 
 SINGULAR NUAiBiiiR, and NOMINATIVE CASE to returned, by Rule VI. 
 
 Returned is an intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, imper- 
 fect TENSE—"!, I returned; 2, You returned; 3, He returned, or 
 wife returned" — made in the third person, singular, a«d agrees 
 withwi/e, by Rule VIL • 
 
 When the plural noun does not 
 eiid in s, how is its possessive 
 formed ? 340. Give an example. 
 
 When the singular ends ia ss, 
 how is the possessive case form- 
 ed ? 341. Give an example.' 
 
 How is the possessive case of 
 nouns ending in nee formed ? 342. 
 Give an example. 
 
 Why is not the s added? 342. 
 
 What does the word objective 
 mean? 55. 
 
 What does the objective ease of 
 nouns denote? 343. Give an ex- 
 ample. 
 
 What does the declension of 
 nouns mean? 6S. 
 
 Will you decline mother? 345. 
 man ? brother f hat ? 
 
 Will you repeal the rule for the 
 possessive case? Rule I. 
 
 In the sentence, "John's wife 
 returned," will you parse John's? 
 wife? returned? 346. 
 
 Why is John's in the possessive 
 case? 337. 
 
 What kind of a verb is returned? 
 
 ^ Why? 153. 
 
 In what case is wife? 346. 
 
 Why? 335. 
 
 7^"- TKe pupil may next 2^(t,rse 
 the additional exercises in syntax. 
 
NOUNS. 
 
 49 
 
 MORE EXERCISES IN SYNTAX 
 
 " Zl!:i^:jS:^:r'' " ^■";=;"^rif«'•» -'«. remaned 
 
 "Joh" ^^^l^f ^^''•" "^^:'!''^'' J"""- "'^ Die. 
 
 li n^u 1- I «... injuniv- 
 
 "The boys neglected their les- " Mary's bonnet is old." 
 
 •iT,f.°"^' • • ""V'irtue's reward is sure." r2) 
 
 Intemperance ruins Its votaries." ''Rufus's hat is new." ^ 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
 ^^ Brothers estate.^' 
 
 tof.LrYafn''wher!",V^^f°::^^'''",^^'^"'"P'^' 5'"" ^^''I fin<J ''t difficult 
 to ascertain whether the estate is the property of one brother or more • 
 
 e.tate- bu V.'; ^.'T'^^'r '^°"'^ P-'-^di the .. thus: "Brother's' 
 f.i . '.I 1 ^ belongs to more than one, an apostrophe should 
 
 follow the ., thus: '' Brothers' estate." Mistakes of this sort of ea 
 
 th^: sui/e:? of ^.ran^m^r!^^^ ''' ^'"^^^^^^"^^' '" -^^^^"^' o^attendin'^to 
 
 " J/a»«' happiness.''' 
 348. Irtcorrect, because mans is in the possessive case singular 
 number, and, therefore, the apostrophe should be place?beVre fl i / 
 according to the observations above, and Art. 33S. ' 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. 
 
 ;; ^°''"' ^"°" departed." uj discovered Marias faults." * 
 
 Susans sister will learn." « Susan made little Harriets boa- 
 " Charles task is too difficult." net " ^ 
 
 " I have read Willi's poem." " Johnson makes mens shoes." 
 
 exercises' TO BE \VRITTEN.=^ 
 319. Will you write down two sentences, each containing a proper 
 noun, as, for example, - William learns grammar ?" One, containfn^ 
 a common noun ? One, containing a noun of the third person sin4! 
 oL ,0"^°^^'^^ third person plural, and in the nominative cale^ 
 Une, having a noun of the second person singular, and of the femi- 
 nine gender? One, having a noun the name of some article of food ^ 
 One, having a noun the name of some quality ? One, having a noun 
 ot niult'tude ? One, havijig your own name associated wiUi booji: - 
 as, "John Griscoms book ?" ■ -' 
 
 In the phrase, "Brothers es- the po^essive case ^nouns' 
 
 late,' does one brother, or more 33S ^">i» . 
 
 than one, own the estate ? 347. Will you now parse magi's ? 
 
 Why can not you tell? We spell the 'possessive case 
 
 If only one brother is meant, of man thus, m-a.71 (apostrophe) 
 
 nraced'^Hn.^'T ^'^^^^''.^l^he be .; will you in like n\aLer pel 
 
 placed? How, If more than one? the posscssiveof J.Am ? WimL? 
 
 In he phrase, "Mans'happi- R?ifus? ,rome7i? bo^s? 
 
 ness, why is it incorrect for the jm- The remainins; exercises 
 
 What IS the rule for forming 
 
 (1) Active-transitive verb. (2) Adjective, and belonps to reward, by Rule IV 
 •'• Lithcr^on a .slate or m a ?mall niann.cript book kept for the pm-posc 
 
50 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 XXIX. OF ARTICLES. 
 
 3f)0. Articles ore words put before nouns lo point thoni out, or 
 to limit their meaning. 
 
 351. There are two articles — a or an, and the. 
 
 352. A or an is called the indefinite article. 
 
 353. The is called the definite article. 
 
 354. The article a is called indefinite, because it means no particu- 
 lar person or thing; as, "a house," "a man" — that is. «^2y house, flj;?y 
 man. The article the is called definite, because it means some par- 
 ticular person or thing- ; as, " ^7(6 house," "^Aeman," meaning some 
 particular house, some particular man. 
 
 355. A becomes an before a vowel, and before a silent h ; as, " an 
 acorn," -^ an hour." But If- the h be sounded, the a only is used ; as 
 '•'■ a, hand." "« heart ;" except when the word before which the article 
 is placed has its accent on the second syllable; as, '■^ an heroic 
 action," '■'■an historical account." 
 
 356. Before words beginninja: with u long, a is used instead of an ; 
 as, "« union," " o university," " a useful thing." 
 
 357. A is also used for an before the word one, because, in pro- 
 nouncing one, we sound it as if written ivnn. 
 
 358. The article a or an means one; as, '•'■an ounce," "a pound" — 
 that is, one ounce, one pound. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 Th^ indefinite article a or an helovgs to noiins of the si^ignlar number. 
 
 EXILE III. 
 
 TJie d-efinite article the helonga to noxins of the singular or plural 
 
 nnmber. 
 
 350. Exception. When the adjectivesyi'70, great many, dozen, hnn- 
 dred,thousand, etc., come between the noun and article, the noun to 
 which the indefinite article belongs is plural,- as, "a few men," " a 
 great many men." 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 '^ Th.e bird flies stoifthf.''^ 
 
 360. The is a definite article, and belongs to bird, according to 
 Rule III. 
 
 XXIX. What is an article ? 350. 
 
 What does definite mean ? 78. 
 
 What is ^//c called? 353. Why? 
 354. Give an exnmple. 
 
 What does indefinite mean ? SI. 
 
 What is a or an called ? 352. 
 Why? 354. Give an example. 
 
 How many ariicJes are there ? 
 351. Name them. 
 
 When does a become an? 355. 
 Give an example. 
 
 But if the h is sounded, whi<'h 
 is to he used ? 355, Give an ex- 
 ample. 
 
 355. 
 
 an 
 an 
 
 What exception to this ? 
 GiA'e an example. 
 
 Do we say " a union," or 
 union?" "a university," or 
 university?" Why? 356. 
 
 Do we say, ''a one," or ^' an 
 one? Why? 357. 
 
 What does the article a mean ? 
 358. Give an example. 
 
 What is the rule for the indeti- 
 nite article ? Rule IT. 
 
 What exception to this rule? 359, 
 
 What is the rule for the definite 
 article ? Rule III, 
 
At)JECTIVES. 51 
 
 fiird is a COMMON noun, of the common gender, the third person, 
 
 SINGULAR NUMBER, and ill the NOMINATIVB CASE tO //j'es, by RuLE VI. 
 
 F/i'ea is an active intransitive verb, indicative mood, present 
 TENSE — "], I fly; "2, You fly ; 3, He flies, or bird flies" — made in the 
 THIRD person, SINGULAR, and agrees with bird, by Rule VII. 
 
 Swiftly is an adverb, qnahfying^tes, by Rule IX. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
 
 " The boys have arrived season- " Children attend the school." 
 
 ably. '' Wilham founded a university." 
 
 " Galileo invented tlie telescope." •' The grass is green." 
 
 "The boy had an ulcer." "Fanners carry hay into the 
 
 "William gave an historical ac- barn." 
 
 count (1) of the transaction." "The good scholar obeys his in- 
 
 " Columbus discovered the conti- structor." 
 
 nent of America." 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
 
 '^ He had a ulcer." 
 
 3G1. Incorrect, because we use a» .before a vowel, except ?/ long ; 
 o should, iHerefore, be an; thus, "an ulcer." 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. 
 
 "A enemy approaches." "Three barley-corns make a 
 
 "James procured a inkstand," inch." 
 
 " He conferred a honor." " Eight drams make a ounce." 
 
 "An unit figure occupies the low- "They formed an union." 
 est place in whole numbers." "He quoted an hard saying." 
 
 "Thomas has lost an horse." 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 36'i. Will you write down two sentences, using in one the definite, 
 and in the other the indefinite article? One, containing « correctly 
 used before u long? One, having a definite article correctly used 
 before the consonant h? 
 
 "Will you write two nouns, the names of diflerent things in the 
 school-room? Two, the names of diflerent cities? One sentence, 
 having a proper noun used as a common noun ? 
 
 XXX. OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 363. An Adjectia^k is a word joined to a noun, to describe or define 
 It ; as, "An obedient son." 
 
 In the sentence, "the bird flies ^^^ The pupil khottld now take 
 swiftly," how do you parse the f the remaining sentences to be correct- 
 bird ? Jlien ? fwiftlii I 3G0. ed. Be should be required to parse 
 
 ^^^The remainin// exercisen are as rccll, as correct them, 
 
 next to be parsed fror.i the book. XXX. What is the meaning of 
 
 Would you say, "a ulcer," or the word adjective? 95. 
 
 " an ulcer f 36 1 . What is an adjective ? 363. Give 
 
 Why? 361. an example. 
 
 (1) Apply Rule VIII. 
 
5S 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 364. Iri English, an adjective is varied only to express the degrees 
 of comparison. There are thr»='e degrees of comparison — the positive, 
 the comparative, and the superlative.' 
 
 365. Tiie positive degree simply describes an object; as, "John is 
 
 366. The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in 
 meaning; as, "William is ie^erthan .Tohn." It implies a comparison 
 between two. 
 
 367. The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the 
 highest or lowest degree; as, ('Thomas is the best;" "■ Walter is the 
 worst. '^ 
 
 368. It implies a comparison between three or more. 
 
 369. The simple word, or positive, if a monosyllable, (1) becomes 
 the comparative by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding s4.or 
 est to the end of it; as, tnise, wiser, wisest ; great, greater, greatest. 
 
 370. In words of more than one syllable, the comparative is usually 
 made by placing the adverbs more and most before the positive ; as, 
 benevolent, more benevolent, most benevolent. 
 
 371. The comparative is sometimes formed by the adverbs less and 
 least ; as wise, less wise, least wise. 
 
 372. Dissyllables (2) ending in y, as happy, lovely ; and. in le, after 
 a mute, (3) as able, ample ; or accented on the last syllable, as, dis- 
 creet, 2^oltte, easily admit of er and est; as hajipier, hapipiest ; abler, 
 ablest^ etc. Words of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of 
 these terminations. 
 
 373. In some words the superlative is formed by adding the adverb 
 most to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, vpjjermost, 
 
 374. Some adjectives, having in themselves a superlative significa3 
 tion, do not admit of comparison ; as, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, 
 infinite, ceaseless, sii2)reme, omnipotent, eternal. 
 
 375. By adding ish to adjectives, we have a slight degree of com- 
 parison below the positive; as, blach, blackish; salt, saltish. 
 
 How many degrees of compari- 
 son are there? 364. 
 
 Will you name them 1 
 
 What does the positive degree 
 do? 365. 
 
 Give an example. 
 
 What does the comparative de- 
 gree do? 366. Give an example. 
 
 What does it imply? 366. 
 
 What does superlative mean ? 
 103. 
 
 What does the superlative de- 
 gree do ? 367. 
 
 Give an example. 
 
 What does it imply? 363. 
 
 What is a monosyllable ? 369. 
 
 How are monosyllables com- 
 pared? 369. Give an example. 
 
 How are dissyllables compar- 
 ed ? 372. 
 
 What effect do less and least 
 have on adjectives? 371. 
 
 What is a dissyllable ? 372. . 
 
 Will you spell the comparative 
 and superlative degrees of able ? 
 lovely? ample? discreet? polite? 
 372. 
 
 Which are the mutes ? 372. 
 
 How do words of more than 
 two 'Syllables almost invariably 
 form their comparison' 372. 
 
 Is ;ofir/cc< compared? Why ? 374. 
 
 Will you name several others 
 that are not compared ? 374. 
 
 How is the superlative formed 
 in tiie word dipper? 373. 
 
 What is the effect of ish addc^ 
 to adjectives ? 375. 
 
 Give an example. 
 
 (1) A word of one syllable. (2) A word of two syllabi ©e. 
 
 (3) h, 7i%p, t, and c and g hard, are mutes. 
 
ADJECTIVES. Bit 
 
 376. Very expresses a degree of quality, but not the highest ; as, 
 " good," " «Jery good." 
 
 377. Words used in counting and numbering arc called numeral 
 adjectives ; as, o)ie, two, three ; jirst, second, third. These adjectives 
 are not compared. 
 
 378. An adjective put without a noun, with the definite article be- 
 fore it-, becomes a noun in sense and meaning, and maybe considered 
 as such in parsing; as, "Providence rewards the good, and punishes 
 the bad.'' 
 
 RULE IV. 
 Adjectiocs belong to the nouns tohCch they describe. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 " John is sincere." 
 
 379. John is a rnoPER noun, of the thiud peuson, singular num- 
 ber, MASCULINE GENDEH, and in the nominative case to i«, by Rule VI. 
 
 Is is a NEUTER verb, in the indicative mood, present tense — "1, 
 lam; 2, You are; 3, He or John is" — made in the third person 
 SINGULAR, and agrees with John^ according to Rule VII. 
 
 Sincere is an adjective — "sincere, more sincere, most sincere" — 
 made in the positive degree, and belongs to John^ by Rule IV. 
 
 exercises in syntax continued. 
 
 " You are studious." "One man has come." 
 
 " John is more studious." " Two men have departed." 
 
 " William is most studious." "Twenty men will sail." 
 
 " Mary is intelligent." "James wrote his name on the 
 " James is active." first page." 
 
 *' Thomas is less active." " Here comes a great ma-n." 
 
 " Charles is hai)py." "Here comes a greater man." 
 
 " Mary is tall. Susan is taller." " Here comes the greatest man." 
 
 " No composition is perfect." "The first fleet contained five 
 '* Religion makes its votaries hundred men." 
 
 happy/' 
 
 XXXI. 
 
 380. Double comparatives and superlatives, since they add nothing 
 to the sense, should be avoided; as, worser^raore wiser, etc.; also, less- 
 er, supremsst, most ivfinite, etc. 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 Q. Will you write down two sentences, each containing a differ- 
 ,ent adjective in the positive degree? Two, with adjectives in the 
 
 What is the force of very in In the phrase, "John is sin- 
 comparison? 370. cere," hew do you parse John f 
 
 What are numeral adjectives? is f sincere? 379. Why is sincere 
 
 377. Give an example. Are they in the positive degree ? 365. Why 
 
 compared? 377. do you call is a neuter verb ? 167. 
 
 Will you spell the comparative ^^^ Let the pvinl next take the 
 
 and su])erlative degrees of good ? exercises that follow, and parse as 
 
 ill ? much ? little / before. 
 
 • When is an adjective to be con- XXXI. Is it correct to say, "A 
 
 sidered a noun ? 37«S. lesser evil ?" 
 
 What is the rule for the adjec- Wiiy not. 380. 
 tive? IV. 
 
54 
 
 ENGLISH GRA.MMAR. 
 
 comparative degree ? Two, with adjectives in the superlative de- 
 gree ? 
 
 Q. Will you supply such adjectives in the following sentences as 
 
 will make sense? "A boy studies his lesson." "A boy 
 
 deserves punishment." "A • man helps the man." " Mer- 
 chants own ships." "The instructor loves scholars." 
 
 *' William is a scholar, Rul'us is a one, but Thomas is the 
 
 one that I ever saw." 
 
 ^ XXXII. OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 381. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a nouu, to avoid a dis- 
 agreeable repetition of the noun. 
 
 382. A pjiBSONAL PRONOUN is SO called because it invariably repre- 
 sents the same person. There are five personal pronouns — I, thou 
 or you, HE, SHE, IT. They have person, number, and case, like 
 nouns ; and those of the third person have gender also. 
 
 383. /is the first person, thou the second, he, she, or it, the third. 
 Me is masculine, she is feminine, and it is neuter. 
 
 384. Pronouns, like nouns, have three cases — the nominative, the 
 possessive, and the objective; and two numbers — the singular and 
 plural. 
 
 385. 3fine and thine, instead of my and thi/, were formerly used in 
 the solemn style, before nouns and adjectives beginning with a vowel 
 or silent h; as, " Blot out all mine iniquities." 
 
 Will you correct the following 
 inaccuracies in comparison as I 
 read them to you ? 
 
 " He is intelligenter." 
 
 "She is the most wisest." 
 
 *' A worser evil." 
 
 " William is a bad boy; Joseph 
 Is a worser one." 
 
 " He gave a more stronger 
 proof of the fact than the other." 
 
 '• The pleasures of the mind are 
 more (1) preferable than those of 
 the body." 
 . "That table is round, but this 
 is a rounder ona, and that is the 
 roundest of the three." 
 
 " This is more square." 
 
 "A more greater concern." 
 
 " The most fairest of all the 
 daughters of Eve." 
 
 "His mother's extremest joy." 
 
 XXXII. What does the word 
 prono^iii signiiy? 120. 
 
 What is a pronoun ? 381. 
 
 Why is a personal pronoun so 
 called ? 382. 
 
 How many personal pronouns 
 
 are there, and what are they? 
 332. 
 
 Why is this number said to in- 
 clude all the pronouns ? 134. 
 
 Which is the first person? the 
 second? the third? 353. 
 
 To which of the pronouns do 
 we apply gender ? 3S3« 
 
 Why is not gender applied to 
 the first and second persons ? 136. 
 
 Which is masculine? Which 
 feminine? Which neuter? 383. 
 
 How many cases have pro- 
 nouns, and what are they? 384. 
 
 How many numbers ? 384. 
 
 Will you decline I? thou? he f 
 she? it? 127. 
 
 Of what number and person is 
 mine ? ours ? me ? we ? they F thine ? 
 
 yon 7 yours . 
 
 127. 
 
 Of what gender, numbei', and 
 person is he? she? it? ^ 
 
 Of what number, person, and 
 case is tJtey ? ours ? his ? hers ? 
 mine ? 
 
 In what style were mine and 
 thine formerlv used ? 385. 
 
 (1) For more praferahle than, read preferable to. 
 
PRONOUNS. 
 
 5rj 
 
 XXXriI. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 386. Compound personal proaouiLs are formed by addinjj the word 
 «e//; 111 the plural selves, to the simple pronouns; as.'kimsd/', thevmelveo, 
 eic. . ■" ' 
 
 PERSON. 
 Fir at- 
 
 Second. 
 
 Third. 
 
 CASK. 
 Koin . 
 Pose. 
 Ohj. 
 I^om. 
 
 Poag. 
 Ohj. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Pose. 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Poaa. 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Pass. 
 
 Obj. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Myself, 
 Wanting. 
 Myself, 
 Thyself, or ) 
 Yourself, j 
 
 Thyself, or ) 
 Yourself, j 
 Himself, 
 
 Himself, 
 Herself, 
 
 Herself, 
 Itself, 
 
 Itself; 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Ourselves. 
 
 Ourselves. 
 Yourselves. 
 
 Yourselves. 
 Themselves. 
 
 Themselves. 
 Themselves. 
 
 Themselves. 
 Themselves. 
 
 Themselves. 
 
 EULE V. 
 
 Pronouns must agree with the nounn for which they stand, in gender, 
 number, and 2}er8on. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 '^^ John found his knife.'^ 
 
 387. John is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the third 
 PEHsoN, singular NUMBER, and NOMINATIVE CASE \o found, by Rule 
 
 Found is an active-transitive verb, in the indicative mood im- 
 perfect tense— " 1, 1 found ; 2, You found: 3, He or John found"— 
 made m the third person singular, and agrees with John, by RijLtj 
 
 His is a PERSONAL pronoun, of the third person singular, mascu- 
 line gender, and agrees with .Foha, according to Rule V; in the 
 POSSESSIVE CASE, and governed by i-nife, by Rule I. 
 
 Knife is a common noun, of the third person singular, neuter 
 GENDER, the objective CASE, and governed by found, according to 
 Rule VIII. ° 
 
 XXXIII. How are the com- 
 pound personal pronouns formed ' 
 3SG. 
 
 What is the rule for the agree- 
 ment of personal pronouns in the 
 phrase, "John found his knife?' 
 
 How do you parse John ? 3S7. 
 Will you purse John, in the 
 
 plirase, " John found his knife?" 
 387. 
 
 Will you parse found? his? 
 knife? 387. 
 
 J^^^ The learner should next 
 par.se (he remaining exei'cises in 
 Sj/n tax from the, book, and then fa/l'<f 
 thr fxrrci.iefi to be written. 
 
56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
 1. 
 
 •'. Fames obtained his request." "Ye despise reproof." 
 
 '• 1 will assist you." "They iiiend their pens." 
 
 "He will receive his reward." "Mary tore her, handkerchief." 
 
 "She misused hhn." "Virtue has its reward." 
 
 "Sin ruins its votaries." "She deceived them." 
 
 2. 
 
 "An indulgent father will reprove "John is in distress, and I will 
 
 his son when (1) he deserves assist him." 
 
 it." " I found Mary and her mother in 
 "A dutiful son gladdens the hearts trouble, and (2) comfortecT (3) 
 
 of his parents." them." 
 
 EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Q. Will yoy compose two sentences, each having a different per- 
 .sonal jironoun of the first person? One, having a pronoun of the first 
 person plural ? 
 
 Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable pronouns, 
 so as to make sense? " — lost my hat, but found — again." "Let 
 Harriet have — book, for — will need — to get her lesson." "The 
 travellers lost — way, and the boys conducted — to — homes." 
 
 Q. Will yon fill i>p the following broken sentences with suitable 
 
 words to make sense ? " Intemperance evil." " Washington 
 
 father of his ." "Columbus America." "Richmond 
 
 inhabitants." "The ocean is miles wide." " 
 
 first man." 
 
 XXXIV. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 3S8. In the sentence, "Both wealth and poverty are temptations — 
 that tends to excite pride, tliis discontent" — you perceive that the word 
 that represents wealth, and the word this poverty. This and that do, 
 therefore, resemble pronouns, and may, for this reason, be called pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 389. When I say, "This house is mine, that barn is yours'," the 
 words this and that are joined to nouns like adjectives, to define or 
 specify them ; they maj'^, on this account, be called adjectives. 
 
 390. Adjective pronouns, then, are words that resemble both pro- 
 nouns and adjectives. Those pronouns are sometimes called pronom- 
 inal adjectives, or specifying adjectives. 
 
 391. The ADJECTIVE puonouns may be divided into three sorts — the 
 distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. 
 
 XXXIV. What are adjective which these words resemble pro- 
 pronouns ? 390. nouns? 388. *, 
 
 Why are they so called? 388, One in which they resemble ad- 
 
 3S9. jectivcs? 389. 
 
 By wljat other name have these Into. how many sorts may these 
 
 pronouns been called? 390. pronouns be divided, and what arc 
 
 Will you give an example in they? 391. 
 
 (1) Advtub. (2) Ooiijuuctiou. * (3) Apply llulo XI. 
 
PRONOUNS. 57 
 
 392. The distributive are those that relate to persons or Ihincs 
 tak^jn separately and singly. ' 
 
 393. DISTRIBUTIVE (1) PRONOUNS. 
 Each, every, eithei;, and sometimes neither. 
 
 394. Each relates to two or more persons or things, taken separ- 
 ately, as " Each of his brothers is doing well." 
 
 395. Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each 
 cue of them, taken separately; as ''Every man must account for him- 
 self." 
 
 396. Either relates to two persons or things only, taken separately, 
 and signifies the one or the other ; as " 1 have not seen cither." IIei;ce. 
 to say, " Either of the three," is incorrect. 
 
 397. Neither means not either; that is, not one nor the other: as 
 " JS either oi my friends was there." 
 
 398. The demonstrauve (2) pronouns are those which precisely 
 point out the things to which they relate. 
 
 399. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 Sing- Pin. 
 
 This, Thkse. 
 
 That, Those. 
 
 , Former, Former. 
 
 Latter, Latter. 
 
 400. This and these refer to the nearest persons or things— ^/mf and 
 those to the most distant; as ^' The.^e flowers are superior to those." 
 'Both wealth and poverty arc temptations; that tends to excite pride, 
 
 this discontent." • 
 
 401. Tiie indefinite are those that refer to things in an indefinite or 
 general manner. 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 402. Some, other, any, one, all, sech, none. Of these pronouns 
 one afid other are declined like nouns. Another is declined in the sin- 
 g ular, but it wants the plural. 
 
 Sivg. piu. 
 
 403. Norn. Other, Others. 
 
 Poss. Other's, Others'. 
 
 ^h'- Other, Others. 
 
 What is a distributive pronoun? What are demonstrative pro- 
 
 392. nouns? 398. 
 
 Why is it so called ? 393. Which are they ? 399. 
 
 Which are they ? 393. . Which are singular? 399. Which 
 
 What does each refer to? 394. plural? 399 
 
 Give an example. What do this and these refer to ? 
 
 What does cvcnj relate to ? 395. 400. 
 
 Give an example. What do that and those refer to ? 
 
 W hat does either relate to ? 396. Give an example. 400.- 
 
 Give an example. What docs indernrite mean ? 81. 
 
 What does neither mean ? 397. What is an indclinitc pronoun? 
 
 Uhat docs demonstrative mean? 401. 
 
 398 
 
 Which are they? 402. 
 
 Will you decline other? 403. 
 
 (1) So called from distrihuic. to divide, among several. 
 (-) So called from dimonsirate, to ^n-ove or show precisdy. 
 
fJS EN0U8H GRAMMAR. 
 
 Sing. Flu. 
 
 404. Norn. One, Ones. 
 
 Pos>i. One's, Ones'. 
 
 ObJ. One, Ones. 
 
 We say, "This boolc," but ''These books;" also, "One man," 
 "Twetily men:" hence, 
 
 405. Note 1. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree Id num- 
 ber with the nouns to which ihey belong. 
 
 EXERCISES m SYNTAX. 
 
 « 
 
 '' These two books beloiry to wze." 
 
 40(3. These is an ad.tectivk pronoun of the dk.moxstrative kind, iu 
 the PLURAL NUMBER, and belongs to books, according to Novb I. 
 Tiro is a NUjiKUAL ADJF.cnvR, and belongs to hooka, by Note I. 
 JBookb, belong, etc., are par.sed as before. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINURD. 
 
 " Every man performs his part in " These men might remain with 
 
 creation." us." 
 
 "Each man arrived at his station." "Those men make many pre- 
 
 " Either parly can repair the inju- tences to religion." 
 
 ry." "AH rational beings dipsire happi- 
 
 "Some persons can not acquire ness." 
 
 weahh." " By application almost any boy 
 
 " Many people obtain riches with may acquire an honorablw 
 
 apparently little exertion." rank in his class." 
 
 "One boy labors for His improve- "Good and virtuous men will 
 
 meat." sooner (1) or later (1) attain 
 
 "This man neglects his alTairs." to happiness." 
 
 " The old bird feeds her young o?jes." 
 407. Ones is an indefinite pronoun, representing birds ; in the com- 
 mon gendi:r, third person plural, in the objective case, and gov- 
 erned h\j feeds y agreeably to E,ule VIII. 
 
 EXERCISISS IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
 
 "Oneboy influencesmanyolhers." others spend their time in idle- 
 "None act their part loo well." ne.->s ; the former will, receive 
 "Some scholars study diUgenilyj praise, the latter censure." 
 
 We can not .'Jay -'Them run," but "They rim:" hence, 
 Note II. When a noun or pronoun. is the subject of the verb, it 
 should be in the nominative case. 
 
 Will you decline one? 401. feeds her young ones," will you 
 
 What note do you apply in pars- parse ones t 107. 
 
 ing adjective pronouns ? Norsl. Will you correct by Note I the 
 
 In the jthrase, "These two following examples as 1 read tliern 
 
 books," etc., will you parse iheae'f to yon ? 
 
 tico ?■ 40G. " He will not "come this two 
 
 Will you now take the book hours." 
 
 and parse the remaining exer- " I dislike those sort of book.s." 
 
 cises under Note I? "I have two canes ; you may 
 
 In the phrase, "The old bird have any of them." 
 
 (1) Advprb. 
 
PRONCUNal. 
 
 59 
 
 It is very common for persons in conversation to say, ''Them 
 books," ''Them knives," etc., instead of "Those books," "Those 
 knives," etc. The incorrectness here alluded to consists in substi- 
 tuting a jicrsonal in the place of an adjective pronoun: hence, 
 
 Note III. The pronoun them should not be used in the place of <7te«« 
 or those. 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different adjec- 
 tive pronoun ? One, having a demonstrative pronoun ? One, having 
 an indefinite pronoun used as a noun ? 
 
 Q. Will you fill up with pronouns suitable to make sense the fol- 
 lowing phrases ? " When Harriet found — book, — tore — , and then 
 liuiig — away." " — man likes — larm, — merchandise." 
 
 Q. Will you compose a proper example under Rule I? One under 
 Rule II? Rule III? Rule IV? RuleV? Rule VI? 
 
 XXXV. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 408. In the sentence, ''That man' is happy who lives virtuously," 
 the word %oho is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun (the noun 
 man), and it is a relative, because it relates or refers to this noun in 
 the same sentence: hence, 
 
 409. A relative pronoun is a word that usually stands for some nouu 
 before it in the same sentence. 
 
 410. There are three relative pronouns, viz : 
 '111. Who, which, and that. 
 
 41^. Who'xs used in speakfng of persons ; as, "The man who came." 
 
 413. Which is useil in speaking of animals or things; as, *' The 
 bird 7vhick sings," "The tree which I planted." 
 
 414. IVhich^ however, is used iii speaking of persons, when we 
 wish to distinguish one of two individuals, or a particular person 
 among many others; as, "Which of the two is he?" "Which of 
 them has gone? " 
 
 Do we say " Thet/ run," or 
 " Them run ?" Why ? Note II. 
 
 Will you now. correct by Note 
 II the following examples as I 
 read them to you ? 
 
 " Them will go." 
 
 "Him and me went to church." 
 
 "Art thee well?" 
 
 "Him who is diligent will im- 
 prove." 
 
 Would you say " Them knives," 
 or " 77tc«e knives?" .Why? III. 
 
 In what does the incorrectness 
 consist? HI. 
 
 Will you correct the following 
 expressions? 
 
 "Them boys are very idle." 
 
 " Bring me them pens." 
 
 " Which of I hem three things do 
 you prefer?'' 
 
 ^^^** The 2)upil )nay next take the 
 exercises to be written. 
 
 XXXV. In the sentence, "That 
 man is happy who lives virtu- 
 ously," what part of speech is who? 
 Why? 408. What kind? Why? 
 408. 
 
 What is a relative pronoun? 
 409. 
 
 Will you name them? 411. 
 
 Wlien do wc use who ? Give 
 an example. 412. 
 
 When do we use which? Give 
 an example. 413. 
 
 In what cases do we use which, 
 in speaking of persons? Give an 
 example. 411. 
 
60 ENOUSn GRAMMAR. 
 
 415, That, as a relative, is often used, in speaking either of persons 
 or things, in the place of 'ivlto or ivhrcit ; as, 
 
 "The boy that reads," or, " The boy who reads ; " "The bird that 
 flew," or, "The bird which flew j " "The bench that was made," or, 
 "The bench which was made." 
 
 That is used in preference Vo who or ivhich., in the following cases: 
 
 1. In speaking both of persons and things; as, "The man and the 
 beast that I saw, perished.'' 
 
 2. In speaking of children ; as, "The child that I met." 
 
 3. After the adjective same ^ as, "He is the same nian that we saw 
 yesterday." 
 
 4. Alter the superlative degree; as, "He is the wisest man that 
 the world ever produced." 
 
 5. After the relative who ; as, " Who that reflects." 
 
 415 — 1. Exception. That, as a relative, can not take the preposi- 
 tion immediately before it; as, "He is the same man with that you 
 were acquainted." For with that, read with whom. It is remarkable, 
 however, that, when the arrangement is a little varied, the word 
 that admits the preposition ; as, " He is the same man that you were 
 acquainted with." 
 
 416 — 1. We can say, "The man who," or "The men who," using 
 the relative wAo in speaking either of one man or more than one; 
 wlio, then, is of both numbers, and is thus declined: 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. Who, Who. 
 
 Poss. Whose, Whose. * 
 
 Ohj. ' Whom, Whom. 
 
 417. Which and that are of both numbers, but they are not declined, 
 except that whose is sometimes used as t lie possessive case of which; 
 as, " Is there any other doctrine ichose followers are punished V 
 
 41S. Whose, used in the manner last described, is made to repre- 
 sent three words; as, "Philosophy whose end," for "the end of 
 which." 
 
 419. Antecedent signiiies going before. 
 
 420. The noun or pronoun which goes before the relative, and to 
 which the relative refers, is ihereibre called the antecedent of the 
 relative; as, " John, who has gone." Here, John is the antecedent 
 of who. 
 
 421. When you are told that who, 7i'hich,a.i\d z7<«f*are relatives, you 
 should not get the impression that the last two are always relatives; 
 for that is. a relative only when it is used in the sense of who or tvhich ; 
 that is, when who or tvhich may be used in its place, without destroy- 
 When may that be used ? 415. How many numbers have which 
 Is it correct to say, " The child and that ? Are they declined? 417. 
 
 who?" Why not? "The same man What exception to this? 417. 
 who?" Why noti "The wisest When 'ti'/fo.se is used as the pos- 
 
 man which?" Why not? "Who, sessive case of Wt?cA, how many 
 
 who reflects?" Why not? 415 — 1, words does it represent ? Give an 
 
 2,3/4,5. example? 418. 
 
 What exception is mentioned? What is the meaning of antece- 
 
 415—1. Give an example. 415 — 1. dent'^ 419. 
 
 How many numbers has whol What is the antecedent of a 
 
 410. pronoun ? Give an example. 420. 
 
 Will you decline it? 416—1. Is that always a relative? 421. 
 
PRONOUNS. 61 
 
 ing the sense; as, "Here is the knife that 1 fouad," which can be 
 altered to "Here is the knife which I found," without injury to the 
 sense. 
 
 422. Tkat, when it points out or specifies some particular person 
 or thing, is reckoned an adjective pronoun. "When not used as a 
 relatire, nor as an adjective pronoun, it is reckoned a conjunction; 
 as, " He studies that he may learn." 
 
 423. Hence it appears that the word that may be used sometimes 
 as a relative pronoun, sometimes as an adjective pronoun, and some- 
 times as a conjunction. 
 
 424. Since relative pronouns stand for nouns, as well as personal 
 pronouns, they should therefore agree with nouns in the same par- 
 ticulars and by the same rule. Rule V will therefore apply to both. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 " That vian is happy who lives virtuously.'''' 
 
 42-5. That is a ukmon.strative pronoux, of the singular number, 
 and belongs to man, by Note I. 
 
 Who is a RELATIVE PRONOtTN, of the MASCULINE GENDKR, THIRD 
 
 PERSON si\GULAR, and agrees with man^ by Rule V. It is in the 
 NOMiNATVE CASE to lives^ according to Rule VI. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
 
 "That man is fortunate who es- "I met the same man in the 
 
 capes censure." market to-day (1) that I met 
 
 "The girl whom [ saw, perished." yesterday in the street." 
 
 "You, who came first, should re- '"That house, whicli stands on the 
 
 tire first." hill, once (I) belonged to me." 
 
 "You taught the boy whose hat I " The bov whom I instruct learns 
 
 found." welh" 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
 " The man which I saioy 
 426. Incorrect; because, in speaking of persons, who, whose^ or 
 whom is .generally to be used. It should therefore read, "The man 
 wliom I saw." 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. 
 
 " The bird whom I killed had made "Thou who are in 'prosperity 
 her nest." nlust assist me in adversity." 
 
 "The man which visited me has "He which shuns vice does 
 left town." generally practice virtue." 
 
 " That man is happy whom is vir- " I, who lives by your charity, 
 tuous." * ■ should be grateful." 
 
 When is it a relative? (Jive an Will you parse that, in the 
 
 example. 421. phrase "That man ?" 42.'5. 
 
 When is that an adjective pro- In the sentence, "That man is 
 
 noun? Give an exnmple. 422. happy who lives virtuously," will 
 
 When a conjunction? Give an you parse toh-ol 42-'). 
 
 example. 422. Will you now lake the book and 
 
 How many different parts of parse the remaining exercises ? 
 
 speech may ^7u7/ represent? 423. Instead of saying, "The man 
 
 What is the rule for the agree- which I saw," what should I say ? 
 
 ment of relative pronouns? 424. Why? 426. 
 
 • (1) Adverb. 
 
62 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE WEITTEN. 
 
 Q. Will you construct a .sentence containing the relntive who ? 
 One, containing vhich ? One containing ttiat ? 
 
 Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with relatives correctly* 
 
 Tised ? " The man sims shall die." '' The boy studies will 
 
 learn." " The bird sung so sweetly has flown." Will you fill 
 
 up the following with on«^ or more words that will make sense? 
 " Intemperance evils." '* If truth sori-y." 
 
 Q. Will you embrace in diflerent sentences each of the following 
 words? Waskir/gtoii,* Colzcmbiis, Cajytain, Coofc, Indians^ Wisdom^ 
 Riches, James Motiroe ? 
 
 XXXVI. OF COMPOUND AND INTERROGATIVE PRO- 
 NOUNS. 
 
 427. *' I took 7^7/ ^< you gave me." 
 
 " I took that ivhirh you gave me." 
 
 " I took the th'mg irhich you gave me." 
 
 " I took thu.se things which you gave me." 
 42S. Ky examining the foregoing sentences, you will see that tho 
 word what, in the first example, means the same as the words in 
 italics in the successive ones: the word what^ then, is clearly a pro- 
 noun ; and because it stands for more than one word, it is called a 
 compound pronoun. The word before the relative which, in the 
 phrase "that which," or "the thing which," is the antecedent of «i'A?>/). 
 Hence, 
 
 429. What is a compound relative pronoun, including both tho 
 antecedent and the relative, and is generally equivalent to that 
 
 WHICH. 
 
 430. Who, which, and what have sometimes the vi'ords ever or 
 soever annexed (1) to them; and each combination of this sort is 
 called a compound relative ; as 'whoever, whosoever., whichever.^ 
 whichsoever, etc. They are not often used. 
 
 431. Who, tvklch, and ^l•hat are called interrogatives, cr relative.s 
 of the interrogative kind, when they are used in asking questions; as 
 " Who is he ?" " Which i.s the book ?" " What are you doing ?" 
 
 Will you correct and parse the 
 remaining exercises, and then 
 take the exercises to be written ? 
 
 XXXVI. Will you repeat those 
 (sentences which mean the same 
 as " I took what you gave me ?" 
 427. 
 
 What words, then, does what 
 St an cr for? 428. 
 
 Why is wliat a pronoun ? 42S. 
 
 Why a compound pronoun ? 
 428. 
 
 you 
 
 How may vOuit be described ? 
 429. 
 
 Will ynu give three examples 
 of compound pronouns formed by 
 annexing ever or soever ? 430. 
 
 What is the meaning of a7i- 
 vea-ed? 430. 
 
 When are who,iDhic.h, and what 
 called interrogatives? 431. 
 
 What are the nouns called to 
 which interrogatives refer ? 431. 
 
 * Thus '• "VVashington was a true patriot," etc. 
 tences on each word, 
 (1) Placed after. 
 
 The i^t/pil may write several sen- 
 
J»R0N0UN8. Qg 
 
 These relatives you perceive, have no antecedents, bin relate 'to 
 ^ome word or phrase contained in the ansM-er, which is called a U" 
 
 reilrs. " "^"' '' '"'^ ^"^^^^egnent to which nXom 
 
 ..^^^■/\?''^'^ foIlow.s that avtcrrdevt and svbseawvt are opvo^ed 
 J-2"/;?'};;" """"'"^^ ' '''"■ '''''''' -•^-•ryi"?^o4 before, th^Kr 
 
 n.^''^/? w^'^'h'^"'' T'f ^^'•"'f '•'y '^«^1^* "^^« Of to express interrogation • 
 f)t ' ^ "^^"^^.'- '^^ '^/n^-' *''^"" ' ^'•'^^"^^^ ^" h"t it is now seldom u °ed' 
 the^interrogfif ive ir/ueh Mjpplying its place. ' 
 
 .i34. W/nc/r, n-hat, nnd, as we have already seen, that when ioined 
 ;?velv: tri'l,;:.'' "'^^'"'" ^'""^""^^' ««' "^"^« -hi^'^omii'ru' 
 tmtif"..^^'"'" W/r./' nnd «•//,,>// are joined to nouns in askin<^ nues- 
 S dldCl^^e ^^ -^errogative ac^ective pronouns ; as/^^S 
 
 jeciion , as, What ! lake my money, and then my life?" 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 " / mill leave what is vsele^ay 
 
 y61 What ix^ the example above, means the same as " fhHf 
 
 vh.ch," or -the thing which,-" we will, therefore nnarsin^ it 
 
 bear in m.nd that it has the government and agreement of Iwo 
 
 :rndU"S;..^^ ^^'m first parse it as standi^ ibr ^L^ Zl 
 
 What IS a coMPOTT^D kelativ.c pbonoun, and is equivalent to 
 •that M'h.ch," or "the thing which." la representing X..i i? 
 may be considered a tronoun of the thiru pkrson sinJ; L neSe 
 Tw Vm "''"'"'^ "^^^"' ^"^ ^^^'^--"^^ ^y /.«.e, acco'rding " 
 
 /* is a NICUTER VBRB, in the INDICATIVE MOOD. PRKSKNT TFXSK—" 1 
 
 am; 2, You are; 3, He or which is"-made'in the thik; peTso; 
 sixGULAR, and ogrees with .;/,ie7,, the relative part of Ueprorroua 
 what, according to Rule Vlf. " i i ui mc pronoun 
 
 Why so Called? 431. lli^j . "^30^^^^ ^^"^'^ '^ -^''''^ 
 
 see"'' ''l^'''■^7'l" ^'^T '1''^ y^\' ^" ^^'« ^^^"tence, " I will leave 
 
 see? ^^.*. -John -'which word what is useless," how do vou 
 
 >8 the subsequent ? 431 parse vrhat ? is ? nseh^? 437' 
 
 When -areirhat, which,. nd that What does u'haf stand for '437 
 
 'Jam nl? IT""''" ' ^^'"^ '" ^" y^" ^-^^ '^ ^ one word or 
 
 Which 0/ the relatives are some- j^- Th, pnptl may vow parse 
 
 When7sny".-.Wh.t'robmeof ^'-•— ^^''t- 
 
64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Useless is an adjectiye, in the positive degree, and belongs to 
 what, by Rule IV. 
 
 exercises in syntax continued. 
 "James will do what is proper." '-William demands what I can 
 " You heard what I .said." not give." ' 
 
 "Whatever improves delights "They advocate what is excel- 
 him." lent." 
 
 ; XXXVII. OF THE VERB. 
 
 43S. A VERB is a word that expresses action or being. Verbs are 
 of three kind.s — active, passive, and neuter. 
 
 439. An active verb e»i>resse3 action, and the actor is always the 
 nominative case; as, "John runs.'" Active verbs are either transi- 
 tive or intransitive. 
 
 440. An active verb is transitive, when it either has or may have 
 an object alter it, on which the action terminates; as, "John beats 
 William." 
 
 441. An active verb is intransitive, when it neither has nor can 
 have an object after it. 
 
 442. Passive means suffeving or recevviug. 
 
 443. When I say, "John is beaten by Wiilliam," is heatcn is a verb, 
 because it expresses action ; and it is a passive verb, because it ex- 
 presses the action received by John ; and if John receives the action, 
 then he is the object of it: hence, 
 
 444. A passive verb expresses action or eflect received. 
 
 445. The object is always its subject or nominative case. 
 
 446. Active nominative or actor — "John strikes William." 
 
 447. Passive nominative or object — " William is struck by John." ' 
 44S. By examining the foregoing examples, you will see that when 
 
 the verb is active, its nominative is likewise active; and when the 
 verb is passive, its nominative is likewise passive. 
 
 449. The passive voice is a convenient mode of expression on oc- 
 casions when we wish to state tohat has been done, without exposing 
 
 XXXVII. What is the meaning What is the meaning of^ passive ? 
 
 of verb ?* 442. 
 
 Why so called ? 143. In the example, ".John is beaten 
 
 What is a verb? 438. by William." which is the verb? 
 
 What is an active verb? 439. Why? What kind ? Why? 443. 
 
 What is always its nominative? Which word is the object? 
 
 Give an example. 439. Why? 443. 
 
 What is the meaning of transi- What, then, is a passive verb ? 
 
 tive .?f of intransitive f"^ 444. 
 
 How may active verb.'* be di- Which is the nominative to a 
 
 vided ? 439. passive verb, the agent, or the 
 
 When is an active verb transi- object? 445. 
 
 tive? Give an (Example. 410. Is the nominative to an active 
 
 When is an active verb intran- verb active or passive? Give an 
 
 sitive ? Give an example. 441. example. 448. 
 
 * Sec <inostion to 142. f Sec question to 150. J Sec question to 152. 
 
Verb — mood. 
 
 m 
 
 the author; thus, instead of saying, "William struck John," I can, 
 to avoid alluding: to William, say, "John was struck." 
 
 4.50. A neuter verb is one that is neither active nor passive, ex- 
 pressing simply either being- or existence in a certain stale ; as, ''' He 
 sits," " He in at home." 
 
 XXXVIir. MOOD, OR MODE. 
 
 451. Mood, or Modr, is the manner of reoresenting action or being-. 
 
 4o2. The INDICATIVE mood is used simply for indicating or decla'r- 
 mg^a thing, or a^kii-ig a question'; as, " I walk;" ^ Do I walk?" 
 
 453. The potential mood is used for expressing possibility, liberty, 
 poM'er, will, or obligation, either with or without askinff a question • 
 as, ^" I may go ?" " May I go ?" " He must read," etc. ' 
 
 45^ Of the SUBJUNCTIVK MOOD. The term anhjunctivc signifies auh- 
 joined or added to. 
 
 455. When I say, "T will go, if he desire it," -the phrase, "if he 
 desire it," is added on to the one before I't : hencn, we say "If he 
 desire it," is in the subjunctive mood. The term, however, is limited 
 to such sentences as are preceded by the conjunctions if, unless, 
 aHiowjh, except, lest, etc., which imply doubt or some uncertainty. 
 
 456. The subjunctive mood is used tor expressing doubt or uncer- 
 tainty. 
 
 457. A verb in the subjunctive mood may be expressed in two dif- 
 ferent- forms. It is equally correct to say, "If he is poor, he is 
 respected," and, "If he be studious, he will excel." The verbs he 
 and ?s are both in the present tense ; and since each has the conjunc- 
 tion ?/ before it, each is in the subjunctive mood. 
 
 45S. The phrase, "If he be studious," means the same as, "If he 
 will be studious;" it therefore plainly implies future time. 
 
 Is the nominative to a passive 
 verb active or passive? Give an 
 example. 44S. 
 
 In what particular is the passive 
 voice a convenient form of expres- 
 sion ? Give an example. 449. 
 
 What is the meaningof uew/er.?* 
 
 What is a neuter verb? Give 
 an example. 450. 
 
 How many kinds of verbs are 
 there, and whiil are they? 43S. 
 
 XXXVIH. What is the meaning 
 of mood ? J 06. 
 
 What is mood? 451. 
 
 What is the meaning of indica- 
 tive? 16S. 
 
 What is the indicative mood 
 used for? Give an example. 452. 
 
 What is the meaning of poten- 
 tial? 212. 
 
 What is the potential mood used 
 for? Give an example. 453. 
 
 What is the meaning of swA/uuc- 
 tive ? 454. 
 
 In what mood i^, "If he desire 
 it?" 455. 
 
 How is the term subjunctive 
 limited? 455. 
 
 What is the subjunctive mood 
 used for? 456. 
 
 How many different forms has 
 it? 457. Give an example of 
 each ? 457. 
 
 In what tense are the verbs be 
 and is? 457. 
 
 In what mood is each with the 
 conjunction if before it? 457. 
 
 What does " If he be studious," 
 mean, as it respects time? 45S. 
 
 What tense, then, is referred 
 to? 45s. 
 
 *See qtU'Ptiou to IS?. 
 
66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 'Ifj9. On the contrary, in the phrase, " W he is poor." the sen«o 
 plainly it*, " If he i<i now, at the present time, poor," without any ref- 
 orence to future time. 
 
 4G0. H(Mice it ai)pears that, in one form of the verb, doubt only Is 
 implied, and in the other, both dcnibt and fitture tiinc. 
 
 401. The verb is L-orrespouds with the common form of the verb to 
 be, in the indicative mood, presient teii:?e ; as, '' I am, you are, he is:" 
 we will, therclore.. when the verb is varied as usual, call it the 
 i^ommon form of the subjunctive mood; and when the verb is not 
 varied in the different person?, we will call it the suhjxmciive form, 
 eince this form is peculiar to this mood. You should here be informed 
 that this dirrtinclioii relates only to the present tense, it being tni.'-tom- 
 ary to vary the terminations of the verb in the remaining tenses an 
 usual. 
 
 462. The following general rules will direct you in the proper use 
 of the subjunctive mood: 
 
 463. When any verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has a 
 r^'ference to future time, we should use the 
 
 SrBJDNCriVT! FORM. 
 
 Present Tenwe. 
 
 464. Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I love. 1. If we love. 
 
 2. If (hou or \"0U love. 2. If ye or you love. 
 
 3. If he love.' 3. If ihey love. 
 
 46.'5. When a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has no 
 reference to future time, we should use the 
 
 COMMON FORM. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I love. 1. If we love. 
 
 2. If thou lo vest, or ) 2. Ifye love, or) 
 If you love. j If you love, j 
 
 3. If he loves. 3, If they love. 
 
 466. Other conjunctions, b(?.cides if, are used before the subjunctive 
 njood. // is perhaps used most frequently, because it implies doubt 
 more strongly than most others. 
 
 467. By the foregoing, you may perceive that when the verb is in 
 
 What does "If he is poor," When do we use the subjunc- 
 
 me!\n, in respect to time? 459. tive form ? 403. 
 
 What idea, then, is implied in Will yon conjup;Qte the verb 
 
 the one form? 400. love in this form, in the present 
 
 What two ideas in the other tense? 4(34. 
 
 for.ii ? 4G0. -When do we use the commop 
 
 With -what does the verb is cor- form ? 46r). 
 
 respond? 401. Why is the conjunction //used 
 
 How is the verb varied in the most frequently in the su[)junctivo 
 
 common form of the; subjunctive mood ? 4(j6. 
 
 mood ? 461. What does " He will not be par- 
 Why called common? How doned unless he repent,'' mean ? 
 varied in the subjunctive form? 407. 
 Why called subjunctive? 401. What then, is understood? 407, 
 
 How is this distinction limited? "If thou ever return, thou 
 
 461. shouldst be thankful;'' what does 
 
 How are the remaining tenses this mean ? 467. 
 varied '' 4C1. 
 
MOOD. 07 
 
 the subjunctive form, some auxiliary verb is always understood ; as. 
 He win not be pardoned unle.ss he repent ;" that is, '' unless he will 
 repent;" '' If thou ever r<*uirn. thou shonld.st be thankful:" that is, 
 "i/ Ihou shouldst ever lelnrn.'' 
 
 •168. A verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, 
 common form simply by placing a conjunction, implying doubt, before 
 It; as, "1 walk,' the indicative mood, becomes subjunctive bv pre- 
 fixiMjr ;/y ih„s, ^-If [ walk." ^ 
 
 1(39. In like manner, a verb in the potential may be changed to the 
 subjunctive,- as, '• I can go/' is the potential; ''If I can go," the sub- 
 junclive. » ' 
 
 '170. Of (he IMPHRATIVE MOOD. When I say, "John, mind your 
 book, 1 command John to do something; and because imperative 
 means commanding, we say that mind, in the phrase above, is in the 
 imi)erative mood. 
 
 471. This mood, for reasons assigned before, (214) eiYibraces the 
 KJllowmg particulars: 
 
 1. Cnmmnnd: as, " John, sit up." 
 
 2. Entrcatij : as, '' Do visit me." 
 
 3. Exhorting : a?, <' Remember my counsel." 
 
 4. Permitting: as, "Go in peace." 
 
 <!72. The imperative mood, then, is used for commanding, entreat- 
 ing, exhorting, or permitting. 
 
 'm The application of this mood is limited to the second person ; 
 as, -John, come to me;" because, in uttering a command, making 
 an entreaty, etc., we must necessarily address some one; hence, you 
 ^^"-?^v*' '■*^'^^°" why this mood has but one person, viz : the second. 
 
 4/4. We can not, with any propriety, command a person to-day, or 
 in present tune, to do<nnything in past time: yeslt-rday, for instance: 
 consequently a verb in this mood can not have any past tense. 
 
 475. When I command a person to do anything, the performance of 
 the command must take place subsequent to (he command: that 
 IS, in future time ; but the command itself must, from the very nature 
 ol the case, take place in pre<ent time; this mood, therefore, can not, 
 strictly speaking, have any future tense: hence, 
 
 476. A verb in the imperative mood must be' in the present tense 
 and in the second person. 
 
 A\ hat, then, is understood ? 407. example of commandins? one of 
 
 What IS always under^^tood in entreatinff? one of exhorting? one 
 
 this form ? 467. of permitting ? 471. 
 
 How may a verb in the indica- How many persons has this 
 
 live mood be converted into the mood ^ 473 
 
 suVyunclive ? 468. What person is it ? 473. 
 
 How can (he potential be Has this mood any past tense? 
 
 changed to the subjunctive? Give Why '^474 
 
 an example. 409. When I command a person, 
 
 Jn What mood IS ".fohn, mind when, if at all, must the perform- 
 
 yo.ir studies?" Why? 470. ance of the command takL place? 
 
 U hat IS the meaning of m2:>era- 475. 
 
 tn^e? 470. When, or in what time, must the 
 
 Mow many particulars does this command itself be given ? 475. 
 
 mood embrace? 471. Why so Has this mood, then, any future 
 
 many? 214. tense ? 475. ^ 
 
 VV hat, then, IS the imperative How many tenses, then, has it ? 
 
 mood used for ? 472. Give an How many persons ? 476. 
 
()8 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 477. Of the ixfinitivr mood. In llie phrases, "John begins to 
 sing," '-The boys beg-in to sing-," "Thou beginnest to sing," you per- 
 ceive thnt the verb to sinrj is not varied to cctrrespond -u'ith the number 
 and person of its diflerent agents, JuJui, the boyn, ^nd' thou ; hence, to 
 sing is said not to be limited either by person or number. 
 
 478. This mood, then, is properly denominated injDiitivc, signifj'ing 
 not limited : hence, 
 
 479. The infinitive mood is used to express an action not limited 
 either by person or number. 
 
 4S0. To^ the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes understood; as, 
 " Let me go," instead of- Let me to go ;" " I heard him say it," for " I 
 heard him to say." This little word <o, when used before verbs in this 
 manner^ is not a preposition, but forms a part of the verb, and, in 
 parsing, should be so considered. 
 
 4SL From the foregoing, it appears that there are five moods — the 
 indicative, the imperative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the in- 
 finitive. 
 
 • XXXIX. OF TENSE. 
 
 482. The present tense expresses what is no-w taking place; as, 
 "John swims." 
 
 483. This tense is often employed to express the actions of persons 
 long since dead; as, "Seneca reasons and moralizes well." 
 
 484. The [)resent tense, preceded by the words toJien, he/ore, nfter^ 
 an soon as. etc., is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a 
 future action; as, "When he arrives, he will hear the news." 
 
 48.5. This tense is elegantly applied to qualities and things which 
 are in their naturij unchangeable; as, "Truth is eternal;" "William 
 boldly asserted there was no God;" properly, " is no God." 
 
 48f3. In animated (1) historical narrations (2) this tense is some- 
 times used for the imperfect; as, "He enters the territory of the peace- 
 
 Whal is the meaning of infini- 
 tive? 478. 
 
 In what mood is sincj, in the 
 phrases, "John begins to sing," 
 " The boys begin to sing," " Thou 
 beginnest to sing?" 477, 478. 
 
 In what particulars is this mood 
 reckoned not to be limited ? 477. 
 
 What, then, is the infinitive 
 mood used for? 479. 
 
 What is the n^ual sign of this 
 mood? 480. 
 
 Is it always expressed? Give 
 an example ? 450. 
 
 How is the sign to to be parsed ? 
 480. 
 
 Why parsed with the verb ? 480. 
 
 How many moods are there, 
 and what are they? 48L 
 
 XXXIX. What is the meaning 
 o( present? 173. 
 
 What does the present tense 
 express? 482. Give an example. 
 482. 
 
 "Seneca reasons well." What 
 tense is employed here? Why? 
 483. 
 
 In the phrase, "When he ar- 
 rives," future time -is alluded to; 
 why, then, is the present employ- 
 ed ? 4b4. 
 
 Do we say, "There is," or 
 "there was no God?" Why? 485. 
 
 What is the meaning oi aninxat' 
 ed? 486. 
 
 Meaning o^ narrations ? 486. 
 
 " He enters the territory," etc, 
 AVhy is the present tense used ? 
 486. 
 
 What is the meaning of imper- 
 fect? 181. 
 
 (1) Lively, 
 
 (2) Poacriptions, or telling Avhat has beoii done. 
 
TENSES. 
 
 fid 
 
 able inhabitant?,* he fights and conquers, takes an immense booty, 
 which lie divides among his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an 
 empty triiimpli." 
 
 487. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in time past, 
 however distant j as, "John ilied." 
 
 4S8. The perfect tense expresses what has taken place, and conveys 
 an allusion to ihe present time; as, "I have finished my letter." 
 
 489. When any particular period of past time is specified or alluded 
 to, we use the imperfect tense; as, "John wrote yesterday;" but 
 when no particular past time is specified, we use the perfect tense; 
 as, " I have read Virgil many times." 
 
 490. The perfect tense and the imperfect tense both denote a thing 
 that is past; but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is 
 still actually remaining some part of the lime to slide away, wherein 
 we declare the thing has been done; whereas the imperfect denotes 
 the thing or action past, in such a manner that nothing remains of that 
 time in which it was done. If we speak of the present century we 
 say, "Philosophers have made great discoveries in the present centu- 
 ry ;" but if we speak of the last century we say, " Philosophers made 
 great discoveries i\\ the last century." "lie has been much afllicted 
 this year." "I have this week read the king's proclamation." "I 
 have heard great news this morning." In these instances, He has 
 heev, T have read^ and Jicard, denote things that are past; but they oc- 
 curred this year, in this week, and to-day; and still there remains a 
 part of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak. 
 
 4'JO — I. In general the perfect tense may be applied wherever the 
 action is connected M'ith the present time, by the actual existence, 
 either of the author or of the work, though it may have been perform- 
 ed many centuries ago; but if neither the author nor the work now 
 remains, it can not be used. We may say, "Cicero has written ora- 
 tions," but we can not say " Cicero has written poems:" because the 
 orations are in being, but the poems are lost. Speaking of priests in 
 general we may say, "They have^ in all ages, claimed great powers," 
 because the general order of priesthood still exists ; but if we speak 
 
 How came this term to be used, 
 to denote an action past and fin- 
 ished ?* 
 
 What does the imperfect tense 
 express? 487. Give an exanijile. 
 487. 
 
 Meaning oiperfect?-\ 
 
 What (ioes the perfect tense ex- 
 press? Give an example. 4SS. 
 
 "John wrote yesterday." What 
 tense is the verb in here? 489. 
 
 Why is this tense used ? 489. 
 
 " 1 have read Virgil many 
 times." Why is the perfect tense 
 used here? 489. 
 
 What do both the perfect and 
 imperfect denote ? 490. 
 
 How does the former denote it ? 
 490. 
 
 How does the latter? 490. 
 
 Do we say, "Philosophers made," 
 or,"7tat;emo"'^e, great discoveries in 
 the present century ?" Why? 490. 
 
 Which tense do we use in speak- 
 ing of the last century? 490. 
 Give an example. 490. 
 
 "I have this week read the 
 king's proclamation." "I have 
 heard great news this morning." 
 Which are the verbs used in these 
 two sentences ? 490. 
 
 What do they denote? When 
 did these things occur? 490. 
 
 To what may the perfect tense 
 in general be applied ? What e.K- 
 ceplion is mentioned? 490 — I. 
 
 Do we say, " Cicero lorote,^' or, 
 "/<oj» written orations ?" " Cicero 
 wrote,^' ov, " has written poems?" 
 Why? 490—1. 
 
 ■See qncatian to 182. 
 
 fFinislifil, or coniiilete. 
 
70 EN'0LI8H GRAMMAR. 
 
 of the Druids as nny particular orJer of priests, which does not now 
 exist, we can not use this tense. We can not say, " The Druid priests 
 hiive claimed great powers," but mu^^t say, "The Druid priests c/ai/H- 
 eJ ffreat powers:" because that order is now lotally extinct. 
 
 491. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken place at some 
 past time mentioned ; a.«<, " I had fini:<hed my letter before my father 
 returned." 
 
 492. The first fvture feme expresses what will take place; as, " John 
 will come,"* 
 
 493. The second future expresses what will have taken place, at or 
 before some future time metuioned; as, "1 shall have finished my 
 business before the steamboat starts." 
 
 494. Tense is the diHtinclion of time, and admits of six variation!?, 
 namely — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, an«l 
 the first and .second future tense."*. 
 
 XL. OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 495. In the phrase, " I found a man laboring- in the field," the word 
 laboring shows what the man was doing, and therefore resembles a 
 verb. When I say, "The laboring man should not be wronged," 
 laboring is joined to the noun iniui to describe it, and therefore re>eni- 
 bles an ndjeclive. 
 
 496. The word laboring, tl)en, partakes of the nature of two ditfer- 
 enl parts of speech ; and since participle signifies 2:tartu1ciinj of, we 
 will call such vt-ords as laboring^ participles, 
 
 497. All participles are derived from verbs; thus, from labor comes 
 laboring ; from beat, beating ; rejoice, rejoicing, etc.: hence, 
 
 49S. The partici|)le is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of 
 the nature of a verb and adjective. 
 
 In speaking of priests in gener- In what mood is, "He runs?"' 
 
 al, why do we say, " They have, in Why ^452. " Does he run ?" Why? 
 
 all ages, claimed great powers?" 452. "I may run?" Why? 'l.O.'J. 
 
 490—1. "Should I have studied? Why? 
 
 Can we say, "The Druid priests 4.''>3. " If he accept ? " Why ? 4.'36. 
 
 haoc claimed great powers?" " If he accepts ? Why? 456. *' To 
 
 What should we say? Why? 490 sing? " Why ? 479, 
 
 — 1. In what tense is, "He sings?" 
 
 What is the meaning of jjluper- Why? 482. "Did he sing?" Why? 
 
 feet r ISO. 487. " He has read ? " 4bS. Why ? 
 
 What does the pluperfect tense " Had he written ?" 491. Why? 
 
 express? 491. Give an example. " Shall he go ?" 492. " I shall have 
 
 491. gone?" Why? 493. 
 
 Meaning of /)/<?/re? 177. XL. What pai^t of speech does 
 
 What doe* the first future ex- laboring reseml)le ? Give an ex- 
 press? Give an exam|>le, 492. ample. 49.5. 
 Why called first future?* What is the meaning o( parti- 
 
 What does the second future ciple? 490. 
 
 express? Give an example. 493. From what are all participles de- 
 
 ilow many tense.s are there in rived?497. Give an example. 497. 
 
 all, and what are they? 494. What is^ a participle? 498. 
 
 * See qaestlon to 191. 
 
499. When I soy, "John Is wriiing,'" the participle xnitivg t>hows 
 \rhal .lohu is now dciiig:, but hns not finished : irriiivg^ then, may I'o 
 cftlled n present participle: hence, 
 
 500. Tht; present participle expresses what is now taking pinoe, 
 but not fujishetl. 
 
 501 — 1. This participle alvvnys ends in ing ; as, sinvlng, fighting, 
 u>ee2)i»g, loving, etc. There ore many words of this lerminatiuti 
 which are not participles; as, morning, evening, which ore nouns; 
 viiintereativg, unsatisfying, which ore adjectives. The fnct that these 
 cnn not be tbrmed ironi Verba will furnisn you with a certain rule for 
 distinguishing the pr.rticiple from all other words of the same' termi- 
 nation ; as, tor i n St u ace, «7j?"«ft7-c»f /?»(/, we know, is not a participle, 
 because there is i\o such vcrh.as ttmiitercnt, from which to ibrm it. 
 
 501. "The letter is writtt:n." HiiV^ the participle written .shows 
 that the act of writing is past and finished; it may, then, be called a 
 perfect participle: hence, 
 
 002. The perlecl participle er.tu'e.sses what (s past and finished. 
 
 502—1. This participle may always be distinguished by its making 
 PeUL-e with haring ; thus, haviug icritlcu, haying tsung, cct. Here writ- 
 ten and .9iaig are perfect participles. 
 
 503. "John, havins written his letter, scaled it." Here you doubt- 
 less perceive that the act of writing took place before that of seal- 
 ing-; also that the participle is composed of two words, Aav/»gr and 
 written; it may then be called a cowpoupcl participle., and because it 
 denotes al.^o an action past and fini^lu■d, it may very properly bo 
 calU;d a compound perfect participle: hence, 
 
 504. The compound perfect ))articiple expresses what took place 
 before something cl^e mentioned. 
 
 504 — 1. This participle is formed by placing the preisent participle 
 ^oi'/«.y before the perfect participle of any verb; as, having /oiig?it, 
 having ciphered. 
 
 When I say, "John is writing," Having written, having simg. 
 
 what does icritivg show? 499. Which are the perfect participles 
 
 What, then, may it be called? here? W2. 
 
 499. . "John, havingwritten his letter, 
 
 What, then, is a present partici- sealed it " Which took place first, 
 
 pie? 500. the writing or the sealing? 503. 
 
 VVhatdocsthisparticiplealwavs Of what is this partici})le coni- 
 
 end in.? 500—1. Give an ex- posed ? 603. 
 
 ample. 500—1. What, then, may it be called? 503. 
 
 Are all words'cnding in i)tg par- What does having written denote 
 
 ticiples? Glxi^ an example of in reference to time and action? 
 
 nonn.i of this termination ? of ad- 503. 
 
 jectives? 500 — 1 What may it thence be called* 
 
 How, then, can the participle 503. 
 
 be distingin^hed ? Give an ^x- What does a compound perfect 
 
 ample. 500 — 1. participle express ? 504. 
 
 "The letter is written." WHiat How is this participle formed? 
 
 does the participle ivritten show 504. 0\vo an example. 504. 
 
 here? What, then, may it be XLl. Striking. f.irnrl\ having 
 
 called? 501. strtak-. Here are three diflerent 
 
 What is a perfect participle? 502. participles: can you tell which Is 
 
 How may this participle always the pre>ent ? Why? 500. Perfect ? 
 
 be known? Give un examp'e. Why? 502. Compound perfect? 
 
 502—1. Why? 503. 
 
7/J ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 XLI. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB. 
 
 J505. Stnic/c is a perfect participle, from the verb strike, and this you 
 know, because it makes sense joined with Juiriyuj ; as, having struck. 
 
 506. i.y, you doubtless recollect, is a variation of the verb to be ; as, 
 ''I am, you are, he is:" now, l)y joining is with strttc^-, we can form 
 the passive verb is struck. "John strikes Joseph," is active; but 
 
 '"Joseph is struck by John," i.s passive. 
 
 507. In these two examples you perceive that the sense of each is 
 the same : hence, by means ot the passive verb, we are enabled to 
 express, in a different form, the precise meaning of the active, which, 
 you will oftentimes find, contributes not a little to the variety and 
 harmony of thte language. 
 
 508. By examining the conjugation of the verb to be^ you will dis- 
 cover that it has, in all, ten variations, viz., om., art, is, are, icas, toast, , 
 were, been, be, and bei?ig. Every passive verb must be composed of, 
 one of these ten variations, and the perfect participle of any active 
 transitive verb. Thus, taking ivas, and joining it with the perfect 
 participle of the verb Ae«/;, namely beaten, we form the passive verb 
 was beaten;to which prefixing an object, or nominative case, we have 
 the phrase, " William was beaten." 
 
 509. It is a fact worthy to be remem!)ered, that the passive verb 
 always retains the same mood, tense, number, and person, that the 
 verb to be has before it is incorporated with the participle ; thus, 
 " He has been," is the indicative perfect, third person singular ; then, 
 "He has been rejected," is likewise the indicative perfect, third per- 
 son, singular, passive. It can not, therefore, be dirtioult to tell the 
 mood, tense, number, and person of any passive verb, if you are 
 familiar with the conjugation of the verb to be. 
 
 From the foregoing particulars we derive the following general rule : 
 
 510. AH passive verbs are formed by adding the perfect participle 
 of any active-transitive verb to the neuter verb to be. 
 
 X-LII. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 511. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which the principal 
 verbs are conjugated. 
 
 What kind of a participle is What will always compose one 
 
 struck?' 505. How do you know part of a passive verb? 503. 
 
 this? 50.5. What the other part? 508. 
 
 Of what verb is the verb is a Wliat fact is mentioned as 
 
 variation? 506. worthy of notice ? 509. 
 
 Will you form a passive verb What mood, tense, number, and 
 
 ■with is and struck? 506. person is " He has been?" 509. Is 
 
 "John strikes Joseph." How " He has been rejected ?" 509. 
 
 may the sense of this sentence l)e A^Jhat will make the mood, tense, 
 
 expressed by a passive verb? 50(5. etc., of passive verbs familiar? 
 
 What advantage does the use of 509. 
 
 the passive verb often afford us? How are all passive verbs 
 
 507. formed? 510. 
 
 Towhat does it contribute? 507. XLII. What is the meaning of 
 
 How many variations has the avxHiary? 196. 
 
 verb to he in all? 508. What are What are auxiliary verbs? 511. 
 they? 50S. 
 
VERBS. 73 
 
 512. The auxiliary verbs are yuay^ can^ viust^ might, could, would, 
 should, and shall. The' following are sometimes auxiliaries, and some- 
 times principal verbs: do, be, have., a.i\d ivili. 
 
 513. When, in {ho formation of any tense, we use an auxiliary 
 verb, thai tense is called a compound one; and the tense formed by 
 the principal verb alone is called a simple tense. 
 
 XLIII. SIGNS OF THE MOODS. 
 
 514. The indicative mood may be known by the sense, or by its 
 having no sign except in asking a question ; as, " Who comes here ?" 
 
 515. The potential mood has lor its signs the auxiliaries 7na7/, can, 
 7nust, 7fnght, could, would, and should; as, " I could love," etc. 
 
 516. The subjunctive mood has usually for its signs the conjunc- 
 tions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest ; as, " Unless he 
 repent," etc. 
 
 M7. The infinitive mood has usually for Its sign the word to; as, 
 " To sing." 
 
 518. The imperative mood may be distinguished by its always 
 being in the second person, and by its agreement with thou or ye, or 
 you ; as, " Depart thou," etc. 
 
 XLIV. SIGNS OF THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 
 
 519. The present tense has for its sign the first form of the verb ; 
 as, weep, remaift, etc.; excepting the occasional use of^do ; as, " I do 
 learn." 
 
 520. The imperfect tense has no auxiliary for a sign, except did, 
 which is sometimes used. If, however, the verb is not in the present 
 tense, and has no auxiliary, it follows that it is in the imperfect; as, 
 " J fought." 
 
 521. The perfect tense has for its sign the word have; as,haveloved. 
 
 522. The pluperfect has for its sign had; as, had loved. 
 
 523. The first future has for its sign shall or toill; ns,-shalloT will love. 
 
 524. The second future has for its sign shall have or will have ; as, 
 shall have loved, or will have loved. 
 
 525. The indicative mood has six tenses. 
 
 Will you name them ? 512. ative mood ? 518. Give an ex- 
 
 What verbs are used both as ample. 518. 
 
 auxiliary and principal verbs ? XLIV. What is the sign of the 
 
 512. present indicative ? 519. Give an 
 
 XLIII. What is the sign of the " example. 519. 
 
 indicative mood ? 514. Give an Sign of the imperfect ? 520. 
 
 example. 514. Give an example. 520. 
 
 What is the sign of the potential Sign of the perfect? 521. Give 
 
 mood ? 515. Give an example, an example. 521. 
 
 515. Sign of the pluperfect ? 522. 
 What isthesign of the subjunc- Give an example. 522. 
 
 tive mood? 516. Give an example. Sign of the first future? 523. 
 
 516. Give an example. 523. 
 
 What is the sign of the infinitive Sign of the second future ? 524 
 mood? 517. Give an example. 517. Give an example. 524. 
 
 What is the sign of the imper- How many tenses has the in 
 
 dicative mood ? 525. 
 
74 ENGLISH GRAMMARo 
 
 526. The subjunctive mood has six tenses. 
 
 527. The potential mood has four lenses. 
 
 528. The infinitive mood has two tenses. 
 
 529. The imperative mood has one tense. 
 
 XLV. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 
 
 530. When I aslc you to raise your voice, in reading, you readily'' 
 understand what I mean i)y mice j l»nt in grammar its application is 
 somewhat peculiar. Granmiatictally considered, it relers to the ac- 
 tivt^ and passive nature of verbs. 
 
 531. The co.\ji;gation of a verb is the regular eombibation and 
 arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses. 
 
 532. The conjugation of an active verb is styled the active voice, 
 and that of a passive verb the passive v<»ice. 
 
 533. Verbs are «-aIled begui.ar, when they form their imperfect 
 tense of the iiulicalive mood, and their perfect participU' by the ad- 
 dition of ed to the verb in the present tense, or d only when the verb 
 ends in ej as, 
 
 Preit. Tense, Imp. Tense. Per/. Participle. 
 
 I favor. I favored. Favored. 
 
 1 love. I loved. Loved. 
 
 534. When a verb does not form its imperfect tense and perfect 
 participle in this manner, it is called an ikkkgih-ar verb; as, 
 
 Pres. Te7ise. Imp. Teiiae. Perf. Participle. 
 
 1 am. I was. Been. 
 
 535. The regular verb love, and the irregular verb to U, are conju- 
 gated as follows : 
 
 CONJUGATION. 
 
 TO LOVE AND TO BE. 
 
 AOTITK AND PASSIVE VOICE CONTRASTBD. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 present tense, 
 active voice." passive voice. neuter. 
 
 Singular. Singular. Singular. 
 
 1 Pers. I love. 1 Pers. I am loved. 1 Pers. I am. 
 
 2 Peru. You love. 2 Pe.rs. You sire loved. 2 Pers. Yon are. 
 
 3 Pers. He loves. 3 Per.s. He is loved. 3 Pers. He is. 
 
 How many the subjunctive? W lien are verb> called regular? 
 
 526. 533. Give an example. 533. 
 
 How many the potential ? 527. Will you repeal after ine the 
 
 How many the infinitive? 528. present tense, and name the im- 
 
 How many the imperative? .529. perfeet tense and perfect partici- 
 
 XLV. What does voice mean in [)le of the verbs favor ? love? 533. 
 
 grammar? 530. When is a verb called irregu- 
 
 Meaning of CO?/; i/^flrf ?{;?*.? 217. lar?534. Give an exMmple. 534. 
 
 What is the conjugation of au Will you conjugate love in the 
 
 active verb styled ? 532. pre>ent tense, active voice, in- 
 
 What the conjugation of a pas- ditative mood? 535. In the ira- 
 
 aiveverbl 532. perleci? perlecl? pluperfect? first 
 
TENSES. 
 
 TfS 
 
 Pliirah 
 
 1 Pers. We love. 
 
 2 Pers. You love. 
 
 3 Pers. They love. 
 
 Si7tgular. 
 
 1. I loved. 
 
 2. You loved. 
 
 3. He loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We loved. 
 
 2. You loved. 
 
 3. They loved. 
 
 Sing7ilar. 
 3. I have loved. 
 
 2. You have loved. 
 
 3. He has loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We have loved. 
 
 2. You have loved. 
 
 3. They have loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I had loved. 
 
 2. You had loved. 
 
 3. He had loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We had loved. 
 
 2. You hftd loved. 
 
 3. They had loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I shall or will love. 
 
 2. You shall or will 
 
 love. 
 
 3. He shall or will 
 
 love. 
 
 Plural 
 
 1. We shall or will 
 
 love. 
 
 2. Yon shall or will 
 
 love. 
 
 3. They shall or will 
 
 love. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1 P*»r.». We are loved. 
 
 2 P«r.y. You are loved. 
 
 3 Pers. They are loved. 
 
 IMPERFECT TEN3B. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I was loved. 
 
 2. You were loved. 
 
 3. He was loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We were loved. 
 
 2. You were loved. 
 
 3. They were loved. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I have been loved. 
 
 2. You have been loved. 
 
 3. He has been loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We have been loved. 
 
 2. You have been loved. 
 
 3. They have been loved. 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Sifigular. 
 
 1. I had been loved. 
 
 2. You had been loved. 
 
 3. He had been loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We had been Ibved. 
 
 2. You had been loved. 
 
 3. They had been loved. 
 
 FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I shall or will be 
 loved. 
 
 2. You shall or will 
 be loved. 
 
 3. He shall or will . 
 be loved. 
 
 Plu ral. 
 
 1. We shall or will 
 be loved. 
 
 2. You shall or will 
 be loved. 
 
 3. They ^hall or will 
 be loved. 
 
 Plural 
 
 1 Pers. We are. 
 
 2 Pers. You are. - 
 
 3 Pers. They are. 
 
 Sl7igular. 
 
 1. I was. 
 
 2. You were. 
 
 3. He was. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We were. 
 
 2. You were. 
 
 3. They were. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I have been. 
 
 2. You have been. 
 
 3. He has been. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We have been. 
 
 2. You have been. 
 
 3. They have been. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I had been. 
 
 2. You had been. 
 
 3. He had been. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We had been. 
 
 2. You had been. 
 
 3. They had been. 
 
 Sin gular. 
 
 1. I shall or will be. 
 
 2. You shall or will 
 
 be. 
 
 3. He shall or will 
 
 be. 
 
 Plural 
 
 1. We shall or will 
 
 be. 
 
 2. Y'ou shall or will 
 
 be. 
 
 3. Ttley shall or will 
 
 be. 
 
 future? second future? present perfect? first future^ second fu- 
 passive? imperfect? perfect? plu- ture? 
 
 •iT 
 
76 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Singnlar. 
 
 1. I shall have loved. 
 
 2. You will have lov- 
 
 ed. 
 
 3. He will have lov- 
 
 ed. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. "We shall have lov- 
 
 ed, 
 
 2. You will have lov- 
 
 ed. 
 
 3. They will have 
 
 loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 i. I may or can love. 
 • 2. You may or can 
 love. 
 3. He may or can 
 love. 
 
 Plnral. 
 
 1. We may- or can 
 
 love. 
 
 2. You may or can 
 
 love. 
 
 3. They may or can 
 
 love. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 love. 
 
 2. You might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 love. 
 
 3. He might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 love. 
 
 iSECONl) FUTURE TENSE. 
 Sifigular. 
 
 1. I shall have been 
 
 loved. 
 
 2. You will have been 
 
 loved. 
 
 3. He will have been 
 
 loved. 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We shall have 
 
 been loved. 
 
 2. You will have been 
 
 loved. 
 
 3. They will have 
 
 been loved. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I may or can be 
 
 loved. 
 
 2. You may or can be 
 
 loved. 
 
 3. He may or can be 
 
 loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We may or can be 
 
 loved. 
 
 2. You may or can be 
 
 loved. 
 
 3. They may or can 
 
 be loved. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singidar. 
 
 1. I might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 be loved. 
 
 2. You might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 be loved. 
 
 3. He might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 be loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I shall have been. 
 
 2. You will have 
 
 been. 
 
 3. He will have been. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We shall have 
 
 been. 
 
 2. You will have 
 
 been. 
 
 3. They will have 
 
 been. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I may or can be. 
 
 2. You may or can be. 
 
 3. He may or can be. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We may or can be. 
 
 2. You may or can be. 
 
 3. They may or can 
 
 be. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 be. 
 
 2. You might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 be. 
 
 3. He might, could. 
 
 Would, or should 
 be. 
 
 Will you conjugate the verb 
 to be, or am, in the present ? the 
 imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? 
 iirst future ? second future ? 
 
 Will you nalne the first person 
 singular, of the present indicative, 
 active, and passive of love, and 
 the first person singular of the 
 verb to he ? 
 
 The second person in like man- 
 
 ner? the third ? the first person 
 plural ? second person plural ? 
 third? first person singular, im- 
 perfect ? second person ? third ? 
 first person plural ? second person 
 plural? third ? first person singu- 
 lar, perfect ? second person ? 
 third ? first person plural ? sec- 
 ond ? third ? 
 
TENSES. 
 
 tr- 
 
 Plural. Plural. 
 
 1. Wo might, could, 1. We might, could, 
 
 would, or should would, or should 
 
 love. be loved. 
 
 2. You might, could, 2. You might, could, 
 
 would, or should would, or should 
 
 „ _,i°^e. be loved. 
 
 3. They might, could, 3. They might, could, 
 
 would, or should would, or should 
 
 Jove. be loved. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I may or can have 
 been loved. 
 
 2. You may or can 
 have been loved. 
 
 3. He may or can 
 have been loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We may or can 
 have been loved. 
 
 2. You may or can 
 have been loved. 
 
 3. They may or can 
 have been loved. 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. T might, could, 
 would, or should 
 have been loved. 
 
 2. You might, could, 
 would, or should 
 have been loved. 
 
 3. He might, could, 
 would, or should 
 have been loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I may or can have 
 
 loved. 
 
 2. You may or can 
 
 have loved. 
 
 3. He may or can 
 
 have loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We may or can 
 
 have loved. 
 
 2. You may or can 
 
 have loved. 
 
 3. They may or can 
 
 have loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 be. 
 
 2. You might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 be. 
 
 3. They mfght, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 be. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I may or can have 
 
 been. 
 
 2. You may 'or Can 
 
 have been. 
 
 3. He may or can 
 
 have been. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We may or can 
 
 have been. 
 
 2. You may or can 
 
 have been. 
 
 3. They may or can 
 
 have been. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 have loved. 
 
 2. You might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 have loved. 
 
 3. He might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 have loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We might, could, 
 
 would, or should • 
 have loved.. 
 
 2. You might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 have loved. 
 
 3. They might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 have loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. I might, could, 
 would, or should 
 have been. 
 
 2. You might, could, 
 would, or should 
 have been. 
 
 3. He might, could, 
 would, or should 
 have been. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 have been loved. 
 
 2. You might, could, 
 
 would, o?- should 
 have been loved. 
 
 3. They might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 have been loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We might, could, 
 
 M^ould, or should 
 have been. 
 
 2. You might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 have been. 
 
 3. *rhey might, could, 
 
 would, or should 
 have been. 
 
 Will you conjugate love in like second futures ? present potential 
 
 manner through each person and imperfect ? perfect ? pluperfect 
 voice of the pluperfect? first and present siibjunctive; ?ommo 
 
78 
 
 £^&LISH eH^MIdAK. 
 
 Singtdar. 
 
 1. If Hove. 
 
 2. If you love. 
 
 3. If he love. 
 
 Plural, 
 
 1. If we love. 
 
 2. If you love. 
 
 3. If Ihey love. 
 
 '(Singular, 
 
 1. Ifl love. 
 
 2. If you love. 
 
 3. If he love. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we love. 
 
 2. If you love. 
 
 3. If ihey love. 
 
 Singular, 
 
 1. Ifl loved. 
 
 2. If you loved. 
 
 3. If he loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 1. If we loved. 
 '2. If you loved. 
 3. If ihev loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Common Form. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I am loved. 
 
 2. If you are loved. 
 
 3. If he 13 loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we are loved. 
 
 2. If you are loved. 
 
 3. 'If ihey are loved. 
 
 Subjunctive Form. 
 Singular. 
 
 1. Ifl be loved. 
 
 2. If you be loved. 
 
 3. If he be loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we be loved. 
 
 2. If you be loved. 
 
 3. If Ihey be loved. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Common Form. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. Ifl was loved. 
 
 2. If you were loved. 
 
 3. If he was loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we were loved. 
 
 2. If you were loved. 
 
 3. If they were loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. Ifl am. 
 
 2. If you are. 
 
 3. If he IS. 
 
 Plural, 
 
 1. If we are. 
 
 2. If you are. 
 
 3. If Ihey are. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. Ifl be. 
 
 2. If you be. 
 
 3. If he be. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we be. 
 
 2. If you be. 
 
 3. If they be. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. Ifl was. 
 
 2. If you were. 
 
 3. If he was. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we were. 
 
 2. If you were. 
 
 3. If ihey were. 
 
 form? sulvjun dive form? imper- 
 fect, common form? subjunctive 
 form ? perfect ? pluperfect ? firsl 
 and second futures? 
 
 Will you conjugate love in the 
 present indicative active? imper- 
 fect ? perfect? pluperfect? first 
 and second futures ? present 
 passive ?imperfec.t ? perfect ? plu- 
 perfect ? fir.st and second futures ? 
 present indicative o\' to be'i imper- 
 fect ? |)erfect ? pluperfect ? first 
 and second futures? 
 
 Will you coiijiia:ate love Xhrowsh. 
 each person of the present indica- 
 tive active? passive? the neuter 
 verb to he? also in the imperfect ? 
 
 perfect? pluperfect? first and sec- 
 ond futures? present potential? 
 imperfect? perfect? |)lui)erfecl? 
 present subjunctive? in botli 
 forms? perfect? pluperfect? first 
 and second futures ? 
 
 What is the present infinitive 
 active of love? present passive? 
 present o( fo he ? perfect active of 
 lone f perfect passive ? perfect of 
 lo he? present participle active of 
 love? present passive? present of 
 to h*^? perfeL't of Inve? perfect of 
 to be? compound perfect of love? 
 in the active? in the passive of /o 
 hef 
 
TENSES. 
 
 79 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 If I loved. 
 If you loved. 
 If he loved. 
 
 Plural 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 If we loved. 
 If you loved. 
 If they loved. 
 
 1, 
 2, 
 3. 
 
 Suhjitnctive Form. 
 
 Singular. 
 If I were loved. 
 If you were loved. 
 If he were loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 If we were loved. 
 If you were loved. 
 If Ihey were loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I were. 
 
 2. If you were. 
 
 3. If he were. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we were. 
 
 2. If you were. 
 
 3. If ihey were. 
 
 Tice remaining tenses are all of the Comvio7i Form. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I have loved. 
 
 2. If you have loved. 
 
 3. If he has loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we have loved. 
 
 2. If you have loved. 
 
 3. Ifuhey have loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I had loved. 
 
 2. If you had loved. 
 
 3. If he had loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we had loved. 
 
 2. If you had loved. 
 
 3. If ihey had loved. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I havebeen loved. 
 
 2. If you have been 
 
 loved. 
 
 3. If he has been loved. 
 
 Plural 
 
 1. If we have been 
 
 loved. 
 
 2. If you have been 
 
 loved. 
 
 3. If they have been 
 
 loved. 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSK. 
 
 4 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I had been loved. 
 
 2. If you had been 
 
 ioved. 
 
 3. If he had been loved. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 If 
 
 Plural. 
 we had been 
 
 loved.- 
 If you had been 
 
 loved. 
 If they had been 
 
 loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I have been. 
 
 2. If you have been. 
 
 3. If he has been. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we have been. 
 
 2. If you have l»een. 
 
 3. If they have been. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I had been. 
 
 2. Ii"you had been. 
 
 3. If he had been. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we had been. 
 
 2. If you had been, 
 
 3. If they had been. 
 
 In what voice and mood is, ' I 
 love?" "They. love?" - They are 
 loved?" ''Are they loved?" 'i I 
 do love?" What is the force ofdoj 
 In what voice and mood is, "The 
 man loved?" "He has loved?" 
 ''He has been loved?" "Plas he 
 been loved?" "She had loved?" 
 "She had l)t'en loved?" " We shall 
 love?" "We shall be loved?" 
 "Shall I have been loved ?" •' May 
 I love?" -'May I be lOved ?" 
 
 "She may have loved?" "She 
 may have been loved?" "If I 
 love?" "If he be loved?" "If 
 he is loved?" "If I love?" "If 
 we were loved?" "If I was 
 loved ?" 
 
 In what tense is, "They lov- 
 ed ?" "Ye are loved?" "She did 
 love?" "We were loved?" "They 
 shall love ?" " They shall be lov 
 ed?" "I may be loved?" "If she 
 has been loved ?" 
 
m 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I shall vr will 
 
 love. 
 
 2. If you shall or will 
 
 love. 
 
 3. If he shall or vi^ill 
 
 love. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we shall or will 
 
 love. 
 
 2. If you shall or will 
 
 love, 
 
 3. Ifthey shall or will 
 
 love. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. Ifl shall have loved. 
 
 2. If you shall have 
 
 loved, 
 
 3. If he shall have 
 
 loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we shall have 
 
 loved, 
 
 2. If you shall have 
 
 loved. 
 
 3. If ihey shall have 
 
 loved. 
 
 FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. Ifl shall or will be 
 
 loved. 
 
 2. If you shall or will 
 
 be loved. 
 
 3. If he shall or will 
 
 be loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we shall or will 
 
 be loved. 
 
 2. If you shall or will 
 
 be loved. 
 
 3. If ihey shall or will 
 
 be loved. 
 
 SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
 Singular. 
 
 1. Ifl shall have been 
 
 loved. 
 
 2. If you shall have 
 
 been loved. 
 
 3. If he shall have 
 
 been loved. 
 
 Plural. 
 1. If we shall have 
 been loved. 
 '2. If you shall have 
 
 been loved. 
 3. If they shall have 
 been loved. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. If I shall or will be, 
 
 2. If you shall or will 
 
 be. 
 
 3. If he shall or will 
 
 be. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. IX we shall or will 
 
 be. 
 
 2. If you shall or will 
 
 he. 
 
 3. If ihey shall 07 will 
 
 be. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. Ifl shall have been. 
 
 2. If you shall have 
 
 been. 
 
 3. If 'he shall Jiave 
 
 been. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. If we shall have 
 
 been. 
 
 2. If you shall have 
 
 been. 
 
 3. If they shall have 
 
 been. 
 
 In what number and person is, 
 "I love?" "We love?" "He 
 does love ?" " The man did 
 love?" "The men were loved?" 
 ^- If he love?" 'If I was?" "If 
 I were ?" " If ye have been ?" 
 " If ye have loved ?" " You may 
 be loved ?" 
 
 Is love^ as '' They love," a regu- 
 lar or irregular verb? why? .'333, 
 active or passive? 439, What 
 mood is it in ? why? 452, tense ? 
 why ? 482, number ? person ? 
 "What does ('ot-e agree with? Rule 
 VII, 
 
 Is «re, as, "They are," a regu- 
 lar or irregular verb? why? 534. 
 passive or neuter? why? 450. 
 What mood is it in? why? 452. 
 tense? why? 482, number? per- 
 son ? Rule for its agreement ? 
 VII. 
 
 What is the present imperative 
 oilove? present infinitive? 
 
 What mood and tense is, " Love 
 you?" is "To have been loved?" 
 
 Will you conjugate learn in the 
 present indicative active? pas- 
 sive? perfect active? perfect pas- 
 sive? present potential active? 
 passive ? imperi'ect active ? pas- 
 sive? imperative present active? 
 passive? perfect infinitive active? 
 passive? present subjunctive ac- 
 tive in both forms? passive? per- 
 fect infinitive? i'uture active? pas- 
 sive"^ 
 
 "What kind of verb (that is, regu- 
 lar or irregular), what voice, mood, 
 tense, number, and person is, "t 
 sing?" "We are Jbrmed?" "He 
 is?" "You are determined?" "It 
 rains ?" " It has happened ?" 
 '' The man was respected ?" " The 
 
TENSES. 
 
 »1 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. ' Singular. 
 
 2. Love you, or do you 2. Be ^ou loved, or do 2. 
 love. you be loved. 
 
 Plural. Plural. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Be you, or do you 
 be. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 2. Love you, or do you 2. Be you loved, or do 2. Be you, or do you 
 love. you be loved. be. 
 
 Pres. To love. 
 
 Per/. To have loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Prc8. To be loved. Pres. To be. 
 
 Per/. To have been Per/. To have been, 
 loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Pres. Loving. Prcs. Being loved. Pros. Being. 
 Per/. Loved, Per/. Loved. Per/ Been. 
 Compound Per/ Hav- Compound Per/ Hav- Compound Per/ Hav- 
 ing loved. ing been loved. ing been. 
 
 536. For the benefit of those who wish to retain the pronoun thouy 
 in the conjugation of verbs, the following synopsis is given. The 
 ])upil can take it separately, or be taught it in connection with the 
 other persons of the verb, by substituting thou for you, in the forego- 
 ing conjugation. 
 
 Si/nopsis with Tjiou. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Free. Thou lovest. 
 Imp. Thou lovedst. 
 Per/ Thou hast loved. 
 Plup. Thou hadst lov- 
 ed. 
 
 1 Fut. Thou shall or 
 
 wilt love. 
 
 2 Fvt. Thou wilt have 
 
 loved. 
 
 Thou art loved. 
 
 Thou wast loved. 
 
 Thou hast been loved. 
 
 Thou hadst been lov- 
 ed. 
 
 Thou shalt or wilt be 
 loved. 
 
 Thou wilt have been 
 loved. 
 
 Thou art. 
 Thou wast. 
 Thou hast been. 
 Thou hadst been. 
 
 Thou shalt or wilt be. 
 
 Thou wilt have been. 
 
 boys did study?" "If he im- 
 prove?" "Unless he repent?" 
 "Although she be disappointed?" 
 " He may depart ?" " Depart 
 now?" "To love?" "To sing?" 
 "To be sung?" "To rejoice?" 
 "To have wept?" "To have been 
 seen?" " To have been found ?" 
 
 Will you give the synoj-sis of 
 love joined with thou through the 
 indicative active? passive? neu- 
 ter verb to he ? 
 
 Will you name the synopsis of 
 
 learn in the first person in the ac- 
 tive voice, through each mood and 
 tense? Will you repeat the two 
 tenses of the infinitive and the 
 three participles? Synopsis of 
 honor in like manner through the 
 jiassive? also the synopsis "of the 
 verb to be? Give the synopsis of 
 desire in the active like love; in 
 the passive : verb to he ; lirst per- 
 son plural active; passive; to he; 
 third person active; passive; to 
 be. 
 
ENGLISH OKAMMAH. 
 
 537. POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Pre*. Thou may St or 
 
 canst love. 
 Imp. Thou mightst, 
 
 couldst, wouldst, 
 
 or shouUlst love. 
 Per/. Thou niayst or 
 
 canst have loved. 
 Phtp. Thou mio;lust, 
 
 couldst, wouids't, 
 
 or shouldst have 
 
 loved. 
 
 Thou mayst or canst 
 
 be loved. 
 Thou inightst, couldst, 
 
 M'ouId-*t,yrsliouldst 
 
 be loved. 
 Thou niayst or canst 
 
 have bc-en loved. 
 Thou inightst, couldst, 
 
 would!>t,o/'shouldst 
 
 have been loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Thou mayst or canst 
 
 be. 
 Thou nn'ghtst, couldst, 
 
 wouldat, orshouldst 
 
 be. 
 Thou mayst or canst 
 
 have been. 
 Thou mighlst, couldst, 
 
 wouldst, 'j>'shouldst 
 
 have beeu. 
 
 Prea. If thou lovest. 
 Imp. If thou lovedst. 
 
 Prea. If thou love. 
 Imj). If thou loved. 
 
 Perf. If thou hast lov- 
 ed. 
 
 Plup. If thou hadst 
 loved. 
 
 1 Fat. If ihou shalt or 
 
 wilt love. 
 
 2 Fat. If thou shalt 
 
 have loved. 
 
 538. Common Form. 
 
 If thou art loved. 
 If thou wast loved. 
 
 539. Subjunctive Form. 
 If tlion be loved. 
 If thou Wert loved. 
 
 540. Common Form. 
 
 If thou hast been lov- 
 ed. 
 
 Ifthou hadst been lov- 
 ed. 
 
 If thou shalt or wilt be 
 loved. 
 
 If thou shalt have 
 been loved. 
 
 Ifthou art. 
 Ifthou wast. 
 
 Ifthou be. 
 Ifthou wert. 
 
 Ifthou hast been. 
 Ifthou hadst been. 
 
 If thou slialt or wilt 
 
 be. 
 If thou shalt have 
 
 been. 
 
 Interrogative Form. 
 541. INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Singular, 
 
 Do I love? 
 Do you love ? 
 Does he love? 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 Slugnhtr. 
 
 1. Am I loved? 
 
 2. Are you loved ? 
 
 3. Is he loved ? 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. Am I? 
 
 2. Are you ? 
 
 3. Is he? 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Do we love? 
 Do you love? 
 Do tliey love? 
 
 
 1. Are we loved ? 
 
 2. Are you loved ? 
 .3. Are they loved? 
 
 
 1. Are we ? 
 
 2. Are you ? 
 
 3. Are ihey ? 
 
 
 th 
 
 542. You will fii 
 e tenses of the 
 
 :ul, 
 su 
 
 on examination of the 
 bjunf'.tive are in every 
 
 foregoing conjugation, 
 respect similar to the 
 
 that 
 cor- 
 
 What mood does the suiijunc- 
 tive roeiuble in its teri'ses? 512. 
 
 Wiuit exceptions ? :yl2. 
 
 How <loes the second future dif- 
 fer ? 542. 
 
 Will you explain the diflereuce ? 
 542. 
 
 What is the sign of the su injunc- 
 tive mood .' 51(5. fs it always ex- 
 pressed ? ^)[l. Give an example. 
 542. Will you supply t!ie con- 
 junct ion ? 
 
544. 
 
 T£Nsiils. . S^ 
 
 regpondin^ ones of the indic«tive, except the following, namely : the 
 present and Imperfect of the verb to be ,- the present and imperfect of 
 the passive; the present and the second future active. The last, how- 
 ever, corresponds in termination, but not in formation Amonjr the 
 exceptions should be reckoned the use of the conjunction if. There 
 are instances, however, of the subjunctive form, when no conjunction 
 is expressed, but in all such cases it is plainly understood : as, " Were 
 I to go, he would not follow;" "Had he known me, he would have 
 treated me diflerenily ;" that is, "If 1 were to go," and, ■' Tf he had 
 known. ' Examples of this description are conjugated as follows ; 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 
 
 643. IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. Were I. 1. Were we. 
 
 2. Were you. 2. Were yon. 
 
 3. Were he. 3. "Were they. 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 Singular. ' Pluraf. 
 
 1. Had I loved. 1. Had we loved. 
 
 2. Had you loved. 2. Had you loved. 
 
 3. Had he loved. 3. Had they loved. 
 The second person singular of all verbs=>^ formerly (1) ended 
 
 in St; as, ''Thou hast," '-Thou wast," etc. This form is siill re- 
 tamed l)y that respectable class of persons denominated (2) Friends 
 and in the Sacred (3) Scriptures, (ti) ' 
 
 54.'!. Eth, for the termination of the third person sins-nlar, obtained 
 (4) very generally till within a recent (r)) period, especially on urave 
 (6j and didactic (7) subjects: as, " He that hntli ears to hear, let him 
 huar;-^ "Simple multiplication teacheth to repeat," etc. Jiut the cus- 
 tom of the present day is det-idedly (S) against the usage. (0) 
 
 54G. The Scriptures abound (10) with instances of the use of the 
 
 Will you conjiigHte the verb ^f) By whom is this termination 
 he in the subjunctive mood, im- still retained ? 544. In what writ- 
 perfect tense, without its usual injrs?544. 
 
 sign ? In like manner conjugate Meaning of Sacred Scriptures? 
 
 /ouc in the j)luperlect ? f)44. 
 
 Will you conjugate love in the What form of the third person 
 
 present active, interrogative form? singular ol)lained till recently '* 
 
 passive? neuter verb ^o Ae? 54.'). Give an example. 51-5. 
 
 In what voi«'e, mood, tense, Meaning of obtained? Of re- 
 number, and person is, "Do I cent^ 545. 
 
 study?" ''Did sheistudy?" ''Were On what subjects was the ter- 
 
 they dismissed ?" "Are we?" mination eth u>ed in writing ? 545. 
 
 In what did the second person Meaning of oraoeJ of didactic f 
 
 Singularof all verbs formerly end? 545. 
 
 544. (live an example. .')44. In what writings do we find ye 
 
 Meaning oC f ormerf,/ y .54 4. used fir you ? 54(i. 
 
 * Excpi»ting art. 
 
 (1) buiiio time ago. (2) Called. (3) The Rible. (4) Prevailed. (5) Late. (6) Serious. 
 
 (<) Aljouudiug lu precepts or iuatructive. (8) Positively. (9) Use. (10) Have 
 
84 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 pronoun ye for yoxt,: as, "Ye are the salt of the earth;" but it is 
 scarcely to be met with in any standard works of modern date.. 
 
 547. 'the following conjugation accords with the ancient usage of 
 the verb. 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Singular. Singular. 
 
 1. I am loved. 1. I am. 
 
 2. Thou art loved. 2. Thou art. 
 
 3. He is loved. 3. He is. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 I love. 
 
 Thou lovest. 
 
 He loveth or loves. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. We love. 
 
 2. Ye or you love. 
 
 3. They love. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 We are. 
 
 Ye or you are. 
 
 Plnral. 
 
 1. We are loved^. 
 
 2. Ye or you are loved. 
 
 3. They are loved. 3. They are. 
 
 548. j^*"For a further illustration of these obsolete conjugations, 
 the learner is referred to those treatises on grammer in our schools, 
 which profess to furnish him with a sure and infallible guide to the 
 true and proper use of the English language. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 The nominative case governs the verb in number and person. 
 
 EULB VII. 
 
 jx verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 " William was admired for his prudence."" 
 
 549. William is a proper koun, of the third person, singular 
 NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, and in the NOMINATIVE CASE to ioas ad- 
 mired, agreeably to Rule VI. 
 
 Was admired is a regular passive verb, from the verb to admire — 
 *^Pres. admire; Imp. admired; Perf. part, admired. 1, I was admired; 
 2, You were admired; 3, He or William was admired" — made in the 
 indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, singular number, 
 and agrees with William^ according to Rule VII. 
 
 For is a preposition. 
 
 Is it common in modern works ? 
 546. 
 
 Will you conjugate love in the 
 present active, according to the 
 ancient usage ? 547. passive? neu- 
 ter verb to he ? 
 
 In what number and person is 
 "He hath?'' "He hates?" "Thou 
 lovest?" "Thou hast?" ''He 
 learneth ? " " Ye learn ? " " He re- 
 joicelh?" "Thou art rejoiced?" 
 "Thou art?" "He weepeth?" 
 "Addition teachelh?" "He that 
 hath ears ? " " He that sinneth ? " 
 " Thou loved?t ? " " Thou mightst, 
 
 couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have 
 lamented ?" 
 
 What is the rule for the agree- 
 ment of the verb? rule for the 
 nominative? rule by which verbs 
 govern the objective case ? 
 
 "William was admired for his 
 prudence." Will you parse Wil- 
 Was admired? 549. 
 His? 549. Prudence? 
 
 Ham? 549. 
 For? 549. 
 549. 
 
 What is 
 How lormed? 510 
 wiiVeci regular ? 533 
 
 Why is for a preposition ? 246 
 
 a passive verb? 444. 
 Why is ad- 
 
VERBS. 85 
 
 Iti9 is a PERSONAL PRONOtTN, Of the THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUM- 
 BER, MASCULINE GENDER, and agrees with William, according' to Rule 
 V — '^JVom. he ; Poas. his " — made in the possessive case, and governed 
 hy prudence, by Rule I. 
 
 Prudence is a COMMON NOUN, of the third person, siNGUL^fR number, 
 NEUTER gender, OBJECTIVE CASE, and govcmed by /or, byl^luLE X. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
 1. 
 
 ''John was applauded for liis "The girl was ridiculed by her 
 eloquence." companions." 
 
 "The king was crowned at West- "Susan was respected for her 
 minster Abbey." virtuous conduct." 
 
 ".Thomas has been esteemed." "James will^be rewarded by his 
 
 " The business will be regulated." instructor." ' 
 
 2, 
 " We may be esteemed." " The task must be performed." 
 
 "He might have been promoted." " We should not (1) be easily (1) 
 "William would have been de- <lisheortened in a good 
 
 throned." cause." 
 
 "Justice may have been stayed." 
 
 " If he be learned.'''' 
 
 550. If is a COPULATIVE conjunction. 
 
 Be learned is a regular passive verb, from the verb to learn — 
 " Pres. learn ; Imper. learned ,* Perf. part, learned. 1 , If I be learned ; 
 2, If you be learned; 3, If he be learned" — made in the subjunc- 
 tive aiooD, subjunctive form, present tense, third person, sin- 
 gular number, and agrees with he, according to Rule VII. 
 
 exercises in syntax continued. 
 1. 
 "If John be rewarded.'^ "Although you will be disap- 
 
 "If I am noticed." pointed." 
 
 " Unless he be punished." " If the man had been elected." 
 
 "Although they are respected." " Except he repent." 
 " Columbus discovered America." " Susan assisted the little girl." 
 "America was discovered by "The little girl was assisted by 
 
 Columbus." Susan." 
 
 "John woun<!ed his brother." " Pain follows pleasure." 
 
 "John's brother was wounded bv "Pleasure is followed by pain." 
 him." 
 
 2. 
 
 " An obedient son is deservedly " Unless great labor had been be- 
 
 respected.by his friends." stowed on William, he would 
 
 " An idle boy will be punished." have disappointed the ex- 
 
 " Without knowledge, a man is pectations of his parents." 
 
 commonly (1) despised." " He will not (1) mind without 
 
 corporal punishment." 
 
 Why is hia a pronoun? parse if? 550. Be learned"? 550. 
 
 Will you now parse the remain- Why in the subjunctive mood? 
 
 ing exercises? 456. 
 " If he be learned." Will you 
 
 (1) Adverb. 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. 
 
 '• The boy who visited me in 
 Septemher. died in the city of 
 Richmond." 
 
 ** The inah whom I found, perish- 
 ed in a storm of snow." 
 
 4 
 
 " I found (1) John nnd William 
 (2) in the garden with iheir 
 father and mother. (2) 
 
 " They that seek knowledge will 
 
 find it." 
 "Tliai lion which was exhibited 
 in ihi.** town has been killed 
 • by his keeper." 
 
 ** I have asjisted him and his 
 
 sister in n)any difficulties, to 
 no (3) purpose." 
 
 XLVI. OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 551. Irregular verbs are those which do not form their imperfect 
 tense and perfect participle by adding to the present tense fd or d only 
 when the verb ei.ds in e; as, 
 
 Pr^/f. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Perf. Participle, 
 
 Go. Went, Gone. 
 
 Begin, Began, Begun. 
 
 LIST OF IRREG.ULAR VERBS. 
 Those marked r admit likewise a regular form. 
 
 TperffxA. Perf. or Pass. 
 Part. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Imperfect: 
 
 Perf. or Pass. 
 Part. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Abide, 
 
 abode, 
 
 abode. 
 
 Cast, 
 
 Am, 
 
 was, 
 
 been. 
 
 ( atch. 
 
 Arise, 
 
 arose, 
 
 arisen. 
 
 Cliide, 
 
 Awake, 
 
 awoke, r. 
 
 awaked. 
 
 Choose, 
 
 Bear, to 
 bring forth, 
 
 1 bare. 
 
 born. 
 
 Cleave, to 
 stick or 
 
 Bear, to 
 carry. 
 
 ■ bore, 
 
 borne. 
 
 adhere. 
 Cleave, to 
 
 Bejit, 
 
 bent. 
 
 beaten, beat. 
 
 split, 
 
 Begin, 
 
 began, 
 
 begun. 
 
 Cling, 
 
 Beud, 
 
 bent. 
 
 bent. 
 
 Clothe, 
 
 Bereave, 
 
 bereft, r. 
 
 bereft, r. 
 
 Come, 
 
 Befieech, 
 
 besought, 
 
 besought. 
 
 Cost, 
 
 J5id, 
 
 bid, bade. 
 
 bidden, bid. 
 
 Crow, 
 
 Bind, 
 
 bound, 
 
 bound. 
 
 Creep, 
 
 Bite, 
 
 bit. 
 
 bitten, bit. 
 
 Cut, 
 
 Bleed, 
 
 bled. 
 
 bled. 
 
 Dare, to 
 
 Blow, 
 
 blew, 
 
 blown. 
 
 venture. 
 
 Break, 
 
 broke. 
 
 broken. 
 
 Dare. tf> 
 
 Bned, 
 
 brfd, 
 
 bred. 
 
 challtUMe^ 
 
 Bring, 
 
 bnmnht, 
 
 brought. 
 
 U»-al, 
 
 Build, 
 
 built, 
 
 built. 
 
 Dig, 
 
 Burrtt, 
 
 burnt. 
 
 buret. 
 
 Do, 
 
 Buy, 
 
 bought, 
 
 bought. 
 
 Di.iw, 
 
 } 
 
 cast, 
 
 caught, r. 
 chid, 
 chose. 
 
 cast. 
 
 caught, r. 
 chidden, chi 
 chosen. 
 
 rcgvXar. 
 
 
 clove or cle 
 
 ft, cleft, cloven 
 
 clung, 
 clothed, 
 came, 
 .cost, 
 crew, r. 
 crept, 
 cut, 
 
 clung. 
 
 dad. r. 
 
 come. 
 
 coat. 
 
 crowed. 
 
 crept. 
 
 cut. . 
 
 durst, 
 
 dared. 
 
 r. 
 
 
 dealt, r. 
 dug, r. 
 dill, 
 drew, 
 
 dealt, r. 
 dug. r. 
 done, 
 diawn. 
 
 Why iu the tubjunciive form ? 
 46.3. 
 
 Will you parse the remaining 
 exercises in these lessons ? 
 
 XLVI. When is a verb called 
 irregular? 651. 
 
 Will you name the present and 
 imperl'ect tenses, also the perfect 
 participles of (jo ? hcgiuf <xmf 
 an\s&, ? awake? bear (to carry)? 
 bidf hitef break ? chtiosef dot 
 driitkt eat f forget f have? k?ioionf 
 
 (1) Irregular verb. (2) For William tind mother f^i>p\y JiixXfi XI. (3) Adjective. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 87 
 
 Present. 
 
 InxperffjcU 
 
 Drive, 
 
 drove. 
 
 Drink, 
 
 drank, 
 
 Dwell, 
 
 dwelt. 
 
 Eat, 
 
 eat or ate, 
 
 Fall, 
 
 fell. 
 
 Feed, 
 
 fed, 
 
 Feel, 
 
 felt. 
 
 Fight, 
 
 fought, 
 
 Find, 
 
 found, 
 
 Fleo, 
 
 fled, 
 
 Fling, 
 
 flung, 
 
 Fly, 
 
 flew, 
 
 Forget, 
 
 forgot. 
 
 Forsake, 
 
 forsook, 
 
 Freeze, 
 
 froze. 
 
 Get, 
 
 got. 
 
 Gild, 
 
 gilt, r. 
 
 Gird, 
 
 girt, r. 
 
 Give, 
 
 gave, 
 
 Go, 
 
 went. 
 
 Grave, 
 
 graved, 
 
 Grind, 
 
 ground. 
 
 Grow, 
 
 grew, 
 
 Have, 
 
 had. 
 
 Hiinp, 
 
 hung, r. 
 
 Hear, 
 
 lieard. 
 
 Hew, 
 
 hewed. 
 
 Hide, 
 
 hid, 
 
 Hit. 
 
 hit, 
 
 H.»ld, 
 
 held, 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 hiirt. 
 
 Keep, 
 
 kejit, 
 
 Knit, 
 
 knit, r. 
 
 Know, 
 
 knew. 
 
 Lt\de, 
 
 laded. 
 
 Lay, 
 
 laid. 
 
 Lead, 
 
 led. 
 
 Leave, 
 
 left, 
 
 Lend, 
 
 lent, 
 
 Let, 
 
 let, 
 
 Lie, to lie 
 down, 
 
 } lay, 
 
 Load, 
 
 loaded, 
 
 Loae, 
 
 lost, 
 
 Make, 
 
 made. 
 
 Jleet, 
 
 met, 
 
 Mow, 
 
 mowed, 
 
 I'-iy, 
 
 paid, 
 
 I'ut, 
 
 put, 
 
 Fead, 
 
 read. 
 
 Rend, 
 
 rent. 
 
 Rid, 
 
 rid, 
 
 IHde, 
 
 rode. 
 
 Ring, 
 
 rung, rang. 
 
 Rise, 
 
 rose. 
 
 Rive, 
 
 rived. 
 
 Run, 
 
 ran. 
 
 Saw, 
 
 sawed, 
 
 Per/, or Pats. 
 
 Part. 
 driven, 
 drunk, 
 dwelt, r. 
 eaten, 
 fallen, 
 fed. 
 felt, 
 fought, 
 fdund. .'j' 
 fled, 
 flung, 
 flown, 
 f forgotten, 
 I forgot, 
 foreiiken. 
 frozen, 
 got. gotten.* 
 gilt. r. 
 girt. r. 
 given, 
 gone, 
 graven, r. 
 ground, 
 grown, 
 had. 
 hung. r. 
 heard. , 
 
 hewn. J*, 
 hidden, hid. 
 hit. 
 held, 
 hurt, 
 kept, 
 kuir. r. 
 kixnvn. 
 laden, 
 laid, 
 led. 
 left, 
 lent, 
 let. 
 
 lain. 
 
 laden, r, 
 
 lost. 
 
 made. 
 
 mot. 
 
 mown, r. 
 
 paid. 
 
 put. 
 
 read, 
 
 rent. 
 
 rid. 
 
 rodeyridden.f 
 
 rang. 
 
 risen. 
 
 riven. 
 
 run. 
 
 sawn." r. 
 
 Preient. 
 
 Say, 
 
 See, 
 
 Seek, 
 
 Sell, 
 
 Send, 
 
 Set, 
 
 Shake, 
 
 Shape, 
 
 Shave, 
 
 Shear, 
 
 Shed, 
 
 Shine, 
 
 Show, 
 
 Shoe, 
 
 Shoot, 
 
 Shrink, 
 
 Shred, 
 
 Shut, 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Sink, 
 
 Sit, 
 
 Slay, 
 
 Sleep, 
 
 Slide, 
 
 Sling, 
 
 Slink, 
 
 Slit, 
 
 Smite, 
 
 Sow, 
 
 ^ i)eak. 
 
 Speed, 
 
 Spend, .' 
 
 Spill, 
 
 Spin, 
 
 Spit, 
 
 Split, 
 
 Spread, 
 
 Spring 
 
 Stand, 
 Steal, 
 Stick, 
 Sting, 
 Stink, 
 
 Stride, 
 
 Strike, 
 
 String, 
 Strive. 
 St row or 
 Btrew, 
 Swear, 
 Sweat. 
 Swtdled, 
 Swim, 
 Swing, 
 Take, 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 . said, 
 saw, 
 sought, 
 sold, 
 sent, 
 set, 
 shook, 
 
 shaped, 
 
 shaved, 
 sheared, 
 shed, 
 shone, r. 
 showed, 
 shod, 
 shot, 
 shrunk, 
 shred, 
 shut, 
 
 auai£, sang, 
 sunk, sank, 
 sat, 
 slew, 
 slep^ 
 slid, 
 slungy 
 slunk, 
 slit. r. 
 smote, 
 sowed, 
 spoke, 
 sped, 
 sjjent, 
 spilt, r. 
 spun, 
 spit, spat, 
 split, 
 spread, 
 f sprung, 
 
 stood, 
 
 stole, 
 
 stuck, 
 
 stung, 
 
 stunK, 
 [ strode or 
 I Mtrid, 
 
 struck, 
 
 strung, 
 
 strove. 
 1^ St rowed or 
 ' strewed, 
 
 swore, 
 
 swft. r. 
 
 swelled. 
 
 swtini, swam, swum. 
 
 swung, swung. 
 
 took, taken. 
 
 Perf. or Pata. 
 
 Part. 
 said, 
 seen, 
 sought, 
 sold, 
 sent, 
 set. 
 shaken. 
 
 {shaped, 
 shapen. r. 
 shaven, 
 shorn, 
 shed, 
 shone, r. 
 shown, 
 shod, 
 shot, 
 shrunk, 
 shred. 
 Bhut. 
 Bung. 
 sunk, 
 sat. 
 slain, 
 slept, 
 slidden. 
 slung, 
 slunic. 
 
 slito/'slitted, 
 smitten, 
 sown. r. 
 spoken, 
 sped, 
 spent, 
 spilt, r. 
 spun. 
 
 s])it, spitten.J 
 split, r. 
 spread. 
 
 I sprung. 
 
 stood. 
 
 stolen. 
 
 stuck. 
 
 stung. 
 
 stunk. 
 
 1^ stridden. 
 
 ( struck or 
 ( stricken. 
 
 strung. 
 
 striven. 
 ( slrowitjfltrow- 
 i ed, strewed. 
 
 sworn. 
 
 swet. r. 
 
 swollen, r. 
 
 lie (lo lie down)? mowf ri$e? seeT throto? toeavef von'U ? 
 
 * Gotten is nearly ohsoleto. Its compound, forgoUr.n. is still in good n». 
 t Ridden is nearly obsolete. % Spitten U nearly obeol«te. 
 
88 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Prcsml. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Ftrf. or Fuss. 
 Part. 
 
 Teach, 
 
 taught, 
 
 tawglit. 
 
 Tear, 
 
 tore, 
 
 torn. 
 
 Toll, 
 
 told, 
 
 told. 
 
 Think, 
 
 thought. 
 
 thought. 
 
 Thrive, 
 
 throve, r. 
 
 thriven. • 
 
 Throw, 
 
 threw, 
 
 thrown. 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 thrust, 
 
 thnipt. 
 
 Tread, 
 
 trod. 
 
 trodden. 
 
 Wax, 
 
 waxed. 
 
 waxen, r. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Iinperjecl. 
 
 Per f. or Pass 
 
 
 
 Pari. 
 
 Wear, 
 
 wore, 
 
 worn. 
 
 Weave, 
 
 wove. 
 
 woven. 
 
 Weej), 
 
 wept, 
 
 wept. 
 
 Win, 
 
 won, 
 
 won. 
 
 Wind, 
 
 wound. 
 
 wound. 
 
 Work. 
 
 wrought, 
 
 wrought or 
 work(>d. 
 
 Wring, 
 
 wrung, 
 
 wrung. 
 
 Write, 
 
 wrote. 
 
 written. 
 
 5r)3. We say, " I have seen," " I had seen," and " I am seen," 
 using the participle seen, instead of tlie verb saw: hence, 
 
 Note VI. We should use participles only after have and /tad, and 
 the verb to he. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 " John has loritten his copy."'' 
 
 554. Bos written is an ibrroui^u active-transitive verb, from 
 the verb to write — " Prcn. write ; Impcrf. wrote ; Per/, part, written. 
 1, I have written ; 2, You have written ; 3, He or Jokyi has written" 
 — found in the inpicativk mood, pkufkct tense, third person, 
 si.voiiLAR NUMBER, aud agrees with John^ by Rule VII. 
 
 John., copy, and his, are parsed a^s before. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
 1. 
 
 " Job has struck John." 
 
 *'John has been struck by Job." 
 
 *' The nien caught the thfef in the 
 
 tavern." 
 "The thief was caught by the 
 
 men in the tavern." 
 "A wise son will make a glad 
 
 father." 
 " The act was done by Wiliam." 
 
 "James found his little brother in 
 
 the boat." ;. 
 
 "The instructor makes good 
 
 pens." 
 " The farmer ploughs tlte ground 
 
 in spring." 
 " I may spend my time in the 
 
 country." 
 
 Will you correct, in accordance 
 with Note VI, «he following ex- 
 amples froin \\\c list above? 
 "John has wrote." 
 " He done it well." 
 "The sun has rose." 
 "The sun risen yesterday in a 
 
 cloud." 
 " I see him yesterday." 
 " He has did his task." 
 "The birds have Hew away." 
 " The birds flown or flew." 
 "The post is drove into the 
 
 ground." 
 " He began or begun to write." 
 "The task is began." 
 "I had went with him," 
 " My brother has not spoke." 
 " The cloth is wove." 
 
 "The boys run swiftly." 
 
 " The thief has stole my watch." 
 
 " His copy was wrote well." 
 
 " He was smote on his cheek." 
 
 " John was awoke by the noise." 
 
 "'My father has came." 
 
 " He come yesterday." 
 
 " Mary has chose the bettor 
 
 part." 
 " He drunk to excess." 
 " The book was gave to me." 
 " His friends have forsook him." 
 " He was not forsook by liis 
 
 children." 
 " The laborer worked for me 
 
 forty days." 
 " He was took and bound." 
 " John has written his copy." 
 
 Will you parse *' has written ?" 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 89 
 
 2. 
 
 "John is nt home." " He abode in pesrce." 
 
 " Riifus rode into ihe country." " They would be cruel." 
 
 "The sun will t^hine." " We may have been negligent." 
 
 "The iliief was confined in jail." "The boys should have been 
 
 "The horj^e ran with great vio- studious." 
 
 lencc." " William was in town." 
 
 3. 
 
 " If he will assist me, I shall be faults, still he would not 
 
 much (I) obliged to him." recompense me." 
 
 " If he be virtuous, jhen he will " I will write him, lest he neglect 
 
 be happy." my b^l^iness." 
 
 "If he is happy, then I am con- "Should 1 be disappointed, I shall 
 
 leiUed,m. despair." 
 
 " Had he inentioned that circum- "Unless he repent, he will not be 
 
 stance, I should have avoided pardoiuul." 
 
 my present calamities." "Were I* in your place, I would 
 
 " Although he acknowledged his relieve him." 
 
 4. 
 
 "Thon hast benefited me." " Hath he many advisers?" 
 
 "Ye make no pretensions." " Ye do a ways err."' 
 
 '• This doctrme hiith no followers." "Thou shalt surely die ?" 
 
 " If thou love me." "If thou hadst obeyed me, thou 
 
 "If thou an more comfortable, I wouldst not have been dis- 
 
 heartjly' rejoice." appointed." 
 "Dostjhou hear me ?" 
 
 ^ 5. , , , 
 
 "If Thomas, who Is at school, re- imposed was performed with 
 
 turn in season, I will visit reluctance." 
 
 you." "The measure which he adopts 
 
 "The lioya whom I admonished will succeed." 
 
 have reformed." " I have known a little child that 
 
 "The man whose life was in dan- exhibited the prudence of ma- 
 
 ger returned in safety." ture years." 
 
 " The task which the instructor 
 
 XLVir. GOVERNMENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 
 
 555. "When I say, "John begins to read," to read is a verb in the 
 infinitive "mood ; and it-follows, as you perceive, the verb begins: 
 hence we say that it is governed by betjhift. 
 
 " He IS beginning to read." Here the infinitive follows the parti- 
 ciple hffjinnhKj ; it is, therefore, governed by her/inning. 
 
 "He is eajjer to learn." Here the infinitive follows the adjective 
 tarjrr ; we. therefore, say that it is governed hy emjer. 
 
 » Why is luiH writlKu. an irregular " He is beginning to read." 
 
 verb < 51.'). Why active ? 43i.». Wlint governs to read in tiiis 
 
 Wliv transitive .' 4-l'J. case? 5-')5. 
 
 XLVlI. "John begins to read." "He is eager to learn." Wliot 
 
 In what mood is tu read ^ 5-')5. governs to ham 'n\ thi.i case? 
 
 Whv? \l'^. By whnt is it gov- S.-JO. Why.' 555. 
 eriied? 5.05. WhyV 555. 
 
 (1) Advoxb. * S«o M:j. 
 
 b 
 
90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 «« He has an opportunity to learn." Here the infinitive to learn 
 is governed by the noun opjjorhmihj, because it follows the noun. 
 
 In like manner, the infinitive may be governed by pronouns; as, 
 " There is a fine opportunity for him to learn :" hence, 
 
 RULE XII. 
 The ivfnitive mood may he governed by verbs, participles, adjectives, 
 nouns, and pronouns. 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 " James begins to learn.'''' 
 506. To learn is a regular transitive verb—" Pres. learn ; Impcrf. 
 learned ; Perf. part, learned"— made in the infinitive mood, present 
 tense, and governed by begins, agreeably to Rule XII. 
 James and begins are parsed as before. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
 
 " George desires to learn." " A knowledge of the r»les of 
 
 " He IS eager to learn." grammar^ teaches us to wnte 
 
 " He has a desire to study." correctly. , ■ , , 
 
 " It seems to please John." "He should seek to obtain knowU 
 
 " William has come to see us." edge." 
 
 " They are determined to excel." '' We may be taught to wnte, read, 
 
 and spell. 
 Omission of to, the tisval sign of the iH^iitive. 
 '' John saw the man strike (I) " The tutor bade him do it." 
 
 the bov " " The soldiers dare not rebel." 
 
 '' The instructor made him sub- " My uncle let the boys play m 
 
 jy,it )' the garden. ' 
 
 "They need not proceed in such "See (2) the blind beggar 
 
 haste." dance." 
 
 " I heard the clock strike." 
 
 Note VII. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunc 
 tions or adverbs :=as, "The summit of a mountam so high as to be 
 
 invisible." ^^^ „„ 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 " They are about to (3) depart." ;' He desired no more (4) than 
 «' He is wise enough (3J to study." (5) to know his lesson. , 
 
 XLVIII. 
 557. We have before seen that par ticiples partake of the nature of 
 
 »He has an opportunity to What, then, may be regarded as 
 
 learn." What part of speech gov- a rule for the government of the 
 
 erns to learn in this example? infinitive ?Xil. , ,, 
 
 Knr. whxr'? 'i'^5 " James beguis to learn. Will 
 
 — '^opportunity for him to you parse to' learn? James? he- 
 
 learn." What does the infinitive f/m* ? 556. , , .on 
 
 here follow ? By what, then, is it Is to ever omitted ? 4b0. 
 
 governed ? 555. " _______ 
 
 „<^^^ssssjt^sfs [i^i^«rsi'="s^^Kf 
 
PARTICIPLE^. 91 
 
 two parts of speech, namely: verbs and adjectives. One point of re- 
 semblance which participles have to adjectives, is in referring to 
 some noun in the sentence in which they are used: as, "The sun is 
 setting;" here the participle setting is said to refer to the noun sun: 
 hence, 
 
 KUIiE XIII. 
 
 Participles refer to notms. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 " The wind is rising^ 
 
 558. Rising is a present active participle, from the irregular 
 verb to rise — " Free, rise ; Imp. rose ; Perf.part. risen " — and it refers 
 to wind, according to Rule XIIT. 
 
 exercises in syntax continued. 
 1. 
 "The moon is setting." " Mary was playing." 
 
 *'The sun is rising." "I have been writing." 
 
 "The trees are growing." " I found him crying." 
 "John was riding." "I left him rejoicing." 
 
 PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 
 " The rising sun cheers us." 
 
 559. jRising is a participial adjective, from the verb to rise — "Pres. 
 rise ; Imji. rose; Per/, part, risen" — and belongs to aim, by Rule IV. 
 
 exercises in syntax continued. 
 
 2. 
 
 "The setting sun reminds us of "We view with pleasure the 
 
 declining years." twinkling stars." 
 
 "The roaring winds alarm us." "The roaring cataract strikes us 
 " The rippling stream pleases with awe." 
 
 us." " The laboring man should not be 
 
 " The singing-master visited me." defrauded." 
 
 3. 
 "Having dined, I returned to "Having slept, he recovered his 
 
 school." ' strength." 
 
 "Having fought bravely, they "Having retired to rest, he was 
 
 were at last (1) overcome." seized with violent pain." 
 
 "John, having exercised too vio- "The thief, having escaped, was 
 lently, fainted." never afterwards seen in that 
 
 region." 
 
 Will yon now parse the exer- does setting refer? 557. Rule 
 
 cises in the lessons which follow ? XIII. 
 
 What is the infinitive mood used Will you now parse setting in 
 
 for 1 479. full ? 
 
 "They are about to depart." Will you parse the next lesson? 
 
 By what is the infinitive here Will you parse rising, in the 
 
 governed ? What is the note for sentence, "The rising sun ?" 559. 
 
 this 1 VII. Why is it called a participial ad- 
 
 XLVIII. What is a participle? jective ? Ans. Because it de- 
 
 49S. scribes, like an adjective, and im- 
 
 " The sun is setting." What is plies action, like a participle. 
 setting ? 557. To what, then, 
 
 (1) At last is an adverbial phrase. 
 
92 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 " William returned, mortified at 
 
 his loss." 
 "The stream, swollen by the 
 
 rains, overflowed its banks." 
 "The man accustomed to his 
 
 glass seldom reforms." 
 
 "A child left to follow his own 
 inclinations is most common* 
 ly ruined." 
 
 "Admired and applauded, he be- 
 came vain." 
 
 5. 
 
 "A dissipated son grieves his 
 
 parents." 
 " We must not neglect any known 
 
 duty." 
 " My lather took the forsaken 
 
 youth into his own house, and 
 rendered to him deserved as- 
 sistance." 
 " William befriended the deserted 
 man." 
 
 6. 
 
 "The men, being f.itigued by 
 labor, souyht rest in sleep." 
 
 " William, being dismissed Irom 
 college, retired to the coun- 
 try." 
 
 ''Thomas, after having been re- 
 peatedly admonished to no 
 
 eflect, was severely and just- 
 ly punished." 
 ''The tree, having been weighed 
 down for a long lime by abun- 
 dance of fruit, at last (I) fell 
 to the ground." • 
 
 RULE XIV. 
 
 *^ctive participles J from active transitive verbs, govern the 
 
 objective case. 
 
 '^^ James is heating John." 
 
 56D. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singular num- 
 ber, MASCULINE GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and governed by heating, by 
 Rule XIV. 
 
 Ik 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
 
 1. 
 
 "John is striking William." 
 "Susan is studying her lesson." 
 "Mary has* been repeating her 
 
 lesson to her mother." 
 "The teamster, seeing the stage 
 
 upsetting, ran and prevented 
 
 it." 
 "Having obtained my request, I 
 
 immediately set off for Sa- 
 vannah." 
 
 "I spied the cat watching a 
 mouse." 
 
 "Having given directions to his 
 servants, he left his family 
 and took the stage for Knox- 
 ville." 
 
 Will you now parse the next 
 lesson .<* 
 
 WhiU kind of a participle is, 
 "Having dined?" .004. Why? 501. 
 
 Who dined, in the i)I)rase, 
 "Having dined, I returned to 
 school?" 
 
 To what, then, does having 
 
 dined refer? Rule XUi. Will 
 you now parse the remaining les 
 sons ? 
 
 " HentingJohn." Will you parse 
 John? 500. Beating? 55S. 
 
 Will you parse the remaining 
 exercises in the lesson above? 
 
PARTICIPLES. 
 
 93 
 
 '* He deli gilts infighting.^* 
 C61. Fighting is a partjcipial noun, in the objective cask, and 
 governed by ihe preposition in, accordinj? to Rule X. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
 1. 
 
 "Job was exhausted by wrest- "Job practises fencing daily." 
 
 Ii„g." "The. instructor teaches reading, 
 
 "Mary acquired a livelihood by writing, and spelling in his 
 
 sewing." school." 
 
 "Walter excels in writing." "Whispering is forbidden in 
 
 " Fishing delights me." school." 
 
 2. 
 562. " You icill much oblige me hy sending those hoohsy 
 Sending is a participiai. noun, in the objectivk cask, and governed 
 by the preposition %, according to Rui>e X. 
 
 Books is a common nottn. of the third person, plural nttiwber, 
 NEUTKR GENDER, oBJiXTivE CASE, and govcmed by the active parti- 
 ciple sending, according to Rule XIV. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
 
 "James derives pleasure from '• Mary's reading has been useful 
 
 reading useful books. in improving her taste in com- 
 
 " John is above doing a mean ac- position." 
 
 (ion." "I am discouraged from under- 
 
 " Parents are pleased at seeing taking this study." 
 
 the progress of their chil- "A good instruclor takes no de- 
 
 dren." light in punishing." 
 
 The present participle, when used as a noun, often has the definite 
 article the before it, and the preposition of after it: as, "By the 
 observing of truth, you will command respect." With equal pro- 
 priety, however, it may be said, *' By observing truth," etc., omitting 
 both the arlicle and the preposition. If wc use Ine article willioul 
 the preposition, or the preposition without the article, the expression 
 will appear awkward : hence. 
 
 Note VIII. The definite article the should be used before, and 
 the preposition of after, participial nouns, or they should both bo 
 omitted. 
 
 • EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
 
 "By the observing these rules, he "In the regarding his interests, 
 will avoid mistakes." he neglected the public af- 
 
 " He prepared them for the event- fairs." 
 
 " In tighiing." Will you parse you parse sending? r)G2. Books? 
 
 fi<fJiti))g? 5f31. Why is fighting 6t3'2, 
 
 called a participial noun? Aus. Will you parse the remaining 
 
 Bci-aiise it implies action, 'ike a exercises in this lesson ? • 
 
 parlicii)le, and has, also, the sense From what are present parti- 
 
 of a noun. ciples formed ? 497, 
 
 Will you parse the rest of the How imiy participles in ing be^ 
 
 exercises in this lesson? distinguished from other parts of 
 
 "By sending those books." Will speech of the same lermiuntion "? 
 
 500. 
 
94 , ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 by the sending to them proper " He was sent to prepare the way 
 
 information." by preaching of repentance." 
 
 " In writing of his letter, he made <' Keeping of one day in seven (1) 
 
 soifte mistakes." is required of christians." 
 
 PROMISCUOaS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 ." William calls George." "John will be punished for his 
 
 ". John's father will reward his in- insolence." 
 
 dustry." " We may improve under our in- 
 
 " George's father's carriage passed structor, if we choose." 
 
 the tavern." "He who would excel in learn- 
 
 "If William return, he will be ^ ing, must be attentive to his 
 
 disappointed." books." 
 
 •' John has beaten hisJillle brother " She begins to improve." 
 
 most shamefully." 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 563. Will you compose a sentence containing an active-transitive 
 verb ? One containing a neuter verb ? One containing a passive verb ? 
 One expressing the same sense as the last in an active form ? Will 
 you compose a sentence having a verb in the potential mood? One in 
 the siibjunctive mood? One in the imperative mood? One in the 
 infinitive mood ? One having an adjective in the superlative degree ? 
 One having the article an correctly used before a vowel '^ One having 
 an adjective in the positive degree that has in itself a superlative sig- 
 nification? One containing the relative whose? One containing w/iz'cA.? 
 One with what used as a compound pronoun "^ One having ivho used 
 as an interrogative pronoun? One having a verb in the subjunctive 
 mood, common form? 
 
 Will you construct one or more sentences, which will make sense 
 with the word tr7ith contained' in them ? One with the word wisdom 
 contained in it ? One with the word knowledge? One with the word 
 learning? One -w'Mhihewordi science? 
 
 Will you construct a sentence a.hoin jjritdetice? One about history? 
 One or more on the [following subjects, namely : geography^ garden- 
 ing, farms ^ orchards ? 
 
 Will you fill up the following phrases with suitable words to make 
 
 sense ? namely : '^Industry health ;" " By we acquire ;" 
 
 " In youth characters f '<■ Arithmetic business ;" 
 
 " Washington live hearts of bis ." 
 
 XLIX. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 564. The verbs have, be, will, and do, when they are unconnected 
 with a principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, 
 
 *' Instead of saying, " By the ob- XLIX. Which are the auxiliary 
 
 serving these rules," what should verbs? 512. 
 
 I say ? Wliy ? Note VIII. What is an auxiliary verb? 511. 
 
 Will you now parse and correct What a principal one?* 
 
 the exercises under Note VIII? When are have, he, loill, and do 
 
 Will you parse the promiscuous principal verbs? 564. Give an ex- 
 exercises in Syntax? Next take ample of each. 564. 
 those to be written. 
 
 (1) ISevem is a numeral adjective, belonging to days, nnderetood, by Note I. 
 * See question to 197. • 
 
AUXILIARY VERBS. 95 
 
 but principal verbs : as, " We have enough j" " I am grateful ; " He 
 wills it to be so ;" '^ They do as they please."' In this view they also have 
 their auxiharies : as, '• I shall have enough ;" " I zfill be grateful," etc. 
 
 565. The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from 
 the following account of them. 
 
 56^>. Do and didmnxk the action itself, or the time of it, with 
 greater energy and positiveness: as, '' 1 do speak truth ;" I did respect 
 him ;" " Here am T, for thou didst call ine." They are of great use in 
 negative (1) sentences: as, "I do not fear;" "I did not write." 
 They are almost universally employed in asking questions : as, 
 •' Does he learn '?" '• Did he not write ?" They sometimes also 
 supply (2) the place of another verb, and make the repetition of it, in 
 the same or a subsequent sentence, unecessary : as, " You attend not 
 to your studies as he does (i. e., '* as he attends"), etc. "I shall 
 come, if I can ; but if 1 do not, please to excuse me" (i. e. " if I come 
 not"). 
 
 567. May and mirjht express the possibility or liberty of doing a 
 thing ; caii and could, the power: as, " It may rain ;" " I may write or 
 read ;" " He might have improved more than he has j" " He can write 
 much better than he could last year." 
 
 568. Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessity: 
 as, "We must speak the truth, whenever we do speak, and must not 
 prevaricate." (3) 
 
 569. Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates (4) 
 resolution and promising; in the second and third person it only fore- 
 tells: as, "I will reward tho good, and will punish the wicked;" 
 " We will remember benefits, and be grateful ;" "Thou wilt, or he will 
 repent of that folly ;" " You, or they, will have a pleasant walk." 
 
 570. Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells; in 
 the second and third persons, it promises, commands, or threatens: 
 as, " I shall go abroad ;" " We shall dine at home ;" " Thou shalt, or 
 you shall, inherit the land ;" ** Ye shall do justice, and love mercy;" 
 *' They shall account for their misconduct." The following passage is 
 not translated (5) according to the distinct and proper meanings of 
 the words shall and will: "Surely goodness and mercy shall follow 
 me all the days of my life; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord 
 for ever." It ought to be, ^^loill follow me," and, "■ I shall dwell." 
 The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the Thames, and cried out. 
 
 What effect have do and did in What does shall intimate in the 
 
 sentences? 566. Give an example, first person? 570. Give an exam- 
 
 56g. pie. 570. 
 
 Will you give an example in In what particular is tlie trans- 
 
 which the repetition of the princi- lation of the following passage in- 
 
 pal verb is unnecessary ? 566. correct? "Surely goodness and 
 
 What do may and might ex- mercy shall follow me all the days 
 
 press? 567. of my life; and I will dwell in the 
 
 What is the use of 7niist? 568. house of the Lord for ever." 570. 
 
 What does will intimate in the In what consists the mistake in 
 
 first person singular? plural? 569. the exjjression which the foreign- 
 
 Give an example. 569. In the er made when he fell into the 
 
 second and third persons? 569. Thames.^ 570. 
 Give an example. 569. 
 
 (1) Denying. (2) To fill up. (3) To shun the truth. (4) ShoAvs. (5) Expressed. 
 
96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 « I tctU be drowned ! nobody shall help me!" made a 8nd misapplica- 
 tion of these auxiliaries. 
 
 571. These observations respecting the import (I) of the verbs will 
 and shall, tuiist be understood of expiicniive seiiieuces ; lor when the 
 sentence is iiiterrogalive, just the reverse, (2; for the most part, takes 
 place: thus, "1 shall go," -'You will go,^^ express event (3) only; but 
 •' Will you go?" imports intention; and, '' iSkalll go?" refers to the 
 will of another. But " He shall go," and " Shall he go ? " both imply 
 will — expressing or referring to a command. 
 
 572. When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meaning 
 of these auxiliaries likewise undergoes (4) sonic alteration, as the 
 learners will readily perceive by a few examples: •' Hes7/«^^ proceed;" 
 "If he shall proceed;" "You shall consent;" " If you Kkall con- 
 sent." These auxiliaries are soiiielinies interchanged (5) in the in- 
 dicative and subjunctive moods, to convey the same meaning of the 
 auxiliary ; as, " He loilL not return ; " " If he shall not return j" *• He 
 shall not return ;" *'If he toill not return." 
 
 573. Would primarily (6) denotes inclination of will; and should, 
 obligation; but they both vary their import, and are often used to 
 express simple event. 
 
 574. Do and have are sometimes used as principal verbs, according 
 to the following 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Pres. I do. I have. 
 
 Imp. I did. I had. 
 
 Per/. I have done. I have had. 
 
 Pli/p. I had done. I had had. 
 
 1 Fut.l shall or will do. I shall or will have. 
 
 2 Fut.l shall have done. I shall have had. 
 
 575. POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 Pres. I may or can do. I may or can have. 
 
 Imp. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or s 
 
 should do. have. 
 
 Per/. I may or can have done. I may or can have had. 
 
 Plup. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or 8 
 
 should have done. have had. 
 
 576. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 Pres. 1. If 1 do. If I have, etc. 
 
 576—1. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Pres. Do you, or do you do. Have you, or do you have. 
 
 What do sknfl and will denote Will you repeal the synopsis of 
 
 in iiUeiTOgHtive sentences; as, (/<> throu^-h all the moods? of Aaye.^ 
 
 "Shall 1 go?" "Will you go?" Will you conjugate d, in the 
 
 571. < present lense? /iftfc in the perfect 
 
 What do would and should pri- tense? 
 marily deiiofo ? 573. 
 
 (1) Meaning (2) ConMary. (0) What hapjions. [i) Suffors. (b) Tu «Ti:chaiig« 
 ODt> far tlia otiier. (6) la the first placa. 
 
AUXILIARY VERB.^. 97 
 
 577. INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Pres. To do. To have. 
 
 Per/, To have done. To have had. 
 
 ^'^'^a PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Pres.Dohx^. ■ Having. 
 
 Per/. Done. Had. 
 
 <7o7»p.;;er/. Having done, Havinj? had. 
 
 L. OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 579. Defective verbs are those which are used only in some of the 
 moods and tenses. • 
 
 58t). The following are the principal ones ■ 
 Pres Tenne. Lnp. Tense. Perf. Participle, 
 
 f^'f^ Might, (Wanting.) 
 
 Can. Could, !_ 
 
 Will, Would, :_ 
 
 Sliall, Should, 
 
 Must, Must, 
 
 <^uglit. Ought, 
 
 — : Quoth, . . 
 
 r%\' 2! \h«se, oMf/^< and yrmsf, you perceive, are not varied, 
 os^. Unght and quoth are always used as principal verbs. Oaaht 
 IS he same in the imperfect tense as in the present, and is always 
 followed by an mhnitive: as, '• He ought to siudv;" '' He ou-ht to 
 have read In this last example, our/Ju is in the imperfect, a°nd in 
 the first. It IS in the present. This we determine by the infinitive 
 which folows the verb, thus: when the present infinitive follows 
 might, ought is m the present tense ; but when the perfect infinitive 
 follows It, It IS in the imperfect tense. 
 
 583. In English, verbs are often used both in a transitive and in-' 
 ransi ive or neuter signification. Thus, to flatten, when it signifies 
 
 to make even or leoel, is an active-transitive verb ; but when it signifies 
 to grow dial or tneipid, it is an intransitive verb. 
 
 584. A neuter or intransitive verb, by the a'cidition of a preposi- 
 tion, may become 'a compound active-transitive verb: as, to smile is 
 intrans.tive; it can not, therefore, be followed by an objective case 
 
 \Z "' f u T '"'° '^f ^.^TJ^ ^°'"^- ^« ^'^" "°«^ «av '' She smiled 
 on him ' ^S''^^' '""'"'^f ', ^"i "^^ 'f^' ""^'y properly, "She smiled 
 on him;' 'He was smiled on by her." 
 
 What is the perfect participle in the present tense ? 582. 
 
 T wru^, j^ . , „ tense .' db^. Cnve an example of 
 
 U What are defective verbs? each tense. 582. 
 
 -liriii , .. , . When is <o/?fl;^/e» transitive. 
 
 Will you mention the principal and when intransitive ? 583. 
 
 ones, with their imperfect tenses? How, then, are verbs often 
 
 used' 583 
 
 Which are not varied? .'>81. How can an intransitive verb 
 
 i^7 <foo^ "'^^ *"^ ^"°'* always become transitive ? 584. Give an 
 
 used f r.S^ example. 584. 
 How can you tell when onqht is 
 
98 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ft85. Preposition)* afieol tlie meaning ol verbs in tlifTe rent ways. To 
 cast means to throw: as, " He cast a ir^tone at her." To cos*^ w/>, how- 
 ever, means to compute : as, "He oasts np liis accounts." In*all in« 
 stances in whiili the prepoi^iiion folknv s the verb and modifies its 
 meaning-, h should be considered a port olihe verb, and be so treated 
 in pursing. 
 
 586. There are some verbs which, although they admit an objec- 
 tive case after tliem, still do not indicate the least degree of action : 
 as, "I resemble my father." This seeming inconsistency may be 
 easily reconciled by reflecting thai, in ail such cases, the verb has a 
 dire<-t reference to its 61>ject. Of this nature are the verbs retain, re- 
 eei)ihli\ own, hate, etc. 
 
 .087. S'-uue neuter or intransitive verbs admit of a passive form, and 
 are thence called neuter passive verbs : "as, "John goes home to- 
 night." Here goes is an inti'ftnsitive verb. But in ihe sentence, 
 ".John is gone home," is govp is a neuter passive verb. Again, in the 
 phrase, " VViltiam comes," comes is an intransitive verb; and in th»^ 
 pll^a^c. '• "VVillinm is come." is come iii a neuter passive verb. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 1. 
 
 "■ William had had many advan- 
 tages before lie improved 
 them in a pro})er manner." 
 
 "A good scholar will not do (1) 
 what is forbidden by his in- 
 ■ structor." 
 
 '' He has had many precious op- 
 portunities." 
 
 "John will do as his instructor 
 directs." 
 
 "He may have had time." 
 
 " I own this book." 
 
 *' Charles resembles his parents." 
 
 "He retains his place." 
 
 "The farmer casts seed into the 
 ground." 
 
 "The merchant casts up his ac- 
 counts often." 
 
 "The instructor ha» come."' 
 "Our instructor has come." 
 "William hns gone to visit 
 
 parents." 
 " Susan has «rone." - ^ 
 
 i. 
 
 " I can not believe him." 
 "His father docs not hesitate Jo 
 .trust him." 
 
 "She smiles sweetly." 
 " She smiled on John." 
 "John Mas smiled on by fortune in 
 every undertaking." 
 
 " Mary was gone before her moth- 
 er came." 
 
 "When they came to town, they 
 made many purchases." 
 
 What does to c'atit mean? 585. There are several verbs of this 
 
 Meaning of ^) r«>(< K/) / ^Sb. class; will you name some of 
 
 When may the preposition be them ? 586. 
 
 reckoned a part of the verb? 585. 
 
 How should it he lonsidered in 
 parsing? 585. 
 
 Is recentbff, strictly speaking, a 
 transitive verb f 58G. 
 
 Why does it admit an object 
 after it? r.&6. 
 
 What is a neuter passive verb? 
 587. Give an example. .'387. 
 
 Will you now parse the next 
 lessons ? 
 
 LI. What is the mraning of o(/- 
 verb ? 228. 
 
 (1) What Klaiids for -'thut which," or '• thf> tiling whicli." Ajiplr RiiU-s V. VI. 
 au'l VTir. 
 
ADVERBS. . 99 
 
 LT. OF ADVERBS. " . 
 
 588. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
 other adverbs, to qualify them. 
 
 589. Expressions like the following, namely: a fexo daijH ago, long 
 since, none at all, at length, in vain, by no means, a great deal, etc., are 
 denominated adverbial phrases, when they are used to qualify verbs or 
 participles, by expressing the manner, time, or degree of action. 
 
 590. The definite article the is frequently placed before adverbs of 
 the comparative and superlative degrees, to give the expression more 
 force : as, " The more he walks, the hefter he feels.". When the article 
 is used in this sense, both the article and adverb may be reckoned an 
 adverbial phrase, and be so considered in parsing. 
 
 591. You have doubtless noticed that most words ending in hi are 
 advarbs. The reason of this is that ly is a contraction of the adverb 
 li-ke ; thus, from manlike we foriu wanly ; gentlemanli/ i^ a voutrnclion 
 o( gentlemanlike ; hence, 
 
 592. If you meet with a word ending in ly, implying in its significa- 
 tion the idea of like, you may conclude at once that it is an adverb. 
 
 • ■ RULE IX. 
 
 Adverhn qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverli.-i. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 '■ Ah vain we look for perfect happiness.'' 
 
 593. In vain is an adverbial phrase, and qualifies look, according 
 to RULK IX. ^ 
 
 EXERCISES IN Sr.NTAX CONTINUED. 
 
 «Mohn has come again, but VVil- " Wilbara acted yery nobly" 
 
 liam has not." " I will by no means consent." 
 
 "Very many persons fail of hup- -^He wrote a long letter a few 
 piness.^" days ago." (1) 
 
 588 
 
 To what is the adverb joined ? When are they to be considnred 
 
 atlverbial phrases? 589. 
 
 For What purpose? oSS. Is the article the ever joined to 
 
 How many diflerent parts of an adverb? S90. For what pur- 
 
 sppech does it qiialify? 588. pose? 590. 
 
 Which are they ? 58S. What do the article and adverb 
 
 ■ \V ha^t is the definition ol an ad- form in such cases ? 590. 
 
 verb? 5S.S. How is it to be considered in 
 
 Are adverbs compared ;* parsing? 590. 
 
 Will you compare widely? 235. flow came most words ending 
 
 soonf 234. in i^ to be considered adverbs'? 
 
 How are they compared ? 230. 591. Give an example. 591. 
 
 Will you compare the adverbs ■ How can wedetermine between 
 
 mnch^ irel// had? ill? 237. words ending iiWy, whether or not 
 
 vSomr adverbs are not regular in (hey are adverbs"? 592. 
 
 their c.OMiparison ; will you name Wha: rule do you apply when 
 
 ""*' ; •-^'^- v<ni parse an^adverb? IX. 
 
 Will you name four oi live ad- "In vain we look." Will you 
 
 verbial phrases? 589. parse in vain? 593. 
 
 (1 , .1 few 'I'lyx a()'i—nn arlverl.ijil plnaM. * .«(.(• question t*^ 234. 
 
100 •ENGLISH (;rammar. 
 
 " A vast many evils are incident "John was writing carelessly." 
 
 to man- in his wearisome " I have admonished her once 
 journey through life." and again." 
 
 'The instructress has at length " A few days ago there was much 
 arrived." excitement in town.'' 
 
 Note IX. To qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other 
 adverbs, we should use adverbs, but to qualify nouns, we should use 
 adjectives. 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. ' 
 
 " William writes good."* " On conditions suitably to his 
 
 •' Susan studies diligent." rank." 
 
 "He speaks fluently and reasons *' He speaks correct." 
 
 correct." " Mary sings admirable." • 
 
 "John writes tolerably well, but " He writes elegant." 
 
 readsf miserable." " He reads and spells very bad." 
 " Harriet dresses neat." 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 594. Will you \Vrite down a sentence, containing a compound 
 active-transitive verb ? One having a neuter-passive verb ? 
 
 Will you compose two or more sentences about a lionl Two or 
 more about shee}) ? Two or more about a cow f One about an ox ? One 
 aboirl (t dog? One about a cat? One about Africans? One about 
 Indians? One about fishen? One about steamboat disasters 1 One 
 about stage ace i doits ? 
 
 LU. OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 595. Prepositions are used to connect words, and '"to show the re- 
 lation between them. 
 
 596. We not unfrequently meet with verbs compounded of a 
 preposition and verb: as, "to «^jhold," " to uivest," " to overZoo/c/" and 
 this composition sometimes gives a new sense to the verb: as, "to 
 unc^erstand," "to «)?7Adraw." But th«; preposition more frequently 
 occurs after the ver]), and separate from it : as, •' toj^ast I'p," " to fall 
 on-" The sense of the verb, in this case, is also materially affected 
 by the preposition. 
 
 Will you next parse the remain- What are prepositions ? 595. 
 
 ing exercises'? Will you repeat the list '^ 247. 
 
 When should we use adverbs? With what are verbs not un- 
 
 Nole IX. frequently compounded ? 596. 
 
 "When adjectives? Note IX, Give an example. 59G. 
 
 " William writes good." Where- Where is the preposition more 
 
 in is this sentence incorriict V* frequently |)laced ? 596. Give an 
 
 Will you parse and correct the example. 596. 
 
 remaining exercises ? Will you name four preposi- 
 
 LIL What is the meaning of 
 'preposition ? 244. 
 
 =^- B'or tlie adjective ^roorf, we should use the adverb weK, according to Note IX. 
 r Pea(?s agrees with John understood, and i.s, therefore, connected wit.n vn-it^^ by 
 I tie cnni unction but, aj^neenlily to Bule XI. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 101 
 
 598. The prepositions after, before, above, beneath., and several 
 others, sometimes appear to be adverbs, and maybe so considered: 
 as, "They had their reward soon after ;" "He died not long before;" 
 " He dwells above ;" but if the noun time or place be added, they lose 
 their adverbial form : as, " He died not long before " [that time], etc. 
 
 599. There is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the correct use 
 of the diderent i)repositions. For illustration we will take the fol- 
 lowing sentences: " He walk's witJi a staff i^ moonlight ;" " He was 
 taken bi/ stratagem, and killed with a sword." Put the one preposi- 
 tion for the other, and say, " He walks iy a staff m^A moonlight;" 
 " He was taken with stratagem, and killed by a sword," and it will 
 appear that they diflier in signification more than one, at first view, 
 would be apt to imagine. , 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 Prepositions govern the objective case. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 " John Uvea within his income." 
 
 600. Within is a PREPOSITION. 
 
 Income is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
 NEUTER GENDER, OBJECTIVE CASE, and governed by withi7i, according to 
 Rule X. . 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
 
 " Thomas made his fortune by in- He made the sun to shine by 
 
 dustry." day, and the moon (1) to give 
 
 " Susan'Iabors with her needle light by night." 
 
 foi*& livelihood." "Beneath the oak lie acorns in 
 
 "Respecting that affair, there great abundance." 
 
 was a controversy." "John, who is at all times watch- 
 
 " In six days God made the world, ful of his own interest, will 
 
 and a'll things that are in it. attend to that concern." 
 
 SENTENCES TO BJE WRITTEN. 
 
 601. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable prepo- 
 sitions to make sense? "John was the house-when he was 
 
 seized a fit." " The busy bee summer provides food — the 
 
 approaching winter — the prudence — a rational being." 
 
 Will you supply the objects to the following ? "James was catch- 
 ing .". " He was beating ." He supports ." 
 
 Will you supply agents or nominative cases to the following.* 
 " was running." " was singing." 
 
 lions which in many instances specting the government of nouns 
 
 appear to be advorbs ? 598. by prepositions'? X: 
 
 How may they be converted in- "John lives within his income." 
 
 to prepositions again? 598. Will you parse within^ 600. /;»- 
 
 " Ho walksby astafi'with moon-, com^? 600. 
 
 light." Will you correct this sen- Will you now take the remain- 
 
 tence, and then repeat the phrase ? ing exercises to be parsed; after 
 
 Will you repeat the rule re- which, those to lie written ? 
 
 (1) The sense is, '• He made the moon." Moon, then, Is in the objective case, gov- 
 erned by made understood, and connected with sun, by Rule XI. 
 
102 
 
 KNGLiaH QRAMMA^R. 
 
 Will you supply the verbs in ili© following? •' A dutiful child 
 
 his parents." " Grammar jlij**- correctly," 
 
 Will you compose two or more sentences about hoys? One about 
 whales? One about «»iai-e8? One about /oa;e« / One aboni joarenf.v? 
 One about brothers? One about sisters? One about uncles? One 
 about aunts? 
 
 LIII. OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 602. A CONJUNCTION is a word that is chiefly used to connect sen- 
 tences, so as, out of two or more sentences, to make but one. 
 
 603. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect 
 sentences: as, "Blessed is the man loho feareth the Lord." 
 
 604. Conjunctions very often unite sentences when they appear to 
 unite only words, as in the following sentences: "Duty and inter- 
 est forbid vicious indulgences." "Wisdom or folly governs us." 
 Each of these forms of expression contains two sentences, namely : 
 the first, "Duty forbids vicious indulgences;" ''Interest forbids 
 vicious indulgences J " the second, " Wisdom governs us;'' "Folly 
 governs us.'' , 
 
 KUIiE XI. 
 
 Conjunctions connect verbs of the same mood and tense^ 
 and nouns or pronouns of the same case. 
 
 605. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 " William writes and ciphers." 
 
 And is a copulative conjunction. 
 
 Ciphers is a regular active intransitive verb, from the verb to 
 cipher — ''• Pres. cipher; .Imperf. ciphered; Per. part, ciphered" — 1, 
 1 cipher; 2, You cipher; 3, He or William ciphers" — made in the 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE, THIRD PERSON SINGULAR, and 
 
 agrees with William understood, and is connected to xorites by the 
 conjunction and, agreeably to Rule XI. ^ 
 
 What is a simple sentence ? 253, 
 Give an example. A compound 
 sentence ? 256. Give an example. 
 
 Why called compound? 254. 
 
 LIII. Meaning o( conjunction f 
 257. 
 
 What is a conjunction? 602. 
 
 Meaning of copulative? 264. 
 
 What is the use of the copula- 
 tive conjunction? 265. 
 
 Will you repeat the list of copu- 
 lative conjunctions ? 266. 
 
 What does disjunctive signify? 
 271. 
 
 What does the disjunctive con- 
 junction connect? 274.' 
 
 Willyou repeat the list of tHem? 
 275. 
 
 What is the rule for donnecting 
 words by conjunctions ? XI. 
 
 What other words^besides con- 
 junctions and prepositions, con- 
 nect? 603. 
 
 Do conjunctions ever connect 
 sentences when they appear to 
 connect words only? 604. Give 
 an. example. 604. 
 
 '• William writes and ciphers." 
 Will you parse and? 605. Ci;pheraf 
 605. 
 
INTKUJRCTIONS. lOlJ 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
 
 "John cipliers rapidly, and reads ''Though he is lively, yet he is 
 
 correctly." not too volatile.'' 
 
 '' If we contend about trifles, and " If he has promised, he should 
 
 violently maintain our opin- act accordingly." 
 
 ions, we shall gain hut few •• He denied that he circulated 
 
 friends." the report." 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 (506. Will you compose a sentence coutainiug the conjunction i/? 
 One containing aiidf As many sentences as there are conjunctions 
 which follow — each sentenced cont;iiniag one? Although Jjnlcaa 
 For. Because. Therefore. Or. Neither. Nor. 
 
 Will you compose a .sentence about Jackson f One about Clay ^ 
 One aijuiit Monroe? One about yfadison ? . 
 
 LIV. OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 607. Imterjkctions are words thrown in between the pans of 
 sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelinjjs ot the sfiealcer. 
 
 60S. We do not say, "Ah, I!" "ph. I ! ' but. "Ah, me'" -'Oh me!" 
 using thf^ objective case after the interjection. The pronoun here 
 spolcen of, you perceive, is of the first person: hence, 
 
 NoTR X. Prcmouns of the first person are put in the objective 
 case, after the interjections Oh! 0! Ah! etc. 
 
 609. We say, "O thou persecutor !"" "Oh, ye hypocrites!" "O 
 thou who dwellest," etc. : hence, 
 
 Note XL The interjections 0! oh! and ah! require the nomina- 
 tive case of pronouns in the second person. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 610. ''Ah,m<.'! I mast perish." 
 
 Ah is an interjectio.n. 
 
 3fe is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular, objec 
 TiVE CASE, and governed by ah, agreeably to Note X. 
 
 exercises in syntax continued. 
 
 " 0, thou (1) who hast murdei'ed "Ah! unhappv (2) thou, who 
 
 thy friend." art deaf (3) to the calls of 
 
 "O, thou who hearest prayer!" duty and honor." 
 
 "Ah, me! must I endure all "Oh! happy (4) us, surrounded 
 
 this?"' with so many blessings." 
 
 Will you, in the next place, take " Ah me ! " In \^hat case is me? 
 
 the exercises to be parsed and f)10. ^ 
 
 written, and tlispose of them ? What rule or note applies to 
 
 LIV. What is the meaning ot me ? X. 
 
 intcrJrctioH ? 283. "O thou," etc. What note aj)- 
 
 What are interjections? 607. plies to tkoa? XL 
 
 Will you repeat from the lisf "Ah, me!'' Will you parse a/* .!*. 
 
 si.v interjei'lions ? QS3. mc !^ 310. 
 
 How may an interjection gener- 
 ally be known ? 286. 
 
 (1) Vor thou, apply Note XT. (2) Agrees with thou, by Rulo IV. 
 
 (3; Bolonga to who. by ]\n\n IV. (4) Apply Rulo IV. 
 
104 
 
 KNOLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN; 
 (ill. Will you compose a sentence containing alna? One contain- 
 ing- uh ! One about volcanoes 7 One about lohcs ? One about islande ? 
 One about Welster, the statesman ? One about a good scholar ? One 
 about a poor scholar ? One about a good ivstructor ? 
 
 LV. OF THE AGREEMENT OF NOUNS. 
 
 612. Apposition, in grammar, signifie.n the putting of two nouns in 
 the same case. 
 
 613. 'When I say, "John the mechanic has come,'' I am speaking 
 of only one person ; the two nouns, John and mechanic, both mean- 
 ing or referring to the same person; consequently they are i)ut, by 
 apposition, in the same case : hence, 
 
 KULE XV. 
 
 When two or more iio^ats^ in the same sentence, signify the same things 
 
 they are put, by apposition, in the same caise. 
 
 EXERC7SES IN SYNTAX. 
 614. " Webster^ the statesman, has left us.^^ 
 
 Statesman is a common noun, masculine gender, third person, sin- 
 gular NUMBER, NOMINATIVE CASE, and put in apposition with Wehater^ 
 by Rule XV. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
 1. 
 " John the Baptist was beheaded." " Cicero, the orator, flourislied in 
 " David, the thief, was apprehend- the time of Catiline, the con- 
 
 ed." spirator." 
 
 "Joiiiison, the bookseller, has " I visit Thompson, the professor, 
 
 failed in business." often." 
 
 '' I consulted Williams, the law- '<John, the miller, died yester- 
 ver." . day."' 
 
 2. 
 
 "■ If John will not go, I will go *' We will inspect the goods our- 
 
 myself" (1) selves." 
 
 " You yourself are in fault." " I, I am the man who commilled 
 ''They themselves were mistak- the deed." 
 
 Will you now take the remain- What i.s the rule for this agree- 
 ing exercises t*o be parsed and ment ? XV. 
 ■written? • -'Webster, the statesman." 
 
 LV. Meaning of ajiposition ? "U'ill you parse sUtienmav f 614. 
 
 612. Will you now parse the suc- 
 " John the mechanic." How ceeding exercises ? 
 
 many jiersons are here spoken " 1 will go myself" Will you 
 
 of? 613. Should, then, the two parse «i_(/.se(/'f 
 nouns, Jc<7i3i and wechmvic, be in How is the compound personal 
 
 the same, or a difl'erent case? pronoun. formed in the singular ? 
 
 613. 3S6. How in the plural? 386. 
 
 (1) il/^«e?/ IB a compound peisonal proiioini. first person, siugnlar, nominative 
 case, and put in apposition ^vith I, by Eule XT. 
 
EXERCUF.S. 105 
 
 Remark 1. — For the same reason that uiie noun agrees with anoth- 
 er in case, it agrees M'iifc it in number and person also. 
 
 '' I, Alexander, by the grace of " We, the re^presentatives of the 
 God. Emperor of all the Rus- people of these colonies, do 
 
 sias, promulgate this law.'' make this declaration." 
 
 Hemark 2. — When one noun describes or qualifies another, the one 
 so qualifying becomes an adjective in sense, and may be so consid- 
 ered in parsing. Accordingly, 7'reiuont, in the phrase, -'Tremonl 
 House," is an adjective belonging to House, by Rule IV. 
 
 015. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 " The Marlborough Hotel is situ- '' John Dobson was in town yes- 
 
 ated in AVashington street." terday." 
 
 '' The lirm of Messrs. Williams & " John Johnson, the blacksmith, 
 Sons has failed.*' has broken his leg." 
 
 Remark 3. — When the nouns which refer to the sa/jiie person or 
 thing, are separated by verbs, as " Webster is a statesman/' it is 
 customary to apply one or more of the following rules : 
 
 1. Ani/ verb may have the same cane after it'as be/ore it, tchen both words 
 refer to the same thing. 
 
 2. The verb to bk, throiir/h'aU its variations, has the same case after it 
 as that which next precedes it. 
 
 3. Passive verbs of numiny, judging, etc., have the same case after them 
 as before them. 
 
 4. Neuter verbs have the same case after ihem as before them. 
 
 (31(5. The foregoing rules, in the opinion df the writer, are wholly 
 unnecessary, tending merely to confuse the mind of the learner by 
 requiring him to make a distinction in form, when there exists none 
 in principle. In corroboration of this fact, Mr. Murray has the fol- 
 lowing remark: 
 
 (317. " By these examples, it appears that the verb to be has no gov- 
 ernment of case, but serves in all its forms as a conductor to the 
 cases: so that the two cases which, in the construction of the sen- 
 tence, are the ne.rt before and after it. must always be alike. Per- 
 haps this subject will be more intelligible by obs£)rving that the 
 ■words, in the cases preceding and following ihe verb to be, may be 
 said to be in apposition toeach other. Thus, in the sentence, 'I un- 
 
 When one noun i'fe put in appo- In the same sentence, do Web- 
 
 sition with another, in what par- ster and statesman both mean or 
 
 ticulars does it agree witli it? refer to the same person? In 
 
 Remark 1. what case, then, ought they to 
 
 Will you now perse the next be? 613. By what rule ? XV. 
 
 exercises ? What office does the verb to be 
 
 "Tremont House."' What part perform between cases ? G17. 
 
 of speech is Tremont? Remark 2. Are the cases next before and 
 
 How used here? Remark 2. Will after it alike, or different? 617. 
 
 you parse it in full? What is the opinion of Mr. 
 
 Will you now parse all the ex- Murray respecting the cases be- 
 
 ercises under Remark 2? fore and after to br, ? 617. 
 
 What is the rule or rules usual- How does he think it and Itim 
 
 ly given for parsing statesman, in should be parsed in the phrase 
 
 the phrase, " Webster is a stales* "I understood it to be him?" 617. 
 man ?" Remark 3, 1,2, 3, 4. 
 
10() r.NOUSH GRAMMAR, . 
 
 derstoocl it Uj i-o- him,' liie words // and him are in apposiliou : that i$, 
 they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case." 
 
 618. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 1, 
 
 '' Webster is a statesman." '•Julius CfB.sar \va.s that R-onian 
 "John is a good .■'cholar." general who conquered the 
 
 " William will be(':ome a dist.n- Gauls." 
 
 gnished and valuable cili/en." " Tom struts a soldier." (1) 
 
 "She walks a queen." (1) '■ Will sneaks a scrivener." 
 
 " He is styled Lord (J) Mayor (1) "Claudius Nero, Caligula's uncle, 
 
 of London." a senseless fellow, obtained 
 
 "He was named John." (i) the kingdom." 
 
 "She moves a queen." (1; 
 
 2- 
 
 "Susau look her to be Mary." is the sou of Mr. (2) John 
 
 "i took him to be John (2) Og- Quincy Adams," (1) 
 
 den." • She is not now the pursou 
 
 " We at lirst took it to be her, but whom they represented her 
 
 afterwards were" convinced (I) to have been." 
 
 that (3) it was not she." " " Whom (5) do you fancy them to 
 
 " He is not the {)erson who (4j it be?" 
 
 seemed he was." '-The professor was appointed 
 
 "I understood it to him (1) who tutor to the prince." 
 
 Remark^. — It not frequently haj)pens that the connecting verb is 
 omitted ; as, " They macle him captain ; that is, to he captain. 
 
 3. 
 
 " They ndmed him John." ' " flis countrymen crowned him 
 
 " The soldiers made him general." emperor," 
 
 "They proclaimed him king," 
 
 G19. SENTENCES TO BE PAUSED AND CORRECTED. 
 
 "It might have been him, (6) but "She is the person who I under- 
 there is no proof (7) of it." stood it to have been." 
 
 " Though I was blamed,- it could " Who do you think it to be?" 
 
 not have been me," " Whom do men say that I am?" 
 
 " I saw one who I look to be " Whom think ye that I am ?" 
 she." 
 
 620, SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Will you compos'e a sentence having nouns in a|)posiiion ? One 
 having nouns in apposition, but separated by a verb? One having 
 a noun used us an adjective ''. 
 
 Will you now parse lessons I, Will you nowtake the sentences 
 2, 3 ? to be parsed and corrected; also 
 
 Is the verb to be always ex- those to be written? 
 pressed? Remark 3. Give an ex- 
 ample. Remark 3. 
 
 Q) Apply Rule XV. (2) Remark 2. (3) 'Conjunction. 
 
 (t) Who is put in apposition with he., by Rule XV ? 
 
 (&) Whom agrees with them, by Rule XV ? 
 
 (0) Him should be h& to agree with it, according to Rule XV. 
 
 a) Apply Rule XV. 
 
NOUNS. 
 
 107 
 
 Will you uoustruct a sentence having in ii tlie word who } One 
 having whose ^ One having whom? One having what f Owg having 
 that f One having man ? One having woman f One having hoy ? One 
 having yifh f One having parentu ? 
 
 LVl. OF NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY. 
 
 621. To address s'x^mfies lo spea/; to : as, " James, your father has 
 come." The name of the person addressed must always be of the 
 second person ; and a noun in this situation, when it has no verb to 
 agree with it, and is wholly disconnejcted with the resi of the sen- 
 tence, is said to be independent: hence, 
 
 RULE XVI. 
 
 When an aiMresx Is nuide^ the name of the person or thing addressed 
 is in the nominative case indefeiident. 
 
 022. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 '■'■ John^ will you assist me?'''' 
 
 John is a proper noun, of the second person, singular uUiViBKR, 
 
 MASCULINE GENDER, and NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT, according- tO 
 
 Rule XVI. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUEJ). 
 
 1. 
 
 " My lords, (1) the time has come 
 when we must take some de- 
 cisive measures." 
 
 "In making this appeal to you, 
 my fellow-citizens, I rely en- 
 tirely on your candor." 
 
 " Rufus, you must improve your 
 time." 
 
 "Gentlemen of the. jury." 
 
 "•James, (1) study (2) your book." 
 
 " William, do try to get your les- 
 son to-day." 
 
 2. 
 
 " Boys, attend to your lessons." 
 
 '•'Girls, come into school." 
 
 '' Did you speak to me, girls V 
 
 " iVly dear children, let no root of 
 bitterness spring up among 
 yau." 
 
 LVI. "James, your father has 
 come." Whicli word here is the 
 name of the person addressed ? 
 
 What is the meaning of to ad- 
 dress ^ 621. 
 
 Of what person is a noun when 
 an address is made ? 621. 
 
 VVlien is a noun independent.? 
 
 What is the rule for a noun put 
 independently ? XV"I. 
 
 In the sentence, "John, will you 
 assist me?" will you parse Johnl 
 622. 
 
 Will you next parse the rest of 
 the exercises in this rule ? 
 
 (1) Rule XVI. 
 
 (2) Imperative mood, and agrees with thou or you understood, by Rule YII. 
 
1(>8 ENGI.TSH ORAMMAR. 
 
 LVII. OF NOUNS IN THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 623. Ill the phrase, "The sun being risen, we set sail," the first 
 clause of the sentence, namely, "The sun being risen," has nothing 
 to do with the remainder; the noun and participle may, therefore, 
 when taken together, be said to be in the nominative case indepen- 
 dent; but as we have already one case of this nature, we will, for the 
 sake of making a distinction, call this (the noun joined with a parti- 
 ciple) the nominative case absolute: hence, 
 
 RULE XVII. 
 
 A noun or pronoun before a participle .^ and independent of the rest of the 
 sentence, is in the nominative case absolute. 
 
 624. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 "The sun (1) being risen. (2) we "Wellington having returned to 
 
 departed," England, tranquillity was re- 
 
 " Egypt being conquered, Alex- stored to France." 
 
 ander returned to Syria.'" "Bonaparte being conquered, the 
 
 " Shame being lost, all virtue was king was restored." 
 
 lost." "The conditions being observed, 
 
 *' The soldiers retreating, victory the bargain was a mutual 
 
 was lost." benefit." 
 
 625. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. " 
 " Him (3) only excepted who was "Him being destroyed, the re- 
 
 a HTurderer." maining robbers made their 
 
 "Her being dismissed, the rest of escape." 
 
 the scholars behaved well." 
 
 LVIII. OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Note XII. A verb in the infinitive mood is sometimes placed in- 
 dependently: ns, "To be frank, i own I have injured you." 
 
 626. ■ EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 " To confess the truth, I was in " To tell the plain truth, I per- 
 fault." suaded him to stay." 
 
 LVII. "The sun being risen, LVIII. "To confess the truth, 
 
 we set sail." How many words I was," etc. How is to confess 
 
 in this sentence, used indepen- used? Note XII. 
 dently, are taken together? 023. What is the rule for it? Note 
 
 Why is this case denominated XII. 
 the case absolute? 623. What is the infinitive mood 
 
 What is the rule for the ca>e used for? 479. 
 absolute ? XVII* How many tenses has it? 528. 
 
 Will you now lake the parsing What is its usual sign? 517. 
 exercises under Rule XA^II, and Will you now i)arse the exer- 
 
 then the sentences lo be cor- cises under Note XII? 
 rected ? 
 
 (1) In tha nominative case absolute with leing risen, by Rule XVII. 
 
 (2) Rule XIII. 
 
 (3) When a noun is in the case absolute, it should be in the nominatiTe case. 
 Him should, therefore, be he, hy Eule XVII. 
 
MOOP, 109 
 
 "To display his power he op- "To convince you, I will continue 
 pressed his soldiers." here till you return." 
 
 "To play is pleasant." "What is pleasant ? "To play." The infini- 
 tive io play is, then, the nominative case to in. "Thou shall not kill, 
 is required of all men." What is required? "Thou shalt not kill." 
 The verb is required, then, agrees w^lh "Thou shalt not kill," as its 
 nominative: hence, 
 
 626 — 1. Note XIII. The iniinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is 
 frequently put as the nominative ca^:e to a verb of the third person 
 sing-uhip. 
 
 627. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 "To excel requires much exer- "Thou shalt not kill, is the coin- 
 
 tion." mand of God." 
 
 "To abandon friends will sink a "Honor thy fnther and thy moth- 
 man's character." er, is required of all men." 
 "To practice religion is our duty." "To write a fair hand requires 
 
 practice." 
 
 Remark 1. — To excel is the nominative case to required^ by Note XIII, 
 and requires agrees with to o.rce^, by Rule VII. In parsing "Thou 
 shalt not kill," we first apply Rules VI, VII, and IX. The whole 
 phrase is considered the nominative to /s required, by Note XIII. 
 
 2. The infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence, is frequently the ob- 
 ject of a transitive verb: as, "Boys love to play." What do boys 
 love ? " To play." The object oi' love, then, is tojyla,)/. " Children do 
 not consider how much has been done for them by their parents." 
 Consider %vhat? " How much his been done for them by their parents" — 
 including for the object of the verb the whole phrase in italics. 
 
 Note XIV. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence, may have an 
 adjective or participle agreeing with it, when there is no npun, either 
 expressed or understood, to which the adjective may belong. 
 
 628. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 "To see the sun is pleasant." "Defraud not thy neighbor, is 
 
 "To practice virtue will be pro- binding on all." 
 
 dnctive. of happiness." -"To do good to our enemies, is 
 
 " To be ridiculed is unpleasant." not natural to our hearts." 
 
 Remarks. — Pleasant agrees with " To see the sun," by Note XIV. 
 Binding- agrees with "Defraud not thy neiglibor," by the same au- 
 thority. To is, apply Rule VII ; to sun^ Rule VIII ; to the infinitive to 
 see, Note XIII. 
 
 "To play is pleasant." What as a verb, there is no necessity 
 
 is pleasant? What, then, is the for considering it the object in 
 
 nominative to is? 626—1. Rule? parsing; what rule, then, will you 
 
 Note XIII. apply to it? XII. 
 
 "Thou shalt not kill, is required Will you name an example in 
 
 of all men." What is required ? which there is part of a sentence 
 
 What is the nominative to is re- used a.s the object of a verb ? 627. 
 
 quired/ 626—1. Rule? NoteXIII. Remark 2. 
 
 Will you now parse the remain- "To sec the sun is pleasant." 
 
 ing exercises under this rule? Will you par.se pleasant^' to see? 
 
 " Hoys love to ptey." What is the sun ? is/ 
 
 the object n( love/ 627. Remark 2. Will you now pyrse the remain- 
 
 Since M'e have a rule for fo lore, ins exercises ander Note XtV? 
 
 ( 
 
110 KNGI.ISH GRAMMAK. 
 
 629. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Will you compose one or more sentences having an infinitive gov- 
 erned by a participle? One using an infinitive after a noun? One 
 describing the manner of playing ball? One or more on the manner 
 o( playing fngl .One on the duly of children lo mind their parents ? 
 One or more on industiy ? One on the btmneis you intend to pursue 
 for lile? 
 
 LIX. 
 
 630. In the phrarie "John and James are here," the sense is, that 
 "John and James are bothhere; two persons are, therefore, spoken 
 of, vi^hich renders it necessary to use the plural verb are, lo agree 
 with two nouns which individually are singular: hence, 
 
 KULE XVIII. 
 
 Two or f/iore vouvh or pronoinis, of the Hvgular vvmber, connected to- 
 gether by ANP. either expressed or T.nd'er.'<tnod, muvd liave rerhi>. nouns, 
 and pro7?o?e/tf! agreeing with thttn in the plural v umber. 
 
 631. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 " William and James run." " John and Joseph can get their 
 
 *' Mary and Harriet study, and lessons." 
 
 they will therefore excel." "Time and tide wait for no 
 
 " You and I are in fault." man." 
 
 " John and Thomas say they in- .'" My coat and pantaloons were 
 
 tend to study Lat-in." made by Watson." 
 
 ReviHrJcs,: — William is one of the nominatives lo the verb run. 
 JaincH is in the nominative case to the verb rw-H, and is connected 
 with the noun ]F^j7?('a?», by Rule XL Run agrees with ir(7^V/wj and 
 J.i.m'.y, by Rule XVIII. 
 
 032. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED ANI^ CORRECTED. 
 '• Mary and her cousin has come." "The farmer and his son is \\\ 
 " You aTid I makes progress in town." 
 
 our studies." " Susan and her sister is deceit- 
 
 " Life and health is both uiicer- fnl." 
 
 tain." " William and John both writes a 
 
 good hand."' 
 
 RemarJca. — For has come, we should read have come, that the verb 
 may be pltirnl wiien it lias two nonn'natives connected by and, ac- 
 cording; to Rule XVIII. 
 
 LIX. When I. say, '"Johnan^l "Mary and her cousin has 
 
 James are here," of how many come." Why is this incorrect? 
 
 j)ersons do I sjx.'ak? 632. 
 
 Should we, then, use /*• or are? Will you |);irse the succeeding 
 
 630. exercises? < 
 
 What is the rule for m-p/^ XVIII. "Pliny, the philosopher and 
 
 Will you now parse thi^exer- naturalist, has greatly enriclied- 
 ciset. utider RuleXVlU? -science." Why should we use 
 
 "William and James run." Will has, in this .sentence, instead of 
 
 you parse f'F///>V'/)* in full ? and/, have,' Exceplionl. 
 
 Juiiir-e f run ■ "That sup*rlicial scholar and 
 
 Will von purse 1 he next 'exer- critic have given." Why is Aorr 
 
 ciNe?*? f^ir^ii incorrrcl y Kxi-eption I. 
 
^EXERCISES. 1 I 1 
 
 Exception 1. — "WJieii and coiinects two or more notins in the sfngu- 
 iflr. which refer to the same person or thing, tlie verb must be sin- 
 gnhir : as, '' Pliny, the philosopher and natiirah'st, has greatly enriched 
 science." 
 
 <i33. SENTENCES TO BE PAESED AND CORRECTED. 
 
 " That superficial scholar and " In that house live a great and 
 
 critic have g:iven new evi- distinguished scholar and 
 
 dence of hivS misguided jndg- statesman." 
 
 ment." " Mr. Cooper, tlte sailor and nov- 
 
 " There go a benevolent man and -elist, visit La Fayette, the 
 
 scholar." patriot and philanthropist." 
 
 Exceptio7i 2. — When two or more nouns in the singular, connected 
 by nr)?iy, have rack or e*e^.;/ joined with them, the M'lb must be in the 
 singi'lar number : as, "Every person, every hcuse^ and every blade of 
 gras.*. was destroyed." 
 
 (-34. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
 
 " Every man, and every woman, " Each man imd each woman 
 and every child, were taken. were particularly alluded to 
 
 *' Tvvery tree, stii^k, and twig, in the report of thf affair." 
 
 were consumed." 
 
 Remark. — Were, in the first of these example.'^, f-hould be changed 
 for was, because reference is had to each person, individually consid- 
 ered, which, in respect lo llie verb, is the same in etlbct us if one per- 
 son only was spoken of. 
 
 NoTR W. h'cert/ is sometimes associated with a plural nonn, in 
 which case the verb must be singular: as, "Every hundred yenrs con- 
 stitutes a century." 
 
 <)35. SENTENCES TO RE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
 
 " Every twenty-four h'lurs afford '' Every fotir years add another 
 to us the vicissitudes of day day to the ordinary number 
 
 and night." of days in the year." 
 
 Rcmarh. — Afford, in the example above, is a violation of the note j 
 it should be a(fordn, in the singular number. The reason of this is, 
 that '' every twenty-four hours " signifies a sin<j!f'. period o/ time, and 
 is. therefore, in reality, singular. 
 
 Note XVI. A verb in the plural will agree with a collective noun 
 
 What is the rule for Jms vome? wrong, then? Why? (330. Re- 
 Exception 1. mark. • 
 
 Will you correct and parse the What is the rule for this / Note 
 
 remaining exercises ? XV. 
 
 In the lirsi example, under Ex- Will you ci.rrect and ))arse the 
 
 ception 2, why use was destroyed^ other exam[)lc ? 
 
 rather than icere destroyed? Ex- "The council were divided." 
 
 ceiilion 2. Why not icns ? Note XVI. Rc- 
 
 Will you purse the remaining marks. Rule? Note X^I. 
 
 exercises under this exception, When is a nonn called roUeo" 
 
 after having corrected them ? f'vi- .' 306. 
 
 'Every twenty-four hours afford In what circumstance would it 
 
 inus." What does "every twen- be proper lo use the si-ngnlar 
 
 ty-four»hours ■■ >1gnify — one peri- verb? Note XYl. Give an ex- 
 
 nd rff lime, or morp ' Wit-* is aniph- ? 
 
112 
 
 ENGLISH GRAM»}AK 
 
 in the singular, when a part only of the individuals are meant; as, 
 "Thecouncil were divided in their sentiments," When the noun e»» 
 presses the idea of unity, the verb >liould be singular: as, "The 
 council was composed wholly of farmers." 
 
 Remarks. — In the foregoing example, we use the plural verb were 
 dii-ided. because we refer to the individuals composing the council ; 
 but if no allusion of liiis sort had been made, and we had spoken of 
 it as one entire body, we should have used the singular verb, accord- 
 ing lo the common rule : as, ''Thecouncil is (composed wholly of 
 farmers." 
 
 We apply toco»«ci7, in the 'first example, Notic Xyi ; to were divid- 
 ed, the same note; and to cohhciV, and tvas comjmsed, in the second ex- 
 ample, Rules VI and VII. 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX, 
 were divided in " My people do not consider.'* 
 
 63t5. 
 
 The CO unci 
 
 their sentiments." 
 
 A part of the men were mur- 
 dered." 
 
 The multitude eagerly pursue 
 pleasure as tfteir chief good." 
 
 637. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
 
 " My people doth not consider." 
 •'The people rejoices in that 
 
 which should give it sorrow." 
 "The multitude rushes to certain 
 
 destruction." 
 
 " Thecomtuittee was divided in 
 their sentiments, and has re- 
 ferred the business to a gen- 
 eral meetin"-." 
 
 XL. 
 
 63S. Negative meSins dcni/iny; and a^nnative^ asserting or declaring 
 positively. A sentence in which something is denied.is a negative 
 one ; and a sentence in which something is alllrmed or positively 
 asserted, is an affirmative one. " Vice degrades us," is an affirmative 
 sentence, and "Labor does not injure us," is a negative one. Not^ 
 notkivq, none at all, hy no means, no, in no wise, neither, no, none, etc., are 
 negative terms. 
 
 The phrase, "I have nothing." has one negative, and means "I 
 have not anything." The phrase, "[have not nothing," can not 
 mean the same as "I have nothing," but mu.?t mean, on the con- 
 trnry, "I have something." This last, you perceive, is an affirma- 
 tive sentence, and signifies the same as the foregoing one, "I have 
 
 How do you parse council? 
 Note XVI. Remarks. Were di- 
 vided / Note XVI. Remarks. 
 Was composed, in the second ex- 
 ample? Note XVI. 
 
 Will you now parse and cor- 
 rect the remaining exercises un- 
 der this note ? 
 
 LX. What is the meaning of 
 negative ? 638. a^lrmatice ? 633. 
 
 What is a negative sentence? 
 638. . 
 
 An affirmative one? 638. Give 
 an example of each. 
 
 Will you name a few negative 
 terms? 638. 
 
 How many negatives has the 
 phrase " [ have nothing," and 
 what does it mean ? 638. 
 
 Mefuiing of " I have not noth- 
 ing?" 63S. 
 
 How many negatives has it? 
 
 ^yhdt kind of*a sentenoe is, " I 
 haf»o somethinof ? " 638. * 
 
EXERCISES. *»" 
 
 not nothing." Two negatives, therefore, are equal to an affirmative : 
 hence, 
 
 RULE XIX, 
 Two negatives in the same sentence are equivalent to an 
 
 normative. 
 
 639. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTIirD. 
 
 "He spends all the day in idle- "Be (I) honest, nor (2) take (3) 
 
 ness, and 1 can notprevail on no shape nor semblance of 
 
 him to do nothin'g." disguise." 
 
 ♦' He can not get no employment "He is so (4) indolent that he 
 
 in town." will not do nothing." 
 
 " I can not by no means consent." " I did not say notliing." 
 "I shall not take no interest iii "He can not do nothing accepta- 
 
 the aflair." ^ ble to John." 
 
 " I never studied no grammar." 
 
 Remarks. — For nothing, in the above examples, read anything, in 
 accordance with Rulk XIX. 
 
 640. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 "Deep river.s move with silent "The hog never looks up to him 
 
 majesty; but small brooks who threshes down the 
 
 are noisy." acorns." 
 
 "Deeds are (Vuits; words are but "Add not trouble la the grief- 
 leaves." worn hearl." 
 
 "It is a bad hor-*e indeed that will " If tlie counsel be good, it is no 
 
 not carry his own provender." matter who gives it." 
 
 What is "I have not nothing" When transitive ? 440. When 
 
 equal to in expression? 63S. intransitive? 441. How may it 
 
 What, tlien. can we say of two be known ? 154 
 
 negatives? Rule XIX. Will you decline I? thou'^ he? 
 
 Will you next take the exer- ahe? it? 127. 
 
 cises tinder Rule XIX. Of what person i-^ T ? my? us? 
 
 What is a noun? 4. article? their? you? 127. 
 
 .^•50. adjective? 363. pronoun? What is mood ? 451. the indica- 
 
 3S1. verb?43S participle? 4'^S. tive? 4V2. potential? 453. subjunc- 
 
 adverb? 5S*^. preposition? 59r>. tive? 45(5. infinitive ? 479. impera- 
 
 conjunction? 602. interjection? tive? 472. How many tenses has 
 
 607. common noun? 301. proper the indicative ? 525. subjunctive? 
 
 noun? 302. definite article? 80. 526. potential? 527. infinitive? 
 
 indefinite article? S3. 52S. imperative ? 529. What are 
 
 How many properties in gram- tlie signs of the present lense? 
 
 mar have nouns? 30S. How many 519. iinperlect? 520. perfect? 521. 
 
 have verbs ?=H= pluperfect? 522. fir.si future? 523. 
 
 How many • pnriiciples are second future ? 524. 
 
 there?* What are they? 500, Will you now parse the promis- 
 
 502, 501. cuous exercises? 
 
 When is a verb active ? 439. 
 
 (1) B". agrees with thmior you understood, by Rule VII. 
 
 (2) For ntrr read and. 
 
 (:^) Take, is in the iuii)orative mood, and agrees with thou or you understood, and 
 Is therefore connected to be, according to Rule XI.. 
 (4) Adverb. 
 * Mood, tense. immht»r, Kiid peison. I ThrfP. 
 
 10 
 
114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 "By others' laults wise men cor- " In yoiiili and slreno:ih, think of 
 
 reel their own." old age and weakness." 
 
 "When tlie world says you are "All n^o not saints -vvho go to 
 
 wise Hnd good, ask yourself church." 
 
 it' it he true." '■ To say wt-U is good, but to do 
 
 •' Sin and misery are constant well is better." 
 
 companions." "No fear should deter us from 
 
 "Power discovers the dispo.sition doing good." 
 
 of man." " Pride, perceiving humility hon- 
 
 " Quarrels are easily begun, but orable, often borrow.s her 
 
 with difficulty ended." cloak." 
 
 "Force without forecast is of "Say what is well, but do what 
 
 little worth." is belter." 
 " Rome was not built in one day." 
 
 ♦Ml. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Will yf)u compose one sentence describing the business of an 
 iiisfructor ? One the i)Usiness of a HovUir^ One the business of a law- 
 j/er? One of a dctitisf ? One of k hurf/c<m f One of n fnr.mrv ? On« of 
 a hlnrksmithf One of a miller? One of a mirvhonff One of k yro- 
 err y Chie of an npot/iecnri/ ? One of a lp<pdnt«v? One of a jitdf/c ' 
 One of a colonel / One of a captain? One of Hr/eucral? One of an 
 ac/ciif iu n factory 1 One of the directors of a bank :' 
 
 LXL 
 
 642. When 1 sny, " He taught megran)mnr," I mean, ' He taught 
 grammar to me," grammar, then, is the object of the verb, and me is 
 governed by the preposition to, understood. In the first example, we 
 have two objective cases after the verb taught: and since there are 
 many instances like the preceding, in which transitive verbs are fol- 
 lowed by two objective cases — hence the following: 
 
 BULE XX^. 
 
 2ioo objective cases, the o)te of a person^ and the other of a thing, may 
 folloio transitive verbs of asking.^ teaching, giving, etc., — aprej^osition 
 beijig understood. 
 
 " He taught me grammar.^' 
 liemarl: I. — In tlie foregoing example, mc and grammar arc both 
 governed by tavght, according to Rui,e XX. 
 
 643. EXAMPLES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 "He taught me grammar." " My mother wrot<^ me a precious 
 
 " William asked me some ques- letter in the month of May." 
 
 lions." 
 
 Will you nexttakethesenlences How many objective cases, 
 
 to be written ? then, follow the vevhtai/ght? 64i2. 
 
 IjXI. "He taught n)e gram- What rule is given for cases of 
 
 mar." AVhal does this mean ? 042. this description ? XX. 
 
 What, then, is the object of l.he By whoi are vie and grammar 
 
 verli, and by what is gronimar governed? 042. Remark 1. 
 
 governed ? 642. By what is me Will you next parse the exer- 
 
 gdverncd? 042. cises under Rule XX ? 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 115 
 
 "They allowed him his seal in ble book for my attention to 
 
 Congress." study." 
 
 "John gave me a detailed account " She forbade him the presence of 
 
 of the whole transaction." , the emperor." 
 
 "My instructor gave me a valua; "The French denied him the privi- 
 lege of an American citizen." 
 
 LXII. 
 614. The natural construction of the passive voice requires the ob- 
 ject of the active verb to become the nominative to llie passive verb: 
 as, "He taught mo grammar;" "Grammar was taught, me." In 
 some few instances just the reverse takes place: as, "I was taught 
 grammar;"' here the objtJct, grammar, is placed after the verb. We 
 therefore derive the foUow'ing : 
 
 RULE X3il. 
 
 An objective case jnai/ /'of foic passive verbs of asking, teaching; and some 
 others: as, " I was taught grammar." " 
 
 ^^ Apply to /, Rule VI ; to was taught, Rule VII ; to grammar, 
 .Rule XXI. 
 
 645. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 "John taught me music." 
 "Music was taught me 1-y John." 
 "A question was asked me." 
 " Theresa was forJ;)idden the pres- 
 ence of the emperor." 
 
 "I was taught grammar." 
 
 "The preservce of the emperor 
 
 was forbidden Theresa." 
 "Reading is taught in almost 
 
 every school." » 
 
 LXIII. 
 
 646. When I' say, " He came home last May," the sense is, when 
 fully expressed, " He came ^o his home in last May." "John con- 
 tinued four years at the university:" that is, '■'•during four years." 
 "The horse ran a mile;" that is, " over the space of a mile.'' "John 
 went that way :" that is, '•^ over that way." From these facts we de- 
 rive the following : 
 
 RUJjE XXII. 
 
 Home, and nouns signifying which way, how far, how long, or time 
 when, etc., are in the objective case — a prepositiofi being 7inderstood. 
 
 . 647. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 " He came home last May." "Charles studies six hours every 
 "John continued four years at the day." 
 
 university." ".John rode that way." 
 
 ".Tohn M'ent home once a month.". " He ran a mile." 
 
 LXII. Whafis the natural con- 
 struction of the passive voice in 
 reference to the object ? 644. 
 Give an example. 644. Give an 
 example where the reverse takes 
 place. 04^. 
 
 Where is the object placed ? 644. 
 
 " I was taught srrammar." Will 
 
 you parse I? was taught ? gram- 
 mar ? 
 
 Will you ^ next take the exer- 
 cises under Rule XXI. 
 
 LXIII. " He came home last 
 May." What does this mean, 
 when more fully expressed? 646. 
 Will you parse home? May? 
 
H6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 " Susan rides out every day." " Jolui was absent from home six 
 
 " William sleeps comfortably all years." 
 
 night." "James lived six years at Mobile, 
 
 twelve years at Richmond." 
 
 Note XVII. After the words like and unliie, the preposition to or 
 inHo is frequently understood: as, " He is like his father:" that is, 
 "like^o his iaiher." "She i.^ nnlilce her sister :" that is, " unlike ^o her 
 sister." 
 
 648. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 "He is like his brother." _ '* John l)ehaves like a man in a 
 
 " William, unlike his father, fa^si- violent rage." 
 
 fied his word," "He is unlike any other mortal." 
 
 Note XVIII. Nouns signifying duration, extension, quantity, 
 quality, or valuation, are in the objective case, without any governing 
 word. The following are examples : , 
 
 "The Atlantic pcean is three " The cart weighs fifteen hundred 
 
 thousand mile^t (I') wide." pounds." 
 
 "William's knife is worth eigh- "The wall which separates Chi- 
 
 teen pence, or twenty-five na from Tarlary, commonly 
 
 cents." called the great Cliinese wall, 
 
 "Por that article, which is richlv . is fifteen hundred miles long, 
 
 worth a dollar, (2) \te can and from twenty to thirty. 
 
 not always get fifty cents." feet in height." 
 
 " The chasm is fifty feet broad." 
 
 Remm-hs. — (I) The noun mUen is governed according to Note XVfll. 
 (2) Apply Note XVIII. 
 
 Note XIX. The conjunction as, after such^ maui/, and «a?He, is 
 generally considered a relative pronoun; as in the following exana- 
 ples : 
 
 " He receives into his school as " He took such booties as pleased' 
 
 many scholars as (1) apply." him." 
 
 "Our ins^tructor, who is scrupu- "He exhibited the same course 
 
 lously exact in the execution of conduct as was once be- 
 
 of justice, punishes severely fore exhibited on the same 
 
 aJl such as disobey his com-" occasion." 
 
 niands." 
 
 Remarks. — (I) An is a conjunction, used here as a relative, accord- 
 ing to the Note preceding ; of the third person plural, masculine gen- 
 der, agreeing with scholars, according to Rut.>E V ; and in the nomina- 
 tive case to applT/i according to Rule VI. 
 
 "John continued four years at Will you next lake the remain- 
 
 the university." " The horse ran ing exercises under Note XVII? 
 
 a mile." What do these sentences When is the,conjiiaiction nr* used 
 
 mean, when fully expressed ? as a relative pronoun ? Note XIX. 
 
 Will you parse the exercises Will you parse a», in the phrase 
 
 under Rule XXII? ' " He received into his school as 
 
 What is the note respecting /zj{-<9 many scholars as applied?" Note 
 
 and unlU-e? XVII. XIX. 
 
 " He is like his father." How is Will you parse the, remaining 
 
 father parsed? Note XVH. exercises under'this Note? 
 
EXERCISES. 117 
 
 Note XX. The conjunction than seems to have the force of a 
 preposition before the relative xohom, ixx a sentence where a compari- 
 son IS made— as fol/ows : ^ 
 
 "Which when Beelzebub per- -Alfred, than whom, Solomon 
 chived, than whom, (J)Satan excepted, a wiser kin^ never 
 
 - (2) excepted, (3) none higher reigned, was one of Ihe ear- 
 
 ■^^^- lie'st English kings." 
 
 Remarks.— {{) Vinwm. is governed by the conjunction than, used 
 as a preposition, according to Note XX. (2) ^pply RuleXVIII r3^ 
 Partic.ple agreeing with Satan, hy Km.^XWL It is somewhat re- 
 markable that If, in the last two examples, the personal pronoun he 
 were substituted for ■whom, it would be in ahe nominative case : as, 
 
 A wiser kuig never reigned than he;'' that is, ''than he was." 
 
 '649. SENTENCES TO WRITTEN. 
 
 Will you compose a sentence having a proper example under 
 RulkI? H? III? IV? V? VI? VII? VIII? IX? X? XI? XTF? 
 
 XIII? XIV? XV? XVI? XVII? XVIII? XIX? XX? XXI? xlii? 
 
 Will you construct a sentence descriptive of the calamities arisinq 
 from fire? one on losses h^j sea f one on tha fatal effects of linhfninqf 
 one on the character of our forefathers ? one on each of the 'seasons ? 
 one on the efiects of rain ? one on the manner of making ha7f ? one on 
 the appearance of soldiers when traimnrj ? one on the celebration of the 
 Joiirth o/ July ? one on the ntility of fire f one on the ntilitu of wood ? 
 one oi\ the usefulness of the coio f one onfrnit ? . ^ ■ 
 
 When is <;m)i cortsiderad a pre- names be used as common 
 
 position? Note XX. Give an names? 30,3. 
 
 ^'\U"'^'f ■ , , , , „. How may common names be 
 
 What would be the eflect of used to represent individuals "? 
 
 using the personal pronoun in- 30 i 
 
 •stead of the relative ? OlTserva- What is a collective noun ? SOb. 
 
 tion under Note XX. Give an What four things belong to 
 
 example. nouns? 308. 
 
 Will you now take the sen- What is gender ? 312 Ma.scu- 
 
 tences to be parsed and written ? line gender? 314. Feminine -en- 
 
 or,, 'LmI'"'^'"'^"''*''^''^ ^'^^'^- ^^''^ 315. Common gender? 316. 
 
 ool. Will you name them? 351. Neuter gender ' 317 
 
 When do we use a? 87, 357. .How may nouns, naturally neu- 
 
 wT' r! '■ 1. ,• u *^^' '^« <^""^-^''ted into tlje mascu- 
 . , , oc^o^'^ Tr"' grammar Mine or feminine gender? 318. 
 
 teach . 2b^ How many parts What is the feiniuino corres- 
 
 r .T^'too ^'^ ^'^ereare in Eng- ponding to bachelor? 319. How 
 
 !\;. 7 , • , • '*; ihe leminine here formed ? 
 
 What does or/Ao^rra.;,;^^ include? AVill you spell the feminine cor- 
 
 What does It teach us? 291. tor? 319. How is the feminine 
 
 What does etymoloijy teAch ? here formed ?• 
 
 ^^?,V, . Will you spell the femi?.ine cor- 
 
 What are proper nouns ? 302. respondin-to/.«raH ? poet t priest ? 
 
 What are common nouns ? 301. Jen) t votary t tutor f hero ? dnke^ 
 
 In what mani-iT mny proper inofruetnr >' M9. 
 
118 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 LXIV. OF WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF 
 
 SPEECH. 
 
 650. That is a relative, 
 
 When tcho or which may be substituted for it, and make sense ; as, 
 ■' The man that [who] arrived yesterday." 
 
 651. That is a demonstrative pronoun, 
 
 When it fs joined with a noun to point it out : as, ^' That man is in- 
 telb>ent." 
 
 652. That is a conj'unctionf 
 
 In all cases when it is neither a relative nor a demonstrative pro- 
 noun ; as, " He studies that he may learn." 
 
 653. But is n. jjrejm^itiou,' 
 
 When it has the sense of except; as, " All but [except] John camo. 
 
 654. But is an adverb, 
 
 When it has the sense of onlij ; as, " This is but [only] doing our 
 duty." . 
 
 6.5{>. But is a conjunction, 
 
 In all oases when it is neither an adverb nor preposition; as, '*Hc 
 called, but 1 refused to go." 
 
 650. As is a relative, 
 
 When it follows many, tiicli, or same; as, "Let such as hear take 
 heed." 
 
 657. As is an adverb, 
 
 When it is joined to an adverb or adjecti^ve in lEe sense of so ; as, 
 " He does as well as he can-." 
 
 658. As is a conjunction, 
 
 In all cases except when it is an adverb or relative ; as, "■ Ke did 
 as I directed him." 
 
 6.59. Either is a conjunction, . , * 
 
 When it corresponds to or ; as, " Either the one or the other." 
 
 660. Eitheh is a distribittive pronoun, 
 
 When it means "one of the two;" as, ''You can take either road." 
 
 661. Both is a conjunction, 
 
 When it is followed by and ; as. "Wo assisted him both ibr his sake 
 and our own,"' 
 
 662. Both is an adjective pronoun. 
 
 When it means "the two;" as, " Both the men are guilty." 
 
 663. Yet is a conjunction, 
 
 When it follows though ; as, "Though he reproves me, yet I esteem 
 him." In all other cases it is an adverb ; as, " That event has yet to 
 come." 
 
 LXIV, When is that a relative ? 
 650. Give an example. A de- 
 monstrative pronoun ? 651. Give 
 an example. When a conjunc- 
 tion ? 6.52. Give nn exam|)le. 
 
 When is btit a preposition ? 663. 
 Give an example. When an ad- 
 verb? 654. Give tin example. 
 When a conjunction? 655. Give 
 an example. 
 
 When is as a relative ? 656. 
 Give an example. When an ad- 
 verb ? 657. Give an example. 
 
 When a conjunction ? 65S. Give 
 an example. 
 
 When is either a conjunction? 
 659. Give an example. When a 
 distributive pronoun ? 660. Give 
 an example. 
 
 When is both a conjunction? 
 661. ' Give an example. When 
 an adjective pronoun ? 602. Give 
 an example. 
 
 When is yd a conjunction ? 663. 
 Give an example. When an ad- 
 verb? 663. Give nn example. 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 119 
 
 CG4. For is a conjutiction, 
 
 When it means the same as becav/te ; as, "He trusted liim, for he 
 knew that he would not deceive him." 
 
 065. For is a preposition. 
 
 Ill all instances except when it is a conjunction ; as, " He works 
 for me." 
 
 666. What is a cnmpovud relative, « 
 
 When it stands for -'that which;" as, "I will take whiil [that 
 which] you send me." 
 
 667. What is an intq^rogative relative pronoun., 
 
 When used in asking questions ; as, "What do you want?'' 
 
 66S. What is an arljrctivc 'pronovv, 
 
 When joined witli a noun ; as, ''What strange tilings he said I" 
 
 669. What is a coinponnd adjectirr prnnovn, 
 
 When joined with nouns, and has the sensi^ of two or more vi'ords ; 
 as, " In what niannerjie succeeded, is unknown to me"^ — that is, "The 
 manner /// lidnch he sjiCceeded, is unknown to me." 
 
 670. What is an interjection^ 
 
 When used to express wonder; a.s, "What! take my money?" 
 
 (i7I. Thkn is a conjunrtion, 
 
 When it has the sense of therefore; as, "If he has commanded it, 
 then I must ol^ey." 
 
 672. Then is an adverb, 
 
 When it refers to time ; as, " Did you hear it Ihunder tlien ?" 
 
 ()73. Mitch is a nonn, 
 
 When it stands lor quantity; as," Where much is given, much will 
 be required." 
 
 674. Much is an adjective, 
 
 When it is joined to nouns; as. "Much labor fatigues us." 
 
 675. Mtch is an adverb, 
 
 When it qualifies the same parts ofspeech that the adverb does; as, 
 "Thou art much mightier than I." 
 
 670. More is a noim. 
 
 When it implies quantity; as, "The more we have, the more we 
 want." 
 
 677. More and :aiost are adjectives. 
 
 When they qualify a noun ; as, "Tlie more joy I have, the more sorrow 
 I expect;" " Most men are mistaken in their pursuit of happiness." 
 
 678. More and most are adverbs, 
 
 When used in comparison; as, "This boy is more obedient than 
 that;" " The soil of Cuba is most fertile." 
 
 When is/or a conjunction ? 664. 671. Give an example. When 
 
 Give an exariiple. When a prepo- an adverb? 672. Give an example, 
 
 silion ? 665. Give an exani)ile. When is much a noun? 67.3. 
 
 When is w^f<< a compound rela- Give an example. \Vhen an ad- 
 
 tive ? 666. Give an example, jective? 674. Give an example. 
 
 When an interrogative relative When an adverb? 675. Give an 
 
 pronoun? 667. Give an fxample. example. 
 
 When an adjective pronoun? 66S. When is more a noun? 676. 
 
 Give an example. When a com- Give an example, 
 
 pound pronoun? 669. Give an When are 7?(OJf and 7?io8f adjec- 
 
 example. When an interjection? tives ? 677. Give examples of 
 
 670. Give a|i exam|)le. each. When adverbs ? 678. Give 
 
 When is then a conjunction? exninples of each. 
 
120 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 679. 
 
 PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES TN SYNTAX. 
 
 1. 
 
 "They perfume their garments." 
 "A perfume is a sweet odor." 
 " They rise early in the morning." 
 "A rise sometimes signifies the 
 
 beginning." 
 " liufiis speaks the language of 
 
 truth." 
 " James performed his part well." 
 '•A well is a fountain of water." 
 "A well man is one who enjoys his 
 
 health." 
 " We frequently wallc in 'the gar- 
 den." 
 '• The Jews fast often." 
 *' He walks very fast." 
 "The refuse signifies the worth- 
 less remains." 
 " Desert not a friend." 
 "Joseph's brethren eame and bow- 
 ed down before him." 
 "William went after his slate." 
 
 " His elder brethren came before 
 Benjamin did." 
 
 "John left after William came." 
 
 " Evil communications corrupt 
 good manners." 
 
 "Corrupt conversation is very 
 foolish." 
 
 "A walk in the fidds in the^ sum- 
 mer season is delightful." 
 
 '•A true fast is abstaining from 
 iniquity." 
 
 " Sin is a moral evil, and the cause 
 of natural evils." 
 
 " Protest not rashly, lest thou have 
 to repent of it." 
 
 '•'A protest is a solemn declaration 
 against a thing." 
 
 " Do nothing rashly, lest thou pre- 
 cipitate thyself into inextrica- 
 ble ditliculiy." 
 
 " Hasty promises are seldom 
 kept." 
 
 "The man that I saw was exe- 
 cuted." 
 
 "That man you met yesterday in 
 - the street was taken and 
 sent to Mobile, that he might 
 have an impartial trial." 
 
 " We assisted him both for your 
 sake and our own." 
 
 " Both the men are guilty." 
 
 " Although he reproves me, yet I 
 
 esteem him." 
 " All but John came." 
 "This is but doing our duty." 
 "He called me, but I refused to 
 
 go." 
 " Let such as hear take heed." 
 
 What isn?/m6€r.? 5. What does 
 the singular number denote? 8. 
 What the plural.' 10. 
 
 What nouns have the singular 
 form only? 324. What the plural? 
 325. What are the same in both 
 numbers ? 326. 
 
 How is the plural number of 
 nouns generally formed? 327. 
 
 When nouns end in ch, sh, etc., 
 how do they form the plural ? 32S. 
 
 How do those ending in /or fe? 
 329. 
 
 How is the plural formed when 
 the singular ends-in ^, with no oth- 
 er vowel in the same syllable? 
 330. 
 
 What is case? 333. The nom- 
 inative case ? 335. Possessive 
 case? .-^37. How formed? 338. 
 
 How formed when the singular 
 ends in ss ? 341. 
 
 What does the objective case 
 express ? 343. 
 
 Will you decline manf hook? 
 345. Chair? 345. 
 
 Will you parse the promiscuous 
 exc rcises ? 
 
 What is an adjective? 363. 
 What does the positive state ex- 
 press? 365. Comparative? 366. 
 Superlative? 367. How is the 
 comparative formed in monosylla- 
 bles ? 369. How in more syllables 
 than one ? 370, 
 
 How d'o you compare, the fol- 
 lowing adjectives — ijoodf had? 
 wise ? little ? small ? xnrtuom ? 
 ■mamj ? old ?. 115. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 121 
 
 "He did as I directed him." 
 
 " You may take either the one or 
 
 the other." 
 " Either road will conduct you to 
 
 the right place." 
 " If he has commanded it, then I 
 
 must obey." 
 "Did you hear the report of the 
 
 cannon then V 
 '^ Where much is given, much will 
 
 be required." 
 "Future-time is yet to come." 
 "He trusted him, for he knew 
 
 that he would not deceive 
 
 him." 
 
 "Susan is determined to learn." 
 
 " By framing excuses, he pro- 
 longed his stay." 
 
 " The man who is faithfully at- 
 tached to religion, may b^ re- 
 lied on with confidence." 
 
 " James, do visit me." 
 
 " He works for me." 
 " He refused what was sent him." 
 " What strange things he saw." 
 "In what manner he succeeded 
 
 is unknown to me." 
 " What ! will you take my life ?'* 
 " The more we have, th^ more 
 
 we want." 
 " The more joy I have, the more 
 
 sorrow 1 expect." 
 "The most .dutiful children are 
 
 the happiest children." 
 "Much labor fatigues me." 
 " Thou art much mightier than I 
 
 am." 
 
 3. 
 
 " Virtue and vice are opposites.** 
 
 "When John's father asked him 
 
 that qwostion, he heard him, 
 
 but refused to answer him." ^5.. 
 
 " The wall is sixty feet high." ^ 
 
 "To meet our friends after a long 
 
 absence, affords us much joy." 
 
 680. 
 
 I^XV. CONTRACTIONS. 
 
 Of the Auxiliary Have, also 0/ Had. 
 
 " I 've satisfied myself." 
 "They'd determined to let hira 
 go." 
 
 " They 've forsaken him." 
 " 1 'd gone when you came " 
 "They'd just returned from 
 town." 
 
 When does an adjective become 
 a noun in parsing? 37S. 
 
 Will you name a few adjectives 
 which have in themselves a su- 
 perlative signification ? 374. 
 
 What is a pronoun ? 381. A 
 personal pronoun ? 382. Whv 
 called personal ? 382. 
 
 How many persons have pro- 
 nouns in each number? 383. How 
 many numbers ? 384. 
 
 To which of the pronouns is 
 gender applied ? 382. 
 
 How many cases have pro- 
 nouns? 3S4. 
 
 Will you decline /? thouf hef 
 she? it? 127. 
 
 What kind of a pronoun is 
 myself 1 386. How formed ? 386. 
 
 What is a relative pronoun ? 
 409. Why called relative ? 408. 
 
 What is said of the relative 
 what? 429. 
 II 
 
 How ought who to be applied ? 
 412. How which? 413. How may 
 that be used ? 415. 
 
 When are pronouns called in- 
 terrogative ? 431. 
 
 What are adjective pronouns? 
 390. How many kinds of adjec- 
 tive pronouns are there ? 391. 
 
 Which are the demonstrative? 
 398. Why so called ? 398. The 
 distributive ? 393. Why so called ? 
 393. The indefinite? 402. Why so 
 called? 401. 
 
 To what do this and that refer ? 
 400. 
 
 Will you decline one * 404. 
 other? 403. 
 
 What is the rule by which pro- 
 nouns agree with their antece- 
 dents ? V. 
 
 Which words in sentences are 
 antecedents? 420. * 
 
 What are iubsequents ? 431. 
 
122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 fiSl. Of "Will and 'SVorLD. 
 
 "1 Ml finish my work firpt." "IJf is still determined that he'll 
 
 *' Tliey M Mi:g >o\\^> till uiidniglit, n<n lorj-esu/' " 
 
 if ihey were urged." " He 11 at last mind me." 
 
 682. Of Am and Is. 
 
 ''That man 's rich." '"T is stran^re that she will not 
 
 " 'T is true J-be "s dead." regard the kind asbit-lance oi' 
 
 *' I 'ni f-orry that y^n have mis- her friend." 
 epeni your lime." 
 
 6S3. Oi Can Not avd Will Not 
 
 " Hetan'l endure J-uchafflitiions." " H^ won't disobey me." 
 
 "You can'i be absent al such ♦'Yon v on"t mi&take the direc- 
 
 times," lion." 
 
 CH. Cmisfiov.s of the Piivcij^al Verb ojler an Intfrrogative Sentfince. 
 
 '» "VYho will a^s'if^ ne ?" *' John" "What will make me re.<petlable 
 
 [will a^^i^l me]. ^^"'^ hj.ppy?" '-Virtue." 
 
 "What sent our forefathors to ""Who tan-ilit him grammar?" 
 
 this country V " The love of " Mr. "Williams." 
 liberly." 
 6S5. Cmisaiovs of the Pri^,cij^al Verb after an Auxiluny. 
 
 "Sti i^hf n will go if John will" "He leceived me in the same 
 
 [go]. manner that 1 would you." 
 
 " Susan shall walk,bul John shall •' I w ill do it h> soon as 1 can." 
 
 lioi." "The work i> not completed, but 
 
 " 1 have recited ; have you V soon will be." 
 
 C86. Cmissioris of Ihc Prindpal Verb after Than 
 
 and As. 
 
 "Thrmas is n better scholar than "Johnson is richer than James." 
 
 "Willian)*' [is]. "^us-an is not so beautiiul as 
 
 "He was more beloved than Cyn- Wary." 
 
 tliia, but not so njuch ad- "She is more playful than her 
 
 % mired." brother." 
 
 AVill you parse the exercises " What belong to verbs ?* 
 
 marked 2? Ihw many numbers have they ? 
 
 What is a verb '? 438. How many i»er>ons?f 
 
 "What is an active verb? 439. What is mood ? 451. How 
 
 When is an active verl) iransi- mnny are they? 4S1. Will you 
 
 live*? 440. When intransitive? name them? 
 
 44], What is the indicative mood 
 
 What is a passive verb? 444. used frr ? 4.'')2. The potential? 
 
 How formed ? .'JIO. 4r3. The imperative? A'% Sub. 
 
 How may a transitive verb be junctive? 4Ct>. Infinitive? 479. 
 
 known? 154. What are juirticiples ? 408. 
 
 How an intransitive? 154. How may the pnrticiples ending 
 
 What is a neuter veib? 450. in ??/^' be d'stingni.-«hed fr(ni other 
 
 "Will you next lake the exer- words of like teruiiuation ? 500. 
 
 cises marked 3 ? 
 
CONTRACTIONS. 123 
 
 687. Omissions of the Verb To Be. 
 
 "Sweet the pleasure, rich the "Delightful taslc, to rear the ten- 
 treasure." der thought, 
 
 "A child of freedom thou." " To teach the young idea how to 
 "Sweet the music of birds." shoot." 
 
 " Dear the >chool-boy's sport." 
 
 688. Omissions of May, Might, Could. -Would, 
 
 and Should. 
 
 " Live long and be happy." "He mJ.o:ht not weep, nor laugh, 
 
 "Who will entreat the Lord that nor sing." 
 
 he spare our lives?" " Should I forgive you, and allow 
 
 "1 could not think, nor speak, nor you to depart, you would not 
 
 hear." reform." 
 
 689. Omissions, of the Conjunction before the Verb 
 
 in the Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 " If he will repent and reform, I "Had I improved my time as I 
 will assistt him."' ought to have done, 1 should 
 
 " Unless good order be restored, have been well qualified for 
 
 and the former officers be re- business." 
 
 elected, there will be an end "Were there no alternative, I 
 to the administration of JUS- , would not do that." 
 
 tice." 
 
 690. Omissions of For after a Verb, implying the 
 
 idea of serving. 
 
 " Make me a pep." " Bring me some water." 
 
 "Order me a carriage." "Purchase him a knife." 
 
 69 L Omissions of the Interjection. 
 
 "Sweet child! lovely child! thy " Thou Preserver and Creator of 
 parents are no more." all mankind." 
 
 "Sweet blossom! precious to my "My beloved Ulrica! hast thou, 
 heart." too, forgotten me?" 
 
 How ma'ny, and which, are tTie we use the present for the past 
 
 participles?* What does the tense? 486. 
 
 present express? 500. Perfect? What is the coni'ugation of a 
 
 502. Compound perfect? 504. verb? 531. 
 
 LXV. Will you next parse the What is the conjugation of an 
 
 contractions? bSO. active verb styled ? 532. A pas- 
 
 What is- tense?. 494. What is give verb? 532. 
 
 the present used for? 4»2. The How manv tenses has the fn-- 
 
 perfect? imperfect? 4SS. Pluper- dicative? 525. Potential? 527? 
 
 feet?. -491. First future? 492. Subjunctive ? 520. [mperative? 
 
 Second future? 493. 529. Infinitive? 528. 
 
 Under what circumstances do What is the sign of the present 
 
 we use the present tense to de- indicative ? 519. The imperfect ? 
 
 note the relative time of a future 520. Perfect? 521. Pluperfect? 
 
 action ?4S4. 522. First future ? 523. Second 
 
 In what sort of descriptions do future? 524. The polentiril mood ? 
 
 * Tbra^— -tb* praatiati'Tibrfaot, and ocaaj^imiid perft?ct. 
 
124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 692. Omissions of the Relative. 
 
 ''Several men are there come " I trust that he I desire to see so 
 from Europe." much, will speedily return." 
 
 ^ — ^^CXVI. INVERTED SENTENCES. 
 
 693. 7Vie Nominative Case placed after the Verb. 
 
 "Smack went the whip, round guished for his learning and 
 
 went the wheels." ' politeness." 
 
 "Were ever folks so glad ?" "And in soft ringlets waved her 
 
 "There goes a man alike dislin- golden hair." 
 
 694. The Objective Case before the Verb. 
 
 "Tyrants no more their savage " Me glory summons to the mar- 
 nature kept, tial scene." 
 
 And foes to virlue wondered how " The rolls of fame I will not now 
 the wept." explore." 
 
 695.- SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 
 
 Will you compose a sentence exemplifying Rule VIII? One, 
 Rule IX ? X ? Xn XTI ? XIII ? XIV ? Will you compose a sentence 
 on the use of the dog ? One on the clouds f One on night'i One on 
 wind f One on snow? One on haill One on ice? One on skating? 
 One on fishing? One on courage? One on cowardice? One on filial 
 duty? Owe on indolence ? Ona on schools ? 
 
 6%. SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. 
 
 '* Here I'ests his head upon the lap of earth 
 A youth, to fortune and to fame unknown. 
 
 TrciJisposed. 
 "A youth, unknown to fortune and to fame, rests here his head 
 upon the laj) of earth." 
 
 515. Infinitive? 517. Subjunctive? feet? Pluperfect? First future? 
 
 516. How many persons has the Second future ? 
 
 imperative? OlS. How many tens- In what voice, mood, tense, 
 
 es? 529. How many forms has number, and person is, " I love?" 
 
 the subjunctive mood? 4*61. In " We love ? " "They are loved?" 
 
 what do they differ? 461. "You are?" "I did learn?" 
 
 Will you now parse the omis- "John was instructed?" "He 
 
 sions? 684, etc. was?" "They have returned ?" 
 
 Howis the passive vorb formed? "Have they gone? " "They have 
 
 510. been?" "I had had?" "They 
 
 Will you decline love in the in- had been distinguished ? " "Thou 
 
 dicative present, passive? and hadst been?" "You shall be 
 
 the verb <o be in the imperfect? taught?" "Shall I bei)unished ? " 
 
 Perfect? Pluperfect? First fu- " F»le shall have been ? " 
 
 lure? Second fwture? Present LXVI. Will you parse the in- 
 
 potejitial ? Imperfect? Perfect? veried sentences ? 693, etc. 
 
 Pluperfect? Present subjunctive. In what voice, mood, tense, 
 
 common form? Imperfect? Per- number, and person, is "Love 
 
SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. 125 
 
 e 
 
 " When young, life's journey I began, 
 
 The ghttering prospect charmed my eyes, 
 I saw along the extended plain, 
 Joy after joy successive rise : 
 But soon I found 't was all a dream. " 
 
 And learned the fond pursuit to snun, 
 Where few can reach the purposed aim, 
 And thousands daily are undone." 
 
 Transposed. 
 "I began life's journey when young, and the glittering prospect^ 
 charmed my eyes; I saw joy after joy successive rise, along the ex-*" 
 tended plain: but soon I foiftid it was all a dfbam ; and learned to 
 shun the fond pursuit, where fewtsan reach the purposed aim, and 
 thousands are daily undone." 
 
 " Needful austerities our wills restrain, 
 i^s thorns fence in the tender plant from harm." 
 
 Transposed. 
 "Needful austerities restrain our wills, as thorns fence in the ten- "^ 
 der plant from harm." 
 
 "On some fond breast the parting soul relies. 
 Some pious drops the closing eye requires; 
 E'en from the tomb the voice of nature crieis, 
 E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires." 
 
 Transjwsed. 
 "The parting soul relies on some fond breast; the closing eye re- 
 quires some pious drops; the voice of nature cries, even from the 
 tomb; and their wonted fires live even in our ashes." 
 
 "From lofty themes, frem thoughts tlftt soared on high 
 And opened wondrous scenes above the sky, 
 My Muse! descend ; indulge my fond desire. 
 With softer thoughts my melting soul inspire, 
 
 thou ? " "I may go 111 " You may Will you repeat the present and 
 
 be regarded?" " W)u might be imperfect tenses, also the perfect 
 
 rejoiced?" "She may have been participle of am ? see? hear? do? 
 
 refused?" "We should have we^t sink? swim? 
 
 been?" " If I have ? " "If thou Will you next takelhe sentences 
 
 have?" "If thou hast?" "To to be written? 
 
 have ? " " To have been ? " What are auxiliary verbs ? 511. 
 
 Will you give the synopsis of How many and which are they"? 
 
 learn, through all the moods, tens- 512. 
 
 es, etc., in the first person, in- What are defective verbs ? 579. 
 
 eluding the participle? Learn, '\n What is an adverb? 588. Why 
 
 like manner, in the passive? The so called ? 228. 
 
 verb <o 6e in the same manner ? In what manner are adverbs 
 
 Will you give the synopsis of compared? 230,231. 
 
 denire in the active voice, with the What are the phrases wliich do 
 
 participles? Of the same in the -the oflice of adverbs.called ? 589. 
 
 assive? Of do in the active? Will you name a few ? 5S9. 
 
 •?, 
 
 n the passive? ^ What is a prepo.'^ition ? 595. 
 
 When is a verb balled regular? Will you repeat the list ol pre- 
 633? When irregular? 53-i. positions ? 247. 
 
VZ(S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 And smooth my numbers to a female's praise; 
 A partial world will listen to my lays. 
 Wliile Anna reigns, and s^ets a female name 
 Unrivalled in the glorious lists olfame." 
 
 Transjwaed. 
 
 "O my Muse! descend thou from lofty themes, and from thoughts 
 that soared on high, and opened wondrous scenes above the sIvy ; in- 
 dulge thou my Ibnd desire; and do ihou inspire. my melting soul with 
 goiter thought^, and smooth my numbers to a female's praise: a par- 
 tial world will listen to my lays, while Anna reigns, and sets a female 
 name unrivalled in tli#glorious lists of ^iinje." 
 
 » 
 
 What is a conjunction ? "G02. ticiples ? XIII. Agreement of 
 Conjunction copulative? 2^35. verb ))lural with two nouns sin- 
 Why so called? 2G4. Cohjunc- gular? XVlil. Adjective pro- 
 tion disjunctive? 274. Why so nouns and numerals ? Note I. 
 called? 271. What is the rule by which a verb 
 
 Will you repeat the list of copa- agrees with ihe noun of multitude, 
 lative conjunctions? 266. Ofdis- or collective noun? Note XVI. 
 junctive conjunctions? 275. Rule for the objective case after a 
 
 What is an interjection? 607. transitive verb? VIII. 
 Why so called? 2S3. Mention a What is the rule for the objec- 
 few ? 2S5. tive case alter a preposition' X. 
 
 What is syntax? 296. What is After a participle? XIV. Rule 
 a sentence? 252. A simple sen- for the adverb? IX. • Rule re- 
 tence? 253. ' specting the interjections 0/ oh! 
 
 What is the rule for the agree- ah ! etc.? Note X. 
 ment of nouns? XV. Ariicles? Will you par<e the sentences 
 II, in. Adjev'tives ? IV. Pro- marked transposed ? 
 nouns? V. Verbs? TIL Par- 
 
 m 
 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 That part of Grammar which treats of the formation and sound of 
 the letters, the coinbinatioii of letters into syllables*, and syllables into 
 words, is called Orlhography. 
 
 That part which. treats of the different sorts of words, their various 
 changes, and their derivations, is tilled Etymology. 
 
 That part whiclh^tWSKt# of the union and rijht order of words in the 
 formation of sentences, is called Syntax. 
 
 Gkamm^tIi may be considered as consisting of two species. Universal 
 and Particular. Universal Grammar explains the principles which 
 are common to all lan<rua«res. Particular Grammar applies those 
 principles to a particular laui^uage, modifying them according to the 
 genius of that tongue, and the established practice of the best writers 
 and speakers by whom it is used. 
 
 ^" Langtjage, in tie proper sense of the word, signifies the expression 
 or our ideas, and their variou-s relations, by certain articulate sounds, 
 which are used as the signs of those ideas and relations. An articu- 
 late sound is the sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of 
 speech. 
 
 Lrtters are the representatives of certain articulate sounds, the 
 elements of the language. 
 
 The letters of the Entrlish Language, called the English Alphabet, 
 are twenty-six in number, each of which constitutes the first principle, 
 or least part of a word. 
 
 Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. ^ 
 
 A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The 
 vowels are n, e. i, o, u, and sometimes >a and y. IF and y are con<*o- 
 nants when they begin a word or syllable; bui in every other situa- 
 tion they are vowels. 
 
 A consonant is a letter that can not be perfectly sounded without 
 the aid of a vowel; as, b, d,/, I. All letters except the vowels are 
 consonants. 
 
 Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 
 
 The mutes can not be sounded at all, without the a'd of a vowel. 
 They are A, 7;, t, d, k, and c and 7 hard. 
 
 The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They 
 are,/. L »>, n, r, r, .v, z, x, and c and (j soft. 
 
 Four of the st^mi-vowels, namely. /, m, lu ?•, are cslled liquids, be- 
 cause they readily unite with 6ther consonants, and How, as it were, 
 inid their sounds, 
 
 A diphthong ir- the union of/«)f) vowels, pronounced by a single im- 
 pulse ot the voice: as, oi in voic'?, on in ounce. 
 
 A lri|)hihong is the union of three vowels, pronounced ia like man- 
 ner: as, eau in beau, ietc in vimo. 
 
 
128 KNOLI^H GRAMMAR. 
 
 A proper diphthong i» liiat in which both the vowels are sounded: 
 as oi in totce, ou in ouuce. 
 
 An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded : as, ea 
 in (Oijle. on in buat. 
 
 A SYLI.ABI.K is a sound, either simple or compounded, iTliered by a 
 single inipui!-e ol tlie voice, and cont-liliiting a word or part of a word; 
 88, a. an, ant, 
 
 A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllnble ; a word of two 
 syllables^ a Dissiyllable ; a word of three syllables a Trisyllable; a 
 word m four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. 
 
 Words are 'articulate sounds, used by common consent as signs of 
 our ideas. 
 
 Words are of two sorts — primitive and derivative. 
 
 A primitive word is that which can not be reduced to a simpler word 
 in the language: as, man, good. 
 
 A (ieriraiire word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word: 
 as. maufitl, goodueas. ' J 
 
 The elementary sounds, under tlieir smallest combination, produce 
 a tyllahU ; Kyllables, projierly combined, produce a word; words, 
 duly combined, prcduce a nciitence ; and Sentences, properly combined, 
 produce an uration, or discourne. 
 
 A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming complete senne. 
 
 Sentences ore o( two kinds — simple and conipound. 
 
 A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite* verb: 
 as, " Life is short." 
 
 A com))ound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences 
 connected together: as, "Life is short, and art is long." 
 
 As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so 
 the members of sentences may l)e divided likewise into simple and 
 compound members; for whole sentences, whether simple or com- 
 pound, may become members of other sentences by meanx of some 
 additional connection; as in the following example: "The ox know- 
 elh Ins owner, and the ass his master's crib: but Israel doth not 
 know, my people doth not consider." This sentence consists oT two 
 compounded meriibers, each of which is subdivided into two simple 
 members, which are properly called clauses. 
 
 A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making some- 
 times a part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence: 
 
 The i>rincipal y;irts of a simple sentence are the suliject, the attri- 
 bute, and the object. 
 
 The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute is the 
 thing or action affirmed or denied of it; and the object # the thing 
 affected by such action. 
 
 Tlie nominative case denotes the subject, and usually goes before 
 the verb or attribute; and the word oi- phrase denoting thi* object 
 follows the verb: as, "A wise man governs his passions." Here a 
 u-ine tnou is the subject; yoiervt, the attribute or thing iifliriiicd; and 
 ^ij^a«4t'o7;#, the object. 
 
 J^yntax princij)al!y consists of two parts — Concord and Government. 
 Coiicord'is the nf^reement which one word has with another in gen- 
 der, number, case, or person. Government is that powder which one 
 part ol speech has over another, in directing its mood, tense, or case. 
 
 ♦Finite Torbs Hie ilioBe t(i which minibfr niiil jn'r.-iii nppertftin. Veibs In the 
 infinitive mood bine no rope ct to nimibtr uml peraon. 
 
 -^ 
 
SYNTAX. l5J9 
 
 What is Uithograpliy ? Eiymulogy ? Syntax f How many kinds of 
 grammar are there ? What are lliey ? "What is universal grammar ? 
 Particular grammar ? What is language ? What is an articulate 
 sound? "What are the letters of the English language called? "What 
 does each constitute ? How are letters divided ? What is a vowel ? 
 Which are they? How many do they maW^? When are w and y 
 consonants? When vowels ? "What is a consonant ? Give an ex- 
 ample. Which letters are consonants ? How are the consonants 
 divided ? What is a mute ? Which are they ? What is a semi-vowel ? 
 Which are they? Which of the semi-vowels are called liquids, and 
 why? What is a dij)hlhong ? Give an example. What is a triphthong ? 
 Give an example. What is a proper diphthong? Give an example. 
 What is an improper diphthong? Give an example. What is a syllable ? 
 monysyllable ? dissyllable ? trisyllable ? pollysyllable ? What are 
 words? Of how many sorts are they? "What is a primitive word ? 
 Give an example. What is a derivative word? Give an example. 
 What does an elementary sound produce? What do syllables pro- 
 duce? Words? Sentences? What is a sentence ? How are sentence's 
 divided? What is a simple sentence? Compound sentence? Give an 
 example of each. How are the members of sentences divided? Give 
 an exam^jle. What is a phrase ? What are the principal parts of a 
 simple sigjitence ? What is the su])ject? the attribnte? the object? 
 What does the nominative case denote ? and where is it usually 
 placed in a sentence? Give an example. Of how^ many parts does 
 Syntax consist ? What are they ? What is concord ? Govecnment ? 
 
 The right construction of sentences may- perhaps be best learned 
 by correcting examples of wrong construction. Exercises in false 
 syntax for the pupil, assisted by rules and notes to parse and correct, 
 will therefore now be given. 
 
 The following contain all the notes and observations in Murray's 
 large Grammar, together with all his exercises in false syntax : 
 
 RULE VII. ^ ^ V . 
 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, ^^sfi\J 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 A verb viuat agree with its nominative case in ti umber a7id person. 
 
 The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule: 
 "What signifies- good opiniotw:, when our practice is bad?"' "what 
 signify .*" " There 's two or three of us, who have seen the work :" 
 *' there are.^^ " We may suppose there was more impostors than one :" 
 " there were more." "1 have considered what have been said on'both 
 sides in this controversy." "what has been said." "If thou would 
 be healthy, live temperately:" "thou wovldsty '^Thou sees how little 
 has been done:" "thou Aee*/." "Though thou can not do much for 
 the cause, thou may and should do something:*' ^^ canst not, mayst, 
 and shouldn't.'''' "Full many a flower are born to blush unseen :" 
 " is born."' " A conformity o/ inclinations and qualities prepare us for 
 friendship:" ^' pr^parfs us." " A variety of ble^sinps have been coii- 
 fened upon U!« :" " has been." '' !« piety and virtue consist the 
 happiness of nian :" ^' consists.'^ "To these precepts are subjoined a 
 copious selection of rules and maxims :"' " is subjoined."' 
 
I3U 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 •'Ifihou would be healthy, livf lemperaiely." Which word is 
 wrona in this exrtmple ? In wh.it piniiMiUr wronj^? Wljy ? Whut 
 is the Kiile for it? How, then, \vo(iM^ ynii correct the example? 
 *' There was more eqiiivDCiUorH ?' Which word is wr ju^ here ? 
 What correction ^lu)uld be made? Why ? 
 
 pS* The pupil M fir9t to nnttptr the qncntiont on eicli Rule or yot^ ^ 
 then III correct and p-trnf the ^u'lncju'iit exercl^en. ft j"» nnj le^trd to the 
 tetchcr t/i'nt the pipiU yhonlil dlre^'t their att^nli'iti Jirit dt the liilen and 
 exercieen under thfm, exclii'iire'y, onitrinj the N^otei. vtc, /or a review. 
 
 when ail m ly be taken in cour$(t. 
 
 " Disappointments v/w/.t the heart 
 of in:in; but the renewal of 
 . Uope.give consblaiinn." 
 
 "The smiles ilial (I) encoiira-fe 
 _, severity of judi^ment hidft 
 mrthce and insiiiceriiy." 
 
 *' He dare not act (2j coiiirary (3) 
 to his insiructionH." 
 
 " Fifty pounds of wlieat contains 
 foriy pounds of tloiir." 
 
 " The mechauism of clo(;ks and 
 watches were totally un- 
 known (4) a few ceoluries 
 ago."' (r)) 
 
 "The number of inlial>itantH in 
 Great iiritain and Ireland do 
 not exceed sixteen millions.'' 
 
 "Nothing (ti) but vain And foolish 
 piirtmiia ^) dt:liffht some per- 
 sons." 
 
 "A v.ir'ety of pleasing' objects 
 charm the eye." 
 o (b) much (U) both (10) of 
 ability and merit (11) are .sel- 
 dom (I -J) found." 
 
 "In the conduct of Parmenio a 
 mixfure of wisdom and folly 
 (I I) were very (5) conspio 
 
 UOUK." 
 
 "He is an author (13) of more 
 credit than Plutarch, (14) or 
 
 f my other fl.'j} that (II) write 
 ives too {V^) hastily." 
 " The inqui>ilivc (10> anil eurioin 
 (U) is generally lalkative." (17) 
 
 "Gre.U piins h!»s been taken to 
 reconcile the p.irties." 
 
 "The sincere (IG) is always es- 
 teemed." 
 
 *' Has the sfoods been sold to J^d- 
 vaniasfe? and did thou em- 
 brace the proper season." 
 
 "There is many occasions (6) in 
 life in wiiich silenctfpnd sim* 
 pliciiy (II) is irue^^isdom." 
 
 ''The generous (10) never re- 
 counts minutely the actions 
 .they have done; nor the pru- 
 dent (7) those (15) they will 
 do." 
 
 '' He need not proceed (2) in sucli 
 haste." 
 
 "Th^ business that (1) related to 
 
 ecclesiuslical meetings, mat- 
 
 *ters, (II) and persons, .( 1 1) 
 
 were to be ordered r.ccordins' 
 
 (1^) to the kin^s direiiu)n." 
 
 "In hnn were happily blended 
 true di:^niiy with softness of 
 manners," 
 
 '* Tlu* support of so (19) many (20) 
 
 of his relations were a heavy 
 
 lax ("21) upon his industry; 
 
 but thou knows he ))aid il 
 
 * cheerfully." 
 
 " What (22) avails the best senti- 
 ments (23) if persons do not 
 live suitably to them ?' 
 
 " Not one (24) olthem whom thou 
 sees clothed (2-''i) in purple 
 are completely happy." 
 
 ^l) .?«e 6.-)!). (2) Ap;)ly Rule.XIf. Sho4S). (3) A'ljottivo. (4) Rnlo XITI. (5) 
 A few c-'Htiiriei u^o — in iilvorltiil p'tpu.*— )S) ; nr uiipiv Noto XVIII, 010. to 
 centuries, an I Kiilo fX to ri,n. /»i) Riilu Vt. CTj Ituie .\l. 8) 'lit. (J) 67:1. (10) «61. 
 (11) ilMlcsXI. (l-Z) AUvvb. (l.J) IluU-ICV— 'U3. (U; • I'lut ucli it." (10' Note 1 — 
 4'A>inl Rule XI. (l(i) :i78. (17) Rul.j IV. (IS) 211. (ly) •2i'i. (20) 378. (2\) Kiilo 
 XV. 613. {21j llulo VIII. (Jl) Rub VI. (21) Noto I, iOo, auJ l\alQ VI, ^26) Rule 
 
^ • SYNTAX. 131 
 
 " And the fame of this person, and "Thou, who art the Author (10) 
 of his wonderful aciioiis, were and Bestower(ll) of hfe, cari 
 
 diffused (1) throughout the doul)lless re.sto>e it also ; hut 
 
 couiilry." wlie-iher thou will please to 
 
 "The variety of the productions restore it, or not, that Thou 
 
 of g'enius, like ("2) that (3) of only Icnows." 
 
 the operations of ^tajure, are "Oihoii my voire (12) inspire, 
 without limit." Who touched (13) Isaiah's hal- 
 
 •'In vain (4) our floi-ks and fields lowed lips with fire." 
 
 increase our store, "Accept (M) the^e grateful tears ; 
 
 When our ahundance makes us for thee they flow ; 
 
 wish (r)) for more." For thee, that ever felt (10) anolh- 
 
 *' Thou shall love thy neighbor as er's woe." 
 
 (0) tu^icerely as (7) thou loves "Just to thy word, in every 
 thys^^" thought sincere ; 
 
 "Has iho4».no better reason for Who knew (U5) no wish but what 
 censuhng (8) thy friend and the world might hear.'' 
 
 companion V (9) '# 
 
 1. The inlinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes put as 
 the nominative case to the verb: as, "To set' the sun ?'« pleasant ;" 
 "To be good i« to be happy;" "A desire to excel others in learning 
 and virtue »"'< commendable ; " " That warm (rlimates should accelerate 
 the growth of the human body, and shorten its duration, in very 
 reasonable to believe;" "To be temperate in eating and drinking, to 
 Use exercise in open air, and to preserve the mind free from tumuliu- 
 ous emotions, are the best preservatives of health." 
 
 "To see the sun are pleasant." VVhic;h word is wrong in this ex- 
 ample? In what particular vvrong? ^ Wax h plea nant? What, then, 
 is the nominative case to is? Js there one thing, or more than o«je, 
 here spoken of as being pleasant? .Why, then, should we use ia 
 in preference to are f Wliat is the rt^ (or is? (17) Rule for " To see," 
 or " To see the >iin ? " (IS) 
 
 ^^^ Wlinji examplen are referred to without heinrf quoted, the teacher 
 may re(<d them to the pnpil. 
 
 "To be temperate in eating," etc. How many things are here 
 spoken of as being the' best preservatives? Should we, then, use 
 the singular or pITiral verb ? Rule for it? (19) 
 
 1. 
 
 "Todountoall men as we would "The erroneous opinions wn;ch 
 
 that th-'y, in similar circum- we form concerning (20) hap- 
 
 fetances, should do unto us, piness and misery, (jives rise 
 
 co/»«/iV(t/e the great principles to all the mi^laken (21) and 
 
 of virtue." . dangerous pa>sious that em- 
 
 " From a fear of the world's ccn- broils our life." 
 
 wire, to be ashamed (IS) of " To live soberly, righteously, and 
 
 the practice of precepts, piously, are required of all 
 
 which the heart approves and men." 
 'embraces, mark a ferble and 
 im perfect character." 
 
 a) .'ilO.- (2) fliilo IV. (.3) "Th-ilnr*-/'/"— \ .t« I. 4 t.'i. Rn I Kii!o X. ?»?<' Xoto 
 XyiI047.' ^4) Alverbiil phrno. (6) lliilo XII. :.o5. Slh- 4^il i<.) A.Iv.tI.. (7) 
 0)iijniicti.)n. (8) Puticipul ii .uiv. (9) Rule XU. (10) Kule .\V, 613. (ll/Kule 
 XI. (12) RuIp Vlir. fl.3) • \Vli.. foM-/i'-'/.s( or ri,(/</ //)iic'«." (U) '• Accept «Aom"— 
 Imp. nv> > 1. (\^) " Didit ffcL"' (li'<) • \V'i'> kmwM -t <Ud^l know." (17) Huic' VII. 
 (18) Note Xin. 626, or, Not" I, thii pjHfe. (19) Rale XVIII. (20) Prepo«itlou. 
 (21) Rule XIII. 
 
133 
 
 ENGLISH ORAMMAR. 
 
 "That (1) ii is our duly to pro- 
 iiioie iho purity of our minds 
 and bodies, lo be jut-l (2) 
 and kind lo our rdlow-creat- 
 ures, and lo be pious and 
 faithful loUini that made us, 
 admit not of any doubt in a 
 rational and well (3) in- 
 formed mind." 
 
 "To be of a pure and humble 
 mind, to exercise benevo- 
 lence towards others^ to cul- 
 tivate piety ♦owards God, is 
 the sure means (4) of be- 
 coming peaceful and happy." 
 
 "It is an important truth that 
 religion, vital religion, the 
 — religii)n of the heart, are the 
 most pow^erful auxiliaries of 
 reascJh in waging war with 
 the j)assions, and promoting 
 . that sweet composure which 
 constitute the peace o^'^od." 
 
 "The possession of our tenses 
 entire, of our limbs unin- 
 jured, of a sound understand- 
 ing, of friends and compan- 
 ions, are often overlooked ; 
 though it would be the ulti- 
 mate wish (5) of many who, 
 as far as we can judge, de- 
 ■serves it as much as our- 
 selves." 
 
 'All (4) that make a figure on 
 the great theatre of thew^orld, 
 the employments of the busy, 
 the enterjjrises of the ambi- 
 tious, and the exploits of the 
 warlike; the virtues which 
 forms the happiness, and the 
 crimes which occasions the 
 misery of mankind; origi- 
 nates in that silent and secret 
 recess of thought which arm 
 hidden from every human 
 eye." 
 
 2. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the participle, ought 
 to have a nominative ease, either expressed or implied : as, "Awake, 
 arise ;" that is, "Awake ye; arise ye." 
 
 We shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the use of the 
 verb without its nominative case. "As it hath pleased him of his 
 goodness to give you safe deliverance, and hath preserved you in the 
 great danger," etc. The verb hath prencrved has here no nominative 
 case, for it can not be properly supplied by the preceding word him, 
 which is in the objective case. It ought to be, "and as he hath pre- 
 eerced you ;" or rather, "and to preserve you." "If the calm in Which 
 he was born, and lasted so long, had continued;" and ichich lasted," 
 etc. ''These we have extracted from an historian of undoubted 
 credit, and arc the same that were practiced," etc; "and they are the 
 same." "A man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had 
 great abilities to manage the business;" '^andwho had," etc. "A 
 cloud gathering in the north, which we have helped to raise, and 
 may quickly break in a storm upon our heads;" "and ichich may 
 quickly." 
 
 "As it hath pleased," etc. What correction should be made in this 
 example? Why? Recite the Note. 
 
 2. 
 " If the privileges to which he has 
 
 an undoubted right, and he 
 has long enjoyed, should now 
 be wrested from him, (6) 
 would be flagrant injusiice." 
 These curiosities wt^ have im- 
 ported from China, and are 
 
 similar to those which were 
 
 sonlfe time ago brought from 
 
 Africa." 
 "Will martial flames for everfire 
 
 thy mind, 
 And never, never (7) be to heaven 
 
 resigned ?" 
 
 3. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when an 
 address is made to a person, should belong to some verb, either ex- 
 
 (1) CODJUUCtiOD. 
 
 (5) Note 1, 405, Kule 
 
 (2) '-Just persons." Rule IV. (3) Adverb. (4) Rule XV 
 VI. (6) " It would." (7) " And wilt thmi never he* " 
 
SYNTAX. 133 
 
 pressed or implied : as, " Who wrote this book ? " "James ; " 'that is, 
 "James M^rote it." "To whom thus Adam," that is, " spoke." 
 
 One or two instances of the improper use of the nominative case, 
 without any verb, expressed or iniplii^cyto answer it, may be suffi- 
 cient to illustrate the usefulness of tlif^^fr'e^Cdfna observations. 
 
 " Which rule, if it had been observed, a «^l|^ring prince would 
 have wanted a great deal of that incense whi(jh?^d been offered up to 
 him." The pronoun it is here the nominative case to the verb oAr 
 served; and wkick rule is left by itself, a nominative case without any 
 verb following it. This form of expression, though improper, is very 
 common. It ought to be, " // this rule had been observed," etc. 
 " Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, and such from which 
 others as well as himself might receive profit and delight, yet they 
 are all within his own breast." In this sentence, the nominative man 
 stands alone and unconnected with any verb, either expressed or im- 
 plied. It should be, ^'Though man has great variety," etc. 
 
 " Which rule, if it," etc What is the nominative case to observed? 
 Has the noun rule any verb following it, to which it may be the nomi- 
 native case? Is this form of expression much used? Is it not 
 proper? What correction should be made? Why? Recite the Note. 
 
 3. 
 "(1) Two substantives, when they "Virtue, however it may be neg- 
 come together, and do not lected for a time, men are so 
 
 signify the same thing, the constituted as ultimately to 
 
 former (2) must be in the acknowledge and respect 
 
 genitive case." genuine merit." 
 
 (4) When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may 
 be understood as flie subject of the affirmation, it may agree with 
 either of them: but some regard must be had to that which is more 
 naturally the subject of it, as also to that which stands next to the 
 verb: as, " His meat was locusts and wild honey;" "A great cause 
 of the low state of industry were the restraints put upon it ;" "The 
 wages of sin is death." 
 
 "The wages of sin is death," or, "Death is the wages of sin." 
 What rfe the nominative case to is? Is this nominative, in the firgt 
 example, before or after r«; What is the rule for 7<^a«7««.? (3) Recite 
 the Note. What do you mean by the subject of the affirmation? (4). 
 
 4. 
 
 " The crown is virtue is peace and " His chief occupation and enjoy- 
 
 honor." ment were controversy." 
 
 5. When the nominotive case has no personal tense of a verb, but 
 is put before a participle, independently on the rest of the sentence, it 
 is called the case absolute; as, "Shame being lost, all virtue is lostj" 
 "That having been discussed Ions: ago, there is no occasion to resume 
 
 it." ^ r 
 
 As, in the use of the case absolutefthe i^se is, in English, always 
 the nominative, the following example is erroneous \\\ making it the 
 objective. "Solomon was of this mind; and I have no doubt he 
 made as wise and true proverbs as anybody has done since ; him only 
 excepted, who was a much greater and wiser man than Solomon." 
 It should be, " Ae only excepted."' 
 
 (I) " WhAn two Bubstaniives com4. together." (2) " The firti qf therny (3) Rulft 
 XV, 613. C4) The nnminat1r« CMe. 
 
134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 What fs the rule for ihp case abpohite? (1) ' He only excepted." 
 \^'hicli woni is wrong in ihis exninple .' In whal pariicolar wrong? 
 What correction »hould be n)ade ? 
 
 
 0. 
 
 Ilinafcgtroyed, All this (3) will 8onn follow." 
 
 Or won to what ^f may work " Wlio>e gray top 
 
 his utter io.<s, Shall lrenil>lt*, him Jc^cendiug." 
 
 The nominative case is commonly placed .before the verb; but 
 ponu'tinies it i* put after the verb, if it is a simple tense ; nn'/beiween 
 'the nuxilinry and the verb or parlic-iple, if a (•<Miii»niind Icnse: a^ — 
 
 Itit. When n question is asked, a comnianii jriven, or a wish ex- 
 pressed : as, •• Con(i(Iesi tlioii in me?" *• Hr-ad thou I'' ''Miiysl thou 
 be happy I" " Lonpr liye tli*-' King!" 
 
 i?<l. When a snppn.siiion is made without the conjunction if: as, 
 " Were it not for this; •* Had I been there." 
 
 3d. When "a verb transitive is used : as, " On o sudden appeared the 
 king." 
 
 4lh. When the verb is preceded by the adverbs herr, there, then, 
 thrnre, hence, thu», ele. : a>, "Here am I;" "There was he slain;" 
 "Then comelh the end;"' '• Thence nrist'lh his grief ;" '* Hence pro- 
 ceeds his anger;" '-Tlnis was the aflair settled." 
 
 .''til. When a sentence depends on veilhcr or nor, so n» to be coupled 
 wiih another ^eMlenee: as, '• Ve shall not eat of it. neither shall ye 
 toneli it, lest ye die." 
 
 Some grnminaritins assert the j>hrases ok />ifli)ir.i,^M ay>pfar», from 
 what are called impersonal verl>s, and should, thereliire. i>e conlined 
 to the singular number : as, '* The argiimenls ad^aneed \\ ere nciirly 
 at fnUniiH ,•" "The po^itions were f«« ojijunrH ini-onirovertible ;" ihal 
 i!>, "as il follows," '• as it api)ears." "ll we give (say they) ihe sen- 
 tence a dilierent turn, and instead of o«, say 8uch av, the verb is no 
 longer termed impersonal, l>ut properly a^jrces with its nominative, 
 in the jtlural number: as, "The arguments advanced were nearly 
 «»/c/t fM /of/oio;" " The positions were audi «« iii>penr uncontrovert- 
 ible."* 
 
 They who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke's statement, "That 
 <7«, however and whenever used in Kn^!li>h, ujcans the same as it, or 
 thai, or n'hirh, and who are not- sati>(i«'d whelh«r the verbs, in the 
 senlenee fir>t mentioned, should be iii the singular or the |>lural num- 
 ber, may vary the Ibrm of expression. Thus, the sense of the preced- 
 ing sentences may l-e conveyed in the (ollowing terms: "The argp- 
 nients advanced were nearly of the following nature;' "The follow- 
 ing arc nejirly the arguments which were advanced;" "The argu- 
 ments advanced were nearly tho*e wlii»h follow; "It appears that 
 the positions were incontroverlible ;" " TJiat the pobitions were in- 
 
 (1) Hu1* XVII. 623.. (2) " That whichV 437. (3) Note I. 405. 
 
 * TIk'BO fcrninfiiKriHn'fl are Piiitpoi ted l)y p«ncntl ii«npc8 mid l>y tlie luitliority of 
 All ciiiiufnt cKiiicou liiii^iji>f:c and ('4>n)]«>riiti()n. "\\)i('ii a vorli i" iiKcd iin|i«'if<(in- 
 nlly." H«yB Dr. Caiiiiil)i|l. in IMk ILilcKo) liy of iUictorio, "itoujrlit undduLtnllv to 
 bb in tlib sJnKular nunil'fr. wlu'lliir ilie ii- iitrr indiionn be txjnecHi'd or ut.Nr- 
 Blorxl." For thiK rtHscm. iin;«lo(:y and ufHpe tavor this iiiod<« ot cjcpifs'-ion : "-Tlie 
 Ci'iiilitions of tbe m:ni'iiienf wer«> '•«» foltc^s" and not "«« fr>H< %o.'' A IfW lat« 
 uriters have inconBidcratfly adopted tliiH \u»t form. thr< ufzh * niii*tuk»' of tbe con- 
 structloii. For tho sjimo rciinon vt' mifjit to fwy. '•] kbiill coiibidi-r bis ouucuru* 
 to tut ociy at omaamt my friibud'H oouciucc^" iiutl uot '^ao tar (u ooMccrm" 
 
SYNTAX. 136 
 
 confroverllhle is opparenl;" "The postilions were incontrovertible is 
 a]ipnrenl;" *' Tlie po^itions wert* appnrtnily incontniverlihie." 
 
 Wlitre i.s the noininHlive case u:*ually placed? Mention a few in- 
 stuntes in wliicli the ncniinative follows the verb. What do some 
 prnriiniarians say of the phrases asfoUoicn, as appeare? What is Dr. 
 CHnipbelJ's opinion concerning them ? 
 
 RULE XVIII. 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 . RULK II. 
 Two or more iiouvs or pronovvn of lite *i)>gtdnr number, connected togeth- 
 er hy A^P, either eT),rest-ed or vudcrsfood, must have verbs, nouns, and 
 jjriiuouns (igrceiiiy ivith th<m iu the pUncil nnniher. 
 This rule is often violated; tonie instances of which are annexed. 
 "And so was also .lames' and John, the sons of Zcbedee, who were 
 partners Willi Simon;" "and so were also." **AII joy. tranquillity, 
 and ))t'a(H, even for ever and ever, doth dwell;" "du-cU for ever." 
 " By whose power all pooil and evil is distributed;" "are distributed." 
 *' Their love, and their haired, and their envy, is now pe^i^lled ;" "are 
 perished." "The llioujihlless and intemperate enjuynient of picas- 
 VTf, the criminal abuse of it, and the fbrgetlulncss of our being- ac- 
 countable creatures, obliterates every serums thought of the proper 
 business of life, and eflaces the sense of religion and of God;" it ought 
 to be ''■ ohlitcrale," and '' (£'ace." 
 
 "All joy, iranquillily, etc., doth dwell."- Which word is wrong in 
 this example? In wha paiticular wrong ? What correction, tiien, 
 should be made? Why? Kecite the H ule. * 
 
 "Idleness and ignoriince ?'« the "The planetary system, boundless 
 
 parent of many vices." space, and the immense ocean 
 
 " Wisdom, virtue, happiness, aflects the mind with sensa- 
 
 dicells -wiih the golden medi- tions of astonishment." 
 
 ocrity." "I^umility and love, whalei^er(3) 
 
 " In unity ro»«j«r« the welfare and obscurities may involve re- 
 
 securily of every society." ligious tenets, consiiiules the 
 
 "Time and tide 7/-a?/.v for no man." essence of true religion." 
 
 "His politeness and <:t)od disposi- "Religion and virtue, our Iiesl 
 
 lion uutii, on failure of their support (<J) and highest hon- 
 
 ef]'ect, entirely changed." or, confers on the mind prin- 
 
 " Patience and diligence, like (1) ciples of noble indepen- 
 
 faith, (2) reipoves iiioun.- deiue." 
 
 tains." * "What (5) signifies the counsel 
 
 "Humility and knowledge, with and care of preceptors, when 
 
 poor apparel, excels pride and youth think they have no (6) 
 
 ignorance under cosily at- need of asbistance?" 
 tire." 
 
 1. When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distinjjuishable 
 in sense, and sometimes even when thty are very different, some 
 authors have thought it allowalile to put the vt'rbs, nouns, and pro- 
 nouns in the singular number : as, " I'ranquillify and peace dwells 
 then'," "Ignorance and negligence has produced ihe effect;" the 
 discomfiture and slaiichter was very preni." But it is evidently con- 
 
 ' — — — - ■ ■ " ■ ^ m 
 
 (1) AHvi-rb. (2) Uui« i. t-c.<> Not« XVII, 04?. (3) >?«« I. 40.5. 
 Cil KulQ Xy. (A> U'oito VUL (,6) 2JA 
 
136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 trary lo the first principles of frrammar to consiilor two distinct ideas 
 a» one, however nice rany be their shades of difference ; and if there 
 be no difference, one of them must be superfluous, and>ught to be 
 rejected. 
 
 To support the above construction, it is said that the ver!) may be 
 understood as applied to each of the preceding terms; as in the fol- 
 lowing example : " Sand and salt, and a muss of iron, w easier to bear 
 than a man witiiout understanding." But besides the confusion, and 
 the latitude of application, which such a construction would intro- 
 duce, it appears to be more proper and analogical, in cases where the 
 verb is intended to be applied to any one of theterms, to make use of the 
 disjunctive conjunction, which griimiuatically refers the verb lo one 
 or other of the preceding terms, in a separate view. To preserve the 
 distinctive uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions, would 
 render the rules precise, consistent, ancl intelligil)le Dr. Blair very 
 justly observes, that "two or more substantives, joined by a copula- 
 tive, must always require the verb or pronoun to which they refer to 
 he placed in the |)lural number.'* 
 
 " Tranquillity and jjcace dwells there." " What dwells ? Is it not, 
 then, a violation of Rule XVII I to use r/fr^//j in the singular number? 
 When do some writers think it allowable to put the verbs, nouns, and 
 pronouns in the singular number? Is this usage grauimnlical ? In 
 what does the incorrectness consist? If there be no difference in the 
 meaning of tec/iis, are both necessary? What ought to be done with 
 the superfluous one? How do some attempt to support the above 
 construction ? How would they read, on this principle, the example 
 beginning wit h^*' Sand and salt, and a mass of iron, t.^ easier," etc.? (I) 
 In examples like the last, what conjunction can we substitute in the 
 place o( and, which will better express the sense? What does Dr. 
 Blair say on this subject ? "^ 
 
 1. 
 
 " Much tloex human pride and self- '♦ Pride and self-sufficiency stifles 
 (♦»tn|)lacency require correc- sentiments of dependence on 
 
 tion." our Oeator ; levity and attach- 
 
 " Luxurious living,and high pleas- ment to wordly pleasures de- 
 
 ures, begets a languor and stroys the sense of gratitude 
 
 satiety that destroys all enjoy- to him." 
 
 mem." 
 2. In many complex sentences it isdiflicult for learners to determine 
 whether one or more of the clauses are to be considered as the nom- 
 inative case; and, consequently, whether the verb should be in the 
 singular or the plural number. We shall, therefore, set down a num- 
 ber of varied examples of this .nature, which may serve as some gov- 
 ernment to the scholar with respect to sentences of a similar construc- 
 tion. " Prosperity, with humility, rttttd/rs its possessor truly amiable." 
 " The ship, with all her furniture, was destroyed." ' Not only his 
 estate, his repvitation too, has suffered by his misconduct," "The 
 general, also, in conjunction with the officers, has applied for redress." 
 " He can not be justified ; for it is true that the prince, as well as the 
 people, was blameworthy." "The king, with his life-guard, ha» just 
 passed through the village." " In the mutual influence of body and 
 honl there I'.v a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which we can not fath- 
 om." "Virtue, honor, nay, even self-interest, conspire to recommend 
 
 (1) "BAI^d \i •nflier, and salt t'l eMicr, and h maM of iron it «n)ii(ir," «fr. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 137 
 
 the measure." "Patriotism, morality, every public and private con- 
 sideratif n, damayid our stibmis«:ion to just nnd Inwfiil i^overnment." 
 "Noll)iiifr ffelifrhts !iie so inuch a> the vvorics of nature.'" 
 
 In siii>|)ort of sucli forms of e.Kpression as the lollowing, we see the 
 authority of Hume, Prie>tley, and other writers; and we annex them 
 for the reader's consideration: "A long course of time, with va- 
 riety of accidents and circumstances, arc requisite to produce those 
 revolutions." "The king, with the lords and commons, forni an ex- 
 cellent frame of government.'' " The side A, with the sides B and C, 
 compose the triangle." " The fire communicated itself to the bed, 
 which, with the furniture of the room, and a valuable library, were all 
 entirely consumed." It is. however, proper to observe that these 
 modes of expi»ession do not appear to be warranted by the just prin- 
 ciples of construction. The words, "'A long course of time," "The 
 king," "The side A," and "which," are the true nominatives to the 
 respective verbs. In the last example, the word all should be ex- 
 punged. As the preposition with governs the objective case in English, 
 and, if translated into Latin, would govern the ablative case, it is 
 manifest that the clauses following with, in the preceding sentences, 
 can not form any part of the ?iomi?iative case. They can not be fit the 
 same time in the objective and nominative cases. The following 
 sentence appears to be unexceptionable, and may serve to explain 
 the others: " The lords and commons are essential branches of the 
 British constitution: the Icing, with them, forms an excellent frame 
 of government."* 
 
 "The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle." In 
 this sentence, what is the nominative case to compose? Should the 
 verb, then, be singular or plural? What difficulty is mentioned in the 
 beginning of this Note ? 
 
 2. 
 
 "Good order in our affairs, not 
 mean savings, produce great 
 profits." 
 
 "The following treatise, together 
 with those that accompany it, 
 were written many years ago, 
 for my own private satisfac- 
 tion." 
 
 " That great senator, in concert 
 with several other emin<Mil 
 persons, werexhe projectors (1) 
 of the revolution." 
 
 "The religion of these people, as 
 well as their customs and 
 manners, were strangely mis- 
 represented,." 
 
 " Virtue, joined to knowledge and 
 wealth, confer ^reat influence 
 and respectability. Hut knowl- 
 edgi% with wealth united, if 
 
 virtue is wanting, have a very 
 limited influence, and are of- 
 ten despised " 
 
 "That superficial scholar and crit- 
 ic, like some renowned critics 
 of our own, have (2) furnished 
 most decisive proofs that they 
 (3) knew not the characters of 
 the Hebrew language." 
 
 "Th«' buildings of the institution 
 have been enlarged ; the ex- 
 pense of which, added (4) to 
 the increased price of provi- 
 sions, render it necessary to 
 advance the terms of admis- 
 sion.'" 
 
 "One, added to nineteen, make 
 twenty." 
 
 '• What (ri) black despair, what 
 horror, fills his mind 1" 
 
 * TbonRh the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the sentonca would 
 cortainly stand better thu? : "The king, the lonls, and the common-s form an «- 
 cellont crtiHtitution." 
 
 (1) RuloXV. rti:'.. (2) (W2 Except ion 1. (?^\ '' Hclprv:. 
 
 M> RnUXriI, ."i:.?. (.S) 434. 
 
188 INOLIiH GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. If the ninsrular nouns and pronounji, which are joined together 
 by a oopiilntive conjunction. l>e of peveral persons, in ntaking the 
 plural pronouns Rgree with them in per>on, the >econil pcr>OM takes 
 the place of the third, nnd the fir.-l of botli : as, •• Jaiiiei«, and thou, and I, 
 ar«r attached to o?/r country," -Thou and lie shared it l.etween vol'." 
 " James, and thou, and I, am Httached to rur country" What is 
 wrong in this example? In what particular wrong? "VVliat correction 
 should be made? Why? '• '1 hou and he shared it between him." 
 Will you correct this example ? Why use yo7i instead oi him? Will 
 you repeal the Note ? 
 
 "Thou, and the gardener, and «' My sister and I, as well as my 
 the huntsman, must share brother, are daily employed 
 
 the blame of thia business in tbeir respective occupa- 
 
 amongst them." tions.' 
 
 ETJLE XXIII. 
 CorreBponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 KULK III- 
 T^e conjunction diojunctive han an (ffcct contrary to that of the conjunction 
 copulative : for a.\ the terh, nnnn, or pmnoim, ii rfferrtdtu the preceding 
 termt taken eeparately, it nm at be in the eivgi/nr nvniler : an, '' Igno- 
 rance or negligence /taa caused this mistake;" "John. James, or 
 Joseph inteuda to accompany me;" " There :'«, in many minds, 
 neither knowledge nor understanding." 
 
 The following Bentences are variations from this rule: "A man may 
 eee a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as vreW as read them in a 
 description;" " read it." " Neither character nor dialogue were yet 
 understood;"' " »rfi» yet." "It mu?t in(I«'cd be confessed that a 
 lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder ;" " doea 
 not carry in i7." " Death, or some worse mislortunc, soon divide 
 them ;" it ought to be '*diviJis." 
 
 " Neither character nor dialogno were yet understood."' What is 
 wrong in this example ? Why/ Will you correct it ? What is the 
 Rule for this correction ? 
 
 "Man's happiness or misery are, "When sickness, infirmity, or re- 
 in a great measure, put into verse of forlune aflt'ct us, the 
 his own hands." sincerity of friendship is prov- 
 
 "Man 18 not such a machine as a ed." 
 
 clock or a watch, whkh move " Let (1) it be remembered (2) 
 
 merely as they are moved."' that (3) it is not the uttering-, 
 
 "Despise no infirmity of mind or or the hearing of certain 
 
 body, nor any condition of words, that constitute the 
 
 li/e ; for they are, perhaps, to worship of the Almighty." 
 
 be your own lot." " A tiul reply, n pronencss to re- 
 
 " Speaking inipuiiently to ser- btike. or u captious end « on- 
 
 vants. f.r anything that bo- triidiciions spirit, are capable 
 
 trays inattention or ill-humor, o( imbittuiin: (1) domestic 
 
 are oerininly criminal." life, (.')) and of settuig friends 
 
 "There are many fmilts in spell- at variance.'" 
 ing which neither aimldf^y 
 nor prontinciaiion justify." 
 
 (1) Imperative mood, ngrecing with thou or von iiiulerstood. by Rule VI. (i) 
 Inflnitive. iSO, (3) Cvcjuuction. (4) Kule X. </>; Kulo XIV, 660. 
 
1. When sfngiilar pronouns, rtr a noun and pronoun of different 
 persons, are disjunctively connected^ the verb must agree with that 
 person which is placed nearest to it: as, "lor thon art to blame ;" 
 '•Thou or I am in fault;" "1, thou, or he is the author of it;" 
 " Creorge or I am the person." But it would be better to say, " Eith- 
 er I am to blame, or ihou art," etc. 
 
 " I or thou am to blame." How should this be altered ? What w 
 the Rule for it? 
 
 1. 
 " Either (1) thou or I art greatly " I or thou am the person (2) who 
 mistaken in our juilgment on must undertake the business 
 
 the subject." proposed." 
 
 2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun 
 and a plural one, the verb is made to agree M'ith the plural noun or 
 pronoun, as, " Neither poverty nor riches ivcrc injurious to him;" " I 
 or they were offended by it." But in this case the plural noun or pro- 
 noun, when it can conveniently be done, should be placed next to the 
 verb. 
 
 '' I or they was ofiended." What is wrong in this example ? What is 
 the Rule for the correction ? 
 
 2. 
 
 •'Both (3) of the scholars, or one "Whether one person or more 
 
 of them at least, was present was concerned in the busi- 
 
 at the transaction." ness, does not appear." 
 
 " Some parts of the ship nnd car- " The cares of this life, or the de- 
 go were r^-covered; liut neith- ceilfulness of riches, has 
 er (4) the sailors nor the choked the seed of virtue in 
 captain was saved." many a promising (5) mind." 
 
 NOTE XVI. 
 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 A verb ill the phiral will ac/ree with a cnllective noitn in the singular, 
 ic'hcn apart only of the iudividuala are meant: o9, "The council 
 were divided in their sentiments." When the noun expresses the 
 idea of ttnift/ the verb shovld be singular: aa, "The council was 
 composed wholly of farmers." 
 
 We ought to consider whether the term will immediately suggest 
 the idea of the number it represents, or whether it exhit>its to the 
 mind the idea of the whole, as one thing. In the former case, the 
 Verb ought to be plural; in tlie-latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, 
 it seems improper to saj', "The peasantry goes barefoot, and the 
 middle sort makea use of wooden shoes." It would be better to sny, 
 " The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort mahe use," etc , Ijc- 
 cau»;e the idea, in both these cases, is that of a number. On the f .n- 
 trary. there is a harshness in the following senlences, in which nouns 
 of number have verbs plural, because the ideas they represent seem 
 not to be sufficiently divided in the mind: "The Court of Rome were 
 not without solicitude." "The house of commons icere of suiall 
 Weight." "The house of lords trere so much influenced by ihese- 
 reasons." " Stephen's party were entirely broken up by the captivity 
 
 (1) 669. (2) Rule XV. 613. {%) 407. (4) Conjunction when followed by nor, 
 ) Role Xni. 
 
 (6) RoI« XT 
 
140 
 
 ENGLISH ORAMMAFl. 
 
 of their leader." "An army of twenty-four thousand were nssem- 
 bled." "What renson *arc the Church of Rome for proceeding in 
 this manner?" " There is indeed no oonsiiiution so lame nnd care- 
 less of thcirown defence." "All the virtues of mankind are lohe lount- 
 ed upon a few fingers, but hiv follies and vices are iniuinierable." Is 
 not rnaukind, in this place, a noun of multitude, and such as requires 
 the pronoun referring: to be in the plural number, their.l 
 
 "The peasantry goes barefoot," etc. Whal correction is necessa- 
 ry in this example ? Why ? 
 
 " The people rejoices in that 
 which should pive it sorrow." 
 "The flock, and not the fleece, 
 are, or ought to be, the objects. 
 of the shepherd's care." 
 " The corporation of York consist 
 of a mayor, aldermen, and a 
 common council." 
 "The British parliament are com- 
 posed of king, lord.-*, and com- 
 mons." 
 "When the nation complain, the 
 rulers should listen to their 
 voice." 
 " The court have just ended, after 
 having sat through the trial 
 of a very long cause." 
 " The crowd irerc so great that 
 the judges with difficulty 
 made their way through 
 them." 
 " This people draueth near to me 
 with their mouth, and honor- 
 eth me with" their lips, hut 
 their heart is far from me." 
 " The committee loas divided in 
 its sentiments, and it has re- 
 ferred the business to the 
 general meeting." 
 "In the days of youth, the niulli- 
 tude eagerly pursues pleasure 
 as its chief good." 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 t 
 
 Pronouns viuHt agree with vouus fur irfilch they stand, in gcndrr, 
 number, and jicrson. 
 
 Of this rule there are many vit)lations to be met with; a few of 
 which may be sullicient to put the learner on his guard: " Eack of 
 the sexes should keej) within its particular bounds, and content 
 themselves with the advantages of their' particular districts;" better 
 
 (l)RuloXTII. (2) Note 1, 405 (3)501. (4) Kulo XI. (5) (>73. (O)Advorb. 
 (7) '■ MVr« infatuat>:d." (8) Itulo XIII. 
 
 "The church have no power to 
 inflict corjioral punishment." 
 
 " The fleet were seen sailing (I) 
 up the channel." 
 
 " The regiment consist of a thou- 
 sand (2) men." 
 
 "The meeting have established 
 several salutary regulations." 
 
 " The council was rot unanimous, 
 and it separared without com- 
 ing (3) to any determination." 
 
 "The fleet is all arrived and 
 moored (4) in safety." 
 
 " The committee were very full 
 when this point was decided ; 
 and their judgment has not 
 been called in question." 
 
 " Why (6) do this generation wish 
 for greater evidence, when so 
 much (5) is already given?" 
 
 "The remnant of the people were 
 persecuted with great se- 
 verity." 
 
 " Never were any people so (6) 
 much infatuated (7) as the 
 Jewish nation." 
 "The shoal of herrings' were of 
 
 an immense extent." 
 " No society are chargeable with 
 the disapproved (b) miscon- 
 duct of particular members." 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 141 
 
 thus: "The sexes should keep within <A«t> particular bounds," etc. 
 *' Can any one, on their entrance into the world, be fully secure that 
 they shall not be deceived ?"' " on his entrance," and " that he shall." 
 "One should not think too favorably of ourselves ;" ^^ of one's self^ 
 "He had one acquaintance which poisoned his principles;" '■'• who 
 poisoned." 
 
 Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, either 
 expressed or implied : as, " Who is fatal to others, is so to himself;" 
 that is, '•'•the vian who is fatal to others." 
 
 irZ/y, which., what, and the relative that, though in the objective 
 case, are always placed before the verb ; as are also their compounds, 
 whoever, whosoever, etc. : as, " He whom ye seek ;" "This is what, or 
 the thing which, or that, you want ;" "Whomsoever you please to 
 appoint." 
 
 What is sometimes applied in a manner which appears to be ex- 
 ceptionable : as, " All fevers, except what are called nervous," etc. 
 It would at least be better to say, "except those which are called 
 nervous." 
 
 " One should not think too favorably of ourselves." How should 
 this sentence be altered ? What is the Rule for it ? Are the relatives 
 placed before or after the verb ? 
 
 "The exercise of reason appears 
 as (1) little (2) in these 
 sportsmen,, as in the beasts 
 whom tliey sometimes hunt, 
 and by whom they are some- 
 times hunted." 
 
 "They which seek Wisdom will 
 certainly find Aer." 
 
 "The male amongst birds seem 
 to discover no beauty but in 
 the color of its species." 
 
 "Take handfuls of ashes of the 
 furnace, and let Moses sprin- 
 kle it towards heaven in the 
 sight of Pharaoh, and it shall 
 become small dust." 
 
 " Rebecca took goodly raiment, 
 which were with her in the 
 house, and put them upon 
 Jacob." 
 
 "The wheel killed another man, 
 which is the sixth which have 
 lost their lives by this means." 
 
 " The fair sex, whose task is not 
 to mingle in the labors of pub- 
 lic life, has its own part as- 
 signed it to act." 
 "The Hercules man-of-war foun- 
 dered at sea ; she overset, 
 and lost most (3) of her men." 
 "The mind of man can not be long 
 
 without some food to nourish 
 the activity of his thoughts." 
 
 "What is the reason that our lan- 
 guage is less refined than those 
 of Italy, Spain, or France?" 
 
 "I do not think any one should 
 incur censure for being (4) 
 tender (5) of their reputation." 
 
 "Thou who hast been a witness 
 
 (6) of the fact, can give an ac- 
 count of it." 
 
 "In religious concerns, or what 
 
 (7) is conceived to be such, 
 (b) every man must stand or 
 fall by the decision of the 
 great Judge." 
 
 "Something like (9; what (10) 
 have been here premised, are 
 the conjectures ol Dryden." 
 
 "Thou great First Cause, (11) 
 least undei stood! (1-2) 
 Who all my sense confined. (13) 
 
 To know but this, that thou art 
 good. 
 And that myself (11) am blind ; 
 
 Yet gave (14) me in this dark es- 
 tate," etc. 
 
 " What (0) art thou, ( 1 1 ) spea k, that 
 (15) on designs unknown, (16) 
 
 While others sleep, thus range (I 7) 
 the camp alone?" 
 
 (■iJRnlelX. [21 Aflvpvb. fr>] 676. [4J .:"•.!. [6] 
 " Thn$c which:' 4v'.7. |S] ■' SucJi w/»orr»s." Unlo IV. 
 and X. Note XVII. [111 Hule XV. [121 '»»'e XII 
 "r/rt7VsV." [ISlConjiinrtion. [iq Rule .\HI. [V,] Do^t 
 
 Rule IV. 
 
 [0] Rule XV. [7] 
 91 Rule IV. [101 1^"1p ^'* 
 
 [i:ij " ConMexhtr 
 " ranio. 
 
 [14] 
 
1. Personal prononn*, being tiRcd to supply the place of nouns, are 
 not employed in ihe pame part of a sentence as the noun which they 
 ri-prestMit ; Cor it would be improper to hay, " Tlie kin? /ir is jn>t ;" '• I 
 gaw /ler the queen ;" "The men t/ny were there ;" " M:it.y words thrjf 
 darken f^peech ;" " My I)anks t/iet/ are furnished with bees." These 
 personals are finperfliioiis, as there is not the least occasion for a snb- 
 siimie in the same part where the principal word is present. The 
 nominative case ///ry, in the following' sentence, is also superfluous : 
 '• Who. instead of jroing about doing good, t/ity are perpetually intent 
 upon doing: mi.'chief" 
 
 "The king he is ju.'-t." Will you correct this sentence, and tell 
 why It is wrong ? 
 
 I. 
 '•Whoever (1) entertains such an lioweverdisa<rreeablc,/Ary of- 
 
 opinion, /ir judges erroneous- ten improve us." 
 
 ly." "The cares of thi.s world, f/r^often 
 
 "Disappointments and afflictions, choke tlie jrrowth of virtue." 
 
 2. The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as well as to 
 things _; but pfter an adjective in the superlative degree, and after the 
 pronominal adjective xavir, it ip generally used in prt-fereiue to icho 
 or winch : as, " Charles XII, king of Sweden, was one of the greatest 
 madmen that the world ever saw;*' ''Catiline's followers were the 
 most profligate that could be found in any city;" "He is the same 
 man that we saw before." There are cases wherein we can not con- 
 veniently dispense v/ith this relative, a.s applied to persons: as, first, 
 after tw/zo, the interrogative: "Who, that has any sense of religion, 
 wotild h»ve argued thus?" Secondly, when persons make but a part 
 of the antecedent: "The woman, and the estate, that becnme his jior- 
 tion. were too nitich for his inodeniliun." In neither of these exam- 
 ples could any other relative have been used. . 
 
 To what is the pronoun that applied? and when is it u.^ed \n pref- 
 erence to ivho or which? (416 — I, 2, 3, 4, 5.) Give an example. 
 
 2. 
 " Moses was the meekest man " They are the same persons icAo 
 
 whovi we read of in the Ol«l assisted tis yesterday.'' 
 
 Testament." "The men and things jc/ztc/i he 
 
 "Humility i.s one of the most has studied have not im- 
 
 amiable virtues w/z/c/i we can proved iiis morals." 
 
 possess." 
 
 3. The pronouns xchichnoerer, irhotoever, and the like, are elegantly 
 divided by the interposition of the correspondiinr substantives: thus, 
 "On whichsoevei side the king cast his eyes," would have sotinded 
 better, if written. "On which side soever," etc. 
 
 Will you give an example in which the compound pronoun which' 
 $oever may be divided witli pro|iriety ? 
 
 3. 
 
 "Howsoever beautiful they ap- contemplated, they appear to 
 
 pear, they have no real nier- advantujie." 
 it." " However much he might de- 
 
 " In whatsover light we view spise the maxims of the king's 
 
 him, his conduct will bear admini.siraiion, he kept a to* 
 
 inspection." tal siicnce on that subjecrt." 
 
 "On whichsoever side they are 
 
 f 1] "fl« v^a" 
 
4. Many perjons are apt, in conversation, to put the objective case 
 of the personal pronouns in the place of ^^esc and those: as, "Give 
 me them books," instead of " those books." We may sometimes find 
 this fanit even in writing: as, '■ Observe r//€J» thr»*e there." We also 
 frequently meet with those instead of thei/, at the beginning of a sen- 
 tence, and where there if* no particular reference to an antecedent : 
 as, *• Those that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy ;" " They that, or 
 they who sow in tears." 
 
 It is not, however, always easy to say whether a personal pronoun 
 or a demonstrative is preferable in certain constructions. "We are 
 not unacquainted wiihthe calumny of them [or those] whoopenly make 
 use of the warmest professions." 
 
 " Give me ibem books." Why is this sentence incorrect? 
 
 4. 
 
 " Which of them two persons has fer injuries than those (2) 
 
 most distinguished himself?" that are most (3) forward (n 
 
 " None (1) more impatiently suf- doing (4) them.'' (.')) 
 
 6. In some dialects, the word uhat is improperly used for t/itft, and 
 eomriimes we find it fn this sense in writing: " They will never be- 
 lieve but trAof I have been entirely to blame." "I p.m not satisfied 
 but what," etc., instead of "but that." The word evmewhat, in the 
 following sentence, seems to be used improperly: " These puni.'^h- 
 ments seem to have been exercised in somewhat an arbitrary man- 
 ner." Sometimes we read, "In somewhat of." The meaning is, 
 •* in a manner which is. in some respects, arbitrary." 
 
 Will you give an example of the improper use of uiJiat instead of 
 that? 
 
 5. 
 
 "He would not be persuaded but "These commendations of his 
 what (6) I wa.s greatly in children appear to have been 
 
 fault." made in somewhat (7) an inju- 
 
 dicious })iaune>:" 
 
 6. The pronoun relative icho is so much appropriated to persons, 
 that there is generally iiarshncss in the application of it, except to 
 the proper names of persons, or the general terms mav, woviau, etc. 
 A term which only implies the idea o( persons, and expresses them 
 by some circumstance or epithet, wjll hardly authorize the use of it : 
 as, " That faction in F-neland ivho most powerfully opposed his arbi- 
 trary pretensions." "That faction tr/ncA " would have been better; 
 and the same remark will serve for the following examples: "France, 
 tc^o was in alliance Miih Sweden." '*Tlie court nho," etc. "The 
 cavalry 7t-Ao," etc. *• The cities u/^o aspired at liiierly." '" That par- 
 ty among us tr//o," etc. "The family ichi,m\\\vy consider as U!-urpers." 
 
 In some cases it may be doubtful \\ helhcr this pronnun is proper- 
 ly applied or not: as, "The number ol substanlial inhabitants with 
 vhoni soine cities al)Ound." For when a term directly and necessa- 
 rily implies persons, it uiiiy, in niany cases, claim the personal rclMlive. 
 '• None ol" the coirij^nuy whom he most aflet-ied could cure him of the 
 melancholy nnd»^'r which he labored." The word acqnoiutuvce may 
 have the siime construction. 
 
 How IS the relative vho used? 
 
 [1] Rule VI. [2] Note I. [SI f.77. [4] €51. [fn P.nle XIV. :61 " rAio<" Coo- 
 i UDcU en ,7j " ]v u wuMwrr which it, im I' wic rttptdi, t*\judicio*t$ "' 
 
!44 " ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 6. 
 
 " He instructed and fed ilie crowds wliich James ever posses- 
 
 icho (1) surrounded him.'' sed." 
 
 "Sidney was one of the wisest "The court, who gives currency 
 
 and most active governors to manner.s, ought to be ex- 
 
 trAi'cA Ireland had enjoyed for emplary." (2) 
 
 several years." "I am happy in the friend which 
 
 "He was the ablest minister i have long proved." 
 
 7. We hardly consider little children as persons, because that term 
 gives us the idea of reason and reflection; and, therefore, the appli- 
 cation of the personal relative who, in this case, seems to be harsh: 
 "A child who.'''' Il is still more improperly applied to animals : "A 
 lake fre(juented by that fowl whom nature has taught to dip the wing 
 in water." 
 
 Do we say, " A child who," or " A child which?'* Will you re- 
 peat the Note for this ? 
 
 7. 
 '• The child whom we have just "He is like (2) a beasl (3) of 
 seen is wholesomely led, and prey, who destroys without 
 
 not injured by bandages or P'ty*" 
 
 clothing." 
 
 8. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, and il 
 does not refer to the person, the pronoun uj/jo oug^ht not to be applied. 
 " It is no wonder it' such a man did not shine at the court of (iueen 
 Elizabeth, xoho was but another name for prudence and economy." 
 Better thus : " whose nanie was but another word lor prudence," etc. 
 The word whose l)e;xins likewise to be restricted to persons; yet it is 
 not done so generally but that good writers, even in prose, use it 
 when speaking of things. The construction i< not, however, gener- 
 ally pleasing, as we may see in the following instances : " Pleasure, 
 xcho^c nature," etc. " Call every production, tohose parts and whose 
 nature," etc. 
 
 In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use irhich, with re- 
 spect to persons, and that is, when we want to distinguish one per-, 
 son of two, or a particular person among a niMuber of others. We 
 should then say. ■' Which o!" the two," or, "Which of them is he or 
 she?" 
 
 "The court i)f Queen Elizabeth, who," etc. Will you i-orrect this 
 sentence, and give the Note for it ? 
 
 8. . 
 
 *' Having once disgusted (4) him, ilci^cive and betray, should 
 
 he could never regain the fa- be avoided as the poisonous 
 
 vor of Nero, wlio wnn indeed adder." 
 
 another name tor cruelty." " Who of those men came to his 
 
 " Flattery, whoae nature (T)) is to assi^iiance 'i' 
 
 9. As the i)r<)nuun relative has no distinction of number, we some- 
 times find an aujbiguily in the use of it : as, when we say, " The dis- 
 ciples of Christ, whom we imitate," wo may mean the imitation eith- 
 er of Christ or of his disciples. The accuracy and clearness of the 
 sentence depend very much upon the proper and determinate use of 
 
 (1) '• Thai." (2) Rule IV. (H) Riilo X. Nofo XVIl. (i) '■ Haviriff dixgusted." 
 Rnic Xiri. (;-i) " The iinturr nf which:' 
 
SYNTAX. 145 
 
 the relative, so that it may readily present its antecedent to the mind 
 of the hearer or reader without any obscurity or ambiguity. 
 
 Wiiat is remarked in this Note on tlie use of the relative pronoun? 
 
 9. 
 
 "The king (1) dismissed his niin- "There are millions of people in 
 
 ister without any inquiry; who the empire (2) of China whose 
 
 had never before committed support is derived almost en- 
 
 so unjust an action." tirely from rice." 
 
 10. It is and it loas are often, after the manner of the French, used 
 in a plural construction, and by some of our best writers: as, "it is 
 either a few great men who decide for the whole, or it is the rabble 
 that follow a seditious ringleader;" " /c is they that are the real 
 authors, though the soldiers are the actors of the revolution;" " fd 
 was the heretics that first began to rail," etc.; " 'Tis these that early 
 taint the female mind." This license in the construction of it is (ir 
 it be proper to admit it at all) has, however, been certainly abused 
 in the following sentence, which is thereby made a very awkward 
 one : It is wonderful the very few accidents which, in several years, 
 happen from this practice." 
 
 How are it is and it was often used? Give an example in which 
 they are used incorrectly in this sense. 
 
 10. 
 
 "It-is remarkable his continual '' It is indisputably true his asser- 
 endeavors to serve us, not- tion, though it is a j)aradox." 
 
 withstanding our ingratitude." (4 ) 
 
 (3) 
 
 11. The Interjections Of oh.' and ah.' require the objective case 
 
 of a pronoun in the first person after them: as, "O me! Oh me! Ah 
 me!" but the nominative case in the second person: as, "Oh thou 
 persecutor !" " O ye hypocrites !" " Oh thou who d wellest," etc. 
 
 The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English language, 
 is frequently joined,, in explanatory sentences, with a noun or pro- 
 noun of the masculine or feminine gender : as, "It was I;" "It was 
 the man or woman tlial did it." 
 
 The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and understood: thus 
 we say, " As appears, as follows," for " As it appears, as it follows ;" 
 and " May be," for " It may be." 
 
 The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express — 
 
 1st. The subject of any discourse or inquiry : as, "7< happened on a 
 summer's day." " Who is it that calls on me?" 
 
 2d. The slate or condition of any person or thing: as, " How is i4 
 with you ?" 
 
 3d The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any eflect or 
 event, or any person considered merely as a cause; as, " We heard 
 her say it was not he;" "The truth is, it was I that helped her." 
 
 Why is it incorrect to say, "Oh I?" Why incorrect to say, "Oh 
 thee ?" 
 
 (1 ) " Thr. Ain^ who had »cv/t," etc. (2) '' There are in thr, empire" etc 
 (3) " i/w contiiiitat," etc.; ending the sentence with, " trr* remark 
 ^ble." (4) " His assertin)}, thoiiffh pnrn/fo.-ricat," etc. 
 
 13 
 
\ 
 
 146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 11. 
 
 " Ah ! unhappy thee, who art deaf " Oh ! happy we, surrouiuled with 
 to the calls of duty and of so many blessings." 
 
 honor." 
 
 RULE XXIV. 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 The relative is the nomtvative case to the verb, when no nominative case 
 
 comes bettveeyi it and the verb : as, "The master who taught usj" 
 
 " The trees which are planted." 
 When a notnimative case comes between the relative and the verb, the 
 
 relative is governed by some ivord in its otv7i member of the sentence : 
 
 as, " He who preserves me, to whom 1 owe my being, whose I am, 
 
 and whom. I serve, is eternal." 
 
 In the several members of the last sentence the relative performs 
 different offices. In the first member, it marks the agent; in the 
 second, it submits to the government of the preposition ; in the third, 
 it represents the possessor ; and in the fourth, the object of an action : 
 and therefore it must be in the three different cases correspondent to 
 those ofl5ces. 
 
 AVhen both the antecedent and relative become nominatives, each 
 to different verbs, the relative is the nominative to the former, and 
 the antecedent to the latter verb : as, " True philosophy, which is the 
 ornament of our nature, consists more in the love of our duty and 
 the practice of virtue, than in great talents and extensive knowl- 
 edge." 
 
 A few instances of erroneous construction will illustrate both 
 branches of the sixth rule. The three following refer to the first 
 part : " How can we avoid being grateful to those whom, by repeat- 
 ed kind offices, have proved themselves our real friends V " These 
 are the men whom, you might suppose, were the authors of the 
 work." " If you were here, you would find three or four whom you 
 would say passed their time agreeably." In all these places it 
 should be who, instead of whom. The two latter sentences contain 
 a nominative between the relative and the verb; and, therefore, 
 seem to contravene the rule ; but the student will reflect, that it is 
 not the nominative of the verb with which the relative is connected. 
 The remaining examples refer to the second part of the rule : " Men 
 of fine talents are not always the persons who we should esteem." 
 *' The persons who you dispute with are precisely of your opinion." 
 "Our tutors are our benefactors, who we owe obedience to, and 
 who we ought to love." In these sentences tvhom should be used 
 instead oi toho. 
 
 " These are the men whom, you might suppose, were," etc. Will 
 you correct this example, and give the rule for it ? 
 
 " We are dependent on each oth- friend, whom shall be sent to 
 
 ers' assistance; tohom is there admonish him?" 
 
 that can subsist by himself?" "They «<'/*o (1) much is given to 
 
 " If he will not hear his best 
 
 (1) « To whom." 
 
.SVMAX. 147 
 
 will have much (I) to answer ' respect, and who we oiiglit to 
 
 for." (2) be grateful to." 
 
 "It is not to he expected that "The persons who conscience 
 
 they, whom in early life have and virtue support, may smile 
 
 been dark and deceitful, should at the caprices of fortune.'' 
 
 afterwards become fair and in- "From the character of those 
 
 genuous." who you associate with, your 
 
 *' They who have labored to make own will be estimated." 
 
 us wise and good, are the per- "That (3) is the student who I 
 
 .sons who we ought to love and gave the book to, and whom, 
 
 I am persuaded, deserves it." 
 
 1. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the noun 
 or pronoun containing the answer must be in the san\e case as that 
 which contains the question : as, " Whose books are these ?" " They 
 are John's."' " TI7io gave them to him?" "We." "-Of whom did 
 you buy them?" " Of a bookselTer; him who lives at the Bible and 
 Crown.'' " Whom did you see there?" "Both him and the .'^hop- 
 man." The learner will readily comprehend this rule, b^ supplying 
 the words which are understood in the answers. Thus, to tjxpress 
 the answers at large, we would say, " They are John's books ;" " We 
 gave them to himr' " We bought them of him who lives," etc. 
 " We saw both him and the shopman." As the relative pronoun, 
 when Tised interrogatively, refers to the subseqiient word or phrase 
 containing the answer to the question, that word or phrase may 
 properly be termed the subsequent to the interrogative. 
 
 " Of whom did you buy them ? " " Of a bookseller ; he who lives," 
 etc. What is wrong in this sentence, and how may it be corrected? 
 What is the Note lor it ? 
 
 1. 
 
 "Of whom were the articles " Who was the money paid to?" 
 
 bought?" "Of a mercer ; he "To the mercer and his 
 
 (4) who resides near (fj) the clerk." 
 
 mansion-house." "Who counted it?" " Both the 
 
 *' Was any person besides (5) the clerk and him." 
 
 mercer present?"' "Yes, 
 
 both him and his clerk." 
 
 KULB XXV. 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RIILK VII. 
 
 When, the relative is 2)receded by two nominatives of different persons , the 
 relative and verb may agree in person with eitlier^ according to the sense: 
 as, "I am the man who command you;" or, "I am the man who 
 conwiands you." 
 
 The form of the first of the two preceding sentences expresses the 
 meaning rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous to say, 
 "I, who command you, am the man." Perhaps the difference of 
 meaning produced by relerring the relative to different antecedents, 
 will be more evident to the learner in the following sentences : " I am 
 the general who gives the orders to-day ; " "I am the general, \<'ho give 
 
 (1)673. (2)596. (3) Note 1-105. (4) Rule XV. (.S) 247. 
 
148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 the orders to-day; " that is, "I, who give the orders to day, am the 
 general." 
 
 When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree with 
 either of the preceding nominatives, that agreement must be pre- 
 served throughout the sentence ; as in the following instance : " I am 
 the Lord, that maketh all things; that stretcheth forth the heavens 
 alone." — ha. xliv. 24. Thus far is consistent: the Lord, in the third 
 person, is the antecedent, and the verb agrees with the relative in the 
 third person ; " I am the Lord, which Lord, or Ke, that maketh all 
 things.'' If I were made the antecedent, the relative and verb should 
 agree with it in the first person; as, "i am the Lord that make all 
 things ; that stretch forth the heavens alone." But should it follow, 
 ^'that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself," there would arise a con- 
 fusion of persons and a manifest solecism. 
 
 "I am the man who command you." "I am the man who com- 
 mands you." What is the nominative to command in the first sen- 
 tence ? What to commands in the second ? Rule for each ? Why is 
 the verb of a dilTerent person in diflerenl sentences? 
 «'I acknowledge that (1) I am the ''I perceive that thou art a pupil 
 teacher, (5) who adopt that who possesses bright parts, 
 
 sentiment, and maintains the but who hast cultivated them 
 
 propriety of such measures." but (.3) little." (4) 
 
 (2) "Thou art he (5) who breathest 
 
 "Thou art a friend (5) that hast on the earth with the breath 
 
 often relieved me, and that of spring, and who covereth 
 
 has not deserted me now, in it with verdure and beauty." 
 
 the time of peculiar need." "I am the Lord (5) thy God, (5) 
 "I am the man who approves of who teacheth ihte to profit, 
 
 wholesome discipline, and and who lead thee by the way 
 
 wMio recommend it to others; thoii shouldst go." 
 
 but I am not a person who "Thou art the Lord who did 
 promotes useless severity, or choose Abraham, and 
 
 who object to mild and gener- broughtest him forth (4) out 
 
 ous treatment." of (6) Ur of the Chaldees." 
 
 KULE IV. 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RTTLE VITI. 
 
 Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe. 
 
 NoTK I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree in number 
 with the nouns to which they belong. 
 
 1. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhibited: "I 
 have not travelled this twenty years;" " <7<e8c twenty." "I am not 
 recommending these kind of snflerings ; " " z:/;,?* kind." '' Those set 
 of books was a valuable present ; " *Hhat set." 
 
 "I have not travelled this twenty years." How should this be 
 altered? Why? 
 
 (1) 6.52. (2) "Adopts and maintains," or "adopt and maintain.' 
 
 (3)654. (4) Adverb. (5) Rule XV. (6)247. 
 
SYNTAX. 149 
 
 ^^ lliese kind of indulgences soft- 'The chasm majle (5) by the 
 en and injure the mind." earthquake was twenty fool 
 
 "Instead (1) of imj)roving (2) (6) broad, (7) and one hun- 
 
 yourselves, you have been dred fathom (8) in depth." 
 
 playing (3) this two hours." " How many a sorrow (9) should 
 (4) we avoid, ii' we were not in- 
 
 " Those sort of favors did real in- dustrious to make them ! " 
 
 jury, under the appearance '* He saw one or more persons 
 of kindness." (10) enter (11) the garden." 
 
 1. The word means, in the singular number, and the phrases " 6y 
 tJiis means" " ^jy that meafis," are used by our best and most correct 
 writers : namely, Bacon, Tillotson, Atterbury, Addison, Steele, Pope, 
 etc.* They are, indeed, in so general and approved use, that it would 
 appear awkward, if not affected, to apply the old singular form, and 
 say, " by this mean ; " " by that mean ; " " it was by a mean /"although 
 it is more agreeable to the general analogy of the language. "The 
 ■word means (says Priestley) belongs to the class of words which do 
 not change their termination on account of number; for it is used 
 alike in both numbers." 
 
 The word amends is used in this manner in the following sentences: 
 "Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbation of his coun- 
 try ; and with this amends he was content." "Peace of mind is aa 
 honorable amends for the sacrifices of interest." "In return, he re- 
 ceived the thanks of his employers, and the present of a large estate *. 
 
 (1) 247. (2) 5G1. (3) Rule XIII. (4) Rule XXII. G46. (5) Rule XIII. 
 (6) Note XVIII, C48. (7) " C7irtsm— ftroatZ." Rule IV. (8) Rule IX. {9) ''Many 
 sorroios." (loj " One person, or more than one." (11) Rule XII. 
 
 **'By this means he hnd them the more at vantage, being tired and harassed 
 w|th a long march.'*— Baoon. 
 
 " By this means one great restraint from doing evil would be taken away." 
 "AudfAis is an admirable means to improve men in virtue." ''•By that means 
 they have rendered their duty more difficult." — Tillotson. 
 
 "It renders us careless of api)roving ourselves to God, and by tJuU means 
 securing the continuance of his goodness." "A good character, when established, 
 should not be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still further 
 good." — Atterbury. 
 
 "By tins means they are happy in each other." "He by that means preserves 
 his superiority." — Addison. 
 
 "Your vanity by this m^ans will want its food." — Steele. 
 
 " By this mea7i§ alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." — Pope. 
 
 " Which custom, has proved the most effectual m^eans to ruin the nobles." 
 
 Dean Swift. 
 
 " There is no means of escaping the persecution." " Faith is not only a means 
 cf obeying, but a principal act of obedience." — DR. Young. 
 
 " He looked on money as a necessary 7nean5 of maintaining and increasing pow- 
 er." — Lord Lyttleton's Henry II. 
 
 ".Tohn was too much intimidated not to embrace every 7nea7is afforded for his 
 safety." — Goldsmith. 
 
 " Lest this means should fail." "By means of ship-money, the late king," etc. 
 "The only means of securing a durable peace." — Hume. 
 •"By this means there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland." etc. 
 
 Blackstone. 
 
 " By this Tneans so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their masters." 
 
 Dr. Robertson. 
 
 "By this means they bear witness to each other." — Burkk. 
 
 " By this means the wrath of man was made to turn against itself" — Dr. Blair. 
 
 "A magazine, which has, by/7n'.s wieans, contained," etc. "Birds, in general, pro- 
 cure their food by means of their beak." — Dr. Paley. 
 
J 50 KNGLIHH nliAMMAR. 
 
 * 
 
 these were aniple anieudt for all hi"< labors." " We have descrihed 
 the rewards of vice; the good man's aiticnila are of a diflercQt na- 
 ture." 
 
 Il can scarcely be doubted that this word nmc.vda (like the word 
 means) had formerly its correspondent form in the singular number, as 
 il is derived from the French <nueti(i> , though now it is exclusively 
 established in the plural form. If, therefore, il be alleged thai mean 
 Bhould be applied in tlie singular, because it is derived from the French 
 moyen, the same kind of argument may be advanced in favor of the 
 singular amende; and the general analogy of the language may also 
 be pleaded in support of il. 
 
 Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rheloric, has the following remark 
 on the subject before us : '' No persons of lasie will, I presume, vent- 
 ure so far to violate the present usage, and consequently to shock 
 the ears of the generality of readers, as to say, • By this mean, by that 
 mean. 
 
 Lowih and Johnson seem to be against the use of Ni«aM« in the sin- 
 gular number. They do not, however, speak decisively on the point, 
 but ralhcr dubiously, as \i' thi;y knew that they were questioning 
 eminent authorities as well as general practice. That they were not 
 decidedly against the application of this word to the singular number, 
 appears from their own language: " Whole sentences, whether simple 
 or compound, may become members of other sentences by vteanit 
 of some additional connectionJ^ — Ur. Lowth's Introduction to Enyliah 
 Grammar. 
 
 "There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is 
 ignorant, but by nuaiia of something already known." — Db. Johnson. 
 IdUr. 
 
 It is remarkable that our present version of the Scriptures makes 
 no use. as far as the compiler can discover, of the word mean, tli^jugii 
 there are several instances to be found in it of the use of //jcu««, in the 
 sense and connection contended for. '' By fAjs mta/KV thou shall have 
 no portion on this side the river." — Ezra iv, 16. "That by meaim-ot 
 death,^^ etc. — Heb. ix, 10. It will scarcely be pretended that the trans- 
 lators of the sacred volumes did not accnralely understand the Eng- 
 lish language, or that they would have admitted one form of this 
 word and rejected the other, had not their determination been con- 
 formal)le to the best usage. An attem})t, therefore, to recover an old 
 word, so long since disused by the most correct writers, seems not 
 likely to be successful: especially as the rejection of il is not attended 
 with any inconvenience. 
 
 The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great ma- 
 jority of them, corroborated by general usage, forms, during its con- 
 tinuance, the standard of language; especially if, in particular in- 
 stances, this |)ractice conliniie alter objection and due consideration. 
 Every connection and application of words and phrases, thus support- 
 ed, must therefore be proper and entitled lo respect, if not exceptiona- 
 ble in a moral point of view. 
 
 ^' Si volet ttaua 
 
 Quern penea urbitriaiii eat, etjus, el norma loqaendi^ — HoR. 
 
 On this principle many forms of expression, not less deviating from 
 the general analogy of the language than those before meiftioned, are 
 to be considered as strictly proper and justifiable. Of this kind ar« 
 the following: " JS^ohc of them nrc varied to express the gender j" and 
 
SVNTAX. 151 
 
 yet none originally signified no one. " He him^el/ shall do the work •' 
 here, what was at first appropriated to the objective, is now properlV 
 used as the nominative case. " You have behaved yourself well ;" iii 
 this example, the word you is put in the nominative ca^e plural with 
 strict propriety ; thoii^ , forj-nerly it was confined to the objective case, 
 and yc exclusively used for the nominative. 
 - The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the use 
 oMhe word mean in the old form has a very uncouth appearance: 
 liy the mean of adversity we are often instructed." " He prrfServed 
 his health by mean of exercise." " Fru^^ality is one mean of acquiriuir 
 a competency." They should be, "By means of adversity," etc • 
 By means ol exercise," etc. ; " Frugality is one means,'' etc. ' 
 
 (jrood writers do, indeed, make use of the substantive (1) mean in 
 the singular number, and in that number only, to signify mediocritv 
 middle-rate, etc., as, "This is a mean between the two extremes" 
 J3ut in the sense of instrumentality, itiius long been disused by the 
 best authors, and by almost every writer. 
 
 This means and that tneans should be used only when they refer to 
 what is singular; these means and those means, when they respect 
 I 'ifu ;,'!:Vu^^'' \'''?'^ temperately, and by t/us means preserved his 
 neaithj ihe scholars were attentive, industrious, and obedient to 
 their tutors, and by these means acquired knowledge." 
 
 We have enlarged on this article, that the young student may be led 
 to rellect on a point so important as that of ascertaining the standard 
 o/ propriety in the use of language. 
 
 In what number is the word means used? What does Dr Priestley 
 remark eoncexning the use of this word ? What other word is used 
 m this manner? What does Dr. Campbell remark in regard to the 
 use of the phrase, " By this mean ?" Do Dr. Lowth and Dr. Johnson 
 approve ol the use of means in the singular number? Do good M'riters 
 make u^~e ol the siibslanlive (1) mean in the singular number? Give 
 an «xampe. When should "This means" and "That means" be 
 used .' When " These means " and " Those means ?" 
 
 r 
 
 "Charles was extravagant, and " This person embraced every oiT- 
 
 ^ by //i?» wiean became poor and porlunity to display his tal- 
 
 ^ despicable." ents ; and by th.se means 
 
 It was by that ungenerous mean rendered himself ridiculous " 
 
 that (2) he obtained his end." " .Toseph was industrious, frugal, 
 
 "Industry IS the mmn of obtain- and discreet; and by thi«. 
 
 u^ru'"^ competency." means obtained property and 
 
 1 hough a promising measure, it reputation." 
 is a mean which I can not adopt." 
 
 2. When two persons or things are spoken of Ui a sentence, and 
 there i8 occasion to mention thein again, lor the sake of distinction, 
 that IS used in reference to the former, and this, in reference to the 
 latter: as, "SelMove, which [>< the spring of action in the houI, is 
 ruled by reason; but for that, man would be inactive; and but for 
 thts, he would be active to no end." 
 
 How are the pronouns t/ieu and this used ? 
 
 0) youm Kn nometimoit ca\\e<i tubstaTUivci. (2) M8. 
 
lo'4 
 
 KNCJLISH OiiAiVlAlAK. 
 
 upon the earlh in those than 
 in t/ie.^e ; because there is a 
 much slower evaporation." 
 "Rex and Tyrannus are of very 
 diflerent characters. The one 
 (1) rules his people by laws 
 to which they consent ; the 
 other, (3) by his absolute will 
 and power : this is called free- 
 dom, t/iat (3) tyranny." 
 
 " Religion raises men above them- 
 selves ; irreligion sinks them 
 
 beneath the brutes : that (1) 
 
 binds them down (2) to a poor, 
 
 pitiable speck of perishable 
 
 earlh ; this opens for them a 
 
 prospect to the skies." 
 "More rain falls in the first two 
 
 summer months, than in the 
 
 first two winter ones ; but it 
 
 makes a much greater show 
 
 3. The distributive adjective pronouns each, every, either, agree 
 with nouns, pronouns, and verbs of the singular number only : as, 
 " The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat each on 
 7m' throne ;" " £ve?7/ tree ?* known by its fruit;" unless the plural 
 noun convey a collective idea : as, " Every six months ;" Every hun- 
 dred years." The following phrases are exceptionable: "■ Let ««cA 
 esteem others better than themselves;" it ought to be '■'• himsdf.^'' 
 "The language should be both perspicuous and correct: in propor- 
 tion as either of these two qualities are wanting, the language is ini- 
 perfect ;" it should be, ''*25 wanting." Everyone of the letters bear 
 regular dales, and contain proofs of attachment ;" '' hears a regular 
 date, and contains^ '■'■ Every town and village were burned ; every ^voye 
 and every tree were cut down ;" '■^was burned, and was cut down." 
 
 Either is often used improperly, instead of each : as, " The king of 
 Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat either of them on his* 
 throne;" " Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took either of them 
 his censer." Each signifies both of them taken distinctly or separate- 
 ly; either properly signifies only the one or the other of them, takea 
 disjunctively. 
 
 •' The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, ihe king of Judah, sat either 
 of them on their throne." Will you correct this, and give the rule 
 for it ? 
 
 3. 
 "Each of them, in their (4) turn, " Every leaf, every twig, (9) every 
 
 receive the benefits to which 
 they are entitled." 
 
 "My counsel to each of you is, 
 that you (5) should make it 
 your endeavor to come to a 
 friendly agreement." 
 
 "By discussing what (6) relates 
 to each particular, in their 
 order, vve shall belter under- 
 stand the feubject." 
 
 " Every ])erson, whatever (7) be 
 their station, (8) «■/■« bound by 
 their duties of morality and 
 religion." 
 
 drop of water, teem with 
 life." 
 
 " Every man's heart and temper 
 is productive of much (10) 
 inward joy or bitterness." 
 
 " Whatever (11) he undertakes, 
 either (12) his pride or his 
 folly disgust us." 
 
 " Every man and every woman 
 were numbered." 
 
 ''Neither of those men seem to 
 have any idea that their opin- 
 ions may be ill founde^. 
 
 (1) 407. Rule VI. (2) Adverb. (3) Rule XI. 
 
 "Ai*." (5) "/;e." (fi) 437. (7)RuleXV. (8) Rule .VI. 
 (9) Rule XI. (10) Adjective. (11) Rule VIII. (12) 669. 
 
 (4) 
 
SYNTAX. 151:$ 
 
 " When ]>eriigiHiy anJ genilene."<s beheUl iu ihe luost lavorable 
 
 reign within, (1) we are al- light." 
 
 ways (1) least (1) in hazard " On either side of the river was 
 
 from without: (2) every per- there the tree of lil'e." 
 son and every occurrence are 
 
 4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs: as, 
 " Indifl'erent honest; excellent well; miserable poor;" instead of 
 " Indiflerenlly honest ; excellently well ; miserably poor." " He be- 
 haved himself conformable to that great example ;" ^' coiifurmahty." 
 "Endeavor to live hereafter suitable to a ))erson in thy station ;" 
 ^^ sititabli/." "lean never thinic so very mean of him;" '* meanly.''^ 
 " He describes this river agreeable to the common reading;" '•' agrte- 
 ably." ''Agreeable to my promise, 1 now write;" '■-agreeably.''^ 
 "Thy exceeding great reward ;" when united to an adjective, or ad- 
 verb not ending in /y, the word exceedi?>g has ly added to it: as, 
 " exceedingly dreadful, exceedingly great ;" " exceedingly well ; " ex- 
 ceedingly more active ;" but when it is joined to an adverb or ad- 
 jective, having that termination, the ly is omitted: as, " Some men 
 think exceeding clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly ;" " She ap- 
 peared, on this occasion, exceeding lovely." " He acted in this busi- 
 ness huhler than was expected." " Tluiy behaved the nohhst, be- 
 cause they were disinterested."' They should have been, '■'viore 
 hohUy. taost noblyy The adjective pronoun such is olten niisapplied : 
 as, "He was such an extravagant young man, that he spent his 
 whole patrimony in a few years ;" it should be, '•'■ so extravagant a 
 young man.'''' " I never before saw such large trees ;" ^^ saw trees so 
 targeP When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word 
 svch is properly applied : as, " Such a temper is seldom found;" but 
 when degree is signilied, we use the word ao : as, " So bad a temper 
 is seldom found." 
 
 Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives: as, "The 
 tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his of- 
 fence ;" '■'■suitable.''^ "They were seen wandering about solitarily 
 and distressed:" '^ solitary. ^^ "He lived in a manner agreeably to 
 the dictates of reason and religion;" ^' agreeable.^' "The study of 
 syntax should be previously to that of punctuation ;" '^ previous.^' 
 
 Young persons who study grammar find it diflicull to decide, in 
 particular constructions, whether an adjective or an adverb ought 
 to be used. A few observations on this point may serve to inform 
 their judgment, and direct their determination. They should care- 
 fully attend to the definitions of the adjective and the adverb; and 
 consider whether, in the case in t]ue»tion, quality or m ami er is indi- 
 cated. In the former case an adjective is proper ; in the latter, an 
 adverb. A number of examples will illustrate this direction, and 
 prove useful on other occasions: 
 
 " She loi)ks cold — She looks coldly on him." 
 "He feels warm — He feel.s warmly the insult ofl'ered to him." 
 " Hebecame sincere and virtuous — He became sincerely virtuous." 
 " She lives free from care — He lives freely at another's expense." 
 " Harriet always appears neat — She dresses neatly." 
 " Charles has groMMi great by his wisdom — He has grown greatly ' 
 in reputation." » 
 
 " They now appear happy — They now appear happily in earnest." 
 
 (1.) Adverb. (2.) '' From without " i. e., '■'' externally y 589. 
 
154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 *' The statement seems exact — The statement seems exactly in 
 point." 
 
 The verb to be, in all its moods and tenses, g-en«irally requires the 
 word immediately connected with it to be an adjective, not an ad- 
 verb; and consequently, when this verb can be substituted for any 
 other, without varying the sense or the construction, that othef verb 
 must also be connected with an ndjective. The following sentences 
 elucidate these observations: "This* is agreeable to our interest." 
 " That behavior was not suitable to his station." "Rules should be 
 conformable to sense." " The rose smells [is] sweet." " How 
 sweet the hay smells [is] !" "How delightful the country appears 
 [is]!" "How pleasant the fields loolc [are]!" "The clouds look 
 [are] dark." "How black the sky looked [was]!" "The apple 
 tastes [is] sour!" "How bitter the plums tasted [were]!" "He 
 feels [is] happy." In all these sentences, we can, with perfect pro- 
 priety, substitute some tenses of the verb to he for the other verbs. 
 But ill the following sentences we can not do this : " The dog smells 
 disagreeably." "George feels exquisitely." "How pleasantly she 
 looks at us." 
 
 The directions contained in this Note are offered as useful, not as 
 complete and unexceptionable. Anomalies in language everywhere 
 encounter us ; but we must not reject rules, because they are attend- 
 ed with exceptions. 
 
 Why is " indiflerent honest" an incorrect expression ? Do we say, 
 " exceeding dreadful," and "exceeding great?" What, then, da we 
 use in the place of exceeding ? When, then, do we use exceediiigly ? 
 When exceeding? "The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, 
 but suitably to his offence." Why is thissentence wrong? Correct 
 it. How can we tell whether an adjective or an adverb ought to be 
 used ? Which do we use, when quality is indicated ? Which, when 
 manner is indicated? Which does the verb ^o be generally require 
 to be connected with it, the adjective or adverb? To illustrate the 
 distinct and proper use of both the adverb and adjective, I will give 
 you some examples. Would you, then, say, " He is diligently and 
 attentively," or "diligent and attentive?" "She will be happy," or 
 "happily?" "He looks cold," or "coldly'^" "She looks cold on 
 him." Can we use is for loo/cs^ and make sense ? Would you, then, 
 say, "She looks cold on him," or "coldlj^on him?" "She lives 
 freely [is] from care ?" Why ? " He lives free at another's expense ?" 
 " He ieels warmly ?" " He feels warm the insult offered him ?" " He 
 became sincerely and virtuously?" " He became sincere virtuous?" 
 Why? "Harriet always appears neatly — She dresses neat?" 
 "Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He is grown great in his 
 reputation?" "They now ap,pear happily — They now appear happy 
 in earnest?" " The statement seems exactly — The statement seems 
 exact in point?" " How sweetly the hay smells !"? •' How delightful 
 the country ap|)ears!"'? "How pleasant the fields look!"? "The 
 clouds look darkly ?" " The apples taste sourly ?" 
 
 4. 
 
 " She reads jxroper, writes very they lived conformable to the 
 
 7ieat. and, composes accurate.^^ rules of prudence." 
 
 " He was extreme prodigal, and " We may reason very clear 
 
 his property is now near ex- and exceeding strong, without 
 
 hausted." knowing that there is such a 
 
 "They generally succeeded; for thing as a syllogism." 
 
 » 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 155 
 
 " The amputation was exceeding 
 well performed, and saved the 
 patient's life." 
 *' He came agreeable to his prom- 
 ise, and conducted himself 
 suitable to the occasion." 
 "He speaks verv fluent, reads 
 excellent, but does not think 
 very coherent." 
 "He behaved himself submissive, 
 and was exceeding careful 
 ,. rp°°^ ^° S'v« (1) offence." 
 • They rejected the advice, and 
 conducted themselves exceed- 
 ingiy indiscreetly." 
 " He is a person of great abilities, 
 and excecdinff upright j and is 
 like to be a very useful mem- 
 uT. ^^^ °^ ^'^*^ community." 
 'The conspiracy was the easier 
 (3) discovered, from its {A) 
 being known (5) to many." 
 " Not being fully acquainted with 
 the subject, he could a(nnn no 
 stronger (6) than he did." 
 
 f). Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided- such 
 Der-"''Tir?''T^"'^' "'^^ ^^''^' ^°»>-«j" ''amorrse cner em 
 
 perr "thestraitests^ctrV.,,^;-.^^^^^^^^^^ -o- serene teu. 
 
 the RuTe'Srit^"^'"'"" ''''" y°" ^^^••'^^^ ^'"-^ -"^--«> -'^ S-e 
 
 with the subject, that few 
 could speak nobler upon it." 
 
 " We may credit his testimony, 
 for he says express that he 
 saw the transaction." 
 
 '* Use a little wine for thy stom- 
 ach's sake, and thine often 
 
 (7) iniirmities." 
 
 "From these favorable begin- 
 nings, we may hope for a soon 
 
 (8) and prosperous issue." 
 
 *' He addressed several exhorta- 
 tions to them suitably to their 
 circumstances." 
 
 '* Conformably to their vehemence 
 of thought, was theif vehe- 
 mence of gesture." 
 
 "We should implant in the minds 
 of youth such seeds and prin- 
 ciples of piety and virtue as 
 (9) are likely to take soonest 
 and deepest root," 
 
 " Such (10) an amiable disposition 
 will secure universal regard." 
 
 •'Such distinguished virtues sel- 
 dom occur." 
 
 "The nightingale sings: hers is 
 the most sweetest voice in 
 the grove." 
 
 " The most Highest hath created 
 us for his glory, and for our 
 own happiness." 
 
 " The Supreme Being is the most 
 wisest, and most powerfulest, 
 and the most best of beings." 
 
 "'T is wore easier to build two 
 chimneys than to maintain 
 one." 
 
 "The tongue is like (11) a race- 
 horse, (12) which runs the 
 faster (13) the leaser weight it 
 carries." 
 
 "The pleasures of the under- 
 standing are 7nore preferaUc 
 than (14) those of the imagina- 
 tion, or of sense." 
 
 6. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification do 
 de K'::^\:'Tf '\' -'Penative or comparative ilnrsuPad- 
 ae . such as chief, extreme, perfect, right, umoersal, supreme etc • 
 wh.ch are so^netunes improperly ^nneLiicfest, extre.Jt, Trf^ctllt, 
 
156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 righteat, most universal, most supreme, etc. The following expressions 
 are, therefore, improper: "He sometimes claims admission to the 
 chiefest offices." "The quarrel became so universal ami national." 
 "A zuethod of attaining the riijhtest and greatest happiness." The 
 phrases, -'so perfect," "so right," "so extreme," "so universal," 
 etc., are incorrect ; because they imply that one thing is less perfect, 
 less extreme, etc., than another, which is not possible. 
 
 Is it proper to say, " The most perfect work?" Why not ? 
 
 G. 
 
 "Virtue confers the *tipre?ne*< (1) "His work is perfect; (4) his 
 
 dignity on man, and should brother's more perfect ; and 
 
 be his chiefest desire." his father's the most perfect 
 
 " His assertion vfB.s more true (2) of all." 
 
 than that of his opponent; "He gave the fullest and most 
 
 nay, the words of the latter sincere proof of the truest 
 
 were most untrue." (3j friendship." 
 
 7. Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees of 
 comparison are applied and construed. The following are examples 
 of wrong construction in this respect : "This noble nation hath, of 
 all others, admitted fewer corruptions." The word fewer is here 
 construed precisely as if it were the superlative. It should be, 
 " This noble nation hath admitted fewer corruptions than any other." 
 We commonly say, " This is the weaker of the two," or, "the weak- 
 est of the two ;" but the former is the regular mode of expression, 
 because there are only two things compared. "The vice of covet- 
 ousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other." " He 
 celebrates the Church of England as the most perfect of all others." 
 Both these modes ot expression are faulty: we should not say, " the 
 best of any man," or, "the best of any other man," for, "the best of 
 men." The sentences may be corrected by substituting the com- 
 parative in the room of the superlative: "The vice, etc., is what 
 enters deeper into the soul than any other." " He celebrates, etc., 
 as more perfect than any other." Jt is also possible to retain the 
 superlative, and render the expression grammatical: " Covelous- 
 ness, of all vices, enters the deepest into the soul." " He celebrates, 
 etc., as the most perfect of all churches." These sentences contain 
 other errors, against which it is> proper to caution the learner. The 
 words deefjer and deepest, being intended for adverbs, should have 
 been more deeply, most deeply. The phrases more perfect and most 
 perfect are improper; because perfection admits of no degrees of 
 comparison. We may say, nearer or nearest to perfection, or more or 
 less imperfect. 
 
 In speaking of two persons, should we say, " The weaker of the 
 two," oj;, " The weakest of the two ?" Why ? 
 
 7. 
 
 "A talent of this kind would, per- " He spoke with so much propri- 
 haps, prove the likeliest of ety, that I understood him 
 
 any other (5) to succeed." the best of all the others (6) 
 
 " He is the strongest o^ ihe two, to/io spoke on the subject." 
 
 but not the icisest.'" " Eve was the fairest of all her 
 
 daughters." 
 
 (1) '' The supremest— supreme." ■ (2) ^' Better founded." (S)" Not true. 
 
 (4) « Well executed— still better— best." (5) «' All." (6) " Of all who." 
 
SYNTAX. 157 
 
 8, In some cases adjectives should not be separnted from their 
 substantives even by words which modify their meaning:, and make 
 but one sense with them : as, "A large enough number, surely." It 
 shouhl be, "A number large enough surely." "The lower sort of 
 people are good enough judges of one not very distant from them." 
 
 The adjective is usually placed before its substantive: as, *'A gPM- 
 erons man ;" " How amiable a woman !" The instances in which it 
 comes after the substantive are the ibllowing : 
 
 1st. When something depends upon the adjective : and when it 
 gives a better sound, especially in poetry: as, "A man generous to 
 his enemies ;" " Feed me with food convenient for me ;" "A tree three 
 feet thick ;'^ "A body of troops fitly thousand strong ;" "The torrent 
 tumbling through rocks abnqU.'' 
 
 2d. When the adjective is emjihatical : as, "Alexander the (F/-^a<y" 
 " Louis the i?oZc?/" '' Goodness i«yint7e;" "Wisdom unsearchable." 
 
 3d. When several adjectives belong to one substantive : "as, "A 
 man just, wise, and charitable,*" "A woman modest, sensible, and 
 virtu Otis." 
 
 4th. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb: as, "A boy 
 regularly studious;" "A girl unaffectedly modest." 
 
 5th. When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes between 
 a substantive and an adjective, the adjective may frequently either 
 precede or follow it : as, "The man is happij," or, '^flajjpi/ is the man 
 w^ho makes virtue his choice;" " The interview was delightful ;'"' or, 
 '^Delightful was the interview." 
 
 6th. When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a sub- 
 stantive placed after an active verb: as, "Vanity often renders its 
 possessors desjnrnhle.'' In an exclamatory sentence the adjective 
 generally precedes the substantive: as, "How despicable docs vani- 
 iy often render its possessor !" 
 
 There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in placing the 
 adjective before the verb, and the substantive immediately after it : as, 
 " Great is the Lord ! just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints !" 
 
 Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number of par- 
 ticulars comprehended under it. "Ambition, interest, honor, «^^ con- 
 curred." Sometimes a substantive, which likewise comprehends the 
 preceding particulars, is used in conjunction with, this adjective: as, 
 " Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, alt parties, 
 concurred in the allusion." 
 
 An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will sometimes prop- 
 erly associate with a singular noun : as, " Our desire, your intention, 
 their resignation." This association applies rather to things of an 
 intellectual nature than to those which are corporeal. It forms an 
 exception to the general rule. 
 
 A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compounded 
 word; whence they often take another adjective, and sometimes a 
 third, and so on : as, "An old man ; a good old man; a very learned, 
 judicious, good old man." 
 
 "Though the adjective always relates to a substanti-ve, it is, in 
 many instances, put as if it were absolute , especially where the noun 
 has been mentioned before, or is easily understood, though not ex- 
 pressed : as, "I often survey it." 
 
 Is it correct to say, "A large enough number?" How should it 
 be altered? Wh;it is the Note for it ? Should the adjective be placed 
 tisunllv before or after the noun ? 
 
158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 8. 
 
 '• He spoke in a distinct enough pair of gloves : he is the ser- 
 
 manner to be heard by the vant of an old rich (2) man." 
 
 whole assembly."- "The ttco Jirst (3) in the row are 
 
 "Thomas is equippe'd with a new cherry-trees, the two others 
 
 (1) pair of shoes, and a new are pear-trees." 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of the singular nnmher 
 
 only. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 The definite article the hehngs to nouns of either the singular or plu' 
 
 ral number. 
 
 The articles are often properly omitted ; when used, they should be 
 justly applied, accorcling to their distinct nature: as, "Gold is cor- 
 rupting; the sea is green ; a lion is bold." 
 
 It is the nature of both the articles to determine or limit the thing 
 spoken of A determines it to be one single thing of the kind, leav- 
 ing it still uncertain which; the determines which it is, or, if many, 
 which they are. 
 
 The following passage will serve as an example of the different 
 uses of a and the, and of the force of the substantive without any ar- 
 ticle: " Man was made for society, and ought to extend his good will 
 to all men ; but a man will naturally entertain a more particular kind- 
 ness for the men with whom he has the most frequent intercourse; 
 and enter into a still closer union with the man whose temper and 
 disposition suit best MMlh his own." 
 
 As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some use to 
 exhibit a few instances : " And I persecuted this way unto the death." 
 The apostle does not mean any particular sort of death, but death in 
 general ; the definite article, therefore, is improperly used : it ought 
 to be, " unto death," without any article. ^ 
 
 "When he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide you into all 
 truth ; " that is, according to this translation, " into all truth whatso- 
 ever, into truth, of all kinds;" — very different from the meaning of 
 the evangelist and from the original, "into all the truth:" that is, 
 " into all evangelical truth, all truth necessary lor you to know." 
 
 " Who breaks a blitterfly upon a wheel ? " it ought to be " the wheel," 
 used as an instrument for the particular purpose of torturing crim- 
 inals. "The Almighty hath given reason to a man to be a light unto 
 himj" it should rather be, "to man,'^ in general. "This day is sal- 
 vation come to this house, forasmuch as he also is the son of Abra- 
 ham : " it ought to be, " a son of Abraham." 
 
 These remarks may serve to show the great importance of the 
 proper use of the article, and the excellence of the English language 
 in this respect — which, by means of its two articles, does most pre- 
 cisely determine the extent of signification of common names. 
 
 {\) ''A pair of new ilwes:' (2) >' Rich old:' (3) Note I. Rule VI. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 159 
 
 What is the nature of the articles? 
 termine? What the article Me? 
 
 What does the article a de- 
 
 ** The fire, the air, the earth, and 
 the water, are four elements 
 (!) of the philosophers." 
 
 " Reaspn was given to a man to 
 control his passions." 
 
 " We have within us an intelli- 
 gent principle, distinct from 
 
 (2) body and from matter." 
 
 " A man is the noblest work of 
 
 (3) creation." 
 
 "(4) Wisest and best men some- 
 times commit errors." 
 
 "Beware of drunkenness: it im- 
 pairs understanding; wastes 
 an estate; destroys a reputa- 
 tion ; consumes the body ; and 
 renders the (5) man of the 
 brightest parts the (5) com- 
 mon jest (6) of the meanest 
 clown." 
 
 "He is a much better writer than 
 a reader.'-' 
 
 "The king has conferred on him 
 the title of duke." 
 
 "There are some evils of life 
 
 which equally affect prince 
 and people." 
 
 " We must act our pail with a 
 constancy, though reward of 
 our constancy be (7) distant." 
 
 " We are placed here under a 
 trial of our virtue." 
 
 "The virtues like his are not easily 
 acquired. Stich qualities hon- 
 or the nature of a man." 
 
 "Purity has its seat in the heart, 
 but extends iis influence over 
 so much of outward conduct, 
 as to form the great and ma- 
 terial part of a character." 
 
 " The profligate man is seldom or 
 never found to be the good 
 husband, the good father, or 
 the beneficent neighbor." 
 
 "True charity is not the meteor 
 which occasionallyglares, but 
 the lurrtinary w^hich, in its 
 orderly and regular course, 
 dispenses benignant ' in- 
 fluence." 
 
 1. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or 
 omission of the article a. If I say, " He behaved with a little rever- 
 ence," my meaning is positive. If I say, "He behaved WMih little 
 reverence," my meaning is negative. And these two are by no means 
 the same, or to be used in the same cases. By the former, I rather 
 praise a person ; by the latter, I dispraise him. For the sake of this 
 distinction, which Is a very useful one, we may better bear the seem- 
 ing impropriety of the article a before nouns of number. When I 
 say, "There were ie^^ men with him," I speak diminutively, and. 
 mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say, 
 "There were a few men with him," I evidently intend to make the 
 most of them. 
 
 What is the difl'erence in meaning between Uie expressions, " We 
 behaved with a little reverence," and " We behaved with little 
 reverence ? " 
 
 1. 
 
 " He has been much censured for 
 conducting himself with a lit- 
 tle attention to his business." 
 
 "So bold a breach of order called 
 for (S) little severity in pun- 
 ishing the oflender." 
 
 His error was accompanied 
 with so little contrition and^ 
 candid acknowledgment, that 
 he found a few persons to 
 intercede for him." 
 
 (1) Fire, air, etc- 
 (4) The wisest. 
 
 — " the four ; " etc. 
 (.'))".4." (6) Rill 
 
 (2) " The body." 
 XV. (7)*4r4. 
 
 (.3) The creation " 
 C8) '■ A little." 
 
160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 " There wore so many mitigating to interest themselves in his 
 
 (]) circumstances attending favor." «. ' 
 
 his miscondnct, particularly "As his misfortunes were the 
 that (2) of his open confes- fruit of his own obstinacy, 
 
 sion. that he found (3) few a few persons pitied him." 
 
 friends who were disposed 
 
 2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the former 
 of two words in the same construction, though the French never fail 
 to repeat it in this case. "There were many hours, both of the night 
 and day, which he could spend, without suspicion, ia solitary 
 thought." It might have been, " of the night and of the day." And, 
 for the salce of emphasis, we often repeat the article in a series of 
 epiiliels. "He lioped thai lliis title would secure him an ample and 
 an independent authority." 
 
 Is the article to be repeated before two words in the same con- 
 struction? 
 
 2. 
 
 " The fear of shame, (4) the de- " He was fired with desire of 
 sire of approbation, prevent doing something, though he 
 
 many bad actions." knew not yet, Avith distinct- 
 
 **In this business he was influ- ness, either end or means." 
 
 enced by a just and (5) gen- 
 erous principle." 
 
 3. la common conversation, and in familiar stylo, we frequently 
 omit the articles, which might be inserted with propriety in writing, 
 especially in a grave style. "At worrit, time might be gained by this 
 expedient." " At f/te worst" would have been belter in this place. 
 "Give me here John Baptist's head." There would have been more 
 dis<nity in saying, "John the Baptist's head;" or, "The head of .John 
 the Baptist." 
 
 The article the has sometimes a good eflect in distinguishing a per- 
 son by an epithet. "In the history of Henry the Fourth, by Father 
 Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him the great man." " I own 
 I am often surprised that he should have treated so coldly a man so 
 much the gentleman." 
 
 This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the French, 
 for the pronoun possessive : as, "He looks him full in the face ; " that 
 Is, "in his face." "In his presence they were to strike the forehead 
 on the ground : " that is, " their foreheads.'''' 
 
 We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the same 
 article, M'hen tlie adjective, on account of any clause depending upon 
 it, is put after the substantive. " Of all the considerable governments 
 among the Alps, a commonwealth is a constitution the most adapted 
 of any to the poverty of those countries." " With such a specious 
 title as that of blood, which, with the multitude, is always a claim the 
 strongest, and the most easily comprehended." "They are not the 
 men in the nation the most dilTicult to be replaced." 
 
 " At worst, time might be gained,'' etc. What word may properly 
 be inserted in the beginning of this sentence ? What is the Note for 
 it« 
 
 (1) J).59. (2) « That circumstance." Note I, Knlo XIV. (3) " A few." 359. 
 
 (4) " >1)1(t! tliH." (.5) " >l gpiiorons." 
 
SYNTAX. 101 
 
 3. 
 "At worst, I could but incur a "At best, his gift was but a poor 
 gentle reprimand." ofTering, when we consider 
 
 his estate." 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULE X. 
 The poaacesive case in governed by the foUowing noun. ' 
 
 When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the first 
 there is no variation of case: as, "George, king of Great Brit- 
 ain, elector of Hauover," etc. ; " Pompey contended with Caisar, the 
 greatest general of his time ; "Religion, the support of adversity, 
 adorns prosperity." Nouns thus circumstanced are said to be in ap- 
 position to each other. The interposition of a relative and verb will 
 sometimes break the construction: as, '"Pompey contended with 
 Ca?sar, who ions the greatest general of his time." Here the word 
 ff^yutral is in the nominative case, according to Rule XV, or Note 
 4, under Rule VIII. 
 
 The preposition of, joined to a substantire, i.s not always equiva- 
 lent to the possessive case. It is only so when the expression can 
 be converted into the regular form of the possessive case. We can 
 say, " the reward of virtue," and " virtue's reward ;" but though it is 
 proper to say, " a crown of gold," we can not convert the expression 
 into the possessive case and say, "gold's crown." 
 
 Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the possessive 
 case : as, "Every tree is known by its fruit ;" "Goodness brings ita 
 reward,*" " That desk is mine.'''' 
 
 The genitive (I) its is often improperly used for H is or it ia : as, 
 "Its my book," instead of, "It is my book." 
 
 The pronoun Ai«, when detached from the noun to which it relates, 
 is to be considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but as the genitive 
 case of the personal pronoun: as, "This composition is Aw." 
 "Whose book is that ?" "■ Hin.'''' If we used the noun itself, we 
 should say, " This composition is John's." " Whose book is that ?" 
 " Eliza's." The position will be still more evident when we con- 
 sider that both the pronouns in the following sentences must have 
 a similar construction : " Is it her or his honor that is tarni.-«hed ?" "It 
 is not hers, but hix.'' 
 
 Sometimes a stibstantive in the genitive or possessive case stands 
 alone, the latter one, by which it is governed, being understood^ as, 
 "I called at the bookseller's." that is, at the bookseller's shop.'' 
 
 "Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity." What is 
 said of the nouns religion and ttupport, in respect to each other? 
 When is the preposition q/' joined to a substantive equivalent to the 
 possessive case ? Give an example. 
 " My a»ic^8f<?rs virtue is not mine." " Nevertheless. Asa liin heart (3) 
 
 '(2) was perfect with the Lord." 
 
 " His brothers oflence will not con- " A mothers tenderness and a fa- 
 demn him." thers care are natures gifts 
 
 "I will not destroy the city for lor mans advantage." 
 
 ten sake." 
 
 (l^ Or posnesiivc. (-1) Rule I. (:<> Asa"/ heart. 
 
 14 
 
162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ♦' A mans manners' frequently in- " They slew Varus, fu that was 
 fluence his forturjes." meiilioned before." 
 
 ''Wisdoms precepts' form the "They slew V«rus, who was him 
 good mans interest and hop- that I mentioned before." 
 
 piness." 
 
 1. If several nouns come together in the genitive (1) case, the 
 apostrophe with * is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest: 
 as, " John and Eliza'.s books; "This was my father, mother, and un- 
 cle's advice." But when any words intervene, perhaps on account^ 
 of the increased pause, the sign of the possessive should be annexed* 
 to each : as, "They are John's as well as Eliza's books ;" "I had 
 the physician's, the surgeon's, and the apothecary's assistance." 
 
 "John's and Eliza's books." Will you correct this sentence, and 
 give the Rule for it? 
 
 1. 
 "It was the men'e, (2) women's. "This measure pained the king 
 (3) and children's lot to suf- as well as the people's ap- 
 
 fer great calamities." probation." 
 
 " Pe <«>•'«, John's, and Andrew's "Not only the counsel's and at- 
 occupation was that ol fish- torneys, but the judge's opin- 
 
 ermen." ion also, favored hiT* cause." 
 
 2. In poetry, the additional « is frequently omitted, but the apostro- 
 phe retained, in the same manner as in substantives of the plural 
 number ending in «; as, "the wrath of Peleus* son." This seems 
 not so allowable in prose, which the following erroneous example 
 will demonstrate: " Moses' minister;" "Phinehas' wife ;" " Feslus 
 came into Felix' room ;" " These answers were made to the witness' 
 questions." But in cases which would give too much of the hissing 
 sound, or increase the ditTiculty of pronunciation, the omission takes 
 place even in i)rose : as, "For righteousness' sake;" "For con- 
 science' sake." 
 
 Is the additional sever omitted ? Give an example. 
 
 2. 
 •'And he cast himself down at "If ye suffer for righteousness'a 
 
 Jesus feet." sake, happy are ye." 
 
 " iWosc* rod was turned into a ser- ** Ye should be subject for con- 
 pent." science's sake." 
 "For Herodias sake, his brother 
 Philips wife." 
 
 3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward be- 
 tween a genitive case and the word which u.«?ually lollowsit: as, 
 " She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent under- 
 standing." It ought to be, "the excellent understanding of the 
 farmer, a* she called him." 
 
 •' She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent un- 
 derstanding." Will you correct this sentence, and give the Rule 
 for it ? 
 
 3. 
 "They very jirstly condemned " They implicitly obeyed the pro- 
 the prodigal's, as he was call- tector's, as they culled him, 
 
 ed, senseless and exlrava- imperious mandates." 
 
 gant conduct." (4) 
 
 (1) Or possessive. (2) •' Men-' is here in llie i)().«>-i'.«Kive chpo, the aposfniplie be- 
 ing understood : therefore ajii-ly IJiite I. (3) " ^fen, women ;'■' or. ' It war- the lot 
 (■>/,'. etc. (4) " The semekff." etc.— ' of thr jrodigal. p; hr uaf rniUd." 
 
SYNTAX. 153 
 
 4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an 
 Office, or of any expressions by which one part is descriptive or ex- 
 planatory of the other, it may occasion some doubt to which of them 
 the sign of the genitive case should be annexed, or whether it 
 should be subjoined to them both. Thus, some would say "I left 
 the parcel at Smith's the bookseller ;" others, "at Smith the book- 
 seller s j and perhaps others,, "at Smith's the bookseller's." The 
 iirst of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom ; and if the 
 addition consists of two or more words, the case seems to be less 
 dubious, as, "I left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and station- 
 l^' . n " ,? this subject requires a little further explanation, to make 
 It intelligible to the learners, we shall add a few observations tending 
 to unfold Its principles. ** 
 
 ^ A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent as 
 to admit of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires the 
 genitive sign at or near the end of the phrase: as, " Whose preroga- 
 tive is u ? " ''It is the king of Great Britain's ; " '" That isthe dulce 
 of I ridgewater's canal ; '' " The bishop of Landaff's excellent book ; " 
 
 g.^ard's^i^ouse^^^""" "" "'^''"'' ""'"'^'^'^'y^'' " ^'h« ^^Ptain of the 
 
 When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession 
 It seems also rnost agreeable to our idiom to give the sign of the 
 genitive a similar situation: especially if the noun which governs 
 the genitive be expressed: as, " The emperor Leopold's:" ''Dionv- 
 *iU8 the tyrant's J" ;' For David my serva\,rs sake; " "(fiVe me John 
 s nr^r'r' ' head ; " '' Paul the apostlc^s advice." 'But when a pause 
 n«r, or .V ;*" governing noun not expressed, and when the latter 
 
 part of the sentence is extended, it appears to be requisite that the 
 
 Xr r '^t'" •?^''"';' '"li^^ ^''' ^^"'^'^«' ^"^ understood to he 
 ^ wL ' '^ViV' Jo'-^J S^ormont's, my old patron and benefactor;" 
 Whose glory did he emulate? He emulated Cresar's, the greatest 
 general of antiquity." In the following sentences it woufd^be very 
 awkward to place the sign either at the end of each of the clauses, 
 
 ,h/l.n °^^'',^ ^^"t' °"^ «'°"^' "These psalms are David's 
 
 the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people : " " We staid a 
 month at lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of his country, and the friend 
 of every virtue." The sign of the genitive case ma^; veVpropeHy 
 nar^nfT'r'^ '' K^^ ""^^ ""^ '^''^ members, an ellipsis atMe Tauer 
 fffJl I .?'^T^"''""'"'°" construction in our language, as 
 
 mi^ ITZ T^ 'f J'-\°"". °'- ^r «-^«'^P'-^^ ■■ " They wished to sub- 
 ^w.c.V • ^ "°^ 5 "that IS, -he did not ^cish to submit:^ -He said 
 It was their concern, but not his ; " that is, " not his concern:^ 
 
 on V wlT.'if "•^'' ""i '^^ ^''"'^'^^* ^° ^^"^ ^"^ o^ I'^e la^t clause 
 com;eTt1n . ? ^^'""T^^ ^^.^' •? '•esting-place is wanted, and that the 
 connecting circumstance is placed too remotely to be either nersnic- 
 
 cZ\r\T'"'"''' • '^'' " '"^1^"^^ ^'°^y ^"'^ h« -""l-^« ' He eSecl 
 vi^ fh^ In^,^'"'' -^^ ^'''T^^ °/ «»^»>,Vy'«;" "These psalms are Da- 
 vid the king, priest and prophet of the Jewish people's:' It is much 
 
 nMo.'.i '°r'.7' ^^^? ';^""^'' "^^•'^^' ^he Christiai; hero, and g ea 
 o l.t "" gentiles," than -This is Paul, the Christian heroTand 
 great apos le of the gentiles' advice." On the other hand, the appli- 
 
 wo ,^I1 hi ^""Tr ".^'" ^^ ''°^^^ ""' ^" ''^ »'"^ ••"""••' '■» apposition 
 
 Znll ? &^"*^''f.">:^harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases 
 
 incorrect: as, ''The emperors Leopold's;" ''King's Geor-e's • » 
 
 Charles's the Second's;" <'The parcel was' left at Smfth^ the^boo'k- 
 
164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 seller's nnd siaiiorier's." The rules which we have endeavored to 
 elucidate will prevent the inconvenience of both these modes of ex- 
 pression ; and they appear to be simple, perspicuous, and consistent 
 with the idiom of the languag'e. 
 
 Which is most agreeable to the English idiom, to say, " Smith's 
 the bookseller," or, " Smith the bookseller's?" When the words are 
 connected and dependent, where is thogenitive (1) sign to be placed? 
 When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, 
 where should the sign of the genitive be placed? What eflect is 
 perceived if we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last 
 clause only of the sentence ? Give an example. What is the effect 
 of applying the genitive sign to both or all the nouns in apposition ? 
 Give an example. 
 
 4 
 "*I bought the knives at Johnson's *' I will not for DavicCs thy father's 
 
 (2) the cutler's:' (3) sake." 
 
 "The silk was purchased at " He took refuge at the governor. 
 
 Brown's the mercer^s and the king's representative's." 
 
 JwherrlaHJier''s" "Whose (5) works are these? 
 
 "Lord Feversham the general's They are Cicero, the most 
 
 tent." (4) eloquent of men's." 
 
 "This palace had been the grand 
 
 aaltan''8 Mahomet's." 
 
 5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound, so that we 
 daily make more use of the particle of to express the same relation. 
 There is something awkward in the following sentences, in which 
 this method has not been taken: "The general, in the army's name, 
 published a declaration;" "The commons' vote;" "The lords' 
 house;" "Unless he is very ignorant of the kingdom's condition." 
 It were certainly better to say, " In the name of the army ; " " The 
 vote of the commons;" "The house of lords;" "The condition of 
 the kingdom." It is also rather harsh to use two English genitives 
 with the same substantive: as "Whom he acquainted with the pope's 
 and the king's pleasure." "The pleasure of the pope and the king" 
 would have been better. 
 
 We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one 
 another, and connected by the preposition of applied to eai-h of them: 
 as, "The severity of the distress of the son of the king touched the 
 nation;" but this mode of expression is not to be recommended. It 
 would be better to say, " The severe distress of the king's son touched 
 the nation." We have a striking instance of this laborious mode of 
 expression in the following sentence: *'■ Of some q_f the books of 
 each of these classes nf literature, a catalogue will be given at the 
 end of the work." 
 
 "In the army's name." How may this expression be altered for 
 the better? 
 
 5. 
 
 "The world's government is not "She married my son's wife's 
 left to chance." (6) brother." (7) 
 
 (1) Or possessive. (2) "Johnson's sJiop," Rule I. (3) " Cufhr. See Note T, 
 under this Rule. (4) " The tent of lord." etc. (6) 431. (6) •' The government 
 of the world." (7) *' Tfie brother of my ton's wife.'" 
 
BYNTAX. 165 
 
 " This is my wife's brother's part- "The extent of the prerogative 
 ner's house." (1) of the king of England is 
 
 "It was necessary to have both suflieiently ascertained." 
 
 tht; physician's and the sur- 
 geon's advice." (2) 
 
 6. In some cases we use both the genitive termination and the 
 preposition of: as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." Some- 
 times, indeed, unless we throw the sentence into another form, this 
 method is absolutely necessary, in order to distinguish the sense, and 
 to give tlie idea of property, strictly so called, which is the most im- 
 portant of the relations expressed by the genitive case; for the ex- 
 pressions, "This picture of my friend," and "This picture of my 
 friend's," suggest very different ideas. The latter only is that of 
 property, in the strictest sense. The idea would, doubtless, be con- 
 veyed in a better manner by saying, " This picture belonging to my 
 friend." 
 
 When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is not 
 necessary to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave style, it 
 is generally omitted. Except to prevent ambiguity, it seems to be 
 allowable only in cases which sup|)osc the existence ot a plurality of 
 subjects of the same .kind. In the expressions, "A subject of the. 
 emperor's," A seniimenl of my brother's," more than one subject 
 and one sentiment are supposed to belong to the possessor. But 
 when this plurality is neither intimated, nor necessarily supposed, 
 the double genitive, except as before mentioned, should not be used : 
 as, " This house of the governor is very commodious ; '' " The crown 
 of the king was stolen;" "That privilege of the scholar was never 
 abused." But, after all that can be said for thi.s double genitive, as 
 it IS termed, some grammarians think that it would be better to avoid 
 the use of it altogether, and to give the sentiment another form of 
 expression. 
 
 Are there any cases in which we tise both the genitive termination 
 and the preposition oft Give an example. Is this double genitive 
 ever omitted ? 
 
 G. 
 "That picture ol the h\n<f'a does "This e.'ilate of the corporation's 
 
 not much resemble C3) him." is much encumbered." 
 
 "These pictures of the hinrj (4) "That is the eldest son of the king 
 
 were sent to him from Italy." of England's." 
 
 7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a participle 
 of the present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or 
 circumstance, the noun on which it depends may be put in the geni- 
 tive case: thus, instead of saying, "What is the reason of this person 
 dismissing his servant so hastily'?" that is, " What is the reason of 
 this person in dismissing his servant so hastily?" we may say, and 
 perhaps ought to say, " What is the reason of this person's dismissing 
 of his servant so hastily?" just as we say, " What is the reason of this 
 person's hasty dismission of his servant?" So also we say, "I re- 
 member it being reckoned a great exploit;" or, more properly, " I re- 
 member its being reckoned," etc. The following sentence is correct 
 and proper : " Much will depend on the pi<pi I' fi compositig, but more on 
 his reading frequently." It would not be accurate to say, " Much will 
 
 (1) " This house, hflongs to the partner of my tr^fe's hrothfr''' (2) '* The advice 
 both of." '?>) .VSC. ' (4) Or, •• The,« pirturtf brlnnrjittg to thr Irng," el<'. 
 
1H6 ENOLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 depend on the pupil compoeivg" etc. We also properly say, "This 
 will be the effect of the pupil'i compotitig frequently," instead of " of 
 the pupil conipoeittg frequently." 
 
 " What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hasti- 
 ly ?" Will you correct this sentence, and give the Rule for it ? 
 
 7. 
 
 '* What (1) ca»i be the cause of the the monarchy of Spain, and 
 
 parliament neglecting so im- their withdrawing entirely 
 
 porlant a business?" their allegiance to that 
 
 *' Much depends on this rule being crown." 
 
 observed." " If we alter the situation of any 
 
 "The time of Williatn making the of the words, we shall pres- 
 
 experiment at length arrived." ently be sensible of the melq- 
 
 "It is very probable that this as- dy suffering." 
 
 sembiy was called, to clear "Such will ever be the effect of 
 
 some doubt which the Icing youth associating with vi- 
 
 had about the lawfulness ofthe cious companions." 
 HnUonderf, their throwing off 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 C-orre.'jpuiiding with Murray's Grnminnr. 
 
 RULE xr. 
 
 Artive-trunsitice verba govern the uhjcctire case. 
 
 In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usually goes 
 before the vt-rb ; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows 
 the verb active ; and it is the order that determines the case in noimit : 
 as, "Alexander conquered the Persians." But xhe pronoun., having a 
 proper form for each of those cases, is sometimes, when it is in the 
 objective case, placed before the verb; and when it is in the nomina- 
 tive case, follows the object and verb: as, '^Whom ye ignorantly wor- 
 ship, him declare I unto you." 
 
 This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case 
 and government to be neglected, as in the following instances: 
 "Who should I esteem more than the wise and good?" "By the 
 character of those who you choose for your friends, your own is likely 
 to be formed." " Those are the persons who he thought true to his in- 
 terests." "Who should I see the other day but my old Jriend?" 
 "Whosoever the court favors.'" In all these places it ought to be 
 vhovi^ the relative being governed in the objective case by the verbs 
 esteem, choose, thought, etc. "He who, under all proper circumstances, 
 has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend j" it should be 
 " him who," etc. 
 
 Verbs neuter and intransitive do not act upon or govern nouns 
 and pronouns. "He s/ccpn," "they mvac,'' etc., are not transitive. 
 They are, therefore, not followed by an objective case, specifying the 
 o])ject of an action. But when this case, or an object of action, comes 
 after such verbs, though it may carry the appearance of being gov- 
 erned by them, it is aflected by a preposition or some other word un- 
 derstood ; as, " He resided many years [that is, for or during many 
 years] in that street ;" " He rode several miles [that is, /or or through 
 the space of several miles] on that day;" " He lay an hour [that is, 
 
 (1) Rule XV. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 107 
 
 durhig an hour] in greai torture." In the phrases, "To dream a 
 dream," "To live a virtuous life," "To run a race," "To walk the 
 horse," "To dance the child," the verbs certainly assume a transitive 
 form, and may not, in these cases, be improperly denominated transi- 
 tive verbs. 
 
 How is the nominative case usually known in English? How the 
 objective? Do neuter verbs govern nouns and pronouns? In the 
 phrase, "He resided many years in that street," how do you parse 
 years f When verbs naturally neuter assume a transitive form, what 
 may they fclren 
 
 be called ? 
 
 "They who opulence has made 
 proud, and v^ho luxury has 
 corruj)ted, can not relish the 
 simple pleasures of nature." 
 
 "You who have reason to dread 
 his wrath, which one day (1) 
 will destroy ye both." 
 
 " Who have I reason to love so 
 (2) much (2) as this friend (3) 
 f)t my youth?" 
 
 " Ye, who were dead, hath he 
 quickened." 
 
 " Who did they entertain so free- 
 ly ?" 
 
 " The man xcho he raised from ob- 
 scurity is dead." 
 
 "Ye only have I known of all the 
 families of the earth." 
 
 "He and they we know, but who 
 (4) are you ?" 
 
 ^^ She that is idle and mischievous 
 reprove sharply." 
 
 " Who did they send to him on so 
 important an errand?" 
 
 "That is the friend (4) who you 
 must receive cordially, and 
 who you can not esteem too 
 highly." 
 
 " He invited my brother and I to 
 see and examine (3) his libra- 
 ry." 
 
 " He who committed the offence 
 you should correct, not I, who 
 am innocent." 
 
 " We should fear and obey the 
 Author of our being, even He 
 who has power to reward or 
 punish us for ever." 
 
 "They who he had most (5) in- 
 jured, he had the greatest 
 
 pcason to love." 
 
 1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter or intransitive verbs 
 as if they were transitive, putting after them the objective ease, 
 agreeably to the French construction of reciprocal verbs; but this 
 custom is so foreign to the idiom of the English tongue that it ought 
 not~-to be adopted or imitated. The following are, some instances 
 of this practice: "■ Repent i7Jci him of his design." "The king soon 
 found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous enemies." 
 "The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject." 
 "The nearer his successes approached him to the throne." "Go,^ee 
 thee away into the land of Judnh." "I think it by no means a fit and 
 decent thing lo vie charities," etc. "They linve spent their whole 
 lime and pain.s to agree the sacred with tlie profane chronology." 
 
 "Repenting him of his design." Will you repeat the Note which 
 shows this sentence to be incorrect? 
 
 1. 
 
 "Though he now takes pleasure 
 in then^, he will one day (6) 
 repent him (7) of indulgences 
 fiO unwarrantable." 
 
 "The nearer his virtues ap- 
 proached him to the great 
 
 example belbre him, the 
 humbler he grew." 
 It will be very difficult to agree 
 his conduct with (8) the prin- 
 ciples he professes." 
 
 (I) Rule XXII. (2) Adverb. (3) Rule XI. (4) Rule XV. f5) G70. 
 
 rfi) R«l« XXn. (7) ' Rrprvtofr (8) '' Tomakc—ayrceuithr etc. 
 
168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 2. Active-transitive verbs are sometimes as improperly made 
 neuter or intransitive: as, "I must premise with three circumstances." 
 "Those who think to ingratiate with him by calumniating me." 
 
 " I must premise with three circumstances." Will you correct this 
 sentence, and give the Rule for it? 
 
 2. 
 
 "To ingratiate (1) with some by " I shall premise w^fA two or three 
 traducing others, mahks a general observations." 
 
 base and despicable mind." # 
 
 3. The neuter verb (2) is varied like the active; but having, in 
 some degree, the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, 
 of the passive form, retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly in 
 such verbs as signify some sort of motion, or change of place or con- 
 dition: as ''I ant come;" "I was gone;" -'I am grown;" "I was 
 fallen." The following examples, however, appear to be erroneous, 
 in giving the neuter verbs a passive form, instead of an active one" 
 " The rule of our holy religion, from which we are infinitely aioerved.^' 
 " The whole obligation of that law and covenant was also cooiserf." 
 " Whose number was now amonMed to three hundred." '* This tnarc- 
 sohal, upon some discontent, icni entered into^ conspiracy against his 
 master." "At the cud of the campaign, when half the men are de- 
 nerted or killed." It should be '■'have swerved," " had cea.sod," etc. 
 
 " I am come." Why should not this be " I liave come." 
 
 3. 
 
 "If such maxims and such prac- "The influence of his corrupt 
 
 tices (3) prevail, what haH (4) example was (5) then enlire- 
 
 become of decency and vir- ly ceased." 
 
 tue?" "He was entered into the con- 
 
 "I have come, according to the nection before the conse- 
 
 time proposed; but I have qucnces were considered." . 
 
 fallen upon an evil hour." 
 "The mighty rivals are now at 
 
 length agreed." 
 
 Rule XV. When. two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, sig- 
 nifying the same thing, come together, they are put by apposition in 
 the same case. 
 
 ^®* The examples ichich fnlloio may he corrected hy this fiuh or thf 
 following Note. 
 
 4. The verb to he, through all its variations, has the same case after 
 it as that which next precedes it. " / am he whom they invited." " It 
 may be {or, it miglit have been) he, but it can not be {or, could not 
 have been) /." " It is impossible to be they," " It seems to have 
 been he who conducted himself so wisely." "7< appeared to be «//c 
 that transacted the business," " I understood it to i)e him." " I be- 
 lieve it to have been them." "We at first took it to be her, but were 
 afterwards convinced that it was not s/tg." "He is not the person 
 who it seemed he was." " He is really the person who he appeared 
 to be." "She is not now the woman ichom they represented her to 
 have been." " ]V/ioni do you fancy him to be ? " By tlusse examples, it 
 appears that this substantive verb has no government of case, but 
 
 (1) IngtAti&te ourselves." (2) By neutfr and ar.tiw, Mr. Murray bore means what 
 in thiH work are style«l inlransitivc and (ransifive verb-?. (;5> Rule XI. (4) " Is toe- 
 coma.' (O) '' H*f.iL' 
 
SYNTAX. 169 
 
 serves, in all its forms, as a conductor to the cases; so that the two 
 cases which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before 
 and after it, must always be alike. Perhaps this subject will be more 
 intelligible to the learner by observfng that the words in. the cases 
 preceding- and following the verb to be, may be said to be in ajyposition 
 to each other. -Thus, m the sentence, '-I understood it to be him," 
 the words it and him are in apposition: thtit is, "they refer to the 
 same thing, and are in the same case." 
 
 The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, and ex- 
 hibit the pronoun in a wrong case. "It might have been him, but 
 there is no proof of it." "Though I was blamed it could not have 
 been me." "I saw one whotji I took to be sAe." "She is the person 
 toho 1 understood it to have been." " Who do you think me to be ?" 
 " Whom do men say that I am ? " " And %ohom think ye that I am 1 " 
 
 Passive verbs, which signify naming, etc., have the same case be- 
 fore and after them : as, "He was called Caesar; " " She was named 
 Penelope;" "Homer is styled the prince of poets;" "James was 
 created a duke;" "The general was saluted emperor;" The "pro* 
 fessor was appointed tutor to the prince." 
 
 '* I am him whom they invited." Will you correct this sentence, 
 and give the Rule for it." 
 
 4. 
 
 *"Well may you be afraid ; it is (2) who conducted ihe busi- 
 
 him indeed." ness, but I am certain it was 
 
 "I would act the same part, if I not him." 
 
 Were /itJH, (1) or in his situa- "He so much resembled my 
 
 tion." ' brother, that, at first sight, I 
 
 "Search the Scriptures, for in took it to be he." 
 
 them ye think ye have eternal " After all their professions, is it 
 
 life; and they are them which possible to be them? " 
 
 testify of me." "It could not have been her, for 
 
 *' Be composed: it is me: you she always behaves discreet- 
 have no cause for fear." ly." 
 
 "I can not tell who has befriended " If it was not him, who do you 
 
 me, unless it is him fr6m imagine it to have been?" 
 
 whom I have received many "Who do you think him to be?" 
 
 benefits." " Whom do the people say that we 
 
 " I know not whether it werfi them are?" 
 
 5. The auxiliary let governs the objective case: as, "Let him he' 
 ware;" "Let «« judge candidly ;" "Let <^6to not presume; " "Let 
 George study his lesson." 
 
 *' Let us judge candidly." In what case is us ? What is the Rule ? 
 
 5. 
 
 " Whatever (3) others do, let (4) " Let them and we unite to op- 
 tion and /act wisely." pose this growing (5) evil." 
 
 * When the verb to be is understood, it has the same case, before and after it, aa 
 when it is expressed: as, " He seems the leader of the party." " He shall continue 
 steward." '• They appointed me executor." " I supposed him a man of learning." 
 — that is, " He seems to be the loauler of the party," etc. Nouns in apposition ar» 
 in the same case : as, " We named the man Pompey." " They may term Charles a 
 visionary, but they can not call hira a deceiver." " Hortensius died a martyt." 
 "•The gentle Sidney lived the shepherd's friend." 
 
 (1) Rule XV. (2) '■ TVuy were the pertons" (V) Rnle VIII. (4) Imp. Rule VI. 
 (6} 669. 
 
 16 
 
170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 BULE XII. 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULE Xll. 
 
 The infinitive mood may Jbe governed by verbs, participles, adj^'ctives, 
 iionns, and pronouns. 
 
 The preposition to, though generally used before the'Iatler verb, is 
 sometimes properly omitted : as, "I heard him say it," instead of 
 " to say it." ^ 
 
 The verbs which have commonly other verbs (bllowing them, in 
 the infinitive mood, without the sign to, are bid, dure, need, vmkc, see, 
 hear, feel, and also fet, not used as an auxiliary, and perhaps a few 
 others : as, " 1 bade him do it ;" " Ye dare not do it ;" " 1 saw him 
 do it ;" " I heard him say it ;" "Thou lettest him go." 
 
 Will you name the verbs which have commonly other verbs in the 
 infinitive mood after them, without the sign to .^ 
 
 "It is better (1) live on a little ♦' I need not t<> solicit him to do 
 
 (2) than outlive a good deal." a kind action." 
 
 " You ought not walk too hastily." "I dare not to proceed so hastily, 
 " I wish him not wrestle with his lest I should give ofleuce." 
 
 happiness." " I have seen some young persons 
 
 to conduct themselves very 
 discreetly." 
 
 1. In the following passages the Word to, the sign of the infinite 
 mood, where it is distinguished by italic characters, is superfluous 
 and improper: "I have observed some satirists to use," etc. ''To 
 see so many to make so little conscience of so great a sin." " It can 
 not but be a delighful spectacle to God and angels lo see a young per- 
 son, besieged by powerful tcniplalions on every side, to acquit him- 
 self gloriously, and resolutely to hold out iigainst the most violent as- 
 saults : to behold one in the printe and flower of his age, that is court- 
 ed by pleasures and honors, by the devil, and all the bewitching van- 
 ities of the world, to reject all these, and to cleave steadfastly unto 
 God." 
 
 This mood has also been improperly used in the following places: 
 •'I am not like other men to envy the talents lean not reach." 
 " Grammarians have denied, or at least doubted, them to ie genuine." 
 " That all our doings may be ordered by thy governance, to do always 
 what is righteous in thy sight." 
 
 The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, 
 and participles: as, '• He is eager to learn ;" '• She is worthy to be 
 loved j" ''They have a desire to improve;" ''Endeavoring to per- 
 suade." 
 
 The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantive, ex- 
 pressing the action itself which the. verb signifies, as the participle 
 has the nature of an adjective. Thus the infinitive mood does the 
 office of a substantive in different cases — in the nominative, as, 
 ^'To play is pleasant;" in the objective, as, " Boys love to /)/ay y" 
 " Fgr to will is present with me; but to 2)eT/onn that which is good, I 
 find not." 
 
 (1) " To UveJ'— Ruin XII. (2) Noun. ' 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 171 
 
 The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently 
 on the rest of the sentence, supplying: the place of the conjunction 
 that with the potential mood: as, "To confess the truth, I was in 
 fault ;" " To begin with the first ;" "To proceed ;" '-To conclude "— 
 that is, "That I may confess," etc. 
 
 "I have observed some satirists to use," etc. What is incorrect 
 in this sentence ? 
 
 In the expression, " He is eag:er to learn," will you parse to learn f 
 What is the rule? (I) "To play is pleasant." Will you parse to plaj/, 
 and give a rule for it? (1) "To confess the truth, I was in fault." 
 How is to confess parsed ? What is the rule for it? (2) . 
 
 1. 
 
 "It is a great support to virtue 
 when we see a good mind to 
 maintain (3) its patience and 
 tranquillity under injuries 
 and airiiction, and ^o cordially 
 forgive its oppressors." 
 
 " It is the difference of their con- 
 duct which makes us to ap- 
 prove the one and to reject 
 the other." 
 
 "We should not be like many 
 persons, to (4) depreciate the 
 virtues loe (5) do not pos- 
 sess." 
 
 "To see (6) young persons whb 
 are courted by health and 
 pleasure, to resist all the al- 
 lurements of vice, and to 
 steadily pursue virtue and 
 knowledge, is cheering and 
 delightful to every good 
 mind." 
 
 '•They acted with so much re- 
 serve, that some persons 
 doubted them to be ntncere."{l) 
 
 "And the multitude wonderefd, 
 when they saw the U\me to 
 walk, and the blind to see." 
 (8) 
 
 KULE XXVI. 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULE XIll. 
 
 In the t(8e of ivords and pJtrasea which, in j^oint of tiine, relate to each 
 other, a due rer/ard to that relation shoidd he obierred. Instead of 
 saying, " The Lord hath yivcn, and the Lord hath taken away," ice 
 ' should say, " The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." In- 
 stead of, " I remember the family more than twenty years," it should 
 be, "■ I have remembered the family more than twenty years." 
 
 It is not easy to give particular rules for the management of the 
 moods and tenses of verbs with. respect to one another, so that they 
 may be proper and consistent. The best rule that can be given, is this 
 very general one — "To observe what the sense necessarily requires." 
 It may, however, be of use to give a few examples of irregular con- 
 struction. " The last week I intended to have written," is a very com- 
 mon phrase — the infinitive being in the pat^t time, as well as the verb 
 whic-l) it follows. But it i^ certainly wrong; for how long soever it 
 now is since I thought of writing,/© write was then present to me, 
 and must still he considered as present, when I bring back that time, 
 and the thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be, "The last week I 
 
 (1) Rule XIT. (2) NoteXir, LVIIl. (3) Fc>r tn maintain r^nd maintain. (4) 
 "Who" (H) "T/u-1/." (6) Note XIII. (1) " Their sincerity:' (S) -' Ftrsons who 
 had bi^tn lame, walking; and thnm' ir%n htd h^n bfivrf, ff^ing." 
 
172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 inteuded to write.''* The followingf sentences are also erroneous : *' I 
 can not excuse the remissness of those whose business it should have 
 been, as it certainly was their interest, to have interposed their good 
 offices;" "Thertiwere two circumstances which made it necessary 
 for them to have lost no time;" *' History painters would have found 
 it difficult to have invented such a species of beings." They ought to 
 be, to interpose, to lose, to invent. "On the morrow, because he would 
 have known the certainty wherefore he was accused of the Jews, he 
 loosed him." It ought to be, " because he would hiow,'^ or rather, *' be- 
 in fj Willi ucj to know.''' "The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I 
 might receive my sight." "If by any means I might attain unto the 
 resurrection of the dead." May, in both places, would have been bet- 
 ter. " From his biblical knowledge, he appears to study the Script- 
 ures with great attention-;" " to have studied,^' etc. " I feared that I 
 should have lost it before I arrived at the city ;" ^^ should lose it." "I 
 had rather walk;" it should be, " I rcould rather walk." *' It would 
 have aflbrded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it ;" it should 
 be, " if I could have performed it;" or, " It woidd afford me no satis- 
 faction, if I could perform it." 
 
 To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must recollect 
 that, in the subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses often 
 carry vi-ith them a future sense ; and that the auxiliaries should and 
 wotild, in the imperfect times, are used to express the present or 
 future, as well as the past. 
 
 *' I intended to have written." Will you point out the incorrect- 
 ness of this sentence, and give a rule for it? 
 
 "The next new-year's day I shall hold on all the opportunities 
 
 be (1) at school three years." which the imprudence", weak-. 
 
 " And he that was dead (2) sat up, ness, or necessities of princes 
 
 and began to speak." afford it, to extend its au- 
 
 *' I should be obliged to him if be tliority." 
 
 ypiV; gratify me in that particu- "Fierce as he moved, his silver 
 lar." shafts resound." 
 
 "And the multitude wondered "They maintained that Scripture 
 when they saw the dumb to conclusion, that all mankind 
 
 speak, the maimed to be rise from one head." 
 
 whole, the lame walk, and " John will earn his wages when 
 the blind seeing." (-3) his service is completed." 
 
 " J have compassion on the mul- "Ye will not come unto me that 
 titude, because they co7iti?tne ye might have life." 
 
 with me now three days." "Be that as it will, he can not 
 
 "In the treasury belonging to the justify his conduct." 
 
 cathedral in this city is pre- " I have been at London a year, 
 served, (4) with the greatest and seen the king last sum- 
 
 veneration, for upwards of mer." 
 
 six hundred years, a dish " After we visited London, we re- 
 which they pretend to be turned, content and thankful, 
 
 made qf emerald." to our retired and peaceful 
 
 "The Court of Rome gladly laid habitation." 
 
 1. It is proper further to observe?, that verbs of the infinitive mood 
 in the following form — to write, to be loriting, and to he written — always 
 denote something coit temporary with the time of the governing verb, 
 
 (1) " Shall 7iat>e ieen;" (2) '■' Hadbeen dettd." (3) See the last example . 
 
 nodor tb© pr&cedinfi^ rule. (4) A dleb ha« been ptesetved," 
 
syntax; 173 
 
 or subsequent to it; but when verbs oi" thai mood are expressed as 
 follows — to have been 'wnfivg, to have loritten, and to have been written — 
 they always denote something a?itececlent to the time of the govern- 
 ing- verb. This remark is thought to be of importance; for, if duly 
 attended to, it will, in mosl ca^es, besufticient to direct us in the 
 relative application of these lenses. 
 
 The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed: "I 
 found him better than I expected to find him." '-Expected to have 
 found him," is irreconcilable alike to grammar and to sense. Indeed, 
 all verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, must in- 
 variably be followed by the present, and not the perfect, of the infini-^ 
 tive. P>ery person would perceive an error in this expression— " It 
 is long since I commanded him to have done it;" yet "expected to 
 have found," is no better. Jt is as clear that the finding must be pos- 
 terior to the expectation, as that the obedience must be posterior to 
 the command. 
 
 In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety put in the 
 perfect tense of the infinitive mood: "It would have afforded me 
 great pleasure, as often as I reflected upon it, to have been the mes- 
 senger of such intelligence." As the message, in this instance, was 
 antecedent to the pleasure, and not contemporary with it, the verb 
 expressive of the message must denote that antecedence, by being 
 in the perfect of the infinitive, if the message and the pleasure had 
 been referred to as contemporary, the subsequent verb would, with 
 equal propriety, have been put in the present of the infinitive: as, 
 "It would have afforded me great pleasure to be the messenger of 
 such intelligence." In the" former instance, the phrase in question is 
 equivalent to these words— " ^' / had been the messenger;" in the 
 latter instance, to this expression — ^^ Being the messenger." 
 
 It is proper to inform the learner that, in order to express the past 
 time with the defective verb ought, the perfect of the infinitive must 
 always be used : as, " He ought to have done it." When we use this 
 verb, this is the only possible way to distinguish the past from the 
 present. 
 
 In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can pro- 
 duce the sentiments of eminent grammarians — amongst whom are 
 Lowth and Campbell. But there are some writers on grammar who 
 strenuously maintain that the governed verb in the infinitive ought 
 to be in the past tense, when the verb which governs it is in the past 
 time. Though this can not be admitted, in the instances which are 
 controverted under this rule, or in any instances of a similar nature, 
 yet there can be no doubt that, in many cases in which the thing re- 
 ferred to preceded the governing verb, it would be proper and allow- 
 able. We may say, "From a conversation I once had with him, he 
 appeared to have studied Homer with great care and judgment." It 
 would be properalso to say, " From his conversation, l^e apjiears to 
 have studied Homer with great care and judgment ;" "That unhappy 
 man in supposed 'to have died by violence." These examples are not 
 only consistent with our rule, but they confirm and illustrate it. It is 
 the tense of the governing verb only that marks what is called the 
 absolute time; the tense of the verb governed marks solely its re- 
 lative lime with respect to the oth«r. 
 
 To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infinitive mood 
 have no tenses, no relative distinctions of present, past, and future, 
 is inconsistent with just grammatical views of the subject. That 
 
174 ENGLISH grammar/ 
 
 these verbs associate wiih verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of their 
 haying no peculiar time of their own. Whatever period the govern- 
 ing verb assumes, whether present, pas.t, or future, the governed 
 verb in the iiitinitive always respects that period, and its time is cal- 
 culated from it. Thus, the time of the infinitive maybe before, after, 
 or the same as, the time of the governing verb, according as the thing 
 signified by the iniinitive is supposed to be before, after, or present 
 with the thing denoted by the governing verb. It is, therefore, with 
 great propriety that tenses are assigned to verbs o( the infinitive 
 mood. The point of time from which ihey are computed is of no 
 consequence, since present, past, and future are completely appli- 
 cable 4.0 them. 
 
 We shall conclude our observations under this rule by remarking, 
 that though it is often proper to use the perfect of the infinitive after 
 the governing verb, yet there are particular cases in which it would 
 be belter to give the expression a different form. Thus, instead of 
 saying, "I wish to have written to him sooner," "I then wished to 
 have written to him sooner," " He will one day wish to have written 
 sooner," it would be more perspicuous and forcible, as well as more 
 agreeable to the practice of good writers, to say, " I wish that I had 
 written to him sooner," " I then wished that 1 had written to him 
 sopner," " He will one daj' wish that he had written sooner." Should 
 the justness of these strictures be admitted, there would still be nu-- 
 merous occasions for the use of the past infinitive, as we may per- 
 ceive by a few examples: "It would ever afterwards have been a 
 source of pleasure to have found him wise and virtuous ;" " To have 
 deferred his repentance longer, would have disqualified him from re- 
 penting at all j" "They will then see, that to have faithfully perform- 
 ed their duly would have been their greatest consolation." 
 
 " I expected to have found him." Will'you correct this sentence, 
 and give a rule for it ? What tense of the infinitive must be used to 
 express past time with the defective verb ought 1 Give an example. 
 Is it proper ever to use the perfect of the infinitive after the govern- 
 ing verb ? Give an example. 
 
 1. 
 
 " I purpose to go to London in a to relieve him from that dis- 
 
 few months, and after I ehall tressed situation." 
 
 faiish (1) my business there, " It required so much care, that I 
 to proceed (2) to America." thought 1 should have lost ft 
 
 *\ These prosecutions of William before I reached home." 
 
 seem to 6e the most iniquitous "We have done no more than it 
 measures pursued by the was our duty to have done." 
 
 court during the time that " He would have assisted one of 
 the use of parliaments was his friends, if he could do it 
 
 suspended." without injuring the other; 
 
 "From the little conversation I but as that could not Aai;eiee» 
 
 had with him, he appeared to done, he avoided all interfer- 
 
 have been a man of letters." ence." 
 
 " I always intended to have re- " Must it not he expected that he 
 warded my son according to would have defended an au- 
 
 his merit." , thorily which had been so 
 
 " It would, on reflection, have long exercised without con- 
 
 given me great satisfaction troversy ?" (3) 
 
 (1) " Shall have finished:' (2) Rule IX. (3) " MigM it not have been," etc. 
 
SYNTAX 
 
 175 
 
 "These enemies of Christianity 
 M'ere confounded, whilst tliey 
 were expecting to have found 
 an opportunity to have be- 
 trayed its author."' 
 
 " liis sea-sickness was so great, 
 tliat I often feared he would 
 have died before our arrival.'' 
 
 " If" these persons had inleniled 
 to deceive, they would have 
 lakt;n care to have avoided 
 what woijlil expose them to 
 the objections of their oppo- 
 nents." 
 
 " It was a pleasure to have re- 
 ceived his approbation of my 
 
 labors, for which I cordially 
 thanked iiini." 
 
 " It would have aflbrded me still 
 greater ple^isure to receive 
 his approbation at an earlier 
 period; but to receive (1) it at 
 all, rejected credit upon me." 
 
 '* To be censured by him would 
 soon have proved an insuper- 
 able discouragement," 
 
 " Him portioned maids, appren- 
 ticed orpiians blest, 
 
 The young who labor, and the old 
 who rest." 
 
 " The doctor, in his lecture, jsaid 
 that fever always produced 
 thirst." 
 
 RULE XIV. 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 KULK XIV. 
 
 Active participles from active transitive verbs govern tke objective case 
 
 "Esteeming (2) theirselvcs wise, 
 
 they became fools." 
 " Suspecting not only ye, but 
 
 they also, I was studious to 
 
 avoid all intercourse." 
 
 enemies to me, and he ns a 
 suspicious friend." 
 "From having exposed (4) his- 
 self tqo freely, in diiferent 
 climates, he entirely lost his 
 . health." 
 
 "I could not avoid considering, 
 (3) in some degree, they as 
 
 1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article ; for the pres- 
 ent participle, with the dehnite article the before it, becomes a sub- 
 stantive, and must have the preposition of after it: as, "These are 
 the rules of grammar, by the observing of which you may avoid mis 
 lakes." It would not be proper to say, " by the observing which,' 
 nor, "by observing of which;" but the phrase, without either article 
 or preposition, would be right: as, " by observing which." The ar- 
 ticle a or an has the same effect : as, " This was a betraying of the 
 trust reposed in him." 
 
 This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, and 
 from as'plain" a principle as any on which it is founded, namely: that 
 a word which has the article before it, and the possessive preposition of 
 after it, must be a noun; and, if a noun, it ought to follow the con- 
 struction of a noun, and not to have the regimen of a verb.- It is the 
 participial termination of this sort of word.s tlial is apt to deceive 
 us', and make us treat them as if they were of an amphibious species, 
 partly nouns and partly verbs. 
 
 The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule: 
 " He was sent to prepare the way by preaching of rei)entance ;" it 
 ought lobe, "■by the preaching of repentance," or, '> by preaching 
 repentance." " iJy the continual mortifying our corrupt afiections;" 
 
 (1) "T(j/iaDereceu'ec?."— Noto Xlir. (2) llulo XIII. (3) Rule VIII. (4)601. 
 
176 ENei.lSH GRAMMAR. 
 
 it should be, '* by the continual mortifying of" or, '' by continually 
 mortifying our corrupt afl'ections." "They laid out themselves tow- 
 ards the advancing and promoting ibe good of it ;" "towards advanc- 
 ing and promotiaig the good." "It is a?i overvaluing ourselves!> to 
 reduce everlhing to the narrow measure of our capacities :" ** it is 
 overvaluing ourselves," or, " «w overvaluing o/ ourselves." "Keep- 
 ing of one day. in seven," etc. ; it ought to be, " the keeping of one 
 day," or, " kee|>ing one day." 
 
 A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle, and 
 the possessive preposition ibliows" it, will not, in every instance, con- 
 vey the same meaning as would be conveyed by the participle with- 
 out the article and preposition. '• He expressed the pleasure he had 
 in the hearing of the philosopher," is capable of a diiierent sense 
 from "He expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the philoso- 
 pher." When, therefore, we wish, for the sake of harmony or varie- 
 ty, to substitute one of these phraseologies for the other, we should 
 previously consider whether they are perfectly similar in the senti- 
 ments they convey. 
 
 " By the observing of which." Will you parse observing? Rule 
 for it? What words in tliis sentence may be omitted with propriety? 
 Would it be proper to omit one of them only ? 
 
 1. 
 
 " By observing of truth, you will ly situated for gaining of wis- 
 
 command esteem, as well as dom. Poverty turns our 
 
 secure peace." thoughts too much upon the 
 
 " He prepared them for this event supplyingour wants, and rich- 
 
 by the sending to them prop- es upon the enjoying our su- 
 
 er information." . perfluities." 
 
 " A person may be great or rich "Pliny, speaking of Cato the Cen- 
 
 by chance-, but can not be sor's disapproving the Gre- 
 
 wise or good without i^Ae tak- clan orators, expressed hira- 
 
 ing pains for it." self thus." 
 
 " Nothing could have made her "Propriety of pronunciation i.s 
 
 so unhappy, as the marrying the giving to every word that 
 
 a 'man who possessed such sound which the most polite 
 
 principles." usage of the language appro- 
 
 " The changing times and sea- priates to it." 
 
 sons, the removing and set- " T'/se not attendiiTg(l) to this rule 
 
 ting up kings, belongs to is the cause (2) of a very 
 
 Providence alone." common error." 
 
 "The middle station of life Seems "This was, in fact, a converting 
 
 to be the most advantageous- the deposit to his own use." 
 
 2 The same observations which have been inade respecticg the 
 effect of the article and participle appear to be applicable to the pro- 
 noun and participle, when they are similarly associated: as, "JVluch 
 depends on their olservimj of the rule, and error will be the conse- 
 quence of their neylectivg of it ;" instead of " their ohservinr' the rule, 
 and their neglecting it." We shnli pe'rcj^ive this more clearly if we 
 substitute a noun for the pronoun: as, "Mui:h depends upon Tyro's 
 ohservingof Xhe y\x\q," eXc. But, as this construction sounds rather 
 harshly, it would, in general, be better to express the sentiment in 
 the following or some other Ibrm : "Much depends on the rule's he- 
 
 (1) Kule VI. (2) llule XV. , 
 
SYNTAX. ]<^^ 
 
 mark may be applied^to s^ve ^1 o^her 1 ."'^^'^'"^ '^•" '^^'^'^ '•^- 
 fouod in ihfs work, wh ch tho'^ih p' "'°^''''' ^' ^^'P'-^s.^ion to be 
 correct, are not always the wal?Jv, ]7 '^ ^^^"tended ior as strfetly 
 ant sound. ■ "'°'^ elig,ble,on account of their unpleas- 
 
 ^e sometimes meet \vith exnressinnc iii.« «i i- n 
 ;"/o/ h,s sentences, he wa. ^ery ^x" a - ' l'/^''"''^^^ '/"/onu- 
 he proceeded to blows." But ihl^TinlnrrJf 7 '^^"'"^ ""•( "^'"^'^' 
 sitionsdonol like art k-l^^ ^.V? '^'^ '^^ '"correct language— ior prepo- 
 
 phrase, " By observ,, " wl M^^ have shown above in the 
 
 peat the Note ? P'-^Position o/ were omuted ? Will you re- 
 
 " There will be no dancer of /A/-;.- .•« .u 
 
 he^is, ,nde,„e-<, .„ „!, S",' [iSI-^''^ '"^ - "-^y of 
 
 " I. was from our misunderHanJ. " '''',he",eramhor'?'"'h"'''"7> 
 
 lilt nesi authors, his mind be- 
 came highly improved." 
 
 difler^u i;rti;:i!^ri::;':i^l:^:;^',j^!r 1-^^ are someti.es 
 
 irately used. It is frequent v ad S? V'"' '^7 ';** "°^ indiscrim- 
 "He run " for " he ran " "t7. i '. il*" '^^^^^'^ ^or "he began :" 
 pie being here n eV nliead J tC ' ^V '" ^'^ '''"^"'^ '" ^"« P«rtic - 
 frequently the imperel^tense V^ ""^ much more 
 
 wrote," L a I h^dtrltte"^'' !!r:at:U e^^fo^^^^^^ ^^' : ^ ^^^ 
 "I have ea^" for " I have eaten " u t?;^^''^''' ^'^'^ ^ ^'^s ^'hosen ;" 
 sighs;" -;.ere iJrworeT' \^IU wo in'^K'*^' '''"'^•"^""'^«^^ ^'''J^ 
 "He hath bore witness 1 is fH,Wnr ^^f, spoke;" "*;Wre„." 
 
 means he overrun h l^^^^'t:^':::^"^^''''''''". " ^^ »^'"« 
 ''rxsenP '' His con«tiin»fm ho' i ''"'"'"'• The sun has rose ;" 
 
 -strong ^o\::^r^,^:::z!^^z^^'^ ^'f - 
 
 "»»7WW" source Of true happiness;" it ought to be, 
 
 in J^ ?n;r^?^!:.:^^'i:;^!:;f ,;:;;!:- ;7P-Perly contracted by chang- 
 
 of the school ;" ''She was riuch d? t "i •""l'"*'^''^' ^^ 1"^ '^"P^"' 
 i>a*.sf./," ''rfiW«*W." ^istrest, they ought (o be "«ur- • 
 
 Is it correct to say, " He beo-nn '?" WKo. • 
 sion ? Will yon repeat Note?" Pnn H ' ''•'?^ '" ^'^^ «-^P''^«- 
 
 contracted to', with^'roprielv? Participle ending in ed be 
 
 (1) Ouiit ''their." 
 
178 
 
 ENGMSH GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. 
 
 '' By too eager pursuit, he ?•«?? a 
 great risk of beiiigdisappoiiit- 
 ed." (I) 
 
 "He had not long enjoyed repose 
 before he begun to be weary 
 of liaviiig nothing to do." 
 
 " He was greatly healed, and 
 drunk with avidity." 
 
 "Though his conduct was, in 
 some respects, exceptignable, 
 yet he dared not commit so 
 great afi offence as that which 
 was proposed to him." 
 
 "A second deluge learning thus 
 o'errun, 
 
 And the monks finished what the 
 Goths begun." 
 
 " If some events had not fell out 
 very unexpectedly, I should 
 have been present." 
 
 " He would have went with us, 
 had he been invited." 
 
 " He returned the goods which he 
 had stole, and made all the 
 reparation in his power." 
 
 *' They have chose the part of 
 honor and virtue." 
 
 " His vices have weakened his 
 mind and broke his health." 
 
 " He had mistook his true interest, 
 and found himself forsook by 
 his former adherents." 
 
 " The bread that has been eat is 
 soon forffot." 
 
 '•No contentions have arose 
 amongst theiu since their re-_ 
 conciliation." 
 
 '' The cloth had no seam, but 
 was wove throughout." 
 
 " Tlie French language is spoke 
 in every state in Europe." 
 
 •'His resolution was too strong to 
 be shook by slight opposi- 
 tion." 
 
 " He was not much restrained af- 
 terwards, having took ii^i- 
 proper liberties at first." 
 
 " He has not yet wore off the 
 rough manners which he 
 brought with him." 
 
 "You who have forsook your 
 friends, are entitled to no con- 
 Hdence." 
 
 "They who have bore a part in 
 the labor, shall share the re- 
 ward." 
 
 " When the rules have been wan- 
 tonly broke, there can be no 
 plea 'for iavor." 
 
 " He writes as the best authors 
 would have wrote, had they 
 writ on the same subject." 
 
 'He heapt up great riches, but 
 past his time miserably." 
 
 " He talkt and stampt with such 
 vehemence, that he was. sus- 
 pected to be insane." 
 
 KULE XXVII. 
 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULE XV. 
 
 Adverbs^ though tJiey have no government of case, tense, etc., require an 
 appropriate situation in the sentence, viz : for the most part, before 
 adjectives, after verbs, active or neuter, and freqiiently between the aux- 
 iliari/ and the verb : as, " He made a very sensible discourse ; he 
 epoke nnaffcctedli/ and forcibly, and %oas attentively heard by the 
 whole assembly." 
 
 A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve to il- 
 lustrate the rule. " He must not expect to find study agreeable al- 
 ways ;" " a/Hja^>» agreeable." We always find them ready when we 
 want them ;" '*^We find them «Z»ia^s ready," etc. " Disserrations on 
 the prophecies which have remarkably been fulfilled ;" "which have 
 
 (1) Pres. pass. part, used as a aouu — Rule X. 
 
SYNTAX. 179 
 
 been remarkably:' " Instead of looking contemptuously down on the 
 crooked in mind or in body, we should look up thankfully to God, 
 who hath made us bettor;'' "Instead of lookm^r ^o^yn contemptaor,s- 
 ly, etc M^e should thankfully look up,^^ etc. - If thou art blessed 
 naturally with a good memory, continually exercise it ;" ''naturalb, 
 bleaaed, etc., '' exercu^e it continually." 
 
 Sometimes the adverb ig placed w"ith propriety before the verb or 
 at some distance after it, sometimes between the two auxiliarie-« 
 and sometimes after them both, as in the following examples- -'Vice 
 always creeps by degrees, and insennbly twines around us those con- 
 cealed fetters by which we are at last completely bound." " He en- 
 couraged the English barons to carry .their opposition- /awAe;--" 
 Ihey compelled him to declare that he would abjure the ■realm fhr 
 ever ; instead of, " to carry farther their opposition," and " to abjure 
 
 S'*''m*''4.u'' 'i''*^'',"- "^^'^ ^"''^ generally been reckoned an honest 
 man The book may always be had at such a place," in preference 
 to has been generally," and '' may be always." " These rules will 
 be cW/y understood, alter they have been diligently siudied," is prefera- 
 ble to "These rules will clearly be understood, after they have dili 
 gently been studied." ^ 
 
 From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears that no 
 exact and determinate rule can be given for the placing of adverbs 
 on all occasions. The general rule may be of considerable use : but 
 the easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase are the things which 
 ought to be chiefly regarded. 
 
 The adverb there is olten used as an expletive, t.r as a word that 
 adds nothing to the sense; in which case it precedes the verb and 
 the nominative noun: as, "There is a person at the door;" "There 
 are some thieves in the house;" which would be as well, or better 
 expressed by saying, "A person is at the door;" "Some thieves are 
 m the house." Sometimes it is made use of to give a small de^^ree 
 of emphasis to the sentence: as, " There was a man sent from God • 
 whose name was John." When it is applied in its strict sense, it 
 principally follows the verb and the nominative case: as. "The man 
 stands there." 
 
 What wotd is misplaced in the sentence, " He must not expect to 
 find study agreeable always ? " Will you correct the sentence, and 
 give the rule for the position of adverbs ? How is the adverb some- 
 times placed with respect to the verb ? With respect to the auxiliary ? 
 " He was jileasing not often, (1 ) be- being not admitted, he be- 
 
 cause he was vain." came sul)missive." 
 
 "William nobly acted, though he "These things should be never 
 
 was unsuccessful." separated." 
 
 "We may happily live, though ''Unless he have more govern- 
 our possessions are small." ment of himself, he will be 
 
 From whence (2) we may date always discontented." 
 
 likewise the period of this " iVevo/- (3) sovereign was (4) so 
 event." much beloved by the people." 
 
 * It can not be impertinent or ri- "He was determined to inyite 
 diculous, therefore, to remon- back the king, and to call to- 
 
 ^^'''^te-" get her his friends." 
 
 He offered an apology, which "So well educated a boy gives- 
 
 great hopes to his friends." 
 
 (1) " Not often pleasing:' (2) 589. (3) " No:^ (4) « Ever so:' 
 
180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 "Not only he found her employ- "• My opinion was given on ra^Aer 
 
 ed, hut pleased and tranquil a (1) cursory perusal of the 
 
 also." ' book." 
 
 ''We always should prefer our " It is too common with mankind 
 
 duly to our pleasure." to be engrossed and bver- 
 
 "It is impossible continually to come, totally by present 
 
 be at work." events." 
 
 " The heavenly bodies are in mo- " When the Romans were pressed 
 
 tion perpetually." with a foreign enemy, the 
 
 ''Having not known, or having women contributed all their 
 
 not considered, the measures rings and jewels voluntarily, 
 
 proposed, ho failed of sue- to assist the government." 
 
 cess." 
 
 1. The adverb never generally precedes the verb : as, "I never was 
 there; " " He never comes at a proper time." When an auxiliary is 
 used, it is placed indifferently, either before or after this adverb: as, 
 "He was never seen {of never was seen) to laugh from that time." 
 Never seems to be improperly used in the following passages: "Ask 
 me never so much dowry and gift;" "If I make my hands never so 
 clean ; " "Charm he never so wisely." The word ever would be more 
 suitable to the sense. 
 
 How is the adverb never generally placed with respect to the verb? 
 Give an example. Give an example where the word never is im- 
 properly used instead of ever. 
 
 1. 
 " They could not persuade him, " If some persons' opportunities 
 though they were never so were never so favorable, they 
 
 eloquent." would be indolent to improve 
 
 them." 
 
 2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place, tvhere, is 
 often used instead of the pronoun relative and a preposition. "They 
 framed a protestation, joAere they repeated all their former claims;" 
 i. e., "m ichich they repeated." "The king was still determined to 
 run forwards in the same course tohere he was already, by his pre- 
 cipitate career, too fatally advanced ;" i. e., "in which he was." But 
 it would be better to avoid this mode of expression. 
 
 The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a preposition — for they 
 signify, " from this place," "from that ])lace," "from what place." It 
 seems, therelbre, strictly speaking, to be improper to join a preposi- 
 tion with them, because it is superfluous: as, "This is the leviathan 
 from whence the wits of our age are said to borrow their weapons ;" 
 "An ancient author prophesies from hence." But the origin of these 
 words is little attended to, and the preposition from, so oftien used in 
 construction with them, that the omission of it, in many cases, 
 •would seem stiff', and be disagreeable. 
 
 The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly applied to verbs 
 signifying motion instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whither: as, 
 "He came here hastily;" "They rode there with speed." They 
 should be, " He came hither ; " "They rode thither" etc. 
 • " They framed a protestation, where they repeated all their former 
 claims." Will you correct this sentence, and repeat Note 2? 
 
 (1) A rather."— ILvlU IX. 
 
SYNTAX. I8i 
 
 "He drew up a petition, Wjure he "GeorjE^e is active; lie \valked 
 
 too freely rei)resented his there in les«s than an hour." 
 
 own -merits." (1) 
 
 "Hi* follies had reduced him to " Where are you all going in such 
 
 a situation wket-e he had much haste ? " 
 
 to fear and nothing to hope." "Whither have they been since 
 "It is reported that the prince will they left the city ? " 
 
 come here to-morrow." 
 
 3. We have some examples of adverbs being used for substantives : 
 "In 16S7 he erected it into a community of regulars, since when it 
 ha* begun to increase in those countries as a religious order;" i. e., 
 "since which tifne.'^ "A little while, and I shall not see you;" i. e., 
 "a short time.'''' "It is worth their while;" i. e., "it deserves their 
 time and pains." But this use of the word rather suits familiar than 
 grave style. The same may be said of the phrase, "To do a thing 
 anyhotn,'" i. e., "in any manner;" or ''somehow;" i. e. "in some man- 
 ner." "Somehow, worthy as these people are, they are under the 
 influence of 'prejudice." 
 
 Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it f 
 
 3. 
 "Charles left the seminary too "Nothing is better worth the 
 early, since when he has while (.3) of young persons, 
 
 made very little improve- than theacquisition of knowl- 
 
 nient." (2) , edge and virtue." 
 
 RULE XIX. 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULt XVI. 
 
 Two negatives^ in the same sim^ile sentence^ arc equivalent to an affirma- 
 tive: ««, " Nor did they not perceive him ;" i. e., "They did perceive 
 him." 
 
 It is better to express an affirmation by a regular affirmative than 
 by two separate negatives, as in the former sentence; but when one 
 of the negatives is joined to another word, as in the latter sentence, 
 the two negatives form a pleasing and delicate variety of expression. 
 
 Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of 
 one, as in the following instances : " 1 never did repent of doing good, 
 nor shall not now;" " nor shall I nowy "Never no imitator grew up 
 to his author;" '■'never did any" etc. " I can not by no means allow 
 him what his argument must prove ;" "I can not by awy means," etc. ; 
 , or, " / can by no means'^ " Nor let no comforter approach me ;" nor let 
 any comforter," etc. " Nor is danger ever apprehended in such a gov- 
 ernment, no more than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder 
 or earthquakes;" it should be, "any more." "Ariosto, Tasso, nor 
 Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not born in republics ;" " Neither 
 Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Raphael, was born in a 
 republic." 
 
 Should we express an affirmation by an affirmative, or by two sepa- 
 rate negatives ? Will you give an example of the improper use of two 
 negatives? 
 
 a} Rule XXII= (2) ''And from that Umi he," etc.; or, " «nS hat titiid Hutde," etc. 
 (8) '* rSe ^tme aiitf artiWtVjH 0^^ etc. 
 
182 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- 
 
 " Neither ricJies nor honors, nor 
 ■no such perishing goods, can 
 satisfy the desires of an im- 
 mortal spirit." 
 
 " Be honest, nor take no shape nor 
 semblance of disguise." 
 
 "We need not, «o)- (1) do not con- 
 fine his operations to narrow 
 limits." 
 
 "1 am resolved not to comply with 
 the proposal, neither at pres- 
 ent nor at any other time.*' 
 
 *' There can not be nothing more 
 insignificant than vanity." 
 
 "Nothing never affected her so 
 much as this misconduct of 
 her child." 
 
 "Do not interrupt me yourselves, 
 nor let no one disturb my re- 
 tirement.'' 
 
 ** These people do not judge wise- 
 ly, nor take no proper meas- 
 ure to effect their purpose." 
 
 "The measure is so exceptiona- 
 ble that we can not, by no 
 means, permit it." 
 
 " 1 have received no information 
 on the subject, neither from 
 him 7ior from his friend." 
 
 "Precept nor discipline is not so 
 forcible as example." 
 
 **The king nor the queen was not 
 all deceived in the business." 
 
 RULEX. 
 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULE XVII. 
 
 Prepositions govern the objective case. 
 
 The following are examples of the nominative case being used 
 instead of the objective,: " Who servest thou under?" "Who do you 
 speak to?" "We are slill much at a loss who civil power belongs 
 to." " Who dost thou ask for?" "Associate not with those who none 
 can speak well of." In all these places it ought to be ^' whom." 
 
 The ))repositions to and y'or are often understood, chiefly before the 
 pronouns: as, "Give me the book;" "Got me some paper;" that is, 
 " ^o m'e," "/or me." "Woe is me;" i, e., "?omc." " He w^s ban- 
 ished England ;" i. e., "■/mm England." 
 
 "Who do you *peak to?" Will you correct this sentence, and ex- 
 plain why it is wrong? "Give me the book." What is understood 
 in this sentence? 
 
 "We are all accountable creat- 
 ures, each for hisself." 
 
 *'They willingly, and oftheirsclves, 
 endeavored 1o make up the 
 difference." 
 
 "He laid the suspicion upon some- 
 body, I know not ivho, in the 
 company." 
 
 "I hope it is not I toho (2) ho is 
 displeased with." 
 
 " To poor we, there is not much 
 hope remaining." 
 
 "Does that boy know who he 
 
 speaks to? Who does he of- 
 fer such language to?" 
 
 " It was not he that they were so 
 angry with." 
 
 " What t-'oncord can subsist be- 
 tween those who commit 
 crimes and t/tei/ (3) who ab- 
 hor them ?" 
 
 " The person who I travelled with 
 has sold the horse which ht; 
 rode on during our journey." 
 
 "It is not I he is engiiged with." 
 
 "Who did he receive that intelli- 
 gence from ?" 
 
 1. The preposition is often separated from the relative which it 
 governs: as " Whom wilt thou give it to?" instead of, " To johom wilt 
 thou give it?" 'He is an author whom I am much delighted with;" 
 "The world is too polite to shock aiithors with a truth, which gener- 
 
 (1) " And do." (2) •' With whom." 
 
 (3) " TT\ofor 
 
SYNTAX. 183 
 
 ally their booksellers are the first that inform them of" Th;^ ;« - 
 
 fh"rr;n"a:d'l,;V;;:r.r;,:!'^'^^"°"^'^-^ «^-- --h better wu" 
 " Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it? 
 
 I. 
 "To have no one whom we Iipnrt '^ w^ ;<, „ r • i i 
 
 ily «ish well ,o, „„7 wtem "mIT^ """'"' ' ""' '"■S'"y 
 
 MTc are warmly concerned for, 
 is H deplorable state." 
 
 »elve.." Thi, we " in.h. (h T''' "A""'' ""'"•"'"nl 'o, tl'em- 
 
 , lil.-e, wliere Cullne.s ami exacl,ie"° o ' , vn,; ""' "' •■■"' ""'' ""= 
 
 of every other .on.ideraUoTll .r:y°be''aT;iuT """' '""" "■>•• "'"^^ 
 
 go've;isT",?i;e;;"„::rut,::ir.,;;s;r"'"" ^■■°'" "- "-" -"-" " 
 
 2. 
 preceding word." 
 
 and find it does not^anKv'er our x2'.r.',?n''^ '"p ' '''^•-^" "'^" ''^^« '^ 
 positions must be imnroner . thM.. "'• ^^"^ ^^^' 'l-flerent pre- 
 
 sentence : as ' T e S 't , 1 "' n^'^?'''^'^"^'"" «"^ '" ^'^^ ^^«n1e 
 English." ' '^ ^'"'''" ''^""'y ^'*''"<^f> "^"'"-^^ twe-nty 
 
 prele^^nl^e •:r .: ^i^^^i^^^rj^ u:^^:!;'^^^ ^^^-^-^ the 
 torn has not decided in Tvor^f e her of i lem ^^'^'"'^^^"^V^'r^ ^"^ «"«- 
 and " Expert in a thin- •" - Exn^ , .? fii r *" ^^^^ ^^•'^''^ «»,» 
 
 takes,- 'ExperUn&eptionT ' '' ^'"'^'"^ ' remedy for his mis-. 
 
 sa^ t- ar:?:^;^;;^^ toir v:^br t?r:;i:&i'^^ ^^"^-^'^ ^^« 
 
 rived: as, "A compliance J/1^ 'to cl^.l^t/^Vi-T";'' "^''^ ^^ 
 to tyranny," " disposed to tyrannize " ' ^ ^ ^ disposition 
 
 ""^thi^l^sl^i^h'iSe^'Xt^*''^ 'rn^^'^"!"^'^'^^'^^^' '^-> 
 
 sion: promised much^enjov- hlZVn\ '^"S-'^^^^ .''''^ays 
 
 ment.'' •' ■ b'therto been disappointed in 
 
 . that pleasure." 
 
 (1) "By the preceding ^,-o^d, ^n7^^ii^ena^'~^~^:^, 
 
184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 4. As an accurale and appropriate use of the preposition is ot great 
 imporiatice, we shall select a coosiderable number of examples of im- 
 propriety in the application of this part of speech. 
 
 1st. With respect to the preposition of. " He is resolved of going 
 to the Persian court;" "o?j. goino^," etc. " He was totally dependent 
 of the Papal crown ;" '•'■on the Papal," etc. "To call of a person," 
 and " to wait of hira ;" '*o« a person," etc. " He was eager of recom- 
 mending it to his fellow-citizens;" " i/i re/iommending," etc. 0/ is 
 sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted, after worthy : as, "It is 
 worthy observation," or "of observation." But it would have been 
 better omitted in the following sentences: "The emulation who 
 should serve their country best, no longer subsists among them, but 
 o/who should obtain the most lucrative command." "The rain hath 
 been falling of a long time;" "failing a long time." "It is situation 
 chiefly which decides of the fortune and characters of men;" "de- 
 cides the fortune," or " concerning the fortune." " He found the great- 
 est dirticulty of writing;" " iVi Vriting." "It might have given me a 
 greater taste of its antiquities." A taste of a thing implies actual en- 
 joyment of it; but a taste /or it implies only a capacity for enjoyment. 
 " This had a much greater share of inciting him, than any regard after 
 his father's commands;" "share in inciting," and "regard to his 
 father's," etc. 
 
 2d. "With respect to the prepositions to and for. " You have be- 
 stowed your favors to the most deserving persons;" "upon the most 
 deserving," etc. " He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch;" 
 " o/having bet rayed," " His abhorrence to that superstitious figure;" 
 "o/that," etc. "A great change to the better;" ^^for the better," 
 " Your prejudice to my cause ;" " against.^' " The English were very 
 different people then to what they are at present;" "/ro7» what," etc. 
 "In compliance to the declaration;" " it)?'<^," etc. "It is more than 
 they thought for ;" " thought of." " There is no need for it ;" " of it." 
 For is superfluous in the phrase, "More than he knows for." "No 
 discouragement for the authors to proceed;" "^o the authors," etc. 
 "It was perfectly in compliance to some persons;" "mfA." "The 
 wisest princes need not think it any diminution to their greatness, or 
 derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon counsel;" "diminution 
 o/," and " derogation /roHJ." 
 
 3d- "With respect to the prepositions ivitha.n<\ upon. "Reconciling 
 himself with the king," "Those things which have the greatest re- 
 semblance with each other, frequently differ the most." "That such 
 rejection should be consonant with our common nature;" "con- 
 formable with," etc. "The history of Peter is agreeable with the 
 sacred texts." In all the above instances it should be " to," instead of 
 '■'■with." "It is a use that, perhaps, I should not have thought on; 
 "thought of." "A greater quantity may be taken from the heap, 
 without making any sensible alteration upon it;" " t n it." " Intrust- 
 ed to persons on whom the parliament could confide;" "trtwhom." 
 " He was made much on at Argos ;" "mucho/." "If policy can- pre- 
 vail upon force ;" " over force." " I do likewise dissent with the ex- 
 aminer;" ''■from." 
 
 4th. With respect to tlie prepositions in, from, etc. "They should 
 be informed in some parts of his character;" " aftowf," or " concern- 
 ing" "Upon such occasions as fell into their cognizance;" ^'nnder." 
 " That variety of factions into which we are still engaged ;" in which." 
 " To restore myself into the favor ;" "<o the favor.'' " Could he have 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 186 
 
 profited from his repeated experiences;" ''Jy." From seems to be 
 superfluous after forbear : as, "He could not ibrbear from appointin*^ 
 the pope," etc. "A strict observance after times and fashions ;" " of 
 times." "The character which we may now value ourselves by draw- 
 ing;" ''upon drawing." " Neither of them shall make me swerve out 
 of the path; ''from the path." "Ye blind guides which strain at a. 
 gnat and swallow a camel ;" it ought to be, "which strain out a gnat, 
 or take a gnat out of the liquor by straining it." The impropriety of 
 the preposition has wholly destroyed the meaning of the phrase. 
 
 The preposition among generally implies a nunaber of things. It 
 can not be properly used in conjunction with tlie word every, which is 
 in the singular number: as, "Which is found among every species of 
 liberty ;'' "The opinion seems to gain ground among everybody." 
 
 " He is resolved of going to the Persian court." Will you correct 
 this sentence ? " You have bestowed your favors to the most deserv- 
 ing persons." How should this sentence be altered ? 
 
 "Reconciling himself with the king." AVhat inaccuracy is there In 
 this sentence ? " They should be informed h\ some parts of his char 
 acter." Will you correct this sentence? 
 
 4. 
 
 " She finds a difficulty o/ fixing her 
 mind." 
 
 "Her sobriety is no derogation to 
 her understanding." 
 
 " There was no water, and he died 
 for (1) thirst." 
 
 " We can fully confide on (2) none 
 but the truly good." 
 
 " I have no occasion of his ser- 
 vices." 
 
 " Many have profited from good 
 advice." 
 
 " Many ridiculous practices have 
 been brought in vogue." 
 
 "The error was occasioned by 
 compliance to earnest en- 
 treaty." 
 
 **This is a principle in unison to 
 our nature." 
 
 "We should entertain no preju- 
 dices to simple and rustic 
 persons." 
 
 *' They are at -present resolved of 
 doing tfieir duty." 
 
 "That boy is known under the 
 name of the idler." 
 
 "Though conformable with cus- 
 tom, it is not warrantable." 
 
 "This remark is founded in truth." 
 
 " His parents think on him and his 
 improvements with pleasure 
 and hope." 
 
 " His excuse was admitted of by 
 (3) his master." 
 
 " What went ye.out for to see?" 
 
 "There appears to have bgen a 
 million men brought into the 
 field." 
 
 "His present was accepted of by 
 his friends." 
 
 "More than a thousand of men 
 were destroyed." 
 
 "It is my request that he will be 
 particular in speaking to the 
 following points." 
 
 " The Saxons reduced the greater 
 part of Britain to their own 
 power." 
 
 "He lives opposite the royal ex- 
 change." 
 
 "Their house is situated to the 
 northeast side of the road." 
 
 " The performance was approved 
 otby all who understood it." 
 
 "He was accused of having acted 
 unfairly." 
 
 " She has an abhorrence to all de- 
 ceitful conduct." 
 
 ^'They were some distance (4) 
 from home, when the acci- 
 dent happened." 
 
 " His deportment was adapted for 
 conciliating regard." 
 
 " My father writes me very fre- 
 quently." 
 
 (l) " Of." 
 16 
 
 (2) "/n." 
 
 (3) " By." 
 
 (4) Rule XXII. 
 
186 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 " When We havie had a true taste 
 for the pleasures of virtue, 
 we can have no relish for 
 those of vice." 
 
 "How hrppy it is to know hi3w 
 to live at limes by one's self, 
 to leave one's self in regret, 
 to find one's self again with 
 pleasure! The world is then 
 less necessary for us." 
 
 '* Civility makes its way among 
 every kind of persons." 
 
 "Their conduct was agreeable 
 
 with their profession." 
 "We went leisurely above stairs, 
 
 and came hastily below. We 
 
 shall write up s^tairs this fore- 
 noon, and down stairs in the 
 
 afternoon." 
 " The politeness of the world has 
 
 the same resemblance with 
 
 benevolence, that the shadow 
 
 has with its substance." 
 " He had a taste of such studies, 
 
 and pursued them earnestly." 
 
 5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when 
 they follow verbs and participles of motion : as, " 1 went to London ;" 
 "I am going Motown." But th*; preposition at is generally used after 
 the neuter verb to be: as, "I have been at London ;" "I was at the 
 place appointed;" "[ shall be at Paris." We likewise say, "He 
 touched, arrived at any place." The preposition ■in is set before 
 countries, cities, and large towns: as, "He lives in France, in Lon- 
 don, or in Birmingham." But before villages, single houses, and 
 cities which are in distant countries, at is used: as, "He lives at 
 Hackney;" "He resides at Monipelier." 
 
 It is. a matter of ''ndifTerence with respect to the pronoun one art' 
 other, whether the prepositicfti of be placed betwe<?n the fwo parts of 
 it, or before them both. We may say, "They were jealous of one 
 another;" or, "They were jealous one of another;" but perhaps the 
 former is better. 
 
 Participles are frequently used as prepositions: as, excepting, re- 
 specting, tonchivg, concerning, according. "They were all in fault ex- 
 cept or excepting him." 
 
 How is the preposition to used with nouns of place? Give aa 
 example. Are participles ever used as prepositions? Give an ex- 
 ample. 
 
 5. , 
 
 "I have been to London, after 
 having resided « year at 
 France; and I now live at 
 Islington." 
 
 "They have just landed in Hull, 
 and are going for Liverpool. 
 They intend to reside some 
 time in Ireland." 
 
 KULE XI. 
 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULE XVIII. 
 
 Conjunctions u&iialli/ connect verba of the same'mood and tense, and nouns 
 or pronouns of the same case. 
 A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further 
 display its utility. "If he prefer a virtuous life, and is sincere in his 
 proles sions, he will succeed ;■' if he prefers." " To deride the miseries 
 o( the unhappy, is inhuman ; and wanting compassion towards them, 
 is unchristian ; " "and to want compassion." "The parliament ad- 
 dressed the king, and has been prorogued the same day;" "and was 
 prorogued." "His wealth and him bid adieu lo each other;" "and 
 Ae." "He entreated us, my comrade oud 1, to live harmoniously;" 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 18t 
 
 •' comrade and me." " My sister and her were on good terms ; " " and 
 «^c." *' We often overlook the blessings which are in our possession, 
 and are searching after those which are out of our reach ;" it ought 
 to be "■ and search after." 
 
 'His wealth and him bid adieu to each other." Will you correct 
 this sentence, and give the rule for Conjunctions? 
 
 "To be moderate in our^iews, 
 and proceeding temperately 
 in the pursuit of them, is the 
 best way to ensure success." 
 
 *' Between him and I there is 
 some disparity of years ; but 
 none between him and she." 
 
 " By forming themselves on fan- 
 tastic models, and ready to 
 vie with one another in the 
 reigning follies, the young be- 
 gin with being ridiculous, 
 and end with being vicious 
 and immoral." 
 
 "Professing regard, and toact{)) 
 differently, discover a base 
 mind." 
 
 " Did he not tell me his fault, and 
 entreated me to forgive him ? " 
 
 "My brother and Jiim are toler- 
 able grammarians." 
 
 "If he understand the subject, 
 and attends io it industrious- 
 Ij'^, he can scarcely fail of 
 success." 
 
 " You and us enjoy many privi- 
 leges." 
 
 " She and him are very unhappily 
 connected." 
 
 1. Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect diflereht 
 moods and tenses of verbs ; but in these instances the nominative 
 •must generally, if not always, be repeated, which is not necessary, 
 though it may be done, under the construction to which the rule re- 
 fers. We may sijy, " He lives temperately, and he should live tem- 
 perately;" "He may retttrn, but ha-unll not continue;'^ "She waa 
 proud, though she i.v now humble:" but it is ol)vious that, in such 
 cases, the nominative ought to be repeated; and that, by this means, 
 the latter members of these sentences are rendered not so strictly 
 dependent on the preceding as those are which come under this rule. 
 When, in the progre.^'S c>( a sentence, we pass from the aiRrmative to 
 the negative form, or from the negative to the aflirniative, the subject 
 or nominative is always resumed: as, " We is ricli, but he is not re- 
 spectable." There appears to be, in general, equal reason for repeat- 
 ing the nominative, and resuming the subject, when the course of 
 the sentence is diverted by a change of the mood or tense. The 
 following sentences may, therefore, be improved: "Anger glances 
 into the breast of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of 
 fools;" "but r('.8ts only ; " or, "but it ivill rest only." "Virtue is praised 
 by many, and would be desired also, if her worth were really known :" 
 "and site would." "The world begins to recede, and will soon dis- 
 appear; " *' and it will." 
 
 Do conjunctions ever connect diflerent moods and lenses of verbs ^ 
 What case must generally be repeated in such instances? Give aa 
 example. 
 
 1. 
 
 "We have met with many disajv 
 pointments; and. if life con- 
 tinue, shall (2) probably meet 
 with manj'^ more." 
 
 Rank may confer inlluetice, but 
 will (3) not necessarily pro- 
 duce virtue." 
 
 (1) " Acting," or " To profess reffard, and to act," etc. 
 will." 
 
 (2)«m shaU?' (3)'«i< 
 
188 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 " He does not want courage, but " He might have been happy, and 
 
 is defective in sensibility." is now (1) fully convinced of 
 
 "These people have indeed ac- it." 
 
 quired great riches, but do " Learning strengthens the mind, 
 
 not command esteem." and, if properly applied, will 
 
 "Our seasons of improvement improve our morals too." 
 ar^short, and, whether used ♦ 
 or not, will soon pass away." 
 
 KULE XXVIII. 
 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULE XIX. 
 
 Some coyijtmctions require tJie indicative, some the Buhjunctive, mood after 
 them. It is a general rule thaty when, something contingent or doubtful 
 is implied, the subjunctive ought to be used : as, " If I toere to write he 
 would not regard it;" " He will not be pardoned unless he rcpeitt." 
 
 Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature require the indica- 
 tive mood : "As \ivl\ie advances, so \icii recedes f "He is healthy, 
 Jccau«e he 78 temperate." 
 
 The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, etc., generally 
 require the subjunctive mood after them : as, "7/" thou be afflicted, 
 repine not ;" " Though he slai/ me, yet will I trust in him ;" " He 
 can not be clean, unless he wash himself;" " No power except it icere 
 given from above;" ^^ Whether it 7cere I or they, so we preach." But* 
 even these conjunctions, when the sentence does not imply doubt, 
 admit of the indicative : as, "Thoughhe is poor, he is contented." 
 
 The following example may, in some measure, serve to illustrate 
 the distinction between the subjunctive and tlie indicative moods : 
 " Though he were divinely inspired, and spoke, therefore, as the oracles 
 of God, with supreme authority ; though he icere endued with super- 
 natural powers, and could, therefore, have confirmed the truth of 
 what he uttered, by miracles — yet, in compliance With the way in 
 which human nature and reasonable creatures are usually wrought 
 upon, he reasoned," That our Saviour was divinely inspired, and 
 endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken 
 for granted, as not admitting the least doubt ; they would, therefore, 
 have been better expressed in the indicative mood: "Though he luas 
 divinely inspired; though he uas endued with supernatural powers." 
 The subjunctive is used in the like improper manner in the follow- 
 ing example : " Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience by 
 the things which he suflered." But, in a similar passage, the indica- 
 tive, with great pro))riety, is employed to the same purpose: '^I'hough 
 he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor." 
 
 What conj.unctions generally require the subjunctive mood after 
 them? 
 
 '* If he acquires (2) riches, they " I shall walk in the fields to-day, 
 will corrupt his mind, and be unless it rains." ^ 
 
 useless to others." " As the governess were (3) pres- 
 
 *' Though he urges me yet more ent, the children behaved 
 
 earnestly, 1 shall not comply, properly." 
 
 unless he advances more for- 
 cible reasons." 
 
 {\) '' And now he is." (2)464. (.3)465. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 189 
 
 "She disapproved the measure, 
 because it were very improp- 
 er." ' 
 
 "Though he be high, he hath re- 
 spect to the lowly." 
 
 *' Though he were her friend, he 
 did not attempt to justify her 
 conduct." 
 
 *' Whether he improve or not I 
 can not determine." ' 
 
 Though the fact be extraordina- 
 
 "■yj 't certainly did happen." 
 Kemember what thou wert, and 
 be (1) humble." 
 "O that his heart was tender, 
 and susceptible of the woes 
 of others." 
 " Shall then this verse to future 
 
 age pretend, 
 Thou wert my -uide, philosopher, 
 and IrieMd.^"' 
 
 requifr,h:"nbjt:,^.t;^'!SV".s To"""'" "'r^'-'^' "—^"ily 
 
 •'//he 6. bu, .liscree(,ho wm 'uccLed '• ill'f' '^"?' '''"" "''"''^'" 
 be used, on this occasion «,h„,? a,? .■ ' "'= ""JicMive ought to 
 
 she .vC^ ^0° 'A'„''h' *"' ^''^'Th^s"'"'"^?-^''""''' ''« ""'»'" ■ ' "^> 
 following ,brn,s of expressS: " If he T'utui'rv "" n"'.'''''?'' '" ""= 
 
 r:'irCw:s'Thifiei£"hi"t^iS^4'"™ 
 
 hea,..iiy fo.,... ^;„,::xvo: ro'^'^et'iroSl^-" " " "'°- ■'-' 
 
 "Despise not any condition, lest 
 
 it happens to be your own." 
 "Let him that is sanguine take 
 
 heed lest he miscarries." 
 "Take care that thou breakest 
 
 not any of the established 
 
 rules." 
 "If he does but (2) intimate his 
 
 desire, it will be sufficient to 
 
 produce obedience." 
 "At the time of his return, if he 
 
 is but expert in the business, 
 
 he will find employment." 
 "If he do but speak to display 
 
 1. 
 
 his abilities, he is unworthy 
 of attention." 
 
 " If he be but in health, I am con- 
 tent." 
 
 " If he does promise, he will cer- 
 tainly perform." 
 
 "Though he do praise her, it is 
 only for her beauty." 
 
 " If thou dost not forgive, per- 
 haps thou wilt not be forgiv- 
 en." 
 
 "If thou do sincerely believe the 
 truths of religion, act accord- 
 ingly." 
 
 wii "• leu, anu inink [(hat] he were not wrong." 
 
 Wdl you repeat this note, and give an example under it ? 
 
 (1) Tmpera, 
 
 (2) 654. 
 
190 ENOLI8H ORAMMAR 
 
 2. 
 "His confused behavior made it " Hi" apolojry was so plausible 
 
 reasonable to suppose that be lliat many bclriendcd him, 
 
 frtTf guilty." and ihonght lie were inno- 
 
 " He is so conscious of deserving cent." 
 
 the rebuke, that he dare not 
 
 make any reply." 
 
 3. The saiuo conjunction governing- both the indicative and the 
 subjunctive moods, in the same sentcnc«» and in the same circum- 
 stances, seems to be a great impropriety — as in these inslanres: "Jf 
 there he but one body of Icgisliilors, it is no better than a lyranny; if 
 there are only two, there will want a casting voice." "//" a man hat* 
 A hundred ^hcep, mid one of llicui i« gone astray," etc. 
 
 May the same conjunction have both the stibjunctive and indica- 
 tive moods after it in the same sentence ? Give an e:tainple of this 
 impropriety. 
 
 .S. 
 
 " If one man j.n-cjcr a life of in- unless he aim ;il reputation, 
 dustry. it is because he has or hopes for some singular 
 an idea of comfort in wealth; advantage." 
 if another prefers a life of " Though the design be laudable, 
 gayety, it is fron) a like idea and is favorable to our in- 
 concerning j)leasure." terest, it will involve much 
 
 "No one engages in that l/Usiiiess anxiety and labor." 
 
 4. Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language 
 have arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally in- 
 serted in the sentence, and made it regular; and it is probable that 
 this has generally been the case with respect to the conjunctive form 
 of words now in use. which will appear iVom the following examples: 
 *• We shall overtake him. though he j-hh/" that is, " ihou'ih lie thuxild 
 run." •" Unless he act prudently, he will not accomplish his purpose ;" 
 that is, " unless he shall act prudently." " If he HKccred, and obtain 
 his end, he will not be the happier fir it;" that is, "if he nhould suc- 
 ceed, and should obtain his end." These remarks and examples are 
 designed to show the original of many of our present conjunctive 
 Ibrms of expression, and to enable the student to examine the pro- 
 priety of usigg them, by tracing the words in que^lion to their i)ro|)er 
 origin and ancient connecticms. But it is necessary to be more par- 
 ticular on this subject, and therefore we shall add a few observations 
 respecting it. 
 
 That p.irt of the verb which grammarians call the present tense of 
 the subjunctive mood has a future signiiication. This is efl'ecled by 
 varying the ti'rminations of the second and third |ier.>ons sinj^ular of 
 the indicative, as will be evident from the following exaini)les : "If 
 ihou proHjjer, thou sbouUlst be tliiuikful ;" ''I'niess he stiidt/ more 
 closely, he will never he learned." ."^ome writers, however, would 
 express these sentiments without those variations: " If thou ^j/os^jfir- 
 c.v^," etc. ; '' Unless he .v/i(f^»t«,'' etc. ; and, as there is great diversity 
 of ))raclice on this point, it is proper to offer the learners a few re- 
 marks to assist them in distinguishing the right application of these 
 different fbrnis of expression. It may be considered, as a rule, that the 
 changes of termination are necessary wlieii lliese two circumstances 
 concur: Isi, When the subject is ol a dubious and contingent nature j 
 
SYNTAX. 191 
 
 and, 2d, When the verb has a reference to future time. In the follow- 
 ng sentences both these circumstances will be found to unite -Tf 
 thou y,;„rc another, thou M-ili hurt thyself" "• He has a hard heart 
 and It he ronhmie impenitent, he must suffer." "IIe^vil! maintain 
 h.s principles iho.igh he lose his estate." - Wlunhcr 1 e s /STr 
 
 rr,in'e'''":f;;''r" iV'^":"^"'' ''''' ^^ '^r •--P^-u'"he'wmVo 
 repine i( ., man smUe his servaiH, and he die" etc.— PJxod xxi 20 
 
 In all these examples the things si^nihed by the verbs are micer ah, 
 and re/er to future time. But in the instaijces which follow fut'e 
 
 r"cV-^"?f,irou^r' T'T' 'T'r ^ 'V^^'^^"^ -n'trucZ/uke: 
 puue . it thou livest virtuously, thou art hapjjy." " Unless he mean^ 
 
 virtue, he does not regard her precepts." "Though he seen, to be 
 simple and artless, he hos dece.Ved us." " Wheihe v m e " I etter 
 
 Lenten es no In. ^T\ '^'^y*^'^'' «^ti "Acts viii, 37. There are many 
 
 ^a^V r^^ei of-t^''"'""'''''r%"V^°"^'"^*^"'^>' '^"'^ fnturity^are ncc^s- 
 ,w'j •^'''' ,P''"P'''^"ty of altering the lermiiiations, will be evi- 
 
 dent by inspeeiing the following examples, which show tl^t there are 
 us anees ,n which neither of thecircumstances alone mpestt^the, 
 r V -'I'Tnrrf ' 'f ""'"^7 contingency is denote'd, but no fu" 
 uirity . it he thuks as he speaks, he may safely be trusted •" " If he 
 t. now disposed to it. I will perform li.e operation •''- He acts un 
 rv^htly, unless ho decaves me.'' In the following ent'encefutni^lvT; 
 
 S-' 'as r ^'^"^'■"^""T "^^^ •?"" ■'' '^^ su.r,^:,, U w ?^be 
 gra e."' '""^*" "^''«''^^''' these birds will gradually emi- 
 
 It appear-s, from the tenor of ihe examples adduced, that the rules 
 above mentioned may be extended to assert that, in ca'e. whereTn 
 contingency and futurity do not concur, it is not proper to tu if tie 
 verb from its signification of present time, or to vJry ts fo n or ter 
 mination. The verb would then be in the indicative mood whatever 
 conjunctions might attend it, If these rules, which seLTto f rm the 
 rue distinction between the subjunctive and the indicave moods n 
 this tense, were adopted and established in practice, we should have 
 on his point, a principle of decision .imple'and pr^ci.^ and eabfj 
 applicable to every case that might occu'r. h wi I. doni tiJ.s some- 
 1 mes happen that, on this oc-asion. as well as on many other occa- 
 sions, a .strict adherence to grMmmal.cal rules would render the hn. 
 
 4o give the expression a different turn, than violate grammar for the 
 sake o( ease, or even of elegance. <iiMm.ir lor me 
 
 Has the present tense oi" the snbjnnclive mood a fnlure -^ienifiea- 
 t.on? How IS this effected^ What two circumstances .shouTd eon- 
 cur to render necessHry this change of termination' 
 
 Should the termination be changed when futurity and contingency 
 do not coijcur / What mood or form will the verb then be ^^ ? ^"^"^^^ 
 
 •1. 
 
 " ^'' no'L^h/kr"' ^'''*"'' ^" '"" ^^" " '^'^""^^ ''^ /"''"• ^^ •''>«" "ot be 
 
 utterly vast down " 
 
102 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 there all is order, beauty, and 
 pleasure." 
 
 "If Charlotte desire to gain es- 
 teem and love, she does not 
 employ the proper means." 
 
 "Unless the accountant deceive 
 me, my estate is considerably 
 improved." 
 
 " Though self-government pro- 
 duce some uneasiness, it is 
 light when compared with the 
 pain of vicious indulgence." 
 
 " Whether he tliink as he speaks, 
 lime will discover." 
 
 "If thou censure uncharitably, 
 thou deserv«;st no favor." 
 
 "Though virtue appenr severe, 
 she is truly amiable." 
 
 " Though success be very doubt- 
 ful, it is proper that he en- 
 deavors to succeed." 
 
 "On. condition that he cornea, I 
 
 will consent to stay." 
 "However that affair terminates, 
 (1) my conduct will be unim- 
 peachable." 
 " If virtue rewards us not .so soon 
 as we desire, the payment 
 will be made with interest." 
 "Till repentance composes his 
 mind, he will be a stranger to 
 peace." 
 " Whether he confesses or not, 
 the truth will certainly be dis- 
 covered." 
 " If thou censurest uncharitably, 
 thou wilt be entitled to no fa- 
 vor." 
 " Though, at times, the ascent to 
 the temple of virtue appears 
 steep and craggy, be not dis- 
 couraged. Persevere until 
 thou gainest the sommit: » 
 
 f). On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses of the sub- 
 junctive mood it seems proper to make a few observations. Some 
 writers express themselves in the perfect tense as follows: " If thou 
 fuive determined, we must submit;" Unless he have consented, the 
 writings will be void." But we believe that few authors of critical 
 sagacity write in this manner. The proper form seems to be, " If thou 
 hast determined." "Unless he has consented," etc., conformably to 
 what we generally meet witti in the Bible: "I have surnamed thee, 
 though thou hast not known me." — Isaiah xlv, 4, 5. "■ What is the 
 hope of the hypocrite, though he Aa<A gained," etc. — Job xxvii, 8. See, 
 also, Acts xxviii, 4. 
 
 " If thou have determined, we must submit." How should this 
 sentence be altered? 
 
 5. 
 
 "Ifthou ^aue promised, be faithful to submission, he is too gen- 
 
 to thy engagement." erous to exact it." 
 
 "Though he have proved his right " Unless he have improved, he is 
 
 unfit for the odice." 
 
 G. In the pluperfect and future lenses we sometimes meet with 
 such expressions as these: "If thou had applied thyself diligently, 
 thou wouldsi have reaped the advantage ; " " Unless thou shall speak 
 the whole truth, we can not determine; " " If thou isfll undertake the , 
 business, therii is little doiiln of success." This mode of expressing 
 the auxiliaries does not appear to be warraijted by the general prac- 
 tice of correct writers. They should be hadst, shult, and wilt; and 
 we find them used in this form in the Sacred Scriptures: "If thou 
 hadnt known, etc. — Lukexix, 47. " if thou Jiadst been here," etc. — 
 John xi, 21. " If thou io//r, thou canst make me clean."^ — Mall» viii, 
 2. See, also, 2 Sam. ii, 27; Matt, xvii, 4. * 
 
 "If thou wilt undertake the business, tiiere is little doubt of suc- 
 
 (1) "Or, may terminatfiy 
 
SYNTAX. 193 
 
 cess." Ts this mode of expression warranted by good authority? 
 How should it be altered ? 
 
 6. 
 
 *' If thou Aarf succeeded, perhaps priety of the measure, we 
 
 thou wouldst not be the hap- shall not desire thy support." 
 
 pier for it." y « Thoua^h thou will not acknowl- 
 
 " Unless thou shall see the pro- edge, thou canst not deny the 
 
 fact." 
 
 » 
 
 7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense, in the sub- 
 junctive mood, is also very frequently varied in its termination: as, 
 "If tliou loved him truly, thou wouldst obey him;" "Though thou 
 did conform, thou hast gained nothing by it." This variation, how- 
 ever, appears to be improper. Our present version of the Scriptures, 
 which we again refer to as a good grammatical authority in points of 
 this nature, decides against it: "If thou knewest the sfift," etc. — John 
 iv, 10. "If thou didst receive it, why dost thou glory?" etc. — 1 Cor. 
 iv, 7. See, also, Dan. v, 22. But it is proper to remaric that the 
 form of the verb to be, when used subjunctively in the imperfect 
 tense, is indeed very considerably and properly varied from that 
 which ii has in the imperfect of the indicative mood, as the learner 
 will perceive by turning to the conjugation of that verb. 
 
 Is the second person singular of the imperfect ever varied in its 
 termination in the subjunctive mood ? Will you give an example ? Is 
 this variation proper ? 
 
 1. 
 
 " If thou gave liberally, thou wilt lent, this conduct would de- 
 receive a liberal reward." base him." 
 
 "Though thou did injure him, he " Was I to enumerate all her vir- 
 
 harbors no resentment." tues, it would look lilce flat- 
 
 "It would be well, if the report tery." 
 
 was only the misrepresenla- " Though I was perfect, yet would 
 
 tion of her enemies." I not presume." 
 
 " Was he ever so great and opu- 
 
 8. It may not be superfluous also to observe that the auxiliaries of 
 the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, do not change 
 the termination of the second person singular. We properly say, 
 "If thou rrtayst of canst go;" "Though thou migktHt live;" "Unless 
 thou couldst read;" "If thou looiddst learn;" — and not, "If thou 
 mmy or can go," etc. It is sufficient, on this point, to adduce the au- 
 thorities of Johnson and Lowth: "If thon ekon/dst go." — Johmon. " If 
 thou mayst, mightut, or corddst love." — LoTath. Some authors think 
 that, when that expresses the motive or end, the termination of these 
 auxiliaries should be varied: as, "I advise thee, that thou way be- 
 ware ; " " He checked thee, that thou shoitld not presume ; " but there 
 does not appear to be any ground for this exception. Lt' the expres- 
 sion of "condition, doubt, contingency," etc., does not warrant a 
 change in the form of these auxiliaries, why should they have it, when 
 a motive or end is expressed ? Tl)e translators of the Scriptures do 
 not appear to have made the distinction contended for. "Thou 
 buildest the will, that thou mayxt bi< their king." — Neh. vi, 6. " There 
 is forgiveness with thee, that thou nuc^'ft be feared." — Ps. cxxx, 4. 
 
 From the preceding observations under this rule it appears that, 
 wTih fespect ^ \v>rtt m ternrt^d th'e ]^6s«nt t^ntfe tff any Verh, Vh«3n 
 17 
 
194 ENOLISll GKAMMAR. 
 
 Ihe circumstances of contingency and futurity concur, it is proper lo 
 vary the terminations of the >econtl and tliird jier.sons ^intrular; that 
 without the concnrriMice of those cirrnru.-taiices. the Itrniination 
 should not be altered; and that the verb and tlie auxiliaries of the 
 three pa>t tenses, and the auxiharies of the llrst future, undergo no 
 alterations wliatever, except the xinq)erfect of the verb to le, which, 
 in cases denoting contingency, is varied in all the persons of the 
 singular number. 
 
 After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, it will be 
 • natural for the student to inquire wliat. is the extent of the subjunc- 
 tive mood? Some grammarians think it extends only to what is 
 called. the present tense of verbs generally, iincler the circiimslances 
 of contingency and futurity, and to the imperlect tense of the verb 
 to he, when it denotes contingency, etc., becnuse in these tenses only 
 the form of the verb admits of variation ; and they suppose that it is 
 variation merely wliich constitutes the di>tinclioa of moods. It is 
 the opinion of other grammarians (in which opinion we concur) 
 that, besides the two cases just mentioned, all v«^rlis in the three past 
 and the two future tenses are in tbe subjunctive mood, when they 
 denote contingency or uncertainty, though they have not any change 
 of terminalion ; and that,M'hen contingency is not sfgnilit'd. the verb, 
 through all these five tenses, belong-; lo the indicative mood, what- 
 ever conjunction may attend it. They lliink that the definition and 
 nature of the subjunctive mood have no reference to change of'ter- 
 mination, but thai they refer merely to the manner of the being, ac- 
 tion, or passion signified by the verb; and that the subjunctive Uiood 
 may as properly exist without a variation ol' the verb as the infinitive, 
 mood, which has no terminations different from those of the indica- 
 tive. The decision of this point may not, by some grammarians, be 
 thought of much consequence. But the rules which aseertain the 
 propriety of varying or not varying the terminations of the verb, will 
 certainly be deemed imj)orlant. These rules may be well oliserved, 
 without a uniformily of sentiment respecting the nature anil limits of 
 -the subjunctive mood.* 
 
 Do the auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the sub- 
 junctive, change the termination of the second person singular? 
 When is it proper to vary the terminations of the second and tfiird 
 persons singular of the present tense? Do the verb and auxiliaries 
 of the past lenses, and the auxiliaries of the (irst future, undergo 
 any alteration? What exception? What is the opinion of some 
 
 "Wo have stated, for the student's Hifoiniation, the difTeient opiiiionK of gram- 
 marians rcspecliiig the English siibjinutivc mood: First, that whicli bnpposes 
 there is no such mood in our language ; Secondly, that which extends it nofnrthcr 
 than the variations of the verb extend; Tlnrdly, that which weh.ave adopted and 
 explained itt large, and wliieh, in gi^neral. cc iiespondH with tlie' view.sof the most 
 approved writers on Engli.sh grimuiiar. We may add n fourth opinion, which ap- 
 pears to posseHB. at ler.st, much phiusibiJity, This opinion admits the arrange- 
 ment we have given, with one variation, nuntelv, that of assigning to the, first 
 tense of the sulijnncfive two forms — 1st, tliat which sinqjly denotes contingency, 
 is, "If he desires it, 1 will perform the operation" — (hat is, if he now desires it; 
 2<l]y, that whish denotes t)0th contingency and futurity, as. "If he desire it, I will 
 perform the ojjeration" — that is, " Jf lie .«liouhl hereafter desire it.' This last the- 
 ory of the subjunctive mood claims (he merit of rendering the whole system of 
 the moods consistent and regular — of being more couforniable tlian any otlier to 
 the definition of tlie subjunctive, and of not referring to the iiulicative mood forms 
 of fexpressiou wliich ill accord with its simplicity and nature, l^-rhaps this the- 
 ory will bear a strict cxiiminatiou." 
 
SVJNTAX. 195 
 
 granunarians in regard to the extent of the subjunctive mood? What 
 is the opinion of other grammarians ? In which of these opinions 
 does the author concur? 
 
 8. 
 
 *'If thou may share in his labors, "Unless thou can fairly support 
 
 be thankful, and do it cheer- the cause, give it up honor- 
 
 fullv." ablv." 
 
 "Though thou might have fore- "Unless thou should make a 
 
 seen the danger, thou couldst timely retreat, the danger 
 
 not have avoided it." wlU be unavoidable." 
 
 "If thou could convince him, he "I have labored and wearied my- 
 
 M'ould not act accordingly." self that thou may be at 
 
 '* If thou would improve in knowl- ease." . 
 
 edge, be diligent." "He enlarged on those dangers, 
 
 • that thou should avoid them." 
 
 9. Soine conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions belonging 
 to them, either expressed or understood : as — 
 
 1st. T/iough — yet, nevertheless : as, " Though he was rich, yet for our 
 sakes he became poor ;" Though powerful, he was meek." 
 
 2d. Whether — or : as, " Whether he will go or not, I can not tell." 
 
 *id. Either — or : as, " I will either f>e\\d it, or bring it myself." 
 
 4th. Neither — nor : '* Neither he nor I am able to compass it." 
 
 5th. As — as: expressing a cgmparison of equality: as, "She is 
 an amiable as her sister, and as much respected." 
 
 Olli. As — so : expressiHga com[)arison of equality: as, 'Ms the stars, 
 eo shall thy seed be." 
 
 •7th. As- — so: expressing a comparison of equality: '^ As the one 
 dieth, 80 dieth the other ;" '■'As he reads, so they read." 
 
 8th. So — a-^ : with a verb expressing a comiarison of quality: as, 
 " To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary." 
 
 9th. So — as : with a negative and an adjective expressing a compari- 
 son of quantity: as, " Ponipey was not so great a general as Cassar, 
 nor so great a man." 
 
 10th. So — that: expressing a consequence: as, "He was sofa-, 
 tigued that he could scarcely move." 
 
 Xhe conjunctions or and nor may often be used with nearly equal 
 propriety. "The king, whose character was not sufPicieutly vigor- 
 ous nor decisive, assented to the measure." In this sentence, or 
 would, perhaps, have been better ; but, in general, vor seems to repeat 
 the negation in the former part of the sentence, and therefore gives 
 more emphasis to the expression. * 
 
 Are there any conjunctions which have correspondent conjunc- 
 tions belonging to them? Giv»» examples. 
 
 9. 
 
 " Neillier the cold or the fervid, " He is not as diligent and learn- 
 but characters uniformly ed as his brother." 
 warm, are formed for friend- "I will present it to him myself, or 
 ship." direct it to be given to him." 
 
 "They are both praiseworthy, "Neither despise or oppose 
 
 and one is cf/v/cr//// (1) deserv- what thou dost not under- 
 
 insc^sis the other." stand." 
 
 (1) For *' equality,'' read " a«.'' 
 
196 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 "The house is not as commodi- 
 ous as we expected it would 
 be." 
 
 "I must, however, be so candid 
 to own I have been mistak- 
 en." 
 
 " There was something so amiable 
 and yet so piercing in his 
 look, as (1) aflected me at 
 once with love and terror." 
 
 " I gained a son ; 
 
 And such a son as all men hailed 
 me happy." 
 
 *' The dog in the manger would 
 not eat the hay himself, nor 
 suffer the ox to eat it." 
 
 " As far as I am able to judge, 
 the book is well written," 
 
 "We should faithfully .perform 
 the trust committed to us, or 
 uigenunusiy relinquish the 
 charge." 
 
 "He is not as emineut, and as 
 much esteemed, as he thinks 
 himself to be." 
 
 " The work is a dull performance, 
 and is neither capable of 
 pleasing ("2) the understand- 
 ing or the imagination." 
 
 "There is no condition so secure 
 as can not admit of change." 
 
 "This is an event which nobody 
 presumes upon, or is so san- 
 guine to hope for." 
 
 " We are generally pleased with 
 any little accomplishments of 
 body or mind." 
 
 10. Conjuiu'tions are often improperly used, both singly and in 
 pairs. The following are examples of th's impropriety: " The rela- 
 tions are so uncertain, as that they require a great deal of examina- 
 tion ;" it should be, " that they require," etc. " There was no man 
 so sanguine, who did not apprehend some ill consequences ;" it ought 
 to be, '* so sanguine as not to apprehend," etc. ; or, " no man. how 
 sanguine soever, who did .not," etc. "To trust in him is no more 
 but to acknowledge his power." "This is no other but the gate of 
 paradise." In both of these instances hxU should be than. " We 
 should suflicieiuly weigh the object^ of our hope — whether they are 
 such as we may reasonably expect from them what they jiropose," 
 etc. ; it ought to be, *' that we may reasonably," etc. " The duke had 
 not behaved with that loyalty as he ought to have done;" " with which 
 he ought." " lu the order as they lie iu his preface;"- it should be, 
 "in order as they lie;" or, "in the order in xohich they lie." "Such 
 sharp' .replies that cost him his life;" "■ as coat^'' eXc. "If he were 
 truly that scarecrow, as he is now commonly painted ;" " such a scare- 
 crow," etc. " I wish I could do that justice to his memory, to oblige 
 the painters," etc.; "do «mcA justice as to oblige," etc. 
 
 Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it ? What is 
 said of sentences beginning with the conjunctive form of the verb ? 
 Give an ^xample. When has a« the force of a relative pronoun? (3) 
 Give an example. 
 
 There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the con- 
 junctive form of a verb. " Were there no difference, there would be 
 no choice." 
 
 A double con]unctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence?, 
 is sometimes made use of: as, " Had he done this, he hud esf^aped '" 
 '■'Had the limitations on the prerogative been, in his time, quite fixed 
 and certain, his integrity hail made him regard as sacred the bounda- 
 ries of the constitution." The sentence in the common form would 
 
 (1) " Jlxat it." (2) "NeitJui' t?ie." (8) 650. 
 
BYHTAJL. 
 
 197 
 
 have read thus: "If the limitations on the prerogative had been," 
 etc., "his integrity would haye made him regard," etc. 
 
 The particle as, when it is connected with the pronoun such, has 
 the force of a relative pronoun: as, "Let such as pre.^'Ume to advise 
 others, look well to their own conduct ;" which is equivalent to, "Let 
 them who presume," etc. But when used by itself, liiis particle is to 
 be considered as a conjunction, or perhaps as an adverb. 
 
 Our language wants a conjunction adapted to a familiar style, equiv- 
 alent to notwUhstanding. The words fvr all that seem to be too low. 
 " The word was in the mouth of every one, but, for all that, the sub- 
 ject may still be a secret." 
 
 In regard that is solemn and antiquated ; because would do much 
 belter in the following sentence : " It can not be otherwise, in regard 
 that the French prosody differs from that of every other language," 
 
 The word except is (ar preferable to other than. " It admitted of no 
 eflectual cure other than amputation." Except is also to be preferred 
 to all but; " They were happy, all but the stranger." In the. two fol- 
 lowing phrases thCtConjunction as is improperly omitted : " Which no- 
 body presumes or is so sanguine to hope." "I must, however, be 
 80 just , to own." ■'^ 
 
 The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and understood : 
 as, " I beg you would come to me ;" " See thou do it not ;" instead 
 of " that you would," "that thou do. "^ But in the following, and 
 many sin)ilar phrases, this conjunction were much belter inserted: 
 "Yet it is reason tfyi memory of their virtues remain to posterity." 
 It should be, " Yet it is just that the memory," elc. 
 
 10. 
 
 * Be ready to succor such persons 
 who (1) need thy assistance." 
 
 *' The matter was no sooner pro- 
 posed, but (2) he privately 
 withdrew to consider it." 
 
 " He has too much sense and 
 prudence than to become a 
 dupe to such artifices." 
 
 " It is not suflBcient that our con- 
 duct, as far as it respects oth- 
 ers, appears to be unexcep- 
 tionable." 
 
 " The resolution was not the less 
 fixed, that (3) the secret was 
 yet communicated to very 
 few." 
 
 "He opposed the most remarka- 
 ble corruptions oithe Church 
 of Rome, so (A)' as that his' 
 doctrines were embraced by 
 great numbers." 
 
 " Germany ran the same risk as 
 Italy had done." 
 
 He gained nothing further by 
 his speech, but only (5) to be 
 commended for his elo- 
 quence." 
 
 ' He has little more of the schol 
 ar besides the name." 
 
 ' H,j has lilileof the scholar than 
 the name." 
 
 • They had no sooner risen, but 
 they applied themselves to 
 their studies."' 
 From no other institution, be- 
 sides the admirable one of 
 juries, could so great a bene- 
 fit be expected." 
 
 ■ Those savage people seemed 
 to have no other element but 
 war." 
 
 Such me;i that act treacherously 
 ought to be avoided." 
 
 'No errors are so trivial, but they 
 (6) deserve to be corrected." 
 
 (1) " As." (2) « Than." (3) 
 ctpty (6) " That thty d-o not." 
 
 Though." (4) " And on this account." (6) " E»- 
 
198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 EULE XXIX. 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RULK XX. 
 
 When the qiialitiea of difl'ere7if things arc compared, the latter noun or 
 pronoun is not yaverncd hi/ the conjunction than or as, but agrees with 
 the verb, or ia governed bi/ the verb or j^reposition, expressed or under- 
 stood ; aa, "Tliou art wiser than 1;" that ia^ ''than I am." '' Tliey 
 loved him more than me;" that ia, "more than they loved me." 
 • "The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by 
 Solomon than him ;" " that is, "than by him." 
 
 The propriety or impropriety of many phrases in the preceding, as 
 well as iii some other forms, may be discovered by supplying- the 
 words thiil are not expressed — which will be evident from the follow- 
 ing instances of erroneous construction : " He can read belter than 
 me." '-He is as good as her." " Wliether I be present or no." "Who 
 did this? Me." By supplying the words understood in each of these 
 phrases, their impropriety and governing rule will appear: as, "better 
 than I can read ;" "as good as she is;" " present or not present :" 
 "I did it." 
 
 "Thou art wiser than I." Will you parse 7, and repeat the rule 
 for it ? 
 
 "In some respects we have had "They know how to write as well 
 as many advantages as them ; as him; but he is a much bet- 
 
 but in the article of a good li- ter grammarian than them." 
 
 brary, they have had a greater "Though she is not so learned as 
 privilege than us." him, ^e is as much beloved 
 
 "The undertaking was much bet- and respected." 
 
 ter executed by his brother "These people, though they pos- 
 than he." sess more shining qualities, 
 
 "They are much greater gainers are not so proud as him, nor 
 
 than me by this unexpected so vain as her." 
 
 event." 
 
 1. By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed — 
 a number of which js subjoined, as a further caution and direction to 
 the learner: "Thou art a much greater Ictser than me by his death." 
 "She suffers hourly more than me." "We contributed a third more 
 than the Dutch, who were obliged to the same proportion more than 
 us.'U "King Charles, and, more than him, the duke and the popish 
 faction, were at liberty to form new schenxes." "The drift of all his 
 sermons was, to prepare the .Tews for the reception of a prophet 
 mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear." "It 
 was not the work of so eminent an author as him to whom it was first 
 imputed." "A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; btit a fool's 
 wrath is heavier than them both." " If the king give us leave, we 
 may perform the office as well as them that do." In these passages 
 it ought to be, " /, roe, he, they,''' respectively. 
 
 When the relative who immediately follows than, it seems to form 
 an exception to the 2'Jth Rule — for, in that connection, the relative 
 must be in the objective case: as, "Alfred, than whom, a greater king 
 never reigned," etc. " Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none 
 liigher sat," etc. It is remarkable that, in such instances, if the per- 
 sonal pronoun were used, it would be in the nominative case: as, "A 
 
SYNTAX. 199 
 
 greater king' never reigned than. Ae," etc., — that is, ^^(han he jcns.^^ 
 " Beelzebub, j//,«)t he.'' etc.. — that is, ''than he sot^ The phrase fhaii 
 whom is, however, avoided iiy the best modern writers. 
 
 "She snllers hourly niore lliaa nio." Will you correct this sen- 
 tence, and explain why it is wrong? 
 
 1. 
 
 ** "Who betrayed her eotnpanion ?" no, must depend on his 'ap- 
 
 '•Not »if." plication." 
 
 "Who revealed the secrets he '-Charles Xll, of Sweden, than 
 
 ouo^hi to have concealed?" who (1) a more courageous 
 
 " Not /ii'w."' person never lived, appears 
 
 " Who related falsehoods to screen to have been destitute of iho 
 
 herself, and to bring an odi- tender sensibilities ofnature." 
 
 uiu upon others." "Not me; "Salmasius (a more learned man 
 
 it was /ler.'' than him has seldom appear- 
 
 *'There is but one in fault, and ed) was not happy at the close 
 
 that is me." of life." 
 
 " Whether he will be learned or 
 
 RULE XXX. * 
 
 Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 RITLE XXI. 
 
 To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to axpreis our ideas in a feio 
 words, an e/lipsis, or otui-ifiion of soi/te word-i, iv frequently admitted. 
 Instead of sayififf^ " He was a learned man, he was a wise man, and 
 he was a good man," we ina/ci uh-e of the eUi2fn8, and sai/, '* lie was a 
 learned, wi^e, and good man." 
 
 JV/ie)> the omifision of words laonld ohtcure the sentence, iceake)t. its force, 
 or be attended with an impropriety, the)/ Tfinst be expressed. In the 
 sentence, " We are apt lo love who love us," th'e word them should be 
 supplied. '*A beautiful field and trees" is not proper language ; it 
 should be, "Beautiful fields and trees," or "A beautiful field and fine 
 trees." 
 
 Almost all compounded sentences are more or less elliptical, some 
 examples of which may be seen muter the difTerent parts of speech. 
 
 " I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me." Will you correct this 
 sentence, and repeat the latter part of Rule XXX, by which the cor- 
 rection is made? 
 
 " I gladly shunned (2) who gladly fell a victiiu to the madness of 
 
 fled from me." the people, inuh, virtue, re- 
 
 "And this is (3) it men mean by dis- ligion, fell with him."" (5) 
 
 tributive justice, and is prop- "The fear of death, nor hope of 
 
 erly termed equity." life, could make him submit to 
 
 "His honor, interest, religion, a dishonest iu-lion." (0) 
 
 were all euibarked in this "An elegant hou<e and furniture 
 
 undertaking." (4) were, by this event, irrecov- 
 
 " When so good a man as Socrates erably lost to the owner." (7) 
 
 (1) " lf^/w>wi"— Note XX. (648.) (2) " mm who." (3) " That which." (4) Tn- 
 gcrt "/its" twice more. (6) •'>4h(/" twice. (8) '^ N^cither — nor.'' (1) ^- Much cost- 
 
200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. The ellipsis of the article is thus used: "A man, woman, and 
 child;" that is, "a man, a woman, and a child." "A lipuse and gar- 
 den ;" that is, "a house and a garden." "The sun and moon;'' that 
 is, '' the sun and the moon." " The day and hour," that is, *' the day 
 and the hour." In all these instances, the article being once express- 
 ed, the repetition of it becomes unnecessary. There is, however, ao 
 exception to this observation, when some peculiar emphasis requires 
 a repetition, as in the fojlowiug sentence: "Not only the year, but 
 the day and the hour." In this case the ellipsis of the last article 
 would be improper. When a different form of the article is requisite, 
 the article is also properly repeated : as, "A house and a?^ orchard," 
 instead of "a house and orchard." 
 
 Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the article* Is it neces- 
 sary to repeat the article in each of these instances? 
 
 "These rules are addressed to a dreary season, if we arrive 
 
 none but theintelligent and at it with an unimproved, or 
 
 the (1) attentive." with a corrupted mind." 
 
 ''The gay and the pleasing are, " The more I see of his conduct, 
 sometimes, the most insidi- I like him better." 
 
 ous and the mo.>^ dangerous "It is not only the duty, but in- 
 companions." terest, of young persons to 
 
 "Old age will prove a joyless and be studious and diligent." 
 
 2. The nomi is frequentfy omitted in the following manner: "The 
 laws of God and man ;" that is, " The laws of God and the laws of 
 man." In some very emphatical expressions, the ellipsis should not 
 be used: as, "Christ, the powef of God, and the wisdom of God ;" 
 which is more emphatical than "Christ the power and wisdom of 
 God." 
 
 Will you "give an example of the omif<sion of {he 7ioun? Should 
 this ellipsis always be used ? * 
 
 " TJiese counsels were the die- noble entertainment* when 
 
 , lates of virtue, and //tecZicfafes others leave us." (4) 
 
 (2) of true honor." "Without firmness, nothing that 
 
 "Avarice and cunning may ac- is great can be undertaken; 
 
 quire an estate, but avarice that is difficult or hazardous, 
 
 aiid cuijning can not gain can be accomplished." (5) 
 
 friends." (3) "The anxious man is the votary 
 
 "A taste- for useful knowledge of riches, the negligent of 
 
 will provide for us a great and pleasure." (6) 
 
 3. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner: 
 "A delightful garden and orchard ;" that is, "A delightful garden and 
 a delightful orchard." "A little man and woman;" that is, " a liille 
 man and a little woman." In such elliptical expressions as these the 
 adjective ought to have exactly the same significatioti, and to be quite 
 as proper, when joined to the latter substantive as to the former; 
 otherwise tlie ellipsis should not be admitted. 
 
 Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly iipplied to nouns of different 
 
 (1) Reject '"the." (2) " Virtve and of trtte." (3) Insert " they" in the place of 
 I wo nouns, d) Insert '■ enieitaivmcnts." (b) Insert " nothing." (6) Insert "man, 
 that:' 
 
SYNTAX. 201 
 
 umbers: as, "A magnificent house and gardens." In this case it is 
 etterto use another adjective: as, "A magnificent house, and fine 
 •gardens." 
 
 Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the adjective? What 
 rule is to be observed in the use of this ellipsis? 
 
 3. 
 
 "His crimes had brought him "^That species of coinmerce will 
 
 into extreme distress and ex- produce great gain or loss." 
 
 treme per])lexity." (1) (4) 
 
 "He has'an affectionate brother, "Many days, and even weeks, 
 
 and an affection sister, and pass away unimproved." (4) 
 
 they live in great harmony." "This wonderful action struck 
 
 (2) the beholders with exceeding 
 
 "We must guard against too (0). astonishment." (4) 
 
 great severity, and lacilily of "The people of this country pos- 
 
 manners." (3) sess a healthy climate and 
 
 "We should often recollect what - soil." (3) 
 
 the wisest men have said and " Thfy enjoy also a free conslitu- 
 
 written concerning human lion and laws." (4) 
 happiness and vanity." (4) 
 
 4. The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun : "1 love and fear 
 him ;" that is, " I love him, and I fear him." " My house and lands ;" 
 that is, " My house, and my lands." In these instances th^eilipsis 
 may take place with propriety; but if we would be more express and 
 emphatical, it must not be used:.as, "His friends and his foes;" 
 " My sons and my daughters." 
 
 In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is 
 usually omitted: as, "This is the man they love/' instead of, "This 
 is the man whom they love ;" " These are the goods they bought," for 
 "These are the goods which they bought." 
 
 In complex sentences it is much better to have the relative pro- 
 noun expressed : as it is more proper to say, "The posture in which 
 I lay," than " In the posture 1 lay;" "The horse on which I rode, fell 
 down," than "The horse I rode, fell down." 
 
 The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence 
 together; and, to prevent obscurity and confusion, they should answer 
 to each other with great exactness. "We speak that we do know, 
 and testify that we have seen." Here the ellipsis is manifestly im- 
 proper, and ought to be supplied: as, "We speak that which we do 
 know, and testify that whidi we have seen." 
 
 Will you give an exam|ile of the ellipsis of the pronoun? Can this 
 ellipsis be properly used at all times ? 
 
 "His reputation and his estate and that is the best that can 
 
 were both lost by gaming." (G) be said of it." (8) 
 
 "This intelligence not only ex- "This was the person whom 
 
 cited our hopes, but fears calumny had greatly abused, 
 
 loo." (7) and sustained the injustice 
 
 " His conduct is not scandalous; with singular Patience." (7) 
 
 (1) Reject an adjective. (2) Reject two words. (3) Insert two words. (4) In- 
 sert an adjective, {b) '■'■ Exceedingly:' (6) Kejcc^a iirononn. (7) Insert a pro- 
 noun. (8) " Thatr-thaW 
 
202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 "He discovered some qualities must possess a great memc 
 
 in the youth of a disaj^reeable ry." ([). 
 
 nature, and to hiin were "By pre.sum|Uion and by vanity 
 
 wholly unaccountable." (I) we provoke enmity, and we 
 
 "The captain had several men incur contempt." (2) 
 
 died in his ship of the scurvy." "In the circumstances 1 was at 
 
 (1) that time, my troul)les pressed 
 
 " He IS not only sensible and heavily upon me." (3J 
 
 learned, but is religious too." " He had destroyed his constitu- 
 
 (1) lion, by the very same errors 
 
 " The Chinese language contains that so many have been de- 
 an immense numberof words ; stroyed." 
 and who would learn them 
 
 5. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances : " The 
 man wasold and crafty;" that is, " The man was old, and the man wa.s 
 crafty." " Slie was young, and beautiful, and good;" that is, "She 
 was young, she was beautiful, and sl>e was good." *'Thou art po6r, 
 and wretched, and miserable, and blind, and naked." If we would 
 fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, thou art oughtjo be repeated 
 before each of the adjectives. 
 
 If, in such enumeratiori, we choose to ))oint outoiie properly above 
 the rest, that property must be placed last, and the ellipsis supplied : 
 as, " She is young and beanliful, and she is good." 
 
 " I v.'ent to see and hear him ;" that is, " 1 went to see, and I went 
 to hear him." In this instance, there is not only an ellipsis of the 
 goverihing verb, I vient, but likewise of the sign of the infinitive mood, 
 which is governed by it. 
 
 Do, did, have, had, shall, icill, may, mi(fhf. and the rest of the auxiliaries 
 of the compound tenses, afe frequently used alone to spare the repe- 
 tition of the verb: as, "He regards his word, but thou dost not;" 
 that is, "dost not regard it." "We succeeded, but they did not;" 
 "did not succeed." "I have learned my task, but thou hast not;" 
 " hast not learned." " They must, and they shall be punished ;" that 
 is, " they must be punished." 
 
 Will you give an example , of the ellipsis of the verb? Suppose 
 we. wish to point out one property above the rest? liow are the 
 auxiliaries sometimes used? 
 
 5. 
 
 "He is temperate, he is disinter- "It is happy for us when we can 
 
 esied, he is benevolent; he is calmly and deliberately look 
 
 an ornament to his family, and back on the past, and can 
 
 a cHidit to his profession." (1) quietly anticipate the fu- 
 
 "Genuine virtue supposes our ture." (0) 
 
 benevolence to be strength- " The sacrifices of virtue will not 
 
 ened, and to be confirmed by only be rewarded hereafter, 
 
 principle." (o) but recompensed even in this 
 
 "Perseverance in laudable pur- lift;." (7) 
 
 suits will reward all our toils, " All those possessed of any office, 
 
 and will produce effects be- resignc'l their 'former com- 
 
 . yond our ctilcnlation." (G) mission." (3) 
 
 (1) Insert a pronoun. (2) Reject a proaoun. (3) Insert two words. (4) Reject 
 six words, aiW insert one. (5) Reject two words. (6) Reject one word. (7) In- 
 iert three M'ords. 
 
SYNTAX. 203 
 
 "If young persons were deter- mand respect from the Ilcen- 
 
 niined to conduct themselves tioiis themselves." (I) 
 
 by the rules of virtue, not "Charles was a man of learning, 
 only would they escape in- knowledge, and benevolence, 
 
 numerable dangers, but com- and, what is still more, a true 
 
 Christian." (I) 
 
 G. The ellipsis of the adverb is used iu the following manner: " He 
 spolv-e and acted wisely;" that is, "He spoke wisely, and he acted 
 wisely." "Thrice I went and oirer^Hl my service;" that is, "Thrice 
 1 went, and thrice I ofl'ured my service." 
 
 How is the ellipsis of the adverb used? 
 
 0. 
 
 "The temper of him who is al- "How a seed grows up into a 
 
 ways in the bustle of the tree, and the mind acts upon 
 
 world, will be often riimed, the body, are mysteries which 
 
 ?ind be often disturbed." (2) » we can not ex|)lain." (4) 
 
 "We often commend iniprudent- "Verily there is a reward for the 
 
 ly, as well as censure impru- righteous. There is a God 
 
 dently." (3) that judgeth in the earth." (4) 
 
 7. The ellipsis of the prepoaificm. as well as of the verb, is seen in 
 
 the following instances: "He went into the abbeys, halls, and public 
 
 buildings;" that is, "lie went into the abbeys, he'went into the halls, 
 
 and he went into the public buildings." " He also went through all 
 
 the streets and lanes of the city ; " that is, "through all the st'reets, 
 
 and through all the lanes," etc. " He spoke to every man and woman 
 
 there; " that is, "to every man, and to every woman." "This day, 
 
 next month, last year;" that is, "On this day, in the next month, iu 
 
 the last year." "The Lord do that which seemeth him good ; " that 
 
 is, "which seemeth to him." 
 
 Will you give me an example of the ellipsis of the jireposition and 
 the verb ? 
 
 7. 
 
 "Changes are almost continually "They are now reconciled to 
 
 taking place, in men and in what they could not formerly 
 
 manners, in opinions and in be prompted, by any consider- 
 
 customs, in private forlunes ations." (4) 
 
 and public conduct." (4) (2) • " Censure is the tax which n man 
 "Averse either to contradict or pays the public tor being emi- 
 
 blame, the too complaisant nent." (4) 
 
 man goes along v with the "Reflect on the state of human 
 
 manners that prevail." (4) life, and the society of men 
 
 "By this habitual indelicacy, the as mixed with good and with 
 
 virgins smiled at what they evil." (4) 
 
 blushed before.'.' (4) 
 
 8. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows: " Thev~ confess the 
 power, wisdom, goodness, and love of their Creator; " that is, "the 
 power, and wisdom, and goodness, and love of," etc. "Though I 
 love him, I do not ti^atter him;" that is, "Though I love him, yet i do 
 not flatter him." 
 
 Will you give an exam|)ls of the ellipsis of a conjunction? 
 
 (1) Insert two words. (2) Reject two words. (3) Reject oiio word. (4) Insert 
 one word. 
 
204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 8. 
 
 "In all stations and conditions, "Religious persons are often un- 
 
 tJie important relations taUe justly represented as persons 
 
 place, of masters and ser- of romantic character, vision- 
 
 vants, and husbands and ary notions, unacquainted 
 
 wives, and parents and ciiil- with the world, unfit to live 
 
 dren, and brothers and in it." (3) 
 friends, and citizens and "No rank, station, dignity of 
 
 subjects." (1) birth, possessions, -exempt 
 
 "Destitute of principle, he re-^ men from contributing their 
 
 garded neither his family, nor share to public utility!"" (4; 
 his friends, nor his reputa- 
 tion." (2) 
 
 ^ 9. The ellipsis of the inte)Jectio?i is not very common j it, however, 
 is sometimes used: as, "Oh. pity and shame!" that is, "Oh, pity! 
 oh, shame I " 
 ^ As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English lan- 
 guage, numerous examples ol* it might be given; but only a few 
 more can be admitted here. 
 
 In the following instance, there is a very considerable one: "He 
 will often argue that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, 
 we should gain from one nation; and it' another, from another;" that 
 is, " He will often argue iha"! ii this part of our trade were well culti- 
 vated, we should gain from one nation; and if another part of our 
 trade were well cultivated, we should gain from another nation." 
 
 The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellip- 
 sis: "Woe is nie;"i.e., "woe is tome." "To let blood; " i.e., "to let 
 out blood." " To let down ; " i. e., " to let it fall or slide down." " To 
 walk a mile;" i. e., "to walk through the space of a mile." "To 
 sleep all night;" i.e., "to sleej) through all the night." "To go a 
 fishing;" "To go a hunting;" i. e., "to go on a fishing voyage or 
 business;" "to go on a hunting pgrty." "I dine at two o'clock;" 
 i. e., " at two of the clock." " By sea, by land, on shore ; " i. e., " by 
 the sea, by the land, on the shore." 
 
 What is said of the ellipsis of the interjection? 
 
 9. 
 "Oh, my father, Oh, my friend! "Oil, piety ! virtue ! how insensi- 
 how great has bet n my in- ble have I been to your 
 
 gratitude!" (2) charms!" (5) 
 
 10. The examples that foJIow are produced to show the impropri- 
 ety of the ellipsis in some particular* cases. "The land was always 
 possessed, during pleasure, by those intrusted with the command ; " 
 it should be, " those /jersowe intrusted; " or, "those jt'/to t/je?-^ intrusted." 
 " If he had read farther, he would have found several of his objec- 
 tions might have been spared;" that is, "he would have found that 
 several o'f his objections," etc. "There is nothing men are more 
 deficient in 'than knowing their own characters;" it ought to be, 
 "nothing in which men," and, "than in knowing."* "I scarcely 
 know any' part of natural philosophy would yield more variety and 
 use;" it should be, ''which would yield," etc. "In the temper of 
 minti he was then;" that is, "in which he then was." "The little 
 fcatisfaction and consistency to be found in most of the systems of 
 
 (1) Reject four words. (2) Reject one word. (3) Insert three words* ' 4) " Nor— 
 no— nor a%y." (f>) Insert one word. 
 
SYNTAX. , 205 
 
 to kirn to whom ' etc ' ' ' '*» 
 
 " Why do ye.i,., which,-, „„,,,w. " "" i.i'i';::!';,'';,^;,^' %T''^ 
 
 "The showbread, which is no. g^rher'.'- ''zT' "'" "''°'°' '"^ 
 
 KTTLE XXXI. 
 Coi-respondii.g with Murray's Grammar, 
 
 nULE XXII. 
 All the parte of a sentence should correspond to each other • a reanlar 
 
 ^p^:ra,:iE^^--j--rt:h^S!;?- 
 
 rnrrT:;;;:e:ti,:-Sst='^iri:'ri? 
 
 Inftor «lli, e;> 1 '-"^" leniences, It i.s not necessary to siinn v the 
 
 laiier em ^.^is, hecaiisp it cnn tint i^-^j « -. i- i ■^ -^xi'iMy mc 
 
 cene Ih.u it ■,, calculated to ascertain the true gmmramical co,i"tru<- 
 
 "ThisHedicationmayserveforalmo.stanybooIcthatha^ is or shall 
 be p„I>l,shecl ;" ,t ought to be, "that has been or shal bepubl? hed " 
 'He was gu.ded by Interests always different, sometimes com a rv to 
 tho.e of the community;" "different yVom/' or, 'U ways c ffereni ' 
 ^Willi.T °^ ^•\\^'°«'">unity, and sometimes con? arv to th/m " 
 Will be urged that these books are as old, or even older than ^k. 
 dition?" the words "as old " and "oidf-r"r.Tn J^^" "'"*^' • ^"^" ira- 
 regimen ; it should be. " as ^Id'^s tradUion, o "e vel o J^r '' '^"^Tre' 
 
 noTTca^,T:J-'''^'^%T''r' r^' '"^" ""-^ '^°^ born, c^ai least may 
 not acqu re; "or vthich at least they may not acquire '' "The 
 
 iZiU Zu ^'"' <;^^"«»'"ct'on the lirst verb is said to miti-ate the 
 
 teeth of the common law, which is an evident solecism. " M^ti'Vtes 
 
 matS.r''" ^"^ ^'^'^' '^"^ '^''^ ^^ '^'" ^""'^ ^'^^ been g'ram! 
 
 " They presently grow into good humor and good langua-e towards 
 
 the crown f "g r^ownu o good language" is ve"ry improper! ' ?here 
 
 (1) Ingert three worrt.. (2) Tomt one V,yrd. (8) In.>,t twWord.: 
 
206 ENULISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 is never wanting a set of evil instruments, who, either out of mad 
 zeal, private* hatre(!, or iiltliy lucre, are always ready," etc. We say 
 properly, -'A man acts oul of mad zeal," or "out of private hatred;" 
 but we can not say, U' we would speak English, " he ads out of filthy 
 lucre." "To double her kindness and caresses of me;" the word 
 kindness requires to be followed by either to or for, and can not be 
 construed with the preposition of. ''Never was man so teased, or 
 sufiered half the uneasiness, as 1 have done this evening;" the first 
 and third clauses, namely, " never was man so teased," '' as I have 
 done this evening,"' can not be joined without an impropriety: and to 
 connect the second and third, the word t/mt must be substituted for 
 as; ''or sufiered half the uneasiness that I have done;" or else, 
 "half so much uneasiness as I have suffered." 
 
 The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, and 
 those such as are hardly consistent with one another: '' Hon- much 
 soever the reformation of this dcgen-erate age is almost utterly to be de- 
 spaired of, wo may yet have a more comfortable prospect of future 
 limes." The sentence would be more correct in the following t'orni : 
 " Thovfjh the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be de- 
 spaired of," etc. 
 
 "Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with the 
 blood-thirsty; in whose hands is wickedness, and their right hand is 
 full of gifts." As the passage introduced by the copulative conjunc- 
 tion and, was not intended as a continuation of the principal and in- 
 dependent part of the sentence, but of the dependent part, the relative 
 loltone should have Ijcen used instead of the possessive their ; namely, 
 " and tohoae right hand is full of gifts." 
 
 "Eye iiath not seen, nor ear heard, neither .hove entered into the 
 heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love^ 
 him." There seems to be an impropriety in this instance, in which 
 the same noun serves in a double ca|>acily, performing at the same 
 lime the ofiices both of tlie nominative and objective cases. " Neith- 
 er hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive the things," etc., 
 would have been regular. 
 
 " "We have tiie power of retaining, alfering, and compounding those 
 images which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture 
 and vision." It is very proper to say, "altering and compounding 
 those images which we have once receiveil, into all the varieties of 
 picture and vision;" but we can not with propriety say, "retaining 
 them into all the varieties ;" and yet, according to the manner in which 
 the words are ranged, this construction is unavoidable : for retaining^ 
 altering, and compoi/fidinc/ are participles, each of which equally re- 
 fers to and governs the subsequent noun, those iviages ; and that 
 noun, again, is neces^ari■|y connected with the loilowing preposition, 
 into. The construction might easily have been rectified by di<joining 
 the participle retaining from the other two participles, in this way: 
 " \V(i have tlie power of retaining those imngcs which we have once 
 received, and of altering and compounding them into all the varieties 
 of picture and vision ;" or, perhaps, belter thus : '' We have the pow- 
 er of retaining, altering, and compounding those images which we 
 have once received, and of forming themi into all the varieties of pict- 
 ure and vision." 
 
 Why is the first example under this rule inaccurate? "This dedi- 
 cation may serve for almost any book that Ims, is, or shalll be publish- ■ 
 ed." Will you point out the iiuiccuracies in this seuleiice, and cor- 
 rect them ( 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 207 
 
 "Several allerations and additions 
 
 have been made to t he M'orlv." (1) 
 "The rirst propcsnl was esi>ential- 
 
 ly ditltreiit, and inferior to the 
 
 second." (2) 
 " He is Jiiore bold and active, but 
 
 not i'o wise and studious, as 
 
 his companion."' (3) 
 "Neither has he, nor any other 
 
 persons, suspt^cted so much 
 
 dissinndation." (4) 
 " The court of France or Enghind 
 
 was to have been tlie umpire." 
 
 "In the reign of Henry H all for- 
 eign commodities were i)len- 
 ty in England." (H) 
 
 "There is no talent so useful to- 
 wards success in business, or 
 which puts men more out of 
 the reach of accidents, than 
 tiiat quality generally posses- 
 sed by persons ofCuol temper, 
 ami is, \v\ common langua»'-e 
 called discretion." (7) 
 
 "The tirsl project was to shorten 
 discourse, by putting polysyl- 
 lables into one." (S) 
 
 ple'asant ta look upon j, but 
 never so much as in the open- 
 ing o( the spring." (12) 
 
 "The intentions of some of these 
 philosophers, nay, of many, 
 might and probably were 
 good." (]3) 
 
 "It was an unsuccessful under- 
 taking; which, although it 
 has failed, i.s no objection at 
 all to an enterprise so well 
 concerted." (1 4) 
 
 "The reward is his due, and it has 
 already, or will hereafter, be 
 given to him." (15) 
 
 "By intercourse with wise and 
 experienced persons, who 
 know the world, we may im- 
 prove and rubotithe rust of a 
 private and retired educa- 
 tion." (16) 
 
 "Sincerity i.s as valuable, and 
 even more valuable, than 
 knowledge." (17) 
 
 "No person was ever so perplex- 
 ed, or sustained ihe mortifica- 
 tions, as he has done to-dav " 
 (IS) ^ 
 
 "'1d!Lrr.olA::;;J^.!^l^!"!!^^^ "^^^ Romans gave not omy the 
 
 .others to take the .'^flme mea 
 ures for their cure which I 
 have." (9) 
 
 "The greatest masters of critical 
 learning diOtr among one an- 
 othevy 
 
 "Micciiah said, If thou certainly 
 return in peace, then halh not 
 the Lord spoken by me." (10) 
 
 freedom of the city, but 
 capacity for emj)loyments, to 
 several towns in Gaul, Spain, 
 and Germany." (J9) v 
 
 "Such writers have no oilier 
 standard on which to form 
 themselves, except what 
 chances to be fashionable and 
 popular." (10) 
 
 I iV^ not suppose that we Britons " Whatever we do secretly, shall 
 
 want a genius, more than the be displayed and heard in the 
 
 ,,r^, '"''i^ ''[*""" "«'?hbors." (JO) clearest light." (20) 
 
 The deal man whose ears were " To the happiness of possessing 
 
 opened and h.s tongue loosen- a person of so uncommon 
 
 ed, doubtless glorihed the merit, Boethiu.- soon had the 
 
 -rir S T"^'"?- ^'/^ ^'alisfaclion of. obtaining the 
 
 Groves, helds. and meadows are, hi-hest honor his counlrv 
 
 at any season of th e year, uo^ild bestow." . 
 
 .7." ^ U'^Xlivelan Jn'^^'il^ ',''■ .^!h" ^^" "'•^''■'''"'- '" '^' •''''<^<^^ and from ' 
 ^ 7" ,7^ 9. 1.* < ,.*• Z"*^ ^""'''■^ "Aare." (.5) " Or that of." (6) - Pknti- 
 
• ■ ( V )/ 
 
 PROSODY. C 
 
 Prosody consists of two parts: the former teaches the true pbo- 
 wuKoiATroN of words, comprisinj? accent, QUANTiry, emphasis, pause, 
 and tone; the latter, the laws of versification. 
 
 -OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 of accent. 
 
 Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain 
 letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, 
 or distinguii^hed from them; as, in the word presivae, the stress of the 
 voice must be on the letter n, and second syllal)le aume, which take 
 the accent. 
 
 •• OF QUANTITY. 
 
 The QUANTITY of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pro- 
 nouncing it. It is considered long or short. 
 
 A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel, which 
 occasions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following 
 letter: a^^/all, tale, mood, konse^ feature. 
 
 A syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant, which oc 
 casions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter: as, 
 ant, bonnet, htinger. 
 
 A long syllable generally requires doubhe the time of a short one in 
 pranonncing it; thus, mate and note should be pronounced as slowly 
 again as mat and not. 
 
 OF EMPHASIS. 
 
 By EMPHASIS is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which 
 we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay a par- 
 ticular stress, and to show how they aflect the rest of the sentence. 
 Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a particular 
 tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. 
 
 OF PAUSES. 
 
 Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, arc a total cessation of 
 the voice,duriag a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space 
 of time. 
 
 What is prosody ? How much more time does the 
 
 What is accent? What is the pronunciation of a 4ong syllable 
 
 quantity of a syllable? When is occupy than a short one? What 
 
 a vov/oi or syllable long ? When is emphasis ? What are pauses ? 
 
 sh'csrt? Gh'e examples of each. 
 
^' 
 
PTJ13LICj^Tl6]SrS 
 
 O)' 
 
 GEORGE L. BIDGOOB. 
 
 iiiOilieliptir #'rl00! ..^pii5. 
 
 TILK 00]S KE])K]RA:TJ!: SPEJJ/KK. Fcunh eciition. 
 ^riic bcHt Spell or extant. 
 
 THE CO^SKEBEKATE PETMEE. Eoiirti) edition. 
 
 THE CONFEHJ^^.EATE E^HYMI^NC EiUMEB. 
 
 IXEESTJIATI^^H PEBlEil. EeiUitiiiilly colored. 
 
 THE OOJN FEDJ^iiATE IlEADEE. I^arr I. 
 
 8.MtTH'S K.NC iMSiT JiRA M IM A H. 
 
 N < > \v II i^: A Y> y , 
 
 THE ARMY SONGSTER. 
 
 l><.'dii.aU li to ihp Ann} of Noiilit.'Mi \irgiiii.H.. 
 Thi' b«'.st cv'*] led ion of ^^oiio's ])u})li.^}iid in the South. 
 
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