DUKE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from Duke University Libraries https://archive.org/details/schoolarchitectu01dono SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES •T - 5 - THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd TORONTO SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES BY JOHN J. DONOVAN, B.S. ARCHITECT MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS AND OTHERS WITH ILLUSTRATIONS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1921 All rights reserved Copyright, 1921, BY JOHN J. DONOVAN. Architect Printed from type. Published April, rg2i. Nortooofi J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. SDCDkatfD TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF AMERICAN EDUCATION AND WITH DEEP AFFECTION TO MY WIFE AND TO MY MOTHER WHOSE STEADFAST LOYALTY AND SYMPATHY HAVE MADE MANY THINGS POSSIBLE FOR ME 354145 PREFACE When the necessity for a comprehensive book of this kind was realized by the writer, it was his first intention to offer a treatise on the planning of school buildings, written wholly from the architect’s point of view. After a few months of effort it dawned upon him that in order to make the most thorough use of such information, it would be more valuable to both architect and schoolman if the organization of American schools were first discussed and emphasized as a basis for the discussion of the architectural features. Thus the application of modern school archi- tecture to modern school development could be concisely and logically shown. This plan has been followed. In- formation on the organization of schools was very much needed by the writer when he first turned his attention to the architecture of school buildings, and, no doubt, such a need is felt by many others who are now approaching the subject. It must be realized that the old school, even that of live years ago, has passed just as surely as the little red school- house that once stood on the hill. In its place has already appeared the new, throbbing, spirited institution, receiving its impulse from the heart of industry, commerce, and society, which, in turn, are looking to the school for practical aid in the solving of their accumulating problems of trade, employment, and American citizenship. But this new school cannot stand alone ; it must rest on the foundations and traditions of its predecessor, just as the nation de- pends on the securely anchored constitutional footing given to it by its founders. It is this transition which the schoolman and the architect, working together and in sympathy, must bring about with saneness and economy. The organization of the school, through the extension of its branches, has become very complex to many who are out of touch with it ; to those intimately associated with it, it is seen as a clearly unified development. The writer understood, that, if the organization was to be properly presented, it should be described by those who know it best. Therefore, the collaborators were selected with much care, and their contributions are a very important part of the book. A deep debt of gratitude is felt for all the assistance these associates have given ; they have entered into the work with a zeal and interest that has surpassed all anticipation. The conferences and discussions have been a great pleasure and an education in themselves. Particularly has the author profited in discussing the problems of the school with Mr. William F. Ewing, formerly Director of Business Affairs of the Technical High School, Oakland, California, whose vision of the school of the future is most delightfully hopeful; and with Dr. Edna Watson Bailey, Head of the Science Department of the University High School of the same city, who is eminently successful in arousing the interest of her students. Acknowledgment is due for the encouragement and aid so cheerfully extended by Mr. William C. Bruce, Editor of the American School Board Journal, and by Mr. W. H. Crocker, Editor of the American Architect, whose splendid journals have often been a source of valuable information ; also to Mr. George M. Thiriot, Head of the Academic Department of the Technical Continuation School, Oakland, California, for his valuable assistance in editing the manuscript prepared by the writer. The author is deeply grateful to his fellow architects who have so kindly furnished photographs and drawings of their work. He hopes the book will be helpful in providing plans for schoolhouses in which the highest ideals of the American school may be more effectively realized. John J. Donovan Oakland, California June, 1920 vii INTRODUCTION During the past quarter century, each succeeding year has witnessed the broadening development of public education. The relation of the school tb the community has radically changed. Systems of education have been evolved as the result of the careful observation of those engaged in pedagogy, and these systems have become broad- ened and extended until the present aspect of modern educational methods is closely allied to the best elements of paternalism. With this evolution and extension of educational methods it was logical to assume that the modern schoolhouse would keep pace in its designing and planning. In addition to the development of the school building and its sur- roundings for educational purposes, there has been developed, particularly in the larger cities, a further use of the schoolhouse as the community center. This added use of the school building has increased the problems that are present in the arrangement of plan and the perfection of design. The problem, therefore, that confronts the architect who undertakes to provide school accommodations is per- haps more complex than any other professional task he may be given. The very elements of paternalism that sur- round the modern school building not only carry with them the obligation to provide such convenient and at- tractive features as are possible of attainment with the money available, but there is also the even more important element that looks to the safeguarding of the pupils’ health and the measures that will be necessary to protect them from every possible injury. Architects engaged in this responsible work need to know the essentials of hygiene and sanitation. Ventilation, heating, lighting, both natural and artificial, must all be carefully considered. Men who have spent years of suc- cessful practice in the solution of the problems that surround the modern schoolhouse will have acquired as the re- sult of long practice, close study, and observation, a wide fund of information that is practical and valuable as it is based on actual operations. The successful stage to which schoolhouse design has been brought in this country is primarily due to three groups of men who prominently stand forth as the best exponents of the development of the modern school buildings. These groups, located on the eastern seaboard, in the middle west, and on the Pacific coast, are responsible for the development of successful types of school buildings. The author of this book is prominent among the members of these three groups. His success in the special field of architecture, to which he has devoted so many years of practice, makes this work absolutely authoritative and dependable. Its method of preparation is calculated to greatly sim- plify its use as an encyclopedic treatise on the subject. Whether used by architects, members of school boards, superintendents, or any of the many people who are directly interested in the various phases of the modern school- house and modern educational methods, this work clearly sets forth the answer to every question that is likely to arise. W. H. Crocker Editor, The American Architect IX CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. Sites and Grounds . John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.l.A. II. Architecture, Planning, and Construction 18 John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.l.A. III. Landscape Development of School Grounds 61 Howard Gilkey, B.S., Landscape Architect. IV. Cost of School Buildings 70 John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.l.A. V. Organization of the Elementary School as Affecting Buildings 85 E. Morris Cox, A.B., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, California. VI. Organization of the Intermediate or Junior High School as Affecting Buildings . . . hi E. Morris Cox, A.B., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, California. VII. Organization and Administration of Senior High Schools as Affecting Buildings . . .126 Clarence D. Kingsley, M.A., Supervisor of High Schools, Massachusetts Department of Education. VIII. Buildings and Equipment for Vocational Schools 157 J. C. Wright, Acting Assistant Director for Industrial Education, Federal Board for Vocational Education. IX. The Hygiene of Schools 204 Robert T. Legge, M.D., Professor of Hygiene and University Physician, University of California. Fellow of American College of Surgeons, Captain, Medical Corps, United States Army. X. Physical Education 218 Jay B. Nash, A.B., Assistant State Supervisor of Physical Education, California. XI. Administrative Offices in Public School Buildings . . . 243 William F. Ewing, M.A., Principal of Pasadena High School, Pasadena, California. XII. The Classroom 253 John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.l.A. XIII. The Kindergarten 279 John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.l.A. XIV. The School Library 291 John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.l.A. XV. Corridors, Stairways, and Entrances 305 John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.l.A. XVI. The Assembly Hall 320 John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.l.A. XVII. The Music Department 342 Glen H. Woods, A.A.G.O., Director of Music School Department, Oakland, California. XVIII. Physics and Chemistry 350 Arthur L. Jordan, Head of Department of Science, Polytechnic High School, San Francisco, California. XIX. The General Science and Biological Laboratories 385 Edna Watson Bailey, Ph.D., Head of Science Department, University High School, Oakland, California. xi CONTENTS xii CHAPTER PAGE XX. Commercial Department 397 Reginald R. Stuart, Principal, Oakland Technical Continuation High School, Oakland, California. XXI. The Drawing Department 41 1 Ralph C. Sisson, B.S., M.A., Instructor in Drawing, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. XXII. The Industrial Arts Department 424 Walter A. Tenney, Principal, Vocational High School, Oakland, California. XXIII. The Home Economics Department 468 Agnes Fay Morgan, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Household Science, University of California, Berkeley, California. XXIV. The Cafeteria 513 William R. Adams, Engineer of Hotel Equipment Department, Mangrum Otter Co., Inc., San Francisco, California. XXV. Heating and Ventilation 523 George E. Reed, M.E., Member of American Society of Mechanical Engineers. XXVI. Plumbing 541 George E. Reed, M.E., Member of American Society of Mechanical Engineers. XXVII. Electrical Installation and Illumination 550 Romaine W. Myers, Consulting Electrical Engineer, Member of Illuminating Engineering Society. XXVIII. Standards of Schoolhouse Planning 569 Frank Irving Cooper, Architect. Chairman, National Education Committee on Standardization of Schoolhouse Plan- ning and Construction. Supplementary Illustrations _ . . 575 References 711 Index 713 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY ARCHITECTS Allen, James E. Lawrence, Mass. : Oliver School (assembly hall), 339. Allison and Allison Glendora, Calif. : Grammar School No. 2, 108, 109, no, 607, 608. Monrovia, Calif. : Polytechnic High School, 673, 674, 675. Santa Monica, Calif. : High School, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679. Dickey, Chas. W., and Donovan, John J. Santa Barbara, Calif. : Proposed New High School, 14, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131. Elko, Nevada : Elko County High School, 653, 654, 655. Donovan, John J. Albany, Calif. : Elementary School, 637. General plans and characteristics of good school sites, 2, 3, 5, 7. Modesto, Calif. : Sewing Unit Layout for High School, 508. Oakland, Calif. : Clawson Elementary School, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 ; 247 (principal’s office) ; 270 (classroom showing open windows) ; 282 (kindergarten porch) ; 461 (manual training room) ; 491 (domestic science room) ; 543, 544, 546, 548 (plumbing and toilet systems). McChesney Elementary School, 582, 583, 584. Santa Fe Elementary School, 579, 580. Theater-Auditorium, 329, 330. Palo Alto, Calif. : Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School, 96, 97, 98, 99, 212. Plans of Eye-strain Preventive Desks and Seats, 208, 209. Sacramento, Calif. : Oak Park Elementary School, 29, 30, 31. San Leandro, Calif. : McKinley School, 577, 578. Washington School, 578. San Luis Obispo, Calif. : Elementary School, 631. Donovan, John J., and Hobart, Louis P. (Associate Architect). Oakland, Calif. : Lockwood Elementary School, 580, 581, 582. Donovan, John J., and Hornbostel, Henry (Consulting Architect). Oakland, Calif.: Oakland Technical High School, 13 (group plan; 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49; 356, 362, 378 (physics and chemistry lecture rooms and laboratories) ; 404, 406, 417 (bookkeeping, typing, and drawing rooms); 425, 429, 433, 441, 460 (shops); 487 (cooking room); 510 (costume-designing classroom). Donovan, John J., and Howard, John Galen (Associate Architect). Oakland, Calif. : Emerson Elementary School, 12, 234 (grounds, actual layout) ; 25, 26, 27, 28; 236 (kinder- garten porch) ; 273 (open windows in patio). Donovan, John J., and Miller, Washington J. (Associate Architect). Oakland, Calif. : Jefferson School, 634, 635, 636. Donovan, John J., and Mullgardt, Louis C. (Associate Architect). Oakland, Calif. : Durant Elementary School, 604, 605, 606. Donovan, John J., and Reed, Walter D. (Associate Architect). Oakland, Calif. : Claremont Elementary School, 632, 633. xiii XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY ARCHITECTS Garber and Woodward Cincinnati, Ohio: Guilford School, 624, 625, 626. Lafayette Bloom School, 622, 623. Westwood Public School, 627, 628, 629, 630. Gee, Edwin M. Toledo, Ohio: Lincoln Elementary School (kindergarten), 285, 590, 591, 592, 593. Mott School, 613, 614, 615, 616. G lkey, Howard Modesto, Calif. : Grounds of High School, 62. Gregg, Professor John W. Berkeley, Calif. John Muir School, 64. Fresno 1 , Calif. : Longfellow School Grounds (landscape plan for proposed developments), 238. Imperial Valley, Calif. : Westmoreland School Grounds, 68. Kingsburg, Calif. : Union High School (landscape plan), 67. Los Angeles, Calif. : High School (landscape plan), 65. Puente, Calif. : Union High School (landscape plan), 66. Wasco, Calif. : Union High School (proposed arrangement for buildings and park and park playground areas), 242. Guilbert, E. F. Newark, N. J. : South Side High School, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 340. Guilbert and Betelle Newark, N. J. : Cleveland School (kindergarten), 290. Lafayette School, 32, 33. Ridge School, 600, 601. State Normal (detail of doorway), 599. Hays, Wm. C. San Francisco, Calif. : Lux School (interior views), 499, 500, 502, 506, 507, 509. Holland, H. Osgood Buffalo, N. Y. : Hutchinson Central High School (library), 298, 299. Hussander, A. F. Chicago, 111 . : Albert R. Sabin School, 94, 95. Alexander Graham Bell School, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40. Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, 228, 231 (gymnasium) ; 316 (main entrance lobby) ; 335, 336 (assembly hall) ; 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703. Henry O. Shepard School, 585, 586. Lindblom High School, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709. Rezin Orr Public School, 586, 587, 588, 589. Seating plans for classroom, 258. Ittner, Wm. B. Greenfield, Ohio: Edward Lee McLean High School, 230 (gymnasium); 317 (main entrance vestibule); 649. 650, 651, 652. Minneapolis, Minn. : New High School (chemistry group), 381. Kirkwood, Mo. : Grammar School, 106, 107. St. Louis, Mo. : Ashland School, 105. Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24; 285, 286 (kindergarten). Clark Elementary and Soldan High School, 19. Glasgow School, 104. Grover Cleveland High School, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146; 331, 332 (auditorium); 349 (music room); 361 (physics laboratory) ; 382 (chemistry laboratory) ; 394 (conservatory) ; 395 (physiology labora- LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY ARCHITECTS xv Ittner, Wm. B. — Continued tory) ; 407 (typing room); 421, 422 (drawing rooms); 494 (cooking-room); 505 (laundry labora- tory); 516 (cafeteria). Laclede Elementary School, 86, 87 ; 287 (kindergarten). Washington, D. C. : Central High School, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60; 306 (main corridor). Johnson, Wm. Templeton San Diego, Calif. : Francis W. Parker Elementary School, 213, 284, 594, 595, 596. Kilham and Hopkins Atlantic Heights, N. H. : Schoolhouse, 617, 618. Taunton, Mass. : Taunton High School, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672. Lawrence and Holford Portland, Ore. : Fernwood Grammar School, 620, 621. Maginnis and Walsh New York, N. Y. : Regis High School, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696. McCornack, W. R. Cleveland, Ohio : Addison Elementary School, 638, 639, 640. Almira School, 641, 642, 643, 644. Empire School, 645, 646, 647, 648. Morgan, Agnes Fay, and Donovan, John J. (collaborators). Plans of Home Economics Departments, 471, 472, 474, 476, 478, 489, 503, 51 1. Myers, Romaine W. (Consulting Electrical Engineer.) Plans of Electric Work, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558. Naramore, Floyd A. Portland, Oregon: Benson Polytechnic High School (boiler, engine, and fan rooms), 528, 529, 530, 533, 535 ) 536 - Franklin High School (boiler and toilet rooms), 537, 538, 547. New Couch School (fan installation), 539, 540. Olmsted Brothers Fitchburg, Mass. : Crocker Field, 15, 16, 17. Packard, Frank L. (Architect), and Mueller, Frederick G. (Associate Architect;. Hamilton, Ohio: High School, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685. Packard, Frank L. (Architect), Snyder, Ralph (Associate Architect), and Babitt, Edward N. (Engineer). Parkersburg, West Virginia : High School (Assembly hall), 341 ; 686, 687, 688, 689. Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton Downer’s Grove, 111 . : Kindergarten (floor plan and interior views), 288, 289. Evanston, 111 . : Lincolnwood School, District 75, 338, 597, 598. Oakton School District, 76, 102, 103. Kenilworth, 111 .: New Trier Township High School, 15 (athletic field); 41 (interior); 439 (foundry); 517 (cafeteria) ; 659, 660, 661, 662. Winnetka, 111 . : Skokie Elementary School, 34, 35, 36. Pontiac, Mich. : High School (gymnasium), 227 ; 656, 657, 658. Fond du Lac, Wis. : Edward S. Bragg School, 100, 101 ; 337 (assembly hall gymnasium). Poland, Wm. A. Trenton, N. J. : Junior High School, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118 ; 229 (gymnasium) ; 333 (assembly hall) ; 452 (printing shop) ; 498 (cooking-room). Ratcliff, Walter H., Jr. Berkeley, Calif. : Edison Junior High School, 124, 125. XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY ARCHITECTS Reed, George E. (Mechanical Engineer). Heating and ventilating plans, 525, 526, 527. Plumbing systems, 542. Sanders, Theo. M. Little Rock, Ark.: Junior High School, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123. Sellons and Pearson Sacramento, Calif. : Fremont School (open-air kindergarten), 290. Snyder, C. B. J. Brooklyn, N. Y. : Boys’ High School (plan of library), 300. Girls’ High School (plan of library), 301, 302. Public School No. 29 (interior plans), 259, 314, 410, 480. Stotz, Edward A. Pittsburgh, Pa. : Schenley High School (interior views), 296, 313, 315, 334, 383, 391, 492, 501, 663, 664, 665. Symmes, Edwin J. (Architect), and Crim, William H. (Associate Architect). Crystal Springs, Calif. : Preliminary Sketch, 602, 603. Tenney, Walter A., and Donovan, John J. (collaborators). Plans of shops for large cosmopolitan high school, 426, 428, 432, 438, 440, 445, 447, 450, 454, 457. 459, 464. Power hammer foundation, 443. Shop lecture and exhibit rooms, 466. Whitehouse and Fouilhoux Astoria, Oregon: Central Grammar School, 609, 610, 611, 612. Portland, Oregon: Lincoln High School, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY LOCATION OF SCHOOLS Arkansas Little Rock: Junior High School, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123. California Albany: Elementary School, 637. Berkeley: Edison Junior High School, 124, 125. John Muir Elementary School, 64. University of California (Dental Clinic), 216; (bookstack) 297. Crystal School District: Grammar School, 602, 603. Fresno: Longfellow School Grounds, 238. Glendora: Grammar School No. 2, 108, 109, no, 607, 608. Imperial Valley: Westmoreland School Grounds, 68. Kingsburg: Union High School (landscape plan), 67. Los Angeles: High School (landscape development), 65. Lincoln High School (trade sewing-room), 512. Modesto : High School (grounds), 62 ; (sewing unit layout), 508. Monrovia: Polytechnic High School, 673, 674, 675. Oakland: Bushrod Playground, 239, 241. Claremont Elementary School, 632, 633. Clawson Elementary School, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 ; 247 (principal's office) ; 270 (classroom) ; 281, 282 (kinder- garten); 461, 491 (manual training and domestic science rooms); 543, 544, 546, 548 (plumbing system) . Durant Elementary School, 604, 605, 606. Emerson Elementary School, 12, 234 (grounds and actual layout); 25, 26, 27, 28; 236 (kindergarten porch) ; 273 (open windows in patio). Jefferson Elementary School, 634, 635, 636. Lockwood Elementary School, 580, 581, 582. McChesney Elementary School, 582, 583, 584. Mosswood Park (tennis grounds), 240; (hockey field), 241. Oakland Technical High School, 13 (group plan) ; 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49; 356, 362, 377, 378, 404, 406, 417, 425, 429, 433, 441, 460, 487, and 510 (lecture rooms, laboratories, and shops). Santa Fe Elementary School, 579, 580. Theater-Auditorium, 329, 330. Palo Alto : Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School, 96, 97, 98, 99, 212. Puente: Union High School (landscape plan), 66. Sacramento: Fremont School (kindergarten), 290. Oak Park School, 29, 30, 31. San Diego: Francis W. Parker School, 213; (kindergarten), 284; 594, 595, 596. San Francisco: Lux School (interior views), 499, 500, 502, 506, 507, 509. San Leandro: McKinley School, 577, 578. Washington School, 578. San Luis Obispo : Elementary School, 631. Santa Barbara: Proposed new high school, 14, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131. Santa Monica: High School, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679. Wasco : Union High School (proposed arrangement for buildings and park, and playground areas), 242. xvii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY LOCATION OF SCHOOLS xviii Colorado Sterling: Logan County Industrial Arts High School, 197, 198. District of Columbia Washington: Central High School, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60; 306 (main corridor). Illinois Chicago : Albert R. Sabin School, 94, 95. Alexander Graham Bell School, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40. Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, 228 ; 231 (gymnasium) ; 316 (main entrance lobby) ; 335, 336 (assembly hall) ; 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703. Henry O. Shepard School, 585, 586. Lindblom High School, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709. Rezin Orr Public School, 586, 587, 588, 589. Downer’s Grove : Kindergarten, 288, 289. Evanston: Lincolnwood School District 75; (assembly hall), 338, 597, 598. Oakton School District, 76, 102, 103. Kenilworth: New Trier Township High School, 15 (athletic field); 41 (interior view); 439 (foundry); 517 (cafeteria); 659, 660, 661, 662. Pullman: Pullman Free School of Manual Training, 187, 188, 189. Winnetka : Skokie Elementary School, 34, 35, 36. Massachusetts Boston: Plan of cooking room for elementary schools, 485. Plan of physics laboratories, 360. Wentworth Institute, 184, 185, 186, 187. Fitchburg: Crocker Field, 15, 16, 17. Lawrence: Oliver School (assembly hall), 339. New Bedford : Vocational School, 182. Northampton: Smith Agricultural School, 196, 199. Taunton: Taunton High School, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672. Worcester: Boys’ Trade School, 172, 173. Michigan Pontiac: High School, 227 (gymnasium); 656, 657, 658. Minnesota Minneapolis: New High School (chemistry group), 381. William Hood Dunwoody Institute, 178, 179, 180. Rochester: High School (library), 292. Missouri Kansas City : Jane Hayes Gate Institute, 194. Lathrop School of Mechanical Trades, 177. Kirkwood: Grammar School, 106, 107. St. Louis, Ashland School, 105. Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24; 285, 286 (kindergarten). Clark Elementary and Soldan High School, 19. David Ranken Jr. School of Mechanical Trades, 174. Glasgow School, 104. Grover Cleveland High School, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146; 331, 332, 349, 361, 382, 394, 395, 407, 421, 422, 494, 505, 516 (interior views). Laclede Elementary School, 86, 87 ; 287 (kindergarten) Nevada Elko: Elko County High School, 653, 654, 655. New Hampshire Atlantic Heights: Schoolhouse, 617, 618. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY LOCATION OF SCHOOLS xix New Jersey Bayonne: Vocational School, 183. Newark: Cleveland School (kindergarten), 290. Lafayette School, 32, 33. Ridge School, 600, 601. South Side High School, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137; 340 (assembly hall). State Normal (detail of doorway), 599. Vocational School, 190, 191, 192. Trenton: Junior High School, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 1 1 7 , 1x8; 229 (gymnasium); 333 (assembly hall); 452 (shop) ; 498 (cooking room) . New Mexico Albuquerque : Electrical equipment in University of New Mexico, 493. New York Brooklyn: Boys’ High School (library), 300. Girls’ High School (library), 301, 302. Pratt Institute (laboratories), 367, 368, 370, 371, 373. Public School No. 29 (interior views), 259, 314, 4x0, 480. Buffalo : Hutchinson Central High School, 298, 299 (library) ; 304 (museum cases). New York: Regis High School, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696. Teachers College, Columbia University (laundry laboratory), 504. Ohio Cleveland : Addison Elementary School, 638, 639, 640. Almira School, 641, 642, 643, 644. Empire School, 645, 646, 647, 648. Cincinnati : Guilford School, 624, 625, 626. Lafayette Bloom School, 622, 623. Westwood Public School, 627, 628, 629, 630. Greenfield: Edward Lee McLean High School, 230 (gymnasium); 317 (front entrance vestibule), 649, 650, 651, 652. Hamilton: High School, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685. Toledo: Lincoln School (kindergarten), 285; 590, 591, 592, 593. Mott School, 613, 614, 615, 616. Oregon Astoria: Central Grammar School, 609, 610, 611, 612. Portland : Benson Polytechnic High School, 434, 448, 449, 455, 458 (shops) ; 528, 529, 530, 532, 533, 535, 536 (boiler and fan rooms). Fernwoocl Grammar School, 620, 621. Franklin High School, 537, 538 (boiler room) ; 547 (toilet room). Lincoln High School, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156. New Couch School (fan installation), 539, 540. Pennsylvania Pittsburgh : Schcnley High School (interior views) ; 296, 313, 315, 334, 383, 391, 492, 501 ; 663, 664, 665. Williamson: Free School of Mechanical Trades, 176. West Virginia Parkersburg: High School 314 (assembly hall) ; 686, 687, 688, 689. Wisconsin Fond du Lac : Edward S. Bragg School, 100, 101 ; 337 (assembly hall gymnasium). Milwaukee: Boys’ Technical High School, 181. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE CHAPTER I SITES AND GROUNDS By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. General Plan of School Sites. Zone Planning. Characteristics of Good School Sites. Size of School Sites. The Elementary School Play Areas. The Junior High School Play Areas. High School Sites. Location of the Building. Surfacing of Playgrounds, (i) Oil Macadam. (2) Asphalt Surfacing on Rock. (3) Asphalt Surfacing on Concrete. Fencing of Grounds. Wider Use of School Grounds. Play Yard Accommodations. The arts, the architecture, the literature, and the laws of a nation reflect the culture and intelligence of its people at every period of its history. In this day and age, however, the selection of school sites is a fair indication of the wisdom and farsightedness of the repre- sentatives of our people and of the people themselves, so important has such selection become. The school building has its limitations, but the site has none. As a school site it may be abandoned on account of changes in residential or industrial condi- tions. But if it is well chosen for the intrinsic values a school site should have, it will always be valuable either to the school department as school grounds, or to the municipality as public playgrounds. While the vision of the people as a whole has been slower than the growth of the school and the activities surrounding it, nurturing that vision by constructive suggestion is probably better than railing about the errors of the past. Patriotism and civic interest, now so brilliant, will do much to dispel shortsightedness and the lack of understanding of the great problem of good citizenship, which is founded on education and the associations and activities allied with education. The great war has strengthened many of the frailties of humanity and awakened the nation to the necessity of health and physical vigor as well as of scientific intel- lectual development. For the health of the mind seldom rises above the health of the body, and a healthful, vigorous body is the foundation for a sound, vigorous mind. They are parallel, and the rounding out of both should be simultaneous. Therefore, when discussing a school plant, either of one or of many schools, visions of children and adults at play and recreation should be uppermost in mind. Playgrounds are as important a part of the equipment of an educational plant as- the buildings. The large percentage of rejected young men of draft age who failed to qualify as physically ht for the army or the navy has demonstrated the necessity of super- vision of play and physical training for both boys and young men. Also the demands of the new vocations thrust upon girls and women make it mandatory that they too shall have an equal opportunity to prepare themselves physically to meet life’s duties with confi- dence. The great possibilities before the nation rest entirely upon the opportunities for universal physical and intellectual education, not upon the development of a few prodigies. The war has taught many lessons, but none more thoroughly than that of the necessity of physical fitness. General Plan of School Sites. — Before discussing the selection of a particular site, it would be wise to look at the larger problem of selecting many sites, and of following some definite plan in building up a plant of many separate units. The procrastinating and hap- hazard custom, so common to nearly all communities, of waiting until congestion forces action for enlarging or extending the existing plant, works to disadvantage, because, when steps are taken, they must of necessity be hasty and often ill-advised. The consequence is that the cost of grounds is greater than it need be if sites were obtained with definite regularity according to a carefully prepared plan that has flexibility as one of its chief assets. Where necessary, present laws should be revised or new laws drawn to enable boards of education to purchase and dispose of land quickly and with the least inconvenience. The present laws are probably ample for the purchase of land ; they 2 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE should be revised to permit of the disposal of land easily. They would then permit the buying of land from five to eight years, or longer, in advance of the existing need, and would enable school boards to retain it for school purposes or dispose of it as the later prevailing condi- tions warranted. Without going into detail here, there are sufficient ways and means to safeguard against fraudu- lent and incompetent selections. Such selections, even at their worst, could hardly equal the economic waste of the prevailing methods. Fig. i. This leads up to planning for sites, and what kind of property a school board should select for school grounds. First of all, the map of the city should be plotted geo- graphically according to zones based on the census of elementary, intermediate, and high school pupils. If the elementary, intermediate, and senior high school plan is adopted as the educational system of the city, it will make the general planning easier, reduce the cost of housing per pupil, and give greater facilities for immediate relief in times of congestion. Keeping in mind, however, the school population as the basis to work upon, the intermediate schools of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades should be the centers of circles having radii of one to one and one-quarter miles; the perimeters of these circles should be approximately the line of location of the outer boundary of the elementary school zone. In turn, the elementary schools should be spaced within the intermediate school areas not farther apart than one mile. (See Figures i and ia.) In other words, their location should be the centers of circles whose radii are one-half to three-quarters of a mile, the proximity de- pending entirely upon the population. Chil- dren below the sixth grade (n years of age) should not be compelled to walk farther to school than one-half to three-quarters of a mile. Special attention should be given to conditions such as railroad crossings, high- ways much used by automobiles, and active city streets. Good planning will save many a mother unnecessary worry for the safety of her child and often will save the child’s life. Centers for high school zones are not as much restricted in regard to distances apart as are those of the intermediate and elemen- tary schools, for the reason that the students attending the high school are more mature, and many of them arrive by means of bicycles, automobiles, or the street cars. Moreover, high school sites must be of such large acreage that size and cost are important factors, and it is very often the case that suitable sites cannot be found within a mile or more of the center of a high school zone. However, they are a part of the general plan, and the difficulty of obtaining such desirable sites emphasizes all the more the necessity of planning in advance. Zone Planning. — Zone planning for school grounds is simply another phase of modern city planning whereby the economic saving of the city may be increased through elimina- tion of waste in both the erection of school buildings and the buying and development of school sites. For instance, zone planning would prevent the need- less duplication of a number of departments in the ele- mentary and intermediate schools. Whenever an ele- mentary school attempts to maintain the full number of grades, that is from one to eight, it is necessary to pro- vide a complete plant containing a large assembly hall, sewing and cooking rooms, manual training rooms, 5 CALI, lit MIUS I HI, 5 MALI CIICUS 1ND1CATI, A1UA fitST SITLVI.P iY iLUUNTAHY SCHOOLS JIAMI.TI.lt I"lj MILLS THI, illOKLN • ....... JUHJOJI HIGH SCHOOLS - Z - THI, LAHGI5T • . - - - -HIGH SCHOOLS - A * SITES AND GROUNDS 3 Map Showing the Distribution of Present Schools. Proposed Additions, and Proposed New Schools Fig. i a. 4 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE extensive sheltered playrooms, a large administration suite, and other rooms and spaces accessory to class- rooms and needed in a school of this kind. These are necessary almost entirely on account of the older pupils in the school, say from the sixth to the eighth grade. Now an examination of the enrollment of the different grades of the elementary school will disclose the fact that the preponderance of attendance is in the lower grades. The result becomes something that no wise business man would tolerate, — a large and expensive part of the plant in use only part time by a minority of the pupils and exactly duplicated in every one of the other elementary schools. It is this economic waste of duplication that the method of zone planning would eliminate. The upper grades in the elementary school of the present system, from the seventh to the eighth inclusive, and the first grade of the high school, would be concentrated in one centrally located intermediate school which would contain com- plete departmental equipment for the pupils of these grades. This organization would at once relieve the elementary schools within its zone of the further necessity for such extensive equipment. It is safe to say that one such intermediate school, accommodating 1200 pupils, would provide for about 500 graduates yearly from the near-by elementary schools whose combined enrollment would be from 3500 to 4000 pupils. Nor would this method prevent the construction of any of the above-mentioned departments in the elementary schools wherever they could be so adjusted to the needs of the pupils below the seventh grade that they would be in constant and profitable use during the school day. 1 This plan would further enable school boards to prac- tice economy in securing an adequate site for each kind of school. While it is true that the enrollment of some elementary schools may be larger than that of the inter- mediate schools, nevertheless the former require smaller areas for playgrounds than the latter, just as the inter- mediate school requires less space than the high school. This difference is due to the different kinds of recreation required by the pupils of the respective schools. When the development of any school district is planned for in advance, and the general school scheme is carefully plotted, desirable sites can be purchased with much more economy than later when the pressure of increasing population makes their purchase necessary wherever they may be had and at whatever price may be asked. It is true that under present conditions school boards may hesitate about buying land in advance, for fear that it may never be used. This situation, as has been said before, can be changed by the enactment of laws that will permit the disposal of school land whenever such dis- posal will be advantageous to the community. The above recommendations for zone planning of school sites would necessarily be modified w r hen consid- ering the housing of educational plants in industrial sections of the school district, or in sections of a city densely populated by foreign-born residents. Every large city is confronted with this special educational problem as well as the housing problem in such districts. Whatever educational methods are adopted they must, of necessity, be flexible so that modifications may be easily and quickly made, in order that the school may retain the interest of not only the pupil but the parents as well. Very often in these districts, the fifth and sixth grades are the termination of education for a great many pupils, who then leave school to seek em- ployment. Consequently, promoting such pupils to an intermediate school in another section of the district, even though it is near by, would in the greater number of cases be equivalent to ending their school attendance. In view of this fact it is the business of the school to pro- vide a type of education for these students which would be attractive enough to hold them beyond the sixth grade. This type should consist of instruction in household arts, industrial arts, and physical education for the pupils in addition to the usual elementary studies, and some form of instruction for adults that will bring the parents into closer contact with the school. This departmental work or vocational education should begin as early as possible in these schools and extend to and include the ninth grade. The vocational training should be thorough, and the teachers should be not only able leaders in this special work but should be in hearty sympathy with the pupils and the parents, without any show of patronizing cant. If the effort to further Americanization of foreigners is to succeed, its strongest impetus must come from the school ; for it is by giving to these people the belief that the school is especially for their use and for their social, educational, and industrial development that the effort can succeed. The solution of this problem cannot be prescribed by any long-distance methods but only by close contact with these people and in accord with them. Conse- quently, such divisions of the general zone planning should be treated differently from the general planning for residential sections ; but they should be incorporated into the plan as a whole. Characteristics of Good School Sites. - Before dis- cussing the matter of size, let us consider the character of sites appropriate to school buildings. As a first step it would be good practice to call in a reputable health 1 This does not take into consideration the Gary system, which in its curriculum and conduct of studies is different from the general elementary school system in practice throughout the country. 3S' SITES AND GROUNDS 5 • 3 AT 3 ALA COUIIT- DOULLf, HOMZOHTA1, BAILS HOHI ZOU TAL, LADDUb- •HAND BALL COUILT * 0^5' '[O' 15 y 25' 3d S CAL £, ■ Fig. 2, •TE.HN1S C0UL1- 6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE officer to pass judgment upon the sanitation of all sites. This may seem extreme, but surveys of schools and the records of unhealthful conditions found surrounding some selections of even recent date prompt the belief that the advice of a health officer is needed. Low, swampy, boggy land should be avoided. On the other hand, hill sites are of little or no value, for no games can be played on a hillside. The additional expense for grading will probably make the hill site the most expen- sive in the end, regardless of its first cost. Land suitable for school sites should be nearly level with even gradients sloping down toward the property lines. This state- ment applies for all schools, although there are times when certain changes in the topography of the lot would offer an opportunity for natural stadiums adaptable for large athletic fields. In these cases the vision and training of a good planner will be required, not only to discover, but to execute. Many a splendid opportunity in the selection of school sites has gone begging because of lack of vision. Sites- along railroad tracks should be rejected on account of danger and noises. Also, sites on streets having car lines should be carefully studied with refer- ence to the location of the buildings and their proximity to the street. If the site is large enough to permit placing the building at such distance from the car lines that the noise will not be disturbing, and if the resulting loca- tion of the building does not destroy the grounds for play and athletic games, such sites may not be objec- tionable. Even then, however, there may be cause for doubt. Locations adjacent to factories, boiler shops, stables, fire hazards, hospitals, fire-engine houses, jails, or any such buildings should never be purchased. Further- more, local ordinances should prevent any such build- ings from being erected after a school site has once been purchased and built upon. Before any site is selected for school purposes, a careful survey should be made of the actual conditions of the land, of its possibilities for development as a school site and playground, and of the buildings and their uses within 1500 feet of the proposed site. If this is done by disinterested persons, and their findings recorded, there will be very few objectionable school sites purchased by school depart- ments. That this may be done thoroughly, a printed questionnaire or form including all objectionable and all favorable features should be given to the committee on sites. Also a topographical drawing or survey show- ing the grades and lot lines, prepared by a reputable engineer, should be required of every owner desiring to sell land for school property, or should be made at the school board’s expense before the transaction is closed. Such a survey may not always be necessary, but it costs so little and is generally of such use that it is worth while. Size of School Sites. — The question of the size of school grounds should be approached from the practical as well as from the ideal viewpoint. It would bankrupt any city if all the school sites were of such large acreage as to permit running tracks, football fields, etc. More- over, school sites within such highly developed zones as interior city blocks are so costly that if schools must be placed within such zones, it is often necessary to limit the school site to a single block, or even less. City blocks are usually of such dimensions as 2oo'X30o'. 25°'X3oo , ) or 2oo / X4oo'; an acre contains 43,560 square feet ; therefore, the block of the first dimensions would contain 1.38 acres, the second 1.7 acres, and the third 1.84 acres. None of these lots, after allowing sufficient room for the building and certain reservations for the future growth of the school, will leave space enough for a baseball field of regulation size. They will, however, provide ground space for tennis, hand- ball, basket ball, volley ball, indoor baseball, and play space for the smaller children. Consequently, as far as possible, such sites should be limited to elementary schools. This does not mean, however, that all elemen- tary school sites should be restricted in area to city blocks. On the contrary, elementary school sites should contain from 2-g- to 3 acres as a minimum, and decidedly so if the school is to house more than 500 pupils. This area will become more and more manda- tory, as many states already require physical education as part of the school curriculum. According to the recommendation of the National Education Association, of 272 square feet per child for play, recreation, and gardening, it is evident that an area of three acres is not too large for an elementary school site. A review of the opinion of Mr. Henry S. Curtis, 1 former Secretary of the Playground Association of America, seems at first sight to indicate a smaller allot- ment of space. “ Curtis’s estimate for elementary school buildings calls for two acres. Organized games — baseball, indoor baseball, volley ball, tennis, basket ball — call for i^g- acres, leaving acre for general, unorganized play, running track, and pool. Curtis’s estimate on the basis of two acres for 684 pupils is equiva- lent to 127 square feet per pupil for elementary schools." Since nothing is said about the space to be occupied by the building itself, evidently the article is dealing with play space only. This fact will then account for the difference between the figure of 272 square feet per 1 Report of the Comm'ssion on the Reorganization of Secondary Education appointed by the National Educat'on Association. Published by the Federal Bureau of Education lVBulletin 1917, No. 50. SITES AND GROUNDS 7 HUG BY FOOTBALL FlLLD B10AD JUMP Fig. 3. HIGH JUMP PIT 5 HOT PUT CUICLL 8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE pupil demanded by the National Education Association and the figure of 127 square feet given by Mr. Curtis. The former is an allowance of space of about is'XiS', and the latter about io'Xi3' per pupil. These dimen- sions are quoted to enable school boards to see how men familiar with recreation activities are attacking the prob- lem of preserving and developing the health and physical fitness of school children. The Elementary School Play Areas. — The following equipment and areas are recommended by the writer for elementary school playgrounds and are separate from the baseball field. (See Figure 2.) Boys' Yard, One basket ball court 50' X 70' .... 3,500 square feet One tennis court 50' Xioo' (court proper is 36' X 78') overall 5,000 “ Two volley ball courts, each 25' X50' Two handball courts, each 2o'X36' Allowance around courts about . . Space for gymnasium apparatus . . General play space at least . . . Girls’ Yard. One basket ball court 50' X 70' 2,500 1,440 4.000 5.000 20,000 41,440 3,500 square feet One tennis court 50' X ioo' .... 5,000 Two volley ball courts, each 25' X5o' . 2,500 One handball court 20' X36 1 .... 720 Allowance for space around courts . . 4,000 Gymnasium apparatus 5,000 Dancing pavilion 30' X6o' 1,800 General play space . 10,000 32,520 Small Children’s Space. Sand box Swings See-saws Slides about 5000 square feet. 3 - The above requires a total area of about 78,960 square feet, or about 1.7 acres. The Junior High School Play Areas. — The junior high school site is quite another matter, and as this school should be the general center of community interest, it follows that the grounds should have the same relation to outdoor activity as the building has as a place for meetings of citizens vitally interested in civic affairs. Many are of the opinion that it is an economic waste to provide especially designed rooms for public club- rooms in every school, because they are used so infre- quently and by so few that the expense is needless, and the money could be more wisely spent in providing additional classrooms for instruction of children for whom the school is built. On the other hand, it may be recommended most heartily that such provisions be afforded in schools centered like the intermediate school. A mile or a little farther is not too far for a man or woman to travel to attend community affairs. The larger the district, the larger the number likely to attend, and the greater the number, the more likely will better understanding and judgment prevail. All schools should be free for use by the people and at their pleasure, but only in central schools should special provisions be made, such as clubrooms and especially large playgrounds. The junior high school grounds should be the com- bination of the municipal and school playground, and consequently should be large enough to permit at least two baseball games to be played at the same time, and to provide for other games as well. The three-acre tract for the elementary school will permit of one baseball field of regulation size, and this will also provide space for the play of the smaller children, besides providing tennis and other courts for adults. However, the opportunity for community development will be found in the junior high school and its grounds. The following is a good example of the area required for such a school site : (1) The athletic field should include a quarter mile running track. The space within the oval will provide for two baseball diamonds, or one football field. High jump, broad jump, and pole vault pits can be placed inside this inclosure. The area required for this is about four and one-half acres. (See Figure 3.) (2) Four tennis courts, each 6o'Xi2c/, should be pro- vided and will require an area of 28,800 square feet. To this should be added about 10% for approaches. There- fore, the allowance for tennis is about § of an acre. (3) One swimming pool about 3o'X75 r (for the pool only) with dressing rooms for about 75 men and 50 women. This will require about \ of an acre. It is quite unlikely that a swimming pool would be provided in the grounds or buildings of every intermediate school. But a city having such schools and public playgrounds should have at least one swimming pool for every 25,000 in population. (4) In addition to the above there should be three smaller divisions of the grounds as follows : (A) Boys’ division, containing : 2 Basket ball courts. 2 Handball courts, each 2o'X36'. 2 Volley ball courts. Space for gymnasium apparatus, about 5000 square feet. All of which will require about 16,500 square feet or about Ao of an acre. (B) Girls’ division, containing : 2 Girls’ basket ball courts. 2 Handball courts. 2 Volley ball courts. Space for girls’ gymnasium apparatus, about 5000 square feet. SITES AND GROUNDS 9 Indoor baseball grounds with base lines 40 feet in length, allowing about 2000 square feet. Dance platform and provision for using piano, about 2500 square feet, or a total of about 20,440 square feet, nearly \ an acre. (C) Small children’s division containing : Sand boxes, swings, seesaws, and slides. This space will require about 8500 square feet, or about 5 of an acre. This section should be isolated from the rest of the grounds and sufficiently removed from the building that it may be opened for use without restriction as to time during the day by the very small children accompanied by their mothers or nurses. At the elementary school, the small children’s play space and equipment should be arranged close to the building, as it is not used except at recess periods. The plan outlined above, without taking into account the building area, approaches, lawns, gardens, etc., equals about 7 acres ; so it is safe to say that an inter- mediate school site which will serve as a community center will require at least 10 acres, which space is quite in keeping with the recommendation of the National Education Association of 272 square feet per pupil. In order that adults, intermediate school pupils, and smaller children may occupy the grounds at the same time, it is advisable that the entire site be properly planned, setting off spaces for the different classifications of play, and that some of the divisions be formed by appropriate wire fences or hedges. The space for the boys and adults requires little or no division. The gardens, however, require protection from the outside and from the play space, and the girls’ play area should be separated from the boys’ play yard and field by a fence, hedge, or terrace. As in the planning of buildings, there is every oppor- tunity to be wasteful in the planning of school grounds ; therefore, every precaution is necessary to prevent useless waste, especially in overlapping the areas for games. It is greatly desired in the laying out of the grounds that an experienced physical director collaborate with the architect and the landscape designer. Such cooperation of experts will bring about the planning of grounds adaptable to the curriculum, will assure the movement of the school to and from the grounds between the periods, and will pave the way for utility and order in the general treatment. High School Sites. - — Sites for high schools should be enlarged to about double the size of those for inter- mediate school grounds. This is recommended because high school grounds should have the character of the college campus. The day has arrived when high schools are being planned as groups of buildings, not more than two or three stories high, with the different departments in separate buildings connected by open or inclosed arcades or wings. In the larger cities, due to cost of land, it may be necessary to have the high school under one roof and within the limits of a single block. This means that there must be four or more stories to the building. But the trend of the times is to locate secondary schools in sparsely settled sections of the cities where the buildings may be spread out and their height reduced. This is desirable, as it means better lighting, better natural ventilation, fewer fire hazards, besides reducing the exertion of stair-climbing for girls. High schools planned in this manner give many oppor- tunities for pleasing courts, and approaches, at the same time furnishing to the plan spaces for lawns, shrubs, trees, etc., which in this manner are isolated from the play- grounds and preserved. Properly treated school fore- grounds and courts are valuable points of interest in com- munities. Cities keeping step with progress in education are providing high school sites containing twenty to twenty- five acres. Experimental gardens alone will require from three to five acres. The trade and industrial shops of the industrial arts department are generally planned to occupy separate buildings set some distance from other departments which require quietness. The gymnasium, closely allied with the athletic field, should also be in a separate building. The same is somewhat true of the music department with all its accompanying noises. It is also necessary that the girls should have a separate athletic field from that of the boys, as a great deal of the physical training, now compulsory, will be done in the open air. Therefore, in order to meet the many and diversified requirements of secondary education, large areas of ground for high schools are to-day as essential as large buildings. Location of the Building. Many a well-planned school has been made almost useless by misplacing it on the site. Care should be taken to determine the disturbances surrounding the site, as has been pre- viously mentioned, and consideration given to future possibilities of new street car lines passing the school long after it is built. Likewise the fact must be remem- bered that small factories, garages, and other shops may locate near a proposed school, if they are not there already. Consequently, the school should be set far enough back from the street property lines to insure quietness for study at all times. Aside from the con- sideration of noises, it is a good plan to have plenty of space between the exits and the street, so that on leav- ing school the children will have sufficient time to over- come the excitement and haste which usually follow dismissal. Many accidents can be attributed to having IO SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE the school too close to avenues and streets, always dangerous to heedless youngsters. If advantage is to be taken of the best orientation for the school and the classrooms, the location of the building is a very important factor. For instance, a rectangular plan, which is usually the most economical, adapts itself well to grounds having an east or west frontage when east and west light is desirable. Other forms of floor plans necessitated by conditions are often dependent upon the orientation of the lot for economy in cost and efficiency in administration. School children like to play or to congregate close to the building just before school opens and during recess periods ; therefore, these features of child life and habits should influence many points about the plan and the location of the building. The entrances used mostly by the pupils and the play spaces near the building are the centers where the children gather. In consequence of this the building should be located so that these spots, as far as possible, may receive the early morning sunshine for warmth and health. Every precaution should be taken to protect the health of children, and there are no more economical means than that of good planning and arrangement of buildings used by children if the authori- ties are familiar with the child’s natural habits. The question of placing the large play yard or athletic field between the school and the street, or, as is generally the case, placing the building so that the athletic field is to the rear, is a matter which can be decided only after a thorough study has been made of the local conditions. The former plan with small grounds and a wide approach to the main entrance is a definite way to divide the grounds for the boys and for the girls and is one method of preventing noises from the street reaching the class- rooms. The plan of having the play yard at the rear or side makes the school more accessible to the pupils and especially to the public. There cannot be any definite rules governing this question, as it is a matter of knowledge of the problem and a complete study of the conditions surrounding the site, as well as of taking into account the orientation of the grounds and building. Surfacing of Playgrounds. — It is only within recent years that the school play yard has received much atten- tion to make it fit for children to play upon. Of all parts of the plant to be left unfinished, the play yard, with its hollows, rubbish, brickbats, and rough surfaces has been woefully neglected. Usually the entire appro- priation is spent in purchasing the site and building, and seldom, if ever, is there any provision in the budget for surfacing of grounds or for planting. Happily the awakening has brought about play yards that are de- lightful for children to play upon, and order and care have replaced the shiftless, slovenly appearing school playground. For ordinary purposes, two types of surfaces are needed for a school yard : (A) General play surface — namely, that type of surface which is adaptable for the large play area. This should be a surface that is not so hard as to cause injuries to children when falling, or so soft as to hinder them in free running games. Most of the large athletic games are played on a surface of this type, such as base- ball, football, soccer, hockey, etc. The best surface for games of this sort is lawn, but where expense is a large item, lawns are impracticable. A light sandy soil, when properly watered and rolled, will make a good surface. A sandy loam of a mixture of two-thirds loam and one-third sand, which will pack slightly, is probably the most practical. The particles of sand act as fin e separators to the loam and keep the surface porous and prevent it from getting hard. This surfacing should be watered frequently to stay the dust during the summer, and lightly raked or brushed after freezing has set in to keep it soft for football. (B) The court surface, which is used for court games where a hard, level surface is required to give the ball an accurate bounce. This type of surface is needed in such games as basket ball, tennis, and handball. If the surface is compact as described under (A), a further treatment with asphaltic oil and crushed rock screenings ranging in size from dust to and thoroughly rolled until the oil is completely absorbed will make a fair surface for these games. This, however, will never be very satisfactory and has little permanency. The better and most lasting surfaces for courts, and for areas within ioo feet of the school building, are oil macadam, asphalt on a crushed rock bed, or asphalt on a concrete slab. The following is a description of the method of apply- ing these three surfaces : Oil Macadam. — After the surface has been brought to the proper levels for drainage and grades, it should be rolled with a five ton roller until the subsurface is smooth and even. Over this surface should be spread a layer of clean crushed rock 3" deep, ranging in size from f" to . This layer should then be rolled and covered with a light layer of crushed rock dust or screenings, varying in size from dust to and rolled until the screenings partly fill the voids between the rock. Upon this surface should be spread one-half gallon of oil to the square yard of surface. Fine screenings should then be dusted over it, and the entire mass rolled until com- pact and hard. Upon this a second coat of oil should be spread to the extent of J gallon to the square yard of sur- face, this again covered with rock dust until all the free SITES AND GROUNDS ii oil is absorbed, and then rolled thoroughly until the surface is smooth and compact. During the final rolling, rock dust should be sprinkled wherever oil is forced to the surface by the roller. The total depth when finished should be three inches. This pavement at normal times should cost about 4! cents per square foot. It is kept in repair by oiling, dusting, and rolling the spots showing wear. All oil should be delivered at the point required for sprinkling at a temperature of not less than 250 degrees Fahrenheit and should contain not less than 90 per cent of asphalt, having, at a temperature of 77 degrees Fahrenheit, a penetration of 80, District of Columbia Standard. There are other requirements and tests for the oil to meet, but the above is sufficient for the purpose of describing how -to construct these surfaces. Asphalt Surfacing on Rock. — This classification is a more permanent method of treating school play yards and is less expensive to maintain. After the subsurface has been graded to the correct levels, a 3" layer of crushed rock, ranging in size from f" to i \" , should be spread. This surface should be carefully covered with rock screenings so that the voids are partially filled, but not entirely so, and the entire surface thoroughly rolled. On top of this an asphalt wearing surface, one inch in thickness, should be laid and thoroughly rolled with a roller weighing not more than five tons, care being exercised at all times to secure a smooth and uniform surface. The final depth of this surfacing should be four inches. Under normal conditions, this pavement costs approximately 14! cents per square foot. Asphalt Surfacing on Concrete. — This is by far the best wearing surface for tennis and other courts and is the most permanent. It differs from asphalt on rock only in the substitution of concrete, at least 3" thick, for the crushed rock. It costs approximately 18 cents a square foot. In all surfacing care should be taken to grade the sub- surface so that the finished work will be of the required thickness and at the same time shed water without form- ing gullies. This can be accomplished by installing catch basins and drains and sloping the ground to them with easy gradients. This will preserve the surfacing, avoid hollow spots for puddles, and enable the grounds to dry quickly. Brick and cement pavements should be used only for walks. The former is too dangerous, and soon wears out the shoes and tears the clothing of the children, and like the latter, having no resilience or “ give ” to the pressure of the feet, is very tiring. When used for walks these pavements should be laid flush with the play yard. Fencing of Grounds. — ■ The play yard fence is the part of the equipment most difficult to justify on paper, and yet it is the most essential in practice. In addition to the protection of children from the danger of street traffic, and the aid it affords in the enforcement of rules and regulations, it gives a spirit of individuality to the play yard. Inside the playground fence exist a certain code of ethics and form of procedure that differ from those of the street or vacant lot. This feeling can be made strong enough to become an incentive to good conduct. Fences might be well covered with climbers, and add not only beauty to the grounds, but protect girls from the gaze of idle passers-by. When covered with vines, they serve well as a low base or screen for electric light poles with which to illuminate the play yard at night for the use of the grounds by the working boys and girls of the community and the older adults. The poles, placed along the fence, present a less hideous appearance, and fewer are needed within the grounds. The better treatment of fencing school grounds is to inclose the play yard , and rear only, and to leave the front of the site and approaches to the building unfenced, as such treatment gives a more inviting impression to the public and to the student. The result will be that the school will operate in closer touch with the com- munity. Wider Use of School Grounds. — Communities are awake to the possibilities of having their school yards used at night and on holidays by adults for games under skilled supervision. Modern illuminating engineering has advanced so that tennis, basket ball, volley ball, and indoor baseball may be played outdoors at night as well as within an armory or an inclosed arena. Both the school and the grounds are coming into active and inten- sive use, and the people are quick to observe the dif- ference between well-planned and well-equipped grounds and those of the haphazard and indifferently kept school play yards that are of little or no use. The character of a community is improved by good playgrounds. New laws eliminating vicious rendezvous also make it obliga- tory that the working boys and girls have every oppor- tunity to participate in games on well-kept grounds amidst pleasant surroundings. When once completed, such grounds cost little to maintain, and the returns to good citizenship and good health out-measure all initial cost. Many good playgrounds, open wide for inten- sive use, will cut down the financial burden in maintain- ing jails and hospitals, and the attendance within them. Play Yard Accommodations. — In planning the build- ing, the school toilet rooms for both sexes should be located so as to be accessible to the play space, in order to save duplication in the plumbing. However, adults should never be permitted to use the children’s toilets, nor should the children be permitted to use the toilets assigned to the older people. Each should have separate -S T TLLE.T- SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 1 2 JOHN J. DONOVAN 1 aM JOHN O/LLU HOWAUD J ATinpT o 8 5o 40 at 00 \\ -M S C A L, L, \\ SITES AND GROUNDS i3 • GHOUP PLAN OF THL OAKLAND TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL • OAKLAND - CALIF- JOHN J. DOFOVAN AILCH1T£, CT • ■ f, , , , f. ■ , ,f S CAI, E, I.NTI1LE, SITE, CONTAINS ABOUT 14.66 ACJl2,S Fig. 5. 14 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE toilet and dressing rooms. The same is true of shower rooms. Carelessness in regard to this may lead to a serious infection of an innocent child, a thing which can be easily avoided. Near the dressing rooms should be a small rest room where a first-aid dispensary could be stationed to treat injuries occurring on the playgrounds. A storeroom about i2'X2o' is essential for the storage of supplies and parts of apparatus. These rooms should be placed adjacent to the field and so arranged that access to them may be had without entering the re- mainder of the school building. The school therefore will serve as a field house and save the expense and space that would be required for an additional building. Figure 4 is the actual layout or plan of the Emerson School site, Oakland, California, and includes about 4.3 acres. This playground is supervised by the Munici- pal Recreation Department. The following is a de- scription of the apparatus indicated by the numbers and letters on the diagram : 1. Girls’ Sandbox. The dimensions of this are 1X5X12 feet. It is equipped with a shelf around the top, which serves either as a seat or a molding table. It is filled with a coarse grade of sand, which will not become dusty in dry weather or muddy when moistened. 2. Girls’ Slide. This is a medium-sized slide, equipped with a landing-pit filled with clean sand. 3. Girls’ Gymnasium Frame, which consists of a set of six traveling rings. This particular unit has been found most satisfactory for girls. 4. Girls’ Volley-Ball Court, which has 4X4 inch posts set in sockets, so that they may be easily removed. 5. Girls’ Basket-Ball Court, — posts set in sockets. (Numbers 4 and 5 are convertible into tennis courts during seasons when basket ball is not played.) 6. Double Handball Courts, one side for girls, and the other for boys. This consists of plain handball backstops, twenty feet wide, twelve feet high, with a six-foot wire extension. 7. Boys’ Basket-Ball Court — posts set in sockets. 8. Boys’ Volley-Ball Court — posts set in sockets. (Numbers 7 and 8 are convertible into tennis courts.) 9. Boys’ Gymnasium Frame. Unit selected for boys’ gymnasium frame is one horizontal bar, one climb- ing-pole, one climbing-ladder, two sets of flying rings. 10. High Slide for Boys, equipped with landing-pit filled with sand. 11. Soccer Posts, made of 6X6 inch posts. Size of field is reduced to 50X80 yards, which has proved satis- PROPOSED ; NEW * HIGH -SCHOOL * FOR.’ SANTA- BARBAR A * CALIF Fig. 6. SITES AND GROUNDS i5 Fig. 7. Messrs. Pertcins, Fellows & Hamilton, Arcnuects. Athletic Field, New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, III. factory for school playground purposes. Hockey is played on this field. 12. Sandbox for Boys, equipped as number 1. 13. Jumping-pit, filled with shavings. 14. Wire Cage Backstop for baseball. 15. Open Pergola Porch, covered with canvas in the summer time, which affords a place for small children to hold club meetings and enjoy diversified play. Area marked X is an oil macadam composition. It makes an excellent surface for court games. Surface marked Y is covered with crushed-rock dust. It makes a good baseball field, but is a little too hard for football, — sandy loam would be better. Figure 5 shows the group plan of the Technical High School, Oakland, California. This plot includes 14.85 acres. Messrs. Olmsted Bros. — Landscape Architects. Fig. 8. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE £ ni ^ 4<; %j ■ ■ ■ ' ■ Fig. io. — Field House, Crocker Field, Fitchburg, Massachusetts. Messrs. Olmsted Bros., Landscape Architects. Fig. g. — Crocker Field, Fitchburg, Massachusetts. Messrs. Olmsted Bros., Landscape Architects. SITES AND GROUNDS i7 Messrs. Olmsted Bros., Landscape Architects. Fig. 11 a. — Crocker Field, Fitchburg, Massachusetts. CHAPTER II ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect , A. I. A. The Motive of American School Architecture. Formation of the Plan. Correlation of Departments. Planning the School of the Future. The Exterior Composition. Standardization. Legislation. Construction. Materials. Inspection. The Architect and His Service. Motive of American School Architecture. — There is nothing more impressive or hopeful in American democracy than the devotion of the people to education. Nor is this devotion confined to those who have enjoyed its enrichments. Even in the humblest homes un- lettered parents will be found to have a fixed desire for the educational welfare of their children. Sacrifices in personal comforts of all but the means of mere existence are made in order that the family may have the opportu- nity of receiving not simply the fundamentals of learning, but the training of the university as well. And the devotion of the wealthy is no less impressive. For the great progress of education is due in large measure to the interest in education shown by men and women of affluence. Universities, colleges, academies, and often the public schools could not have fulfilled the educa- tional wants of the nation, had it not been for the many magnificent endowments, for the promotion of learn- ing and the development of character, placed at the dis- posal of education- by these public-spirited people. Education is the common meeting-ground for all classes, creeds, and races, where the small bothersome misunderstandings of life vanish ; and nowhere is this more evident than in American school life. The greatest tribute of justice that can be paid to the nation is that its laws first demand that its youth shall receive the fundamentals of education, and then it presents the widest opportunities for its humblest citizen and resident to proceed in acquiring unlimited learning. With such a foundation, it is no wonder that the architecture of American schools and institutions of learning has advanced more rapidly than that of any other field of the profession. Unconsciously the spirit has been to represent truly this national devotion to education in the architecture of public schools. If progress in education is observed from the time when it was dispensed within the small box-like building, with its poorly lighted and badly ventilated rooms, to its present expanded and still expanding status, as carried on within the modern complex structure completely equipped and embracing all facilities for education, health, and safety, it will be seen that architecture has kept abreast with each succeeding step of the educational program, in which the course of studies has become more and more extended to meet the requirements of the industrial, commercial, and social life of the nation. Notwithstanding this expansion of the curriculum and the consequent complexity of the building and equip- ment, it is gratifying to note that the architecture of the school has remained simple and direct. This is truly a hopeful sign. For as the nation advances in its devel- opment and maintains its virility, the demands for edu- cation will always outstrip the supply. And the burden of taxation so willingly borne as a responsibility to posterity and good citizenship is that much lightened when the merit of the architecture is based on good planning, beauty of form, and dignity of proportion. Ornamental embellishments serve no purpose. They do not represent the character of the school or of the people, and happily their use is rare in American school architecture. Just how much credit for this is due to the influence of the work of Wheelwright. Ittner, Snyder. Perkins, Hussander, Guilbert, Betelle, Packard, and to the innumerable unheard-of men who have contributed isolated examples, and to the influence of the broad- minded, alert, and discerning leaders of education, is difficult to measure at this time. But it is recorded in their examples of school architecture that these men. by their serious study of the problem and their good sense for simplicity in composition, have led the way in school architecture toward possibilities which have clearly exemplified the people’s devotion to education and their appreciation for simple, substantial structures. Formation of the Plan. — The proper understanding of the school problem might be said to have passed its first stages. While what has been accomplished in the ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 19 Clark Elementary and Soldan High School, St. Louis, Missouri. 20 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 13. — Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, Front View, St. Louis, Missouri. mt. wm. u. luner, Arcnuea last two decades has been remarkable, it will be greatly surpassed in the future. With a comprehensive knowl- edge of the pedagogical organization being more gen- erally acquired by the architectural profession, the prospect is bright for good planning of school buildings. There is an axiom in the science of building that a good plan should produce a good exterior. This, of course, is subject to the limitations of training, skill, taste, and competence of the architect. But it is none the less true that the plan must be of primary importance. The correlation of rooms within each department and the correlation of departments within the school is all-im- portant if the school is to permit of being well adminis- tered. In factory planning, the essential factor is the routing of material along the most direct and economical channels. In school planning, the routing of the human material is the essential. Rooms which can serve more than one purpose should be planned to do so. For it is by such practices of economical planning rather than by the use of cheap materials that real economy can be accomplished. Within the last decade there has been a strong tendency to link the school and the community together by pro- viding separate rooms for community purposes, such as clubrooms, small libraries, etc. This movement is accomplishing its purpose, for out of it is growing a valu- able connection, namely, the continuation school. The close relation between the school and the community must be fostered if education is to prosper ; but instead of devoting valuable space in the building for occasional use, rooms such as the teachers’ rest room, the library, the assembly hall, or the music room should be the meet- ing places of the community clubs. Every facility should be made for educational work, and every dollar spent should have its worth expressed in the educational, hygienic, and structural features of the building. When it is considered that even with the strictest economy in planning only fifty per cent of the total floor area can be used for instruction while the other fifty per cent is used for corridors, stairways, entrances, ' and rooms and areas related to instruction rooms, it is evident that judgment must be exercised in giving up space for other than that for direct instruc- tion. This, however, should not prejudice the reader against such rooms as assembly halls, swimming-pools, playrooms, etc., for these are just as essential to the development of the child and the community as the classrooms themselves. The school of the future will ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 21 not be complete without them ; but their location with relation to each other should be planned to avoid dupli- cation of equipment and plant. For instance, the toilets, showers, dressing-rooms, etc., for the play-yard activities should also serve for the swimming-pool, the gymnasium, and the indoor playrooms. The dressing- rooms for the assembly-hall stage should be planned for use by the music department for private instrumental instruction. In fact, all the rooms throughout the school should be considered as having possibilities for extended use into school activities beyond their primary purpose. The plant and equipment of the day school must be fitted and adapted to the work of the continuation school, so that rotation of students may be accom- plished without friction or waste of time or energy. In many cities the continua- tion school periods begin at i : oo p.M. and extend to io : oo p.m. It is not unlikely that the hours of work for this branch of school education may ex- tend from 7 : 30 a.m. to xo : 00 p.m. Students en- rolled in the continuation school enter and leave the building at all hours, con- sequently, the plant should be as flexible as the or- ganization in meeting the requirements. Correlation of Depart- ments. — The various de- partments of the school are treated in separate chap- ters because of the im- portance of having correct and definite data embracing their organization, planning, and equipment. Their correlation only will be discussed here. It will be found advantageous if the commercial de- partment is placed near the administration offices, as they have much in common. The shops should be isolated from the study and recitation rooms, on account of the noises attendant to their operation. The drawing department should be near the shops, as all advanced shopwork should be performed from working drawings. If these two departments are adjacent, convenience will result. Possibilities for wide expansion should always be made feasible in planning for shops. The household arts and the science departments should also be near each other; particularly should the chemistry labora- tories be available for use by the students in cooking. The chemistry of foods is a part of the curriculum of household arts in modern high schools. The academic department and the library are almost a unity, and wherever located, possibilities for expansion and easy growth should be considered from every angle. For, as enrollment increases, this department is the first to feel congestion. Locating the assembly hall, the gymnasium, the swimming-pool, the showers, and the play-yard accommodations should have reference to free ac- cessibility by the public. These divisions of the school plant should be arranged so that if found desirable or necessary, the remainder of the school may be closed off. As a general rule, the heating plant should be closely connected with the shops and apart from the main building. This will serve a double purpose in providing certain instruc- tion to the student in me- chanical installations and at the same time increase the safety of the building and its occupants. Planning the School of the Future. — The school of the future, having the last decade of progress in education for its founda- tion, will have to be pro- portionate in plant and equipment to meet the needs of each community for the great post-war period of education. The physical and scientific requirements of the World War (1914-19x8) have precipitated a feeling for an intense and constructive movemeixt for greater diffusion of edu- cational training in the professional, social, industrial, and commercial fields of eixdeavor. Business, industry, agriculture, and the other arts of life are no longer inde- pendent of the school. Nor is the school an isolated institution, occupying a definitely limited period in the life of the individual. That belief now lies in the back- ground of the history of both education and industry. Research and applied science have received an impetus never before experienced or equaled, an impetus which Fig. 14. — Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, St. Louis, Missouri. 22 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE gives to these two important branches of education a higher standing of importance. It is also through the school that the more complete nationalizing of the immigrant and his children will be brought about. This movement is well under way at the present time, having received its impulse from the spirit of patriotism for America so magnificently exem- plified by the foreign-born citizens during the war. A tremendous effort towards national homogeneity and common interest is bound to result from it. This will directly benefit education and the state. Readjustment rooms used for the study of English and literature. Attempts, sometimes partly successful, have been made to give these rooms a character of early English Tudor architecture. These sporadic efforts have had their limitations and difficulties on account of the fenestration necessitated by the modern requirements for good natural lighting. Except for the development of the library and the arrangement of the dividing partitions so that floor areas of rooms may be easily altered to expedite flexibility in administration, this department of the school plant is likely to be subject to very few modifications (ST. LOUJ4>, MO. V-'B.ITTNZ.IL, AtCHlTECr Fig. is. of the school plan necessarily will follow. Just where and how is problematical for the moment, but most likely the greatest development will take place in the household, industrial, and commercial departments of the school plant. The academic department, which teaches the studies of mathematics, languages, English, history, civics, and geography, — the subjects of culture and the foundation for all other forms of education, — has stood the test of time without much change in the physical requirements of its rooms beyond enlargements of area and improve- ment of the hygienic conditions. However, certain refinements have already taken place in the design of other than providing sufficient well-lighted, healthful rooms for study and recitation. The departments teaching the sciences, industrial arts, drawing, household arts, and commercial studies are most subject to change in their curricula, plant, and equipment. And to meet the changes, it is necessary for the school to draw from the ranks of industry, able leaders to assist in the planning and instruction. No longer will it do tc assign vacant rooms and simply designate them as shops or laboratories. Each room, before the draw- ings have passed beyond the preliminary stages, must have its equipment carefully shown, properly located, and tested in the abstract for efficiency and adequacy. ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 23 Attention should be called to what all this means in the planning and architecture of the school of the future. Undoubtedly, the high school will take on the aspect and character of the university, and function for the community as the university now functions for the state. Instead of many small and distinctly exclusive high schools, such as the classical, the commercial, the techni- cal, the vocational, etc., etc., the people and their rep- resentatives, boards of education, will see the light of wisdom and group all these separate schools under one, two or three plants, according to the size of the district This requires a thorough knowledge of the school and a vision of the future. The greatest waste is to build so that additions cannot be made and that plants must as a result be abandoned after thirty or forty years of use. Bond issues extend to almost that time, and it is un- fortunate if the plant has to be discarded shortly after payment of the last installment. The problems surrounding the planning and archi- tecture of the elementary and intermediate, or junior high school, are no less important than those of the inclusive high school, although not so complex or numer- or city. This will make for economy in cost of manage- ment, housing, and maintenance, and will broaden the scope of the educational staff. Likewise, it will prove attractive to able men and women engaged in teaching to strive for greater leadership and high social standing in the community. In the long run, it will be found less expensive and more advantageous to have one large plant rather than several small ones. In well-developed cities the high school, costing as much as a million and a half dollars and even more, will in the very near future be not uncommon. Valuable service will be rendered if all school plants are planned for unrestricted growth. ous. But it is in the serious thought and study of these two plants that rests the hope of the nation. Indifference to the planning, sanitation, heating, and ventilation for these fundamental education buildings has given way to the purpose of having them adequately designed to meet their needs. It is expected they will be charmingly simple in their architecture and inviting in their appearance and surroundings. Just as their curricula are the foundations for higher education, so, too, is their architecture the foundation for greater development of American school architecture. Of late, in certain sections of the country, there has been a tend- 24 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE ency to develop a compact, fixed plan which has been influenced by desires for economy. Desirable orienta- tion and natural ventilation of rooms and corridors have necessarily been sacrificed in many instances in favor of compactness. Children of the age attending these schools require the most favorable hygienic conditions in order that their physical assets may be conserved to the fullest degree. The Exterior Composition. — However good the plan of a school may be, or whatever the excellence of its capability for administration and instruction, unless it is accompanied by a pleasing composition of the exterior, it will soon lose its prestige and be forgotten. One of the important functions of school architecture is to sell education to the public. This is accomplished by making attractive that side of education which the - £LGOND FLOOR- PLAN" - «5cale. of Fe.e.t 5 O 5 /O /S 20 25 JO JS 50 Fig. 17. BRYAN AVULLAN PHY SCHOOL AT. UOUIA, WABlTTnEjE-, .ARCHITECT The writer is of the opinion that the open type of plan of the one-, two-, or three-story buildings is most condu- cive to good health, and that economies of space obtained in the compact scheme may be offset in the cost of con- struction of the open type. Certainly more sunshine is possible with the latter type of plan. But rather than prejudice the minds of those responsible for the erection of schools, it should be clearly understood that each problem is distinct and separate in itself ; and its plan and construction should be based on the conditions governing its study. public see most. So much has been written and said about the educational value of good architecture to the community, that it is needless to repeat here what has been so thoroughly propagated to influence civic interest for good public buildings. But appropriately something may be mentioned about the educational value to chil- dren and students of housing them in buildings having merit in form, proportion, and good taste both without and within. Much effort is made within the school to teach chil- dren to draw accurately and freely, to paint with oils ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 2 5 Messrs. John J. Donovan and John Galen Howard, Associate Architects. Fig. 18. — Emerson Elementary School, Oakland, California. Messrs. John J . Donovan and John Galen Howard, Associate Architects. Fig. 19. — Emerson Elementary School, Oakland, California. 26 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE and water-colors, to comprehend proportion of areas and figures, to understand the history of art and civiliza- tion, and to master other subjects which lead to the realms of art. The motive prompting this work is not that a livelihood will be made from such brief training, but that the child will be trained to have a sense of appre- ciation for the beautiful which he may express in other forms of life’s activities. Therefore, is not this appre- ciation greatly enhanced and fostered if the building and its appointments are executed so that the mind, at forced to work in mills and factories at an early age and by children having to attend schools whose architecture paralleled that of the jail or the factory. How often has the boy of sound mind wished dire happenings to the school, which meant nothing more to him than a place of confinement and restriction ! Much of this ill- will is traceable to the forbidding impression of the school building, with its uninviting exterior and its dark and poorly ventilated corridors and rooms. Hap- pily the renaissance in school architecture which has its impress : onistic age, may have good examples con- stantly before it? Set a child to draw a picture of a house, and immediately he will attempt to reproduce his impression of his own home, showing that he has been influenced entirely by his environment. Prisons and jails are built to express severity and con- finement. To see nothing else but their heavy, crude walls and buildings is a punishment almost equal to the restrictions of freedom within them ; and the mental depression caused by the severity of their architecture has its own discouraging influence. A similar influence has been felt by the child whom circumstances have taken place during the last ten years has modified this feeling of the child towards the school. The pro- vision of better facilities 'for play has had much to do in changing the child’s attitude ; but the charm of simple, pleasing architectural forms, together with grounds graced with appropriate foliage and lawns, has had its influential effect upon the adult as well as upon the pupil. The efforts of those interested in child welfare and in the future of the nation are directed towards extending and prolonging the period of early education. If this movement is to be successful and profitable to the state. ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 27 Fig. 21. — Messrs. John J. Donovan ana John Oaten Howum , siotucuuc a/uiucus. Emerson Elementary School, Oakland, California. it must meet with the fullest cooperation on the part of the child, whose voluntary attendance is worth more than his coming through fear of the law. And to enlist this cooperation, it is fundamental that the school in its appearance shall be attractive to the child. This can be brought about in no better way than by erecting simple, pleasing architectural buildings at the very beginning for the elementary schools. Here the small child receives his first impression of the school and the world, an impression not subject to early change, as he is likely to attend the same school for a number of years. Consequently, the child should be the motive for the architecture of this grade of school buildings, and not some time-honored example of a great period of development in architecture. The composition should reflect the spirit, quietness, and refinement of a good home. A transition takes place in his life as soon as the child first attends school, and that transition should be accompanied with delightful discoveries of new forms and environments pleasing to the senses. Until recently there has been too much effort to show how much architecture could be put into even the simplest of problems. Meaningless domes, bombastic use of the orders, wonderful creations of the monumental misapplied to the unpretentious, have had their day in the development of American school architecture, and it is to be hoped they are never to return. The word “ classical,” with all its magic, will not influence the intelligent layman to connect modern school design with that meaningless phrase as applied to architecture. It is effeminate to talk of styles of archi- tecture, and slavish to force their forms into a well- organized plan. Each problem should have an archi- tecture or composition of its own in keeping with the plan, the locality, the materials accessible, and the many other factors influential in its study. If the school is first viewed as a technical problem and solved in plan from this standpoint, then, with the use of good materials and simplicity as the main motive, there will be no ques- tion about the successful progress of school architecture. What has been said about the architecture of the ele- mentary school is equally applicable to the architecture of the high school. Here, however, the child has ad- vanced to and beyond the adolescent age when its mind is most confident and critical. And as the impressions of the elementary school should be influential to attract the child to school life, so too should the high school exert influence to impress upon the student the value of dignity, proportion, and good taste. As the child should be the motive for the architecture of the earlier school, likewise the student should be the motive for the architecture of the advanced school. The high school is the last seat of learning to be attended by the greater number of students enrolled within it, and, if for no other reason, it should present them with visions of accom- plishments in life. Pride in country and in citizenship is dependent on the creative power of the people as well as upon the laws guaranteeing liberty and social possi- 28 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Messrs. John J. Donovan and John Galen Howard, Associate Architects. Fig. 22. — Emerson Elementary School, Oakland, California. bilities. The high-school student is quick to perceive the merits of this creative ability. Therefore, if our schools are to fulfill their functions, their outward appear- ance should have the character, repose, and presenta- tion befitting the important work going forward within. Standardization. - In the chapter on elementary schools, it has been pointed out that standardization is likely to lead to stagnation. This is quite true unless standardization is applied oidy to the details of con- struction, which may be standardized without restrict- ing the general development of the administration and instruction within the school. Educational methods are rapidly changing, and will change just as long as progress is made. When they cease to change, stagna- tion and then decadence follow. Consequently, the building should be constructed to permit the greatest flexibility in arrangement of rooms, even after the build- ing is completed, so that the construction will always be adaptable for modification to the school organization. In a recent report to the New York City Board of Edu- cation, on Public School No. 29, Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect, pointed out many means and ways towards standardization of the architectural details within the building, for instance that the ventilating ducts enter the classrooms from the ceilings of the corridors, so that dividing partitions may be changed at will. He also prepared the specifications so that different systems of construction and materials, equally good, may be optional with the contractors. Such standardization is commendable, but whenever standardization takes the form of limiting freedom in design anil composition, or the endeavor to make the community fit the school instead of vice versa, then stand- ardization is nothing short of a prolonged menace. If the aesthetic and educational value of a well-designed exterior is to be disregarded and schools are to be erected like so many factory buildings, then standardization some day is bound to reflect on its followers. Or if plans are to be standardized, and fixed forms erected repeatedly, then progress in school planning will cease. However, duplication of types at a particular period, and for the same grades of schools operating under similar condi- tions in the same community, is not at all unfavorable to the progress of school architecture. Such standardi- zation should be handled skillfully and only after the original types have been carefully studied, for there is likely to be duplication of errors as well as of good fea- tures. Just how a community would appreciate ten or fifteen schools of the same general plan, and with practi- cally the same exterior appearance, is problematical to ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 29 the writer. A final word may not be amiss on the subject of standardization relative to its adoption when applied to buildings as a whole ; the orientation, the topography, the size of the different sites, the enrollments, and the social character of the neighborhoods, are matters which should determine the feasibility and the wisdom of duplication of types of school buildings. Legislation. — The time has arrived when there should be some uniformity in the school-building codes of all the states of the Union. That this may be accom- plished, a Federal commission should be created which would carefully study, first the problems of safety and health, and then the details of efficiency and economy in the erection of school buildings. Reports by this commission could be adopted or modified to suit local conditions, by similar commissions or bureaus created by each state. If such bureaus were permanent, with the proper authority to enforce the laws governing safety requirements and health regulations, and if they were equipped with a trained personnel cooperating with the educators of the state and nation, a great and sound progress in school building would ensue. Just prior to the United States’ entering the war, the nation was spending more than one hundred and twenty-five millions of dollars annually for the building of public schools. Of this vast sum a very large percentage was spent for buildings erected in states having few, if any, regulations covering the subject; and some of it was spent in states having codes which are rightfully con- sidered drastically precautionary. On the one hand, haphazard planning has followed, while on the other, an unnecessarily wasteful expenditure of resources has been the result, without any particular advantage being gained. Empowered to pass on all plans and specifications, and free to make recommendations, bureaus of the character suggested would do much towards conserving health and wealth and preventing the erection of poor buildings which could never be erected under proper regulation. It is far more wasteful to plan and build wrongly than it is to plan correctly with too large a factor of safety, although there is no excuse why both extremes should not be obviated. The trend of the times is to expand along broad constructive lines and to conserve in all fields of resource in order that the expansion may be all the more effective. Possibilities for expansion in education are infinite, and the entire nation is eager to cooperate and take part, but unless it is intelligently and wisely directed and founded on the purpose to conserve human and material resources, unfavorable reactions will unquestionably follow. Construction. — Under this heading it is not advisable to attempt more than a few general statements regarding the use of good materials, the necessity for proper inspec- tion of the construction, the selection of the architect and his responsibility. In the chapter on the “ Cost of School Buildings ” the different grades of construction are classified, as it was found necessary to define clearly these classifications, since the cost of buildings is closely related to the different types of construction. Materials. — The distinction between economy and cheapness, as applied to buildings, warrants a clear definition. Economy in building means the avoidance of waste in the design of the construction ; the selection of materials which will withstand the ravages of time and appropriately express the architectural design worthy of the citizenship it represents ; and the Fig. 23. 30 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 24. — Oak Park Elementary School. ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 3i employment of the highest grade of workmanship, fabri- cating the materials so that after the building is completed the minimum of maintenance charges will follow. On the other hand, cheapness in building implies the use of materials and workmanship of little value, and means that, for the time being, the building will have only the appearance of substantiality. Cheapness also means low cost of construction and high cost of maintenance. Cheaply constructed buildings are perpetual liabilities, and after a short time are worse than worthless because of the cost of maintenance. The “ catch-penny ” phrase of building inexpensively means nothing more than the substitution of cheap, temporary materials for those of permanency and character. Unfortunately, attempts are made to be- guile the layman into believing that long experience in the trade of handling cheap materials and erecting temporary commercial buildings has brought about an adeptness akin to cleverness in the use of cheap materials. But it is a known fact that workmen will not take the same interest in their work when using cheap materials as when applying good. The same is true of the public’s appreciation of the school buildings erected by public funds. Nothing can be more harmful to the success of education than that people should feel general distrust and dissatisfaction in the character and quality of the construction of school plants. Furthermore, there is a nobility of character and a sense of security in the use of permanent materials which temporary or cheap materials cannot express. Inspection. — Every school building costing more than $20,000 should have a competent building inspector appointed either by the architect or the board of educa- tion, and his salary should be paid directly by the board. He should represent both the board of education and the architect, and it is generally better if he is recom- mended to the board for employment or dismissal by the architect, as the latter can then be responsible for the proper conduct of the work. The expense of such in- spection is justified in every instance and is an obligation on the part of the board as a protection to the city or district. Very often, to drive a good bargain with the architect, boards of education will attempt to impose this expense upon him. Invariably the result is the em- ployment of an inexperienced man who is willing to serve for a compensation far below the value of the services to be rendered, and in consequence the board, the architect, and the contractors are all involved in disputes and mis- understandings. There is no other expenditure con- nected with the construction of the building more im- portant than that allowed for the proper and constant supervision of the work as it progresses. A competent man will not only see that the work is executed according to the plans and specifications, thereby guaranteeing full value of materials and workmanship, but he will anticipate errors and wastes and often save the board many times the amount of his salary. The reliable American contractor is about as fine a citi- zen as any with whom the nation can be blessed. The opposite is true of the unreliable, and inasmuch as public work is generally subject to the freest competition, the successful bidders are unfortunately not always the most reliable. An unscrupulous contractor can easily cause a loss of more than several times the cost of competent in- spection. After more than twenty-two years of experience in building operations, the writer is convinced that it would be far better to have the funds plundered directly to any extent, than to have the building cheated to the same amount in the quality or quantity of the materials. In the former case there is every opportunity for just retribution to reach the embezzler, but in the latter the safety of the occupants is involved. In both instances, 32 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 26. — Lafayette School, Newark, N. J. Elevation Messrs. Guilbert and Betelle, Architects. the community is the loser. This may be avoided by safeguarding the conditions leading up to the wrong- doing. Briefly, a few points to observe in building inspection are as follows : Excavation. — See that the proper levels and grades are maintained. All top soil should be placed convenient for rehandling. Trees for future use should be protected. Concrete Work. — Each batch of concrete should be accurately measured and properly placed, tamped, and protected. All reenforcement should be bent correctly and rightly placed. If the structure is economically designed, the sizes and locations of the steel rods and mesh should be carefully inspected in every column, girder, beam, slab, and wall. The safety of the occu- pants is dependent upon the inspection as well as the design. All finished concrete and cement work should be kept in a moistened condition for a period of two weeks, except during freezing weather. Steel. — All work should be plumbed after erection, and all connections riveted tightly. Loose rivets should be rejected, and bolted work should be avoided as far as possible. Unless the steel is inclosed in concrete it should receive two good coats of paint : (a) a shop coat, and ( b ) a field coat, of contrasting color applied after all riveting and other steel work is completed. Masonry. — All brick joints should be solidly filled with mortar properly gauged and the bricks should be in a partly saturated condition when laid. Carpentry. — Inspection of this branch requires a wide experience. Selection of the lumber is important. Following up the nailing, placing of the grounds for the finish, judging the quality and character of the finish, inspection of the workmanship of the latter, the laying of the floors, and the checking of multitudinous details is a responsibility that can be executed only by a thoroughly competent man. Plastering. — - First of all, the lathing should be closely inspected. Then the mixture and application of the mortar is very important if the finished building is to be creditable to all concerned in the project. All exposed corners should have galvanized metal corner beads, and all angles and wall surfaces should be plumb and true. The thickness and finish of the mortar and number of coats should be clearly specified and carefully checked. ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING , AND CONSTRUCTION 33 Painting. — The material should be checked as it arrives on the job, and adulteration should never be permitted. Large quantities of gasoline or naphtha on the premises are a sure sign of danger ahead. Each coat should be identified by some mark, and all rubbing of surfaces should be constantly followed. Hardware. — Only standard makes should be specified, as special hardware and renewals are unnecessarily expensive. However, it should be of good quality, as it is subject to much usage. Brass or bronze should be the metals used for all exposed exterior work. Very often sherardized steel, brass plated, makes a good substitute for in- terior hardware finish. If brass or bronze is specified, a steel mag- net is a good aid to inspection of the make of the material. Glass. — The thick- ness and quality of the glass are the principal points to follow in this branch. Only the bet- ter grades should be used below a height of eight feet. Above that, it is permissible to allow the use of the less per- fect material. Blackboards are fully covered in the chapter on “ Classrooms,” and heating, ventilation, plumbing, and electri- cal work, are also treated in separate chapters, because of the importance of the engineering required for these branches of the special work. The above notations are only a few of the many factors involved in the erection of a school building, and are submitted for the benefit of the school superintendent, who may be called upon at times to assume the responsi- bility of acting as the board’s representative on the work. The Architect and His Service. — Selecting the architect is very often made a difficult task, although it should be a very simple matter. To be sure, the authority of choosing is accompanied with its sense of responsibility, but if any member of a board of educa- tion had a legal case at hand, he would not hesitate very long in choosing an attorney skilled in conducting cases similar to his own. Furthermore, if a member of his family required the attention of a physician it would not require much deliberation to select a man in whom he had the utmost confidence. Boards of education are applying these same principles in selecting their architects. The architect of experience and standing in this field of the profession is aware of the futility of entering competitions, and unless the office is equipped for such com- petitive work, and makes a practice of en- tering competitions of every nature, it is found to be an expensive gam- ble. An occasional competition, however, is often a good tonic for any office, as it dis- closes the cobwebs and raises the standards of what might be termed academic design. How- ever, every competition requires a carefully prepared program, re- sulting from the study of the problem by an architect acting as ad- viser, --one who under- stands the school and its functions, and can clearly state the re- quirements and give the proper correlation of rooms and depart- ments. Then it is ab- solutely necessary that the judges be men of recognized, unquestionable standing in the profession, and chosen for this purpose by ballot cast by the competitors. Furthermore, no competition requiring the submission of drawings should be held until its program and conduct has received the approval of the local chapter of the American Institute of Archi- tects. The writer is fully aware that this is often contrary to the wishes of the average board of edu- cation favorable to competitions. Nevertheless, and with every regard for the integrity and honesty of the members of such boards, it is impossible to conduct Messrs. Gutlbert and Bctelle, Architects. Fig. 27. — Lafayette School, Newark Main Entrance 34 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 28.- Messrs. Perkins, Fellows and Hamilton, Architects. ■ Skokie Elementary School, Winnetka, Illinois. an honest and fair competition otherwise. Moreover, architects capable of rendering the required service will not enter competitions conducted on any other lines, as experience has demonstrated that they result in nothing but dissatisfaction and unsatisfactory service. Boards of education, too, have found that competitions are un- profitable, and realize that the problem requires special study, which can be more satisfactorily followed if they and their representatives cooperate with the architect from the very beginning of the undertaking. The practice of architecture is a business as well as a profession. It requires a thorough knowledge of the different building crafts, and a capability to execute the financial expenditures of the client to such a degree of precision that wastes and losses are avoided. It first involves a training in the theory of architectural design and engineering, and then an extended experience in the practice of building management and the application of sound business principles. From this, it is evident that in the selection of an architect the board should choose the man whose work pleases or satisfies them and in whom they can repose confidence. The building costs one hundred per cent of the con- tract price. The architect’s fee is six per cent of that cost, which is less than one-sixteenth of the total cost of the building. If proper value is rendered in service, it is not possible to measure it either by figures or terms. For the value continues indefinitely. Conversely, im- proper service bears with it a just retribution in the loss of confidence and repute, unescapable and as unending as the life of the man or the building. There should be no division of the architect’s responsibilities. Not only should he be responsible for the execution of the drawings and specifications of which he is the author, but in order to protect the interests of his client to the fullest extent of his capability, he should have undivided authority as to the conduct of the work. Division of responsibility follows division of authority, which opens the way for irregularities and inferior values in the per- formance of work. In return for the board’s confidence, the architect should take every measure to solve the prob- lem in the interest of the client and for the successful advancement of education. This means rendering the best available engineering service as well as competent architectural service. The trend of the times indicates a mutually happy, confidential relation between the educational and architectural professions, and between the latter and boards of education who represent the public at large. Occasionally, paltry politics or misguided per- sonal friendships on the part of those advisory to boards of education in building programs will counteract pro- gression in the development of the problem and halt solution of the many intricacies which go to make up the whole. It requires years of practice and association for the architect to anticipate the pedagogical require- ments and correlate them with the physical or archi- tectural possibilities so that the building squares with the. organization of the school and vice versa. The best evidence of this correlation is shown in the splendid character of most of the modern American school archi- tecture. ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING , AND CONSTRUCTION 35 SKOKIE. PUS L1C SCHOOL BUILDING • • WINNE.TKA • • ILLINOIS • • PECRKIMS FELLOWS AND HAMILTON - ARCHITECTS • • CHICAGO ILLINOIS Fig. 29. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 36 Messrs. Peniits, Fellows and Hamilton, ArcnUecls Fig. 30. — Skokie Elementary School, Winnetka, Illinois. Fig. 31. N Claremont As. © "XT ipvao UL J biz: > <£ H “FT 11 III TT TT III Of 0 age 39 ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING , CONSTRUCTION 41 Messrs. Perkins, Fellows and Hamilton, Architects. Fig. 36. — - New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, Illinois. Allison ana Aulson, Architects. Fig. 36 a . Santa Monica High School, Elliot Memorial Entrance Gate. From Fremont Avenue on South Side of Grounds, Los Angeles. Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Mr. Henry Hornboslel. Consulting Architect . 44 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Mr. Henry Hornbostel, Consulting Architect. Fig. 39. — Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Mr. Henry Horribostd, Consulting Architect. Fig. 40. — First Floor Plan — Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 45 Fig. 42. — Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. 46 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Mr. Henry Hornboste*, Consulting Architect. Fig. 43. — Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. Mr. John J. Donoian, Architect. Mr. Henry Hornboslel , Consulting Architect Fig. 44. — Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. Tig. 45. Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE A4 w 4 Fig. 46. — Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. Page 49 Fig. 47. — Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. Wm. B. IUuer, Architect. Page 51 Fig. 49. — Central High School, Washington, D.C. 5 2 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. so. — Central High School, Washington, D.C. Fig. 51. — Central High School, Washington, D.C. Fig. 52. — Central High School, Washington, D.C. 54 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Central High School, Washington, !).('. Page 55 Fig. 54 . — Central High School, Washington, D.C. 56 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE TO-i ittiu U ■ iicnittct - jt. • 1511.. Fig. 55. ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING , 4A7£> CONSTRUCTION 57 HIGH (SCHOOL, WA5HINGl0N J)-6 WO rfTNt.*-/- ALCHJTicY • jt. i-ooi* Fig. 56. 5 § SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE HIGH (SCHOOL, ¥ii^HISCT0M-36 9 “- [■1G. 57- ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING , ^4A 7 D CONSTRUCTION ,S 160 RID- I* 1,0 OIL.; P^AM • -SC/U-t. !Az'=i : o“ HlG-R- jSCELOOI,- WA^HIM0M-_D-C, wai>- I'/TNI IO • J». iouw ij ■=■ — • Fig. 58. 6o SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE THLLD - Jl^ooi^- PI AN. • HIGH.- jSCHOOV WA^HIHGMJ-C VJ5- ■-£> AlCHliiC-t rmc 1)12. Fig. 59. CHAPTER III LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS By Howard Gilkey, B.S., Landscape Architect Beauty in School Grounds. The Out-of-doors Part of the School. The Relation of Architecture and Planting. The Harmony of Lines, Color, and Texture in Plant Composition. Indigenous Plants. The Use of Exotics. The Real Basis of Plant Selection. The Proper Use of Flowers. The Border Plantation. The Value of Landscape Architecture. Beauty in School Grounds. — - A man feels more the master of his fate when well clothed than in rags. It is equally true that a child will aspire to nobler aims in contact with beautiful surroundings. It is important then that the community should foster a love of beauty, as it makes for better citizenship. To merely solve the practical requirements of living does not give evidence of as high a state of civiliza- tion as to set about the solution in a beautiful way. The school as the training house of the people must take this truth into consideration. It is no longer satis- factory that the school and its grounds and buildings be adequate for instruction purposes; they should be beautiful as well. We must not tolerate conditions formerly prevailing when the school building reared itself on a dusty, treeless expanse of earth. For the child who comes from a home equally unattractive, such a place offers nothing that will satisfy the innate longing for the beautiful, — an instinct modern civiliza- tion must find the means to develop. With such develop- ment a long step in advance toward the eradication of unwholesome living conditions will have been made. The Out-of-doors Part of the School. — It is no longer believed that the school is confined to the four walls of the building. Certain activities of the child are housed within walls ; others are “ housed ” out-of-doors. The architecture of the school building, through daily inspiration, develops good taste in the child. Pictures on the wall, copies of the Masters, stimulate aesthetic appreciation. Similarly the pupils become familiar with the best in every sphere of human thought and endeavor. In the modern school this application of good principle does not confine itself to the building ; it is continued into the school grounds, where it endeavors to provide the best environment for the activities that are to take place outside the building itself. Open-air activities are both recreational and vocational. They increase in number and com- plexity with the growth of the child, requiring more and more space and involving greater expense. To provide an economical arrangement of the areas re- quired by these activities, the unity and order of which becomes a source of beauty to be enhanced by judicious planting, is the function of good design applied to school grounds. Grounds surrounding school buildings have been too small, with every available inch of space used for play. There has not been room for the planting of trees and grass. It should not be inferred that any part of the child’s enjoyment is to be sacrificed for the mere sake of making playgrounds attractive. Playgrounds are primarily for children, and secondarily for the growth of plants. But as the physical development of the child requires conditions hygienically correct, in like manner his unfolding mind needs an environment of order and beauty. To provide this, more land must be secured, as the play-space should not be restricted. Play and planting will not mix. Hence the first im- portant thing in the general plan is to separate the grounds into their several space units. These will consist roughly of areas where (x) play is the controlling element, where (2) planting for aesthetic purposes is the leading factor, and where (3) the ground is devoted to school gardens whose function is purely educational. It is with the second of these that our discussion will be largely concerned. The Relation of Architecture and Planting. — The choice adjustment of architectural and horticultural elements produces a composition most nearly approach- ing absolute beauty. “From the intimate union of art and nature, of architecture and the landscape, will be born the best gardening compositions, which time, purifying public taste, now promises to us.” 1 It is in his treatment of the main fagade of the 1 Edouard Andre. 61 62 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE •£D GZ ZD I*8 m Li Ail lew jun? yo cl t> hi n AVyOHOt l\L ouin:a .N53C. i CALC. LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS 63 building that the architect has the opportunity to give expression to the aesthetic ideals born of his pro- fession. But this is only part of the complete com- position ; it is fitting that the charm of the structure should be enhanced by complementary planting. The building and the grounds form a complementary relation- ship in the larger unity. Architecture is rigid ; planting is yielding. Architecture furnishes the high light and the deep shadow, while planting supplies the half tones. The austere quality of the building art requires the added softness of foliage. It is in this complementary part that the artistic sympathy for values created by the architect should be considered by the landscape designer. It is not merely a matter of planting shrubbery about a building in order to cover bare spaces of soil. Even worse than the unfortunately common practice of placing a well- designed work of architecture in the center of a bare lot, is the injudicious development of an overplanted and unsympathetically studied scheme. The appearance of an imposing building can be completely ruined by planta- tions, indiscriminately placed about the structure. On the other hand, no amount of carefully studied tree grouping can give charm to an inherently ugly building. It is best to efface it. One of the greatest delights that comes to a landscape architect is the creation of a com- position dominated by a masterly work of architecture. The public has gradually awakened to the necessity of good architecture for school buildings. Progressively, then, we may expect an increased interest in the land- scape development of the grounds about these buildings, for, as Lord Bacon said, “ A man shall ever see that when ages grow to civility and elegancy, men come to build stately sooner than to garden finely, as if gardening were the greater perfection.” Perhaps there is no greater opportunity of producing that “ pleasing contrast in the juxtaposition of art and nature ” than in the treatment of the front approach of a school. The modern school building particularly lends itself to the graces of the landscape. Necessity demands that simplicity prevail and that small expense be lavished upon details of finishing except on principal entrances where money can be well spent. Often broad expanses of bare walls, including the ends of whole wings, are necessary to secure the requisite unilateral lighting for the classrooms, and often the base of the building is left unrelieved by moldings. All these con- ditions permit of planting close to the walls; in fact, they require it. The architectural errors then cease to be an obtrusion thrust into the heart of nature, but are tied to nature by transitional lines. The Harmony of Lines, Color, and Texture in Plant Composition, — - The accomplishment of that transition becomes the chief role of the landscape architect. A graphic illustration of the principle is that of a right angle with a curved bracket joining the two legs. At its ends the curve conforms more and more to the respective straight lines which it connects. In much the same manner the lines of the shrubbery should merge into the lines of the architecture. At a distance remote from the structure, the planting should be, as near as we can comprehend it, that of nature, soft, undulating, harmonious. As it approaches the building it becomes more servile to the lines, masses, and color of the archi- tecture. In this way, contrasting vertical lines are with greater frequency introduced, breaking the undulating silhouette of shrubbery. Besides the prominent verticalities which break the skyline already referred to, fully as important are the phases of color and texture composition. A bold mass of color misplaced draws the attention powerfully from the true center of interest, which should be some feature of the building. Properly placed, the same mass of color may tend to fix the attention upon the main objective. Often it happens that the finished building does not fully satisfy the color sense of the architect. This is particularly true with brick buildings, where the final effect varies from a state of harshness to one of lifeless- ness. By the introduction in the first case of foliage color tending to harmonize with the brick color, and in the second case of foliage color tending to be comple- mentary to the brick color, the general tone may be softened or heightened as desired. A building of rich color, whether of brick, terra cotta, sgraffito, or of colored plaster, will require much restraint of foliage color, while a simple gray plastered surface may be the canvas upon which to display a vast amount of color in vines, trees, and shrubs. A simple structure of no particular individuality may well be smothered in soft masses of vegetation and color. It will be readily seen that the use of color about a structure of considerable dignity is a matter of no small consideration. Harmony of texture is most easily obtained but seldom seen. Simply stated, plants of harmonious texture have leaves of the same general shape and size. The landscape designer is able to select many unrelated plants and secure a simple harmony by planting to- gether those which have a uniform texture, progressing in a sequential manner to other forms of coarser or finer quality. The tasteful introduction of contrasts follows the same general procedure. In this way an occasional bold spot of foliage may be relieved against the back- ground of a finer-textured mass, thus introducing more spirit into the planting design as the dominating archi- tectural motive is approached. A stronger composi- tion will by this means be produced. 64 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 6i. o />$ cA u? ) c/ r/i When this arrangement is accomplished it will be apparent that to secure the finest effect there should be ample opportunity provided for viewing the entire fagade in a comprehensive manner. This is a justifiable reason for setting the building back as much as a hun- dred feet from the street. But in addition to this is the necessity for quiet and seclusion for the classroom, in a location remote from the noises of the street. Hand in hand are the practical and aesthetic requirements ; and solving one is to make the solution of the other possible. After securing a pleasing composition of building lines and base planting, the effect should not be lessened by introducing distracting foreground detail. From the street to the base plantation there ought to be a simple stretch of grass, except where necessary walks must be introduced. The serenity of the lawn should not be disturbed by scattering over its surface irregular groups, specimen trees, and those delights of the gardener, carpet beds in vulgar patterns. Occasionally a few trees will be required for shade, but it is better to forego this pleasing feature than to overplant. Above all, the gardener should not be permitted to indulge in ring-a- round-a-rosy beds, encircling every tree in the lawn: After the first few years the grass can grow as in nature, right up to the trunk of the tree. Shrubs may be grown on the lawn, but not scattered over its surface. Utility is the main consideration. Shrubs should be planted to prevent cutting corners, and at the same time to soften the junction of conflicting path lines. Little of this sort of planting will need to be done if the system of walks has been carefully studied. Few flowers should be introduced in front of the building. It is not that they invite vandalism, for if they do, something is fundamentally wrong with the community, a condition which should be rectified if possible. The plants commonly called flowers, i.e., the annuals requiring yearly renewal by sowing fresh seed, and the perennials whose tops die down but whose roots persist from year to year, are frequently moved, an operation which often results in discordant clashes of color, and which may provide false accents, nullifying the preconceived climax of effect. Since color is the most noticeable quality of plant growth, its scheme should be carefully studied and executed in permanent shrubs rather than in perishable flowers. There are many varieties of shrubs which are rich in color of flower, fruit, leaf, and even of twig. The plant materials to be used in the landscape gardening of the school grounds should be mainly trees, shrubs, and vines. After becoming once established they require little care, a fact which makes the upkeep more certain of success. Often the janitor without previous experience has to add the gardening to his already long list of accomplishments. Therefore we should use materials which wall require the least amount of attention. It is a fact that without adequate main- tenance the best-laid plans will result in nothing worth while. It should be the purpose of good planting design to place the least burden upon future caretakers, thus insuring the success of the scheme. Indigenous Plants. — Much disappointment will be avoided by using native material. This alone is a LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS 65 0 © 0 0 0 0 ©046G0 00 . -J 0 J000 0»vsS G S ^wW)t)‘0Oa.e llllilttl «#©».©‘® ©■"!] j'R ! ; r 0 © 0 © 0 Pfr^TfiTTr ©©©©©bhr mm poQiM-smwiji & ALL mi v ” ■ ... AS LA " J7 AC SLA G E N E R A L P L A X J-O i 1 fl L LAND'. SCAPE DE V E L O P M E N T LOS A N G E L E S G il SC HOOL Hoj-iiioji John V. Okwq imxA?i Atcjuicci HO#AW OiUTf AAA 5 jfAKJ 1 AKMGAK AfeCKIICCj i; I V i .S j N C) F i. A N !) >■ 0 A P l GARDENING U N i VI It,S 1 T Y OF CALI fO RN I A r - >■ » John C WSJvt. .Vs.cn 1 j ic ] Fig. 62. 66 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE sufficient reason for the insistence upon the choice of indigenous plants. “ What is fair, must be fit,” applies here, for the wild things growing in the neighborhood are ready for all the whims of weather. They will be harmonious as well. It seems within the limits of generalization, that a given locality tends to pro- duce vegetable forms which are harmonious, their harmony probably resulting from mutually similar processes of adaptation to meet the common environ- ment. Not only should native plants be used be- cause they are harmonious and fit, but they should be fostered from motives of local pride. Every child should know the principal trees, shrubs, vines, and flowers of the locality. Acquaintance with them can best be obtained through daily association. In a Cali- fornia school-ground we should expect to find the red- wood, the giant Sequoia, the oak, the ma- drone, the incense cedar, the silver fir, the bay tree, the various pines, the big-leaf maple, the Christmas berry, the wild lilac, the carpenteria, the wild cherry, and wild coffee. In the Northwest, in addition to the members of the pine family already mentioned, we would look for many splendid conifers, such as the Lawson cypress and Douglas fir, with a profusion of rhododen- drons, azaleas, huckleberry, and salal. While native trees and shrubs should form an important part of the plant ma- terial for school landscape work, any outside materials which associate well should be used. Indeed, the landscape designer would be seriously handicapped if he were forced to use the limited number of forms found in some places. Plants partake obviously of the artificiality of their new positions, and often the wild straggling habit of much native growth will not be desired. Then, too, there is educational value in a greater assortment. Without becoming a veritable botanical garden, the school plantations should be varied for the simple purpose of providing material for instruction. The Use of Exotics. — After a certain priority right has been given to the native plants, many from remoter regions whose climatic conditions are similar should be used, insuring hardihood and a certain de- gree of harmony. As an instance of this, it may be stated that in the interior valleys of California, where the summers are hot and dry, the winters wet, and very heavy frosts common, one finds, beside native plants, many species from southern Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor, Interior China. Northern Japan, and Southern Australia. The Real Basis of Plant Selection. — Whatever the choice of plants, then let them be selected for their adaptation to the soil and the climate, their ability to stand rough usage and neglect, their appearance Fig. 63. LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS of being at home in their appointed positions and affording a degree of variety for educational interest consonant with harmony of color and texture. The numerous changes in plant life render the problem of design intricate. Every day of the year some new blossom is out ; some new leaf unfolds ; some mature one turns color, finally dropping off and exposing new lines of bare branches ; some new cluster of berries grows warmer in tone and at length blazes into full richness of hue. The solution is not alone that of pro- ducing new interests throughout the year, but that of providing a tasteful arrangement of a series of composi- tions of texture and color, each merging insensibly into the next. At successive periods it will be apple blossom time, lilac time, the season for wild roses, clematis, plumbago, autumn leaves, and then berry season. At these periods there should be bold masses of the dominant color with lesser touches of more or less complemen- tary hues to set them off. When soft pastel shades are used, the result may chance to be pleasing whatever the mixture. Certainly the inconsistencies will not be so glaring. It is in the use of the bright reds and yel- lows where taste and experience are necessary. Avoid magenta, a color which seems to clash with the usual hues of the landscape. Of the seasons of the year, spring and summer will in variety of blossom take care of themselves ; it is the fall and winter season that must have their share of enliven- ment. Where autumn leaves are a conspicuous native charm, their brilliant hues can be made to tell as accents against more neutral backgrounds. A single poplar or a small group will gleam in soft yellow against a background of dull green pines. After the leaves have fallen, the same poplar will exhibit a graceful tracery of branches, adding the quality of etched lines, which 67 may be just the touch needed to relieve a scene made heavy by monotonous masses. The study of deciduous trees and shrubs and their composition value is too often slighted. The material at our command embraces the beech, the wild buckeye, the red-twigged dogwood, the yellow-barked willows, the sycamore, and the lovely white birch. For the charm of pure rich color the berries supply the one element at the landscape architect’s command comparable to the painter’s primary palette. For many months they “ stay put ” in solid masses, at a time of year when the school is most active and the sky is dullest overhead. Californians may plant Christmas berry (the native toyon), pyracanthas, cotoneasters, moun- tain ashes, hawthorns, many of which are hardy in the East, where one must piece out jwith high-bush cranberry, holly, and rose hips. But wherever one finds them they are most gorgeous and most welcome. On the other hand the planting of berried shrubs can be very much overdone. The groups should not be too large and should not be placed without a greater mass of neutral foliage or a dull wall as a background. The masses must be well-shaped and not mere blots of loud color. In front of a symmetrical building they should be arranged with the idea of balance continuously in mind. Proper Use of Flowers. — Little has been said about flowers. Aside from the restricted use of a clump of irises here and there, pentstemons, foxgloves, or a clump of hollyhocks in a corner, the place for the flowers is in the students’ gardens. Roses may be introduced, forming part of the shrub masses, varie- ties with good foliage, such as the Irish Elegance, Cherokee, and Madame Cecille Brunner. Most roses, however, require too much pruning, spraying, and 68 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 65. LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS 69 other bothersome care. Where space is limited, climbers are the main resource, needing little room but a place in which to root. Many a roughcast building requires the soft lace-work of Boston ivy to relieve its severity. Pergolas and fences are made for roses, wistarias, clematis, trumpet vines, honeysuckle, and jessamine. Here they may run rampant, but on the buildings the sense of structure should not be obliterated by a complete covering of vine growth. The Border Plantation. — In the consideration of the school front, every effort has been made to produce something beautiful, to stimulate the child’s mind to acts worthy of his environment. It is a part of the grounds which he must cherish and protect. The careful mother does not allow her child to enter the drawing-room with muddy feet or to romp there with the dog. So_we will inclose the play- ground. Let us do this by means of a fence, strong and permanent. Usually no great expense need be lav- ished upon mere ornament, for the fence should be screened from outside view, with foliage. Let the fence be set back some six to twelve feet from the prop- erty line to allow for a border of shrub plantation. Es- pecially necessary is this along the street fronts. There are many valid reasons for such a screen. All play- ground authorities agree that the fence permits of better supervision and protection of property. From the outside-r-s-point of view the expanse of bare ground of the playground field is not very pleasing, nor does it tend to raise property values in a choice residence sec- tion. By providing for the ornamental frame out- side the fence, the school presents to the public an entirely attractive appearance. From the inside point of view, the border of plant- ing does much to produce the effect of group solidarity. A little domain is hereby set aside for single-minded en- joyment of play. Without self-consciousness the boy or girl may exercise in hygienic attire. Besides this, the scene of play activity is redeemed from its severity of setting by the beauty of the encircling foliage. Where space is limited the border can be restricted to a narrow strip providing enough room for vines or for a single hedge outside the fence. This is of course not so fine as the broader treatment. The fence should return at a point usually in line with the main rear wall of the building. The border planting then merges easily into the front parking. The Value of Landscape Architecture. — The school of the future will no longer tolerate the shortcomings of the past. A realization of the value of beauty has developed in modern education. The mass of the people is already alive to the value of beauty in school buildings, and it will not be long before the larger unity of architecture and grounds is understood by all. The landscape architect will become a neces- sary associate to the architect. Each will have ap- preciation of the work of the other. By this valuable cooperation there will result a har- monizing of color, line, and texture, and with such a well-considered environment the child will be developed along these physical and mental lines, that will so satis- factorily affect his growth and development. CHAPTER IV COST OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A. I. A. Costs of School Buildings. Requirements for a Low Elementary School. Requirements for a High Elementary School. Re- quirements for Junior High and Pre-Vocational School. Data for a General or Inclusive High School. Methods of Computing Costs. Cost Per Classroom. Cost Per Pupil. Cost Per Square Foot of Floor Area. Cost Per Cubic Foot. Cubic Contents. Types of Construction. Class A. Class B. Class C. Class D. Class E or Frame Construction. Classification of Heating and Ventila- tion. Grades. Sanitary Installations. Electrical Installations. Classification of the Educational Grades. The Elementary School. The Junior High School. The High School. Table No. i, Approximate Costs per Cubic Foot for Class A, B, and C Buildings. Table No. 2, Approximate Costs Per Cubic Foot of Different Grades of School Buildings. Table No. 3, Approximate Costs Per Cubic Foot for Different Grades of Heating and Ventilat- ing Systems. Table No. 4, Approximate Costs Per Cubic Foot for Plumbing and Electrical Installations. Cost of Equipment. Cost Data for a Proposed High School. Comparative Costs and Records. Table No. A, Form of Record. Table No. B, Subdivision of Costs of Contracts. Static Capacity. Static Capacity of Building. American Institute of Architects’ Classification of School Buildings and Construction. Costs of School Buildings. — There are two distinct purposes in seeking to determine the costs of school buildings : one to enable boards of education to provide with some degree of accuracy sufficient funds for the erection and equipment of new buildings, and the other to determine, by comparison with the costs of similar structures before the board has obligated itself by con- tracts, the economy to be exercised in the planning and construction of the proposed work. The former is es- sential to good business management, and the latter is a necessary precaution against extravagance. There have been more disappointments, misunder- standings, and loss of confidence through injudicious expenditure of money for the building of schools than in all other transactions by boards of education. This condition is largely due more to the indefinite methods employed at the early stages of the undertakings than to any other cause. It is not to be expected that elected members of boards of education should know how to unravel and classify the maze of details related to this work, as they are usually of the laity and therefore unacquainted with the vast educational and building minutiae which go to make up the whole. However, since they are morally, socially, and po- litically responsible for providing and expending the funds, it is all-essential that they have prepared for them definite data setting forth the necessary contents of the building, the character of the construction, the grade of the sanitation, the system of heating and ventilation, and the facts relating to the other building appoint- ments before establishing the budget for the proposed structure. This requires close collaboration among members of the board, its officers and the architect. The following lists of requirements for the low and high elementary, the junior high, and the senior or regular high schools are offered as indicative of the necessity of having a definite scheme prepared before attempting to compute the costs of a school building. Deductions or additions may be made to suit the par- ticular problem of each community. REQUIREMENTS FOR A LOW ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. GRADE I TO VI INCLUSIVE 1 . Principal. (a) Office — telephone and programs systems, fire alarm. ( b ) Toilet. (c) Storage space. (. d ) Library for text books. 2. Teachers. (a) Rest room, "i , . , ... T , 1 combmed. (0) Lunch room, j (c) Kitchen. (< d ) Toilet. (e) Wardrobes or closets. 3. Medical Department. (a) Emergency room. (b) Toilet. 4. Mechanical Department. (a) Boiler room (isolated). (b) Fan room. (c) Work and repair room. (1 d ) Incinerator. (e) Janitor’s closet on each floor. Note: The above rooms should be of fireproof construction. 70 COST OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 7i 5. Pupils' Service. (a) Bicycle rooms. (, b ) Toilet rooms (on each floor) ( c ) Playrooms, boys and girls. (d) Showers, boys and girls. 6. Department of Instruction. (a) Classrooms — • wardrobes. ( b ) Kindergarten — wardrobes and toilets. (c) Drawing room for V and VI grades. 7. Assembly Hall. (Seating 60 per cent of the school capacity.) (a) Stage — dressing rooms. (. b ) Moving picture booth. REQUIREMENTS FOR A HIGH ELEMENTARY SCHOOL GRADES I TO VIII INCLUSIVE 1 . Principal Suite. (a) Public office, waiting room. (b) Private office. (c) Toilet. (d) Storage. ( e ) Telephones — program system — fire alarm. 2. Library. For text books and about 1000 reference and fiction books. 3. Teachers' Suite. (a) Rest room. (b) Lunch room, kitchenette. (c) Toilets. (d) Wardrobes. 4. Medical Department. (i a ) Emergency room. ( b ) Examination rooms. (c) Toilet rooms. (d) Girls’ rest room. 5. Mechanical Department. (а) Boiler room (isolated). (б) Fan rooms. (c) Work and repair room. id) Storage room. (e) Incinerator. (/) Janitor’s room on each floor. 6. Pupils' Service. (a) Bicycle rooms. ( b ) Toilet rooms (on each floor). (c) Playrooms (boys and girls). (. d ) Swimming (possible). (e) Showers (boys and girls). (/) Dressing rooms. (g) Athletic-field rooms. 7. Gymnasium. (a) Dressing rooms J If there is a swimming pool one set will ( b ) Showers / do for both pool and gymnasium. (c) Instructor’s room. (d) Examination rooms. (e) Apparatus room. 8. Department of Instruction. (a) Classrooms — wardrobes. (. b ) Kindergarten — wardrobes. 9. Home Economics. (a) Cooking room. ( b ) Dining room. (c) Pantry. ( d ) Sewing room. (e) Fitting room. (J) Locker room, supplies. 10. Manual Training. {a) Bench room. ( b ) Lumber room. (c) Finishing room. ( d ) Painting room (fireproof). (e) Small fireproof room for storage of painting materials. 1 1 . Drawing. (a) Freehand. ( b ) Mechanical. 12. Music. (a) Choral room. ( b ) Small practice rooms (dressing rooms off stage serve well) . (c) Office for storage of instruments, music sheets, books, etc. 13. Assembly Hall. (a) Main room to seat about 60 per cent of the school capacity. {b) Stage — with dressing rooms. (c) Moving picture booth. 14. Science Department. (a) Laboratory for general science. (■ b ) Storeroom. (c) Germinating room. 15. Commercial. (a) Bookkeeping. ( b ) Commercial geography. REQUIREMENTS FOR JUNIOR HIGH AND PRE-VOCA- TIONAL SCHOOL, ACCOMMODATING 1200 STUDENTS Administration : 1 . Principal. (а) Public office. (б) Private office — telephone program system, fire alarm. (c) Storage space. (d) Toilet room. (e) Vault for school records. 2. Large Storage Room: (a) Books. ( b ) Charts. (c) School supplies. 3. Medical Department. (a) Emergency room. (b) Examination rooms. (c) Toilet. 4. Teachers' Accommodations. (a) Teachers’ room (men) lockers. (b) Toilet room. (c) Teachers’ room (women). (d) Wardrobe closets. (e) Toilet room. (f) Lunch room. (g) Kitchenette. 5. Mechanical Department. (a) Boiler room (isolated). (b) Fan rooms and plenum chambers. (c) Fresh air intakes. ( d ) Possibly air washer, generally not needed (depending on location of building) . (e) Switchboard room. (J) Work and repair room. (g) Storage room. [ Fireproof construction. 72 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE (h) Incinerator. (• i ) Janitor’s closet on each floor. Note : The above should be of fireproof construction. 6. Pupils’ Service. (a) Bicycle rooms, boys and girls. ( b ) Locker rooms, off corridors, boys and girls. (c) Toilet rooms, on each floor, boys and girls. 7. Department of Instruction. Two study rooms to accommodate \ to f of student body. Library : Close to study rooms. (a) Art alcoves and exhibition room. 8. Classrooms. 16 to 20 major period classrooms depending on school enroll- ment and judgment of the superintendent. Plan of building should be so designed that this department may be increased, as occasion or conditions warrant, without destroying the symmetry of the general plan. Size of classrooms should be determined by the superintendent of schools, that is, the maximum capacity. Would recom- mend that classrooms for Junior High School do not exceed 35 seats. Certain rooms should be designed for emergency of 45 seats. 9. Commercial Department. (a) Bookkeeping room. (&) Small banking space at end of bookkeeping room. (c) Typewriting space. (d) Office and storage rooms. 10. Home Economics. (a) Two domestic science rooms (cooking rooms). ( b ) Pantry and storage rooms. (c) Small dining room (for training in service). (1 d ) Lockers. (e) Domestic arts (sewing and dressmaking). (/) Millinery room. (g) Design and drawing room. ( living room, (h) Housekeeping suite \ dining room, i kitchen, small laundry, toilet. This might well be a small inexpensive cottage near school. The living room may serve as Mothers’ Club meeting room. 11. Industrial Arts Department. (1) Mechanical drawing rooms. (2) Free hand drawing rooms. (3) Manual training room with a small amount of wood- working machinery, such as: (а) A planer, joiner, hand-saw, circular saw, and grinder, and about 24 benches. (б) Also one additional bench room of 24 benches. (c) Lumber room. (d) Gluing room (small). (e) Painting and finishing room. (/) Tool room. (g) Storage room for finished work. (4) General shop for some machine shop work, electrical work, plumbing, sheet metal, etc. This shop should be equipped with a little of everything, so that the boy may feel his way towards the work leading to a vocation. (5) Wash, toilet, and locker rooms arranged for common use by students in both shops. 12. Music Department. (a) Large choral room treated for good acoustics, which may be used for orchestral and band practice. ( b ) The supervisor of music may recommend another similar room for the orchestra and band, in which case they could be so placed that (a) and ( b ) may be combined. ( c ) A few small practice rooms. (d) Office and space for storage of instruments, music sheets, books, etc. (e) The choral room could be used for training in dramatics and expression. (f) A large visual instruction room (moving pictures and stereopticon) . 13. Assembly Hall. {a) Assembly Hall to seat 10 per cent more than school . capacity and so arranged that it may be divided into three halls by use of roller curtains. (See Assembly Hall Plans in Chapter on Assembly Halls.) (■ b ) Stage adaptable for scenery, possibly a loft and gridiron. (c) Moving picture equipment. (d) Dressing rooms. 14. Gymnasium. {a) Gymnasium. ( b ) Showers • — boys and girls. (c) Locker rooms. (d) Dressing rooms, toilets. (. e ) Apparatus room. (/) Instructors’ offices. (g) Examination rooms. 1 5. Science Department. (a) Three general science laboratories. ( b ) Germinating rooms (conservatory). (c) Storeroom (large) with cases especially designed. ( d ) Work and repair room, not very large. Inasmuch as all three (7th, 8th, and 9th) grades will take t his course, which embraces Physical Geography, Biology. Physiology, Botany, Elementary Chemistry, and Elementary Physics, there should be at least three and possibly four main General Science Laboratories with the attendant accessory rooms as listed under (b), (c), and (d). Note: Extension of this Department should be determined by the superintendent of schools, who may consider it advisable to add small Chemistry and Physics laboratories. DATA FOR A GENERAL OR INCLUSIVE HIGH SCHOOL ACCOMMODATING 1500 TO 2500 PUPILS Administration : 1. Registrar’s Office. (a) Large working and waiting room. (b) Vault for school records. (c) Storage space. ( d ) Wardrobe closets. (e) Program system. (/) Telephone system. (g) Teachers’ time clocks. 2. Principal (Day School). (a) Private office. 0 b ) Toilet. (c) Storage space. ( d ) Consultation room (small). 3. (a) Two vice-principals’ offices, private j of 2 7°-3 I i carpenter shop, $2440.53; cabinet shop, $3830. 51 ; pattern shop, $7414.01 ; paint shop, $237.74; electrical department, $6284.27; drafting department, $2071.77; printing department, $6550.14. The shop student capacity is : Machinist, 65 ; electri- cal, 20 ; steam power plant, 20 ; drafting, 44 ; printing, 15; pattern making, 24; cabinetmaking, 50; painting, 10; carpentry, 16. The school is able to take care of twice as many boys as the capacity of the shops indicates, because the classes are so arranged that it takes two weeks to complete the cycle of instruction. One-ha If the pupils are in the shop and one-half in school each week. Miscellaneous Data. — There is a minimum age for en- trance of 14 years. All courses require four years for completion, and there are 42 weeks in the school year. No part-time instruction is given. There is an evening school which requires 52 sessions for all except the gas- engine course, there being 35 sessions required for that. No extension work is conducted. The David Ranken, Jr., School of Mechanical Trades, St. Louis, Mo. History and Location. — This insti- tution was endowed in 1907 with an initial gift of $1 ,500,000 by the philanthropist whose name it bears. A subsequent donation brought the total up to $3,000,000. The terms and conditions of the endowment as pre- scribed by the donor are that it “ is to be used for train- ing and fitting boys and men for the mechanical and manual trades and occupations . . . who shall be skilled in their respective trades and occupations and have such education as will best fit them to serve the community and the state in such occupations.” The founder believed there was need of an institution to provide education in ordinary mechanical trades and to appreciate the dignity of labor. His idea was that public schools and other educational institutions had “ not only failed to provide training in mechanical trades, but had tended to draw boys away from the consideration of them by the creation of a prejudice against manual labor. Boys who could have suc- ceeded as mechanics were, in consequence, caused to engage in pursuits either already overcrowded or for which they had no aptitude.” Mr. Ranken stipulated that the trades taught in the school created and main- tained by his money should be those in which there is a demand for practical workmen in the community and the state. The site was donated by the founder. It is 300 by 600 feet, or approximately 3 acres, located in a residential part of the city of St. Louis winch is rapidly becoming industrial in character. It is not, and, by reason of streets on all sides, cannot be overshadowed or crowded by adjacent buildings. There is thus an assured maxi- mum of natural light and ventilation. It is accessible by a good car service reaching all parts of the community. The plant at present covers about BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS i75 30 per cent of the ground. The remainder is available, and ample for recreation purposes and future additions to the buildings. Buildings. — In 1909 the first of the buildings was completed. It is a three-story brick, especially designed for the purpose. Careful attention was paid in the plans to lighting, heating, and ventilation. Electric lighting is used throughout. It has brick partitions, and the flooring is carbolithic laid on cement, except in the shops, where wood block is used. The building was erected during a period when material was cheap and wages lower than in recent years, and its total cost was $170,000, and initial equipment valued at $9000. This building faces Cook Avenue, and contains six shops, a drafting room, science room, library, classroom, and administrative offices. The second building was completed in 1912, and was also especially designed for its purposes. It is of brick, with hollow tile partitions, carbolithic floors laid on cement, except in shops, these being of wood block. This structure is modern in all respects and well suited for its functions. The completion of this building brought the total value of buildings of the David Ranken, Jr., School up to approximately $500,000, as estimated in 19x8. Equipment and Courses. — The equipment for teach- ing trades was inventoried in April, 1918, as: Brick- laying, $1200; painting, $1000; electrical, $9000; pre- paratory, $1600; machine shop, $30,000; plumbing, $3000; pattern shop, $4000; carpentry shop, $7500; science, $3500; total, $60,800. The steam engineering class uses boiler and engine room equipment not included in the above figures. There are three schools — day, evening, and day cooperative. The institution “ aims to give the boy without experience training similar to that received by the apprentice ; to the apprentice such instruction as will round out his shopwork ; and to give to the journeyman information concerning his trade that is not given in his shop. It also aims to obtain the cooperation of manufacturers who acknowledge the limitations of shop instruction, and who will send their apprentices to the school to study the theory of their trade.” The institution is therefore intensely practical. The trades instruction is almost entirely individual, and pupils, except in stationary engineering, may enter at any time. The great majority of the pupils in the evening school are actively engaged in the trade, the theory or practice of which is taught in the school. Requirements for Admission. — For admission, boys must be white, 15 years and over, who have completed the sixth grade of the public schools or its equivalent. In the day school, exception is made in favor of boys 14 years of age who have completed the work of the sixth grade or equivalent, are physically qualified for the work, and exhibit particular aptitudes for trade instruction. All applicants must be in good physical condition. Any candidate with trade experience, but who lacks the educational qualifications, may make up the latter in special classes formed ' by the school for preparatory instruction. Cooperation of Employers. — The cooperative classes were organized at the suggestion of the St. Louis branch of the National Metal Trades Association for the in- struction of apprentices in the machinists’ and pattern- making trades. The association, through its shop su- perintendents, provides complete instruction in the use of tools and machines, leaving the theoretical instruc- tion to the school. The institution holds out a standing invitation to employers of apprentices to avail them- selves of the work offered in the cooperative classes. A minimum of 16 years of age is required for admis- sion. Employers pay $15 per year tuition for each apprentice, and at the same time pay the regular wages for time spent in attendance at the school. Associations of manufacturers, contractors, workmen, and men and boys who are employed by the day but attend evening classes, have all shown considerable appreciation of the school. Employers whose appren- tices are in the cooperative classes have expressed them- selves as pleased with results, and the general attitude of the public toward the institution is that of cordial good will and respect for its work. Miscellaneous Data. — A nominal tuition is charged in order to cause pupils to take the work seriously and appreciate the opportunity, as well as for the purpose of eliminating the undesirables with no definite purpose, who drift in and out of absolutely free schools without completing any course. Pupils are required to provide their own drawing instruments, paper, and incidental material. Tools and supplies in the shops are furnished by the school. There were in March, 1918, a total of 302 graduates of the day-school regular trade courses, and 90 gradu- ates of the part-time courses. The total enrollment for the day school was 1402; part-time students, 312; evening students, 4000. The school year for day pupils covers a period of 46 weeks, divided into three terms. The evening-school year covers two terms of three weeks each, beginning in October and in January. The Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Williamson School, Pa. History and Location. — December 1, 1885, Isaiah U. Williamson founded the school which bears his name. On October 21, 1891, the institution, with an endowment of about $2,000,000, 176 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE and in the shops the partitions are of yellow pine placed as needs arise. Owing to the amount of land possessed by the school, the campus has been so arranged that each building has a maximum of light, air, and distance from other buildings. In the main the buildings have been carefully designed for their purpose, and have met the requirements satisfactorily. Some of the buildings erected by the students are somewhat pretentious, of pleasing architec- ture, and well built. Electricity is used for lighting, and there is a central power and steam-heating plant. Equipment and Courses. — In the shops approximately 163 square feet of floor space, including locker and wash room, is figured per pupil. For academic work ap- proximately 18 square feet of floor space per pupil is figured. In the drawing room 45 Fig. 141. — Free School oe Mechanical Trades, Williamson, Pennsylvania. square feet per pupil is allotted — this, how- ever, including supply room and blue-print room. Classrooms are in the shops for shop subjects, and apart from the shops for cultural and related subjects. The trades taught are : Agriculture, including a prac- tical and scientific course in dairying, horticulture, and general farming; carpentry, bricklaying, includ- ing range, furnace, and boiler setting, etc. ; the ma- chine trade in its usual details ; operating engineering, including care of steam and electrical appliances, steam fitting, etc. ; and pattern making. The shops are well equipped for trade teaching. ings being devoted to agriculture and the teaching of agriculture. The site is a beautiful one and well suited to its purpose. Buildings. — A few of the buildings were acquired with the land. The rest have been constructed especially for the pur- poses for which they are being used, and most of them were erected by student labor, giving practical instruction to the students of the various trades involved. The buildings are of brick, concrete, and wood ; floorings are of wood and concrete, became a reality and opened its doors for its first session. The endowment is its sole support. No fees of any sort are charged. The declared purpose of the founder was to give to poor and deserving boys a good English education ; to train them in habits of morality, economy, and in- dustry ; and to teach them trades. The school is distinctly vocational, and only for pupils who intend to follow for a livelihood the trades taught them there. No others will be admitted. The institution is located at Williamson School Station on the central division of the Pennsylvania Railroad, about 16 miles from the Broad Street Station in Phila- delphia. The Media Short Line electric cars from the Sixty-ninth Street Terminal, Philadelphia, also reach the property. The school owns a tract of 230 acres of land, that part not in use for campus and build- Fig. 142. — Agricultural Building, Free School of Mechanical Trades. Williamson, Pennsylvania. Jt BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS I 77 The value of this equipment is given as : Machinist’s trade, $26,000 ; carpentry, $8320 ; pattern-making trade, $12,870; bricklaying, $3100; operating engineering, $27,690; scientific agriculture, $27,300; total, $116,280. Operating engineering students receive their practical training in the steam and electrical plant of the insti- tution, which provides all heat, light, and power needed. Each scholar takes but one of the trades mentioned. Requirements for Admission. — Graduates of the Williamson School have a reputation for thoroughness, and as high as 98 per cent of the members of a gradu- ating class have immediately started as journeymen at the trades taught them. Admissions are made in April of each year, and first pref- erence is given to boys from Philadelphia, or Bucks, Montgomery, and Delaware Counties, Pa. ; second to those from else- where in the state ; third to those from New Jersey ; and finally to applicants born elsewhere in the United States. None but natives of the United States are eligible for admission. Candidates must be not less than 16 nor more than 18 years of age, healthy, able-bodied, possessed of natural aptitude and liking for mechani- cal or agricultural work. They must have sufficient education to enter readily upon the school work. Applications for admission considerably exceed capacity and there is a waiting list, for which boys of not less than 15 years of age and upward and who will not be more than 18 at the next admission period may qualify. Students Are Indentured. — A prelimi- nary trial is given applicants, and those who are found satisfactory are bound to the trustees as indentured apprentices for a term of three years. This indenture may be canceled by the trustees at any time for incompetency, bad conduct, or reasons compelling the conclusion that a boy is undesirable for future support and education. The scholars, by the indenture, are obligated to con- form to all regulations and restrictions of the board of trustees or their representatives ; and all right of claim to control them during the period they remain at the school is lodged with the trustees. Miscellaneous Data. — The school can accommodate about 250 students. Their life is made to conform as far as possible to good family standards in so far as living quarters are concerned. The boys are divided into families of 24, each having its matron and its own distinct home or cottage, cared for by its occupants. These homes contain no kitchens, dining rooms, or laundries. These, as well as the dining hall, are located in other buildings. Special attention is paid to the moral training of the students. The school is nonsectarian, but each student is required on entrance to designate his denominational preference and thereafter to attend service regularly at its nearest place of worship. A four weeks’ vacation in summer and short vacations at Easter, Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, and Christmas are given to students deserving them. The Lathrop School of Mechanical Trades, Kansas Cily, Mo. History and Location. — The Lathrop School of Mechanical Trades — a part of the public-school system of Kansas City, Mo. — was organized in 1911 as a boys’ industrial school, and continued as such until 1916, when it was reorganized into a trade school. It was housed first in an old brick school building erected in 1900. The site is well located, is accessible by car lines from all parts of the city, has ample natural light and ventilation, and is not overshadowed or crowded by adjacent buildings. The ground is 277 by 168 feet, and the buildings cover about 75 per cent of this area. Buildings. — In addition to the old main building, a new shop building of modern factory type is being constructed in units by the pupils in the Building Fig. 143. — Lathrop School of Mechanical Trades, Kansas City, Missouri. i?8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Trades Classes. The first of these was completed in 1916 and the second in 1917. Further extensions will be erected as needed. Both are constructed of brick, with permanent plastered partitions. The total value of buildings is inventoried at $91,000, not includ- ing value of the site. Equipment and Courses. — The equipment is valued at : Cabinetmaking, $3300 ; electricity, $1000 ; plumb- ing, $350; painting, $300; printing, $3500 ; carpentry, $200; sheet metal, $600 ; total, $9250. The minimum age requirement for entrance is 14 years for all courses, and each trade requires 2 years of 40 weeks each. In the evening school electricity, sign writing, cabi- netmaking, printing, and sheet-metal working are taught. Two terms of 35 nights each are required per year. Part-time school instruction is given in print- ing. Miscellaneous Data. -The capacity of the school is given as follows in the various courses : Electricity, 24; carpentry, 24; plumbing, 12; painting, 24; sheet- metal working, 24; total, 162. Enrollment March 1, 1918, was reported as: Plumbing, 5; sheet-metal working, 8 ; advanced electricity, 24 ; cabinetmaking, 14; wood turning, 16; printing, 10; painting, 15; elementary electricity, 15 ; carpentry, 14 ; and 4 men in the evening printing class; total, 125 pupils. The William Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, Minn. History and Location. — By the will of Mr. William Hood Dunwoody, a wealthy flour manufacturer, who died February 8, 1914, approxi- mately $3,000,000 was devised for the purpose of es- tablishing an industrial school which should be free, without restriction of race or color, to all residents of the state of Minnesota and the city of Minneapolis. Twelve trustees were designated by the will to start the work of carrying out the desire of the donor. They met and organized themselves into a corporation. The school opened in December, 1914, with a registration of 80 students in four trades. The quarters occupied were temporary. In 1915 Mrs. Dunwoody died, and by her will left an additional $2,000,000 to the school, thus bringing the endowment total to $5,000,000. The trustees bought a 15-acre tract fronting on the parade grounds, in Minneapolis, upon which to con- struct the buildings and plant of the new institution, which it was planned to make as near ideal as possible. The site conforms to the ideal. It is sufficiently large for present and future needs, located centrally, acces- sible to good street car service, and in a good neighbor- hood. It is in close proximity to a public playground, and there is no possibility of the maximum of natural light and ventilation being interfered with. When work began in December, 1914, there were 80 students and fcur trades or occupations taught. In January, 1915, the number of trades was increased to seven and the enrollment to 175. The present enroll- ment is in excess of 650 and the capacity 1350, with lists of subjects taught as given below. In September, 1915, the day-school enrollment was increased to 250; and in October a night school of ap- proximately 1500 men was started. Dull season, part- Fig. 144. — William Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, Minnesota. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 179 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE i So time, and extension classes were started in the winter of 1915-1916. Recruiting men in the Enlisted Re- serve and war training began at Dunwoody in April, 1917. The school moved into its new quarters August 1 , 1917. During the war all the regular peace-time activities of the school were continued on approximately the same basis as before the war ; all war work was taken on in addition. The war work included training of enlisted men in the navy and army for trade, and the mechani- cal occupations. It also included the training of con- scripted men in both day and evening school work. by two passageways on each floor, one at the front of the buildings and one at approximately the center. Future plans for expansion call for four more shop units, an auditorium, administration building, gym- nasium, and power house. A set of sketches has been made for the complete plan of 10 buildings and athletic field, equipment for them to be provided in accordance with the industrial demands of the state. Equipment and Courses. — Present equipment is valued at : Automobile department, $10,000 ; baking and laboratory, $30,000 ; aeroplane department, $10,500 ; machine shop, $30,000 ; power laboratory, Buildings. — The new, especially designed buildings of the institute were completed in 1917 and are now occupied and in use. There are two units of reinforced concrete with brick facings, each 75 feet wide by 285 feet long, two stories high, with full basement. A total of 1 25,000 square feet of floor space is thus obtained, equivalent to a six-story building 75 feet wide and 285 feet long. Partitions are of wood and glass, temporarily placed as necessities require ; fireproof paint is used and the structures are made fireproof. Creosoted paving blocks are used as flooring. There are 27 class- rooms, in which over 800 students can be given instruc- tion. The classrooms are used for recitation and study purposes. The two parallel buildings are connected $15,000; woodworking department, $10,000; total. $141,500. The day courses offered by the school are : Automo- bile work, baking, building construction, drawing and design, electricity, gas manufacturing, heat treatment, machine-shop work, plumbing, printing, radio work, sheet-metal trade, slide rule, steam fitting, telephony, welding, aviation motors, cooking, carpenters, copper- smiths, metal workers, blacksmiths, vulcanizing, pilots, quartermasters, machinists’ mates, and Liberty motor ignition for the aviation section of the army. Evening courses are offered in : Automobile repair and construction, building construction (including car- pentry, mill-room work, building foreman, cost esti- BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 181 mating, and concrete construction), electricity (general), gas manufacture, heat treatment, plumbing, printing (composition, press work, and linotype work), sheet metal, slide rule, steam fitting, and telephony. These courses are divided into short units of 14 to 30 lessons each. Evening courses running through the entire evening- school term of 50 lessons are : Baking, drawing and de- sign, building-construction drafting, sheet-metal draft- ing, interior decorating, machine drafting and design, machine-shop subjects, welding. Evening-school courses are arranged on a basis of two hours per night, two nights per week. Shop courses are arranged four hours per night, one night per week. The length of the evening- school season is 25 weeks, or a total of 100 hours. The units in practically all classes are arranged to cover a period of from two to three years. A certificate is issued upon the completion of any unit ; a diploma is issued upon the completion of all units in a course. Boys' Technical High School , Milwaukee, Wis. History and Location. — In January, 1906, some philanthropic citizens interested in vocational education founded the Milwaukee School of Trades. The institution, by act of the Wisconsin Legis- lature, was taken in and became a part of the public- school system of the city of Milwaukee, July 1, 1907, and on May 1, 1917, the name was changed to “ The Boys’ Technical High School.” The site is centrally located in a district partly resi- dential. It is 314 by 158 feet, and so situated that the natural light and ventilation are not obstructed, over- shadowed, or interfered with by adjacent buildings. It is near the manufacturing center of the city, and is accessible by eight car lines from different parts of the community, and the general environment is good. Buildings. — The buildings occupied were erected for the purpose of a technical high and trade school in 1911-1912. In 1915 the administration building was put up, and in 1917-1918 the new west wing was con- structed. The buildings are of reenforced concrete, faced with brick, and with hollow-tile partitions ; the flooring, except in corridors, is of wood, and the build- ings are lighted by electricity. Calculation of floor space is made on a basis of equipment. Contemplated expansion is designed to afford quarters to house the printing department and equipment, as well as the automobile department and its equipment. A new “ East-wing ” building is also being planned. The value of buildings is given as $300,000. Equipment and Courses. — Equipment is inventoried as follows : Machine and tool making, $50,000 ; for the pattern-making trade, $8000 ; electricians’ trade, $6500; telegraphy, $550; carpentry and cabinetmak- ing trade, $9600 ; plumbing and gas-fitting trade, $8000; mechanical-drafting trade, $1500; architec- tural drafting, $1500; total, $85,650. The minimum age re- quirement is 16 years. Tuition is free to residents of Milwaukee under 20 years of age, except that a breakage fee of $5 is re- quired as a deposit. Non- resident students pay $4 tuition per month, as do resident pupils over 20 years of age. The “ tech- nical-high ” course re- quires six years, and the trade courses two years each to complete, with an average of eight hours per day for each student. No extension work is given. The courses consist of preparation for the follow- ing trades : Machines and tool making, pattern mak- ing, electrician, telegraphy, carpentry, cabinetmaking, plumbing and gas fitting, mechanical drafting, and architectural drafting. The day sessions open in September and close in June. Evening instruction is given three times a week from October 1 to May 1 in all of the above-mentioned subjects. When 24 regular students whose individual programs permit of it sign a petition requesting a sub- ject regularly provided in other Milwaukee high schools, that subject may be offered in the technical high school. Mechanical and free-hand drawing are taught in con- nection with all shop courses, and at all times each stu- dent’s program shall include at least one shop course. Persons desiring to obtain a trade diploma in less than four years, work full 8 hours per day, 40 hours per week. Miscellaneous Data. — The enrollment of pupils in 1918 was: Day classes, 172; night classes, 244. The 5CALE-ff F H I 1 f . . 1 FEET Fig. 148. — Plans of Boys’ Technical High School, Milwaukee, Wis. 182 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 149. — Vocational School, New Bedford, Mass. management states that by employing additional in- structors and using the shops to full capacity 470 pupils could be accommodated in day work and the same number for the night classes. The school does not claim to turn out journeymen mechanics. Its aim is to instruct students thoroughly in as short a time as possible in all the fundamental principles and in practice of the trade in question. In this way the pupils upon graduation possess ability and confidence and are of immediate practical value to their employers and receive a fair wage at once. The New Bedford Vocational School, New Bedford , Mass. History and Location. — The New Bedford Vocational School is part of the Massachusetts public-school system. It was first opened in 1908, and has proved a very successful venture in practical education. The site is 166 by 170 feet, located in an industrial district in the center of the city. Natural light and ventilation are not obstructed by adjacent buildings. The site was chosen on account of its acces- sibility by car lines and of its situation in an industrial district. Buildings. — The type of the main build- ing is an old frame factory building, rented in 1910. Some additions have been made to the plant since the building was taken over : a two-story frame building to house the gas producer, a two-story addition 20 by 24 feet for the power plant, and in 1915 a three-story addition for tool and locker rooms for machine and carpentry depart- ments. Floorings are of wood and con- crete. The building has been converted to the present use so that it is serviceable, even if lacking in many respects. It is lighted by electricity. Classrooms are apart from the shops. Floor space per pupil has not been calculated, owing to the makeshift character of buildings. Equipment and Courses. — The value of equipment of the institution is given as follows : Machine shop, $19,000 ; carpenter shop, $3000; power departments, $11,000; electric department, $4000 ; homemaking department, $5000 ; total, $42,000. Capacity of school is given as follows: Machinery pupils, 36 ; carpentry, 45 ; elec- trical, 36 ; steam engineering, 20 ; home- making, 45 ; a total of 182 pupils. Number of pupils March 1, 1918, were: Machinery, day class 31, night 24; carpentry, day 8, night 12; electrical, day 32, night 50; steam power, day 10, night 32 ; homemaking, day 32, night 502 ; total, day students 113, night 620. There are 81 pupils in the part-time homemaking course. • Painting and decorating are to be added in the near future to the day courses. Evening classes for women are being conducted in seven sections of the city, and this extension work is scheduled for amplification. The steam-power course is three years, as is the “ homemaking ” course. Machinery, carpentry, and Fig. 150. — Vocational School, New Bedford, Mass. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 183 electricity require four years each. There are 40 weeks in the school year, and forty courses are required, for machinists, carpentry, steam engineering, sheet-metal drafting, mechanical drawing, machinery, mathematics, carpentry, shop drawing, sewing, cooking, and millinery. The Bayonne Vocational School, Bayonne, N. J. History and Location. — The Bayonne Vocational School was organized September, 1911, by the board of education of the city of Bayonne. It is a public school, half the cost of support being paid by the 60 feet, and brings the total machine-shop area to 3600 square feet. Classrooms are apart from the shops. The total value of buildings is given as $23,000. Equipment and Courses. — The value of equipment totals $35,000, apportioned as follows: Machine shops, $28,000; woodworking, $2000; electric wiring, $2500; printing, $1700; mechanical and academic drawing, $700. The capacity of the machine shop is for 40 students at one time : Woodworking, 24 ; electric wiring, 24 ; printing, 24 ; and mechanical drawing, 24. •GROUND-FLCWR-PLAN- • SECOND PLAN- Fig. 151. — Vocational School, Bayonne, New Jersey. •THIRD- YLOOR-YLAH- municipality, the other half by the state. The loca- tion of the school is accessible from all parts of the community. The function of the school is to train boys to enter the industries of the community with some definite prepara- tion for earning a living. It does not aim to turn out journeyman mechanics, but to ascertain what trade a boy is best fitted to follow, and then to give him such a foundation as will fit him to enter that trade as a su- perior apprentice. Buildings. — The main building of the school plant was erected about 1875 as a Y. M. C. A. structure. It was remodeled for a high school about 1908, and again remodeled in 1911-19x2 for occupancy and used as a vocational trade school. It is of three-story brick, with brick partitions. There is a frame annex of two stories, built for a high school, and in 1917 a one-story concrete base and maple-floored extension to the me- chanical shop was constructed. This building is 30 by The daily program requires three hours of shopwork, two hours of academic work (arithmetic, history, Eng- lish, etc.), and one hour of mechanical drawing, making a school day of six hours. Employers of Bayonne make frequent calls upon the institution for boys to enter their industries, and the number of calls has been greater than the school has been able to supply. The school has graduated 69 boys, over 90 per cent of whom are engaged in the trades for which they were trained. The minimum age for entrance is 14 years. A boy who has completed the eight grades in the elementary schools can graduate from the vocational school in two years ; otherwise three years is required. Special academic work is provided for pupils who are not grad- uates of the elementary schools. There are 40 weeks in the school year for the day school, and a minimum term of 64 nights per year in the evening school, in which instruction in machine-shop work, pattern making, 184 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE carpentry, electric wiring, and mechanical drawing is provided. No extension work is given. The school has enrolled over 900 pupils in the day courses. In the evening schools over 1000 men have received technical instruction definitely related to their daily occupations. Shop instruction is individual as far as possible, thus per- mitting each pupil to progress as rapidly as he is capable of doing. Graduation is based upon proficiency in the shop, rather than the academic course. Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass. General Plan. — The buildings of Wentworth Institute which have already been erected (those shown in figure 152, except- ing the power plant in the rear of them) form merely a fagade group of the great system of buildings which the directors have in mind for the future. It is hoped to build back over the grounds to the rear a plant which shall have, at its smallest, the size and arrangement indicated in figure 153. The conditions which will control this development are the needs of the youth and of the industries of the community, with the emphasis in one decade on one kind of work and on another in the next, and the introduction of new trades or the revision of old ones by Fig. 153. — Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass. new progress in methods. The approach from the park- way opposite will be kept impressive, and the adminis- tration buildings will always be conveniently located near the center of the group. Flexibility of Plan for Buildings. — To meet these condi- tions of develop- ment the plan for buildings has had as its first require- ment flexibility. This flexibility was gained by adopting a standard building “ unit ” which may be repeated again and again in various locations upon the grounds without sacrificing symmetry, convenience of arrange- ment, or of connection between buildings. A great variety of types of buildings was carefully studied. The advantages and disadvantages of each were considered. Finally, there was adopted a three- and-one-half-story and basement building, 48 feet wide by 144 feet long, divided into nine equal bays of 16 feet each. The width of the building is equal to the length of three bays. The flexibility of the scheme results Fig. 154. — Standard Unit Divided tor Instruction in Shops, Wentworth Institute. i Reei 1 Rc 1 tation om Recitation Room Lecture Room Labratory 1 M ■ Ml Wash Room Office Instrument Room 1 Office Fig. 155. — Plan of Standard Unit Divided for Recitation Rooms, W t entworth Institute. Combination, Wentworth Institute. Fig. 152. — Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 185 not only from the previous knowledge of the size of the uni ts to be erected in any relation to any buildings al- ready erected, so that a unit or two can be omitted and building proceed at a distance, if necessary, but it results mainly from the dimensions themselves, for the width be- ing one-third of the nine-bay length permits a develop- ment into a T-shaped building by adding a standard unit or a double unit as a wing in the center of the rear, or it permits a U-shaped building to be developed by extend- ing wings of single or double units at the rear of either end. These T and U structures may, in turn, be de- veloped into rectangular buildings about a single or double central court. These possibilities are revealed by figure 153. The nine bays also make it possible to have either one entrance in the center of the building, Fig. 157. — Floor Plan of Power Plant Laboratory, Wentworth Institute. or two entrances symmetrically located near either end, without having a column on the axis of the entrance. In the case of Wentworth Institute sufficient room has been provided on all sides of the group of buildings now erected to permit extension in any direction ; for example, the wing B, in figure 153, can be extended in length forward for 96 feet. It can then have a second and third wing parallel to the wing C extended at either end of it for a distance of 96 feet ; and these two wings may be connected in the rear by another building run- ning parallel to B, forming a complete rectangle such as has already been mentioned, with two courts 48 feet square. Should all of these additions be made to this section the completed structure would have a floor space equal to four and one-third of the standard units adopted. It is, of course, not necessary to complete the whole group, nor indeed to add the units in any very definite order. The great variety of ways in which the growth can take place shows the flexibility of the plan. Connecting the Units of Building. — When the standard units are juxtaposed in the development of a court group of buildings no connecting links are neces- sary. But between such groups and simple units such as, for example, A and B in figure 153, connection must be supplied. At Wentworth Institute this is secured by a 12-foot covered passageway on the first floor and also in the basement, between adjoining buildings (figure 153). The buildings are not connected on other floors. Thus neither lighting nor outlook has been appreciably impaired, nor has the architectural outline been de- stroyed. On the other hand, the covered passageway permits the centralization of washrooms, locker rooms, study rooms, etc. ; makes it unnecessary to face the weather in going from building to building ; reduces the distance from department to department ; and facili- tates administrative relationships among departments and between departments and the general offices. By the same means central control of the student body is assured. Students cannot enter or leave the buildings Fig. 158. — Main Floor Plan of Main Building, Wentworth Institute. without passing the general offices in the main build- ing. They are obliged to pass the bulletin boards at least twice daily. Habitual tardiness is easily observed and corrected and in many other ways more effective and efficient control is obtained than would be possible in buildings separated in the usual way. Special Advantages of the Standard Unit Adopted. — The standard unit adopted is arranged for natural ventilation through outside transoms, glass areas, etc. The buildings, therefore, are not dependent for fresh air upon an intricate ventilating system, which is sub- ject to faulty operation ; nor is there danger of having at some time an ill-ventilated building, because the system is too expensive to operate, as in the cases of several recent educational structures. The dimensions of the unit involve a building with a single row of columns down the center (figure 154). The double row is the plan upon which almost all school buildings are laid out. This common method permits a wider structure than the single row of columns used at Wentworth Institute. But the results are all in favor SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 1 86 of the narrower building. A single row of supports gives as wide a floor space as can be perfectly lighted from the windows; the double row gives an area too wide for good lighting. The double row clutters the area with a forest of pillars, making general observation difficult over any large room and hampering the ar- rangement and movement of equipment. Moreover, the single row of supports, permitting a unit of 48 feet wide by 144 feet long, carries floor area which will admit the selection of a maximum standard size of shop or laboratory. This maximum standard is based upon the distance over which an instructor can control a group of students without unnecessary movement about the room Fig. 159. — Ground-Floor, West Building, Wentworth Institute. for purposes of observation and discipline. This stand- ard shop is in the general proportion of 50 by 100 feet. Among the advantages which accrue from the adop- tion of any standard unit is that of easy and simple adjustment of departments when, in the process of growth or reorganization, they are moved from build- ing to building. Furniture, machines, all equipment which fitted in one shop will fit in another of the same proportions. The equipment which stood in a certain corner can easily be disposed in the new quarters in an analogous corner. The economy of time and effort which is made in this regard is as important as the economy of funds through not having to purchase sub- stitute equipment. This is a very considerable saving. Wentworth Institute has had several occasions to test it. The adjustment of the plant to the housing and instruction of the training detachment of soldiers has been one instance. And when each additional build- ing was finished the expansion involved a similar ad- justment. For instance, the drafting courses’ equip- ment was once all in the west building ; then all of it was moved to the main building ; later part was moved on to the east building, when that was completed. Every piece fits in its new place and no substitution purchases have been necessary. Expansion and readjustment are further simplified by the fact that all partitions except those covering stairways are removable, though soundproof, and all rooms may be thus decreased or increased in size to suit immediate uses. By this scheme fitness alone need be consulted in placing departments in new quarters in another building. If the floor best suited for a cer- tain department which uses a large shop formerly housed Fig. 160. — First Floor, West Building, Wentworth Institute. a group of recitation rooms and offices, the temporary partitions form no obstacle to placing that department on that floor. (Compare figure 154 and figure 155.) By virtue of this removability of partitions the arrange- ment not only of the departments with relation to one another but within the department becomes highly flexible and makes it possible for the institute to set a high standard in efficient use of floor space and in its plan for simple and direct travel of materials and workers. The Arrangement if the St ndard Unit Floor. — The standard unit may be divided for instruction in shop practice (figure 154) or it may be divided for recita- tion rooms, lecture rooms, etc. (figure 155). Where large shops or large laboratories or drawing rooms are required, the full width of the building is used, and the rooms may be 32 feet, 48 feet, 64 feet, 80 feet, 96 feet, or in feet long, as desired. When recitation or lecture rooms are required, a corridor about 8 feet wide is run on one side of the center row of columns, making rooms 24 feet wide on one side of the building, and about 15 or BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 187 16 feet wide on the other. Recitation or lecture rooms The west building is chiefly a shop building, 145 are naturally made 24 by 32 feet or 24 by 48 feet. Both feet long by 49 feet wide, with four high-posted stories of these are very convenient sizes. The narrow space and a well-lighted gallery floor for workshops, labora- on the other side of the corridor, too, divides itself tories, and classrooms ; and a small one-story wing ex- readily into offices 16 feet square, or instrument rooms, tending to the south for offices, which serves also as the washrooms, etc., 16 by 32 feet, or 16 by 48 feet. It passageway to and from the main building. In this would be difficult to select dimensions for a standard building are, on the top story, a large shop for electric building which could be divided more readily into rooms wiring, a plumbing shop ; a pattern shop, with stock of convenient sizes for all sorts of purposes, or in more rooms, tool room, offices, etc., occupies the whole of convenient combinations. the second floor ; a machine shop of equal size and some- General Review of Buildings. — The buildings of what similar appointments occupies the first floor ; be- Wentworth Institute may be conveniently designated as low are a foundry and finishing room, with rooms for the west building (right of photograph, figure 152), main building, east building (left of photograph, figure 152), and the power-plant laboratory. Of these the west building and the power plant were finished when the school opened in 19x1 ; the main building was com- pleted in 1914; and the east building in 1916. The steam power plant laboratory is about 80 feet square and is located to the rear of the facade group (figure 153). The main building is 132 feet long by 66 feet wide. It contains in the basement a large laboratory about 60 feet square, with adjoining offices, for electrical- power practice and work in electrical construction, a second large laboratory for architectural construction, and a large locker room and a wash room. On the main floor are two large lecture rooms and the adminis- tration offices. The entire second floor is devoted to construction in mechanical and architectural drawing and design. On the third floor is an assembly hall and gallery. The remainder of the third floor and gallery is bccupied by laboratories, stock rooms, and offices for instruction in applied science and practical mechanics. Fig. 162. — Pullman Free School of Manual Training, Pullman, Illinois. pattern storage and supplies, occupying a floor space over 50 by 100 feet. There is also a gallery floor for cupola charging, core making, brass molding, and metal-pat- tern making ; two laboratories for industrial chemistry ; a blacksmith’s shop and a hardening plant ; and a large lecture room and three smaller rooms for class exercises and recitations. The east building, which contains about 45,000 square feet of floor area, provides four additional classrooms, large laboratories for strength of materials, reenforced concrete, and building materials. It also provides two shops for carpentry and house building and three entire floors for the school of printing and the graphic arts. The Pullman Free School, Pullman, III. — The above plan shows the elaborate layout of the Pullman Free School of Manual Training, at Pullman, Illinois. The site is located in South Chicago, and is near many industries as well as near the homes of many working people. The plant occupies a site 1250 feet by 1250 feet, of which about 2 per cent is included in buildings. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 1 88 Fig. 163. — Pullman Free School of Manual Training, Pullman, Illinois. The buildings are situated so as to be well lighted and ventilated. The grounds are arranged to afford athletic and recreational opportunities. The name of this school was determined by the terms of the will of George M. Pullman. The courses ad- vertised include cabinet making, trimming, pattern making, blacksmithing, molding and casting, machine shop practice, electrical construction and installation, and operative engineering. “ To complete any one of the regular courses of instruction,” it is declared in the dedicatory announcements, published September, 1916, “ will require from four to six years. The school is in session forty-eight weeks of the year for five days each week and for eight hours per day. During the first two years one-half of the time is devoted to academic studies, including English, history and mathematics ; the other half to draw- ing, shopwork, and labora- tory work. With young women, shopwork is re- placed by work in cooking and sewing.” The Boys' Vocational School ,■ — ■ Newark , New Jersey. History and De- velopment. — The Boys’ Vocational School of Newark was established in April, 1910, as an ele- mentary industrial school, with an initial enrollment of forty boys. Instruc- tion was given in woodwork, mechanical drawing, and complementary academic subjects. So vital was the need, as demonstrated, for an insti- tution of the sort, that in September, 1910, the school was enlarged to accommodate 100 boys. A course in metal working was added. In Septefnber, 1911, courses in electric wiring and printing were included in the curriculum. In 1914 a further expansion was made, to accommodate an additional 40 pupils. A later re- arrangement enabled the school to have eight classes and take care of 160 pupils, at which the capacity has remained. A waiting list of applicants averages 180 pupils. This number was 250 in April, 1918. The school was established for boys who through necessity or otherwise chose to enter the indus- trial field at about the age of sixteen, and who have shown ability for mechani- cal work. The main ob- ject of the school is to prepare boys for appren- ticeship to the mechanical trades, and is in no way intended as a preparatory school for the technical high schools, although the course of study is so ar- ranged that entrance to the technical high school may be had at the comple- tion of the course. While a pupil receives a thorough preparation in trade work. | Fig. 164. — Wood-working and Forge Shop, Pullman Free School, Pullman, Illinois. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 189 the academic side is thorough also. Applicants must have completed live years of grammar school work, have in mind preparation for a mechanical trade and ex- press a willingness to complete the three years’ course. Promotions are made by subjects and not by grades. Present Location — Equipment — Courses. — The first home of the school was in an old building owned by the Board of Education, and remodeled for vo- cational purposes in 1910. The shop build- ing was erected in 1848 as an elementary school. The academic department is in an ele- mentary school erected in 1908. The buildings are of brick, electric lighted, wood floors, no partitions, and the whole a makeshift. Equipment for the various trade subjects taught is inventoried as : Electricity, $1 200 ; printing, $2000 ; ma- chine work, $6500 ; woodwork, $2500; drafting, $1000 ; total, $13,200. Value of buildings, $12,000. Minimum age en- trance requirement is 13 years and for a trade subject 14 years. A general course is given to all pupils during the first two years, in order to determine the trade for which each is best adapted. The third year is given to spe- cialization in the trade or occupation for which the pupil has shown the greatest aptitude. By this method the occupation best suited to the taste and ability of the pupil is found. The courses in the trades require two years each in electricity, printing, machine work, woodwork, and drafting. There are 48 weeks in the school year, and each course requires 200 sessions. No extension work is done, but evening courses are given. Records of enrollment March 1, 1918, show: electricity, day pupils 46, night 23; print- ing, day 36, night 17; machine work, day 42, night 35; woodwork, day 36, night n ; drafting, day 10, night 28. Placement and Demand for Graduates. — The school makes a practice of placing its graduates in such posi- tions as are considered best for their future welfare. In most cases the salaries are higher than those ordi- narily paid non-trained pupils, and in many, the time of apprenticeship is shorter. . In 1916, 100 requests were made for graduates by em- ployers, and the school was able to supply only about one-third of the number desired. Numerous requests are made for graduates who have been out of school for one or two years. These changes have invariably resulted in higher wages or promo- tions for these young men. A Placement Committee, composed of the faculty of the school, attends to this important end of the school work. Need for Enlarge- ment of Work Demon- strated. — The success of the school caused much attention in busi- ness circles in Newark — a most important manufacturing center. The result was a con- certed action of busi- ness and manufacturing interests, which pro- cured the theme of vocational education in that city to be gone into with great thoroughness. A survey or “ overview ” of the entire subject was there- fore caused to be conducted for the Advisory Committee of the Board of Education, by Mr. Charles H. Winslow, member of the Congressional Committee on National Grants in Aid of Vocational Education, Director of the Vocational Survey of Richmond, Virginia, The Indiana State Survey, etc. As a result of the report of the Advisory Committee, the Board of Education has taken steps to meet ade- Fig. 165. — Pullman Free School, Pullman, Illinois. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 190 quately the situation as disclosed, and new buildings are to be constructed, ample for the present and future vocational education needs of the community. Location and Site of New Buildings. — A site 225 by 241 feet within the industrial center of the city has been chosen for the school. The plant, as projected, will cover 95 per cent of this area. Good car service makes the school accessible from all parts of the city, and nat- ural light and ventilation are not obstructed by adjacent buildings. An inquiry was conducted to locate the present residence of the pupils, and for this purpose the city was divided into four districts. The data obtained indicated that 71.3 per cent of the pupils lived in the section (Sussex Avenue between First and Second Streets) which has been recommended as the proper location. Type of Building Selected. — Plans drawn for the new school plant show the selection of the reenforced-con- crete and steel-sash type of the modern manufacturing plant, with its uniformity of interior construction and subordination of exterior design to the interior struc- tural conditions. Under this form, maximum lighting conditions are thus assured, as well as perfect ventila- tion and proper square-foot space per pupil. The plant as designed will accommodate 800 students, and is susceptible of being added to on the unit system as future needs may develop. No effort has been spared to obtain, in the design and arrangement of plan, the most advanced type of practical school construction. With the new buildings it will be possible to con- siderably enlarge the number of subjects and trades taught, and to provide for the necessary equipment, its proper housing and installation. Trade and Industrial Schools for Girls. 1 — The history of the establishment of trade and industrial schools for girls indicates that the cost of buildings and equip- ment has not figured as a prohibitive factor in the in- auguration of these experiments- In fact, considerable ingenuity has marked the transformation of old school buildings, dwellings, factory lofts, and business buildings into shops, and other necessary accom- modations for trade schools. A common type of housing for these prospective schools is found in an abandoned grade or high school building which is remodeled for this purpose. The Trade School in Philadelphia, the Girls’ Vocational School in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and in Newark, New Jersey, are of this type. As the movement for girls’ techni- cal and trade schools in communities frequently has its beginning in the activities of philanthropic organ- izations interested in the social, economic, and educational well being of the working girl, it occa- sionally receives an estate and housing facilities as a heritage or memorial to the interests of some individual. Such is the case of the Jane Hayes Gates Institute in Kansas City, Missouri. Commodious pri- vate homes or dwellings, which were centrally located but which because of the growth of the city have be- come undesirable as residence property, yet remain un- converted to business purposes, are found housing the Trade School for Girls both in Boston and Worcester. Some of the schools have undergone shifts from one type of building to another in adjusting themselves to an increasing enrollment. A business building in a down town district has certain desirable features and has been used both in Philadelphia, New York, and New Britain, Conn. Fig. 166. — Basement Floor Plan, Vocational School, Newark, New Jersey. 1 The writer is indebted to Mrs. Anna L. Burdick, Special Agent for Trade or Industrial Education for Girls and Women, Federal Board for Vocational Education, for this description. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 191 The Francis Nicholls School in New Orleans was built for a ward school, but was made an Industrial School on petition of the residents of the district. It was opened as a Trade School, September 24, 1912. The new Manhattan Trade School alone was opened for the purpose for which it was built — that is, trade training for girls. In such classes as dressmaking and millinery, equip- ment should be adapted to the size of the pupils. The height of chairs and tables is important. Cutting tables should be 31 to 34 inches high; sewing tables from 27 to 29 inches, and chairs from 14 to 17 inches in height are desirable. Chairs of the same height may be used if footrests are provided, but it is better to have tables and chairs proportionate. A good general rule for the height of the table is that it should be slightly lower than the elbows of the workers. A rule for the height of chairs is that they should allow a position with the feet firmly resting on the floor and the knees slightly higher than the hips. One machine for four pupils is necessary in classes which use machine-sewing in making garments. For plain sewing, such as making shirt waists, house dresses, and the like, one machine to three pupils is desirable. The number of machines per class may be less than one to three or four persons only in courses which include a great deal of hand work. Large equipment, such as machines and workroom furnishings, as well as tools or utensils for general use, should be supplied by the school. Personal “ tools,” such as shears, pliers, thimbles, etc., may be pro- vided by the school and the pupil en- couraged to purchase the same. Trade extension courses cannot be satis- factorily carried on in schoolrooms equipped with regulation desks and chairs. Such rooms are not adapted to manual work and the furniture is too cramped for adult pupils. Equipment for trade extension courses should be the same as in business establishments. This brief statement relative to a few of these schools sets forth experiences which may be considered char- acteristic of others. The Manhattan Trade School. — The Manhattan Trade School was established in November, 1902, as the result of a study made by a group of people inter- ested in the sociological, economic, and educational status of the young working girl in New York City. Private initiative is responsible for the founding of the school, and voluntary contributions for the maintenance during the experimental stage. The building selected for the school was a large pri- vate house at 233 West 14th street, which was equipped like a factory, and could comfortably accommodate one hundred pupils. In June, 1906, the school moved into a new business building at 209-213 East 23d street, which could offer daily instruction to about five hun- dred girls. The location was chosen because of its ac- cessibility to the business district and to transporta- tion facilities. The institution was taken over by the • F I R-J T ■ F IOOH *PLAN * Fig. 167. — Vocational School, Newark, New Jersey. public school system September 1, 1910, and main- tained in these quarters until September, 1918. The new building at Twenty-second and Lexington Avenue, a few blocks from the site of the old building, was opened on September 9, 1918, by the Department of Education. The building will accommodate 1200 girls; 600 are en- rolled at present. The first floor contains a spacious salesroom with at- tractive show windows on Twenty-second street and on Lexington Avenue, a restaurant capable of accommo- dating about seventy-five, and a well-equipped kitchen. The principal’s office, the various other offices, and a lecture hall are on the second floor. The third floor 192 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS i93 s divided into three large light sewing rooms, a large stock room, and plenty of wardrobe space. The fourth floor is similar to the third. On the fifth floor are four academic rooms and two other rooms, one of which will probably be given over to the millinery classes. The sixth floor contains rooms which it is likely will be de- voted to the novelty work, art, manicuring, and hair- dressing. The dressmaking and fitting rooms are on the seventh floor, and a spacious power-machine operat- ing room and a cutting room occupy the eighth floor. On the ninth floor is a large lunch room for the girls and a kitchen where they will undoubtedly learn to cook. The tenth floor contains the gymnasium, lockers, and shower baths. The roof also is unusually at- tractive and is to be. equipped for outdoor athletics. Certain trades, or combination of trades, to insure all-the-year-round employment, are taught. Among those taught now, as major subjects, always carrying with them the related subjects, are dressmaking, milli- nery, lamp-shade making, electric power machine op- erating on clothing, embroidery, and straw ; pasting trades, including sample mounting, novelty case mak- ing, French edge making, embroidery design and per- forating of embroidery patterns, laundry work, cafe- teria work, manicuring, and shampooing. The last two have been added this year to enable the girls to care for themselves properly. In all work special em- phasis is laid on the necessity for the trade worker to keep in good physical condition. By the sale of the products, though not an end in itself, the pupils are brought in touch with the real trade problems. No order is taken unless it serves the edu- cational needs of the class. While an important fea- ture from the standpoint of economy in cost, its educa- tional value is paramount. Of the $20,000 received from goods in the year 1918, $16,000 was paid for supplies. Milwaukee Public School of Trades for Girls. — In July, 1909, the Milwaukee Board of School Directors authorized the establishment of a school of Trades for Girls. The State Normal School building, vacated dur- ing the summer of 1909, was chosen for the location of the new school which was opened on December 6. To the original building a new addition has been added to accommodate the large number of applicants, the wait- ing list running as high as 200 names at a time. Four hundred girls are provided for in the building at the present time. The school is located on Wells Street and occupies the southern half of the block between Eighteenth and Nineteenth streets. Transportation lines are accessible and close connections may be made with all car lines which run in close proximity to the school. The school year is eleven months in length. Each weekly schedule consists of thirty-five hours. School hours are from 8.30 to 12.00 and from 1.00 to 4.30 daily except Saturday. Approximately two-fifths of the student’s time during her course is devoted to work supplemental to her chosen trade and vitally essential to the skilled worker. The remaining three-fifths is spent in actual shop practice. One-half of the time spent in the shop must be devoted to trade work for the school and one-half may be devoted to the girl’s own needs. Students must supply their own drawing instruments and all drawing material, and the small tools needed in their respective trades, such as scissors, tape line, needles, emery, etc. The various kinds of dressmaking trades, millinery, applied art and design have been selected to offer for instruction. Those desiring instruction in other trades are requested to make application. On receipt of a sufficient number of requests to make it evident that the demand warrants the expense of equipment, the school will consider the establishment of courses in the trades desired. Household science is taught as a course supplemental to the trades. The Worcester Massachusetts Girls' Trade School. The Worcester Girls’ Trade School was established September, 1911, under the state and city ordinance providing for Independent Industrial Schools under the management and control of a Board of Trustees. The school is located on State Street at the corner of Court Hill. It may be reached from every section of the city direct or by transfer. A remodeled dwelling provides for office, salesroom, power-machine operating room, and lunch room on the first floor. The dress- making shops are on the second and the art and design classes are on the third floor. A separate dwelling is maintained for the four-year home-making courses. By the generosity of David Fanning of the Worcester Corset Company this school has received a gift of $100,000 in recognition of its work. The school year is 42 weeks in length and maintains a summer session of six weeks. The day school is open from 8.30 to 12.00 a.m. and from 1.00 to 4.45 p.m. every day except Saturday. The evening school ses- sion is 24 weeks. Classes meet Monday and Wednes- day or Tuesday and Thursday from 7.30 to 9.30 p.m. The courses consist of short units of millinery and sew- ing which leads to dressmaking. A four-year course in home-making is offered and two-year trade courses in dressmaking, millinery, power-machine operating, and cookery, together with allied and supplementary sub- jects. Every girl’s program includes : 194 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE One trade 22 to 25 hours per week Cooking 3 “ “ “ Art 3 to 42 “ “ “ Academic subjects .... 3 to \\ “ “ “ Gymnastics i| “ “ “ Jane Hayes Gates Institute. — The Jane Hayes Gates Institute is a Home Economics and Trade School for girls and women under the direction of the Kansas City Board of Education. The house is particularly well suited for this purpose. Trade efficiency and good -home-making is the ideal of Jane Mayes Ga+es Insfi+u+e J Jtf Floor all instruction. The rooms to the right and left of the doorway on the first floor are used as dressmaking anti millinery laboratories. Lockers, irons and ironing boards, tables and chairs have been installed. The dining-room and kitchen are used for the preparation and serving of the lunch. The kitchen is large enough for several student armchairs, so a demonstration can be given there. The second floor has two domestic science laboratories perfectly appointed in every way. Another room is given over to the Industrial Art classes, another for the academic work, another for a cloak room, and another a rest room, which serves also as a demonstration bedroom. The courses are planned to suit the needs of different classes of students, among whom is the girl who has just finished the elementary school and wishes to prepare herself for a definite line of trade work. The girls have the choice of two two-year courses, millinery or dress- making. These courses comprise fifteen hours’ work in the laboratory, which is conducted as a shop, three hours English, three hours mathematics, two hours of physiology and sanitation and textiles, four hours of industrial art, one hour gymnasium, and three hours of cookery. The fifteen hours a week shopwork consists Jane Haves Gates Institute Z- Floor in making certain required articles of clothing which are chosen as representing the different problems which are encountered in the dressmaking and millinery fields. An effort is made to develop judgment and taste as well as technique. The art work shows the use of the funda- mental principles of design in the designing of clothing and house furnishings. Line, spacing, and color are studied with a special reference to the personality of the individual for whom the garment is designed. Color harmonies are worked out in various kinds and tex- tures of materials suitable for blouses, dresses, suits, draperies, and wall coverings. Plaids and striped materials suitable for the different types of figures are BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS I 95 studied. In sketching, the emphasis is placed on de- sign rather than drawing. The course in cookery is planned to teach the different methods of food preparation and the principles under- lying them. Besides this, each student takes her turn in the lunch room, where she has charge of the purchas- ing, preparation, and serving of meals. The keeping of household accounts, division of income, making house- hold budgets are taught. There is a school garden which gives the girls some experience in production of food materials as well as supplying school cookery classes. The second group of students consists of girls to whom the regular high school course does not appeal. These girls are particularly interested in the home problems and select courses which deal with the scientific solution of these. In addition to these two groups the school offers special courses in Commercial Art, which prepares women to enter employment in the advertisement de- partment of our business houses, in millinery, dressmak- ing, cookery, and home management. The courses last named are based on the home problems that every woman faces sooner or later, and have been so popular that it has proven to the directors of the school that there is a tremendous need and desire of the women of the city to learn to do their part of the world’s work efficiently. III. Buildings and Equipment Types of Schools. — -Vocational agriculture instruction is now being given in three types of secondary schools : (i) Separate agricultural schools, including congressional district, county, and privately endowed agricultural schools ; (2) consolidated rural schools ; and (3) small city and town high schools. The Vocational Education Act of 1917, which ap- propriates Federal funds for the promotion of agri- cultural instruction in schools of less than college grade, provides assistance for approved work in schools of all three types under public supervision and control. The act does not permit the expenditure of Federal moneys for plant or equipment for the schools established or in part supported by the act, yet through the pro- vision which requires approval by the Federal Board of standards for plant, equipment, and maintenance, the Federal and State Boards for Vocational Education are interested in these problems, and increased attention will undoubtedly be given to them by communities and persons interested in introducing, providing facili- ties for, or carrying on such instruction. The act mentions and provides for part-time and evening as well as all-day vocational schools, but build- ings which meet the needs of all-day agricultural in- struction will usually be satisfactory for part-time and evening classes and will not be discussed separately here. It is obvious that the character and extent of build- ings and equipment needed for the most effective con- duct of vocational agriculture instruction must differ with the type of school. The main business of the separate agricultural school is to give vocational instruction in agriculture. In the consolidated rural school and in the small city or town high school, vocational instruction in agriculture exists as a single department of a general school. Separate agricultural schools commonly serve much larger areas than do the consolidated rural and small city and town high schools. The majority of their pupils live away from home, while probably all of the agricultural pupils of the consolidated rural high school and the majority of the agricultural pupils of the small city or town high school live at home. Separate agricultural schools ordinarily have a num- ber of agricultural teachers and give numerous strictly agricultural courses. In the case of the consolidated rural and small town or city high school there is com- monly but one agricultural teacher, and the number of agricultural courses given is necessarily limited by this fact. Types of Buildings. — It is evident from the above facts that the separate agricultural school must have a more extensive equipment in land, buildings, laboratory and shop facilities and apparatus, and in general farm equipment than is needed for the consolidated rural or small city or town high school. As a matter of fact, most of these schools own farms of from twenty to sev- eral hundred acres and have from one to several build- ings devoted entirely to agricultural instruction ; where consolidated rural high schools serve a large number of school districts they sometimes have separate agricul- tural buildings and considerable land. But ordinarily they, like the small city or town high school in which agriculture is taught, have but little land and but one general school building, of which a part is devoted to agricultural instruction. The number and kinds of buildings needed for the separate agricultural school vary according to condi- tions. Besides the main school building or buildings, various farm buildings will be needed, the number and sizes depending upon the size of the school farm, the kind of farming, and the course of study. Barns will be needed for work animals; sheds for stock, hog houses, poultry houses, etc., must be provided where animal husbandry is emphasized. Glass houses will be needed in truck and certain horticultural districts. Granaries, iq6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE cribs, etc. will be needed in grain districts. Provision for housing farm implements must be made wherever there is a school farm or exhibit collections of imple- ments. In the case of separate Congressional District Agri- cultural Schools and other similar schools serving a large area, some provision must be made for the housing and boarding of pupils who come from a distance. Where both boys and girls attend these schools, additional adopted with very satisfactory results in certain special and county agricultural schools in the East, and might well be more widely used for similar institutions. Its chief feature is the “ arena ” or inner court, within the walls of the school building. Doors large enough to drive in teams, stock, bring in pieces of machinery, etc., are provided. It is so arranged that it can conveniently be used for local fairs or exhibits, showing agricultural displays of farm crops, canned and preserved products, Fihst Floor, Plan Smith Agricultural School Northampton, Mass. Fig. 172. dormitory facilities must be provided. Even where the boys and girls do not live in dormitories belonging to the school the responsibility for their supervision rests upon the school. There is, therefore, a natural tendency toward general provision of dormitories for schools where the pupils cannot go home at night, as this decreases supervision difficulties besides present- ing other obvious advantages. Smith Agricultural School . — -One excellent type of school building for a separate agricultural school is shown in the plan of Smith Agricultural School, at Northampton, Mass, (figure 172). This type has been etc. It may also be used for community gatherings, demonstrations, lectures, etc. The social and agricul- tural teaching advantages of such an arrangement for a separate agricultural school in a rural community are apparent. In addition to a main school building and the neces- sary farm buildings, the separate agricultural school frequently has from one to several other school build- ings, as for example, a special farm mechanics build- ing, a dairy building, etc. The number, nature, and size of these special buildings will be determined largely by the local and individual conditions of each school. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS I 97 The general plan of such special buildings for use in vocational agriculture instruction will become more and more closely standardized as the conditions for most efficient instruction in dairy work, farm mechanics, and other special agricultural subjects instruction are worked out and agreed upon. In the case of the consolidated rural high school and the small city or town high school, instruction in agri- culture is ordinarily given in the same building with other high school instruction. In some cases grammar and elementary grades are even housed under this same roof. In the case of these schools, then, provision for vocational agriculture should consist in adding, be- sides the usual science laboratories, an agricultural laboratory and an agricultural recitation room. One satisfactory plan for such rooms is shown in figure 173, the agricultural laboratory of the Logan County High School at Sterling, Colorado. Plan of Combination Laboratory and Recitation Room. — For the very small school a combination of labora- tory and recitation room may be satisfactorily used. Where possible, it is an advantage to have the agri- cultural laboratory on the ground floor, so that the students may easily pass in and out at any time with- out disturbing other classes, and that illustrative ma- terial may readily be brought to and taken from the laboratory. If farm mechanics instruction is given, it is desirable, when possible, that it be given in a separate building, whatever the type of school. If it is given in the same building with other school instruction, it is difficult to prevent the noise necessarily incident to the work from disturbing the other school work. Ideally, there should probably be a separate room for the carpentry, □□□□□□□□□□a □□□□□□□□□□□ Lecture Room □□□□□□□□□□a □□□□□□□□□□a ■ 111 Demonstration u Laboratory Table Soil qrinder r 0 Cream ^1 1 Separator YJ Agricultural Laboratory The: Logan County Industrial High School STERLING, COLORADO. Fig. 173. Arts Shelves for books & demonstrational material 1 * * ■»" 11 Laboratory apparatus &< supplies ® Sink Fig. 174. — Plan of Combination Laboratory and Recitation Room, Logan County Industrial Arts High School. for the blacksmi thing, and for the toggery. But though this can often be provided for in Congressional District and County High Schools, the other classes of schools will usually have to be content with more modest quarters. I S l/o p Building, Sterling, Cclo. — One type of separate shop building is shown in figure 175, that of the Logan County High School at Sterling, Colorado. A Combination Shop Suggested. — Where it is not possible to have a separate building for shopwork, a room in another building, possibly even in the basement of the school building proper, may have to suffice tempo- rarily at least. New York bulletin 626 suggests the following shop room : “Under average conditions the room for shop- work can be found. It should be at least 16 by 24 feet in area, well lighted, and preferably with a south exposure. Rooms not already suitable for the purpose may often be made so at small expense. If absolutely necessary, a basement room may be fitted up. In this case additional windows will frequently be needed. Under the row of windows there should be a continuous bench, preferably SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 198 The: Logan County Industrial Arts High School ■5T E.TM-1NG , COLORADO. Fig. 175. built of two-inch planks. This bench ought to be 24 to 30 inches wide. It should be provided with wood vises, at intervals of S feet. “ At the end of the bench nearest the forge and anvil there should be one blacksmith’s iron or machinist’s swivel vise. A good grindstone, mounted by the pupils, can be placed conveniently, and vertical cabinets for the tools belonging to the school can be built by the first class from their own designs. Some open space should be reserved in the middle of the room for the use of saw- horses, for setting up work in course of construction, and for testing the operation of machinists. The forge should be so placed as to exhaust the smoke and gases into the regular furnace stack when possible. “The ceiling of the room should be properly prepared to deaden the sound of work done in the shop. The under side of floor joists over- head should be sheathed with ‘deadening felt,’ and this covered by a tight wooden ceiling or by lathing and plastering. Metallic ceiling should not be used, because of its sound-conducting properties. “ The floor should be of wood except around the forge and anvil. Cement floors are cold and hard on the pupil’s feet. An edged tool may be spoiled by dropping on a cement floor. If cement foundation is used, the corner de- signed for the forge may be left uncovered when the wood floor is laid. If the room to be used as a shop already has a wood floor, a covering of zinc, tin or galvanized iron should be placed in the corner where the forge and anvil are to stand.” Figure 176 shows a combination shop which may be made to give satisfactory service in a small school. Since the majority of the agricultural pupils of the consolidated rural high school and the small town high school live at home and can carry on supervised practi- cal work there, such schools will ordinarily own but little land for agricultural uses. They will therefore need but few farm buildings, farm implements, etc., compared with the separate agricultural schools. Primary factors in determining what these shall be will be the amount of land owned or leased for agricultural purposes, and the character of the crops grown. As has been indicated, agricultural schools will have a series of agricultural laboratories and recitation rooms, — as for example a farm crops laboratory, a horticulture laboratory, etc. In the smaller schools where voca- tional agriculture is taught, there may be but one agri- cultural laboratory, used for different classes. In this case it must be fitted up to meet the various needs. There must be laboratory tables suitable for the kinds of work undertaken, with gas, sinks, running water, etc. Where there must be a single combination recitation and laboratory 7 room, flat- topped tables and chairs with suitable cases for apparatus and supplies must be provided. There should be cabinet cases for demonstration material, grains, seeds, feeds, fertilizers, etc. Unless the school has ample space in its library room or rooms for the shelving and care of agricultural books, bulletins, and magazines, provision must be made for them in the agricultural laboratory, or recitation room. There should be abundant storage room for illustrative collections, extra pieces of apparatus and supplies. There must be suitable provision for the storage and for the display of soil service maps, charts, pictures Fig. 176. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 199 of live stock of the various kinds, and other illustrative material. Discussion of the special apparatus and equipment desirable for use in connection with the different agri- cultural courses involves so many considerations that it cannot be adequately treated in a few pages. It will therefore not be touched upon here. sible, skilled worker in at least four or five skilled occupations ; under emergency conditions this number may be greatly increased. In addition, she is usually joint owner and manager of the whole enterprise, and she must be skilled in household management. Schools offering vocational instruction in home eco- nomics should provide for three types of workrooms. Basement Plan Nlw Shop Building fop Smith Agricultural School. Northampton, Mass. Fig. 177. IV. Home Economics Purpose of Vocational Home Economics Schools.' — Home economics as a vocational subject has for its con- trolling purpose the preparation of girls and women for useful employment as home-makers and as house daughters engaged in the occupations and management of the home, preparation for useful employment in an occupation which is a composite of undifferentiated occu- pations requiring various forms of skill and of related knowledge. Such employment may or may not be wage earning employment. It is wage earning employment for household assistants. It is not wage earning employ- ment in the general acceptance of the term for home- makers who are at the same time workers and managers in their respective enterprises. As such they have need for forms of vocational education especially adapted to meet their needs both as workers and as managers. Home-making Activities. — Home-making is both a social and a business enterprise. Under ordinary cir- cumstances the efficient home-maker must be a respon- First, adequate space and equipment for instruction and laboratory practice in all of the home activities, such as housekeeping, garment making, dressmaking, food study and cookery, serving of meals, laundry, home nursing, and the care of children. Second, adequate space and equipment for instruc- tion and laboratory practice in the related sciences and art which are fundamental to a proper understanding and application of home-making processes. These will include such subjects as general science, applied physi- ology and home nursing, household chemistry, house- hold physics and applied drawing and design, costume design, house furnishing and decorating. Third, there should be adequate space and equipment for the non-vocational or general academic subjects. Schools Teaching Home Economics. — Vocational home-making is offered in three kinds of schools, namely, day schools, part-time schools, and evening schools. The type of instruction does not vary materially in these three kinds of schools, and the plant and equipment which is best designed for efficient work in the day 1 Prepared by Miss Anna E. Richardson, Acting Assistant Director for Home Economics, Federal Board for Vocational Education. 200 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE schools will serve for work in part-time and evening schools. For the purpose of this article only the day school will be discussed. Types of All-Day Schools. — All-day schools are of two types, separate home-making schools which provide equipment and space for the entire vocational and non- vocational curriculum, and home-making departments of trade schools, general elementary, and high schools where space and equipment is provided for the home eco- nomics subjects but where the classrooms of the general school are used for the work in applied science and art and the non-vocational subjects. Separate Schools of Home-making have been housed in whatever type of building was available. The types of building in common use are old school buildings and remodeled homes. The Newark Girls’ Vocational School is a fair representative of the first type, and the Essex County School at Bloomfield, New Jersey, is a repre- sentative of the use of the second type of building. For the separate school the remodeled house is more desirable if the vocational class is not too large. It provides the opportunity for work under approximately home conditions, as the house may be furnished as a home and all of the home-making activities provided for. Unfortunately most of the homes so used are very large, old-fashioned houses with the inconvenience of large rooms, waste spaces, and poorly planned working areas. Home-making Departments of Trade Schools.- — The home-making departments of the trade school, as for ex- ample the Worcester Trade School, Worcester, Massa- chusetts, and the Jane Hayes Gates School, Kansas City, Missouri (see figures 170 and 17 1, page 194) offer the opportunity for equipment which approximates trade equipment. Some of these departments are fitted up with laboratory kitchens and sewing-rooms, but more often the sewing-rooms are equipped for shopwork and the food preparation is a part of the lunch room work. The equipment for technical home economics is good, but in such departments the equipment for related art and science is apt to be inadequate. Home-making Departments of Elementary or Secondary Schools. — When home-making is a department of the general public schools, we usually find the laboratory type of equipment, the extent of space and equipment depending upon the school. In the best schools the kitchen laboratory is fitted with individual work-tables to accommodate 15 to 20 students. A dining-room is furnished for the serving of meals and adequate storage and pantry space is provided. The sewing-room is fitted with tables and chairs of the right height for comfort in sewing and cutting. In many of the schools, housekeeping apartments are provided in addition, which are used for class instruction in home manage- ment, home nursing, and house furnishing and decorat- ing. The school science laboratories are used for the related science instruction, and the regular classrooms for the non-vocational work. This type of equipment is common to home economics departments throughout the country, and is discussed at length in another sec- tion of this book. Unmodified, the straight laboratory equipment is apt to be too formal, too remote from the home activities of the girl and is one of the reasons why much of the home economics as given does not produce independent home workers. Modifications of Equipment. — The recognition of the fact that, if instruction in vocational home-making is to be effective, it must be carried on under as nearly normal conditions as possible, coupled with the fact that most of this training must be given in the schools, as it is impossible to provide home-making training for each girl in her own home, has led to various modifica- tions of the school equipment. The usual floor space devoted to Home Economics does not permit the instruction to partake of the ac- tivities of the home to a sufficient degree. In the be- ginning, equipments were installed in vacated class- rooms or in unused basement space and were limited to small composite tables containing the stove and equip- ment, for the use of the pupils. In a High School. — With the advent of vocational home economics it has been found necessary to increase to a considerable degree the floor space available. The plan suggested in figure 178 is intended to be incorpo- rated in the general plan for a cosmopolitan high school as a department for vocational home economics. The architect will find it necessary to apply this suggestion to local conditions. It may not be possible to allot to this department the floor area shown. On the other hand, in some buildings additional space may be available. In this plan the entire space covering 4400 square feet is divided by partitions about nine feet high, into sewing-room, fitting room, four unit kitchens, rest room, laundry, storerooms, and an apartment, made up of dining-room, kitchen, bedroom, and bath. The sewing- room is amply provided with sewing tables 2' S'' high, comfortable chairs, hinged ironing boards and ade- quate locker space, and has adjoining storage and fitting rooms. The apartment may be used for various home man- agement problems, service of meals, care of the house, home nursing, and house planning, furnishing, and decorating. The kitchen of the apartment is fitted up as a convenient home kitchen and the arrangement is planned to save time and energy in manipulative pro- cesses. This kitchen, with the other units, is used for BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 201 class work, three to five students in a kitchen, depend- ing upon the number of students in the class. The kitchens differ slightly in size and equipment, so as to allow for some experimentation as to the most effective arrangement. Ample space is allowed outside of the units for chairs and a blackboard where the class may be assembled, without loss of time, for explanations, discussions, and instruction. This is a very important feature, often neglected in schools with unit kitchen equipment. The open alcove adjoining the apartment kitchen may be fitted up as a rest room or a sitting room. This provides for a place to read or work and gives further opportunity for working out problems in decorating, furnishing, and care. It has been found that a class of from ten to twenty pupils composes a working group under one instructor. The plan as suggested will ordinarily provide instruc- tion for as many as sixty pupils under the direction of three teachers. As a means of greater flexibility, the rooms should be designed with all interior dividing partitions of light construction and extending only nine feet above the floor, with open ceilings. The partitions should be con- structed so that the walls may be decorated in keeping with similar rooms in the home. The interior parti- tions between the “ unit rooms ” and the open space have in most cases been omitted in order that the in- structor may have an opportunity to supervise the work of the pupils more readily. Essential Points. Light. — All “ unit rooms ” and floor space for general instruction should be well lighted by natural light. The rooms should be wired for the usual artificial light as specified elsewhere in this chap- ter. In addition, extra service outlets should be ex- tended to the equipment in each of the unit rooms. Floors. — All floors should be of wood, or, if of con- crete, covered with battleship linoleum. Interior Partitions should be constructed of light 202 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE frame work covered either with plaster or compo board, so that the walls may be decorated similarly to the home. Doors should be hung on the openings in the bedroom, bathroom, fitting room, storage rooms, and laundry. In the partition separating the dining-room and kitchen a combination buffet and kitchen cabinet should be constructed. This should be flush with the wall on the dining-room side, above the counter shelf, and fitting with a sliding door permitting the passage of articles from the kitchen to the dining-room. Ceilings. — The usual height ceiling, from n to 13 feet, is satisfactory. Heating and Ventilation should correspond to the usual requirements for school buildings. Supply Rooms. — In the supply rooms, adequate shelving should be placed for the storage of a consider- able quantity of material. For the storage of dresses, large built-in cabinets with sliding doors in which dresses can hang at full length, should be provided. Individual pupil’s lockers should also be constructed in the sewing room as indicated. These should be equipped with individual locks, fitted with a master key. Equipment. — The plan should show the installa- tion of all equipment, so that service and plumbing outlets may be extended to the fixtures. The equip- ment should be similar to that used in the average home, and should be selected of the best makes so as to stand considerable usage. A four-hole gas range with baking and broiling ovens should be placed in each kitchen. The kitchen sink, whenever possible, should be fitted with a double drain board. While a porcelain drain board is more desirable for sanitary reasons, ex- perience shows that a wooden drain board is more serviceable. All kitchen sinks, drain boards, etc., should be installed so that the working surface is from 36 to 38 inches above the floor. Each kitchen should include a kitchen cabinet, preferably a built-in combination work table with shelves and a storage space below. The laundry equipment should include two batteries of three tubs each for washing purposes. These should be connected to hot and cold water with the hot-water heater in the room. A family electric washing machine and a 42-inch electrically operated mangle and electric irons should be included in the equipment. The electric wiring should provide convenient service outlets for this equipment. At least five ironing-boards should be provided. These should be so attached to the wall that they may be raised to an upright position when not in use. A clothes dryer connected to steam coils is an essential part of the equipment. Simple home equip- ments should also be used and comparison made as to their relative efficiency. A much simpler plan for the unit kitchen is illus- trated in figure 179. This shows the main laboratory space divided by partitions into three average size kitchens equipped as home kitchens. It is recognized by every one that the most valuable experience is ob- tained when the pupils are engaged in production under the same conditions that exist in the factory, the home, or on the farm. For the sake of economy and the stimulus that comes from the preparation of a product which is to be used, some method must be devised for using the dishes pre- pared in the school kitchen. Most* modern schools include a lunch room, and the product of the home eco- nomics department may be used there. Since most lunch rooms are located on the first floor, and as a rule the home economics department on the second or third floor of the building, a dumb-waiter connecting the two is a necessary addition to the equip- ment. The practice house is an extension of the plan to pro- vide home equipment in the school for instruction in home economics. In most cases the girls do not live in the house, but the usual home-making activities are carried on, including preparation of the noon meal, laundry, house cleaning, etc. This, in combination with the school equipment, provides for each girl an opportunity to do independently the work of the home for a definite period of several weeks or more. Cafeterias and lunch rooms are other means of fur- nishing vocational experience under normal conditions. Such experience is of great value when the preparation of the lunch is made an educational project. Most careful planning is necessary, however, to see that the positions are changed frequently enough, so that the work does not degenerate into routing practical work. Standards in the Selection and Equipment of Rooms for Home Economics Instruction. — In utilizing an old building or in planning a new one, there are certain fundamental standards which are of importance in BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 203 choosing and equipping rooms for home-making in- struction, which should be taken into account by the architect. These deal with location, size, shape, light- ing, ventilation, floor materials, and wall finishes. Location. — ■ The school kitchen should be a corner room ; the cross drafts eliminate odors and provide ven- tilation. The corner should be chosen which shade, prevailing winds, or other local conditions make coolest. The first floor is to be preferred, as it is more accessible for supplies and the removal of waste. This should not be a basement room, as a basement room seldom pro- vides adequate light, ventilation or other opportunities for healthful work. The top floor of the building pre- vents odors from spreading through the building, and is satisfactory if the building is not more than three stories, or if there is good storage space so that supplies may be purchased in large quantities, and adequate elevator service is available. Good light is an essential for the rooms where sew- ing is taught ; therefore a north exposure should be used if possible since it provides the best light. The location of the rooms for the other home-making ac- tivities is not so important. The rooms should, how- ever, be planned in relation to each other so that the work done can be accomplished at the least expenditure of time and effort. Size. — The size of the rooms will be determined by the number of pupils to be taught and the use of the room, whether or not it is to be used for only one home- making activity or for a combination work room. Twenty students should be the maximum number taught in a vocational class, and fewer are desirable. The working area per pupil in either food or clothing classes should be about 30 square feet distributed in a rectan- gular space of about 30 feet by 25 feet. There should be aisle space of not less than three feet in width and ample storage space for all equipment. A square or slightly rectangular room is best fitted for a kitchen, dining room, or pantry. For a sewing- room a narrow room is best, as it allows the light to come from one side and fall all the way across the room. Lighting. — The rooms should be well lighted, the glass area should be not less than one-fourth the floor area. Good artificial lighting should be provided, conforming to the usual standards for artificial lighting, that is, it should be adequate, suitably placed and easily available. For sewing the same standards as for cooking should prevail with more allowance for the adjustability of artificial lights and in general with more emphasis placed on light. Ventilation should be as nearly as possible perfect, to insure both the health and comfort of the students. If a ventilating system is not in use in the building, ventilation must be secured by windows opening at both top and bottom, and the school kitchen should have windows on two sides of the room. Wall finishes will be determined by the location and use of the room. In general they should be light-col- ored and easily cleaned. All plans for home economics departments should be submitted by the architect to a well-qualified home economics teacher. This will insure the equipment being adapted to the needs of the school. CHAPTER IX THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS By Robert T. Legge, M.D., Professor of Hygiene and University Physician in the University of California , Berkeley, California; Fellow of American College of Surgeons ; Captain, Medical Corps, U. S. Army. Ventilation. Odors. Temperature. Humidity. Air Currents. Bacteria. Dust. Heating. Lighting. Desks. Plumbing. Open Air Schools. Health and Safety Welfare. The Hygiene of Schools A volume of this sort, prepared by specialists, each of whom deals with problems from his own standpoint, be it aesthetic, economic, or some other, would be incom- plete without a chapter on school hygiene. The subject is obviously very important, for it deals with the health of the occupants of schoolrooms and buildings. Scientific knowledge gathered from research and clinical observations in many places is available, and it must be applied to modern schoolhouses, in order that these shall conform to certain requirements and standards. Many studies of the situation have been made in various states by educational and public health officials, and it is the general opinion of such observers that one-half of the schoolhouses in this country should be destroyed on account of their unsanitary character. Despite such opinion school authorities and trustees continue to erect highly unsuitable school buildings without consulting specialists whose services in the premises are indispensable for the safeguarding of public health. Of the many problems that are to be considered, those of health and safety are first in importance ; second are those of convenience and the promotion of comfort. Attention to these makes the pupils’ and teachers’ workshop liveable and makes possible the elimination of much lost motion, and at the same time conduces to happiness and intellectual development. It is the purpose of the writer to present the important hygienic factors necessary in the modern scientifically constructed schoolhouses. Ventilation.- — Ventilation may be defined as the changing or removal of confined air, charged with chemical or physical impurities, by normal outside air. To dis- cuss this very important subject from a hygienic stand- point, we must be familiar with the chemical and physical properties of air, the physiology of respiration and circulation, as well as the effect of ventilation upon the cutaneous and nervous systems. It required tw T o com- missions on ventilation in this country to solve this problem, and their labors have not yet been completed. 1 Normal or pure air, which is more characteristic of rural than of urban districts, is composed of a mixture of gases, consisting by volume approximately of 20.65 parts of oxygen, 77.11 parts of nitrogen, 0.79 part argon, 0.03 part of carbon dioxide, and 1.4 parts of aqueous vapor. There are traces of other gases which are, how- ever, for our purposes, of slight importance. Changes in the composition of air are produced by the presence of human beings when confined within close quarters, as each person so confined exhales at each breath 4.4 per cent of carbon dioxide, thereby increasing the amount of this gas and diminishing the relative amount of oxygen present. At the same time moisture and heat are eliminated from the lungs and skin, thereby increasing respectively the humidity and the temperature. In this manner odors and bacteria are exhaled into the air. the combination producing the so-called “ crowd air." Changes in air, due to combustion, are produced by heating and illuminating devices, such as the different sorts of gas and oil lamps and stoves. Old ideas of ventilation were based principally on the carbon dioxide content of the air, and were proposed by Pettenkoffer. Some of our text books to-day continue to publish methods of testing for the amount of carbon dioxide present and give as the upper limit .06 per cent as the standard for good health, and an increase ovei that of from four to ten per cent as the beginning of the danger point. 1 At each expiration the amount of oxygei exhaled is about 16 per cent of the expired air, the differ ence between the 21 per cent of normal air and the i( per cent mentioned having been taken up by the htemo 1 See Reports of New York Commission on Ventilation, American Journal Public Health, February, 1914. 204 THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS 205 globin of the blood. Yet vitiation due to an increase of C 0 2 and the decrease of oxygen has been proved of minor importance. 1 Odors. — Odors which emanate from persons are the result of organic matter passed off in vapor from the lungs, mouth, skin, and cavities of the body. These odors, prevalent in “ crowd air,” are unpleasant and at times nauseating but, ac- cording to Winslow, have never proved injurious. 1 They bear about the same relation to health, as far as danger is concerned, as sewer gases which were once believed to be so menacing. Temperature. — Tem- perature varies according to climate, altitude, seasons, etc., but the body heat remains about the same, 98.4 degrees Fahrenheit. People adjust their diet, clothing, housing and exer- cise to these conditions. The temperature of a room should not exceed 70 de- grees Fahrenheit, prefer- ably 68 degrees. When a confined space is overheated it produces vaso-motor dis- turbances in the peripheral circulation of the skin of the occupant, which gives relief to the body heat radi- ation. As Haldane 2 and Winslow 1 state, too high a temperature is injurious to health if maintained, as it lowers efficiency, causes fatigue, lassitude, and anaemia, decreases metabolism, and produces a pre- disposition to acute and chronic diseases. These condi- tions are intensified when a high relative humidity is also present. Every schoolroom should have an ac- curate thermometer suspended about two and one-half feet from the floor in the middle of the room, and not near a heating device. The use of a thermostat for regulating heating appliances is ideal for main- taining a uniform artificial heat to comply with the above standards. Humidity. — Humidity is a great factor in the ques- tion of confined air and the subject of ventilation. An excess humidity exerts the same influence upon the vaso-motor cutaneous system as excessive temperature. We are familiar with the experience of depressing hot days when the atmosphere is filled with moisture and our clothing feels “ sticky.” This condition illustrates how the internal heat, in its attempt to radiate from the body, brings into play the activity of the sweat glands of the skin, producing perspiration which, under ordi- nary circumstances, evaporates and reduces the body temperature. When the temperature of the atmosphere is raised, the amount of moisture contained in it increases and it may become saturated. In overheated rooms, when the air is exces- sively dry, we note how the moisture is extracted, particularly from our noses. Thus, in a short time, the mucous mem- branes become dry, and in the attempt to over- come this condition a congestion is experi- enced, which easily de- velops an infection and a cold in the head may be the result. The wet-bulb psychro- meter is an instrument every school should pos- sess for determining the temperature and relative humidity of the room. When the dry bulb ther- mometer is at 68 degrees, the wet bulb should register not more than 66 degrees. Authorities have stated that the minimum amount of humidity should be 35 per cent and that the desirable per- centage of relative humidity should range between 40 and 60 per cent. Increased temperature with a relatively high humidity is unhygienic. If maintained it causes depression and fatigue, decrease of resistance and metabolism, thereby predisposing its occupants to acute and chronic diseases. Moisture may be imparted to the air by exposing pans of water on radiators, or by a humidifier which exposes to the air, as it passes through the registers, a surface of cotton wicking communicating with the reservoir of water. Fig. 180. — Sling Psychrometf.r. Fig. 181. — Wet Bulb Psychrometer. 1 See E. A. Winslow : Scientific Basis for Ventilation Standards. 2 Haldane, Second Report of Departmental Committee on Humidity and Ventilation in Cotton Weaving Sheds. 206 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Air Currents. — These are undoubtedly of the greatest importance in the matter of ventilation, as they keep the air in motion, thereby preventing its stagnation about our bodies. They play an important role in the peripheral circulation of the skin by causing evaporation of the moisture from its surface. Every one has experi- enced how refreshing it feels to leave a close or warm room for a breath of outdoor fresh air. It awakens our in- tellects by relieving and regulating the heat mechanism of our bodies by producing radiation and evaporation from the skin. In a room overheated by steam radiators, the air soon becomes scorched and is usually stagnant. When air currents are colder than the air that sur- rounds our body we experience a draft which is not felt in the open. In the mechanical or natural methods of ventilation the air movement when delivered three and one-half feet a second produces a draft. As the surface vessels contract, the blood is sent internally and radiation is reduced to a minimum. That drafts cause “ colds ” is a worn-out theory, although with persons who coddle themselves and live sedentary lives indoors, a draft may impinge upon a small area of the body and produce an effect upon .the vascular system which, being unable to adjust itself, reacts and produces a congestion, as for example in the nose or muscles. School children should be well exercised, taught the value of cold baths, fresh air, less clothing than usual and proper food. Under such conditions the vaso- motor system will react automatically and the danger of drafts will be obviated. To sum up the question, as Professor Lees tersely expresses it, “ It is not a chemical but a physical, and not a pulmonary but a cutaneous problem.” People who are always “catching colds ” from fresh air or drafts do not require more clothing, or warmer houses, but a doctor to determine whether an infected tonsil, bad teeth, or other local infection is not responsible for the trouble. Bacteria. — Bacteria are found in larger numbers in ill- than in well-ventilated rooms, but the danger of infection from these is practically nil. 1 When persons are infected it usually results from coming into contact with the exhalations of a diseased person through coughing and sneezing. Moisture is disseminated in the air with disease germs. This is known as the “ droplet ” method of infection, and is by far the greatest factor in producing respiratory diseases, such as colds, measles, tonsillitis, etc., etc. Noxious irritating gases and smoke play an impor- tant role in the question of ventilation in industrial hygiene, but the small amount of chalk and floor dust of a schoolroom hardly plays any role as a factor in ill health. Ready methods of detection which are always at hand to determine when a confined space is not properly ventilated are afforded by the presence of odors, yawning, headache, and even nausea. External ventila- tion is important and should always be considered when selecting a site for a school building. There should be large grounds, bordering on streets or parks, at a sufficient distance from tall buildings, smoke stacks, and factories. To summarize, ventilation must comply with the following requirements : 1. An interchange of pure air from without to dilute the products of respiration and vitiation. 2. The maintenance of a proper temperature, of from 65 to 68 degrees Fahrenheit. 3. A supply of the proper percentage of humidity, which is considered to be be- tween 50 and 65 per cent. 4. A gentle motion of the air is essential. 5. Freedom from dust, odors, bacteria, and gases. 6. Removal of the products of combus- tion. The most satisfactory method for the ven- tilation of schoolrooms is by means of open windows. The ideal method is by cross ventilation, which affords motion and inter- change of pure air. In some of our old text books 4 we find ‘reference made to th e use of window boards, window pane ventilators, and other devices to retail the air. Such methods are entirely inadequate. If the air from without is too cold, artificial heat delivered from within should counterbalance this discomfort, a principle always observed in open air schools and hospitals. The thermometer and thermostat to regulate temperature, the psychrometer to determine the humidity, and the anemometer to measure the air currents should be familiar instruments in every school. Every teacher should be taught to understand their use properly, as well as the principles of heating and ventilation. When mechanical heating and ventilating devices are installed, as explained in another chapter, the accepted standards must conform to certain require- ments. It is universally conceded that an adult requires from 1800 to 2400 cubic feet of fresh air hourly. The minimum amount of air entering the room for each person should be not less than 30 cubic feet per minute. The air enters the vent which has deflectors pointing upward. These are located eight feet from the floor and ANEMOMETER- Fig. 182. 1 Winslow and Klieger. THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS 207 measure approximately two feet square, with a slightly larger outlet near the floor. Such an opening is sufficient to take care of the modern school room of forty pupils, permitting a velocity of air entering as measured by the anemometer of from 350 to 400 feet every minute. The ducts to each room of forty pupils should be at least four square feet in cross section, so as to keep the velocity within them down below 400 feet per minute. To deter- mine air circulation an anemometer is moved over slowly the area of the vent, and is timed by a watch while the velocity of the air entering is read on the dial. The determination is finally made by multiplying the reading by the number of square feet in the opening for sixty seconds. This should equal the quantity entering and be then divided by the number of pupils, giving the amount for each person. For example, three hundred feet times four feet equals twelve hundred feet, divided by forty pupils equals thirty cubic feet per minute. High temperature, imperfect humidity, motionless air in rooms where the occupants are physically inactive are the factors which are responsible for vitiated atmo- sphere. This is a school problem of great importance and magnitude, for it is reasonable to presume that a child in such an atmosphere is dull and nervous and, in consequence, robbed of his power of concentration. Window ventilation is, after all, the easiest and best method of flushing a room with pure air, and is far superior to any mechanical heating or ventilating con- trivance which supplies “ canned air.” The New York Health Department after careful investigation found that in classrooms with closed windows and ventilated with mechanical methods, children were more subject to respiratory diseases than were children in classrooms kept at the same or lower temperature and ventilated wholly by open windows. 1 Dust. — Dust as a factor in aerial infections in school- rooms is practically nil, as has been proven by experi- ments. Probably the only pathogenic organisms likely to be transmitted are pus cocci and tuberculosis. Most of the communicable diseases are transmitted, as already stated, by infected persons, carriers, and convalescents, whose exhalations from coughing and sneezing spray into a small zone about their bodies small droplets carrying disease organisms which, when inhaled by another, produce disease in him or her. It may be relied upon that this is the usual course of infection and by direct contact, as from a common drinking cup, and not from chalkdust or dirty floors. In this age of hardwood floors or battleship linoleum coverings, school floors can easily be kept clean by pneumatic sweepers, oil mops or brush brooms. When the latter is used, a small amount of sawdust, previously 1 New York Board of Health Report. moistened and sprinkled over the floor area, will elimi- nate the dust hazard. Here may be given an instance of the benefit of the filtering of large volumes of air introduced into a building when mechanical ventila- tion is installed. The air is drawn into and through a system of cotton bags about thirty feet in length in which the dirt and dust are retained. About a peck a month is thus collected and consists principally of organic and inorganic matter found in all street dust. Heating. — - While it is true that a proper heating and ventilating system, installed by a scientific engineer, is capable of delivering any temperature, humidity, air volume, and movement desired, yet in practice, due to the ignorance of the custodians who are supposed to operate these contrivances, the final results have not been satisfactory. With such a record of failure the old tried-out system of open windows, combined with radiators, and known as the direct system, has been found to be the most satisfactory, even though it cannot be said to be perfect. The problems confronted by the engineer in arti- ficial heating and ventilation are many. First he must take into consideration the three hundred heat units and one and one- third ounces of water each pupil elimi- nates per hour. Then there is the question of the ex- change of fresh air, amounting to thirty cubic feet per minute, determined as necessary to relieve each pupil of the heat envelope which surrounds his body. The ques- tions of heat, drafts, odors, dust, humidification, air cool- ing and washing, as well as the economic factors of labor, fuel, water, fan power, installations, etc., are to be studied. It is the consensus of opinion that the most efficient and economical method of supplying and ex- hausting the air required by school buildings is by the use of fans. Kimball states : “With the vapor, atmospheric, modulating, and vacuum systems the use of the intermediate acting thermostat is most desirable, because it regulates the supply of steam to the radiators and the movements of the mixing dampers in a graduated manner in accordance with the demands for heating. Thus in mild weather but little steam is admitted to the radiators, and the position of the mixing damper is changed but slightly, with more steam being admitted to the radiators and a greater change in position of the mixing damper occurring as the outside tempera- ture becomes lower, the full quantity of steam being admitted to the radiator during extremely cold weather only. Such a method goes far towards eliminating the overheating of the room and discomfiture of the pupils sitting near the radiators . 2 Heating is a question which goes hand in hand with ventilation and is discussed under Chapter XXV. The purpose of this statement is not to ascribe merit to one system or to another, for as yet, in the writer’s opinion, 2 Kimball : Heating and V entilating' of High Schools , Bruce Publishing Co., 1919. 208 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE the ideal heating and ventilating systems have been not passing through clean glass loses four per cent, and perfected. through soiled glass, from thirty to seventy per cent of Lighting. — Sunshine destroys bacteria. It adds cheer- its intensity . 1 fulness and comfort to the room and automatically The chapter on classrooms contains a comprehensive encourages cleanliness. While it is true that natural discussion of the size of classrooms for the elementary, light is not always uniform, on account of the changing junior, and regular high schools. The proper ceiling seasons of the year, architects and hygienists are in heights are also shown diagrammatically for rooms of accord in stating that the ratio of window space to different widths in order to obtain the most favorable floor surface should be at least one square foot of glass lighting for all the desk tops. From the data presented to five of floor space. The modern schoolroom, to be in that chapter it is evident that to establish arbitrarily sizes of classrooms, without taking into consideration other facts, is like prescribing a cure-all for special cases. For instance, besides knowing the number of pupils that are to occupy the room, it is necessary also to know the number of rows of desks that are to form the seating arrangement, also the grade of the school. School authorities should take into consideration the scientific facts now at hand for school building. For it is a physical and economic waste to make classrooms all of the same size. The following sizes are given for classrooms which will give the best conditions for lighting, hearing, and vision : A. Elementary schools, grades I to VI inclusive. Classrooms of five rows of desks (in the width) and of 40 pupils, width 20' o", length 30' o", height 12' o". B. Elementary schools, grades I to VIII inclusive, classrooms of five rows of desks and 40 pupils, width 21' o", length 31' 6", height 13' o". C. Junior high schools, grades VII to IX inclusive, classrooms of five rows of desks and 35 pupils, width 22' o", length 30' o", height 13' o". D. Junior high schools for classrooms of six rows and 36 pupils, width 25' o", length 27' o", height 14' o". E. High schools, classrooms of five rows and 30 pupils, width 22' o", length 27' o", height 13' o". F. High schools, classrooms of six rows and 30 pupils, width 25' o", length 25' o", height 14' o". (The above measurements do not include space for wardrobes.) The walls of the schoolroom should receive careful attention, not only for the purpose of adding cheerful- ness to the room where the acquisition of knowledge evenly lighted, should have a battery of windows, pref- and ideals is to be encouraged, but also to make the atmos- erably on one side of the room, so arranged that the phere healthful and restful and to add warmth and light top of the window reaches within six inches of the to the surroundings. The tints that harmonize with ceiling, and, with a ratio of glass to floor space as above most woods are the soft tones of buff, yellow, and stated, adequate illumination is secured. East, south- orange, which improve the lighting effects without east, west, and northern exposures afford the best light- causing glare and the resultant eye strain. The color ing effects. The seating capacity should be arranged of the ceilings should usually be of a lighter tint, which so that the rays of light pass over the left shoulder of will reflect the greatest amount of soft light. On bright the pupil, thus overcoming cross shadows and conse- days the use of shades becomes necessary to eliminate quent eye strain. To maintain uniform illumination the glare. The best shades are Venetian blinds or the other factors must also be considered. Tall buildings, roller translucent shades of an ecru color, trees, and smoke from chimneys intercept light. The Desks. — - How very little attention is given to the same is true of dirty windows, as it is known that light place where the growing child is confined for several 1 Geyser : Loss of Light. C O R_ Ik. 1 D O fL PUN SHOWING FORMATION OF TYE, - STRAIN - PRTVUTIVE, - DRSICS AND SUTS AS APPLIED TO A TYPICAL CLASS RIM. ' 5 c 1 Ll . UtVATiON Of TYL-STUIN - PJU,VE,NTIVt‘ DRSICS & SLATS S C « L L, INVLNTtD BY JOHN J. DONOVAN - ARCHITECT OAK.LAND- • CALIfOLNIA PROTECTED &Y THE, PATENT , uws Fig. 183. THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS 209 hours each day ! It is a matter that should concern all interested in health and education, if they wish to pre- vent eye strain and postural defects. The question of first importance is to provide adjustable desks, so that the desk and seat fit the child, and not attempt the opposite. At each school term the duty of the teacher should be to assign each pupil to a perfectly adjusted seat and desk. Hygienic requirements for a proper adjustable desk are as follows : the top of the desk should be on an incl'ne of not more than fifteen degrees and about fifteen C O Y L t D O (L PLAN SHOWING FORJAATION Of •EYE-STRAIN -PREVENTIVE' MOVABLE CHAIR. DESIOS AS APPLIED TO A TYPICAL CLASS ROOM o , s c A *• A. LLLVATION Of ’LYE, -STRAIN - PREVENTIVE' MOVABLE CHAIR. DE,SRS scut INVENTED BY JOHN J DONOVAN - ARCHITECT OAK-LAND • CALITOR.NI 1 HCT£,CT£,D M THE, PATE.N T LAWS Fig. 184. The seat when adjusted to the child forms a right angle of the thigh with the legs, the pelvis resting slightly backward in a concave seat to keep the pupil from sliding forward while the feet are being wholly supported on the floor. To overcome fatigue the seat should have a back reaching below the child’s shoulder blades and arranged to support the small of the back. The author of this book has invented an adjustable rhomboidal form of desk with certain orig’nal features which enables /Z1ZZZZZZZZZ2Z2Z7/ /ZZZEZZ/7777777^ DJBjBjmiiiih] tmmjmjmxa Ejumjifljmj D C O R. A I D O A PLAN SHOWING FORMATION OF 'EYE • STRAIN • PREVENTIVE" DESKS AND SEATS AS APPLIED TO A TYPICAL CLASS ROOM. sent ADJUSTABLE ELEVATION OF “EYE- STRAIN • PREVENTIVE" DESKS & SEATS J C A. L E ^ INVENTED BY JOHN J. DONOVAN • ARC •OAKLAND • CALIFORNIA- ■PP.OTECTED BY THE. PATENT l,kWS Fig. 185. inches from the eye. This allows sufficient slope for a proper posture for vertical writing and permits the eye to fall nearly perpendicularly upon the printed page. The light should be over the left shoulder, as has been already stated. Desk tops should be free from unnecessary gloss and should overhang the front of the seat from one to two inches. The height of the desk should be sufficient to allow the forearm to rest comfortably without much resting on the elbows, so that the scholar will not be required to bend down to write. When the desk is too high, the arm is raised, tending to produce a lateral curvature of the spine known as scoliosis. When the desk is too low the shoulders are stooped. The distance between the back of the seat and the edge of the desk should permit sufficient room not to press the abdomen. the pupils to sit at a pronounced angle removed from the glare of the window lighting and, at the same time, permits a more direct view of the teacher and obviates the turning of the pupil’s head or the change of his position. Plumbing. — In our city schools, where running water and sewerage facilities are available, this subject should be given attention. It is a maxim that the best is the cheapest. The so-called sanitary plumbing is controlled and inspected by the authorities as to drain- age, traps, vents, etc., but the placing of the fixtures, whether they be installed in the basement or on the different floors, is a matter which should be given some consideration. 210 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE The better method is to distribute the toilets on the different floors, especially if the building is of more than two stories. The division should in general be according to the following order, five-eighths of the total number on the ground floor, and the remaining three- eighths distributed on the floors above. The ground floor toilet rooms should be adjacent to the playrooms and directly accessible to the play yards. It is obvious that the greater number of toilets should be installed on the ground floor, as the pupils in the elementary schools are marched to the ground floor at the end of each session, and it is at this time that the greatest necessity for toilet service is reached. It is just as obvious that pupils should not be compelled to walk Fig. 186. — Protected Type of Drinking Fountain down and up two or three flights of stairs during class hours in order to use the toilet rooms. Therefore each floor should have its toilet rooms for boys and for girls. Toilet rooms should be of hard plaster or tiled walls, and the floors made of asphalt, tile, terrazza, or some other impervious material. The important necessity in arranging toilet rooms is to have outside screened window ventilation and to keep them dry and clean. They too should be built of impervious materials. The number of toilets required by girls should be in the proportion of one for every twenty, while for boys one in twenty-five is all that is required. 1 The danger of infection from toilet seats in schools is practically nil, but this fact should not be made an excuse for not clean- ing them frequently. There are many so-called disinfec- tants on the market, which claim to destroy all kinds of germs, but their only merit is their deodorizing power. All toilet rooms should be mechanically ventilated by allowing fresh air to enter through , the open windows and the foul air to be removed through a raised vent in back of the water closet fixture. The back vent has an area of about eleven square inches and protrudes into the utility chamber back of the fixtures. Con- nected with the chamber there is usually an under- ground duct leading to a suction fan which draws the air from the toilet rooms and expels it into the open air above the roof. This ventilation is also extended to the urinals by connecting 3" vent pipe to the urinal waste just above the trap and projecting it 6" above the floor of the utility chamber. This chamber is likewise con- nected to the exhaust fan. By this means of exhaust ventilation the movement of the air of the toilet room is always downwards and through the fixtures. The sys- tem is fully illustrated in the chapter on plumbing. It should be noted, however, that very often custodians of schools will shut down the fans in order to save a slight expense in their operation. This should not be tolerated, as it endangers health merely for a small saving in money. In the boys’ toilet room upright urinals, con- cave, of vitreous china, with the drain at the floor and having an automatic flush, are the most sanitary. The number installed should be one for each twenty-five boys. The urinals should be scrubbed daily with brushes and can be de- odorized with a Solution of chlorinated lime or of creolin, in the proportion of four ounces of the chemical to a gallon of water. The number of lavatories should be about one to every fifty pupils. They should be equipped with a water-pressure closing valve. This oper- ates by pressing downward a lever, and as the flow of water can be regulated to run from ten seconds to a longer period it enables the child to cleanse his hands without having to touch the metal a second time. When the old roller towel and the common drinking cup, the two evils responsible for most disease dissemi- nation among school children, were legally condemned in most states, it became necessary to devise sanitary substitutes. Even the first sanitary drinking fountain had to undergo changes on account of epidemics being traced to its faulty construction. In the first designs that were invented, the nozzles were not protected, and the consumer touched his lips to the same, thereby making possible the infection of the water supply, as borne out by investigations recently conducted at the University of Minnesota. 2 Figure No. 186 shows the protected type of drinking fountain nozzle. The water flows in the form of an arc from which the consumer drinks without contaminating it. This type of drinking fountain illustrates the most sanitary drinking fixture on the market. The number of drinking fountains should be appor- tioned about as follows : for schools of more than five 1 Rules: Minnesota Department of Education, School Buildings, 1918 2 U. S. Public Health Reports. THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS 211 hundred pupils there should be placed in the playrooms and play yards one for about every seventy pupils, and, for schools of less than five hundred pupils, the ratio should be materially increased. In addition to those for the playrooms and play yards there should be two separate fountains of single jets placed in the corridors of each floor of the building. This will be more conven- ient and save time on the part of the pupils and will benefit the discipline of the school. It is a good plan to have these isolated fountains connected to wet fire standpipes as indicators of the conditions of these lines for immediate service. Fig. 187. — Boy Drinking from Unprotected Type of Drinking Fountain. Open-air Schools. — Since the open-air school move- ment was first started at Providence, R. I., in 1908, and the successful promotion and standardization of these methods by the McCormick Memorial Fund at Chicago, it has progressed beyond the realm of the faddist. These schools have been organized all over the country, irrespective of climatic conditions. The aim of the open-air school was primarily to educate, in the fresh air, children who were weak or diseased. Thus cases of bone and pulmonary tuberculosis, glandular enlargements, cardiac diseases, debilitated and anaemic, as well as underfed, children were treated. Every new schoolhouse should have at least one room built especially for an open-air class. This classroom should be located so as to possess a southern and an eastern exposure and should be provided with casement windows which admit the maximum amount of fresh air and sunshine. A room originally built for this purpose has advantages over roof classrooms, on account of the provision afforded against inclement weather. The temperature of these rooms should never be per- mitted to rise above fifty degrees Fahrenheit, provided the outdoor temperature is below this. Much lower temperature can be tolerated by children, provided winds are controlled by partially closing them out, as occasion demands. Steam radiators offer the ideal method of heating when the temperature is very low. At the McCormick Open Air School Esquimaux suits and Fig. 188. — Boy Drinking from a Protected Type of Drinking Fountain. sleeping bags form a part of each child’s equipment for keeping warm. The next factor in the success- ful care of this class, of children is to provide in an adjoining room facilities for preparing nourishment. Such a room may serve also as a laboratory for do- mestic science classes, and may develop into an im- portant feature for the promotion of the “ penny lunch ” movement which is gaining advocates in our largest cities. Lunches can be provided here as well as the ten and three o’clock extra feedings. The classroom may be used as a rest room at the period between eleven and twelve by providing the necessary folding cots and blankets. In many of our larger cities a special room is set aside for this purpose. As fatigue must be over- come, the rest period is essential for success. The 212 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Fig. 189. — Open Air Classroom, Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School, Palo Alto, California. staff consists of a teacher, school nurse, maid, and the visiting doctor. Not more than twenty-five pupils should be entered in each class. The teacher should be thoroughly in sympathy with the movement and possess a special knowledge of hygiene and physical education. The resident nurse records daily tem- perature, takes measurements and weight, and inspects for disease, cleanliness, and proper clothing. She also visits the homes of her pupils, instructs the parents, follows up cases and recommends for operations and treatment. The medical inspector makes periodical physical examinations, recommends and informs parents of the necessity of remedying defective teeth, enlarged tonsils, and adenoids. The benefits of the open-air school from an educational standpoint are that these children progress more rapidly and their attendance and deportment are better. The physical results are that their nutrition and weight improves, the haemoglobin scale advances, arrested cases of tuberculosis have no relapses, and the nervous and cardiac cases improve markedly. Such a record of success should make it compulsory for each school to possess one or more of these open-air classrooms. Figure 191 shows an economical arrangement for an open-air suite which is applicable to any school building. This is arranged so that two classes may be maintained — one studying while the other is reclining, and alter- nating in the use of the room. The wardrobe off room A is for girls, with its shower and toilet facilities and a storage space for lockers containing the sleeping bags and clothing. Similarly the wardrobe off room B is for the boys. It should be noted that such a plan, if adopted, should be placed on the top floor of the build- ing. This scheme will provide for the two classes without any great additional cost over that of two regular class- rooms. Health and Safety Welfare. — The necessity of safe- guarding the health and well-being of our children should be indelibly impressed upon the minds of the public servants of the people. If every teacher and every custodian of our schools had had a course in school and child hygiene they would automatically develop Mr. Wm. Templeton J ofinson. Architect. Fig. 190. — Open Air Classroom, Francis W. Parker Elementary School, San Diego, California. into custodians of the public health. We desire that our children shall learn the fundamental laws of personal health and practice them while in school, for it is at this impressionable age that their ideas become deeply ingrained, and they will not later tolerate inadequate facilities in their homes or workshops. Every teacher should be a diagnostician of health. When a child deviates from the normal he should become a suspect of disease. With such a knowledge, how easy it is to suppress an epidemic by sending a suspected child home before it has had an opportunity to infect others. It should be the teacher’s duty to observe 1 whether a child is becoming blind for want of proper glasses or deaf on account of adenoids or enlarged tonsils. Many a defect taken in time has been thus remedied easily, and cases of communicable disease discovered and isolated. The employment of a school doctor, dentist, and nurse is an economic asset to every school community. When the state by authority is given the right to compel attendance at school, it also has the added duty and responsibility of insisting that no harm shall come to those who go there. By the assumption of this responsibility practical health super- vision will have been accomplished. In Chapter I, “ Sites and Grounds,” it is pointed out that the intermediate or junior high school should be the center of an area containing a number of elementary schools. Geographically this is the proper place to locate the general school clinic, as shown in figure 192. For it would then serve the maximum number of children most conveniently. The central clinics should care for the medical needs of about fifteen or eighteen schools of a total enrollment of about nine to twelve thousand pupils. Accordingly, in a city of two hundred thousand population and having a school enrollment of about thirty thousand, there should be two or three such clinics. •PLAN OF AN OPtfl Allb CLASS ROOM- UNIT • • V 1E,W OF LOCKlLS- ii-Q PU3L1C SCHOOL CLINIC- w ///////, 2l6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE jr ‘ js— h ~ — " Fig. 193. — University of California’s Dental Clinic. The purpose of the school clinic is to make physical examination of the school children of the district, to protect the healthy from the unhealthy, thereby pre- venting communicable diseases, to discover eye strain, deafness, defective teeth, diseased tonsils, and adenoids, and to recommend to the parents measures for their relief. Often by such examination incipient tuberculosis, anaemia, malnutrition and cardiac cases, which have been overlooked by the parents or the family physician, are noticed, and by proper treatment and open-air schools a future citizen is saved for the state. Mental defec- tives and stammerers also are thus located and assigned to special classes. All children after convalescing from an infectious disease, before being allowed to return to school, could be “ cleared ” or granted permits from the clinic. By cooperating with the Board of Health communicable diseases would be reported and epidemics controlled or prevented. It is surprising how many cases of myopia, squint, and infectious eye diseases are discovered upon periodical medical examinations. Such children are usually behind in their class work and would suffer im- paired vision or lose it for want of glasses and proper treatment. The same is true of discharging ears, leading to deafness, enlarged glands, defective mouths and speech, and focal infections, the results of diseased teeth, tonsils, and adenoids. Many of our large cities have free dental clinics for school children, given by philan- thropists, notably the Forsyth at Boston, Massachu- setts. The plan for a model public school clinic, as shown above, may be arranged to suit the conditions of the school site. It may be annexed to the main building or be located on the ground floor or in a special build- ing. The pupil enters at one end of the clinic and applies at the office for assignment, and then waits his or her turn in the waiting room. The records of all the pupils of the districts are kept in the office ; a spot map hangs on the wall showing the various squares of the city, with colored pins inserted to indicate such prevalent contagious diseases as are daily reported by the health officer. The nurses’ room off the corridor THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS 217 is for their private use. Here the district school and duty nurse reports and receives orders. Adjoining is a room where nurses may conduct special examinations or use for any other purpose deemed advisable. The eye clinic, which is used for testing the hearing as well as the eyes, is arranged with floor markings of one to twenty feet from the Snellen test card, affording a rapid and accurate means of recording vision. The normal vision, being twenty feet from the card, reads 20/ 2oths, while a child standing on the ten-foot mark, and able to see clearly the lines of letters, would have 10/ 2oths, or half vision. For hearing, the examiner may use the same floor scale. The child stands twenty feet away, one ear turned directly toward the examiner, the other ear having been stopped up so as to admit no sound. The examiner whispers in an audible tone of voice. If the child hears at this distance of twenty feet, his hearing is normal and is recorded as 20/ 2oths. If unable to hear what is said, he moves nearer until able to distinguish the words spoken, and his hearing is recorded at that distance, as, for example, i6/2oths. A dark room for special eye cases is off the clinic. The testing rooms may be used also for vaccinations, examining for vermin, prevalent infectious diseases, or as a small classroom for hygiene talks and conferences. No school clinic is complete without a dental depart- ment for the examination and care of the teeth. Accord- ing to Gulick and Ayers from 80 per cent to 96 per cent of school children require dental attention. 1 The Uni- versity of California installed two chairs with complete outfits, costing about $1600, and engaged two full time dental surgeons who keep the hours completely filled during visiting periods. 2 The school doctor has his private room for special examinations and conferences with parents, also an op- erating room with the special rooms necessary for high- class work, such as a laboratory, and anesthesia rooms adjoining it. The operating room is for the purpose of administrating first aids, for vaccination dressings, and for tonsil and adenoid operations. A rest room containing a few beds for emergency cases, waiting to be sent home for the family physician to attend, or for cases of fainting or minor injuries, as well as for tonsil operation patients, is also provided. The modern school built to-day must be planned to remain modern to-morrow, as we all agree that grandfather’s school was never built to furnish the curriculum and appurtenances of modern health and education. BIBLIOGRAPHY I. See Reports of the New York Commission on Ventila- tion ; American Journal Public Health , February, I9i5- II. E. A. Winslow: Scientific Basis for Ventilation Standards. III. Haldane: Second Report of Departmental Committee on Humidity and Ventilation in Cotton Weaving Sheds. IV. Winslow and Klieger : American Public Health Journal, 1912. V. Canned Air versus Fresh Air. Bulletin New York Depart- ment of Health, March 9, 1918. VI. Kimball: Heating and Ventilating of High Schools. VII. Geyser: Loss of Light. VIII. Rules : Minnesota Department of Education, School Buildings, 1918. IX. LTnited States Public Health Reports, Drinking Fountains. X. Gulick and Ayers : Medical Inspection of Schools. XI. Robert T. Legge : Students' Health and Insurance at the University of California. Gulick and Ayers, Medical Inspection of Schools. - Health Insurance, University of California, by Robert T. Legge, M.D. CHAPTER X PHYSICAL EDUCATION By Jay B. Nash, A.B., Assistant State Supervisor of Physical Education, California Introduction. Need of Physical Education. History of Physical Education. Rise of the Playground Movement. New Era in Physical Education, 1914-1918. State Laws. Definition and Aims of Physical Education. Periods of Leadership and Instruction in Physical Education. Phases of Physical Education. Physical Education in the Curricu’um. The Physical Education Plant. The Indoor Gymnasium. Room for Corrective Gymnastics. Game Room. Swimming-Pools. Outdoor or Semi-outdoor Gymnasium. The Play Yard. Elementary School. Intermediate School. High School. Introduction. Need of Physical Education. — A number of circumstances have brought out in the past decade the great need for physical education in our public schools. Perhaps the greatest revelation was due to the examinations of men for entrance into the army in our country, as well as in all other countries engaged in the World War of 1914-1918. The following statistics give the number of men rejected for service in the army in one large section of the United States. Total called 3,082,946 Total examined by local boards 2,510,706 Total rejected 730.756 Per cent of those rejected after examination 29.11 Add 5.8 per cent of number sent rejected at cantonments 33.19 Eugene Lyman Fisk, Medical Director of the Life Extension Institute, New York City, writing in the American Medical Association Journal for February 2, 1918, says: “The most superficial analysis shows very clearly that at least sixty per cent of these rejected men owe their impairments either to ignorance or neglect. The man who has a remediable defect and hides behind it is really a slacker, although he may not be conscious of it. Forty per cent of the men be- tween the ages of 21 and 31 are physically unfit. It must be remembered that the majority of these men were not declined because of surgical defects. They need physical training and hygiene and proper diet.” Another evidence of the need for physical education is brought out by Provost Marshal General Crowder, who says : “ Perhaps the most glaring fault noted in aspirants to the Officers’ Reserve Corps and one that might be corrected by proper attention in our high schools, preparatory schools and colleges, might be characterized by the general word ‘ Slouchiness ’ . . . “At military camps throughout the country mental alertness, accuracy in thinking and acting, clearness in enunciation, sureness and ease of carriage and bear- ing must be insisted upon for two reasons — that success may be asserted as nearly as human effort can guarantee it with the material and means at hand, and that price- less human lives may not be criminally sacrificed. Only by the possession of the qualities referred to does one become a natural leader.” 1 Another cause for the rise in the physical education movement has been the rapid development in the use of machinery for all types of work in city and country, together with the movement toward the concentration of our population in large cities. The physical exercise in connection with our daily work has become less and less and the strain which has been put upon the workers by speeded up production has become greater and greater. Use of the small muscles rather than the big muscles in this finer type of work necessitated by greater coordina- tion has been a contributory cause. The results are beginning to show in the effect upon the health and efficiency of our people. The need for vigorous physical activity is being felt by all, and the feeling is growing that these activities must be guided through the school years of a child in order that proper health habits may be established. A concrete example of the strain which modern civilization is placing upon the individual is shown in the heavy increase in nervous diseases in the past decade. This has been accompanied by a very decided decrease in the number of contagious diseases. This seems to be an indication that although we are mastering the diseases that are spread by infection, we are failing to cope with those which are caused by high nervous strain. It would probably be impossible for any one cause to 1 Extracts from letter written by the Adjutant General’s office, Washington, August 28th, 1917. 218 PHYSICAL EDUCATION 219 be assigned for this increase in nervous diseases, but it seems reasonable to assume that the high strain of working long hours indoors under nerve-racking condi- tions, together with the absence of vigorous physical exercise in the open air and proper rest for recuperation, is responsible for part of this situation. A general wave of opinion has swept the country in favor of a thoroughgoing system of physical education for the boys and girls of the elementary and high schools. History of Physical Education. — Physical education in one of its many forms has been evident in the educa- tional system of all the leading peoples. In England it has largely taken the form of a vigorous play and game life among the children, and this has also been evident in the activities of the adults. The majority of the games which children play, and especially those which they continue to use through life, are games which have come to us from our Anglo-Saxon ancestors, for instance, the games of tennis, handball, golf, foot- ball, soccer, lacrosse, cricket. Even baseball in an early form has come down to us through England. Their motto of “ Sport for sport’s sake ” has become axiomatic the world over. The Swedish system of physical education, perhaps the most elaborately worked out system by which large numbers can be handled in limited space, is to-day the basis of a great deal of our established work. The German system of physical education brings us to an entirely new viewpoint in the work. Their sys- tem was largely stimulated by the conditions which were brought out in the Franco-Prussian War. The ob- ject of their work was to develop physical stamina in the young men of the Empire that they might be better able to serve the Fatherland. The work turned rapidly to gymnastics, best illustrated by the work of the Turnvereins. Their work was largely individual, and with the exception of broadswording, dueling and certain types of combative exercises, there was little of the social element manifest. In America as early as 1821 an outdoor gymnasium was established in Salem, Mass. In 1825 Harvard, Yale, Amherst, Williams, and Brown had established gymnasium courses. After this, for a number of decades, the enthusiasm for physical education died down. The next wave of enthusiasm was manifest during the decade following the Civil War. It is said that a school which had for a phase of its activity play and physical education was started in the old First Church of Boston in 1866, and two years later when the church moved to its new home at Copley Square an out- door playground was added near by. Rise of the Playground Movement. — Little progress, however, was made during that decade or the next. The revival of the interest has been closely associated with the rise of the playground movement, which may properly be dated from 1890. During that year a num- ber of small playgrounds were opened and in New York $ 2 5, 000 was set aside for playgrounds. Many associa- tions were taking up the subject of playgrounds, largely from the standpoint of charity, as the play movement was supposed to benefit only the children who were living under slum conditions. The names of Jacob A. Riis, Theodore Roosevelt, and Joseph Lee were closely asso- ciated with the work at this time. With the beginning of the twentieth century new developments took place rapidly. Dr. Luther H. Gulick organized the Public School Athletic League, and leagues of this type were established in many cities. Playground and recreation associations were formed distinct from charitable organizations. Among the notable private organizations should be mentioned the one of Pittsburgh, Pa., which for many years was directed by Geo. E. Johnson. The movement rapidly spread westward and began gradually to take a new form. The private associations gave way to municipal control, and the movement was taken over by one or another of the various city depart- ments. As a rule, it was a department of the park commission, as the park commissions already had con- trol of large areas of open land throughout the cities. This phase of the movement lasted only a few years, as the fast growing work became too complicated for a department of the- park commission. The playground commissions were soon organized as a part of the munic- ipal government, and practically every city in America to-day has in one farm or another a playground or recrea- tion commission which conducts play for children after school and during vacations. New Era in Physical Education of 1914-1918. — With the rise of the present physical education movement, which may be dated from the war of 1914-1918, the next logical step which should be taken is actually being taken, namely, all types of physical education are being taken over by our educational system and made com- pulsory by our public schools. It was necessary to show the community the value of this work exactly as the early church schools showed the community the value of education, but now that the community is convinced of its value the responsibility of the work is properly being assumed by the public schools. There are a number of reasons why this must be so. 1. The school has all the children. Upon a voluntary basis of educa- tion or physical education those who are the most pro- gressive and need it the least will take advantage of the opportunities. The place where the need is greatest is not reached when the work is on a voluntary basis. 220 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 2. The school should have the ground and other facilities necessary for physical education. If the physical activities for the children are centered about the school, it will be unnecessary for a municipality to duplicate ground and equipment. The step that has been taken by a large number of the states in making this work a phase of the school work is the logical step. This does not mean that the playground and recrea- tion associations or commissions have completed their work. The emphasis of their work will be merely shifted from that of the children of the community to the adults of the community, which is a very large and complicated field. State Laws. — Extracts from a number of State laws on this subject are here given : California State Law Senate Bill No. 599 Chapter 668 An act to provide for the organization and supervision of courses in physical education in the elementary, secondary and normal schools of the state, and appropriating ten thousand dollars th;refor. (Approved May 26, 1917.) “ The people of the State of California do enact as follows : “ Section 1. The board of education of each county, city and county, and city, whose duty it is to prescribe the course of study for the elementary schools of such county, city and county, or city, shall prescribe suitable courses of physical education in accordance with the provisions of this act for all pupils enrolled in the day elementary school except pupils who may be excused from such training on account of physical disability ; and the high school board of each high school district shall prescribe suitable courses of physical education in accordance with the provision of this act for all pupils regularly enrolled in the day high schools of such district, except pupils regularly enrolled in high school cadet companies and pupils who may be excused from such courses on account of physical disability. “ Section 2. The aims and purposes of the courses of physical education established under the provisions of this act shall be as follows: (1) To develop organic vigor, provide neuro-muscuiar training, promote bodily and mental poise, correct postural defects, secure the more advanced forms of coordination, strength and endurance, and to promote such desirable moral and social qualities as appreciation of the value of cooperation, self-subordination and obedience to authority, and higher ideals, courage and wholesome interest in truly recreational activities ; (2) to promote a hygienic school and home life, secure scientific supervision of the sanita- tion of school buildings, playgrounds and athletic fields, and the equipment thereof. “ Section 3. It shall be the duty of the superintendent of schools of every county, city and county, or city and of every board of education, board of school trustees, or high school board, to enforce the courses of physical education prescribed by the proper authority, and to require that such physical education be given in the schools under their jurisdiction or control. All pupils enrolled in the elementary schools, except pupils excused therefrom in accordance with the provisions of this act, shall be required to attend upon such courses of physical education during periods which shall average twenty minutes in each school day, and all pupils en- rolled in the secondary schools, except pupils excused therefrom in accordance with the provisions of this act, shall be required to attend upon such courses of physical education for at least two hours each week that school is in session. . . .” State Law of New York Chapter 567 AN ACT to amend the education law, in relation to courses of instruction in physical training and discipline in the schools of the state. Article 26-A Discipline and Physical Training. “ After the first day of September, nineteen hundred and sixteen, all male and female pupils above the age of eight years in all elementary schools shall receive as part of the prescribed courses of instruction therein such physical training as the regents after conference with the military training commission may determine, during periods which shall average at least twenty minutes in each school day. “ Similar courses of instruction shall be prescribed and maintained in private schools in the state, and all pupils in such schools over eight years of age shall attend upon such courses ; and if such courses are not so established and maintained in any private school, attendance upon instruction in such school shall not be deemed substan- tially equivalent to instruction given to children of like ages in the public school or schools of the city or district in which the child resides.” State Aid for Teachers Employed. — “The commis- sioner of education, in the annual apportionment of state school moneys, shall apportion therefrom to each city and school district on account of courses of instruc- tion as provided in this article, established and main- tained in the schools of such city or district during the school year or any part thereof, a sum equal to one-half of the salary paid to each teacher on account of instruc- tion given in such courses, but the entire amount appor- tioned on account of a single teacher during a school year shall not exceed six hundred dollars.” PHYSICAL EDUCATION 221 Many other states have enacted laws, and national legislation will soon follow. Definition and Aims of Physical Education. — - “ Physical education is that phase of education con- cerned with the functions of big muscle activities and related factors which control the growth and develop- ment of the child and the physical efficiency of the adult. Related factors mean behavior or habits in- fluencing diet, sleep, rest, oxidation, elimination, tem- perature regulation, mental moods, etc. In order that development may be secured there must be protection from handicapping growth divergencies, devitalizing drains, infection, poisons, etc. And in the educational process the individual must come finally to control his own efficiency. Therefore, physical education is inter- preted to cover (i) the facilities and organizations necessary for physical training activities, activity being the only constructive factor in developing power ; (2) the control of growth handicaps, the preventive and correc- tive factor in growth and development ; and (3) the teaching of efficient living, the self-directing factor, i.e., the gradual establishment, largely indirectly, but finally directly, of an ideal of self-engineering for efficient living. “ The special aims of physical education are deter- mined primarily by the functional or developmental effects of the activities with which physical education is concerned. Physical training activities are (1) the only activities that develop the latent organic powers, or the vitality and the nervous capacity to stand the wear and tear of strenuous living ; (2) the only ac- tivities that develop the fundamental psychomotor strengths and skills and mental responses ; and (3) the activities that most profoundly exercise the deeper in- stincts and emotions which lie at the foundation of character. The leadership of these activities offers great opportunity for influence in character training and in the development of many fundamental phases of adjustment for citizenship. These are the primary aims in physical education. They are related to other phases of education as the foundation to the super- structure.” 1 Periods of Leadership and Instruction in Physical Education. Classification of Periods. (Under School Year Conditions.) a. Supervised Play period. (Synonyms : directed play period ; athletic period ; “ recreation ” period.) b. Instructional period. c. Between-class relief period. , d. Special corrective period. Relationships between the Periods. — a. These periods are all physical training periods ; all are exercise periods ; all are periods requiring leadership. They are designed to meet the physical needs of children under the condi- tions and demands of the modern school organization. The distinctions and relationships between the periods are not intended to be arbitrary or inflexible. Condi- tions may alter these relationships and distinctions. In general, the descriptions below will hold true. The Supervised Play Period. ( Athletic period.) — This period represents the broader organization of physical training activities necessary for the development of organic power and nervous vigor, and for character training, but the time consumed bulks so large that it is impossible usually to organize it entirely within the regular school hours. It covers at least a part of the time before school, during recess, after school, Satur- days and holidays. Therefore this period represents an extension of the educational influences of the school into the outdoor play life of the child ; his “ free time.” It is the period for the broadest leadership, coaching and training in the highest sense, and the systematic-inci- dental instruction in right living. The school should organize enough of this “ free ” time to establish play habits and ideals which will function in the play life away from the school’s organizing influence. Present- day social conditions influencing child life and education demand that the school shall organize this period in self-defense, because : a. The influences of the unsupervised play life of the child are balking the school and society in their edu- cational efforts. b. The unsupervised play of children at home and in the home neighborhood under present-day social con- ditions is generally neither efficient from a physical training standpoint nor wholesome from a moral stand- point. Surveys show that time is wasted in loafing and fooling, and the activities drift into forms that are physically, morally, and socially detrimental. c. The difficulties in the organization of efficient play, due to the cramping and complex social condi- tions in cities and the isolation in the country, are be- yond the resources and organizing power of children ; they must have help and direction. d. Parents as a rule do not understand the needs of children as to amount and variety of activity, and they do not possess, usually, the skill to organize the play activities even where they see these needs. The Instructional Period . — -(Do not call this the Physical Training Period and thus narrow the term ; it is only one of the Physical Training periods.) This period is the backbone of the physical training pro- gram in the school. It comes within the regular school hours and is essentially a period for teaching and prac- tice, as physical training activities must be taught and 1 California State Manual on Physical Education, by Clark W. Hetherington. 222 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE learned. In this period, the teacher takes the initia- tive and teaches those activities essential for develop- ment or for free participation in the supervised play period. The instruction should be scheduled and con- ducted, so far as the attendance and attitude of the students are concerned, like other school periods, but the instructional purpose should not make the period disagreeable. On the contrary, it should be charged with a purpose and enjoyment. There is no conflict between discipline and the spirit of play. To be successful the organization of the activities in this period must be progressive, both by age periods and by the skill of groups of individuals. This requires a differentiation of the instructional period into several periods according to grades, or age capacities. Fre- quently, especially among the older children, it requires an organization of groups within age periods according to ability. The activities taught and practiced in this period should cover all the groups in the classified list above. It is the period in which tactical and calisthenic drills may or should be taught, but it is not a period for such drills only. It is equally a period for instruction and practice in the more important instinctively impelled activities. The activities should parallel those of the supervised play period — -the one from the standpoint of instruction and the other from the standpoint of a broader participation. The one should contribute to and determine the activities of the other. This re- quires a division of any period according to the number of activities taught, or the organization of several in- structional periods through the week for different ac- tivities, such as swimming, dancing, etc. Between Class Relief Period. — This period is distinctly a relief period. It is designed, primarily, to counteract the detrimental influences of sedentary, desk, and men- tal occupations. Coming between classes it relieves from the fatigue of the class just closed, and freshens for the class to come. The time suggested is not suffi- cient for the period to rank as a constructive physical training period ; it simply tends to counteract the bad effects of school life. “ A minimum of two minutes between two sedentary class periods should be devoted to fatigue relieving, or circulation stimulating activities. Gymnastic or setting up drills may be given if the individual teacher is skill- ful enough to handle drills successfully to get physiologi- cal results, and if local conditions make them the only exercises possible. But formalized exercises to com- mand are fatiguing. A brisk run across the school yard, or a run in place is more valuable than a drill in- correctly conducted. Any activity of the classified list which can be conducted with vigor and dispatch for all the children of the group at once under local conditions should be considered legitimate for this period. The object is to stimulate, relieve, and freshen. Where there are long recess periods between classes, they should count as relief periods. Special Corrective Period. — This period is designed especially for children having structural or functional defects which handicap and which may be corrected by special active or passive movements or exercises. These children must be handled as individual cases and with individual attention, and so far as the defects are con- cerned, apart from the other periods, hence the special period ; but this does not mean that these children should not have the activities of the other periods also where they are able physically to enter into these activities. In many cases they need the activities, organic vigor, strength, skill and character discipline, more than children without defects. The' special cor- rective activities are developmental only in a very narrow sense. “ Participation must be determined in each case by an examination, conducted by a skilled person. Only the expert physical educator or the instructor who has had special training is capable of handling the children and activities of this period. The inexperienced in- structor should refer corrective cases to an expert, or to a surgeon.” 1 Phases of Physical Education. — There are a large number of phases of physical education which are being focused under one head. These phases have been called athletics, calisthenics, military training, folk dancing, play, hygiene, medical inspection, etc. These various branches have in the past been operated more or less independently of each other, but in an educational sys- tem it is very essential to unite them into a compre- hensive plan. The modern viewpoint of physical education is in- debted to Clark W. Hetherington for the classification of activities. The following will in general be based on his classification. i. Natural Play Activities. — These activities include all of the instinctive activities which the child naturally loves. The California Syllabus on Physical Education outlines the following : a. Self-Testing Activities. — This phase includes all of the stunts beginning with the simple hop or skin- the-cat and leading up to the most difficult exercises on the horizontal bar and parallel bars. This includes what has been known as “ heavy gymnastics.” b. Dramatic Activities. — This list of activities takes in all of the games where the imagination is brought 1 California State Manual on Physical Education, page iq. PHYSICAL EDUCATION 223 into play, and covers the scope from simple action stories to the matter of acting out Mother Goose rhymes and fairy tales. c. Rhythmic Activities. — This class of activities takes in all of the rhythmic work, beginning with the simplest singing games and leading up to the most difficult “ folk dances.” d. Hunting Games. — This class of activities takes in all of the list of tag games where one person is “ it,” g. Water Act vities. — This type takes in all of the activities which have water as a medium, beginning with wading and leading up to swimming. li. Winter Activities. — This includes all types of activities which have to do with winter, including skat- ing, sliding, skiing, tobogganing, etc. 2. Formal Activities. — This type of activities takes in all of the marching, calisthenics, gymnastic drills, posture instruction, etc. In the past, this has been the FLOOL PLAN OF A GYMNASIUM. BUILD 1 M. p 5 ' io' 15 ' 5 CALL Fig. 194. and begins with the very simplest games of cat-and- mouse, drop-the-handkerchief, etc., and leads up to the more complicated games of prisoner’s base, bear line, and games of like nature. e. Athletic Activities. — This type of activities takes in all of the various forms of athletics, including : Individual Athletics — track and field events. Single or Dual Games — - tennis, handball, etc. Team Games — basket ball, baseball, etc. f. Personal Combative Activities. — This phase in- cludes all of the activities of wrestling, boxing, fencing, singlestick work, broadsword, etc. phase that has been known in the minds of many as “ physical culture,” later, “ physical training.” At a glance one will see that it is a very narrow interpreta- tion. This interpretation, however, has become so uni- versal that to-day physical education means in the minds of many teachers nothing more than lining children up in the schoolroom and giving them a few formal exer- cises. This phase of work should not be neglected, but should be properly conducted, as it forms a very impor- tant part of the posture and disciplinary training. 3. Related Activities. — A large group of related activities is also included under physical education PHYSICAL EDUCATION 225 This group includes all of the outing activities, camping, hikin g, etc., in which exercise is involved. The matter of summer camps should become a very large part of physical education for our high school boys and girls. 4. Teaching Efficient Living. — The whole phase of teaching efficient living is part of physical education, as it all tends to give the child the proper viewpoint in building himself into a strong and efficient citizen. This has been included in the past under the name of “ teaching of hygiene.” 5. Control of Growth Handicaps. — This has to do entirely with the control of the many types of handi- caps under which children labor, including the condi- tions of eyes, ears, tonsils, adenoids, etc. 6. Therapeutic Gymnastics. — All of the various phases of corrective work known as “ corrective gymnas- tics ” are included under the head of physical education. 7. The Playground Movement. — -The whole phase of the playground movement either during the school year or during the summer season is a phase of the physical education program and should be brought entirely under one comprehensive plan. Physical Education in the Curriculum. A. Ele- mentary Schools. — - Physical education should be placed in the curriculum with a definite schedule of time from 20 to 40 minutes daily. This period should be distinctly an instruction period. It is a time to teach new ac- tivities and to lay the foundation for the entire program. Provision should also be made for the relief period, and one should be planned so that every hour in which the children are in a schoolroom is broken with at least one two-minute relief period. The play period should be at recess, noon, and after school. The bulk of this work will of necessity be done by the grade teacher, but with the aid of supervisors of city or county units. B. Intermediate or Junior High Schools. — - In the intermediate or junior high schools from three to five hour periods weekly should be definitely set aside for physical education instruction. Special instructors should be employed for the boys and girls, as in few in- stances is it advisable to give the work in mixed classes. C. High Schools. — - The problem in the high schools is entirely the problem of specialists, and a man should be employed for the boys’ work and a woman for the girls’. From three to five hour periods weekly should be arranged for in the schedule of classes. Hygiene may possibly be taught in one of these classes, or it may be advisable to give it in a special course. Credit should be given for the work on the same basis as other subjects. Grades based on attitude toward the work, attendance, and improvement of health, should appear on the report cards, and strict graduation rules in regard to physical education credit should be lived up to. A secretary to the physical directors will be of great assistance. With the proper arrangement of classes the secretary could also do the accompanying work for rhythmic activities. The Physical Education Plant. — The physical edu- cation plant includes all of the equipment required to put into effect a thorough-going physical education program. This will differ somewhat for the high school, the intermediate school, and the elementary school, and will have to be adjusted to meet the needs of the program in the curriculum. All of the phases of equipment will be considered. Many will be applicable only to the large school. A se- lection, however, can be made according to the size, needs of the school, money, and space available. The Indoor Gymnasium. — The gymnasium can be considered to have three units : the office, with adequate rest room, or administrative unit ; the lockers, dressing- room, shower, and toilet unit; the exercise floor or floors. Figure 194 shows a floor unit, and figure 195 shows the arrangement of three units. A . Office. — - There should be separate offices for the men and women physical directors. Each office should be arranged as follows : 1. An outer office, in which equipment can be placed for a secretary, who will take care of the files, corre- spondence, statistics, excuses, roll taking, examination blanks, etc. 2. An inner office, in which there should be located an examination room, panel looking glass, dressing room, shower, storeroom, closet with washbowl and toilet, couch, complete first-aid kit and anthropometric apparatus. In the inner office of the woman director, there should be placed a number of rest chairs and couches, vary- ing with the size of the school. These are for the con- venience of the girls necessarily excused from the reg- ular work. From these offices, easy access should be had to the dressing rooms, gymnasium floor, and if possible, the athletic field, in order that better supervision may be maintained. Figure 195 carries out these plans. B. Lockers , showers , toilets and dressing rooms. I. Lockers. — The locker arrangement depends upon the amount of dressing room space available, as well as on the locker system in use for the regular school work. The following suggestions are given in the order of their preference : (1) A Gymnasium Locker Placed in the Dressing Room for Each Pupil. — This could be a half-size locker, minimum 12X12X36; thus double tiers could be ar- ranged. With this system all personal equipment can 226 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE be placed in one locker and kept there. It, however, means duplication of lockers if the school has a locker system. (2) Cubical or Fiber Basket System. — In this sys- tem there are lockers of the above type provided for a class of minimum size. Each pupil has a fiber basket 13X9X8, which contains his uniform and personal equipment. When not at class these boxes are filed by numbers. On coming to class the pupil gets his basket, carries it to the locker room and dresses for class work, putting his street clothes into the large dressing locker. This system requires the constant care of an attendant. Girls will require a larger basket. (3) Lockers for a Class of Maximum Size. — This system requires lockers for one class. The personal equipment is brought from the school locker to the dress- ing room and returned to the school locker after class. The dressing room locker is thus used only during the period. (4) Keys. The problem of keys is always a serious one, and probably no system will give perfect satis- faction. The combination lock system results in pupils forgetting the combination, and there is also the danger of one person remembering many combinations. The system of having each person provide his own lock, while quite satisfactory to the user of the locker, makes an inspection of a locker very difficult. Whatever system is employed, it is quite agreed that a system with a master key should be used, and duplicate key, so that the director and custodian may at times inspect the lockers. II. Showers. — The importance of the shower bath cannot be overestimated. It should follow all strenuous exercise periods, especially intermediate and high schools. (1) Boys. - - The simplest type of shower is preferable for the boys’ unit. These showers should be overhead, 8 feet from floor, and operated by simple non-scalding valves which will easily regulate the supply of hot and cold water. The water is heated by a steam coil in the hot water tank, which operates automatically. An auxiliary system may be utilized. It should be supplied with an automatic thermostat which turns off the heat when the water reaches a temperature of between 130° and 150°. The sides of the shower room should be lined with non-absorbent material. (2) Girls. — The only suggestion over and above those given for the boys’ showers is that individual side showers should be used for the girls. Hair-drying machines should be provided. Non-absorbent partitions with canvas curtains should be used. Showers turned on by an attendant are successful. III. Toilets. — All toilets should be arranged within easy access of an outside entrance, so that they can be used directly from the play yard, as well as from the dressing room. IV. Dressing Room. - — Four-foot aisles between the lockers should be provided in the dressing rooms, and the aisles should be covered with cheap washable rugs or linoleum strips. Complete drawings for the boys’ unit as well as the girls’ unit are given in figure 195. The two units above outlined, office and lockers, dressing room, showers and toilet, should be so planned that in case only enough money is available to erect a part of a gymnasium these two units could be erected first. In many parts of the country this is all of the building that will be needed. The work which is usually done on the gymnasium floor could many times he done in the yard. This will be true more and more for the future, as most of the physical training activities will be given in the open air, providing proper surfacing and sunshield and windbreaks are provided. C. Exercise Floor or Floors. — For public school use very little consideration need be given any room beyond the main exercise floor and attendant rooms. Consideration should be given early in the planning in regard to whether there will be a running track, or any large accommodation for an audience. Running Track. — There is a growing feeling that all running should be in the open air. This should be especially true for school children. If a track is in- stalled, it should be 6 feet wide with curves of not less than 15 feet radius. It should be covered with cork carpet. A brass sliding pole should be provided from the track to the main floor in order that there may be quick access from track to floor. See figure 196. Provision for Seating Audiences. — The school gym- nasium should not attempt to provide a large seating capacity. Some space may be arranged over the dress- ing room and office. Collapsible bleachers may be used on the large floor. See figure 197. Specifications for the Main Floor. — One of the first points to be determined will be the size of the gymnasium floor and the number of gymnasiums needed. One gymnasium should be adequate for a school with an en- rollment up to 700. This could be used on alternate days. While the boys use the gymnasium the girls could use the athletic field. In schools where the enrollment numbers above 700, two gymnasiums should be provided, one for the boys and one for the girls. See figure 195, which gives a sug- gestion. Size and Shape of Floor. — Regardless of the number of gymnasiums or the size of the school, the size and shape of the exercise floor will remain very much the same, as it is impracticable to handle more than fifty pupils in any one class. The extra space, of course, PHYSICAL EDUCATION 227 Messrs. Perkins, Fellows & Hamilton, Architects. Fig. 196. — Gymnasium of Pontiac High School, Pontiac, Michigan. makes room for a variety of indoor athletic games, which is always an advantage. Many experts on this sub- ject suggest the proportion of length to width on the basis of 3 to 2. This, however, the writer does not feel is quite according to the needs, as the length should be a little more than the width under this proportion. The following schedule is submitted, which is believed to be better : Minimum size, 35X65 Average size, 50X80 Maximum size, 60X90 Many gymnasiums, however, will be larger than this. Height. — Twenty-one feet is many times given as the height for a gymnasium. Other heights, however, have their place in the consideration of the needs of all types of public schools. The following heights are submitted. From the floor to the exposed wood or steel beams overhead : Minimum, 14 feet Average, 18 feet Maximum, 22 feet Roof and Trusses. — Architects should be cautioned against planning the construction of a sloping roof in such a manner that it brings the cross beams out of level with each other, which makes installation of apparatus difficult. The cross beams or trusses should be ar- ranged to accommodate standard pieces of apparatus. The following suggestions are submitted : Minimum width between trusses, 12 feet Average width between trusses, 14 feet Maximum width between trusses, 18 feet In the hanging of traveling rings from these trusses a 3-inch pipe should be attached to the under side of the lower cords. The pipes should not be joined or coupled together unless there is a hanger on both sides of the coupling. The best method is to use pipe collars made by the leading apparatus manufacturers and bring ends of pipe together under center of cross beams with a collar supporting one end of each pipe. In frame con- struction it is cheaper to suspend a beam 8 feet from the side wall and parallel to it. This beam should be fastened securely between the crossbeams or trusses and flush with the bottom of them. Windows, Radiators, and Wall Fixtures. — All win- dows, radiators, and wall fixtures should be located from the standpoint of the use of the side walls for the attachment of various pieces of apparatus and various games. At least a portion of one side should be kept Mr. A. F. Hussander, Architect. PHYSICAL EDUCATION 229 Fig. 198. — Gymnasium, Junior High School, Trenton, New Jersey. free for handball and tennis serving. All windows should be screened and at least eight feet from the floor. The radiators should be screened and should be recessed in the walls with the covering screen flush with the wall. A portion of one end or side should be equipped with a large plate glass mirror in order that the class may observe postural defects. Lighting, Heating, Ventilation. — Large windows should be provided for light and ventilation. The patent window which opens out is the best type, as this permits the opening up of the whole side of the room. Skylights have not proven satisfactory, as the heat at certain times of the year is too intense. All lighting fixtures should be well protected. Floor. — Maple is preferred for flooring. There should be a rough under floor i| inches in thickness and a fin- ished floor xf inch or i-g- inches in thickness. In case the light flooring is used it will be necessary to reen- force the floor at points where flush plates are used to hold guys of horizontal bars, etc. This can be done by inserting metal plates or wood strips under the apparatus plates when installing the equipment. Manufacturers will furnish instructions for doing this properly when plans and full particulars are given them. Marking of the Floor. — Gymnasium floor should be marked for basket ball, indoor baseball, volley ball, handball, and if possible tennis. This marking is more satisfactory if different colors are used for the various courts. Figure 199 of this chapter and figure 2 in chap- ter 1 contain suggestions in regard to floor marking. Gymnasium Apparatus. — Only such apparatus should be selected as will be used and adapt itself to class work. Selections may be had from the following : Boys’ Gymnasium 6 chest machines. 24 section bar stalls. 24 bar stall benches. 2 vaulting horses. 2 vaulting bucks. 2 parallel bars. 2 horizontal and vaulting bars. 2 suspended horizontal bars. 2 horizontal ladders. Page 230 Fig. 199. — Edward Lee McLean High School, Greenfield, Ohio. 232 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE S LOTION °A -A° 51CT1QN B°B- ° OUTDOOIt SW1MI1 MG POOL* S' IQ' [S’ O 5 CAL L Fig. 2oi. PHYSICAL EDUCATION 233 Mlllll 'I. i-i jVv. Fig. 202. — Photograph, Outdoor Gymnasium. Boys’ Gymnasium — Continued. 2 to 4 pairs flying rings. 6 traveling rings. 1 incline board. 6 to 12 climbing ropes. 3 to 6 rope ladders. 1 pair jumping standards. 1 spring board. 1 vaulting standard. 1 pole vaulting board. 4 jump boards. 10 mattresses of various sizes. 1 or 2 pairs basket ball backstops and goals. Girls’ Gymnasium. 1 boom. 24 section bar stalls. 2 bar saddles. 24 bar stall benches. 2 vaulting horses. 1 vaulting box. 4 jump boards. 6 traveling rings. 6 balance beams. 1 pair jumping standards. 1 incline board. 1 spring board. 6 to 12 climbing ropes. 1 adjustable ladder. 1 vertical window ladder. 1 horizontal window ladder. 3 to 6 rope ladders. 1 or 2 sets basketball goals. 2 pairs flying rings, mats miscellaneous small apparatus. Combined Boys’ and Girls’ Gymnasium. 6 chest weights. 24 sections bar stalls. 24 bar stall benches. 2 vaulting horses. 2 vaulting bucks. 2 parallel bars. 2 horizontal and vaulting bars. 1 or 2 swinging booms. 1 adjustable ladder. 3 to 6 rope ladders. 6 to 12 climbing ropes. 2 pairs flying rings. 6 traveling rings. 1 pair jump standards. 234 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Combined Boys’ and Girls’ Gymnasium — Continued. i spring board, i inclined board. mattresses. 4 jump boards, i or 2 pairs basket ball goals, calisthenic apparatus. Information and advice regarding the equipment of ;ymnasiums may be obtained gratis from the apparatus manufacturers if the necessary information is given them. Room for Corrective Gymnastics. — A special correc- tive room may be arranged over the office and shower rooms. In this room should be placed an abdominal stool, plinth, stall bar, single wall parallel bars, two tables, and two bar stalls. Game Room. — - A special room should also be pro- vided for the boys for boxing, wrestling, fencing Fig. 203. PHYSICAL EDUCATION 235 punching the bag, etc. A handball court might be alanned. Swimming-Pools. — Swimming as an activity in con- jhection with our schools has a very important place in ahysical education, and complete swimming facilities should be provided at least by all intermediate and high schools. Indoor Pool. Size. — A narrow pool is desirable, as she side of the pool may be much more easily reached >y persons who are just learning to swim. Wherever )0ssible, an outdoor pool should be used, but if an indoor >ool is used, the matter of ventilation should be care- ully considered. A skylight would be an advantage. U least plenty of windows should be provided, so that he place could be flooded with the direct rays of the un. See figure No. 200. The following sizes are suggested for school condi- tions : 20X40, minimum size 25X75, maximum size Other Dimensions. - — The depth at the shallow part f the pool should be 3 feet and at the deepest point 8 iet, 6 inches. See figure 201. The deepest point of the ool should be ten to twelve feet from the deep end, ius the pool will slope both ways to this point. The des of the pool should be clearly marked to show epth of the water. An overflow drain should be pro- ved. It is sometimes combined with a hand rail id “ spit gutter ” around the entire pool. Water lould be kept constantly flowing over this rail. Ten ;r cent to fifteen per cent of the contents of this pool lould flow over the rail each day. When designing the drainage, the disposal of the water when emptying the pool should be carefully planned. Unless this is observed the house drains and plumbing fixtures will be flooded. Where possible, the water should be used for the irrigation of the lawns and gardens. Problems in Connection with the Sanitary Condition of the Water. — To be exact, water in which people swim should be as pure as the water which they drink. This, however, is seldom the case. The main problems in connection with pure water are as follows : (1) Secure pure water to begin with. In other words, see that the source of the water is pure. (2) See that persons who use the pool cleanse themselves thoroughly before entering the pool. This does not mean having an entire class run through a shower, but means the application of warm water and soap. (3) See that the suits are clean. Bathing suits should be thoroughly cleaned after being used. Care should be taken that swimming suits are dyed with fast dyes. (4) Treatment of water after having been used. (a) Filtration. — The most common method of treat- ing the water is by a well-constructed filtration plant, and from experience it will probably be given first preference. (b) Ultra-Violet Ray System. — The ultra-violet ray system when installed by a reliable firm does excellent work. (c) Chemicals. — A number of chemicals are used for purifying the water : — ./ Fig. 204. — Photo of Sandbox, Slide and Gymnasium Frame. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 205. — Kindergarten Porch, Emerson School, Oakland, California. Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Copper sulphate Anhydrous chloride Chloride of lime Of these three, chloride of lime is recommended as being the easiest to handle and the most efficient. One- tenth pound to 5000 gallons of water is recommended as a dosage every 3 or 4 days. The water should be exam- ined frequently. (5) Heating. Figure 201 shows means of heating pool. Outdoor Pool. — - The open air pool is preferred where conditions warrant. Figure 201 gives a number of sug- gestions in this line. Outdoor Semi-Outdoor Gymnasium. — As was sug- gested under Indoor Gymnasium, the matter of provid- ing the gymnasium with adequate fresh air is a big problem. In all places where weather will permit and in all climates when the weather is mild all of the gymnastic work should be conducted in the open air. See figure 203. There are a number of elements which make this difficult, and they vary in different climates. The winter season in certain states will be the biggest obstacle. Casual rain, severe wind, and the hot suns are also heavy impediments. A semi-outdoor gymnasium could be provided with a roof and with side walls open above 12 feet. Thus in good weather the exercise can be taken practically in the open, and during inclement weather protection may be had. Play Yard (Outdoor Exercise Floor). — -The school play yard should be considered a large exercise floor for a number of reasons : (1) It should be equipped for all physical training activities. (2) It should be equipped as a community play ground for the recreation of the adult and the pla) activities of the children. As such it should be opei after school hours, Saturdays, Sundays, holidays, am vacations. Old Idea of Equipment of Play Yard. — The old ide. of equipping a play yard was that there should be large amount of equipment on a relatively small piec of ground, and the children would come there and amus themselves. Thus there were a great many swing: slides, teeters, teeter ladders, giant strides, merry-gc rounds, apparatus to climb on, etc. PHYSICAL EDUCATION 237 Fig. 206. — Wire Cage Baseball Back-Stop. New Idea of Equipment of Play Yard. — The new idea if equipment of play yards is that there shall be a rela- ively large piece of ground with a few standard pieces f equipment. Large areas shall be left for running nd team games, such as hockey, soccer, baseball, basket all, etc. It is in these games that great social values re derived, and these can never be derived from the idividual play of the old type of playground. Field House. — - With school buildings that are not quipped for this modern idea a field house will have ) be provided, in which will be located showers, dress- ig rooms, toilets, and an office. Size of Play Yard. — The elementary school play ard should vary between 3 and 7 acres, according to lie size of the school. Efficient work for large numbers mnot be done on a yard with smaller space than this. The intermediate school play yard should cover from ) to 15 acres, as the needs of the older boys and girls ill be considerably greater than they are in the ele- entary grades. The high school playground should cover from 15 to ; acres, with complete facilities for the handling of all pes of high school and adult activities. Plan and Equipment of Play Yard. — The pieces of •paratus should be arranged around the sides of the ground, thus leaving all of the central part of the ground for athletic games. On small elementary school grounds the girls’ and small children’s apparatus should be placed on the side of the ground near the school building, and the boys’ on the space furthest from the school build- ing. This arrangement tends to give the girls and small children protection from the balls in the heavier athletic games and it also protects the windows in tire school building. Baseball fields and courts especially should be arranged at the furthest point from the school building, where possible in the northeast corner of the grounds. The next choice should be the northwest corner, the southwest and southeast following in turn. Football fields, tennis courts, basket ball courts, volley ball courts, where possible, should be laid out north and south, in order to protect the players from the direct rays of the sun. Activities should be conducted in a safe place. Elementary School. — Plan No. 1. The Emerson School, Oakland, Calif. (Figure 203) is a small, well- balanced yard. Description of apparatus indicated by numbers in figure 203 is as follows : No. 1. Girls’ Sand Box. The dimensions of this are 1X5X12 feet. It is equipped with a shelf around the top, which serves either as a seat or a molding table. 238 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE It is filled with a coarse grade of sand, which will not become dusty in dry weather or muddy when mois- tened. See figure 204. No. 2. Girls’ Slide. This is a medium-sized slide and equipped with a landing pit filled with clean sand. For a substitute — Horizontal Ladder (Girls). This should be purchased or well constructed. Rails, if" oval made from 2" xC — 14' long, 16" apart; rundles of hard wood ij" diameter. Set 6 ' 6 " from ground well supported. No. 3. Girls’ Gymnasium Frame, which consists of a set of six traveling rings. This particular unit has been found most satisfactory for girls. No. 4. Girls’ Volley Ball Court, which has 4X4 inch posts set in sockets, so that they may be easily moved. No. 5. Girls’ Basket Ball Court — posts set in sockets. (Numbers 4 and 5 are convertible into tennis courts during seasons when basket ball is not played.) No. 6. Double Handball Courts. One side for boys and the other for girls. This consists of plain hand- ball backstops twenty feet wide, twelve feet high, with a six-foot wire extension. See figure 205. No. 7. Boys’ Basket Ball Court — posts set in sockets. No. 8. Boys’ Volley Ball Court — posts set in sockets. (Number 7 and 8 are convertible into tennis courts.) No. 9. Boys’ Gymnasium Frame. Unit selected for boys’ gymnasium frame is one horizontal bar, one climbing pole, one climbing ladder, two sets flying rings. Substitute: Horizontal Bar (Boys’). Hickory or steel bars can be purchased. A i"X 6 ' galvanized iron gas pipe will do. Set in two posts so that the bar will be rigid. A high bar 6' 6" and a low bar 5' should be con- structed. An adjustable bar with holes in 6" X6" posts from 2' to 5' is not difficult to make and is very valuable. No. 10. High Slide for Boys, equipped with landing- pit filled with sand. No. 11. Sand Box for Boys, equipped as number 1. No. 12. Soccer Posts, made of 6X6 inch posts. Size of field is reduced to 50X80 yards, which has proved satisfactory for school playground purposes. Hockey is played on this field. High Jumping Pit, filled with shavings. Wire Cage Backstop for baseball. See figure 206. Hockey Field (played on soccer field) size 150' X 225' (smaller size will do). Construction: a. surface — smooth and level, b. Goals — 4"X6" uprights 7' (4 ,/ X4 ,/ will do) above the ground 12' apart with a 2"X 4" crossbar. If posts are not available, mark the dis- tance with two stones or other objects. No. 13. Open Pergola Porch, covered with canvas in the summer time, which affords a place for small children to hold club meetings and enjoy diversified play. See figure 205. Surface marked X is an oil macadam composition. It makes an excellent surface for court games. Surface marked Y is covered with crushed rock dust. It makes a good baseball field, but is a little too hard for football, for which sandy loam would be better. Plan No. 2 — figure 207. This is a better arrangement than in figure 203, as more open space is left for the girls’ large games. Also tennis courts are provided. Page 2jg Fig. 208. — Bushrod Playground, near Washington School, Oakland, California. Page 240 Fig. 209. — Mosswoon Park, Tennis Courts, Oakland, California. PHYSICAL EDUCATION 241 Fig. 210. — Track, Bushrod Playground, Oakland, California. Figure 208 shows a playground for elementary boys and girls with a small field house adjacent. The division of the ground for boys and girls will be noted. The swings are fenced, courts well marked. The gymnasium frame has a layer of 12" to 14" of shavings under it. Intermediate School. As the games for the inter- mediate school are more vigorously played than those of the elementary school, greater allowance should be made for areas between play courts. Therefore the intermedi- ate school requires the following additional equipment : Fig. 21X. — Hockey Field, Mosswood Park, Oakland, California. 242 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Boys’ Field. 2 tennis courts. See Fig. 209. 2 handball courts. | mile running track (football and baseball fields in the oval). Fig. 210. x soccer field (150' X 240'). 2 basket ball courts. Girls’ Field. 2 tennis courts. 4 indoor baseball diamonds — 45' base line. 1 hockey field and general play area. Fig. 21 1. 2 volley ball courts. High School. — In addition to the equipment of the elementary school playground, the high school should have the following : Boys’ Yard. 3 tennis courts. 2 handball courts. \ mile running track (football and baseball fields to be placed in the oval). 2 basket ball courts. 1 soccer field. 1 canvas golf driving net and green. Girls’ Yard. 3 tennis courts. 4 indoor baseball diamonds — 45 ft. bases. 2 hockey fields. 4 volley ball courts. 1 canvas golf driving net and green. Figure 212 shows a fine arrangement for a large inter- mediate school or a small high school. The part marked “ Agricultural Area ” should be the girls’ athletic held and the part of ground just in front should be used foi the agricultural area. This ground occupies 15^ acres. Many new higt schools are acquiring as high as 30 acres for a schoo site. This allows ample space for a thoroughgoing program of Physical Education for the entire studen' body of a large school when properly organized. CHAPTER XI THE ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES IN PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS By William F. Ewing, M.A., Principal, Pasadena High School, Pasadena, California I. Small Elementary School, (i) Principal’s Office. (2) Teachers’ Room. (3) Janitor’s Quarters. (4) Playground Supervi- sor’s Office. II. Large Elementary School. (1) General Plan. (2) Principal’s Office. (3) Teachers’ Rest Room. (4) Girls’ Rest Room. (5) Library. (6) Janitor’s Office. (7) Playground Supervisor’s Office. (8) Teachers’ Lunch Room. III. Medium-sized High School or a Junior High School. (1) General Plan. ( 2 ) General Office. (3) Principal’s Office. (4) Men Teachers’ Room. (5) Women Teachers’ Room. (6) Girls’ Rest Room. IV. Administrative Offices in a Large High School. (1) General Plan. (2) Registrar’s Office. (3) Principal’s Office. (4) Office of Dean of Girls. (5) Office of Dean of Boys. (6) Office of Continua- tion School Principal. (7) Attendance Office. (8) Offices for Heads of Departments. Administrative Offices in Public School Buildings. — In responding to the growing demands of modern social life, our schools have become highly organized institutions. In the planning and construction of large up-to-date school buildings we ought to make a scientific study of the size and orientation of grounds, of the proper arrangement of classrooms, offices, and other parts of the plant. We should be able to assist the school archi- tect in securing good lighting, satisfactory ventilating and heating and proper sanitary arrangements. We ought to know the kind and quality of equipment to be installed. The proper development of the child is the most im- portant thing in education. This thought should be the guiding principle for boards of education, super- intendents, principals, teachers, and others interested in promoting and extending the ideals of American education. A generation ago we limited our school activities almost exclusively to academic studies. Now the school has become the center of the child’s world ; not merely an intellectual one, but a real, physical, and social world. Our public schools are co-educational. Pupils are living as truly in their educational life at school as they ever will after school days are over. Communities spend thousands of dollars for a single school building. We want the best for our children. However, one of :he most important features in the planning of school auildings seems almost wholly neglected. That is the idministrative quarters. The reason for this is that 'Chool administrators have failed to study the problem, eaving it to the architect to assign such areas as would >est fit into the general plan. The result has been poorly .rranged and inadequate quarters. Many years’ experience in private and public schools convinces the writer that the enrollment of the school and size of plant are both increasing. In rural .com- munities, consolidation of numerous small districts into larger, more modern organizations is growing. In cities we are coming to look upon schools of five hundred to one thousand children as quite ordinary. In the cosmopolitan centers there are individual schools having enrollments varying from one thousand to three thousand pupils. As our schools increase in size, the more complex become the administrative problems. The larger school buildings indicate a tendency toward the centralization of the administrative offices. For convenience it has seemed best to divide this discussion into four parts : I. Administrative offices in a small elementary school. II. Administrative offices in a large elementary school. III. Administrative offices in a medium-sized or junior high school. IV. Administrative offices in a large high school. Administrative Offices in a Small Elementary School. — Assuming that the small elementary school has an enrollment of from one hundred and twenty to three hundred children, and estimating an average of thirty pupils per teacher, we shall have from four teachers to ten teachers in the school. The need for careful plan- ning will obviously increase with the size of the school. A study of the literature on school architecture shows that much has been written on grounds and little on the planning of school buildings. The following plan is suggested for small elementary schools. (See figure 214.) 243 244 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE ■ riLOJiT V I £,¥ • T CACHI.H5’ POST OlTlGt & UCHAWGf, 301- EL A T L, It J A L, G^UAlLTI,Ib SAW.LD OAK Fig. 213. 1. Principal’s office. 2. Teachers’ room. 3. Janitor’s office. 4. Office for the playground supervisor. The Principal's Office . - In most public school build- ings the principal’s office is located on the first floor near the main entrance. Unfortunately for adminis- tration, it is most frequently located facing the street and not the playground. It should be well lighted and large enough to carry on the work of administration without crowding. Since necessity often requires the principal to work in her office after full hours and on days when school is not in session, there should be some means of heating the office independently of the general plant. The floor of the office and all other administra- tive offices should be covered with battleship linoleum. A good Wilton rug will add to the comfort and attrac- tiveness of the room. A fine quality of scrim curtains may be hung at the windows. The interior finish should be quarter-sawed, antique oak. The furniture should be of the same kind and finish as the interior. Since the needs of the school are constantly changing, portable filing cabinets and sec- tional bookcases are desirable. These are well made and being constructed in units can be increased or de- creased according to demand. A teachers’ exchange cabinet, containing compartments for all the teachers, the janitor and supervisor, should be attached to the wall near the entrance to the office. At the bottom of the cabinet there should be an extra long division for large books, maps, etc. (For dimensions of the cabinet, see figure 213.) ASSpilBL,Y HALF s . . - t A A I U C 0 lb 1L i D O 1L k1 _ , // . •FLAN Of PIUMCIPAL'S AND HACHIK' SUITE. fOI, A SMALL 1LU1HTAIY SCHOOL- 0 ^ _ £' itf _ J5 ’ 5 CALI, © MAST IX CLOCK. JD SLConDAiur clock. H PUBLIC TLLILPHOKi; H PIUVATL, lNTf,HCOM. M. U NIC AT I NG PHONJ, Fig. 214. THE ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES IN PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS 245 If there is sufficient wall space on either side of the exchange cabinet, one or more bulletin boards should be installed. A bulletin board should be at least two feet by four feet in size. It should be faced with a layer of cork. A beveled edge, plate glass top for the desk will prove a great convenience, for under it school and health regulations, telephone numbers, programs and other items of information most frequently used can be neatly and carefully kept. A few good pictures should be selected for the walls of the room. A door opening from the principal’s office into a class- room is an advantage, for it provides a means to keep some one in touch with the telephone and office when the principal is engaged in supervision elsewhere. Ad- jacent to the office there should be a conference and sup- ply room. It should be fitted with ample cabinets for keeping books and supplies that are needed frequently. It is a good plan to have cabinets closed with glass doors that can be locked. The conference room should have a door opening into the corridor. This would afford easy access for the janitor to deliver supplies, and it would serve also as an exit for callers. The school telephone exchange, master clock, and public telephone are invariably placed in the principal’s office. Provision should be made for a lavatory and toilet directly off the office. The principal’s room should be made as attractive as possible, not merely for the satisfaction of the prin- cipal herself, but for the wholesome effect it will have on teachers, pupils, and patrons. The Teachers' Room. — Every school building should provide convenient quarters for the teachers when they are not on duty. The size of the room will depend upon the number of teachers employed in the school building. The interior finish, curtains, kind and quality of furniture should correspond to that of the principal’s office. The room might serve as a rest room and din- ing-room combined. It ought to be furnished with a couch, pillows and blankets, and a “ first-aid ” outfit. Adjacent to the teachers’ room there should be a set of toilets and a lavatory. Opening into the room there should be a small kitchen equipped with a gas stove, sink, china closet, and such cooking utensils as are neces- sary for preparing simple meals. There should be an exit from the kitchen direct to the corridor. In some schools full-sized steel lockers are placed in or near the teachers’ room for use of the teachers. The Janitor's Quarters. — A casual examination of the plans of scores of the best, up-to-date school build- ings discloses the fact that almost always the jani- tor’s quarters are located in the basement of the build- ing. Frequently they are put in a dark, poorly venti- lated place near the furnace. If the janitor has an office, it is often a portion of the furnace room. Such conditions should no longer obtain. The janitor ought to have a comfortable office, well lighted, properly ventilated and heated. It should be equipped with a washstand having both hot and cold water connec- tions. In addition there should be a full-sized steel locker. If possible, the office should face the school playground. In the primary school the janitor is usually the only male employee. His influence among the boys often counts for more than that of the teacher. If he is kind and sympathetic, he may also claim the friendship of the girls. The wise and loyal janitor can easily pre- vent many cases of petty discipline from reaching the principal. Adjacent to or near the janitor’s office, there should be a storage and work room. Tools and school supplies needed only occasionally may be kept there. A good work bench should be provided for the room. An Office for the Playground Supervisor . — Many cities have established municipal playgrounds in con- nection with the schools. These playgrounds are open after school hours until five p.m. or later, according to the season of the year. They are in charge of a playground supervisor, who may be a teacher in the school or a regular municipal playground employee. If a school is planned for after school activities, it is desirable to have an office for the supervisor. The office should be located in the basement, facing the playground. The interior and furniture should be similar to that of the janitor’s office. Since the play- ground supervisor needs to have easy communication with school officials and homes, the office should be connected with an outside telephone. It should be furnished with a desk and chairs and a cabinet for keeping supplies such as balls, bats, nets, and mits. In short, the playground supervisor’s office ought to be so well furnished that it would be unneces- sary to use any part of the regular school equipment. A portion of the office should be set apart as a dress- ing room. It should be equipped with a washstand fitted for both hot and cold water, full-sized steel lockers for keeping clothing and other valuables, and with a couch, pillows and blankets, and a “first-aid ” outfit. Administrative Offices in a Large Elementary School. — Practice seems to favor the centralizing of admin- istrative offices in large schools. In many cities, school buildings are constructed on the unit plan, thus provid- ing an easy and satisfactory means for enlarging the plant, but it is usually quite difficult to increase the number and size of the administrative offices, hence it is desirable to plan them in the beginning for the maxi- mum capacity of the school. 246 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Assuming that the large elementary school will have an enrollment of from three hundred to fifteen hundred pupils and estimating an average of thirty pupils to a teacher, we shall have from ten to fifty teachers in the school. The need for ample quarters, therefore, is obvious. The real problem is to determine definitely what rooms should be included in the administrative suite. For our discussion let us include most of those quarters which are not directly under the supervision of the class teachers. We shall then have the following. planned large school buildings we find an outer wait- ing room. The entrance to it is usually from the vesti- bule or the main corridor. It is a great convenience to have an outer waiting room where the teachers may register their time on arriving at school in the morning and leaving again in the afternoon. Figure 215 shows a division between the public waiting room or lobby and the secretary’s office. The two divisions of this office may well be separated by means of a large, wide counter, at one end of which is a gate providing an / A 5 S UHY HALL, MAIN C O IL I D O h i f 3 f/ L 7 Z7 7Z?. 'PLAN OF PJUttCIPAtS & TtACHE.KS’’ SUITE, FOIALAICL ILLMJTAIIY SCHOOL q 5’ itf _js' 5 CALL Fig. 215. General Plan. (See figure 215.) 1. A principal’s office. (See figure 216.) 2. A teachers’ rest room. 3. A girls’ rest room. 4. A library. 5. A janitor’s office. 6. An office for the playground supervisor. 7. A teachers’ lunch room. The Principal's Office. — In the large elementary school the principal’s office should be spacious enough to accommodate several persons at the same time. Frequently the principal wishes to call meetings of va- rious groups of pupils or teachers or both ; these can be held in the principal’s office better than elsewhere, if there is ample room. The fixtures, floor covering, filing cabinets, and book- cases should be of the same kind and quality as those n the small elementary school. In any of the best- entrance to the secretary’s desk. The inside of the counter should be fitted with shelves and pigeonholes for keeping blank forms and office supplies. There should be an easy entrance from the secretary’s office to the principal’s. This plan shows both lavatory and toilet directly in the rear of the principal’s private office. An exit from the latter office is desirable. It is often embarrassing to dismiss parents or teachers into the public waiting room. The Teachers' Rest Room. — In order that the prin- cipal may have an easy means of supervising the teachers’ room, it seems advisable to have it located near the main office. General practice indicates this, although in some well-arranged buildings the teachers rest room is located on the second floor rather than opposite the principal’s office on the first floor. The location of the room will be determined by the con- THE ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES IN PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS 247 0 Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Fig. 216. — Principal s Office, Clawson School, Oakland, California. venience it offers the teachers. Figure 215 shows a rest room opening from the main entrance and having .an exit to the main corridor as well as to the girls’ rest room. The teachers’ rest room should be fitted with suitable chairs, couches, blankets, pillows, and other comforts. Adjacent to the room or opening into it there should be a locker room, a set of toilets, and a lavatory. The Girls' Rest Room. — The girls’ rest room should be provided with toilets, a lavatory, and a supply room. The rest room should be furnished with a table and chairs, couches, pillows and blankets, and a “ first aid ” outfit. For convenience there ought to be an exit to the main corridor. One of the main reasons for placing the girls’ rest room adjacent to the teachers’ is that the teachers should have pretty close super- vision over the girls wherever they happen to be. The Library. — The up-to-date, large elementary school should have a room set apart for a library. It should be fitted with bookcases or cabinets covered with glass doors. The size of the room and the capacity of the cases will depend largely upon the size and character of the school. If it has free text books there should be ample storage for all incoming books and other supplies frequently used. Figure 215 shows entrances to the library both from the principal’s office and from the main corridor. The Janitor's Office. — The usual practice provided an office for the janitor in the basement of the building. If possible it should be so located that there will be easy access to the furnace room, to the playground, and to the boys’ toilets. The office should be placed so it will have an abundance of light and good ventilation. It should be equipped with proper furniture and a locker for clothing and other valuables. It should have a washstand fitted with hot and cold water. If possible, adjacent to the janitor’s office there should be a work room fitted with a good work bench and ade- quate tools for doing repair work. In many schools the janitor is the only person who can attend to small repairs when they are most needed. If the school has a garden, it would be well to provide the janitor with garden tools. 248 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE An Office for the Playground Supervisor. — If the school has a playground, a good office should be pro- vided for its supervisor. Almost none of the plans of elementary schools show any provision for this ac- tivity, although many cities have established play- grounds in connection with the larger elementary schools. The playground office should be well lighted and heated. It should have linoleum floor covering, with perhaps one or two small mats. The office should have a table and chairs and a cabinet for keeping playground sup- plies. Generally the playground work is in charge of one of the women teachers. It is quite desirable that she should have a place to dress and to keep her personal effects when she is attired in playground costume. A small dressing room containing a couch, blankets, “ first aid ” outfit, a washstand and locker would prove a great convenience. The Teachers' Lunch Room. — Since the teachers’ lunch room forms a daily meeting place for teachers and principal, it seems best to include it in the adminis- trative offices. Some modern school buildings have provided lunch room and kitchen facilities solely for the use of the teachers, though in many schools the domestic science equipment is used by the teachers for preparing light lunches. The best plan, however, seems to require separate accommodations for teachers and pupils. The location of the lunch room should naturally be determined by the character of the build- ing. If there is a high, well ventilated basement, and room can be found to locate the teachers’ lunch room and kitchen on the sunny side of the building, there is no objection to having it placed in the basement. The lunch room should be large enough to accommodate all the teachers and one or two occasional visitors. There should be plenty of chairs and a good table. The lunch room should be as cozy and homelike as pos- sible. Immediately off from the lunch room there should be a kitchen fitted with a gas range, china closet, sink, and such utensils as may be regulated for prepar- ing simple lunches. Administrative Offices in a Medium-Sized High School or in a Junior High School. — In the past, the planning of administrative quarters in the medium- sized academic high school received more attention than those of other school buildings. An explanation for this condition may be easily found. For many years the city high school was a medium-sized organization. It was the pride of the city. High school principals and high school teachers learned the administrative needs of the school by years of experience. Further- more, the high school faculty was composed of a com- paratively small group of men and women. They were well acquainted with each other. They were known by their pupils. The principal could issue orders by “ word of mouth,” and he could personally supervise the work of each teacher and of every class. All these conditions obtained in the older academic type of school. But with the expansion of our high school curriculum and the inclusion of many formerly so-called extra-curricular studies, we are forced to pay more attention to the planning of the school and the administrative offices. Figure 217 embodies some of the best ideas for the medium-sized high school. General Plan. 1. A general office. 2. A principal’s office. 3. A room for men teachers. 4. A room for women teachers. 5. A girls’ rest room. The General Office. — In the medium-sized high school we frequently find that there is an outer office or waiting room adjacent to the principal’s office. This seems to be a desirable plan, for many of the questions that come to the principal’s office can be answered without interrupting the constructive work of the prin- cipal. Figure 217 shows a large general office near the main entrance. Entering the general office is a wait- ing room or public space. It is separated from the general office by a large, high counter at one end of which is a gate. The rear of the counter should be fitted with pigeonholes and shelves for keeping office appliances, blanks, stationery, and other equipment. On top of the counter under a heavy glass plate there may be kept the school program and such other fre- quently used bulletins of information. The waiting room has a door to the main corridor and one to the main entrance. The general office should be equipped with the usual filing cabinets, bookcases, desks, and chairs. The public telephone, the master clock, and the school telephone exchange should be installed in the general office. Opening into the office is a door to the vault and record room. At one side of the office is a door to the principal’s office. The Principal's Office. — The principal’s office is lo- cated between the general office and the men teachers room. There is a passage to both the general office and the men teachers’ room from the principal’s office, also an entrance from the main corridor to the principal ; office. There is a lavatory and toilet opening off the principal’s office, also a small cloak room. The furni- ture and equipment of the principal’s office will be ol good quality, quarter-sawed antique oak. The flooi should be covered with plain, battleship linoleum. I' will add to the attractiveness greatly, if it is covered with a good Wilton rug. THE ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES IN PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS 249 The Men Teachers' Room. — The men teachers’ room should be furnished with a table and chairs and pro- vided with enough steel lockers so that each teacher would have a full-sized locker. Opening off from the room should be a toilet and lavatory. The Women Teachers' Room. — Across the lobby from the general office should be the women teachers’ room. The floor should be covered with a good quality of linoleum. It should be furnished with chairs, a table, and a couch. On one side of the room there should be a number of steel lockers, at least one for each teacher. with numerous closets, vaults, and storerooms. Gen- erally there is an outer office or reception room, an office for a secretary or stenographer, and the prin- cipal’s office. In many cases there is no direct passage from one office to the other. For economy of time and convenience there should be. The writer can surmise two good reasons for the ap- parent lack of good planning in the administrative offices of large high schools. First, the large, new school is the outgrowth of an older and smaller school. The prin- cipal and faculty move from the old plant into the new. 5*3 Ef 1 A i K COiblOlDO^. TUN or TLINCIPACS & TEACHUS SUITE rQH A MEDIUM 51ZID HIGH SCHOOL" o s ' 10 15' • 5 C. A L t, • Fig. 217. The furnishings for this room should be left to the judg- nent of the women teachers. It should be made as :ozy and comfortable as possible. Opening off the room here should be a set of toilets and lavatories. At one ide of the room there is a door into the girls’ rest room. The Girls' Rest Room. — The girls’ rest room should be urnished with chairs, couches, blankets, pillows, and a first-aid ” outfit. In order to give as much privacy as ■ossible it is desirable to have a screen between the ntrance to the room and the main part of it. Administrative Offices in a Large High School. — A :udy of the plans of many large high school buildings f recent construction shows that there has been little ttempt to centralize the administrative quarters, he usual plan indicates a suite of offices located on the jest floor near the main entrance to the building. The lite consists of three or four adjacent offices, together In planning his quarters the principal thinks of the old accommodations rather than of the needs of the new. Second, it is hard to convince many school boards of the necessity of having a group of complete, contiguous ad- ministrative offices. Board members, too, are accus- tomed to think largely in terms of the small school. Sooner or later the principal finds his administrative problems growing both in number and complexity. He learns that he must have more assistants and that they must have suitable offices. Frequently these offices are located in widely separated parts of the building. For illustration let us take the Technical High School of Oakland, California. It grew out of the old Manual Training and Commercial High School, which had a normal enrollment of about six hundred pupils. When the faculty and pupils moved into the new plant the enrollment was slightly greater than twelve hundred. 2 50 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Within less than four years the new high school has reached an enrollment of over two thousand. In addition to this, during the past two years a continuation school 1 of more than two thou- sand adults has developed. Thus within a period of five years the school has grown in daily at- tendance from an enrollment of about six hun- dred to over four thousand pupils. When the Technical High School opened its doors in Jan., 1915, the administrative offices consisted of a waiting room, a secretary’s office, a supply room, a bath room, a toilet and lava- tory, and the principal’s office. That the offices were inadequate was evidenced by the fact that the two vice principals immediately sought offices outside of the administrative suite. These offices are far removed from the principal’s and from each other. Much time is lost in walking back and forth for conferences, inter- views, and the transaction of the usual school business. The development of the continuation school required another suite of offices. These have been taken from space originally planned for the commercial department. They, too, are far removed from the other administrative offices. The need for a centralization of administra- tive offices in the large high school has convinced the writer that the study of the problem is well worth while. No fixed plan will be suitable for all buildings. Every building presents its own special problems. We should not blame the school architect for all the mistakes that have been made in the plans of our school buildings. The writer knows several buildings in which mistakes have been forced upon the architect against his own best judgment. After reviewing the plans of many modern high school buildings, we submit the following suggestive one. General Plan. — (See figure 218.) 1. Registrar’s office. 2. Office for the principal of the day school. 3. Office for the dean of girls. 4. Office for the dean of boys. 1 During the fall term, 1918, the enrollment of the continuation school was as follows : afternoon session (2 : 15 to 4 : 40) 965 ; evening session (7:15 to 9 : 30) 3610; total enrollment, 4575- Of this number many attended only two or three sessions a week, thus giving a daily attendance of about 2000 for the continuation school. This was ex- clusive of the regular day school attendance, which was over 2000. THE ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES IN PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS 251 5. Office for the principal of the continuation school. 6. Attendance office. 7. Offices for heads of departments. Registrar's Office. — The registrar’s office should be on the first floor near the main entrance of the high school building. It should be a large, well-lighted, well-ventilated office. It should be separated from the public space by a high, wide counter. The rear of the counter should be fitted with cabinets for keeping blanks, office appliances, and supplies. On top of the counter, at either end, there should be a plate glass cover under which could be found the programs of the day and of the continuation school, also plans of the building and such other information as is most frequently needed. At one end of the office there should be a vault for keeping money, permanent school records, and other valu- ables. The office should be equipped with substantial desks, chairs, and filing cases, preferably of quarter-sawed, antique oak. Here, also, should be installed the master clock, public telephone, and electric buzzers. In the space reserved for the public outside of the registrar’s office, there should be two public telephone booths. These should contain local and long distance pay telephones available for pupils and patrons. On the other side of the public space a time recorder should be installed for the use of the day and continuation school teachers and employees. Individual cards should be placed in a cabinet so that at any time, day or evening, the registrar could see at a glance whether teachers have reported in or out. At the right of the public space is a door opening into a waiting room off the continuation school principal’s office. This door is under the control of the secretary of the continuation school. Immediately to the right of the registrar’s office is a private entrance to the con- tinuation school principal’s office. There is, also, an exit from the continuation school office to the main entrance. Principal's Office.- — Experience has shown that in a large, growing high school the main corridor on the first floor is nearly always crowded when classes are pass- ing. School officials, parents, and visitors find it very difficult to go from one part of the building to another at such times. In order to obviate this difficulty we have planned an inner passage connecting the offices of the registrar, dean of boys, principal’s secretary, principal, ind dean of girls. To the left of the principal’s office s a small consulting room. Just off from the consult- ing room is the office of the dean of girls. To the right )f the principal’s office is the office of the secretary. The plan shows an outer waiting room to the secretary’s >ffice. The two are separated by a high, wide counter, lit one end of which is a gate. The inside of the counter 5 fitted with ample shelves and cabinets for keeping stationery and school supplies. At one end the top of the counter is covered with heavy plate glass. Under this may be kept the daily program of the school. The secretary controls the entrance to the principal’s office on one side and to the dean of the boys on the other. Office of the Dean of Girls. ■ — The dean of girls has access to the consulting room opening at the right between her office and the principal’s. On the left there is an entrance to the girls’ rest room. It is ad- visable that the dean of girls should keep in touch with the girls’ rest room. The latter place is sometimes abused by lazy or shiftless pupils, and it is highly desirable that the use of the room be restricted to those girls who are assigned by the dean. Office of the Dean of Boys. — This office is located between the offices of the registrar and secretary. It is easy to pass through the waiting room of the secre- tary’s office to the principal’s office or to the registrar’s immediately adjacent. The whole plan shows a fairly complete centralization of the administrative quarters. While the plan may seem elaborate, it really requires no more space than is usually found in widely separated quarters. 5. Office of the Continuation Principal. — - The con- tinuation school principal usually finds himself an un- welcome guest. In some schools his office is in a corner of the day school principal’s office. This arrangement is neither satisfactory nor convenient. Furthermore, if the continuation school is to be conducted in the after- noon as well as in the evening, the continuation school principal should have his own quarters. The plan herewith presented (figure 218) provided such accommo- dations. It will be noted that the registrar’s office is comparatively large. It was made so to accommodate the crowding which always occurs at the organization of the school term. By having one registrar’s office for both day and continuation school there is a cen- tralizing of information, of reports, and of records. Besides there is ample room for both day and continua- tion pupils. The office of the continuation school prin- cipal should be equipped with convenient filing cabi- nets and office appliances. Adjoining the continuation school principal’s office is a waiting room which may be used by prospective students and continuation school teachers. 6. An Attendance Office. — One of the big problems in a large high school is that of attendance. In some schools the attendance is handled by the dean of girls and dean of boys respectively. There are good reasons for having the attendance under the immediate super- vision of these two administrative offices, but in the largest schools it would seem advisable to have a sepa- rate office for checking the attendance. 252 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE In the opinion of the writer the attendance office should be near the administrative quarters, located on the first floor not far removed from the locker rooms. One office properly equipped and furnished would be adequate for taking charge of the entire attendance problem. The usual filing devices and office fixtures should be installed. 7. Offices for Heads of Departments. — A study of the plans for large high school buildings does not always indicate the offices that are available for heads of departments and conference committees. The ex- perience of school men has been that there are too few offices in the large high school. There ought to be at least one office for each five teachers. Since the large high school is coming to have continuous sessions, it is important that teachers have quarters where they may retire to plan their work and have conferences with each other, with parents, and with pupils. Not only should the heads of departments have good, well equipped offices, but there should be enough other offices for the different groups of teachers. Experience has shown that the offices should never be placed inside of classrooms, but should have an entrance directly from the corridor. CHAPTER XII THE CLASSROOM By John J. Donovan, Architect, A.I.A. I. General Remarks. II. Size of Elementary Classrooms, (r) Width of Aisles. (2) Length and Width of Classrooms. (3) Floor Areas. (4) Chicago Board of Education Plan. (5) New York Board of Education Plan. III. Age of Pupils. IV. Size of Classroom Furniture. V. Size of High School Classrooms. (1) Boston High School Classrooms. (2) Ceiling Heights. (3) Further Study of the Plan. VI. Natural Lighting of Classrooms. (1) Overhead Lighting. (2) Glass Area. (3 ) Height of Window Stools. VII. Wardrobes. VIII. Blackboards. (1) Stock Sizes of Slate. (2) Heights of Chalk-Rails. (3) Tacking Strips. (4) Reach of Pupils. IX. General Notes. (1) Floors. (2) Trim. (3) Doors. (4) Transoms. (5) Plaster. (6) Canvas. (7) Painting. X. Floor Treatment. (1) Floor Oiling. (2) Floor Dressings. (3) Linoleum. (4) Linseed Oil and Turpentine. XI. Location of Air Registers. XH. Windows. (1) Shades. (2) Venetian Blinds. That the classroom is the fundamental unit of the school organization is a truth that will bear constant repetition. And it is because of this vital fact that definite and detailed information in text and drawings should fully cover the latitude permissible in planning the classroom. In examining the plans herein presented, it will become obvious that, before establishing the size of the room, it is necessary to know the grade and maximum number of pupils that will occupy the room, and the type and size of the furniture. There are other questions which call for careful consideration and clear judgment, and in any discussion they are well worth attention before settling down to the final composition of the plan of the whole, which necessarily will include other units besides classrooms. Consequently, this chapter will treat on the subjects which pertain not only to the design, but also the general appointments and the hygiene of the room, such as the lighting, black- boards, floors, painting, etc., etc. Size of Elementary Classrooms. — The width of the classroom is a very important factor in the plan of the school. Generally the number of rows of seats across the room is not less than five. But there are times when it is advantageous for other rooms, such as labora- tories, that the classroom should have a width adequate for six rows. In a high school the wider room gives a more flexible arrangement for equipment in rooms above and below the classroom, or on the same side of the corridor. Many favor the wider classroom as the length of the room is thereby shortened, and it is easier for both teacher and pupils to hear and talk, and there is less eye strain to pupils occupying rear seats in reading matter on the front blackboard. On the other hand, the narrower room requires smaller structural spans and consequently is of less expensive construction. The ceiling heights also may be less for the narrower room. The length of the building, however, is reduced by the use of the wider classroom, provided of course the same number of pupils occupy the rooms of the five and the six rows. Width of Aisles. — After determining upon the num ber of pupils and the size of the furniture, the width of the side, rear and inner aisles should be next con- sidered. From the Boston data (figs. 225, 226, 227, 228, and 229) it will be noticed that the window aisle is 24" wide for all classrooms, except for the larger high school rooms, where it is 28" wide. The rear aisles vary from 36" to 30" and the inner aisles for grades I to VIII are 16" and 15I", and in the high school grades 18", while the wall aisles opposite the windows range from 5' 4" for the lowest grades to 3' oj" for the higher elementary grades and 3' 6 " for high schools. There is quite a variation in widths of wall aisles in the Boston seating arrangement, due to the uniform size of the classrooms for all elementary grades. Whenever blackboards are used at the side and rear of the room, and that is the general practice, it is well to allow not less than 2' 8" for width of space between the wall and the back of the seats, and 3' o" for the wall aisles, as the latter is necessary for the free circula- tion of pupils. The space of 8' o" is none too large for clearance between the front row of desks and the front wall, especially when the pupils pass in front of the teacher’s desk on their way to the wardrobe. Actual investigation convinces the writer that inner aisles should not be less than i' 6" in width. 253 254 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Length and Width of Classroom. — Assuming the rear aisle is 2' 8" wide and the distance between the front row of seats and the front wall is 8' o", the length of the room is determined by the number of seats to each row, which brings up the question of the number of pupils to a room. The writer has yet to meet a teacher who believes that the number should exceed forty, for reasons too numerous to enter into here except the very good reason that it is not fair to either child or teacher in receiving and giving instructions. Therefore, with forty or forty-two as the number to be considered, we may say that by establishing the length and width for the sixth grade for schools below the junior high, all lower grades will have plenty of room to spare. The distance from back to back in the Boston seating arrangement for the 6th grade is 2' 5I", while the market W I N D O W 5 • •TABU OF SIZES & JUASUUMUTS or SCHOOL DESKS GLADES mmh i v-v-vr vie *vn WIDTH-OF-LCOl A- 16-6" w- r 2'f-O" LENGTH- OT -LOOM B- 27-4" 30-0" 31'- 4" DISTANCE HACK "BACK C- 2-1" Z’-5" z-r DISTANCE ACLOSS D- r-6" r-r z-a SIZE or DESK 12'7 16" i5" x zr 107 24" HEIGHT OF DESK 21" T0 24" 23" T0 26" 26" to 3I" A LEA-M.QUIRED -IGA GRADES 505.6 SQ.TT. 552.5 SQ.TT. 65733SQ.TT. A AX A PEL PERSON 12.33 •• 14.45 ■ - 16.04 - * Fig. 219. THE CLASSROOM 255 sizes range from 2 r i" to 23 . Assume the distance to be 2's" for a five-row room, then a room of forty seats will require a length of 30V' and a six-row room of forty-two pupils will require a length of rfl". The widths would be ig'g" and 23V' respectively. (See Fig- ures 219 and 220.) For grades VII and VIII (Figures 219 and 220) with forty and forty- two seats to the five- and six-row rooms, respectively, and distance from back to back T*]" , the lengths of these upper grade classrooms would be 31 '4" and 28 'q", while the widths would be 21V' and 24V' . Figures 221 and 222 illustrate two other types of classrooms with the ward- robes at the side and end, respectively, and both are used very much in the same way. Figure 222 is known as the “ Chicago ” type and like Figure 221 is favored by many architects of high standing in the field of school architec- ture. The writer favors the type with the wardrobe at the end of the room as in Figure 219, because it is possible to ventilate directly to the open air through the window, and what is equally im- portant, if not more so, is the possibility of having sunshine fall within the ward- robe some time during the day, provid- ing, of course, the classroom is not facing the north. Floor Areas. — It may be of interest to note the floor areas, including ward- robes, of all three schemes, using the measurements for grades VII and VIII of desks and aisles common to all except that the side wall aisle of Figure 221 is 4'o" wide instead of 3 / o", in order to allow more freedom in front of the ward- robe. The following are the areas : Fig. 219. 21' o"X 36' 4" =762.3 square feet. Fig. 220. 24' 6" X31' 4" = 766.8 square feet. Fig. 221. 21' o"X34' o" = 714 square feet. Chicago Board of Education Plan. — Figure 223 shows the seating plan of classrooms for various size desks in the elementary grades as laid out by Mr. A. F. Hus- sander, Architect for the Chicago Board of Education. They are similar to Figure 221 and have the advantage of giving more blackboard space back of the teacher’s desk. SC A L 4 ■TABLE, OF SIZES 6 AUASUIEMEKTS OF SCHOOL DESKS GJIADES I I I IV V VI VII VIII- WIDTH- Of-LOOM A 21- G” 23-0" 24'- G" length • OF - LOOM. B 25'- 3” 27-7" 2&'-r DISTANCE -BACK 10 BACK C 2 - 1” 2'- 5" 2-7” DISTANCE ACROSS D l'-G" r-r 2-0" SIZE or DESK 12"* IS" 15"* 2!' 16” *24" HEIGHT OT DESK zr T0 24" 23' TO 28" 26" TO 3r AkEA-UQUMD-roil; GLADES 542.87 SQIT G34.34 5QH 704.37 SQ.FT. ALIA TEL TELSON 12.C2 • ■ 14.75 - - 1C. 36 - - Fig. 220. The “ Chicago ” type, Figure 222, is 48.3 square feet less than that of Figure 219 and 32.8 square feet less than that of Figure 221. Notwithstanding this difference I believe the value of the sunlight compensates for the increased floor area of Figure 219. While calling atten- tion to floor areas including wardrobes it is interesting to observe that the total floor area of the six-row classroom, Figure 220, is 826.87 square feet, or 64.57 square feet greater than that of Figure 219, the five-row room. This difference is diminished if 32.76 square feet, the area occupied by the two additional pupils, is deducted. New York Board of Education Plan. — Figure 224 illustrates the elementary school classroom floor plans as planned by Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect for the New York City Board of Education. The capacities are as follows : 48 seats and desks in grades i-A to 4-B, inclusive. 46 seats and desks in grades 5-A to 6-B, inclusive. 42 seats and desks in grades 7-A to 8-B or 9-B, inclusive. A ge of Pupils. — The following information on this subject may be useful : 256 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE TL AC WINDOWS BLACK BOAILD CLASS ILOOiA 2-6 2'-©" C C B LA CiLBOAILD fr I i? 1 c\ LXJliGj IK <:li LI kg 4.AC.HL 2-t" ; 2 - 10 " 8‘-0 40 PUPILS LXHAUStT A1IL UNPIIL PCOILS • SAML TO -SLID-L UP r ILL S H AIL SUPPLY WAIIDILOH COLLI D O lb •TABLE OF SIZES <& AlEASUtEMtNTS OF SCHCDl DESKS- glades I II III IV V VI VII VIII WIDTH or UQOM A iq’- g" 20 - r 22'- 0" LENGTH OP 1LOOJA B 27- 4" 30-0" 31* 4" DISTANCE RACK TO LACK C z'-r 2-5" 2 - r DISTANCE ACROSS D r-6" r-r 2-0" size or dusk IZ" X 18" 15 " x zr‘ 16" *24' HIIGHT or KSK. 21" T0 24" 23" TO 28" 20 T °3!" AIWA H£ 0 UIHD roil CUES 532.23 sen. 622.5 SQ.FT. 68T26SQTT. AULA me TLHSOA 12.26 ■15.16 ■ • 16.51 'ILL AH r- " 1 SUPPLY I I AT; / 7 V / A / / 4? / /c / / v / m COIUC panix; BLACKBOARp C.TL-) 1 1 I O I DOOIL SHOWN OPLN UNO L IV 3 L A ACttAd . w A.ILD H-O-Bi- D OO see BOA W IUlI Lo ELEVATION Of WALDRORT. .SIM. S CALL Fig. 221. THE CLASSROOM 257 TA6EE or SIZES & MUSUJIXMUTS or SCHOOL DISKS G1UKS I l I IV V VI VII VJ1L WIDTH- OX- LOOM A 16'- G" 19 '- r zr-o" LENGTH- OS -LOOM B 27'- 4" 30'- O" 3l’-4" DlSTANCCMCK ro bAOC C 2-1" 2-5" 2-7" DISTANCE ACROSS D 1- G" i'- 9" 2-0" SIZE OF DISK 12" x 16" 15" x 21" 1G" x 24" height or DESK 21“ T0 24" 23" T0 26" 2G" T °31" A LEA- LEQUILED-FOL GLADES 505.G SQ.FT. 592.5 SQ.FT 057.93 GQ.rr. A LEA PEL PELSOW 12.33 - " 14.45 ■■ - 1G.04 - " 5 CALX, Fig. 222. .0! :Z . 9:1 .“5:1 S-.I a^ J J O-XZ . 9 -.r 9-1 to CO ^4 j> <3 R to R R s. cv2 O «J~ o <=* R <4 i> Jl .0 CO ul (=4 V 3 O .. R .£L V X ,0;Z ..O-.Z ,W H v4 -tcc- O ‘■: r d Si V ^- C4 . X VS -R- R oo rt R IF c -# : . 0:2 H . 0:2 R II <0 I I CO " R 0 R ! I O Of 1 ii -1| R o O f=l <= «< . 01:2 ^..O-.e l! M n KJ c a «=*; u~) O co O ^ M v! uT ^4 H 0 O 0 ^ U 5 5 H R U O O <£} H <£> s . x ~\ J- -S N Y D L, IQ AILCH1TLCT ■ Fig. 224. 26 o SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Kindergarten: entering age 5, completing age 6. Elementary School: Grade No. 1 : entering age 6, completing age 7. Grade No. 2 : entering age 7 to 75, completing age 8 to 85. Grade No. 3 : entering age 8 to 8§, completing age 9 to 95. Grade No. 4: entering age 9 to 10, completing age 10 to 11. Grade No. 5 : entering age 10 to ii, completing age n to 12. Grade No. 6: entering age 11 to 12, completing age 12 to 13. Intermediate or Junior High School: Grade No. 7 : entering age 12 to 13, completing age 13 to 14. Grade No. 8 : entering age 13 to 14, completing age 14 to 15. Grade No. 9 : entering age 14 to 15, completing age 16 to 17. Senior High School: Grade No. 10: entering age 14I to 17, completing age 15 J to 18. Grade No. 11 : entering age 16 to 18, completing age 17 to 19. Grade No. 12 : entering age 17 to 19, completing age 18 to 20. Size of Classroom Furniture. — - The following table of sizes for school desks has been made up from a promi- nent manufacturer’s catalogue (all dimensions are in inches) : Size numbers I 2 3 4 S 6 Length of desk top . . . 23I 23I 20I 20j 17I 17I Width of top l 6 l 6 14 14 12 12 Height of top 30 28I 26I 241 23 21I Height of seat .... i7i l6 T A 3 144 135 I 2 j I I Age of pupils (years) . . 17 14 II 8 6 5 Size of High School Classrooms. — The principles to be observed in planning the high school classroom are practically the same as for the elementary school. The main exception is that, in the high school, locker rooms for clothing and books are located in other parts of the building and the wardrobe of the elementary school disappears. The blackboards are of different heights, and the bookcase, with its dictionary, is used more by the students ; the hanging rail above the blackboard is omitted ; and there should be consideration given to the circulation if movable furniture is used. In establishing the size of classrooms for a high school a careful survey ought to be made of the enrollment for instruction in the different subjects of the curriculum. A capable superintendent or principal should be the master of this situation, for wasteful space or cramped rooms may result from a plan in which all the classrooms are of the same size. For example, the first and second year classes are, as a general rule, much larger than the third and fourth year classes, and some subjects of all years have larger attendance than others. Subjects like mathematics, modern languages, and particularly the dead languages, Greek and Latin, most likely have a smaller attendance than subjects like history, English, or similar subjects which are mostly lecture and outside reading courses. Very often folding doors and rolling curtain partitions are used as partitions separating rooms, so that two or more of the classrooms may be thrown together. It is easier to do this with movable chairs than with the fixed desk and seat. Although it is not always con- venient to join rooms like this, it is much better than to be unable to enlarge classrooms quickly. A good plan is to have all heating and ventilating ducts, plumbing pipes, electrical conduits, and such work installed in the corridor walls or extend along and furred in the corridor ceilings, and have the floors supported by the corridor partitions only, so that dividing or cross parti- tions may be moved and reset as often as the occasion warrants. Very little expense or damage is incurred if the partitions alone have to be moved. Boston High School Classrooms. — Figures 228 and 229 show the seating arrangement for high school classrooms as adopted by the Boston School Commission for classes of eighty and forty-two desks. Rooms are also laid out to accommodate sixty and thirty-six, while recitation rooms 26' o"X 16' o" are used as classrooms with double desks providing seats for about thirty pupils. The natural lighting of the larger rooms is a special problem and should be considered as such. Figure 230 shows a seating arrangement for junior and senior high schools often used by the writer, which has been found to work out quite satisfactorily. Ceiling Height. — - After having settled upon the horizontal dimensions of the room the height of ceiling from floor should receive careful consideration for proper lighting and ventilation. The first step is to investigate if near-by building or buildings on the opposite side of the street are of such a height as to prevent direct rays of sky light from entering at the sill fine of the window of the classroom on the lowest floor at an angle not greater than 27 degrees with the horizontal. If the street is too narrow or the adjacent buildings too high then the school building must be set far enough back from the street to correct this. At this point it is evident that the selection of the site is no small matter. Assuming that the site is large enough to locate the building as desired the height of ceiling from floor should be determined by the amount of direct light falling upon the row of desks most removed from the windows. The rule that the classroom should not be wider than twice the height of the window head from the floor and that the rays of light be direct sky light, necessitates the placing of the building so that the height of the top of structures opposite from the sill line of the lowest classrooms will not be greater than one-half the distance between both buildings. Figure 233 illus- trates this principle, and except in cities like New York, with an “ East Side ” where the streets are narrow, it is not difficult to obtain the direct sky rays. This rule will indicate how close walls of courts or yards may be without jeopardizing the lighting of the rooms. THE CLASSROOM 261 44 DESKS Fig. 225 . 44 ■ 0 IS ICS GUIDES lol 12" MS" 244" BACKPACK GLAM, 1 25" •• GMDE, IV V VI 15" x 20i" 24" BACK® BACK 15' x 21" 2-4t" • 15" x 21" 2-54‘ - G1ADE VII IS’* 25" 2T BACK® BACK VIII 1G" X 2B4' 2-74" • CUBING HEIGHT 12-0" A IE A GG7 SQ. FT. ALLOWS 14.62 ■ - PEL PLJISON voluie 8004 am. ALLOWS 177.64 ■ ■ PEL IE1S0N 44 ■ PLS45- Fig. 227. 26-0" I . 33' 262 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE cvJ CM 'cm 50 0-6" 0>. ^7 y-\t m 3'- Ik" 6-3" 1CHE IL TE 4 y-o“ 00 CM cO <0 80 DE.SKS •HIGH S CHOOLS • Fl0 ' ” 8 ’ ALLA 1 447.36 SQJT. ALLOWS I7.8& ■ ■ TEL PtllSOR VOLUME, 173L&.5& OUT. ALLOWS 2I14Z ■ - PEL f LOOK CELLING 12-0" HIGH ALLA 832 SQ.fT. ALLOWS 19.34 ■ • PEL PEItSON VOLUM, 1.984- CU. FT. ALLOWS £32.18 ■ • PEL POSOJ SIZE, OF DESKS 20" X 2G" 5 ACK. TO Ei AC K. 3'- li" 'O 04 <\2 CM io 3 - 0 " 2 -q" 2-q" q'-q- 32'- O” co cM CM Is <9 42 DESKS •HIGH SCHOOLS SIZE, Of DESKS 20" X 26" •BACK TO -SACK 2 ‘-q' S CAL 1 ,- Fig. 229. THE CLASSROOM 263 Figures 234 and 235 demonstrate the rule on a larger scale, and the direction of the rays of light within the classroom. Figure 235 is a section of the upper grade classrooms(VII, VIII, and High Schools), while Figure 234 is a section of the classrooms of grades I to VI inclusive. Taking Figure 235 first, it should be noted that the desks range from 2' 2" to 2 f ’]" in height, the width of desks is assumed at To" , the window aisle is To", the aisles between desks are i'6", and the wall aisles opposite the windows are 3 / o". Also the dotted line X-X' is the inn er wall line for a room of five rows, and Y-Y' the wall line for a room of six rows. It can be seen that for a ceiling height of i2 , o ,/ the ray C from the lintel of ceiling height 12' o" falls beyond one-fourth of the high desk of the fifth row, and that ray F from the lintel of ceiling height i3 / 6 // just intersects the corner of the larger desk of the sixth row. The window lintels are assumed to be 6 " below the ceilings. It should be noted that the distance from the outside wall of the innermost rows of desks receiving proper light in each case is approxi- mately one and one-half times the height of the window head from the floor. Therefore, it may be stated as a general rule by which to establish the arrangement of the seating and width of the room for good lighting, that no desk should be further removed from the source of light than one and one-half times the height of the window head from the floor. From Figure 235 the deduction may be made that for 1 room of five rows in width a ceiling height of 1 To" is sufficient, and for a room of six rows the height should xe X3 , 6 // and never less than i3'o". In Figure 234, with :he desks 1'g" in width, which is the market size for children of the sixth grade, and 2V' the height of the ligh desk for this grade, the lighting conditions are still nore favorable. For a room of five rows it would be avorable to lower the ceiling to even n'o", although his would necessitate extending the horizontal length )f the windows to bring the glass area up to 20 per cent >f the floor area, and would reduce the volume of space a the room. However, this would be drawing too fine . line ; it is mentioned only to demonstrate further the ighting problem. Further Study of the Plan. — A final word regarding he study of the plan of the classrooms would not be miss. The data presented are suggested with a desire a provide comfortable seating and aisles for easy em- ulation of pupils, as well as to indicate where wise conomies may be exercised in planning school build- lgs. Classrooms too large for the number of pupils to e accommodated are not only a financial and material aste, but, worse yet, they are a temptation to over- rowd such rooms just as soon as the slightest conges- tion develops in the community. This leads to neffi- ciency on the part of the teaching and cuts down on the individual instruction to the pupil. On the other hand there is a danger of attempting too great economy, and causing congestion and discomfort. The school is developing and changing so rapidly to meet new and added requirements that it behooves all who have to do with the housing of it to study each problem by itself, using such data as are presented here, simply as a means of solving the problem. Furthermore, when the school is used by continuation and evening classes the physical difference between high school students and adults requires consideration and study in order that the plant and its equipment may be flexible to meet the various requirements. Fixed and hard rules, however good and economical, often lead to permanent difficulties. The time may not be far removed when classrooms in ele- mentary grades will vary in size to accommodate from as few as fifteen seats to as many as forty. Elastic classi- fication will shorten the years of attendance of the mentally bright, and advance the slow child by more individual instruction, thereby moderating the financial burden of the state and giving greater opportunity to the child for advancement in educational work as well as development of its mental capacity. If the school grades of cities are of the 6-2-4, 6-3-3 or 6-6 groups instead of the prevailing 8-4 plan, it is clear that the elementary classroom may be reduced in floor area. When housing the eight grades under one roof, it is necessary to make the width of the classroom of the size to accommodate the larger children, unless we resort to unsymmetrical plans which would discount in a measure any such economy in the elementary schools, since it costs more to build irregular-shaped buildings. A study of the classrooms of the Boston and Chicago groups discloses the fact that there is considerable unused space in the lower grades, due to the use of a uniform size for all elementary grades. This may be lessened if the width of rooms for the sixth grade is taken as the width for all grades below the sixth, and they are housed apart from the upper grades. Natural Lighting of Classrooms. — The most important factor in the plan of a school is natural lighting. Arti- ficial lighting is a matter of good illuminating engineer- ing, but good natural lighting requires careful considera- tion in both plan and elevation with regard to the points of the compass and the quantity and quality of the light. Consequently the selection of the site and the location of the building are of paramount importance, for poor judgment in either case will make it difficult to favor- ably orientate classrooms and often will necessitate juggling and misplacing of rooms in order to overcome obstacles springing from the choice of an unsuitable site. 264 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Range of seasonal temperature and geographic locality are factors which largely determine the orientation of the classrooms. It is unwise to lay down hard and fast rules for all sections of a country as large as the United 10 15 S CALp •TABLE, OT 51 ZE,S 6 MEASUILEALLffTS- no. or rows GROWS WIDE, S HOWS WIRE, WIDTH or ROOM. 21-10'' 25'* 6" LENGTH or ItOOil- 26'- 8" 26-8" DISTANCE, MOK TO MCK. Z'- 8" 2-6" DISTANCE AGIOS S 2'- 2" 2-2" SIZE,' or DISK [6" ro l6W 26" [6" TO I8"X26" HEIGHT OF DUSK. 2-8" 2'- 8" FLOOL ARIA IUjQUIUOD 561.98 SQ.TT. 6728b SQ.TT. ARIA PUl PRISON 18.77 * " 18.37 • • Fig. 230. States, for what is desirable in the New England and the Eastern states might prove severe for Southern and Western states, especially in many sections of these states where the range of temperature is high. Generally where high temperatures are not of long duration east and west lighting are most favorable for classrooms. In communities where the opposite is true the class- rooms should be favored with east light, and to obtain economy it is sometimes necessary to resort to lighting from the north. This, however, should be a last resort. for a classroom which does not receive sunlight at some time during the day is deprived of a natural hygienic cleansing, and a cheerfulness which inevitably affects the health and happiness of pupils and the teacher. In many lo- calities close to the oceans southern ex- posures are not harmful, but as a rule they should be avoided, for they require drawn shades for so long a period to shut out the glare of the sun as to de- prive the room of the proper amount of light. This is just as bad, as though the glass area was too small. Overhead Lighting. — Overhead light- ing for classrooms is adopted by some architects, but while it has the advan- tage of giving a uniform distribution, the writer cannot see any really good reason to recommend it, because of the confining impression created by the four walls extending to the ceiling with no outlook. Such lighting is appropriate for art rooms, shops, or operating rooms in hospitals, where moving about is permitted and when the steady blue sky light casts the desirable shades and shadows, but to continually confine chil- dren to such rooms seems like fitting them mentally to occupy cells. Glass Area. — The right amount of glass area for a classroom likewise is dependent upon the locality and the orientation of the room. Classrooms facing the north should have a greater lighting surface than those having other exposures, and schools in communities that experience a preponderance of cloudy and foggy weather require more fight than those that have an intense sunlight. The common practice is to allow 25 per cent of the floor area for masonry openings, which will give a trifle more than a 20 per cent equivalent in glass area. This should be closely followed, although in in- terior cities where the sunlight is quite intense, class- rooms have been found to be fairly well lighted with as small a glass area as 16 per cent. This, however, is bordering too closely on the danger of underfighting. THE CLASSROOM 265 •SIDE, ELIVATIOH TOWA1U) EXTLIUOI/ •SIDE ELEVATION TOWAILD COIUUDOL- I> = 1> L, A C K JbOAILD C ; CANVAS • t LiVATION Of UACHE.IS £ND - P • PL,ASTtIb W * WOOD PANELS i ■ELEVATION TOWA1D CLASS lOOi- INTE1UOL ■ ELEVATION S • 1 LLVATIOH AWAY EED/A CLASS ilCQju • OF CLASS AjCOA HG. S CAL, t, ■ Fig. 231. 266 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Many states provide by statute for 20 per cent of glass area, and it should be followed, or increased whenever the climatic conditions require an increased area for good lighting. One of the difficulties encountered by the architect in designing the exterior of a school building is the repetition of groups of windows of similar forms, which gives an impression of monotony. Nevertheless it is mandatory that the fenestration of classrooms conform to the physical requirements and that the rules govern- ing these requirements be followed. It is unfortunate if the exterior design is unsightly, due to unskilled han- dling of windows ; on the other hand, next to structural safety the proper lighting takes precedence over every- thing else. Furthermore, the vertical divisions or mullions and the horizontal divisions or transom bars should be as small as good construction will permit. By the use of steel sash both divisions are reduced to the minimum ; but such sash are expensive. The transom bar is not necessary, for the double-hung and the hori- zontal casement sashes (Figures 236 and 237) may extend from stool to head without interruption except at the meeting rails. Height of Window Stools. — Educators differ as to the ideal height of window stools, but the greater number believe that the height should not be less than 2't" Fig. 232. TEE CLASSROOM 267 md not more than 3' 6". If lower than 2' 6", glaring effected light from the ground and surrounding objects vill shine directly into the eyes of the pupils sitting tear the windows, which is extremely harmful as well ,s annoying. If the window stool is higher than 3' 6", t is difficult for the child to look out for a momentary estful change, and it is on this point that educators isagree. Some contend that distraction results from )w window stools. A large majority of educators, owever, favor giving the child the same opportunity s is enjoyed by the teacher. But one of the deter- lining factors regarding this point is the requirement of classroom, and the advantage to good lighting gained by it compensates but little for the psychologically bad effect upon both community and student caused by warped exteriors. After all, the precepts conducive to good natural lighting are left-hand unilateral light, the right kind of light, and the right amount of light. The latter two factors are entirely dependent upon the architect’s grasp and solution of the problem. Wardrobes. — It is possible to locate the wardrobe in the front, rear, or side of the classroom. Figures 219 and 220 show the wardrobe at the front ; Figure 221 shows it at the side, while in Figure 222, known as the “ Chicago ” : o oJ / 1 1 1 /// /// // / //////v// I b 1 oJ / 1 AA/A(/A 0 / P'kI 1 1 *o 1 , ft \ / / / '////)/, '///aas / + 2J'-0“ • 5 aows ' 1 / r _ 24 '- GftO VS j / V/ 77 / //////// $ •DIAGRAM. 5HOWIKG l^QUIUAD .DISTANCES BATWUJ UlfilOJL MILS 3 c A U L, Fig. 233. fiss area. It will be found that to meet 20 per cent euivalent, both the head and stool are almost auto- ritically fixed, at least to only a slight range of variation, die soffit of the window head is usually not more than s inches below the ceiling line, and wherever the lintels ci be splayed, just that much more light is given to the rim. It is desirable that the masonry reveal on the lft of the group of windows extend so far to the rear of t : classroom as the rear seat, and on the right not much fither forward than the front line of desks, although I d not believe that the exterior appearance of a school sbuld be marred to bring this about. J vlany think well of the long blank space in the exterior 11 adjacent to the front of the room, counting on this S] ce to partially intercept the rays of light from that a ;le. A close examination will disclose the fact that tl; benefits but a small percentage of the pupils of a type, it may be at the front or rear. As previously mentioned, the “Chicago” type requires less floor area and does not increase the cost of construction due to width of room, as in Figure 221. However, the latter gives more room lor the clothing, which is well worth considering. Access to both types is by means of vertically sliding panel doors, containing blackboards, counterweightecl for easy operation. Figures 219 and 220 show the type having an’outside window, which gives direct lighting and natural ventila- tion. They are favored by many for these reasons and are more hygienic. It should be noted that the parti- tion between the teacher’s closet at the window does not extend to the ceiling but stops just above the top of the door. Also the upper panel of the door is glazed, permitting light to pass through. The teacher’s closet is found to be very convenient 268 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE and inexpensive. In addition to its other uses it is handy for the storage of supplies. Figure 232 shows the details within the room for the hanging of clothes for all three types of wardrobes. The hooks are usually spaced 12 inches on centers on each rod, making the net spacing about 6 inches on centers. While the heights of the rods are marked on the drawings, it may be well to record them here. For kindergarten the lower pole is thirty inches from the floor ; for grades I, II, III, and IV, thirty-six to forty inches ; for grades V, VI, VII, and VIII, forty-four, forty-eight, and fifty- two inches. The steam coils are placed in the location shown, so that during inclement weather wet and damp clothing may be dried before recess or closing time. The cloth- ing is protected from the hot coils by a f" mesh wire guard covering the pipes as shown. Shut-off valves are placed in the teacher’s closet and under her control The cost of this installation is so small that it should never be omitted. Very often the exhaust register or vent opening, without a register, is placed at the floor level in the wardrobes. It is better, however, to have the vent register placed in the ceiling, for then the travel of the air will cause it to pass through the children’s clothing, ventilating and drying them. Referring to the section of the classroom looking toward the teacher’s end of the room (figure 231), it is seen that the doors of the wardrobe are hung with the lower edge about 15 inches above the floor ; while this is not as neat in appear- ance as the door containing the bottom rail and metal grille, nevertheless it is more efficient in ventilating the room, as there is no obstruction to the flow of the air where heaviest at the floor level. Some school boards require an umbrella gutter extend- ing the length of the wardrobe, but the umbrella rack is more sanitary, less expensive, and less cumbersome. The wardrobe should always be confined within the walls of the classroom and never be a part of the corridor or open out into the corridor. The former gives to tie teacher complete control of this space, and eliminates petty pilfering and unsightly corridor walls or pockets. Furthermore, it must be remembered that at times of danger and fire drills the children are never permitted to go to the wardrobe for their clothing, as that would be the surest way to create confusion and engender panic. Blackboards. — The question of blackboard material is bound to rise in any new school building project, ard invariably the merits of the various materials are dis cussed, and often with very limited data at hand to enlighten the discussion. Not infrequently the final result of such deliberations is determined by the pre- vailing influence of a good salesman. The points to consider in selecting blackboard material are smooth- ness of surface, durability, porosity, possibilities for washing and erasing, non-reflectiveness of light, uni- formity in color and permanency in shade. There is no material that will qualify to the test of the above require- ments as well as good natural slate. Slate is a natural rock, the distinguishing characteristic of which is to split readily into thin layers. The molecular structure is very dense. Hence it is readily polished to a very fine, smooth, non-porous surface. Glass blackboards are used to a great extent in European countries and to some extent in this country, and it appears, from letters at hand, with varying degrees of satisfactory results. It has proved satisfactory in the chemistry department of the New York City College, while at the Carnegie Technical School, a correspondent complains of strong reflection of light and recommends against its use. However, glass blackboards have been so little used in this country that it seems at this time like experimenting with the little-known to attempt their general use, which is all the more unlikely as the cost is considerably higher than that of slate. Substitutes for slate are usually of patented make. The most common are made from wood pulp, paper, and cement, others from pulverized steel filings mixed with ground slate and set with a stone cement. In school buildings of any permanency natural slate blackboards should be used. If they are of good material and have what is known as hand-shaved, or rubbed, velvet smooth finish no substitute is comparable in any way except in cost. A good method of determining the quality of smoothness is to draw long chalk lines upon it and note the continuity or unbrokenness of the line. If the lines appear to be short dashes or if the black is visible through the chalk line, then the finish is of poor workmanship and the material should be rejected. This precaution should be taken before it is set in place. In specifying slate blackboard, it should be clearly stated that the boards shall be to f" thick, in true planes, out of wind, and the exposed surfaces hand- shaved or rubbed to a smooth velvet finish, all abutting edges to be ground and straight so as to make a paper edge joint when set. After setting, all uneven joints should be rubbed until the surfaces are in the same plane. This can be accomplished by insisting on good setting and workmanship in the installation. Better settings are accomplished if the slate is backed with a stiff solid backing such as wood sheathing. This is Hue also as to composition boards, for they shouia be delivered in as long lengths as possible, and unless they have a stiff background they will show springiness and soor separate from the fastenings. Stock Sizes of Slate. — Slate blackboards are cut anc carried in stock, in standard heights only. These THE CLASSROOM 269 • s C A LL' Fig, 235. 270 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Fig. 236. — Classroom Showing Open Windows, Clawson School, Oakland, California. standard heights are s'o", 3'6", 4V 7 , 4 7 6 77 , and 5V'. This should be kept in mind when writing specifications. Other heights must be cut to order, and as proper blocks are not always available, delays and extra cost will follow. Lengths of slate blackboards range from 3V 7 to about 6'o". It is safe to specify that all sections up to 5' 6" shall be in one piece, sections over 5' 6" and up to ii'o" shall be in two pieces, and so on, using 5' 6" as a measure. Thereby the joints will occur as seldom as the market material will allow. It should be specified further that all blackboards shall be of the best grade of hand-shaved, natural slate, uniformly f" thick, free from knots, veins, clay-holes, scale, crossgrain, curl, ribbons, or other defects ; finish face on one side only shall be pumiced, rubbed smooth, and of a perfect black uniform color and finish of velvet-like texture. Backs shall be sand-rubbed for correct mounting. All slate shall be set only by experienced mechanics, joints cemented, scraped, and rubbed to form absolutely true, and even flush surfaces. Slate shall be guaranteed not to fade. Good results usually follow. The details of Figure 231 show the horizontal location of the blackboards in classroom for upper grades of the elementary school, while the details of Figure 232 show more clearly the construction and installation. Type “ A ” is somewhat similar and less expensive than type “ B.” On the other hand, type “ B ” has smaller ledges for the lodgment of dust due to the bed-molds fitting into the angles formed by the wood casings or trim and the vertical walls. In type “ B ” the chalk rail has a hinged wire screen consisting of num- ber 18 gauge galvanized ware of f 77 mesh, and set in about 6'o" lengths and hinged every 2 7 o 77 to swing up and back to permit easy cleaning of the chalk rail. Its main purpose is to keep the chalk and erasers free from the chalk dust lying in the trough. It is one of the niceties in keeping with a well-finished room, but may be dispensed with for other more important details. It should be noted that black- THE CLASSROOM 271 boards should never be placed on the window side of the room. Height of Chalk-rails. — One of the most important points connected with schoolhouse construction is to have the heights of the chalk-rails correctly established and carefully inspected during the construction of the building. Too much stress cannot be laid to this feature, for the writer has visited schools having the heights entirely out of proportion to the age and size of the pupils using the room. Furthermore, it is really the heights of the chalk-rail from the floor that estab- lish the grade of the room. The grade of any classroom may be changed by changing the furniture, but it is not so simple a matter to raise or lower the chalk-rail and blackboard without going to a great expense in tearing out finished permanent work. The heights given in Figure 232 are recorded here and are the results of careful observation by both educators and architects. The heights of blackboards above the chalk-rail as shown are recommended be- cause it is useless to install great heights of boards which children cannot reach with comfort and ease. However, conditions may arise, such as proper proportioning of wall spaces, which may require some deviation either one way or the other. Table No. 1, Blackboard data for classrooms : 1 Grade Height of Chalk- Rail above Floor Height of Black- board above Chalk-Rail Kindergarten _ / // 2 O 3' 0" I and II 2 2 3' 0" Ill and IV 2' 4 " 3 ' 0" V and VI 2' 6" 3 ' 6" VII and Vm 2' 8" 3 ' 6" High School II "O 4 ' O" Tacking Strips. — It should be noted that the wall or hanging rail above the blackboard as shown in Figure 232 contains cork strips inserted in the rail and serves for tacking papers, drawings, etc. This extends around the room and is exceedingly valuable to the teacher. Credit should be given Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect for the Board of Education, School District No. 1, Portland, Oregon, for this suggestion. The writer formerly used a concealed wire for such hangings, but believes the tacking device is superior. In Boston, where blackboards are not placed, the walls are covered with burlap and a picture mold is installed at the height of the top rail of blackboard, which serves for hanging drawings and pictures at this height. There is also a picture molding near the ceiling. The blackboards at the front of the room should have the chalk-rail not less than 3V' above the floor so that the teacher’s writing may be visible from all parts of the room, and above the chalk-rail the board should extend to the door height, which is about 4/0" above the chalk-rail. Reach of Pupils. — - The following table was com- piled after a series of tests made in the Adams Cos- mopolitan School, San Francisco : Grade Height Tallest Pupil Can Reach to Write Height Shortest Pupil Can Reach to Write Lowest Point without Stooping Tallest Pupil Can Write Lowest Point without Stooping Shortest Pupil Can Write VIII VII VI V IV III II I . 6' 4/' 6 4 6' o' 1 6' o" 6' o" S' 7 § 5 ' 6 " S' o' 1 5 IT 5 ' 8 ' 3 ° 2' 8" 3 2 2' 8'' 3 ' 3 ' ; 2' II" 3' o" 2' 9" 2 ' 8 2' 8 3 ' 4 ' 2' xo 2' 6 2' 9 2' 9 2' 8 n General Notes. — - If the fundamental factors of classroom construction, such as the size, height, and lighting, are correctly fixed, the interior finish and appointments are matters which the experienced, true- visioned architect will bring to a state of completion that will give pleasure and satisfaction. It is the taste, skill, knowledge of material, and experience of such an architect which immediately mark and elevate his work above that of the indifferent practitioner. It costs so little more, and often so much less, to perform and execute good work that it behooves those responsible for such public work as schoolhouses to carefully weigh this consideration. The value of good planning, co- ordinating of parts, careful study of requirements, and the labor of preliminary research may go for naught if the finished work does not show care and study in the selection of materials, refinement in details, and con- sideration in the color schemes of the rooms. How often are the good features of any piece of work lost sight of, or thrown into the background, by a crude and coarse treatment of that which first attracts atten- tion, namely, the exposed finish work ! There is almost as much distinction between the finished work of the 1 Dr. Dressier, in his American School Houses, recommends the chalk-rail be placed for grades I and II, 25 , III and IV, 27 , V and VI, 30 , VII and VIII, 32"; and for high school classes, 40"; and that the width of board above the chalk-rail be for grades I and III, 28 ; IV and V, 32"; VI to VIII, 36" ; and for high school classes, 40". ,,,,,, The Boston School House Commission require the following : chalk- rail height from floor Kindergarten, 2 2 ; grade IV, 2 4 to 2 6 , grades V to VIII, 2' 8’'; behind the teacher and on the long side the same ; and that boards above chalk-rail shall be 4 o . Also that blackboard shall be thick. At the rear of the room, instead of blackboards, soft wood sheathing is used with cork carpet attached to it, extending from the base to the molding at top of blackboards. 272 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE skillful architect and of the untrained careless man as 1 one finds in the work of the master artisan and the apprentice. And it is with that thought in mind that the remaining notes on the classroom are offered. Some of the recommendations may be improved upon, and most likely will be, as new devices are discovered and improve- ments are developed in the various building trades. It is well to avoid projecting ledges and dust catchers wherever possible. Of necessity there will be a certain amount of trim, such as casings, floor base, picture moldings, etc., but schoolrooms should be finished similar to the interiors of hospitals. The greatly in- creasing demand for schools and increased requirements in schools of to-day over those of only a few years past will not permit of the far-reaching sanitary treat- ment of hospitals, because of cost, but in so far as it is compatible with the available money, that should be the objective. Floors. — Whenever the seats and desks are fixed or fastened to the floors, it generally follows that wood is the material to use for flooring, although it is possible to adopt the awkward method of fastening desks to wood runners. Sometimes the finish of floors is battle- ship linoleum over cement or concrete, but since this is generally too expensive and used only for exceptional cases, it does not invite exhaustive discussion. Oak, likewise, is too expensive for general use for class- room floors, and in most cases the builder is held down to the use of maple and some of the other cheaper woods, such as Douglas fir (Oregon pine) in the West and yellow pine in the East and South. Maple is so superior for flooring that, like slate blackboards, it should be used whenever the funds at hand will permit. Boards of education should take these points into consideration before finally determining upon the school building appropriation, in order that there may be sufficient funds to handle the work properly and with the lowest cost later for repairs and maintenance. It is only in the most cheaply constructed buildings that double floors would not be installed ; and under no circumstance should a single thickness of flooring be used for any floor, and particularly for the first floor, on account of dampness and stagnant ground odors rising from below. Likewise, the noises from above make it mandatory that double floors and deafening be used above the first floor. What is offered here is of course applicable to floors of joist construction. Where fireproof floor construction is installed, such as reenforced concrete or fireproof tile arches between steel beams with sleepers for nailing the under floor, the conditions are entirely different and more favorable. Before sleepers are set, they should be immersed in a wood preservative, allowed to absorb to the fullest capillary extent, and then dried before being set in place to receive the concrete fill and rough or finish flooring. If this precaution is not taken, dry rot is apt to set in, causing no end of expense and inconvenience. In order that deafening may be effective, the finish floor should be laid so that it “floats ” on 2"X2", or better T'Xt,", wood strips laid and occasionally tacked to the under floor. All deafening should extend upward back of the wall base at least 4“. There are a few good floor deafeners or sound insu- lators on the market, any one of which, if used in sufficient quantity and correctly applied according to the manu- facturer’s directions, will answer the purpose. All finish floors should be tongued and grooved, blind- nailed, and top-nailed at end joints where necessary, thoroughly sanded by a sanding machine, and hand- scraped and sandpapered near the baseboards where it is difficult to run the sanding machine. Thresholds, door saddles, or carpet strips as they are often called, should not be used between rooms. When- ever the direction of the flooring changes or there is a change in flooring material, such as wood against cement, marble, or linoleum, the finish floor levels should be care- fully adjusted and a tight filler strip of the proper material, either marble, wood, or cement, should be inserted between the jambs and at the floor level. Interior Mill Work or Trim. — It has been previously stated that the interiors of classrooms should approach the interiors of modern hospitals in sanitary moldings and finish. However, a certain amount of trim is necessary, such as floor bases, chalk-rails, blackboard casings, hanging rails, and picture moldings. These moldings, casings, and rails should be as simple in design as possible and all ledges should be avoided by the use of rounded or coved bed molds. Type A, figure 232, shows a good example of a very simple treatment in larger detail of the interiors of figure 231. Type B of figure 232 is a more complete finish, as the angle or bed moldings are used throughout. One of the problems submitted to the writer a few years ago was to find a wall material which would take the wear and tear of hard usage for the wall space be- tween the top of the floor base and the under side of the chalk-rail. In the schools visited, especially in the lower grades, which had been in use from six to eight years, we found the plaster walls of this space much damaged, and this damage was more pronounced in appearance in many of the schools when the plaster walls were covered with burlap or heavy canvas, as the covering was torn. We decided upon the use of built-up veneer panels of the kind of wood used for the interior finish, which was mostly Douglas fir. Upon recent examination, the THE CLASSROOM 273 Fig. 237. — Open Windows in Patio — Emerson School, Oakland, California. walls were found to be in splendid condition. This is the section of the room which receives the worst kind of wear, evidently from the children’s feet and knees. Somehow or other, repair and maintenance of school buildings is given less attention than any other class of public or semi-public buildings, and no buildings except factories are subject to as much use and abuse as school buildings. Therefore, it behooves boards of education to build as permanently with good lasting materials as conditions will permit. It is not every appropriation that will permit the use of oak as an interior wood finish ; but oak, or a similar hardwood, should be the selection, as it gives the most pleasing appearance and adapts itself to almost any color scheme for the room. Furthermore, it is most durable, least susceptible to damage by dents, and may be easily refinished. However, the number of school- houses trimmed in oak is relatively small compared to the number finished in other woods, and we must treat with the conditions that prevail. In the West the most commonly used wood is Douglas fir, known as Oregon pine. It is a close grain wood and very easy to work ; is subject to some shrinkage, and therefore the wood should be thoroughly seasoned and kiln-dried. Also the joinery and workmanship should be of high grade. The Eastern and Central states have a greater variety of woods to select from whenever oak is found to be outside the pale of price. Ash, birch, chestnut, white pine, and southern pine are woods adaptable for interior finish. The day may not be far distant when it will be eco- nomical to use metal trim for interior finish. At present, however, it is beyond the reach except only in unusual cases, such as in the many-storied schools of New York City, where its use is mainly for fireproof purposes. It is ideally sanitary, and with the baked enamel finish usually applied at the factory the durability is almost beyond measure. Doors. — At this age of progress it seems hardly necessary to repeat that all doors in school buildings should open outward from the room. While there is not as great danger from doors opening into a classroom as there is from the exterior doors of the building at the entrance and exits, yet the principle should be followed throughout and without exception. Also there should be but one door to a classroom, as that one means of exit gives the teacher complete control over the pupils in case of fire or alarm. With two doors to a room sometimes an excitable or unruly pupil might dash out of the room and possibly start a panic which could easily cause a tragic loss of life. Classroom doors should be at least 3' 4" in width and the usual height is 7' o". The flush type of door without any panels or moldings is most desirable. They 274 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE are built up with a center core, and layers of veneer are applied to the core, giving a smooth even finish. School authorities differ regarding the use of glass in the upper part of the classroom door, some object- ing to the absence of privacy in the room and stressing the fact that the passing of teachers and students in the corridors is distracting to the pupils and teacher within. On the other hand, the writer has found that the glass panels, if divided into reasonably small panes, meet with high favor. Considerable light is transmitted into the corridors, and it is always possible to use ground or obscure glass to obviate any distraction from the corridor. The door should always be fitted with a lock which never permits the door to be locked to those within the room. This applies to all doors of a school build- ing. There are inexpensive locks on the market that have this feature. The door may be locked from without to prevent pilfering and vandalism, but never from within. Furthermore, the door should be hung to open the full 180 degrees and have a doorholder consisting of a brass socket set in the bottom of the door which fits into a small round brass tongue about in diameter and set about above the finish floor of the corridor. Door checks to classroom doors are a nuisance and altogether unnecessary. Transoms. — The use of transoms in classrooms has been much debated. But experience and observation lead the writer to heartily recommend their use. The demand for more fresh air and freer circulation of air when the ventilating system is not functioning brought about their adoption in groups. When placed near the ceiling opposite the windows, a circulation of air in the room is always possible, since there is generally a difference of temperature between the outside of the building and the corridor side of the room. They are particularly adaptable to one-story schools with open porches, and have been found useful for cross-venti- lation of classrooms on each side of corridors. It is always possible to substitute wood panels for the glass if ill effects are found due to cross lighting, but the latter does not occur when the transoms are placed close to the ceiling. Usually the transoms are about 3' o" wide by about 2' o" high and are hinged and sus- pended by chains when open. Whenever they are installed, the wall below should be flared or sloped so that any dust lodging there may be easily seen and removed. Plaster. — Were it not for the bad acoustics so com- monly found in the classrooms of our fireproof school buildings this subject might very well be omitted, for there is no intention to include here a treatise on build- ing construction. Modern rapid construction and re- lated conditions brought into practice the use of what is known as hard wall or gypsum plaster, which is pre- pared before delivery to the buildings and is ready for immediate use by simply adding sand and water. The necessity to make buildings as nearly fireproof as possible developed the metal stud and metal lath. The use of the two materials, metal laths and hard wall plaster for wall surfaces, brought about a harder and denser surface than that of the wood lath and lim p mortar. This plaster absorbs less sound waves set in motion by the voice, and reflects the waves, reverberat- ing them through the room. With maple flooring, metal desks with hardwood tops, slate blackboards, the walls and ceilings of metal lath, and hard wall plaster, to- gether with the window glass, the children and their clothing are the only substances remaining to raise the coefficient of absorption of the sound waves in the room. The writer has built such classrooms under fixed build- ing laws and knows whereof he speaks. It is for the peace of mind of both teacher and pupil that these facts are here set forth. The plastering materials most favorable for good acoustics in a classroom are wood lath and lime mortar gauged with Keene’s cement ; the next least unfavorable are the terra cotta or burnt clay blocks and lime mortar, and the next to that are the metal lath and lime mortar, and the most unfavorable are the metal lath and hard wall plaster. All finish plaster work should be troweled to a smooth even finish with a steel trowel. Never should the surface receive a sand finish. It is not uncommon for a shrewd old plasterer to suggest the sand finish, as it means less labor for him, and speedier results. But the sand finish is a catch-all for the fine particles of dust, to say nothing of germs, bugs, and what not. The writer heartily urges the smooth finish for the health of the occupants of the room, a subject which will be further discussed under “ Painting.” Canvas. — In an elementary school building, the walls from the top of the blackboard to the floor receive hard usage, and the wear and tear of these surfaces have brought about the use of burlap or canvas on all plaster surfaces from the floor base to the top wall hanging rail except in such places as under the chalk-rail, previously described. Canvas should be what is known as “ Oil Canvas,” and be thoroughly sized with strong glue, sizing always to be applied before the canvas is placed in position. The canvas should be hung in perpendicu- lar strips as with wall paper wherever the height to be covered is greater than the width of the canvas. It should be well pasted on the back with strong fresh glue and special care taken to make close, neat butt joints properly rolled down. Immediately after each THE CLASSROOM 275 stretch is finished sponge off with fresh clean water to remove all glue from the outside surface. All canvas work should call for a guarantee against peeling, blister- ing or other defects of material or workmanship for at least one year after completion. After the canvas has dried out it should receive at least two good coats of lead and oil as a finish. In specifying canvas, it is very important that only a high grade material be called for and used. The brand used should be one especially prepared for wall covering, and one which does not shrink or permit the glue to ooze through the weave, and which can be laid without the joints showing. The unprepared canvas will shrink and cause no end of bother, and never can be made satisfactory. Painting. • — - The color schemes for classrooms should be simple and of good taste, and the reason for this is quite evident. In the first place, with a black band of blackboard, the top of which cuts the height of the room in two, with the many-colored desk tops and seats and with desk supports of sharp color, usually black, there is very little chance to get away from the simplest of selection in color, as the restrictions have been rightly imposed by the requirements of utility attached to the problem. Occasionally we hear and read of color schemes for classrooms by some one who has spent but a little while within one, and who overlooks physical conditions that prohibit anything apart from a simple light treatment of both walls and ceiling. Who has not been in school buildings where either the colorist or the painter has attempted to reproduce the greens, blues, reds, and purples of nature on the walls of rooms for study, until they seemed to howl with violence? Time and again one wonders what prompted the impulse. There are many such examples of poor taste, and they are not rare except in vigor. What can we expect of children who have to spend at least one- tenth of their life within rooms that either excite or depress ? The question of color scheme is extremely simple. First, the ceilings and walls should reflect as much diffused light as possible. Therefore the ceiling should be as close as possible to the white shade without having the dead white effect. The egg-shell white is not dis- pleasing, and it should be carried down to the top of the picture molding, which is usually placed close to the ceiling. Below that, light buffs, light grays, or any of the light, soft, pleasing hues which will harmonize with the wood stains, keeping them, however, light and flat, will give satisfactory results. Whenever burlap is used the same care should be exercised to keep the tones soft. Tans are good colors for this surface. Tints produce more pleasing and softer effects than paints, although many of the washable wall paints now on the market give pleasing flat tones. The ceilings may be tinted, but whenever the money avail- able will permit the use of flat washable wall paints, these should be adopted. For with three good coats of a reputable make, it is possible later to wash and clean the walls with soap and water. The plaster finish must be smooth and not sanded. For first-class work the ceiling should receive two coats of tinting in addition to the coat of sizing; likewise the walls, if tinted. But if paint is used for either walls or ceilings, three coats are necessary to produce a satisfactory result. Seldom is the finished woodwork painted. It should be stained, shellacked and varnished and brought to a flat tone. The grain of the wood is enhanced by such treatment. And this is a matter on which the purchasing agent of the Board of Education should confer with the architect in the selection of the finish and colors of the school furniture. Many pleasing interiors have been marred by a thoughtless selection of furniture. Nobody with any taste would think of furnishing a home without giving thought to the colors of the rooms and the furni- ture, in order that quiet and harmony may be the pre- vailing note throughout. It is a good thought and well expressed that the proper color schemes for different rooms and different classrooms vary. They should be handled, however, with some thought of the orientation of the room. It should be emphasized that selection of colors receive just as much attention as any other part of the work, for it is equally as important in its effect on the pupils for whom the school is built. Floor Treatment. — - It has long been the practice to oil the floors of classrooms in order to preserve the finish surface and to keep the dust from rising. A number of practical men have been consulted who have had wide experience in the use of materials for this purpose, and the best of the information obtained is given below. Floor Oiling. — The floors should be first thoroughly cleaned with hot water and a cleansing powder, using scrubbing brushes to remove all dirt, dust, and foreign substances, then allowed to dry thoroughly before apply- ing the oil dressing. In re-oiling floors this cleansing process should be strictly followed in order to preserve the natural color of the wood and to defer as long as possible the darkening or turning black of the floor. After the floor has been washed and allowed to dry, the oil should be applied with a mop and thoroughly mopped into the wood pores and allowed to penetrate thoroughly into the grain. After twenty-four hours the floor should be remopped with a dry mop which has 276 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE been saturated with the oil and allowed to thoroughly dry, taking up any superfluous oil that may not have penetrated into the wood. This will give the floors a polish and prevent to a great extent soiling of the girl pupils’ dresses. This work should be done about a week before the new building is accepted and during summer vacations in school buildings already in use. Once a year is generally considered sufficient for oiling floors completely and twice a year for the aisles between desks, but it is far better to make a thorough job of it twice a year. If the oiling is well done, it is then only necessary for the janitor to sweep the floors once a day with a long- handled 12" Russian bristle hair floor sweeper. The use of sprinkled sawdust in rooms with fixed desks should be discouraged, as it is almost impossible to prevent particles getting in around the floor flanges of desks and seats and creating unsanitary conditions. Cleaning floors by the vacuum process is not successful where desks are fixed or screwed to the floor, as it is difficult for the janitor to handle the hose and tools in and around the desk supports. It takes janitors longer and the work is not efficiently done as when done by the sweeper, particularly over oiled floors. The vacuum cleaner is desirable, however, for cleaning the blackboard erasers and the chalk rails. Chalk dust is very injurious to the lungs. When there is objection to the use of floor oils for floor finishes the following is a comprehensive descrip- tion of a treatment which gives a hard durable finish. Different woods, of necessity, call for special care. Every kind or all kinds will not accept the same treat- ment. The treatment given should be that which the nature of the wood requires. Floor Dressings. — The first thing to do with the newly laid floor after the surface has been sanded is to fill the pores of the wood with a prepared paste wood- filler made, for best results, from a combination of silica, or silex (quartz rock), linseed oil, Japan drier, thinned ready for application to the floor surface with either spirits of turpentine or petroleum naphtha. This prepares for a natural wood effect. If the wood is to be stained the stain should always be applied before the filler is put into the pores of the wood. This filled surface when it has hardened is sandpapered smooth and presents an even, uniform surface that will indefinitely prolong the life of the wood, and requires much less care and expense than an unfilled surface, and also requires less material for subsequent finishes of whatever kind employed. All stairway treads should receive like treatment when made of wood. The wood having open pores and demanding such treatment as stated are oak, ash, elm, cedar, maple, gum, and Oregon pine (Douglas fir), all of which are greatly improved by this treatment. The more porous the wood the more need of filler. But porous wood, well filled, presents a relatively hard surface. Floors of halls of assembly, baths, gymnasiums, schools, churches, and public buildings give splendid service when, after they have been properly filled, they are given a first coating of a mixture of equal parts of raw linseed oil and petroleum naphtha. Allow sufficient time for the wood to absorb all it will and then remove surplus oil from the surface to prevent any tackiness of the material. An occasional cleansing of the floors and a repetition of the process of oiling as above stated will not only preserve the floor but keep it in an accept- able condition and appearance. There are other ways of finishing floors made of wood where they are used for banquet and dance purposes. The filled surface can be given an application of pre- pared floor wax and thoroughly polished or burnished with a weighted floor-polishing brush, or a coating of prepared dancing wax can be spread over the fill ed surface, letting the feet of the dancers do the polishing and finish. Another way is to apply one or more coats of a good quality of floor varnish (not shellac ) over the filled floor surface if durability or service is desired. But there is one thing to be borne in mind in using varnish as a finish on floors. Keeping it in repair demands more expense and care than an oil or wax finish, as it cannot well be patched when worn in places of more or less constant use. The least durable of all floor finishes is the painted floor. Like the varnished surface, it is difficult to keep in repair without going over the whole surface. Linoleum .- — Inlaid or battleship linoleum floor cover- ing when newly laid should never be varnished to pre- serve or beautify it. But if when cleansed it is given an occasional going-over with a cloth or mop slightly saturated with a solution of equal parts of raw linseed oil and either turpentine or petroleum naphtha, being careful to leave no surplus oil to become tacky, it will be beautified and its life prolonged. This does not apply to the cheaper class of stamped linoleum floor coverings. Linseed Oil and Turpentine. — Another simple but effective treatment is to apply one coat of pure raw linseed oil and 25 per cent of turpentine and a small amount of Japan drier, thoroughly 7 mixed and applied hot. Although this is not a dust allay 7 er. it makes a very pleasing floor finish. Location of Air Registers. — When a ventilating system is properly laid out by' a competent heating and ventilating engineer, there should be little or no occasion for the misplacement of air supply 7 and exhaust vent openings. On the other hand, the principle of complete circulation of the air is often abused, and it THE CLASSROOM 277 may not be always convenient to obtain the services of an engineer. Therefore, a description of the classroom which disregarded this point would not be complete. In a room 13' o" high the center of the supply opening should be about g' o" above the floor, and its location gives best results when the air in its travels makes a complete circuit of the room. In classrooms of type Figure 219, the proper location is back of the teacher’s desk. Then the air will pass out into the room and gradually force its way back under the wardrobe doors, and up to the vent in the ceiling of the wardrobes. The supply and exhaust should always be at the same side or same end and never in opposite walls. Air, like water or electricity, will take the line of least resist- ance when under pressure. For effective ventilation the air should be forced to circulate into all parts of the room. The location of the exhaust in figure 221 should be observed. Here the supply is located at one end of the wall side, and the air exhausts under the wardrobe doors and up through the vent in the ceiling of the wardrobe end furthest removed from the location of the supply. The course the air must take in its movement will include every seat in the room. Windows . 1 — ■ The demand for open air classrooms led the writer in 1912 to devise a window that would make practically every classroom an open air room at will. For he thought that if it is desirable to have open air rooms for tubercular or anaemic children it is equally desirable to preserve the health of healthy children. Figures 236 and 237 are fairly good photo- graphs of the results attained. These window sash operate on a small roller, and by means of thin galvanized metal arms may turn through an angle of 180 degrees. The top of the sash moves in a vertical plane, while the bottom of the sash moves outward and upward. The problem of shading the sun from the room and preserving the full width of opening was solved by hanging a separate shade on each sash at the bottom, and placing eyelets in the shade slat ; the latter travels along fine galvanized wires and prevents the shade from flapping and tearing. Thus the sash may be completely covered by the shade, and by adjusting the sashes at the proper angles each sash shades the open space below. Shades. — Window shades in classrooms should never be opaque, but rather translucent. In laboratories there are occasions for opaque shades, which are discussed under the science group, but in the classroom they ought to be banished entirely. The shades are found to be more satisfactory when the oiled shade cloth is of rough surface or of the light cotton duck or canvas containing no starch, paint or filler, and dyed to the color desired. Usually the tans or grays give better results, as they harmonize with the interior colors of the room and generally with the exteriors. The green shades are too strong in contrast with the surrounding colors and tend to darken the room too much. Besides, they vitiate the outside color scheme. Many well- designed exteriors have been spoiled by the use of dark shades. Hanging of shades is so well understood that it seems hardly necessary to say more than a word regarding it. With double-hung windows there should be two sets of shades with each masonry opening, and the rollers should be placed at the meeting, rail, with the lower shade roller above the roller for the upper shade and arranged so the shade cloth pulls down and behind the upper shade roller. It is decidedly bad practice to suspend shades from the head of double-hung windows, as it prevents operating the shade so as to obtain full advantage of both light and air, and renders it impossible to prevent noisy flapping when the window is open and the wind is blowing. Shades should extend at least one inch beyond the inside edge of the casing or jamb, with the slats one-half inch wider than the shades. Recently there has been introduced a number of patented adjustable shade fixtures adaptable for use on double-hung windows, and inasmuch as there is room for improvement it is well to reconsider this problem as each new device is submitted. Venetian Blinds. — Venetian blinds for shades to classroom windows have been frowned upon by school authorities on account of the dust settling and collect- ing upon the slats, also on account of the horizontal streaks of light reflected into the room, which are par- ticularly bad at the level of the eyes. In the last few years, however, the installations of Venetian blinds have become more successful and are very much used, espe- cially where it is desirable to keep the windows open wide during the hot days and at the same time shut out or deflect the sun’s rays. The success of these installa- tions is due to the use of a wider slat which, when tilted at the proper angle, greatly obviates the horizontal streaks and reflects the sun’s rays to the white ceiling, giving a diffused light to the room. Another reason is due to the use of a wood of light color which, if treated in the natural, causes a sense of diffusion of the light from that part of the room. Venetian blinds are better adapted to rooms for laboratories, offices, cooking, typewriting, and similar rooms, where it is possible to move about, rather than to classrooms where the student is confined to a fixed position. The best materials for Venetian blinds are cedar, yellow pine, and redwood. Cedar is by far the best because of its toughness. Moreover the grain enables it to take a good light natural finish which will reflect the maxi- mum amount of light, and it is much easier to keep 1 The Universal Window. 27S SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE clean than any other finish. There are several styles, but the top roll blind is best for school work. This operates so as to insure the bottom of the blind being raised evenly. The blinds should be made so that the slats tilt easily and positively to give control over the sun- light entering the room. The advantage gained by the use of Venetian blinds is that in localities of intense sunlight the south and west exposures need not be avoided, making possible more economic planning, especially if the architect is confronted with the problem of east light only for classrooms. t CHAPTER XIII KINDERGARTEN By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. I. General Remarks. II. Exposure. III. Size. IV. Furnishings. V. Subjects Taught, (i) Music. (2) Language. (3) Literature. (4) Rhythm. (5) Games. (6) Nature- Study. (7) Manual Training. (8) Socialization. General Remarks. — There is very little opportunity in the elementary school for the architect to depart from the uniform fixed requirements in planning class- rooms, but when he comes to the kindergarten there is every incentive and great possibility for freedom to do something out of the ordinary and the conventional. In its broadest sense, the kindergarten is a room more for supervised play than for study, with its dances, games, I singing, and its beautiful make-believes. It is where the child receives its first impression of school life, and the room and environment should be made as attractive and interesting as possible, so that the little ones may get I as much joy out of their first school year as comfortable and pleasing quarters may provide. Therefore, the architect should feel free to exercise his taste and imagi- nation in making this room a little wonderland of childhood. I Exposure. — Its exposure should be the southeast corner of the building, on the ground floor, for warmth and cheer. That location makes it possible to have separate playgrounds, a pergola, covered porch or sun room just off the main room, and a small garden where the children may have practical lessons in nature study. The garden should be large enough to provide a small plot for each child. Mural decorations or paintings of children at play, animals, allegorical subjects and nursery rhymes told by good paintings, applied to the frieze or wall spaces above the door headline or above the black- board space, if well done, will be worth the expense for the children’s mental welfare and for the pleasure and happiness they will give. Size. — In size, the room should be equivalent to one and one-half or two classrooms. It is a room which might be described as having elastic dimensions, as there are no fixed seats or desks. Where there is an alcove for sand tables, piano, racks, etc., a room 24'X4o' will give ample space, especially if there is an outdoor porch or sun room. Figure 238 shows a plan of the kindergarten in the Clawson School, Oakland, California, which ad- mirably lent itself to the general plan of the school. This plan provides for fifty children divided into two classes, a morning and an afternoon class. Figure 239 is a view of the interior of the room, showing the fireplace around which the children gather at Hallowe’en and Thanksgiving to pop corn, and where at Christmas time stockings are hung and filled. On dark and rainy days it is pleasant and cheerful to have a log fire and to gather around it for stories and tales which linger long in the child’s memory and engender an affection for school hours. The cases and drawers on either side of the small stage are for the children’s work and material. There should be drawers 10 inches wide, 12 inches deep, and 6 inches high for each child, and the top drawer should not be more than 3' o" above the floor, so each child may take out and replace his own work. The cases above the drawers are for the teacher’s use. A circle 16' o " in diameter is often painted on the floor with an allowance of 4 o" outside of that for clear space for many of the games. The alcove, about 15' o ,/ Xix / o", is a convenient place for the sandbox and the piano, and gives more freedom to the main room. Juvenile plumbing fixtures, such as the water-closet 10 inches high and the regular chinaware lavatory, are necessary and should be in a room adjacent to the main room. One such toilet room is sufficient for children of kindergarten age. Special care should be taken to place the wardrobe hooks and rails at a height easily reached by the children. The lower rail should be not over 30 inches from the floor. (See Figure 232, p. 266.) Figure 240 shows the covered porch at the Clawson School. It is adjacent to the kindergarten playground, and here the children go to play during pleasant weather and to do carpenter work in the making of doll houses, wagons, boxes, houses for pets, etc. Discarded pieces of lumber from the manual-training shop find ready use in the kindergarten. The porch could easily be inclosed 279 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 2 So D HAW £, IL S 10"XIZ"XG' DLL P (DLLpW)- CA-B1NLT GLASS DaoHS 3- AU. SHLLYLS- •LIST OF LQUIPAOT- •7 TABLIS 3Co~k- ZO'Xia HIGH- 7 TABLLS 30’ X ' 20 " X 20 14- C HAILS 10 " 14 12 .- 1 CH1IL 15'' 1 HACK. FOIL 30 AUTTUG JUJGSflTD.Sq.) i D OLL HOU S £, - 4- HOOA!.S - 3 SQ. FT. I,ACK ■ 1 folding: buhlap schlln - lach LLAF 4-0" HIGH BT -5-0" LONS 1 PIANO- 1 FISH GLOBA, PLANTS ITC Fig. 238. KINDERGARTEN 281 Fig. 239. — Interior — Kindergarten Clawson School, Oakland, California. Mr. John J . Donovan, Architect. with removable doors and sash, so that in the winter it might serve as a sun porch. Here is a good place for the sanitary drinking-fountain, placed low enough for the smallest child. The playground should have small slides, several swings and sandboxes and boxes and cages for pets of different kinds. These may be had at very little cost and go to make up the equipment for the day’s study and play. When boards of education are restricted in funds and cannot afford the additional room for the alcove or the porch, Figure 241 is a good example of a room which will very well serve the purpose. This room is 24 feet wide by 45 feet long and should be at least 13 feet high. The drawers and lockers are built into the wall as shown. Apart from the omission of the alcove and the porch there is very little difference between Figure 241 and Figure 238. Figure 238, however, permits opportunity for wider use and activity for kindergarten work. Furnishings. — The furnishings for the room are as follows : Piano. 8 tables 36" X 20" X 18" high. 8 tables 36” X 20" X 20" high. 15 chairs 10" high. 15 chairs 12" high. 1 chair 15" high for teacher. 1 rack large enough for 30 yards of square matting rugs, used by the children when working on the floor. 1 small table for a fish globe. 2 taborets or pedestals for plants. 1 doll house containing four rooms each 3 feet square. 1 folding burlap screen with four leaves, each leaf S' o" wide by 4 o" high. This is to be used as a portable playhouse. Picture frames should be arranged with a hinged door in the back in order that pictures may be changed easily. Subjects Taught. — Some of the things taught in the kindergarten are as follows : Music. Calls and exercises for proper placement of voice. Songs — both by group and solos. Languages. Children are given an opportunity to talk and are helped in their choice and use of good English. Literature. Children receive and learn to appreciate the best in literature when they are given such master- pieces as the Mother Goose Nursery Rhymes and such stories as “ The Little Red Hen,” “ The Three Bears,” “ The Three Little Pigs,” etc. Rhythm. Children are taught to recognize the differ- ence in the time of music. They learn the difference between music for skipping, marching, galloping, etc. 282 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 240. — Kindergarten Porch, Clawson School, Oakland, California. Mr. John J. Donovan , ArchUecx. They are very soon able to keep perfect time to any kind of music. Games are a very important part of the kindergarten curriculum. Children of this age love activity, so the simple games with a great deal of activity are chosen, also imitative games. The games are developed usually through suggestions from the children, and are seldom given “ ready made.” Through the games the children gain physical grace and coordination, rhythm, and best of all, the spirit of true sportsmanship. Some games which are full of activity and are great favorites are : “ Stooping Tag,” “ The Merry-Go-Round ” and “ The Shoemaker Dance.” Nature Study. Gardening, gathering of seeds, cocoons, etc. Care of pets. Manual Training. Some of the occupations in the kindergarten are : sewing, weaving, paper folding, paper cutting, drawing, painting, clay modeling, and stringing. Socia ization is emphasized greatly in the kindergarten and so cultivates the community feeling and thought. All of the children take part and are interested in the building or furnishing of the doll’s house, dressing of the doll, planting of the garden, seeds, caring for the fish and the plants. It can be seen from the above description of the equip- ment and program of studies that the kindergarten is hardly more than a pleasant room where the child’s welfare, deportment and discipline are of more concern than what it is taught, and in consequence of the kindergarten being the first step from home to the care of society, a further plea for attractiveness to the room, its accessory rooms, and adjacent planting and playgrounds is not amiss. There is no end to the possibilities that the future may have in store for this very elementary grade. The writer is optimistic regarding the future planning and develop- ment of the kindergarten. Referring to Figures 244 and 245, kindergarten rooms executed by Mr. Wm. B. Ittner, Architect, and to Figures 246, 247 A and 247 B, Downers’ Grove Kindergarten, by Messrs, Perkins, Fellows and Hamilton. Architects, it will be observed that these gentlemen have struck a high note in the planning and decorative work of these rooms KINDERGARTEN 283 284 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE KINDERGARTEN Mr. Edwin M. Gee, Architect. Fig. 243. — Kindergarten, Lincoln School, Toledo, Ohio. Page 287 Fig. 245. — Kindergarten, Laclede School, St. Louis, Missouri. 288 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE • DOWNEL5 GR.OVE * ILL * •Pf.fLK.mS' FELLOWS & HAMILTON* ARCHITECTS • Fig. 246. KINDERGARTEN 289 Messrs. Perkins, Fellows & Hamilton , Architects. Fic. 247 a. — -Kindergarten, Downer’s Grove, Illinois. Fig. 247 b. - — Kindergarten, F) owner’s Grove, Illinois. 2go SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Messrs. tsellons & Pearson, Architects. Fig. 248. — Open-air Kindergarten — Fremont School, Sacramento, California. Messrs. Guiibert <£ Beielle, Architects. Fig. 249. — Kindergarten, Cleveland School, Newark, New Jersey. CHAPTER XIV THE SCHOOL LIBRARY By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. I. The Importance of the School Library. II. The Location. (3) Flooring. V. Ventilation. VI. Lighting and Illumination. (3) Desks. IX. Fireproofing. The Importance of the School Library . 1 — The school library, in the importance of its relation to the whole school plant, is second to no other department. Indeed, the time is not so far distant when it will serve the second- ary school and the community as the college library serves the needs of the university. Like the school itself, it has not yet been fully discovered. Not so long ago, cities and smaller communities reclined in satisfaction upon the fact that their school operated but six hours out of the twenty- four. There was no conception of the intellectual stimulus that comes to the adult long after he has left school, — an activity that has in it possibilities for a more complete development both intellectually and in- dustrially, and which, when the opportunity is offered, brings the adult back to the school for further training that will make him more valuable to himself and the nation. There was no appreciation of the fact that the operation of the school plant between 7.15 in the morning and 9.30 in the evening would offer such an opportunity without appreciable wear and tear to the machinery. At that time the school library was considered sufficient if it consisted of a single small room with a few shelves containing duplicate text books or a few editions for supplementary reading. The principal or the English teacher supervised the library in conjunction with his other duties. It was considered a duplication of the same function to have a library department directed by a school librarian if the community possessed a public library. The distinct functions of both were not clearly understood, and consequently the other departments of III. Size. IV. Interior Construction. (1) Stacks. (2) Doors. VII. Finish. VIII. Equipment. (1) Shelving. (2) Chairs. the school advanced more rapidly in personnel and equipment. To-day it is different. It is generally understood that the public library is an institution endowed for the purpose of providing intellectual enlightenment for the entire community, and that the school library is a depart- ment of the school serving the school as the public library serves the community, except in a more inten- sive and specialized manner. The school library so functions with the school organization that if it is inadequate in size and equipment, or poorly located and administered, the educational efficiency of the school as a whole is greatly impaired. On the other hand, an adequate well-conducted library may offset a number of deficiencies in other departments. The library is of such importance to the school plant that it might be stated as an educational axiom that the prospective value of the student to the state, society in general, and to himself, is largely dependent upon his regard for the library and his ability to make the fullest possible intelli- gent use of it. Happily, the tendency is to train students now to use the room and its contents. A letter at hand states that at Rochester, Minnesota, the junior and senior high school students are allowed to enter the library only at the beginning of a period and must remain until the close of that period. By this wise regulation, confusion of movement is avoided and there is afforded at least thirty to thirty-five minutes of absolute quietness. (Figure 250.) It is also stated that as students enter the 1 In presenting this chapter, the writer feels indebted to the following people for the valuable information contained in their writings on “The School Library” : Miss Irene Warren, Chicago, 111 ., through the courtesy of The American School Board Journal. Miss Mary E. Hall, Librarian, Girls’ High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. Mr. Gilbert O. Ward, Cleveland Public Library, Cleveland, Ohio. Professor C. C. Certain, Cass Technical High School, Detroit, Mich. Mrs. Elizabeth Madison, Librarian, Oakland High School, Oakland, Cal. The Library Bureau, for their many illustrations of equipment and interiors. 291 292 SCHOOL architecture * Jr 1 1 91 m i J . ! M ' Fig. 250. — High School Library, Rochester, Minnesota. room, they are required to sign their names in an enroll- ment book, and the records show that out of a total of 700 students, 350 or 50 per cent of the school use the room daily. This is a gratifying indication of the measure of usefulness and service of this room. 1 The library should have the same relation to the student as the tool room of the machine shop has to the mechanic. The latter knows that to perform special work, special tools are necessary, and experience has given him judgment in selecting the right equipment to execute accurately the work at hand. In like manner, the student should receive a training in the intelligent and independent use of the library, which knowledge will enable him to find quickly the means of illuminating the way and strengthening his grasp on the problems of education and industry. If he passes through the high school without this training, it is not unlikely he will leave college without it, and as the majority of high school students do not go to college the loss is all the greater to both the state and the individual. To one unaccustomed to the use of a library, the room with its vast number of books is a bewildering maze ; but to the trained user, it is a quiet spot where tried friends and wise counselors may be met in valuable association. It is earnestly recommended by authorities on school libraries that the curriculum of the first year’s work should include a thorough course in the use of the library, with directions as to the use of reference books, encyclo- pedias, dictionaries, works of literature, science, card indexes, etc. This will lead to direct methods for intelligent research and a later saving in time in the use of the college or public libraries. Location. — The library should be centrally located, so that it may be conveniently and quickly reached by the students from the departments whose use of the room is greatest. Consequently, it should be nearest to the rooms assigned to academic studies, such as history. English, literature, civics, and the sciences. Inasmuch as the library is a special room and generally large, its location and importance should have a decided influence 1 This system is in use in many other schools, for instance the high schools of Los Angeles, California. THE SCHOOL LIBRARY 293 upon the architectural treatment of the plan and eleva- tion. Very often it is the motive for special accent in the exterior design of the building; and if it is well handled in plan, it should be an influential factor in the composition. Whether it should be on the second floor or on the ground floor, is largely dependent upon the policy of its use. If it is to be used by the pupils only, the second floor because of quietness is by far the more desirable. If its use is to be shared by the public, it should be located so that the community patrons will cause the least interruption of the work of the school and that of the pupils in the library. After weighing the probable advantages to the public, it should be remembered that the room is primarily a school study or reference room under the administration and discipline of the school librarian, and that any outside interference or interruptions will seriously affect the efficiency of the students’ use of it. This outweighs any i advantage gained by admitting a small percentage of the community to its use. However, if it has a combined purpose, it should be arranged so that the public and the students are completely sepa- rated ; in order to do this, the room should then be placed on the ground floor, with a separate entrance for the public, and an additional librarian pro- vided to serve them. There is still another very important factor regarding this phase, and that is, the use of the library by the students enrolled in the continuation school. A striking example is that of the Technical High School in Oakland, California. In this institu- tion there are 2000 day students and 4400 continuation students. Of this latter number, there are 1500 who attend the school between the hours of 1 p.m. and 9.30 p.m. daily. About 60, or 4 per cent, of the continuation attendance have occasion to use the library constantly. Also, many arrive at the school before the hour of class- room or laboratory work and sensibly drift into the library instead of waiting in the corridors or outside the building. It is evident from this that the library should be located so that it is also easily accessible from one of the entrances in order that the continuation school students may quickly reach the room without having to add to the congestion of the corridors. Service is the important factor in deciding matters of this kind, and in the construction of a school, it is only after the condi- tions of policy, arrangement, and equipment, for both present and future needs, have been studied with the librarian that the location of the department should be determined. Furthermore, the library is very rapid in its growth, and wherever located, provision should be made so that logical expansion will always be possible. Size. — For elementary schools, the library need not be more than about two-thirds the size of the average classroom, as there is very little reference work in this grade of school organization. However, there should be shelving space for about 800 to 1000 books for both the teachers’ and older pupils’ use for outside reading. Public School 29, Brooklyn, N.Y., designed by Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect, contains a library seating forty pupils, and which communicates with the office of the vice-principal by means of a door at one end of the room and with the adjacent classroom by a folding partition at the other end. (See Figure 251.) The library and adjoining classroom may therefore be thrown into one and used as a study room if so desired. This school has a capacity of 1986 pupils and includes grades from iA to 9B inclusive, which is equivalent in number to the grades of the elementary and junior high schools. For the intermediate or junior high school, the library assumes more importance and should offer space to seat at least 6 per cent of the school enrollment, as the majority of the pupils will not advance to the regular high school. (See Figure 252.) It is at this time that pupils should receive a training in the use of the library and be induced to make a practice of using the room and to cultivate a liking and desire for books of literature, fiction, travel, industry, and the sciences. They are entitled to the opportunity, and the room and training should be made attractive so that attendance will be c o tt tun o to CLASS ILCOM. 3q6K.CA.SI, D D D D D . 0 D D D D D ■ H D D D D D ! 1 D D D D D LIB H A3LY - 1 A D D D D D : 0 , U. D D D D D \J D D D D D D D D D D VIC.I, PRINCIPALS OFriCg •PLAN OF LLMAMY IN LLLM.QTA1LY SCHOOLS S' Jff 15" S CA Li, Fig. 251. 294 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 252. — Library, Junior High School, Trenton, New Jersey. Mr. William A. Poland, Architect. voluntary rather than compulsory. What follows re- garding the high school is equally applicable to the intermediate, modified in proportion to the relative sizes of the two schools. It is, however, around the high school that the greatest activity in library work exists, and in discussing size, the question of the number of rooms given to the library department is important. In a high school of from 150 to 1000 pupils, a single reference room capable of seating from 25 to 60 pupils, with a small workroom about io / Xi2 / for the librarian, is probably ample, and all that such a school plant can afford. (See Figure 2 53-) But for the large high school of from 1200 to 2500, exclusive of the number of continuation students, there should be a reference room, workroom, combined museum and classroom, and a stackroom. (See Figure 254.) The reference or reading room should be large enough to seat at least 8 per cent of the day school enrollment, and this should be increased to 10 per cent if the plant is used also as a continuation school. The basis of measurement is to allow 20 to 25 square feet for each reader. This will provide floor space for aisles, tables, cases, etc. (See Figure 255.) If the library is to be used as a study room, replacing or supplementing one of the prevailing systems, the room will necessarily have to be larger, and the problem then becomes a subject for special investigation, with the administrative policy of the school a very determining factor. The library classroom is really a small lecture room capable of seating from 30 to 40 students. It should also serve as the library museum, the museum cases being placed along the walls of the room. An area included within 25' X3s' will be sufficient to seat the class and give considerable wall space for the museum cases. Besides having museum cases, it should be equipped with tablet armchairs, electrical receptacle for a low-power reflectroscope, a screen for lantern projections, a small stage, bulletin boards, and a black- THE SCHOOL LIBRARY 295 » T LA N OF LIBILAHY FOIL A SMALL SCHOOL OF FILOM. 500 TO 1000 PUPILS • 3 CALI, Fig. 253. board at the front of the room above the stage. In order that the room may be darkened, the window casing should be recessed as described under Physics (page 353). Two sets of window shades, opaque and translucent, are necessary. The workroom and stackroom might very well be combined, allowing a section of about i2'Xi6 r of the room for the repair and cataloguing of books. The space for repairing should be provided with a lavatory, work tables, and ample shelf space for the storage of floor. In each tier there are usually six movable shelves and one fixed shelf, 3' o" long, adjustable on 1" centers, and 8" or 10" deep. (See Figure 256.) An allowance of from 30 to 35 pounds per cubic foot should be made for the book ranges. Book capacities per linear foot of shelving may be figured on the following basis : law books, five volumes ; reference books, six volumes ; scien- tific books, seven volumes ; general literature, from eight to ten volumes. In cases where lack of floor space necessitates the use C O HR 1 P Olb • PLAN OF UBLAHY FPL A HIGH SCHOOL OF 1800 TQ 2500 PUPILS • S CA.LI* Fig. 254. books. A stackroom will be found desirable in the future high school to store special books and those that, having outlived their usefulness, should still be saved for reference work. A stackroom is the best means of providing expansion for the reference or reading room. Interior Construction. Stacks } — In the construction of the standard metal stack, the book ranges are usually double faced, and the aisles at least 2' 8 /; in width. The regular tiers are 7' o" or 7' 6" high. A footboard , should raise the lowest shelf four to six inches from the of double tiers, the following suggestion is offered regard- ing the construction of metal book stacks, as a saving in cost of installation, and for convenience to the librarian : if the aisles between stacks are made 3' 4" in width and the double tiers are equipped with a horizontal sliding step-ladder similar to those used in shoe stores, hung on a guide supported on the frame of the top tier, then easy access to each stack is attainable without having to re- peatedly climb stairs and retrace steps. This is more applicable to a school library where the accessions will 1 Kidder’s Hand Book , Sixteenth Edition. 296 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE never be extremely large than to a general library where unlimited expansion must be provided by means of the usual tiers of stacks and the dividing floors. Doors. — While there should be more than one pair of double doors to a large reference room, it will be found advantageous for the discipline of the reference room, if the students enter and leave the room near the charging desk. All doors should be equipped with liquid door checks to prevent them from closing noisily. While locks are necessary, push-plates and pull-handles should replace the knob and latch so that the doors are opened with the least possible disturbance. It is a good investment to have all doors and door frames of hollow metal and wire glass construction, the former equipped to close automatically. The mechanical difficulty of rapidly opening and closing automatically controlled doors during rush periods between classes can be over- come by opening the library doors during the period of the intermission. This will permit a steady flow of students into the room without the interference of the constantly moving door. Flooring. — Battleship linoleum or cork tiling is the most satisfactory for library floors, as they are serviceable and cause very little noise from use. Ventilation. — The library rooms should be well ventilated by the plenum system, and except in sections of the country having severe winter weather, it would be better to have the room heated by this means, as the space under the windows is valuable for shelving. Where the winters are rigorous, the dual systems of radiators and tempered air are necessary. Lighting and Illumination. — The library should have the equivalent of 20 per cent of the floor area in glass area, and if the room has a sunny exposure, it will prove to be cheerful and inviting. For artificial lighting, the semi-indirect system is the most practical and the least expensive. The illumination should be designed so that the minimum candle-foot intensity in any part of the room is not less than 3.0 and. if possible, as high as 6.0. All lighting should be from above, as the tables in a school library are movable in order that the room may be adaptable for many activities. THE SCHOOL LIBRARY 2 97 Mr. Edward Stoll, Architect. Fig. 256. — Library Showing Single Bookstack, University of California, Berkeley, California. Finish. — It is most desirable that the ceiling, walls, and trim be finished in light tones in order to reflect the greatest amount of light. Tones just off the white are best for ceilings ; buffs, tans, and grays for the walls ; and white oak, treated natural, for the trim. These will always give the best effect for school libraries. Finishing the room in oak simplifies the matter of color harmony in the selection of the equipment. The walls above the bookcases are usually formed into pleasing panels by the use of stencils of good patterns in keeping with the room. Picture moldings should be provided for the hanging of pictures and bas-relief casts of sculp- ture. (See Figures 257 and 258.) Well-executed mural paintings, decorative designs, and good casts are most appropriate for the reference room, and should be acquired from time to time with a good deal of judgment in their selection. By its composition in proportion, symmetry, and finish, and by its appointments, the library will reflect the quiet refined thought of the school. There is no department so capable of diffusing an intellectual atmosphere, or that can represent so well the dignity of the school, as the library. Equipment. — The equipment of the library should be chosen for service and durability. It should be so arranged as not to restrict the discipline or obstruct a complete view of the entire room. Alcoves formed by stacks will affect the administration, but if required for additional shelving, they should be placed at the ends of the room so that the openings are towards the libra- rian’s desk or station. (See Figures 259 and 260.) The following is a summary of the equipment needed in every high school library : Tables. Shelving. Chairs. Charging desk. Librarian’s desk. Catalogue case. Periodical rack. Atlas and dictionary case. Bulletin boards. 298 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE LlJB 1 C J i — '1 1 Mr. H. Osgood Holland, Architccl. Fig. 257. — Library, Hutchinson Central High School, Buffalo, New York. Display cases. Cabinets for pictures, pamphlets, etc. Museum cases. Map cases. Phonograph and cabinet for records. The tables should be arranged in rows with the ends parallel to the windows in order that the greater number may have the best lighting conditions. Also it is better to have a low limit to the number of pupils to each table for discipline and quietness. School library tables are 30" high, and a table 2,'X$' will accommodate six pupils, two at each side and one at each end. 1 The unit of lateral measurement is 30" for each seat. Pupils may be seated closer, but it is not good practice to crowd them and expect efficient work. Elbow room is as essential for reading and studying as for other forms of work. Crowding also restricts full use of the table for writing and drawing. Therefore, the unit of 30 should be maintained in planning the table arrangement of the room. All furniture edges should be rounded, particu- larly those of tables. If the tables are made 3X3' it will be found that this size is convenient for easily re- arranging the equipment of the room for other activities than that of regular library work. (Figures 261 and 262 show some of the possibilities.) Shelving. — In the reference library, the book shelving should extend around the room on all available wall space, leaving the center of the room free for tables, cases, and desks. On account of its attractiveness, wood shelving is preferable to steel. The standard shelving (see Figures 263 and 264) is 6' 10" high, which permits the use of seven shelves 8” deep, allowing io' in height between shelves. The bottom shelf is usually fixed, and all other shelves are adjustable on one inch 1 The study-room library of the San Diego High School, San Diego, Cal., provides each reader with a small individual study table. Excellent concentration is thus attained. £C pi *4 2: c^p / P=« (4 |T d "1“ «*S 2; H ©4b O 4 :n O M 3 >- -=4 <=i (CO T— O' -4 f=o or 4 with the result of blocking further movement if not creating a panic and disaster. The writer is of the opinion that elementary schools, from the first to the sixth grades inclusive, should have all stairs or divisions of stairs between hand-rails on walls and balustrades 4' o" in width ; in junior high or intermediate schools 4' 6" in width ; and in high schools 5' o" in width. These widths will then compel the files to be limited to two abreast, which is the right way to march pupils from schools. Whenever stairways are wider than the above dimensions, the widths should be of multiples of 4 ' o", 4 ' 6", 5' o", such as 8' o", 9' o", or io' o" ; they should be divided by a center railing or balustrade as is shown in Figure 271, and the railing should extend to the outside walls of the landings or follow the run of the stairs, depending on the design of the stairway. Stairways at the ends of corridors are generally limited to the width of the corridor, while stairways at right angles to the long axis of the corridor may be of any desirable width over-all. This statement, however, should not be considered a contradiction of the above estimate of the maximum width of divisions of stairs given in the tables, for regardless of the number of divisions, the maximum width of any division should not be greater than neces- sary for two abreast. It is a good plan to avoid having main stairways extend to the basement near the boiler rooms. Boiler rooms and rooms connected with or near the boiler room should be accessible by flights of stairs entirely separate from the stairs used by the pupils, and, as has been previously mentioned, they should be controlled by self-closing fire doors. Stair Landings. — All stairways should have landings the width of the stairs and at one-half the story height. All these landings should be level. The corners or angles should be rounded or made octagonal so that a pupil cannot be pocketed during a rush. Winders, under no circumstances, should be permitted. A straight run of stairs with a landing is almost as bad as though it had no break in the flight. If a child should stumble above the landing or at the top, he would undoubtedly fall the entire length of the stairs. This type is uneconomical in consumption of floor area and in construction, besides being dangerous. Landings at floor levels should be spacious enough to give the enclosure doors full swing in order to allow space necessary for the free passage of the pupils on the stairs and those coming into and leaving them. When stairways are placed at the ends of cor- ridors it is frequently convenient to place toilet rooms and closets at the level of the landing. This is hazardous, for often little or no attention is given to the swing of the doors, and if they open on to the landing, there is great danger of obstructing the stairs and causing con- fusion in the march out of the building. If the doors to such rooms occur on landings, they should be made to open into the room and not onto the landing ; even should this be done, a frightened child may mistake such a door as a means of escape. Therefore, for safety, there should be no doors, openings, or recesses in the stairway walls except at the entrances and exits of the stairway at the floor levels. Seats on landings to serve as resting spots or nooks for sporadic studying are a menace, and regardless of such thoughtfulness for comfort, should never be permitted. Likewise pedestals for urns, flower pots, or any other obstacles to a clear passage should be eliminated. Balustrades and Hand-rails. — Outside balustrades to stairs should be of closed construction. (Figure 272.) The open balustrade of iron bars or grilles give no protection to girls from those at lower levels. Further- more, open balustrades provide lodgment for dust, and as janitor service is not always efficient in school build- ings, it is better to adopt the closed balustrade. Balus- trades on the outside, forming the stair well, should be at least 3' 4" above the nosing of the tread to prevent children falling from haste or crowding. The top of the balustrade should have a rounded hand-rail with square or rounded blocks for projections, spaced about 4' o" apart to prevent boys sliding down the top of the balustrade and possibly falling the full height of the stair well. Lhfless this is done, a fireproof glazed parti- tion should extend to the ceiling above the balustrade or from the stair stringer. This is, however, too ex- pensive for general adoption. Two hand-rails for use by larger and smaller children should be securely at- tached to the walls of the balustrades and to the side walls of the stairway. The top hand-rail should be about 2' 6" above the tread, and on a fine with the CORRIDORS, STAIRWAYS, AND ENTRANCES 3i3 Fig. 272. — Double Stairway, Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Mr. Edward Stotz , Architect. face of the riser; the lower hand-rail for the smaller children should be about 8" to 10" lower. If all princi- pals would place the higher grades on the upper floors, the double run of hand-rails might not be necessary except for the lower flights of stairs ; but we often find that school principals differ in their administrative methods. Stairways, if properly constructed, should be built so that if changes occur in the management or organization of the school, the safety of the pupils remains unaffected. Risers and Treads. — In elementary schools, the height of the riser should not be more than 6", and in junior and senior high schools the height should never exceed j " ; it is much easier for climbing if they too are limited to 6". There are times in the construction of high schools when a compromise between 6" and 7" is neces- sary, but no riser heights should exceed 7". The width of the tread is complementary to the height of the riser. Kidder’s Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book, sixteenth edition, edited by Professor Thomas Nolan, of the University of Pennsylvania, states : “ The width of the run should be determined by the height of the rise ; the less the rise, the greater should be the run and vice-versa. Several rules have been given for proportioning the run to the rise : “ (1) The sum of the rise and the run should be equal to from 17” to 17*". “ (2) The sum of two risers and a tread should not be less than 24" nor more than 25”. “ (3) The product of the rise and run should not be less than jo" and not more than 75". These rules apply to stairs with nosings.” From this it would seem that for a 6" rise the tread should be from 11” to n-k", and for a j" rise the tread should be from 10” to 10^-”. The measurement of a tread is either from nosing to nosing, or from riser to riser, and not from the riser to the nosing. For exterior stone or cement steps, the risers should be not more than from 5” to 5-J-", and the treads not less than 12” in width. 3U SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE PUN AT riLST UCOU PLANS or TYPICAL STAHLS o' S id IS' 5 C A L t TAKt K ribOAl. PKAWIBS 5 Of ?UH 1 C S C HOOI, JfO Z-J. SMYPljIb AltCH lTf,C.T. Fig. 273. CORRIDORS, STAIRWAYS, AND ENTRANCES 39SM Fig. 274. — Main Entrance Lobby, Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Mr. Edward Stolz, Architect The material for stair treads is somewhat dependent upon the type of construction of the stairs. If the stairs are of iron or steel, the iron tread may be formed to receive asphalt, which makes a fine non-slipping tread md can easily be replaced or repaired, or of North River due stone, magnesium composition, or of cork. Cork reads require a metal nosing or llange, as does asphalt, which is usually a part of the steel stair construction ind set about below the level of the tread. A danger >f tripping exists here when the surface of the tread )ecomes worn. Slate and marble treads will not with- tand the wear, and marble does not supply enough : fiction for safety. When the stair structure is of con- rete, the treads are usually of cement finish or of errazzo, with a “ safety tread ” consisting of steel and orrugations filled in with lead or carborundum and set ush with the finish of the tread. The “ safety tread ” s placed at the outside of the tread and kept about 4 " way from the walls. Lighting of Stairways. — Stairways should be well lighted naturally and electrically. (See Figure 272.) Any attempt to architecturally treat the exterior walls of stairways with long, narrow windows for special effect should be frowned upon. Plenty of daylight will often dispel fear. The old proverb that “ danger lurks in dark places ” is quite applicable to stairways. Interior stairways, not directly lighted, should never be permitted, regardless of the exigency. Whenever schools are near or adjacent to other buildings, the window frames and sash should be of metal and glazed with wire glass. This will prevent smoke from filling in stairways should a fire occur on the outside. The electric lights in corridors and stairways should be of ample wattage to provide a high illumination. Whenever service from two power companies is to be had, the outlets in corridors, stairways, and assembly halls should be wired from both sources of supply so that, should the service in one fail, there would be sufficient light to prevent serious accidents. This can be accomplished by having more than one lamp in each fixture and by dividing the lamps between the Page 316 Fig. 275. — Main Entrance Lobby, Carter FI. Harrison Technical High School, Chicago, Illinois. 53 •SS Page 317 Fig. 276. — Main Entrance Vestibule, Edward Lee McLean High School, Greenfield, Ohio. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 318 different circuits. This is more necessary since the school has come to be used as much in the evening as during the day. Storage Spaces under Stairs. — There is no better way to plan for a calamity in a school than to use the space under stairs for janitor’s closets. Such spaces should be either sealed or left entirely open to view. Stairways in the Schools of City of New York. — • Much credit is due to Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect for the Board of Education of the City of New York, for his contributions to schoolhouse planning and construction. His fireproof stairways, which so admirably provide for the safety of the occupants of schools that are special problems in the congested sections of that city, are decidedly ingenious. Figure 273 shows the construction and runs of these stairs. “ The stairways are all of steel with cut stone or asphalt treads, and are enclosed from bottom to top with partitions on the corridor side made of wire glass set in steel frames, access being had to each floor landing by means of fireproof doors, all fitted with automatic checks and springs. This arrange- ment of stairways permits of a great saving in floor space and, while quite confusing to a stranger, is highly appreciated by the teacher who finds in them the cer- tainty of easy and complete control of the pupils, and the pupils themselves quickly realize the fact that in these stairways lies perfect safety from the perils of fire, smoke, or overcrowding.” 1 Inclines or Ramps. — Inclines, unless placed in separate towers, are not practical for school buildings, and even then, are out of all reason in cost compared to the cost of well-built stairways. The proof of this lies in the floor space necessary to accommodate the rise and run of the incline. For instance, no ramp or incline should be installed when the slope is greater than 1 to 8. In other words, for every foot of height there should be 8 feet of run ; for a story height of 14/ 3”, the horizontal distance traveled back and forth should equal 114 feet; for two stories 228 feet. Just what might happen at the turns, and particularly if the incline is steep, is entirely problematical. Construction of Stairways and Corridors. — Notwith- standing an inclination to economize in the construction of school buildings, boards of education should deliberate on the wisdom of sane measures in safeguarding the lives of the occupants even if they involve some additional expense. One disaster is sufficient to cause a revulsion of feeling towards those in authority who consciously or unconsciously measure expense against safety of life. Very often, without a reliable estimate of the cost of the proposed buildings, requirements are established and bond issues set and placed before the electors, only to find, when it is too late, that the fixed amount is not sufficient to provide the necessary facilities. The usual recourse then is not only to reduce the number and often the size of rooms, but what is worse, to eliminate sub- stantial construction in the parts of the building needing that sort of construction to assure safety. Architects are often as culpable as the laymen, and perhaps even more so, by underestimating the value of the work either through a desire to impress boards favorably or by a failure to grasp the many additional requirements of a school building beside rooms for instruction. The corridors and stairways should be the last section of the building to be cut in construction. The reader is requested to keep in mind that the author has a keen realization of the difference between substantial and extravagant planning and construction. What is set forth as substantial construction is intended to mean the actual, economical use of materials in a manner that will serve the purpose without embellishment. The addi- tional percentage, in cost of building the corridor floors of reinforced concrete supported by reinforced concrete columns, and stairways of the same construction or of fireproof steel is small when compared with the total cost of the building. Corridor and stairway walls like- wise should be of fireproof construction, whether of masonry, concrete, or metal lath and plaster. The last is not as desirable for the walls of stairways as brick or concrete, as the plaster applied to these materials is less subject to injury, and they are essentially fire resisting materials. Entrances and Exits. — Entrances and exits to stairs and corridors should be like the wide end of a funnel. (See Figures 274, 275, and 276.) Particularly is this true of main entrances where corridors intersect, and at corri- dor entrances to assembly halls and rooms provided for large assemblages. Doors at entrances and exits should always open outwards and be equipped with panic bolts. Top and bottom bolts applied to the standing leaves of double doors are positively dangerous unless these bolts are controlled by panic bolt levers which cause the bolts to slide and the doors to fly open when the pressure of the body is applied to the horizontal levers, which should be about 3' o" above the floor. Double acting and revolving doors at entrances to schools should be prohibited. Where inclosed vesti- bules are necessary to exclude the cold drafts of winter and a double set of doors is necessary, the vestibule should be wide enough to allow plenty of room for the inner doors to swing clear and then sufficient space left to give room to the vestibule. The inner set of doors should have no locks, and their equipment should consist of a push plate on the inside, and a pull handle on the 1 Mr. Snyder in Modern School Houses. CORRIDORS, STAIRWAYS , AND ENTRANCES 3*9 outside, with a door check to automatically close the doors. All exterior doors should have some fastening device to hold them open when this is desired. Fire Escapes. — A school building that requires fire escapes is an example of decidedly bad planning. The danger of falling from them is always so great they can never take the place of stairways, for children are not trained to use them. Fire marshals, experienced chiefs of fire departments, and those whose duty it is to fight fire, have generally agreed that they should not be used, except on old school buildings and then only when it is not practical to install stairways. When they are used, they should be 4 o" wide and en- closed with wire glass and metal frames and equipped like a fireproof stairway. They then become outside stair towers. CHAPTER XVI THE ASSEMBLY HALL By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I. A. I. Assembly Hall. II. Assembly Hall for Elementary School. III. Assembly Hall for Junior and Regular High Schools, (i) Seating Capacity. (2) Height. (3) Floor. (4) Divisions. (5) Location. IV. Stage. (r) Size of Stage. (2) Moving Picture Screen. (3) Control of Lights. V. Acoustics. (1) Source of Sound. (2) Control of Sound Waves. (3) Absorption of Sound Waves. (4) Coefficients of Absorption. (5) Reflecting Surfaces. (6) Wall Surfaces. VI. Organs. VII. Quietness. VIII. Moving Pictures. (1) Equipment and Current. (2) Construction. IX. Lighting and Illumination. X. Aisles. XI. Exits. XII. Painting and Decoration. Assembly Hall. — No modern school can be properly equipped without an assembly hall. This part of the school organization has proved its worth. Its activ- ities, fully as much as the activities of the classrooms, have stimulated young students to lives of useful endeavor. No other division of the intellectual equip- ment can exert a stronger moral influence on the student body. It is a kind of clearing house of ideas ; a place of action, where the theories of learning are turned into realities. Nor is its use confined to the school alone. Without it many a community would be with- out a decent, safe, and comfortable hall to gather in. The old idea, that the assembly hall, like the old- fashioned family parlor, was a room to be used only on very special occasions, has given way to the realiza- tion that it should be used most intensively, not only during the day, but in the evenings and on Sundays as well. As the unfolding spirit of Democracy comes more and more to find expression in community singing, the organ will before long be considered as much a necessity in the school assembly hall as the moving picture booth is at the present time. When this point is reached, the assembly hall will offer the full value of its construction in terms of service to the day school, the continuation and evening schools, and to the community in community activities. In the consideration of the appointments of an assembly hall, the question of the kind of stage to be built is of first importance. With the expansion of the modern school, the simple lecture platform can no longer be considered sufficient. It cannot possibly be made to answer the increasing uses to which the assembly hall is being put. The modern high school assembly hall stage must have all the essentials of a theater stage to provide the student with the appro- priate environments for dramatic expression. The public is awake to the advantages of the assembly hall and appreciative of the pleasure derived from its use when it is constructed with good acoustical quality. The means and the knowledge are at hand, so that all such rooms may be built and finished to possess not only architectural merit but acoustical merit as well. Whether or not every school should have an assembly hall is a question that is usually decided affirmatively by educators, but often to the contrary by those responsible for the tax rate. However, every T school should have some arrangement for convocations, and if it is not possible at first to build an assembly hall, the dividing partitions of a number of classrooms should be constructed with folding doors so that two or three rooms may be formed into one long room. This plan is not very satisfactory^, and on account of its limitations, is merely better than nothing at all. Whenever an assembly hall must be omitted, arrange- ment should be made in the general plan so that it can be added without becoming a misfit or seriously affecting the symmetry^ of the building. Assembly Hall for Elementary Schools. — Elementary- schools of five or more classrooms should have an assembly hall in order that the principal may call the school together for talks, or for choral instruction by the music teacher. The small school assembly hall should be simple in character and should be equipped with a small stage, moving picture booth, level floor, and movable chairs. The room can then be used for folk dancing and games by- the pupils, and for social meetings by T the communityu The assembly hall for the large elementary school should be much the same, except that it should have a greater seating capacity. It is a question -whether or not the hall should be capable 320 TEE ASSEMBLY HALL 321 of seating the entire school enrollment. For elementary schools a seating capacity of four-sevenths of the enrollment is probably the correct estimate, as the pupils of the lower grades are usually excused from the general convocations. Assembly Hall for Junior and Senior High Schools. — It is, however, in the assembly hall for the junior and senior high schools|that good planning'is-most essential. It is absolutely necessary that auditoriums for high schools should be large enough to seat slightly more than the entire school enrollment, including the teaching staff, so as to provide for the future growth of the school. Any high school is at a great disadvantage if the entire school cannot be called together at the same time to hear an influential speaker or to discuss, as a student body, matters concerning the welfare of the school. main 1 , O B b Y ZZ 7 //////./_z/£^v; ZZ&////A Xzzzft &///////; ./ I WZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ ', •/// Y / 777 % V //// 7 // 77 \ m Am L If T It A N CP r I IS T • r LOO It -PLAN- SCALE. -LAItGn HIGH SCHOOL ASSLMLY HALL SLATING £200 -amPUIS Fig. 277. 322 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE ncoo F LOO IL OIL BALCONY PLAN o io 2P 30 S CAL£ LAItGL HIGH SCHOOL ASSEMBLY HALL SLATING 2200 5TUDLHTS Fig. 278. THE ASSEMBLY HALL 323 Seating Capacity. • — To determine the seating capac- ity, an allowance of 6^ square feet per seat is generally adopted for seats in straight rows, and about 7^ square feet for those in curved rows. These dimensions pro- vide for aisles, are confined to fixed seats, and do not include the space for the stage. Movable chairs will require a larger unit of measurement. Also a greater allowance should be made for tablet chairs. Assembly hall or theater chairs are made 19", 20", 21", and 22" wide. From this it is evident that, in order to seat a school of 1200, the main floor would have to be about 6o' wide X 75' long; this area would accommodate approximately 700, leaving it for the balcony to seat the remaining 500. In order to seat a school of 2000, the main floor should be about 100' wide X 7 5' long, a space which would comfortably seat 1200. The balcony must extend well out over the main floor and return along the sides to the pro- scenium wall in order to accommodate the remaining 800. More than one balcony is not desirable, for it is always difficult to preserve order and hold the at- tention of pupils seated in the upper balcony or the gallery, as it is usually termed to distinguish it from the balcony proper. Height. — The height of the assembly hall should be governed somewhat by the architectural treatment of the room, but more so by the correct cubic space necessary to provide for adequate ventilation. Thirty cubic feet of air per minute per person and six changes per hour are the standards generally required and adopted. A hall ioo' X 75', seating 2000, would require a height of about 40' above the stage level in order to meet the requirements of 150 cubic feet of space per seat, which is a moderate allowance. Some ordinances require 200 cubic feet per seat. Very often the noise of ven- tilating systems in assembly halls is due to the attempt to provide a volume of air computed upon the seating capacity without consideration of the cubical contents of the room. There are other causes such as poor engineering and faulty mechanical installations, but it is evident that the ventilating system will be handi- capped if the cubic capacity of the room is too low. There is a tendency to cut down on the heights of assembly halls in order to reduce the cubage of the building, but it should be observed that this practice affects the acoustics of the room as well as the ventilation. Floor. — ■ Whenever the seating capacity of the main floor is greater than 500, the floor should be sloped or made saucer-shaped, and the seats should be set on steps. Otherwise, it is necessary to elevate the stage to an abnormal height, and even then a full view of the stage floor will be obstructed by the footlight apron. It is very important that every occupant of the audi- torium have a clear view of the stage. With a sloping or saucer-shaped floor, the level of the eye should be established at a height of 4' o" above the level of the steps for the seats, with each step 4" above the one in front. This will provide unobstructed views and de- termine the slope of the curved section of the saucer. The height of the stage is established 3' 9" to 4 o" above the low point of the assembly hall floor at a point located about 5' o" back of the apron. From this height lines of vision are drawn to every row of seats. Divisions. — The numerous uses to which the assembly hall is put have brought about the very practical divi- sion of the main floor into three sections as shown in Figs. 277 and 278. This division requires the use of rolling partitions back of the balcony supports and a small stage or rostrum at the front end of each of the side sections. By having especially deep recesses in the vertical frames of the rolling partitions, the three sections may be used at the same time with very little disturbance to any section. Location. — For safety the main entrance of the assembly hall should be on a level with the first floor. It is a serious mistake to have it higher than this, for then the lives of the occupants will be jeopardized if for any reason it should be necessary for the entire audience to descend stairs within the building in order to reach the exits quickly. Usually the room is placed on axis with the main entrance for convenience to the pupils and the public. If the hall is used to any extent by the latter, collapsible iron gates should be installed across the corridors to prevent outsiders from wandering through other parts of the school building. Not infrequently the assembly hall occupies an end of the general plan, or projects in front of the school. Some- times it may be a detached building connected to the main building by a cloister or an inclosed arcade. These schemes give more direct access to the room for the public, and there is then very little opportunity for promiscuous roaming through the school. The Technical High School, Oakland, California, the Oak Park School, Sacramento, California, and the Elko County High School, Elko, Nevada, are examples of three different methods of locating the assembly hall as above described. The Stage. — For the lower grade schools, the rostrum at the end of the hall or the stage with small dressing rooms at the side and a moving picture screen may suffice for the activities within the hall. But for the junior and senior high schools, an effort should be made to provide form and equipment in order to widen the pos- sibilities for development in expression, interpretation, and dramatics. The semi-inclosed stage, with the space so limited as to be suitable for graduation exercises or speaking and 324 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE singing programs, will not meet the requirements of the modern high school. Consequently, there should be no obstructions to a free use of scenery suspended from a gridiron above. Size. — For a school of 2000 the stage should be about 40' X 100' within the stage walls. The stage can then be used as a gymnasium, and if the proscenium opening is of ample width (about 65 feet), athletic contests such as basket ball, handball, volley ball, and even tennis may be played, with the audience comfortably seated in the auditorium. If a gridiron is installed, its height above the stage should be a few feet more than twice the height of the proscenium opening, and a space of about 6' 6" above the grids should be allowed for adjusting scenery tackle and blocks. The pin-rails and pin-rail balconies should be installed at the time of constructing the building. It is wise, however, to limit the scenery to two changes (interior and exterior sets) until the school performances bring returns for additional scenery equipment. Moving Picture Screen. ■ — - The moving picture screen and machine are discussed under the chapter on Physics , but it should be noted that the screen should be rigidly fastened at the lower edge to the stage floor at an angle nearly perpendicular to the lantern’s rays. Control of Lights. — Footlights, border lights, and all illumination in the hall should be controlled at the main switchboard on the stage and in the moving picture booth. This operation requires on the switchboard an automatic electrically controlled switch, which in turn can be operated by a simple switch in the moving picture booth. To some it may seem that equipping an assembly hall stage in this manner borders on extravagance, but a number of years of close relation with the large high school and acquaintance with the many educational activities related to the assembly hall prompts the writer to advocate the furnishing of facilities which will aid the development of the large number of students who will never have the opportunity to attend a univer- sity. Moreover, from the point of view of expense, the cost will be outbalanced by the uses to which the large well-equipped stage can be put. The smaller rostrum, with its many restrictions, can never be as satisfactory. Acoustics. — This subject, on account of its technical character, will not admit of more than a simple, practical explanation of how to treat the interior surfaces of the assembly hall in order to obtain the proper acoustical quality for the room. 1 Much attention has been at- tracted to this matter during the last two decades on account of the noticeable lack of acoustical qualities of many school assembly halls and large public audi- toriums in which audiences have heard indistinctly and sometimes not at all. This condition has been caused largely by the use of certain materials that have been favored by building ordinances because they are good fire retardants, and by builders because they require less effort in preparation and erection. Among these are metal lath, gypsum, plaster, plaster on brick, terra cotta tile, brick, and glass. Now while these materials have excellent qualities for the retardation of fire and for expedition in building, at the same time they have very low coefficients of the absorption of sound waves, and hence afford poor acoustical conditions for the halls in which they are used. Source of Sound. — Sound is a form of energy that sets in motion the ether waves of space, by means of which it is carried to its final destination. These sound waves move in all directions, assuming spherical form after leaving the source, a single note or uttered syllable setting up an infinite number. Very few of them travel directly to the listener ; most of them impinge against the walls, floors, seats, and the ceiling, from which, unless the building material is absorbent, they are reflected to travel again about the room. It is these reflected or secondary waves that accentuate the strength of the direct wave and add loudness to the sound. If both waves fail to reach the listener simultaneously, or within one-fifteenth of a second, of each other, he becomes conscious of a duplication of the same sound, usually called an echo. It is possible for one sound to produce several echoes in a room of ample size when the walls, ceiling, seats, and floors are constructed of hard and dense material against which the direct waves are readily reflected into secondary ones. Control of Sound Waves. — It is evident that, if good acoustical quality is to be had in an assembly hall, it will be necessary to control reflection and prevent the dissipa- tion of secondary waves. It is a well-known principle in physics, that, although energy is indestructible, it is. nevertheless, convertible, that is, when it is lost or ab- sorbed, it has simply passed into some other form, such as heat or motion. Since ordinary sound is low in energy, its conversion into heat would be unappreciable. To control the secondary waves, it is necessary merely to replace sections of the reflecting surfaces with materials which will absorb these waves in such measure, that either their return to the audience is prevented or their strength is so diminished that they cannot interfere with the intensity and audibility of the direct waves. Ma- 1 For a more comprehensive study of this subject the reader should consult the works of Professor Wallace C. Sabine, Harvard University, and those of Professor F. R. Watson of the University of Illinois. “Architectural Acoustics” in the American Architect, 1900, by the former, and Bulletins No. 73 and No. 87, University of Illinois, by the latter. THE ASSEMBLY HALL 325 terials have much the same relation to sound waves as they have to light waves; that is, they absorb, trans- mit, or reflect the waves ; or they may do all three. For instance, when a thin oiled skin like a drum head is placed over an opening exposed to the sun’s rays, some light will pass through, some will be reflected, and some will be absorbed by it. The last will be made evident by placing the hand upon the skin and noting its warmth. On the other hand, a plain sheet of glass will almost totally transmit light, while the mirror nearly totally reflects light. Likewise, materials of soft texture, such as fabrics, transmit, absorb, and dissipate the sound waves ; materials such as plaster, brick, steel, wood, glass, and cement absorb but little and greatly reflect sound. Absorption of Sound Waves. — Such materials as “ acoustical ” hair felt, covered with burlap or rep, will suffice to absorb the secondary waves. Often rep is used alone. In this case it is placed over a cotton twill membrane fastened to furring strips so as to allow for an air space between the membrane and the structural wall. If the side and rear walls are divided into large panels, and the panels covered in this manner so that the greater number of secondary waves are pre- vented from returning with force to the listener, the room will most likely have a good acoustical quality, providing other conditions are fulfilled. Some of these conditions will be set forth later. Coefficients of Absorption. — Professor Wallace C. Sabine, Professor of Physics, Harvard University, after a large number of experiments, determined the absorbing powers of many different materials. He called the open window a perfect absorber, and gave it a coeffi- cient of one; in comparison with the open window the following materials would have the following pro- portional coefficients : 1 One square meter of open window space . . . 1.000 One square meter of audience 0.96 One square meter of hair felt 1" thick .... 0.75 One square meter of heavy rugs and curtains . .0.25 One square meter of linoleum loose on floor . .0.12 One square meter of hard pine sheathing . . .0.161 One square meter of plaster on wood lath . . . 0.034 One square meter of plaster on wire lath . . . 0.033 One square meter of plaster on tile 0.025 One square meter of glass, single thickness . . . 0.025 One square meter of brick set in Portland cement 0.025 From the above table it is noticeable that hair felt and textile materials are considerably higher in absorp- tion power than the harder and more compact building materials. Recently a Gustivino tile has been developed which is said to have a high coefficient of absorption, for by the roughness of its surface the generation of friction dissipates the secondary waves so as to produce acoustical 1 Bulletin No. 73 University of Illinois, and Kidder’ quality in the room. A permanent material of this kind is highly desirable, as it reduces the fire hazard, is more durable, and makes possible better architectural treat- ment of the interior of the room. It should be noted also that the square meter of audience has a high coefficient of absorption. This accounts for the distinct difference in the acoustics observed when a hall is empty and when filled with people. Reflecting Surfaces. — Very few school assembly halls are equipped with upholstered chairs. This is a draw- back to good acoustics, as the wooden seats and backs are severe reflectors of both the direct and secondary sound waves. Likewise wood and concrete floors and glass are high reflectors. Therefore, whenever it is possible, the windows should be draped with heavy cur- tains and the aisles and passages should be covered with a carpet or with linoleum. Ceiling lights to admit sky- light or indirect illumination should be avoided ; instead the ceilings should be paneled, with hair felt and rep installed within the panels. Wall Surfaces. — The shape of the room also has much to do with the formation of echoes. Long and narrow rooms are conducive to sound reflection and particularly so are rooms hemispherical in form, the latter serving very much in the manner of parabolic reflectors in the search- light. A room more than 75 feet deep from the stage must have some means of focusing the sound waves to carry well beyond this point, as it has been found that beyond this distance the voice of the average public speaker is hardly audible. Of course, there is a danger in overpadding the interior of a room, so that on account of a lack of resonance sound becomes stifled. For this reason certain well-defined sections of the side walls should be of a material like plaster or brick which will reflect the secondary wave in such a way that it will arrive not later than one-fifteenth of a second after the arrival of the direct wave. This construction requires careful calculation and exact measurements, and the locations should be determined by some one expert in the study of acoustics. Let it not be thought that what has been presented here is in any way a complete discussion of the subject. The writer has intentionally avoided a technical discourse which would involve not only physics but advanced mathematics as well. Figure 279 shows the application of the hair felt and the rep. These materials should first be chemically treated to withstand fire and also be repellent to vermin. The rep should be dyed to the color desired for the finish tone ; it should never be painted, as the paint fills the pores of the weave and forms a membrane over the material. This nullifies its purpose because the painted s Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book, 16th Edition. 326 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE B me k conchitjl, on stud liui AIR $ PAC£, AIH 5 PACE, hxavy ^cWtcw cloth muouani, WITH £> UALAP OB. TIP? OVIil SAMI, MLTHODS OF- APPLYING ACOUSTICAL TILT AND PUItLAP OIL IUPP TO WALLS QT THE, ASSIMPLY HALL- r v 3 " S C A L £, Fig. 279. O the assembly hall 327 surface acts like a drum-head, and the waves cannot freely penetrate through or be absorbed by the fabric. Organs. — In describing the modern assembly hall, one cannot omit mention of the organ any more than of the moving picture equipment. It should be borne in mind that even though an organ is not possible at the time of building the school and the assembly hall, there is no reason why the space and provisions for a future installation should not be allowed. It costs a community many times more to be lacking in vision than it ever does to spend freely with a clear vision of future needs. Good music, next to eloquence, will do more to stir humanity to right living and right action than any other force ; it should be encouraged to the fullest extent, especially during the formative period of young manhood and young womanhood. During the study and deliberation of the general problem, and particularly that of the assembly hall, an expert in organ installations should be consulted regard- ing the size of an organ most appropriate for the volume of the room, and the other necessities, such as space and size of pipes, bellows, fan, motor, etc. A word may not be amiss to call attention to the archaic use of false I pipes for decorative effect. Usually the display is cumbrously done and seems to proclaim the vanity of some one in authority. Unless very cleverly constructed and so arranged as to convey the impression of a sunburst accenting an axis of the room, it is far better taste in design to substitute a simple decorative plaster grille which will provide openings for the sound to pass through. It is then possible to have echo pipes in different sections of the room. The cost of things constructed in good taste is usually less than that of mere showy and decora- tive features. Quietness. — The assembly hall, like the library, should be located where quietness will prevail. It is the ordi- nary thing to place the boiler room, the fan room, or the cafeteria under the assembly hall. It is really the worst place to locate them, both for safety to the audience and for the full and satisfactory use of the room. The discomfort occasioned by straining to hear a speaker, or to listen to a musical or dramatic entertainment, destroys the possibility of wholesome pleasure. No excuse can be found for architects, and especially engineers, who will negligently overlook the necessities of locating the mechanical installations where they will function to the desired efficiency, and at the same time operate without the world knowing it. Boards of Education and the public are fast realizing that it sometimes costs a little more to have ideal conditions, but if they are made acquainted with the facts in time, they generally accede to the requirements. On the other hand, preliminary study and premeditation very often will bring the cost of good conditions below that of permanently bad conditions. Boiler rooms should be located in isolated buildings or in wings where they may be built entirely of fireproof materials such as masonry or concrete. Cafeterias likewise may better be located in separate buildings or in such part of the main building that no odors from the kitchens can permeate the school. Moving Picture Booth. — To have good pictures requires not only a good machine, but a booth so con- structed that the machine is not handicapped. (See Figure 280.) First of all, the booth should be solidly built, and the floor should have such rigidity as to obviate machine vibration, which makes the pictures dance and is harmful to the eyes of the observer. The vertical and horizontal axes of the picture rays should strike the center of the screen. This adjustment necessitates placing the booth, and especially the opening for the moving picture rays, directly on a line at right angles with the center of the screen. If the booth is at a high elevation, the screen should be tilted so the rays will strike it at right angles or nearly so. The screen should be rigidly fastened to prevent movement. When a gridiron is included in the stage equipment, it is possible to have the screen constructed of metal lath and plaster applied to a frame of channel and angle iron construc- tion. The space for the picture should be painted an ivory white with a black border outside the limits of the rays, serving as a contrast to give distinctness to the picture. Equipment and, Current. — The equipment should con- sist of a good moving picture machine and a stereopticon lantern. If possible, the booth should also contain a spotlight for use during dramas and “ skits ” staged by the students. Light from alternating current is not as steady or as brilliant as that supplied by direct current. Where the latter is not available from the street service the motor generator set in the physics laboratory should supply the current. As a matter of good engineering, the current should be supplied from that source anyway. Construction. — All fire ordinances require that moving picture booths shall be constructed of fireproof materials such as concrete, brick, or, as is generally used, wood sheathing covered with No. 26 gauge galvanized iron, locked-seamed for walls, floors, and ceilings. All doors, door frames, and shutters should be of metal, or be metal covered, and the shutters for the rays should be suspended by cotton strings attached to counterweights so that a flash of fire will burn the ties of string, allowing the shut- ters to close tight. All doors to the booths should close automatically and be kept closed during a performance. A metal film box which can be tightly closed should be provided in which to store the films within the booth. The combustion of a film is so rapid and intense that 328 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE ° $ 1 GTIQN • A ° A° I N TLIMOIt VI LW LOOKING FORWARD i> = 100 AMP STAGE. BOXES J>-C- FOIL A1ACHINE.S A - CO ■■ •• « A C " AVOTORS i'l JZ’ I a Fl J C‘| !2‘ \ 3'^ !_ /£' ^/o'J af ^ TE C=r — r I — l i -I j ' 7 ' . SUPPLY H rl I I 1 ® I MOVING PlCT^rU C SltM|>PT|Cpil|AACHHIE.S M 1 — 1 H 1 — I H Cm’ kin. vests iJjSipflcJ q \k /2'-cr % s„,& l ” 1 p. I 1 — u _ I I ; I. ^joT luG^i' IT MACllV; & / TEU-fHOKE. & 1 \C ’rewind shelf Yfl MITP L LPCKLRS BELOV f 08' fUMS t X TIMOR, VljW 4'L fiLipy. y n h MOVIflk PtCTlAftfC 5 T L IlEOP TICOJ) ACH INt I u 4 . , \Tl- -1 I iO X i qr VENT IN ptiu NS - 9 1 '<0 PLAN SHOWING HQOM WITH TWO MACHINES* PLAN SHOWING ROOM. WITH ONI AlACHINl Bis switches • D C., ioo Amp • no volts SPOTS £ ST£RO A C 6.0 • TYPICAL MOVING PICTUItL ItOOM. 5 C A L £ Fig. 280 . ■. John J. Donovan , Architect, and Mr. Henry Hornbostel, Consulting Architect. Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect, and Mr. Henry Hombostcl, Consulting Architect. THE ASSEMBLY HALL 33i Mr. Wm. B. Ittner, Architect. Fig. 283. — Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. the operator seldom has time to escape should one catch tire while he is operating the machine. This film box may contain the rewinding machine so often needed in a much used picture booth. Without fail, the booth should be provided with a fireproof vent flue having a minimum cross sectional area of 50 square inches. It is best to locate this flue right over the machine and have it lead directly to the outdoor air. A fireproof inlet supplying 30 cubic feet of air per minute should also be provided for ventilation, so that the operator will not expose the audience to the danger of fire and panic by opening the door for ventilation when the booth becomes heated by the machine light. A signal button and buzzer in the booth and on the stage should be provided so that a lecturer may direct the changing of stereopticon slides. An inter-communication telephone system between the stage and the booth is desirable, and the expense is inappreciable compared to the con- venience. The construction of the front wall of the moving licture booth as shown in Figure 280 should be observed, is it is the most practical method found by the writer. The asbestos board is not secured in place until the >icture machine is properly located with relation to the urtain and then the openings in the asbestos board are neatly formed. This asbestos board is about £" thick nd should be fastened so it can be easily removed in order that new machines may be correctly placed with relation to the curtain. Lighting and Illumination. - If at all possible, the assembly hall should be well provided with good, natural lighting for the hygienic effect of the sun’s rays in purify- ing the room. In fact, as we have previously said, all rooms in a school building should, if possible, have the benefit of the cheerfulness and natural warmth of sunshine. The windows should have opaque shades operated within slides so that the room may be darkened for the use of moving pictures and stereopticon views. The method is quite fully described in the chapter on Physics. Heavy drapes or curtains will be found advantageous for the acoustical quality of the room, as well as for decora- tive purposes. Under “ Electric Wiring and Illumina- tion ” the lighting of the auditorium will be described fully. However, the writer favors the semi-direct method, as it is more cheerful than the indirect and costs considerably less. On the other hand, direct light- ing should be avoided, as the glare is decidedly tiring, and painful after a very short time. Either all fixtures should have double service, or certain fixtures should be wired to separate street service lines in order to have light, should the main service to. the building fail for any reason. This is a precautionary measure that ought to be adopted in halls of large seating capacity. 332 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 284. — Auditorium, Clawson School, Oakland, California. Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. One of the short-sighted regulations of many ordinances is the absurd size required for exit light boxes. They are unnecessarily large and out of keeping with the surrounding details. There is no reason why good judgment and consideration for proportion should not prevail in safety measures as in other matters. Exit lights should be placed over every exit and kept lighted during the occupancy of the room whenever the room is darkened. Aisles. — The building laws of nearly all cities agree on the following as to the width of the aisles : All aisles having seats on each side shall not be less than three feet wide where they begin near the stage and shall be increased in width towards the exits- in the ratio of x\" to 5 running feet. Aisles having seats on one side only shall not be less than two feet wide at the beginning and increase in width x\" in 10 running feet. Ordinances further require that all seats except those contained in boxes shall not be less than 32" back to back, measured in a horizontal direction. No seat in the auditorium or theater shall have more than six seats intervening between it and an aisle. The above has been taken literally from Building Ordinances Controlling the Construction of Auditoriums and Theaters, which the construction of school audi- toriums should follow. Exits. - All assembly halls should have more than one means of exit. Exits should be arranged on the front and sides if possible as well as at the rear or entrance. This arrangement will give a sense of secur- ity which is important in the elimination of panics. Steps of any kind should be avoided either at exits or in any passage or aisle leading to the exits. Openings 5' o" wide with double doors opening outward and operated with panic bolts should be provided for even- 250 seats up to 1000, and then one for even- 300 seats additional. Painting and Decoration. — In order that harmony should prevail, the color scheme of the assembly hall 333 THE ASSEMBLY HALL should receive careful study. Unlike a theater, it is not adapted to a wide range of decorative ornament and free use of color. On the other hand, somber tones are likely to reflect melancholy, which is entirely out of [keeping with the buoyant spirit of the students. The room has so many uses that no particular one should control the color scheme. Consequently, any light, cheerful coloring will usually be found appropriate. The chairs, curtains, hangings, and especially the scenery for the stage, should be selected so as to produce ajj general harmonious effect. The usual method is for the architect to select colors for the walls, ceilings, etc. ; the purchasing agent selects the chairs and hangings; the principal selects the scenery ; and the final result is i free-for-all, everlasting clash in the general scheme. Like everything else in the study of the plan, there should be collaboration and good team-work throughout ; hen not only harmony but happiness will prevail. The assembly hall is the ideal room for a terse inscrip- ion which will attract the students’ attention and lead o thoughts of the higher purposes of life. A well-chosen pigram often will do more to displace frivolity with arnestness and seriousness than a full course of lectures n self-efficiency. Likewise, the intellectual enrichment diffused by a fine mural painting is immeasurable. And there is no spot in the entire community where it can be observed by more people than upon the proscenium walls of the school auditorium. Here, again, is the opportunity for vision. Even though the available funds will not permit of a mural painting at the time of constructing the building, there is no excuse for not arranging space for such a future acquisition. The country is alive with fine young artists fully capable of producing wonderful visions of inspiration, who are glad to have the opportunity to demonstrate their ability and give life to their conceptions. A slight investigation will bring to light what may be accom- plished at a very small expense. In order to avoid hasty action in the selection of the man and in choosing the subject, it is probably far better to have this piece of work done some time after the building is completed. Also, the artist should never be rushed in his work. For if done at all, it should be done well, as it is to be done for all time. Nothing is so disgusting as a preten- tious or badly executed mural painting. A painting is indicative of the intelligence and skill of the painter, but it is also a measure of the taste and intelligence of the client, and in a school building, of the community. 334 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. Edward Stalz, Architect Fig. 286. — Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania THE ASSEMBLY HALL 335 ; Mr. A. F. Hussanaer, Arcniiect. Fig. 287. — Assembly Hall, Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, Chicago, Illinois. Fig. 288. — Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, Chicago, Illinois. Mr. A. F. Hussaruler, Architect. THE ASSEMBLY] HALL 337 Messrs. Perkins. Fellows & Hamilton , Architects. Fig. 289. — Assembly Hall Gymnasium, Edward S. Bragg School, Fond du Lac, Wisconsin. 33§ SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Messrs. Perkins, Fellows & Hamilton, Architects. Fig. 290. — Assembly Hall, Lincolnwood School, District #75, Evanston, Illinois. p a ge 339 Fig. 291. — Oliver School, Lawrence, Massachusetts. 340 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Messrs. GuUberl & BeleUe. ArcniUcts. Fig. 292. — South Side High School, Newark, New Jersey. THE ASSEMBLY HALL 34i Fig. 293. — Parkersburg, West Virginia. Mr. Frank L. Packard. Architect. CHAPTER XVII THE MUSIC DEPARTMENT By Glen H. Woods, A.A.G.O., Director of Music School Department, Oakland, California I. Elementary Schools. II. Intermediate or Junior High School. III. Senior or Regular High School. IV. Assembly Hall. V. Vocational Music, (i) Equipment. (2) Office and Library. (.3) Acoustics and Noise Deadening. Elementary Schools. — On account of the rapidly increasing interest in the study and teaching of instru- mental and choral music in the public schools, this divi- sion of the school organization requires careful consider- ation in the plan of the new school building. Two phases should be considered in the elementary school : first, small rehearsal rooms about io / Xi2 / in which private individual instrumental instruction may be given ; and second, the stage of the assembly hall, which should be sufficiently large to accommodate an ensemble rehearsal of all the players in the school. When assembly halls in elementary schools are equipped with movable chairs, it is possible to use them for other activities besides convocations and assemblies. Conse- quently, whenever the stage is too small, it is possible to use the floor for the rehearsals of the band and orchestra, and each player may have sufficient space so as to be seated comfortably and have enough elbow room to play without interference from his neighbor. Fixed audience seats placed close to the stage eliminate the use of the floor for rehearsals, and the stage is the only resource. Therefore, it is advisable to keep in mind the many uses to which the stage and floor may be assigned, and one of the most valuable uses is for orchestral con- certs and rehearsals. In order to seat an orchestra of 30 pieces, the stage should be at least 32 feet wide by 17 feet deep. Figure 294 shows the seating arrangement of the players and the areas required for each group. The Clawson Elementary School, Oakland, California, illustrated on pages 91, 332, is a good example of a model elementary school with excellent appointments for instrumental and orchestral instruction. The stage is elevated to a height of 4' o" above the floor and is sufficiently large to accommodate an orchestra of 30 pieces. The small dressing rooms adjoining the stage are used for giving individual instrumental lessons, and when well lighted, ventilated, and far removed from the study classrooms, as in this case, they serve well for this purpose. The acoustical quality of this assembly room is almost perfect, as the walls of the room have a paneled wood wainscot about nine feet high and above this the masonry walls are covered with acoustical hair-felt and burlap. Also the ceiling is finished with wood beams and panels. It is an ideal room for an ensemble practice, there being no perceptible echoes even when only the players are present. No doubt this is due to the special treatment of the interior design. In schools without assembly halls it is necessary to resort to the use of corridors or even to poorly lighted basement rooms. The serious danger of causing confusion in blocking the corridor in times of fire and panics makes it mandatory that in such cases temporary quarters like portable buildings should be furnished, pending the permanent assembly hall. Makeshift quarters are usually devoid of the proper natural and artificial light- ing facilities, and the study of music requires both in order to save the pupils from eye strain. The Intermediate or Junior High School. — As the enrollment in the junior high school is much larger than that of the average elementary school, the musical activi- ties are more intense, and consequently, the accommo- dations should be well thought out to provide for private individual lessons, orchestra practice, and choral classes. The small rooms, previously mentioned under Elementary Schools, and the stage of the assembly hall, will provide for the first two, and the average classroom can be used to good advantage for choral instruction where the classes are small. However, in a school of this size and character, there should be a special music room which would have a seating capacity of about 150. This would then ac- commodate large choral classes for community singing. This room would relieve the assembly hall and serve for many other school purposes. The seating arrangement should be that of the amphitheater or “ clinic ” type so that the line of sight from each seat will focus upon the 342 THE MUSIC DEPARTMENT 343 UEMLIfTAk-Y SCHOOL, ASSEMBLY HAU 5 C A L, , E, 0' 5' )Q IS vSUqqtSTZD ?UW foil SUTINS ELEMENTARY SCHOOL OLCHLSJM^ 32 PLAYER.5 AJ 15 .SQ^rf. = 450 SO^f. -SC.A_.LJL o to rd 131 d el i o •t-J nr a O c r) P\ d 2= O T ■* • CQ i c0“ >- o s C*! -a; 3=1 nr U to nr y- 2T >• — r — 1 jcuM5 4 BA 55L5 Q Q 4 SAX o 5 P H O N £- 5 o o o Q 6 HO o Q PJC(. a a a a a CL, A R_1 Jf LT5 # a a 0 a a a a a CCNDl/CJO C 2 BAR-1 "[(p D 'NLS 5UCGL5*f2D LAYOUT FOR. SEATINg A BAN-D 45 P1AYLICS AJ 15 SCCJ'f = £75 ■SQ^J'J. 5 C A L E_ 10 15 35-0" P B P ASS A S p NARC P P p a kjettlf OfLUMS 3 SJR .in qr BAi SE-S 1 JUBA a P P p 2 CLAP- 1 NE.JS 1 oboe. 1 elute. Q P 4 CE.LLOS Q Q a 0^ a a 14 ,ST VIOLINS a a a a a a a a a a CO MOLC/fOIL. IE 2ND VIOLINS D D D D O D D D D O SUGGESTED PLAN FOIL SLAJIMq A HIGH SCHOOL ORCHESTRA Fig. 296. 346 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE instructor. With the seats elevated on steps or on a sloping floor, each pupil can be seen by the teacher, and the tone of each voice is not impeded or obstructed by the student in front. There are many objections to a level floor. A small stage or rostrum two feet high and about seven feet deep is very desirable. It should be about sixteen feet long so as to accommodate a piano and a victrola and to allow sufficient room for the teacher to move about freely. Music cases that may be securely locked could very well be built into the wall back of the rostrum, forming a paneled wainscot. These cases should be deep enough (about r5 inches) for books, records, and octavo music. For instrumental instruc- tion, the plan of the elementary school should be increased to include more small rooms for individual instruction. For orchestral practice, the stage should be large enough to seat at least fifty players, that is, there should be a floor area of about 750 square feet, which allows 15 square feet per player. A stage 35 feet wide and 25 feet deep is just about adequate to meet these requirements. (See Figure 295.) The intermediate school should have a special teacher in charge of all music work, having a small room set apart for a combination office and music library. This should be provided with wall cases for the storage of all kinds of music, records, and song books. Senior or Regular High Schools. (See Figures 295, 296, and 297.) In the last five years the development of instrumental music in the high schools has met with such favorable approval and has been so generally ac- cepted in all school systems that it is necessary to con- sider this phase of music instruction in connection with the construction of all new high schools. The average large high school will offer as electives in its curriculum, choral, harmony, and history ; band, and orchestra ; and individual instruction on all instruments, including the piano. Where the choral class is small, the average classroom accommodating thirty to forty pupils can be used. Inasmuch as the enrollment in the harmony and history classes is usually not large, these same class- rooms can be used for such classes, provided there is sufficient space between the front row of seats and the wall to accommodate a piano and a victrola, besides the teacher’s desk. (See Figure 295.) In rooms where har- mony instruction is given regularly, the blackboards should be ruled with double staves of five lines, each wide, with 1 " spaces between the lines and 3" spans between the staves ; the three sides of such rooms should be equipped with blackboards. Where band and orchestra instruction is offered as a regular subject, it is advisable to have one room espe- cially equipped for these organizations. If the same room is used for more than one phase of musical instruc- tion, it is necessary to arrange the racks, chairs, and music for either or both of these organizations. For that reason the program should be arranged so as to concentrate the instrumental rehearsals in the afternoon. This will obviate the necessity of rearranging the room each time for these and other classes. While such a plan might indicate a rather expensive outlay, choice must be made between greater efficiency in handling such organizations with the minimum expenditure of time in getting ready for active work, or accepting the alternative of spending a large part of the lesson period in arranging the room for the rehearsal. The latter is a perpetual waste of the students’ and instructor’s time and is decidedly an economic loss. This room should be well lighted, and the chairs should be arranged so that the backs of the students are turned towards the windows in order to have the light fall directly upon the music sheets. Figure 297 shows the desired arrangement. The orchestra and band room should be large enough to seat fifty players, and should have wall cases for the storage of instruments at either end and under the window stools. These cases should be specially designed to hold such instruments as the string-bass, bass-drum, cello, horns, trombones, violins, noncollapsible racks, etc. The last require considerable space for storage. Facilities should be at hand for quickly clearing the room, as it should be of a size very desirable for many of the school affairs. The Assembly Hall. — Most of the assembly halls in even the modern high schools have little or no con- venience for performances which require the accompani- ment of an orchestra. Chorals given from the stage necessitate placing the orchestra on the floor in a way similar to that of the theater plan. Therefore, there must be sufficient space between the first row of seats and the stage apron so as to accommodate at least thirty players comfortably seated and in full view of the leader. Sixteen feet is none too large an allowance for this depth. (See Figure 294.) The space is always available for seats on skids or movable chairs which can be easily" removed and stored away. The main point to keep in mind is that when once the fixed seats are fastened to the floor,; this prohibits the use of the floor by the orchestra, and it is more difficult to have the fixed chairs removed than movable ones. Another important matter is to see that sufficient electrical base and floor receptacles are provided in the stage apron and in the floor from which extension cords may lead to the fighting fixtures on the music racks. Each music rack should be equipped with a semi-closed reflector similar to those used by theater orchestras. Vocational Music. — Quite a few school department.- in the country, believing thoroughly’- in music instruction Page 347 Fig. 297. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 348 have established vocational courses which often require a special building, or at least a specially equipped music department. The preceding suggestions and the draw- ings shown will be found adaptable for vocational in- struction with certain modifications, enlargements, and additional special rooms in order to have the school fit the community. Equipment. — Music cases should be built to accom- modate octavo music, 7" Xii^; piano music, ii' 7 X 14"; orchestra music, 8"Xi2 // ; band music, $"X%" Fig. 298. and 7 // Xii' / ; books, 5"x8", 7 // XiT / , and 8 ,/ Xi2 ,/ , and records, 12" in diameter. In constructing cases sufficient inside clearance should be allowed to facilitate ease in handling the music and to avoid tearing it when removing it or returning it to its place in the case. Open shelves 15" deep, one foot apart, are preferable to partitioned sections that are too small. (See Figure 298.) The best music rack for use at rehearsal on the stage or in the orchestra pit is a noncollapsible rack with a heavy iron-casting base with a pipe upright. The nickel collapsible and folding rack used by musicians as a portable rack is convenient but not strong enough to withstand the wear and tear of a rehearsal room, and is so light it is very easily turned over. The manual train- ing department in any high school can easily make these noncollapsible racks at a moderate cost of about $1.00 apiece. When pupils bring their own instruments to school, some place of safety must be provided for storing them during the periods when the pupil is reciting in his other classes. Such instruments as the string bass, tuba, cello, trombone, and saxophone are more or less clumsy and need special provision for their accommodation in order to protect them from injury by being knocked down or bumped into. Figure 299 is a suggestion for such instrument cases. The chairs used for band and orchestra in the elementary schools should be plain, solid oak chairs with straight backs and flat bottom seats about 16" from the floor. Such chairs will stand the wear and tear received in a rehearsal room and not be easily broken. The folding chairs, while more convenient for stor- ing, are easily broken and are too unsteady and flimsy for the comfort of violin players. The same style of chairs can be used for high schools, except that the seat should be 18” from the floor. The pipe organ has been referred to in the chapter on Assembly Halls, but a word here will not be amiss. The school body and the public will find that the installation of a pipe organ is a great acquisition to any high school. A .good two manual organ, fully equipped, will cost between six thousand and eight thousand dollars. The day is near at hand when the organ will be considered as essential to the equipment of the music depart- ment and the assembly hall as the lathe is to the machine shop. Fig. 299. the music department 349 Mr. Wm. B. inner , Architect. Fig. 300. — Music Room, Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. Office and Library. ■ — - A music office and library is an conomical combination of two essential features in ny music department of a large high school. A clerk r office assistant can also serve as the music librarian, ad all books and music used in the school can be con- ■olled and distributed from a central office. Acoustics and Noise Deadening. — Rooms used for lorals, orchestra, band, and individual instrumental struction should be specially treated by padding the irfaces of the walls and the ceilings with acoustical lir felt covered with rep or burlap. It will also be und helpful if the floors are covered with linoleum. The bject of acoustics is very fully covered in the chapter a Assembly Halls. It should be remembered that it utterly impossible to teach or study effectively in usic rooms unless the echoes and reverberations are iduced to the minimum. Likewise, it is important that the transmission of sound from one room to another should be carefully guarded against in the construction of the walls, ceilings, and floors of the building. Figure 297, in the chapter on Assembly Halls , shows how this may be done as effectively as building conditions will permit. Double doors are quite necessary between rooms, although there is a single soundproof door in use at the School of Music, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, and in the music department at Yale University, which seems to answer the purpose quite well. These are matters which distinguish a good plant from a poor one, and no matter how adequate the scheme and plant may be, if the essential details for controlling the sounds and echoes within the rooms are not cared for, the educational results are bound to fall below the standards possible where favorable conditions prevail. CHAPTER XVIII PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY By Arthur L. Jordan, Head of Department of Science, Polytechnic High School, San Francisco, California I. Science Department, (i) Preliminary Note. (2) Intermediate School, Regular High School and Junior College. (3) Location of the Science Group Rooms. (4) Furniture. (5) Workshop. (6) Library. (7) Special Plumbing. (8) Dark Room Picture Pro- jection. (9) School Camera. (10) Laboratory Breakage Fund. II. Physics. (1) Lecture Room. (2) Storeroom for Lecture Table Apparatus. (3) The Laboratory. (4) Equipment. (5) Storerooms. (6) Dark Rooms. III. Applied Physics. (1) Special Laboratories. (2) Laboratory for Mechanics, Strength of Materials and Hydraulics. (3) Steam and Gas Engine Laboratory. (4) Laboratory for Direct and Alternating Current Electricity. (5) The Machines. (6) Measuring Instruments. (7) Switchboards. (8) Lamp-Bank. (9) Apparatus. (10) Storerooms, (nj Lecture Rooms. IV. Chemistry. (1) The Lecture Room. (2) Storerooms for Lecture Table Apparatus. (3) The Chemistry Laboratory. (4) Switchboards. (5) Laboratory Tables. (6) Balance Room. V. Applied Chemistry. (1) Planning of Courses. (2) Technical Chemistry (for young men). (3) Household and Domestic Chemistry, the Chemistry of Foods (girls). (4) Lighting of Laboratories. (5) Technical Education for Adults, for Crippled Soldiers. (6) Lessons from the War. I. The Science Department. Preliminary Note. — -No apology seems necessary in demanding for the science department a most important place in the plans for building an equipment of a high school. Science at- tained great prominence in world affairs before the war, and every one knows of the vital part which it played during the war. The science department has two special relations to the community : first, the use of the projection ap- paratus (for fixed or moving pictures), the electric cur- rent for and the adjustment of which are most com- monly a science department problem ; second, the need of the community for certain special courses, as Assaying, Agriculture, Applied Courses in Electricity, Hydraulics, Mechanics, Strength of Materials, includ- ing Cement and Concrete (for boys), Biology, Physi- ology, Household Chemistry, First Aid and Nursing (for girls). These, in general, are not essentially for college preparation, but some communities believe very strongly in the preparatory courses, and the work should then be modified accordingly. The rooms needed for the department will be referred to as the “ Science Group.” Certain assumptions are necessary: (1) That gen- eral science (or some other equivalent “ First Year Science ”) is given in the first year, and we should con- sider whether it is a “ required ” or an “ elective ” subject. If the former, large classroom space and teach- ing force are necessary. (2) Chemistry and physics are usually given in the third or fourth years except where special courses like those mentioned above are given, in which case the following plan works well: At the end of the first year the students are divided into two groups, “ College Preparatory ” and “ Non- College ” or “ Industrial.” The former take a course in elementary physics of four periods (45 minutes each) per week during the second (sophomore) year, chemis- try or biological work during the third year, and the completion of the physics (6 periods per week) in the fourth year. The latter are given a course in the second year (6 periods per week instead of 4) called “ Practical Physics.” This leaves the entire third and fourth years for the special courses referred to. (3) The above-men- tioned three subjects with one other (say biology form the more or less standard group of courses, the rooms for which constitute the “ Science Group ” men tioned above. One other room of the utmost use to the public as well as to the school is one intermediate in size between an ordinary science lecture room and the mail auditorium, and holding from 150 to 250 people with ; raised bank of tablet chairs. This is much better fo meetings than the “ study room ” sometimes presset into service. This room can be used for Science, an< called the “ large lecture room,” its projection lantern and lantern screen being useful to teachers of English history, etc., as well as for public lectures, communit singing, and similar meetings. (4) While the relativ numbers of students of the two sexes may vary at difiei ent times and in different places, it may be assumed tha the two are about equal in the “ first year science,; 35 ° PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 35 1 that there will be more girls than boys in the biological sciences and the reverse in the physical sciences. Intermediate School, Senior or Regular High School and Junior College. — - If the community decides to change the prevalent system (elementary school 8 years, high school 4 years), it can do so according to one of two or three plans. For example: elementary school the first six years, intermediate 3 years (7th- 0 *0 51 KK, 15 x zs' Ztec. outlet Po/orizei o 2" below top. ' plug socket /O - O' € /2 -0' f LA * UJ T IACHLR.S SIDE. 6CILNCL LLCTUfLfi TABLE. Fig. 301. 9th), high school 3 years (ioth-i2th), junior college 2 years (13th- 14th). Following this plan, the work outlined below under heading “ Applied Physics ” and “ Applied Chemistry ” would come in the junior col- lege, and the additional rooms, apparatus, and ma- chinery required must be of the same character as those used in university work. Instructions cannot be given, as in English or mathematics, by simply employing a qualified instructor ; nor can it be given with the science apparatus of the high school ; and the cost of the additional equipment must be understood and pro- vided for. (See paragraph on “ Cost Estimates’’ later.) Location of the Science Group Rooms. — - If the ground- floor story is high and well-lighted, this is the best location on account of its freedom from vibration. Vibration interferes seriously with accurate balance work in chemistry, with the use of the microscope in biology and all uses of delicate galvanometers in electricity. If the floor is of cement, it should be smooth-coated and then be covered with a good grade of battleship linoleum. This will prevent the serious tiring of feet which is sure to occur ; also the cold during winter, if uncovered cement is used. In answer to the argument that the fumes from chemi- cal processes will be objectionable if the laboratory is on the ground floor, it can be stated that experience shows that a good ventilating system with motor-driven exhaust or suction fan will discharge them through an outlet above the roof. The first floor is, of course, next best, and it is far better to have the group all on one floor rather than to sepa- rate the rooms and have the discomfort of stair-climb- ing. In a small high school one lecture room can be used for two sciences, as physics and chemistry, and the ideal location would be midway between the two lab- oratories. The only difference in equipment if the room is used for chemistry would be to have a some- what deeper sink in the lecture table and a fume-closet I 1 t V A TIO X SECTION L161AR,r FPL SC11NCL BGDiCS. Fig. 302. built near the front of the room. Forced ventilation will be treated later. In large schools separate rooms should be provided, as they are in continual demand for meeting places of various school activities. Science Department Furniture. — Furniture for the department should be planned at one time, and it should be alike as far as possible. This facilitates interchang- ing, allows for expansions, etc., and produces flexibility. It may be classified into : (1) Standard (as stools and chairs, filing cabinets, some laboratory and lecture tables). (See Figure 301.) (2) Built-in, as sliding black- boards ; lecture tables, chemistry laboratory tables and all other fixtures requiring plumbing or electricity ; apparatus wall cabinets for physics, for chemistry, for biology ; library for science books (see figure 302 for type of bookcase), etc. (3) Special, as bulletin boards, keyboards, display cabinets, etc. (4) Mill work, as cabinets for the ordinary 9 X 1 1 inch science binder — 60 shelves, holding 120 binders, which should be built in the walls, double and single direction boards, lantern- slide cabinets, tool cases for workshop, two kinds of wall cabinets, narrow and wide (with glass doors and mov- able shelves) which should be located in convenient places, and fastened to the walls after rooms are finished. Designs for these are given later. Science Department Workshop. — One small room should be fitted up as a workroom or shop (one end of a large store can be used). (See Figure 303.) A heavy bench with a vise and anvil is the first requisite; the second, a set of good carpenters’ and metal workers’ tools. Cases with good locks should be provided for them. 352 If the school has no machine shop or woodworking department, the investment of a few hundred dollars in a machinist’s lathe, a wood lathe, a sensitive drill, and a “ polishing head ” (fitted with circular saws and saw-table), with the necessary shafting and driv- ing motor, would certainly pay. This equipment pro- vides for the repair of numerous pieces of apparatus and furniture, also for the building of new apparatus. The latter is not only a great economy, but also allows the progressive teacher a chance to keep his courses up- to-date with new experiments and to prepare material for popular science lectures and demonstrations. Science Department Library. — Equal in importance to a set of mechanical tools is a collection of good ref- erence books. In some cases it may be well to have all the science books in one place, provided with library tables (of glazed partitions), under the constant super- vision of a teacher, but experience has shown that reference books are most useful when near at hand ; hence it is usually better to have the physics books in the physics laboratory, those on biology in the biology laboratory, and so on. When the students’ tables are SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE apt to be covered with acids, as in chemistry, a wall- table for reference books should be provided. The preservation of these books is in the hands of the teacher. An important question is that of providing funds for the renewal of books. A still more important one is the need for new books, which, in some cases ( e.g . wireless telegraphy) as soon as they are published, render their predecessors obsolete. Closely related to this is the subject of subscriptions to the scientific papers and magazines. Books are somewhat behind the times, and a few good papers are absolutely necessary to keep the school up to date. In no line of human activity is there more rapid development than in the lines of applied science. The money for the above may be obtained from the general library fund of the school. Another possibility, especially for the magazines, is a voluntary subscription from the students taking the subject to which that magazine applies. The best plan, how- ever, in most cases is to draw from the laboratory or breakage fund mentioned later. Special Plumbing. Gas. — It frequently happens in science laboratory work that most of the students need T, ^ ^ 1 1 ^ ^ 1 [ ^ 1 L ^ . J ~ II “ - 1C"- ^ II “ 1 0 | | 0 ~ IL ~ - I['..-.J h ^ “ II ~ ~ ILc. “ IL - J ~ il ~ ~ .11 ~ w.Jl 0 1 ; r 5TOEAGE DLAWEfUS TOR, <5CRHW 5. BOLTG, TCDL5. LTC. 5CIENCL WOR,K.R,GDM OL SHOP WOOD WOfcXING BENCH I — °"~ ir Fig. 303. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY bunsen burners at the same time. A large number of gas nozzles therefore should be provided and large- sized supply pipes (at least inch mains, and one inch feeders) should be run. The pressure should not go below 6 inches of water when the maximum number of burners are in operation. The nozzles should be of the same diameter ( T V0 as the tube of the standard bunsen burner, so they will take the same size rubber tubing; and a few fixtures for bat-wing gas flames should be provided. They are useful in bending glass tubing and for “ objects ” in the study of “ Light.” In some special cases (chemistry lecture table, blow-torch in shop, or gas engine supply) a larger nozzle (§" to i") is needed. Water. — In chemistry, one sink should be provided for every two students ; for physics, general science and biology, at least three sinks in each room are de- sirable. On all lecture tables there should be two fau- cets, one fitted with a f" hose bibb. This is so that an aspirator can be used. In general, they should be high enough (not less than 16" above bottom of sink) to allow for tall jars being placed below them, and all supply pipes should have controlling valves below each sink. All supply pipes to the different floors should be equipped with controlling valves. Hot Water. — A separate heater (for the few experi- ments requiring hot water) will usually cost less than the installation of plumbing for hot water at each sink ; but this also depends upon the kind of heating plant for the building and the possibility of a constant hot water supply. Photography. — Two or more sinks will be needed in each photographic dark room. Compressed Air or Vacuum Piping. — -For ordinary high school science work, experiments requiring com- pressed air or vacuum are very rare, and it would seem a waste of money to provide the plumbing for them. If advanced laboratory work is to be given, an air com- pressor is very desirable. The plumbing used in con- junction with it, as well as that for hydraulics, steam, and gas engine work is mentioned in Part IV, Applied Physics. Darkroom Picture Projection (including moving pic- tures). — This subject involves the ordinary lecture rooms for all of the divisions of science, for history, English, modern languages, etc. ; the room spoken of as the “Large Lecture Room ” (seating 150 or more), Sect. 1, and the auditorium or assembly hall. Opaque Curtains. — All rooms where direct sunlight :an enter should have a set of translucent curtains for use during sunshine hours. In addition to these the rooms mentioned above should have a set of carefully fitted opaque curtains. It is true that for the pro- ection of the commonly used transparent slides the 353 room need not be very dark — and for younger students it should never be entirely so — but for the projection of opaque objects (reflectoscope) and for certain ex- periments in chemistry (as phosphorescence), and in physics (violet light, electric brush discharge), there must be some arrangement that permits it to be dark- ened completely. Curtain Guides. — These should be a part of the con- tract for the building, and the architect should see that there is ample clearance (i.e. the slot in which the cur- METAL CUR.TAIN GUIDES Fig. 304. tain runs should not be narrow), that there is plenty of overlap ( " to 3"), and that the roller is boxed in at the top and the guides closed at the bottom. These guides can be made of metal and an insert of bone or hard rubber provided so that the cord which raises or lowers the curtain will not be frayed by use. (See Figure 304.) Ventilation. — If the room is darkened, ventilation by doors and windows is impossible, and if the build- ing has no ventilating system forced ventilation must be resorted to for this room. Any one who has attended “ picture shows ” in poorly ventilated theaters will re- call the ill effect of a large crowd added to the heat from the lantern. This is a good example of the general necessity for mechanical ventilation, as mentioned above. Its installation should be in the hands of a competent ventilating engineer, for the selection of the proper fan, the designing of ducts which will allow air to enter but no light, the preventing of the noise of the fan from interfering with the speaker, etc., are jobs for an expert. Lanterns. — Lanterns using gas-filled incandescent lamps. These are suitable for small and medium-sized rooms and are primarily for slides, although some forms 354 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE can be used as “ reflectoscopes.” They may be at- tached to an ordinary electric lamp socket, having either direct or alternating current, and do not require an ex- pert operator. That is, the lamp requires no attention until it is burned out, and then it is easily replaced by a new one (costing about $5 for a small lantern). One type of a double lantern having a pleasing “ dissolving ” effect can be bought (Bausch & Lomb Co.) for about $65. Lantern Using Arc Lamp. — A lantern using an arc lamp for its illuminant is best for a large room (audi- torium) and direct current is far superior to alternating. This requires from 7 to 14 amperes and special wiring is advisable. The cost for renewing the carbons is very little. It can be used for projecting the words or music of songs (if slides are properly made) in a fairly light room. Reflectoscopes. — A small reflectoscope, which will show pictures slightly larger than post cards, cost (in 1915) with screen, $46.00; a larger one (also using a gas-filled lamp, but without screen) cost about $125.00. A very efficient reflectoscope, using an arc lamp and di- rect current of from 25 to 30 amperes, which will show 8"x8" pictures, cost (without screen) $340.00. Special wiring is necessary for this type. The lamp renewals of the first two, and the replacing of broken condensing lenses of the last, are very ex- pensive, so the matter should be considered carefully before purchasing this form of projector. Moving Picture Projectors. — The unquestioned value of the moving picture film as an aid to education makes it highly desirable to equip the assembly hall of the school with one good machine (e.g. Simplex, Powers, or Edison.) 1 If funds are not available a place at least should be provided for it, and later, an entertainment or other appeal to the community may supply the funds. The projection booth should be fireproof and should otherwise conform to the insurance regulations. It is usually placed in the back of the gallery, as space can better be spared there than on the main floor. This booth is used for ordinary projection as well as for motion pictures. Screens. — Where the lecture room is wider than it is long, the ordinary screen (cream tinted) is satis- factory ; where the room is long, and also where the reflectoscope will be used, the “ aluminum ” screen (cloth covered with some special aluminum paint) should be installed. For the auditorium, the best screen is the white plas- tered wall at the rear of the stage ; but as the stage is likely to be filled with “ scenery ” it is well to have an additional screen on a spring-roller. This should be mounted on a frame and hung from pulleys so that the frame may be hoisted out of the way when not in use. The screen is held taut when in use by short cords at- tached to the lower corners of the screen with snap catches which engage with rings set in and flush with the stage floor. These not only prevent swaying (which spoils the pictures), but also allows the bottom of the screen to be pulled forward until it is exactly at right angles with a line from the center of the screen to the lantern lens. The plastered wall of course cannot be so adjusted, but if the lantern is not too high, the distortion is not very noticeable. To sharply define the outline of the picture and at the same time correct any slight errors in adjustment, a flat black border should be painted around the edges of the screen and extended 3 inches inside of the outer border of the picture. Electric Wiring and Current Supply. — For all but the small lanterns using the gas-filled lamp, a heavy- current is necessary, and an outlet lock-box with fuses and switch should be installed at each place where a lantern is to be used. In a very large room (audito- rium) two extra wires, for buzzer-signal or telephone, should be run from the stage to the operator’s booth. Current Supply. — Direct current is a necessity for all experimenting involving storage batteries, electro- plating, elementary electrical laws, moving picture projections, etc., and is desirable for all projection lanterns using an arc lamp ; so a reliable source of its supply should be provided. (An exception to the above statement is that the very latest invention of an extra high intensity gas-filled lamp makes it possible to run moving picture machines with alternating current; but the cost of bulbs for renewals makes them almost prohibitive for most schools.) In the rare case where no or 1 15 volt direct current street sendee is available, it may be run to the main distributing board and no provision need be made for alternating current except where special courses are given in that subject. In the usual case, the street service is alternating and may be either single phase or polyphase. If both are within reach, so much the better. Some means of rectifying or changing this alternating current to direct must be used, and of all the various schemes employed, 1 Many smaller and cheaper machines besides those mentioned are on the market, and they have two great advantages: — 1st, Having a gas-filled lamp for light-source, they allow the film to be stopped for some time without damage from heating. 2d, They are more portable and can be used in a small room from an ordinary lamp socket. The second point can be met, in some schools, by mounting the large projector on a carriage which can be wheeled about the building, and it can be used in small rooms by substituting a different objective lens and providing outlets for the heavy current (30 to 35 amperes) required. The large machines are more durable and usually give much better projection, besides being less likely to injure the film. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 355 at present one stands out as far superior — a direct- connected motor-generator set of one of the standard makes, of from 5 horse power up, with its necessary attach- ments. This should be selected under the supervision of an electrical engineer, who should be furnished with data on the maximum demand to be made upon the machine. Slides. — An excellent assortment of slides for in- struction in scientific lines (including portraits of fa- mous men of science) is now for sale by such companies as the Central Scientific Co., Chicago ; Knott Apparatus Co., Boston; Keystone View Co., Meadville, Pa.; C. H. Stoelting Co., Chicago. A fine series of wood sections (mounted for projection), also views of trees, bark, leaf, etc., is offered by Mr. R. B. Hough, Low- ville, N. Y. Slides can be made with the school camera as follows : 1st : If negatives can be borrowed, it is only neces- sary to support them in front of a uniformly illuminated white surface (or toward the sky) and photograph them on a regular lantern-slide plate. The proper size (a little smaller than the plate) must be indicated on the ground-glass of the camera, in pencil. 2d : A picture, diagram, or plate in a book can be supported in a strong light at right angles with the axis of the lens of the camera and photographed as just described, but in this case producing a negative. This, being the correct size, can be printed by direct contact (fdms together, SECTION TtiLU LECTURE LOOM EXTR.A SlCETCh PLAN Of SCIENCE, LLCTURI ROOM 5 C AU Fig. 305 356 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr . John J. Donovan, Architect. Fig. 306. — Physics Lecture Room, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. black cloth backing) on another slide, thus producing a positive. The positive has its film side covered by a clean cover-glass, and a binding-strip, cut into four pieces, fastens the two together and completes the slide. Moving Picture Films. — The assortment now (1918) within reach of educators is very limited, but certain firms have made a start and much is to be hoped for in the future. Education films are now for rent and some of them are excellent. The teacher in charge of the matter should try to see them himself before exhibiting them. He should avoid the mawkish “ historical film ” (so- called) on the one hand and the uninteresting “ How Canned Soup is Made ” type on the other. Used “ regular ” reels can be used if selected with care. School Camera. — A kind of universal or general utility plate camera (say 5" Xl") having an extension bellows and several extra plate-holders is of very great use to the school in general as well as to the science department. It serves to preserve visual records of “ great events ” in the school, to photograph exhibi- tions of students’ work, to make lantern slides, to serve as a practical illustration in Physics and to demonstrate in the study of the Chemistry of Photography. A fairly good instrument can be obtained for from $25 to $45. Laboratory Breakage Fund. — A science lecture course, where the instructor does the experiments, requires very little for upkeep ; but all courses where students do the experimenting need constant and close supervision, prompt repairs, and frequent replacement. The Board of Trustees can very properly be ex- pected to provide a yearly (or twice yearly) allowance for the larger repairs, replacement, and apparatus for new courses, etc. But students must be provided at once with a new piece for a broken piece of apparatus, and a new supply at once if a certain necessary chemi- cal, for example, is used up. Two methods for raising this fund in case the school does not pay for a student’s breakage are suggested : one is to have each student PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 357 contribute a certain fixed amount on entering the course and pay his individual breakage later ; the other is to have him make a larger “ deposit,” the balance, after the fixed amount and breakage are subtracted, being returned at the end of the course. II. Physics. The Physics Lecture Room (See figure No. 305.) — For certain experiments in Light, sunlight is necessary. This must be available at all hours of the day because in large schools recitations occur at every period, and even in small ones, it is better to avoid inter- rupting the school program. Therefore the room should be on the south side of the building and preferably on a projecting wing. Furthermore, in many experiments in Sound a quiet room is required ; therefore, in locating this room, attention should be given to this fact. Seating. — There is no doubt that the raised bank of tablet chairs gives the student a distinct advantage in seeing the demonstrations, and it gives the instructor the same advantage in observing the student. The depth allowed for each row of chairs should be from 34” to 38”, depending upon the length of the tablet of the chair, and the rise for each 6" to 11", depending upon the height of the ceiling and the length of the room. By far the best way for light to enter is from the student’s left side, so the chairs should be faced accordingly ; and as crosslights are unendurable, and neither class nor instructor can face the light, it follows that windows should be on one side only, which may be supplemented with skylights if necessary. Seating Capacity. — Assuming the laboratory section to consist of from 20 to 24 pupils, and it should not exceed the latter figure, and as it is sometimes conven- ient (especially in large schools where program arrange- ments are difficult) to place two laboratory sections in one lecture section, a minimum of fifty tablet chairs should be provided. Any number between this and one hundred is therefore satisfactory, the size of the room being partly determined by the general build- ing plan. Blackboards and Chart-Posting Space. — The black- boards should be of good quality, to avoid reflec- tion of light, and where several subjects are taught or where more than one teacher uses the room, one or two sets of vertically sliding blackboards should be fO LtCJUR-E, AND E.XP JABU.S D.C. SUPPLY BACK- VIEW TRjONT VI£-W TYPICAL -SWlfCH BOARD fOIL PHYSIC'S LICTLULj RCDA QR. TOR. LABORATORY WOR-iC IN PRACTICAL LUC jk I CITY RANGE •• USING LAMPS ONLY 1-24 AMP., P-HEOSTAT5 ONLY j - 40 AMP. Fig. 307. 358 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE BACK. VIEW SCIENCE, IICTURl R-QOA 3WIJCH BOARD ♦ TWO WRt SUPPLY (NO LMVS) Fig. 308. FR£)N7 VIEW SCIENCE 1XCTURE HQDM OH UBOUTORY 3WlfCH BOARJ) - FOUR. WIRE, SUPPLY U.C.frP-O Fig. 309. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 359 ELEVATION OF CABINETS WITH SLIDING BLACKBOARDS END ELEVATION OF SCIENCE LECTURE REDM Fig. 310. installed. These should consist of two sliding pieces mounted in front of the usual board, counterweighted and fitted with small rollers at the edges to prevent the sliding pieces from binding. The fixed boards may be of slate, but the sliding pieces may better be of some material which will not weigh so much nor be subject to breakage. A chart-posting space (all the front space of the room not occupied by blackboard) should be provided by having a heavy cloth or canvas fastened to the wall, and finished in the same manner as the remainder of the room. Lantern Screen. — The selection of the proper screen has been mentioned previously. It should be on a spring-roller and be mounted in the center of the front of the room. Framed Pictures. — The walls may be ornamented with framed pictures of the great men of science, or of industrial applications of Physics. A bulletin board of some kind is a necessity. Electric Circuits. — The experimental electric circuits are distinct from those for lighting and those for projec- tion lanterns. The terminals should be at the end or back of the lecture table (not on the wall) and the strength of the currents used can best be controlled by a switchboard visible to the students, several designs for which are shown in figures 307, 308, and 309. The number of wires to be run from the source of supply depends upon the kind of service available, but should be at least five in number, two for direct or single- phase alternating current and three for two or three- phase service. The subjects of furniture, plumbing, shades, and ventilation have been mentioned previously. Overhead Fixtures for Mechanics. — For many ex- periments in Mechanics heavy objects and various machines (as the block and tackle) must be suspended from the ceiling. One method of providing for this is to have a number of strong hooks fastened to the floor or ceiling beams of the building and projecting a ( short distance from the ceiling. A better plan is to have a piece of two-inch pipe about twelve feet long fastened firmly (at three points) so as to be about one foot from the ceiling and vertically above the front of the lecture table. Two iron rings (one on each part) slipped on the pipe may have chains attached, terminat- ing in hooks at a convenient height. See figure 310. ( Note : This idea was published, the writer believes, in “ School Science and Mathematics ” a year or more ago, but he is unable to recall the name of the author.) Special Illumination. — If the lecture room is to be used for evening school work or for other even- ing gatherings, two or three “ scoop ” reflectors, e.g. SCIENCE UCTUR-L R-00 M » SPECIAL UQHT1NQ S C A L L O 5 Fig. 311. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 361 Benjamin No. 5525 angle reflecting socket (see Figure 311), each holding a 200- watt gas-filled lamp, should be placed over and in front of the lecture table, in addi- tion to the usual illuminants. These must be out of the way of the light from the projection lantern and should be on a separate circuit. In a narrow room it may be desirable to mount the lantern screen diagonally across one corner of the room to avoid having these special lights interfere with projection. The lantern, of course, would be changed to the correct location. Some form of “ trough lighting ” may be used in- stead. Storeroom for the Lecture Room Apparatus. — This ap- paratus is very bulky and yet must be kept in dust- proof cabinets. It is totally different from laboratory apparatus and must be left “ set-up ” so that it can be carried quickly to the lecture table. This means that a room at least 8'Xio' should be fitted up with glass- front cabinets running clear to the ceiling (movable shelves) immediately adjacent to the lecture room, except where an extra large lecture room may have the necessary space for these cabinets at the back and sides. This storeroom may have artificial light only, as t is only occupied for a few minutes at a time. The Laboratory. — - Certain experiments, as the manu- facture of ice by the evaporation of ether or setting up a mercury barometer, are expensive or use expensive material, and are essentially lecture table experiments. Others, as seeing through gold-leaf or the projection of the spectrum in a dark room, while simple, can be shown to a whole class at once, and are also commonly given in the lecture room. On the other hand, certain funda- mental experiments, in each of the great subdivisions of physics, must be done by the individual students in order that they may get a real foundation in the subject. Hence the necessity for laboratory work. The plan shown in Figure 312 is for a large school with overcrowded classes (35 to 40) and can be adapted to smaller rooms where such conditions do not exist. Large working space is provided because the students progress from one table to another, and new experiments must be set up ahead in proper sequence. Good lighting is the first essential. The light should not come from two opposite sides, but can well come from one side and the end of the room. Equipment. — The customary built-in cabinets may occupy the side away from the windows, and a wall table be built under the windows and of the same height 362 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. John J. Donovan, ArcMlect. Fig. 317. — Physics Laboratory, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, Callfornia. as the other tables. A room with a wall table gives greater table space than the same-sized room without it. A number of laboratory binder cabinets (see Figure 313) should be placed near the door (three are used in laboratory of Figure 312). These should be built in if possible. Stools should have solid wood tops and be 26" high. If the floor is wood the stools should be rubber-tipped ; if linoleum is used, they should have metal “ smooth-ons.” A very satisfactory type of table is shown in Figure 314. It has the advantage of simplicity, its top is absolutely clear, it has two drawers for the reception of the armful of books which the average student carries on his travels about the building, and is high enough to allow the stools to go underneath, thus allowing the passage- ways between tables to be cleared in an instant. These tables have a very desirable freedom of motion which is impossible where the gas pipes or electric con- duits are fastened to them. Direction Boards (Figure 318) are a necessity where the laboratory directions are typewritten, as the typed sheets are tacked up on the boards and are thus out of the way of spilled liquids, etc. The boards also furnish clean places to rest reference books. The dimensions for the double boards are correct for the laboratory tables mentioned above. Single boards are required for the wall tables and also where the laboratory tables are very wide. In the latter case, therefore, no double boards need be ordered. The gas pipes and the electric conduits should be laid under the floor, the gas nozzles being placed just below the body of the table, the electric terminals about 2 feet from the floor line. The tables are thus not only movable, but no iron occurs on the surface of the table, a condition favorable to certain experiments in mag- netism and electricity. A useful type of laboratory switch-board or lamp- board, whose wires run to the sockets mentioned above, is shown in Figure 321. This is “fool-proof” and allows several sets of students to work at one time. When the lamps are lit the instructor is informed as to what is going on. Also, no argument should be necessary as PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 36 3 D0U51X DIRECTION BOARDS Fig. 318. BOARDS OF ANY CLOSE. GRAINED SOFT WOOD. ALL SURFACES SANDED. ALL SURFACES PAINTED WITH BLAGR SHELLAC; FACES FINISHED WITH AN OIL- RUBBED DULL SURFACE. — SING L, E, to the immense superiority of dynamo current to that from most troublesome batteries. By leaving a little space at one end of the laboratory, which should be extra large on this account, and hav- ing a lecture table and a few tablet chairs there, the laboratory can be used as a lecture room. This over- comes the frequent difficulty of having the lecture room in demand by the principal or a teacher, when it is pro- grammed for the physics class. This provides tem- porary recitation space when the lecture room is already occupied, and the teacher of the laboratory section wishes to change the laboratory period to a recitation period. Two or more storerooms should be adjacent to the laboratory. These can be fitted up as dark rooms, as described later. Cabinet and Drawer Locks. — So much of the ap- paratus is valuable (opera-glass, telescope, camera, pocket barometers, pocket compasses) and so many small tools (steel rules, micrometers, pliers, wrenches) are easily stolen, it is desirable to be able to lock most of the cabinets and drawers. To save the instructor endless delay and carrying an enormous bunch of keys, a set of good locks with a single key should be ordered ahead of time from a reliable lock-making firm. Wall Cabinets. — Two types of wall cabinets are shown in Figure 319. These are of two shapes, to fit into narrow or wide wall spaces, and should be fitted with the locks just mentioned. They are useful in all of the science rooms. Storerooms. — The physics laboratory table pre- viously referred to is sometimes made into a massive affair with large numbers of drawers built down to the floor. This not only leaves the room cluttered with stools, but also gives extra work to the janitor and makes it difficult to find apparatus stowed away in the drawers. The laboratory itself should be lined with glass-front cabinets where some of the apparatus can be kept. For the larger portion an excellent plan is to have two more rooms (lined with shelves) which may have artificial light only, which provide a place for classifying apparatus so that it may be kept in order and found at short notice when required. These rooms, if provided with means for ventilation, can also be used for dark rooms, as mentioned in the next section. Dark Rooms for “ Light” and for Photography. — A number of important experiments in “ light ” (photom- eter, spectroscope, focal length of lenses) require a dark room 8' XiY . Two rooms at least are needed so that two sets of students can work without mutual interference. Storerooms can be used by the installing of a wall table, covering the entire interior of the rooms with a good quality of non-glare paint (cement mixed SCIENCE, WALL CABINETS SCALE Fig. 319. 3 6 4 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE with ordinary black paint will do) and providing the necessary forced ventilation. This should be planned by the ventilating engineer. A small airtight room soon becomes uninhabitable when occupied by two or more students with a gas jet or two. A room used for photography should be scientifically ventilated, and the need for complete exclusion of daylight is greater still. Even if a dark room has been planned for the work in chemistry, another should be set aside for physics. A very good feature, if space is available, is the minority who go to college, but also the majority who do not. A growing demand, which would be overwhelming if our communities took the direct interest in their chil- dren’s welfare to which its importance entitles it, makes it desirable to establish courses which may be labeled as follows : mechanics, strength of materials , steam and gas engines, hydraulics, direct and alternating current electricity. It is not pretended that these courses will turn out the equivalent of that turned out by the corresponding university course ; but the plumber’s helper, or the beginner in an auto- mobile repair shop, will rise more quickly if he has had a course in elementary physics, followed by one in the lines mentioned. The con- tractor, the builder of stone or brick or concrete houses, the men in the foundries, the machine shop, the fac- tory, the automobile business, the telephone and telegraph companies, the electrical and wireless industries, the boiler and engine rooms, all need a foundation of this kind. These courses correlate well with the con- tinuation and part-time schools being organized in a few parts of the country. They are especially well adapted to evening schools also. Lecture courses (with experimental demonstrations) along these lines have been given with marked success in some places, as part of the uni- versity extension movement. The BOTH SIDES. first thing is to get the necessary 10 Fig. 320. to have a U-shaped entrance so that entrance may be made without opening a door. (See Figure 320.) The gas nozzles for spectroscopic and other experi- ments as well as special electric circuits for experiments with vacuum tubes, etc., should be provided in these rooms in addition to the circuits for lighting. III. Applied Physics. Special Laboratories. — Just as in agricultural communities the people are demand- ing that their children be instructed in agriculture, and in places where mining is the leading industry the high school cannot afford to neglect assaying and min- eralogy, so in most cities the public are usefully served if the pupils are given work which will benefit not only money to equip laboratories for the courses spoken of. The public, the school adminis- trators, the boards of education, the superintendents, the principals (many of whom, unfortunately, from the very nature of their training as administrators have never done laboratory work themselves) must then be educated to the fact that such work is expensive. Classes must be small (18 to 24 students only), rooms fitted with heavy appara- tus and machines cannot be used for other purposes, and the apparatus is very costly. For example, a small (3 horse power) gas engine, flywheel generator belted to it, with other attachments cost (in 1915) $262.00; the cheapest universal testing machine made by one of the best known companies, 10,000 pounds capacity, cost (same date) $300.00 ; a motor-driven 3 horse power centrifugal pump cost $227.00; and so forth. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 365 LABORATORY SWITCH BOARD (UMP RI515TAJTCI,) Fig. 321. It is to be kept in mind that the following laboratories are to be in addition to the physics laboratory, and, as mentioned before, the corresponding courses are to follow a fundamental course in physics. This is to be done by giving the second year of high school to physics and the following two years to some of the special subjects. Similar courses in mechanical drawing, machine shop, etc., are desirable ; and the customary courses in mathe- matics (algebra and plane geometry) should be insisted upon. Much of the work in the applied physics courses can be done with the aid of arithmetic alone, but algebra, plane geometry, and sometimes trigonometry are also necessary. Laboratory for Mechanics , Strength of Materials and Hydraulics. — A well-lighted room, with a floor spe- cially designed to hold great weight, is necessary for the ifirst two subjects. (See Figure 322.) For mechanics, one essential is some form of A-frame, wood or metal, nearly the height of the room, to be used for the suspension of pulleys, differential and duplex chain-hoists, etc. The floor beams above may be designed for this purpose. Some tubes of concrete (150 to 300 pounds), each provided with 1 strong hook, should also be obtained. Several small universal testing machines, hand driven, are far better than one high-power machine (same total cost) because, obviously, only two or three of the class can be kept busy if there is only one machine, the re- mainder of the students being spectators. The size of the room depends upon the amount of equipment to be installed. Experiments in Hydraulics. — For hydraulics, provi- sion must be made for the inevitable splashing of water. One way is to have the driving machinery (as motor and pump) inside the room and the measuring devices (weirs) in a protected or inclosed space outside where condi- tions permit. Experiments with high-head and low-head centrifugal pumping, the use of the weir, the hook gauge, the reciprocating pump, the Pelton type of water wheel, and the hydraulic ram are desirable, and the closely re- lated subject of compressed air can be studied by experi- mentation with small fans, centrifugal blowers, and a compressor set. Three or four tanks are required for the hydraulic experiments : one on the roof to supply the impulse wheel (a standpipe may be employed if the building is low), one or two for measuring the discharge of the pumps, and one large tank set lower than the pump-level for the general discharge and suction pipes. The impulse wheel should also be connected to the '•O c - t-o MECHANICS, STR.ENQTH Of MATERIALS AND HYDRAULICS. ALSO SHOf Fig. 323. — Elementary Mechanics Laboratory, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York. water supply of the building. Platform scales and a portable tank are also necessary. A few tablet chairs and a blackboard at one end of the laboratory give the lecture room facilities required. A lecture table is desirable. Steam and Gas Engine Laboratory . - This room also may require extra support for the floor on account of the weight of the machines in it. (See Figure 325.) A few experiments, as those on the measurement of heat and the properties of steam, can be done with simple apparatus ; but the study of steam and gas engines must be made with the engines themselves. If the school has a steam or gas engine as part of the general plant, observations at least can be made on it. (Some- times the students can help in actual tests, as in taking indicator diagrams; sometimes they can be used in regular shifts.) If not, visits can be made to power stations using large engines or turbines. Indicator cards may be taken from an air-compressor set if it is not too small. The detailed study, however, should be made in the laboratory , as follows : first, small models of engines (sec- tional) can be purchased from the apparatus dealers ; second, models for the study of crank and cross-head motion, eccentrics, types of valves, valve-motion, lap and lead, angular advance, etc., can be constructed of wood or metal by the students (see Ripper, “ Heat En- gines,” Perry, “ The Steam Engine,” etc.) ; third, old parts of steam and gas engines can be bought cheaply from second-hand dealers, particularly junk men. Fre- quently machines which have passed through a fire can be cleaned up and used for study. A few small engines which will really operate are very desirable. Steam engines can be run for demonstra- tion purposes by compressed air. Many gasoline engines can be adapted to the school gas-supply by simply removing the carburetor and putting a small gas bag (of heavy rubber) in the supply line. The gaso- line, for engines using it, must be handled in small quantities and with great care. The engines can be tested by attaching them to a Prony brake, dynamo, pump, or some form of dynamometer. 368 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 324. — Elementary Mechanics Laboratory, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York. The piping for compressed air, gas, and steam, also for exhaust and steam, should be planned beforehand by the instructor, in consultation with the engineer of the architect’s staff. The size of this laboratory, like that of the previous one, depends upon the amount of machinery to be in- stalled. Laboratory for Direct and Alternating Current Elec- tricity. — The work in direct currents must precede that in alternating currents because the former is a founda- tion for the latter. For the same reason both are preceded by some work in the beginnings of electricity taken in Elementary Physics. The Machines. — Many of the machines and pieces of apparatus for alternating currents are different from those for direct currents, so a separate room is some- times desirable; but as classes in these subjects (third and fourth years) are usually not numerous, one large room will suffice (1300 to 1800 square feet suggested). (See Figure 328.) The floor must be well supported in this room also. The three important things for the room are the machines, the measuring instruments, and the switchboard with its distributing wires. Representative machines (particularly motors and generators) must be provided. That is, while most of them may be small (i to 2 horse power) they must represent the important kinds of direct current, also single and polyphase alternating current machines in use to-day. One large machine (say 10 horse power) must, of course, be in commission all the time, so that, in conjunction with the street service, the main switchboard is supplied with direct, single-phase alternating and polyphase alternating currents. Of the small machines, the dy- namos must have means of driving them and the motors are to be provided with some easily controlled load (generator, fan, blower, friction brake, rheostats, etc.h Consultation with representatives of two or three of the largest electric manufacturing companies is recom- mended before purchasing machines. Good types for instruction purposes may often be obtained from dealers in second-hand machinery. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 369 The location of the machines should be planned care- fully. The best method of fastening them is to bolt them down to a solid concrete base one foot or more above the floor. Heavy wood benches are good, as they allow bolts to be shifted easily, but ordinary tables are not heavy enough and are noisy, for they act as sound- ing boards. Measuring Instruments. — Measuring instruments in- clude voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, and some others, as curve-drawing instruments, galvanometers, etc. They should be of the best quality (Weston or equivalent) and are expensive, but a fairly large supply is necessary. They must be handled very carefully, and a method of checking them out to students should be devised. In some cases a separate storeroom can have a counter over which the instruments can be checked out and in again by one of the reliable students or by an assistant. Switchboards . — A main switchboard, with the neces- sary meters and switches associated with the corre- sponding panels for distributing the various kinds of current to the places where it is to be used, is the first consideration. (For a suggestion, see Figure 330.) It should not be in a separate room, but should be in plain view of the instructor at all times. It is an extremely good plan to have the current for all the rooms of the Science Group, as well as that for the auditorium (for experimental demonstrations), and that for the projec- tion lanterns, controlled from this board. The board should be of standard power-plant type and its rear should be accessible to the students. Extra money spent on good construction is regained in durability ; but “fancy fittings” should be avoided — the writer was once allowed to view a high school switchboard made of very heavy plate glass ! In addition to the experimental switchboards in the various rooms of the Science Group, one or two boards are needed for the electrical laboratory. (For example, see Figure 309.) There must be a large number of cir- cuits (say 18) for student use. These are to be prefer- ably overhead, so that they can be supervised by the instructor. Each one of them should be on its own switch so that one group of students will not interfere with another group. The voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, power-factor indicator, and curve-drawing instruments of the main board may have a possible addition in the shape of a glass-inclosed watt-hour meter connected to one of the supply lines. If a frequency-indicator is desired, it should be portable, so that it can be used in various parts of the room. 370 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 326. — Corner of Steam Engine Laboratory, Pratt Institute. Brooklyn, New York. Lampbank. — The discussion of switchboards would not be complete without mention of a most useful type of “ portable switchboard ” called for convenience a lamp- bank. (See Figure 331.) A large number of these can be built at the school, the necessary expense being for the lamp-sockets, double-pole, double-throw switch, lamps, fuse-block, a small amount of wire and lamp-cord. The old style carbon 32-candle-power lamps are good ones to use, but special resistance lamps for watt-hour meter loads may also be purchased. The lamp-banks should be built of various capacities. A suggested list follows : Four i-lamp, four 2-lamp, two each of 4-lamp, 8-lamp, 16-lamp, making 14 boards. They are superior to all other resistance boards or rheostats because of the ease of supervision; and by providing an experiment with the proper lamp-bank the instructor may rest secure in the knowledge that the other apparatus furnished will not be ruined because of excessive current. Apparatus. — The key-note for the selection of lab- oratory experiments and the necessary apparatus for this performance should be “ What is used in practice? ” An experiment on an electric disk stove, flat iron, or immersion heater is of more use than one on melting german-silver wire ; volt-meters are more used in prac- tical work than galvanometers ; determining the watts per candle power of a certain kind of tungsten or “ Mazda ” lamp is of value to every User of lamps; a study of telephone practice must be made with real telephone equipment, and so on. This apparatus, as well as the machinery, instruments, and switchboards mentioned above, is costly ; but if it is properly taken care of it will last indefinitely and be of use to class after class of students. Many manufacturers, instrument repair firms, and others are glad to donate parts of their machines or goods, which when mounted and labeled properly. make valuable display and lecture table material. Storerooms. — All three of the laboratories just mentioned should be provided with commodious store- rooms. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY Fig. 327. — Testing Internal Combustion Engines, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York. 372 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Lecture Rooms. — For courses in Applied Physics a well equipped lecture room is desirable ; but the theo- retical and recitation work can be given in any class- room having a blackboard, and the instructor’s demon- stration experiments may be given in the laboratory. All of the foregoing shows the need of designing the rooms of the department so as to house the equipment properly. IV. Chemistry. The Lecture Room. — The general features of a good science lecture room have been dis- cussed in Part II (Physics), and the statements made concerning the location of the room, raised bank of chairs, seating capacity, blackboards, lantern screen, framed pictures, experimental electric circuits, and spe- cial illumination apply with only slight modifications to a room used for chemical lecture experiments. The additional necessities are a means for forced ventila- tion, a fume closet, a large gas-supply nozzle, and pos- sibly a deeper sink. The lecture tables shown in figures 301 and 302 are suit- able, where the wide drawers can be used to hold charts, long glass tubing, etc. One very desirable addition (which may be incorporated in the design of the table) is a sheet of wire plate glass about 2 feet high by 3 feet wide, mounted vertically in the middle of the front edge of the table, so as to protect t’-e nearest students in case of accidental spattering of acid, burning chemical, etc. This should be fitted with a hoisting and lower- ing device, or be on a stand so as to be movable. A number of refinements may be added. A hoist- ing device for a large glass pneumatic trough, worked by a crank, is very convenient. So is a method of darkening the room by having all of the dark shades lowered simultaneously. This is done in some Ger- man lecture rooms by a crank and gears on a long shaft ; in some American colleges they are lowered or raised by a geared electric motor attached to wire cables. Storerooms for Lecture Table Apparatus. — One or more rooms (located near the lecture room) should be fitted up with movable shelves covering the entire sides of the rooms. Two hundred square feet of floor space will probably be sufficient. The Chemistry Laboratory. — Figure 332 gives a labo- ratory plan which allows for thirty students as a maxi- mum. Here the students do not progress from one table to another, but each has his own place. Another thing which distinguishes the room from the Physics laboratory is the fact that wider aisles are required on account of the possibility of one student spilling acids on another (if room is crowded) in carrying them to his table. The plan provides for tablet chairs and a lecture table, thus making the room (where there are not two or ,5 C A T. E. o' s' 15' Fig. 328. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 373 Fig. 329. — Corner oe Electrical Laboratory, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York. more classes at any one period) independent of the lecture room. In crowded schools, by having two teachers, one class may be reciting in a separate room while the other is in the laboratory ; but in very large schools two or more laboratories are necessary. The fume-hood should be large (at least 8 feet long), well lighted preferably by daylight or if not by a power- ful vapor-proof electric light, and ventilated mechani- cally. A large opening near the ceiling of the labora- tory (having a separate fan) provides adequate exhaust ventilation for the room at the times required. The motors for both these exhaust fans should have switches (with keys in the hands of instructor) so that they may be turned on when injurious or offensive gases are being studied, and turned off to save current when not needed. The previous discussion under Physics of lighting, stools, and storerooms applies also to Chemistry. Lin- oleum has been found to be a good material for floors. The wall cabinets marked “ reagent cases ” differ from those used in Physics because of their shallowness. They allow for one row of bottles only. The shelves should be movable, and most of the cabinets should have glass doors. Sliding doors, if well fitted, are more convenient in a crowded room than those which swing out on hinges. Grease-traps (useful for catching matches, broken bits of glass, etc.) may be under each table or one large one may be used for the entire room. An alternative scheme is to use hoppers at the end of each table. Cases for labofatory binders may be sepa- rate or “ built in ” as shown. The wall-table provides a place for many special experiments, especially for those on electrolysis. Switchboard. — A design for a switchboard is shown in Figure 335. This provides for four sets of terminals. Any apparatus connected to “ C ” or “ D ” is in series with the lamps, and wires attached to binding-posts p 1 and p 2 may be touched without together causing damage. Si and S 2 represent small snap switches, these and the binding-posts to be mounted about one foot above the wall table. Five sets of these, in parallel, allow ten students to work at one time without inter- fering with each other. “ A ” and “ B ” are connected 374 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 2 POLE, CIRCUIT BREAM. IC VOLTMETER- d c AMMETER D.C DYNAMO flELE 18 D.p&T. 5WIJCHES 16 TUStS 60 filfi PERJ.5 64 fU5LS 30 AMpi-IRES 4 D. J>. 5-T SWlfCHLS - 22 NAAIL P1AJL5 2 5 INGLE POLL Z VOLJMITBS A.C. CIRCUIT BREAKERS 2 A/A METERS A.C- 2 AMMETERS A C. POWER fACfOIC iZ f.P.S.f 5W ITCHES 36 fUSLS ■ 30 AM}. 12 NAME ?LATK$ VAf| hour, pi ejep_ 3 WIRE - WlfH - MlfLEC ■POLYPHASE WATT CURVE DRAWING. voltmeter T-P.S.T. SWITCH 3 fUSIS 40 AMp. STARTING- COMPENSATOR. 12 3 4 5 6 7 MAIN SWITCH BOARD fOR SCIENCE DEPARTMENT fOL A LA RflE COSMOPOLITAN HIQH SCHOOL 5 C A L t* o' s' Fig. 330 . PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 375 fOKJABlt -UAf-MNlGS Fig. 331. directly to the line (say 115 volts) and must be used with caution. (Touching wires will blow fuse.) If ioniza- tion experiments are to be done by the students it is a good plan to run wires from switch “A” to four or five sockets above the electrolysis table, connecting them to binding-posts as shown in the lower left-hand corner of Figure 335. These sockets may have the ordinary electric bulbs, and the student can note the conductivity of the solution by watching tire glow of his lamp. The case with hinged door, covering the board, prevents corrosion of metal of switches, etc. Laboratory T ables. — A very useful type of labora- tory table is shown in Figure 336. The raised shelf pro- vides a place for the ordinary reagents and helps in keeping acids, etc., off the table top. The tops are of wood, which is far better than any material like tile or glass because it keeps down breakage. The design calls for an unfinished top so that one of the good acid and alkali-proof finishes (as the well-known aniline oil preparation) can be applied. One distinctive feature is the use of a deep drawer which allows the student to preserve his test tubes, containing liquids, until the next period. Another is the use of the clear glass partition, preventing one student from interfering with the one opposite, allowing the teacher to see what is going on, and providing a barrier for the occasional slight explo- sion of a flask or tube. An improvement is to have the top of this reagent shelf of plate glass. Each student has therefore a working space of three feet, with one gas nozzle, one clean arm or book rest, and half of one sink. Six different sections of students can use these tables. A good key system should be worked out and key cabinets (as many as there are sections) should be placed on the wall near the binder cabinets. (See Figure 335.) Distilled water for use in experiments must be pro- vided for, and an efficient still, gas heated, is usually the best way to get it. The plumbing for the large gas burner (for the still) as well as that for the circu- lating water, should be arranged for. The Balance Room.— A balance room, at least 8' X 15', for delicate scales, should be adjacent to the laboratory, and a glass partition places it under the teacher’s super- vision. A quiet room is needed because draughts of air interfere with accurate work, and the room being separate can be kept free from the fumes which would corrode the balances. The subject of vibration was dis- cussed under I (3), “Location of Rooms of Science Group.” A vestibule entrance from the laboratory to the balance room is very desirable if the space is available. wacnd ‘3-aoJ.S' WO DDI "3D N WT VS PL, AN OF CHEMISTRY LABOfYATOfCf PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY ill Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Fig. 333. — Chemistry Lecture Room, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. Where the funds available will only allow of equipping one laboratory, which must be used for both Chemistry and Physics, one or two tables on the plan of the one shown in Figure 336 and a few like that of Figure 315 will provide for experimentation by the students. If no science lecture room is planned, some tablet chairs and a lecture table like the one indicated in Figure 301 may be placed in one end of the laboratory. V. Applied Chemistry . 1 Planning of Courses. — In almost every high school the time for an extra year (the fourth) in chemistry can be arranged for by having the regular chemistry in the third year. In the schools where the student makes his choice of course (college or non-college) at the end of the first year, an elementary course in chemistry can be given (in addition to physics) in the second year. This allows the courses described here to be given in the third and fourth years. Technical Chemistry. (For young men.) — The Labora- tory. A well-lighted room is essential. The plumbing for gas and water, ventilation, reagent cases, switch- boards, etc., have been mentioned previously. For this work a balance room with six to ten good balances (mounted on piers or other solid foundations) is an absolute necessity. Any style of good laboratory table may be used, but the “ individual chemical desk ” shown in Figure 337 offers a number of advantages. This has the aluminum fume hood of Mr. S. E. Coleman, Oakland, California, which may be obtained in twos or in fours. The table top may be of wood (treated as previously mentioned) but as students are more experienced, may be of harder material, as vitrolite glass, porcelain, or one variety (black) of asbestos board. Storerooms, distilled water supply, etc., should, of course, be provided. Choice of Courses. — The subject of Technical Chem- istry is such a large one that only an illustrative list of the course titles can be given here. The choice should be made with due regard to the needs of the immediate community as well as of the opportunities in the state. Suggested Lines of Work Are : Qualitative and quan- titative analysis, agricultural chemistry, chemistry of 1 Just as in the case of Physics, the college preparatory chemistry follows a somewhat standardized line of work. For the pupils who do not intend to enter college there is a broad field which is greatly neglected by those who plan high school courses of study. Those outlined here are separated into two groups, the first for the young men, the other for young women. Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect . PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 379 Fig. 335. H H (T<- vsj M 0 £ a- g u- 0 < *-r O- CHEMISTRY UBOR.ATQRY TABLE so <3 a. CHEMISTRY GROUP Mr. Wm. /i. Jttner, Architect. \ Edward, A. Stolz, Architect. 3 8 4 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE the engine room, electro-chemistry, the chemistry of iron and steel, of glass, borax, leather, paint, dyes, fuels, illuminating and lubricating oils, foods and adulterants, coal tar products, synthetic insulating materials, wood preservatives, and other manufactures. If assaying is to be taken up, a separate room should be fitted up, with blowers, gas supply, etc., as the smoke and dust from the furnaces would interfere with the chemical work. Household and Domestic Chemistry , the Chemistry of Foods. (Girls.) — Educators will agree that a knowl- edge of the life sciences (biology, physiology, etc.) is of the utmost importance to women ; but there should also be a place for some instruction in chemistry for every woman who has anything to do with the affairs of the household. If the girl enters high school only as a preparation for college she need take only the usual one year of high school chemistry ; but if she is of the great majority who never expect to go to college and who drop out before completing the high school course, the work here mentioned should be of great value. It is to be started in the second year (after one year of general science) so that those who only attend for two years will be benefited. If only one additional year can be allowed in the curriculum, much good work can be done ; but the responsible work of food analysis, etc., can be carried out only by young women in the fourth year, who have had two years previous training in chemistry. Household Chemistry. (Second year girls.) — This first course must necessarily be largely on the elements of chemistry, but the teacher can find numberless ap- plications in the households of the parents of the girls, and some of the chemistry of cleaning and dyeing textiles can be covered. Domestic Chemistry. (Third year.) — This may well include the chemistry of soaps, the beginnings of food chemistry, a study of milk supply of cities (with the tests of butter fat and purity of milk) and the ele- mentary portions of the chemistry of cooking. Chemistry of Foods. (Fourth year.) — Besides the study of the composition, heat values and preserva- tion of foods, some real food analysis can be taken up ; also the chemistry of digestion, of the nutritive values of food, of food preservation, of yeasts and molds, the sanitary analysis of water, and the subject of disin- fection . 1 Lighting of Laboratories Used for Evening Work . — The light for most laboratory work should be nearly as strong as that for mechanical drawing, and the lighting fixtures, etc., should be planned by an illumi- nating engineer. Technical Education for Adults, for Crippled Soldiers. — Grown people who have been denied educational op- portunities in youth, or who are forced to change occupation, can benefit from these courses when they are put before them, as by university extension or other evening-school plans. It is hoped that the courses may also aid greatly in the rehabilitation of and finding occupation for returned army and navy men incapacitated for their former work. (E.g. armature winding is now being done by blinded men.) One Forcible Lesson from the War. — The incon- venience and the danger of our hastily organized emergency war instruction in technical subjects as a part of our war effort, and the hurried search for places and equipment to give such instruction, should impel us to greater efforts in the direction of better technical schools. The excellence of the European technical schools has been known to educators for a long time. Let us hope that the lesson will not be forgotten, and that schools giving such courses will be so strongly demanded by the people that there will be many finely equipped ones instead of those now conspicuous by their scarcity. 1 These subjects overlap the field of dietetics, commonly given in the “ domestic science ” department of the high school, but the dividing line can be sharply drawn by deciding that the work requiring a chemical laboratory for its performance is chemistry, and that which does not may be properly included in the other departments. The latter may be labeled the “household arts” department, or perhaps some title can be found which does not include the word science. CHAPTER XIX THE GENERAL SCIENCE AND BIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES By Edna Watson Bailey, Ph.D., Head of Science Department, University High School, Oakland, California I. Development of General Science and Biological Laboratory. II. Function of the Laboratory. III. The General Science Laboratory Plan. IV. The Biological Laboratory, (r) Its Function. V. Botany, Zoology, Physiology, Agriculture, Hygiene and Sanitation. VI. Biological Laboratory Facilities. VII. The Laboratory Plan, (i) Storerooms. (2) The Menagerie. (3) The Microscope. (4) Bacteriology. (5) The Outdoor Laboratory. Development of the General Science and Biological Laboratory. — Secondary education in science to-day is breaking away from academic ideals and developing in the direction of community usefulness to an extent which is bound to influence materially the planning of labora- tories. The growing tendency to make the school a com- munity center, functioning in the practical and spiritual concerns of the community, and the increased emphasis on vocational guidance and education, demand pro- vision for practical work in applied science. The modern high school laboratory must make possible the release of the student’s initiative and his creative instinct in constructive work recognized by himself as worth doing. Good work of this sort can be and has been done in the old-fashioned laboratory, but under great disadvantages. Function of the Laboratory — - The ideal laboratory has as its function the setting free of the student from limitations of material convenience. First, he must be free from his teacher, independent as far as possible of her aid in securing materials and doing work ; second, from his class, able to work out his own problems without interfering with or being hampered by his neighbor ; and finally, he must be freed from the limi- tations of any one specialized science, free to use the material of all sciences as far as he needs it, and can I command it. On the first point, Mr. Hodgdon , 1 a leader in the teaching of general science, has this to say : “ In no part of school work is more practical psychology required than in the teaching of science. One of the chief faults of a teacher is to dominate a class. — The ideal place for a teacher is an out-of-the-way place in a classroom, trying to keep still.” The average laboratory is very poorly provided with places for teachers to keep still in. The prominent “ teacher’s table ” or “ demonstration desk,” usually the best equipped table in the room, often the only one provided with gas and water, shows all too plainly who is to be the “ star performer ” and who the audience. Since the teacher is to do the work, supplies and equip- ment are stored for his convenience, usually in locked cases, in a locked room. There is usually a lecture room between two or more of these “ laboratories.” Here recitations are conducted, and demonstrations given by the teacher. Such a plan presupposes that the teacher will not only originate the work, but also perform most of it. But the problem to-day is, how can a laboratory be planned to accommodate a class which is not domi- nated, but guided, by a teacher? While the details will vary with local conditions, there are certain characteristics of plan and equipment which will be found desirable. The common laboratory tools and supplies should be brought out of the locked storeroom and placed in cases along the walls where they will be most readily accessible to the greatest number. Since the problems and methods of work of the class are to be such as originate in the class, there must be pro- vision for class conference of the “ round-table ” sort, and obviously the number of students who can profit- ably participate will be smaller than the number that can play audience to a teacher’s performance. In such a plan, there is no place for a rigid division into “ labora- tory days ” and “ recitation days,” but laboratory work and recitations are fused by the conception of a class accomplishing its purpose by all the means at its disposal. It is desirable to have this, class conference in the room which is equipped for laboratory work. Does the modern science department have use then for a lecture room? Yes, indeed, for there are many people in any community from whom science classes can learn much, and a good lecturer will have an eager audience. Mr. D. R. Hodgdon, General Science Quarterly, January, 1919. 38s • TOP Ficon PUN or THE. SPIRAL SC1LKCC, AMD PHYSIOGHAPHT LABOHATOHY THE GENERAL SCIENCE AND BIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES 387 FILONT- SECTION S U PP LY C AST C ■ •BOOKCASE, G • DETAILS OF f.Q.UlPANENT IN u PHIAL SCITNCL . PHYSIOGRAPHY AND BIOLOGICAL LABOCATOCilS . o c. ;y S' 10' 5 CALI, Fig. 342. 3 88 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE The preparation of special topics with accompanying demonstrations by members of a class has become an important part of science work as directed by some of our best teachers, and these student lecturers command respectful hearing from their mates. Since an audience may be many times as large as a class conference group, a science assembly room is needed and replaces the old fashioned “ lecture room.” It has so many possi- bilities of school and community service, inter-class and inter-school work, vocational guidance and co- operation of the school and the business world, that it contributes greatly to the living efficiency of the school. The second demand, concerning the liberation of the individual from the group, is not satisfied by the usual type of general science laboratory. The long tables, with materials stored at some remote and inaccessible point, are suited to a group of pupils all working under direction at the same task. The new laboratory must make provision for individual activity as far as possible, and for hobbies. This means tables designed to pro- vide a unit of laboratory equipment of gas, water, and electricity to not more than four students. Where the single or double table plan is adopted, it generally means providing no equipment at the table, because of the expense of individual plumbing, etc., but gas, water, and electricity must be provided somewhere in the room. This is not as satisfactory as planning on the basis of a four-student group. Books, microscopes, work -bench, tools, all must be as accessible as possible, in order that the class may not impede the individual, nor the individual disturb the class. Provision for hobbies involves facilities for making and caring for all sorts of collections and exhibit- cases for their display, good equipment for photography, provision for work with living plants and animals, and a well-equipped “ tinker shop ” with tools, lumber, and a generous supply of raw materials for chemical, mechanical, and electric projects. Finally, the modern laboratory for general science must be free from the limitations surrounding the labora- tories designed for the special sciences. Any high school general science laboratory which does not provide the facilities for making use of chemical knowledge in edu- cation is hopelessly inadequate. The same is true of physical and biological equipment. Microscopes are only an unwieldy one-eyed sort of magic spectacles, at once an aid and a powerful stimulant to the imagination, and so should be available to all curious youngsters. The tools of the bacteriologist also belong to all classes. Instruments for weighing and measuring, simple machines and mechanical devices, electrical equipment — the tools of physics are also indispensable. To sum up the characteristics of our ideal general science room : It will have developed a laboratory arrangement that facilitates group activity and pro- vides for individual initiative ; it will be so equipped as to set students and teacher free in the realm of the fundamental sciences, supplying the essential tools of them all ; it will provide tools in abundance, of the same sturdy excellence as those with which the work of the world is done, but will eliminate playthings and toys masquerading as “ apparatus ” ; and it will pro- vide abundant material and opportunity for creative activity. The General Science Laboratory Plan. — A plan which embodies the ideals set forth is shown in Figure 341 . The semicircle of chairs at one end of the long room, facing the blackboard, gives opportunity for class conferences, or individual work with reference material from the nearby bookcases (G), a sink to the right, and a fume hood (E). Microscope lockers (H), and storage cabinets (C) provide a ready access to demonstration material. An exhibit case (D) shows in a prominent and well- protected place work done by groups or individuals, material collected or loaned, models, etc. This case should serve as a bulletin board or “ show case ” of the fruits of the various class activities, and should be a center of interest to the whole school. Under the blackboard shallow drawers (F) provide storage space for charts and other material likely to be needed. The laboratory tables (K) provide two sinks, ample gas connections, and electrical outlets, and will accommodate eight students at each table. Another arrangement of facilities for using gas and water is shown in Figure 344, consisting of a lead-lined trough running the full length of the table and emptying into a deep sink at one end. This is preferred by some, while others find many dis- advantages in it. It does not provide as satisfactory facilities as does the arrangement shown in (K), but is less expensive. The deep sinks shown in (K) avoid spattering, serve as pneumatic troughs, and are useful in so many ways that the expense seems abundantly justified. Along the side of the room, under the bank of windows, a 24” wall-table (0) provides a well-lighted table space for use of maps, making of diagrams, etc. At the end of the room farthest from the conference group, a work-bench (Q) and tool cabinet (P) are shown. Across the room, in a corner removed from drafts, and accessible to the storeroom, are placed two electric incubators (I). Between the laboratory tables and the set of chairs are provided a sand table (N) and a place for keeping living plants and animals. The sand table needs no special description; the “menagerie and aquarium” (Ml is perhaps not quite so familiar to the reader, or so readily understood from the detail. It consists of a case with a zinc or galvanized-iron top, sloping toward tire sink CK oo *0 ■ FLOOR, PLAN OF THE .BIOLOGICAL 1. A .BOItATQlTf- 39 ° SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE (6" in 4') and protected at the sides by a four-inch curb. Above this runs a f" water pipe, equipped with several cocks. This is designed for the accommodation of a number of small aquaria, vivaria, ter-aquaria, and potted plants. Under classroom conditions, many small aquaria, easily supplied with running water, have been found more useful and more successful than the very large single aquarium. Beneath this table are four compartments 2 , X2 / Xi / , their walls made of mesh screen, and their floors of zinc-lined removable drawers. The base of these compartments should be about 2' above the floor. Everyone who has noticed the uni- versal human interest in living creatures, and repugnance for dead ones, will appreciate the possibilities of such a “ live-table,” as a storage place for the living material which students will bring. It is desirable to provide as much free space (at least 5') around this unit as possible, in order to have free access to this material. Such a room would provide a real workshop for the projects of a class of normally enthusiastic young people. Though designed primarily for the general science of the junior high school, it would serve for physiography, botany, zoology or geology in the senior high school, and could readily be adapted to instruction in any secondary science. The Biological Laboratory. Function. — Biology in the secondary schools has had a checkered career. It first appeared in the time of Huxley and Parker as a study of “ types ” of plant and animal life. Its in- spiration was the Darwinian thesis, and its mission the presentation of that thesis. The chief function of the course was to teach the theory of evolution by means of the facts of comparative anatomy, embryology, and paleontology, which constitute its basis. It was planned by great teachers, and it met an enthusiastic reception because it filled a real need in public education. The conception of organic evolution was a revolutionary one, and civilization halted until it could be assimilated and incorporated into the spirit of the times. How effect- ually this was done, the attitude of the present genera- tion bears witness. There are no more arguments as to the doctrine of “ descent with modification,” though there is some discussion as to the laws governing this descent. But the conception of a living world con- tinually creating a new world, of “ revolution creatrice ,” is implicit in our twentieth-century thinking. For the rapid diffusion of this point of view, we have to thank biologists like Huxley and Parker and the “ type courses ” they promulgated. Such courses, being con- cerned chiefly with comparative structural studies, needed little in the way of laboratory provision, beyond a table of the proper height for microscopic work and dissection, and storage facilities for material and tools. Such laboratories were planned and built, and one is tempted to think that builders of schools have not thought clearly concerning biological laboratories since the days of Huxley. The science of biology has traveled far in the inter- vening decades, and educational aims and methods have advanced even more rapidly. On one hand biology in the strict sense of the term is concerned chiefly with the physical chemistry of living stuff, and therefore, requires the facilities of a chemical laboratory. On the other hand, biology as a school subject is becom- ing more and more the study of relations among living creatures, especially between man and his living environ- ment, with reference particularly to advantages and disadvantages resulting therefrom for his health and purse. The phrase “ civic biology ” used as a title by two of the most recent texts 1 indicates the direction of the work. Biology of the modern academic type then demands as complete a laboratory equipment as do physics and chemistry, in addition to the strictly biological apparatus ; while civic biology concerns itself with the great outdoors and community condi- tions primarily, such as infectious diseases, water supply, sewage disposal, forestry, game, etc., and also with the relationships between living creatures, as far as a minia- ture world can be maintained within laboratory walls. Furthermore modern education aims at tangible results: things to be done, created, improved, accomplished by the student. And for that reason we find the same necessity for tools and working facilities in a biological laboratory as we met in planning the general science labo- ratory. The fact that we are working with living stuff, demanding exact conditions and unusual facilities for care, makes the selection and provision of this equipment more difficult. Botany, Zoology, Physiology. Agriculture. Hygiene, and Sanitation. — Aside from the courses labeled “ Botany ” there are found in secondary curricula specialized sciences belonging to the biological group ; in the realm of pure sciences — - botany, zoology, physiology ; and in applied sciences — - agriculture, including plant and animal husbandry, hygiene, and sanitation. As specialized sciences, botany and zoology are giving way in many schools to applied or more generalized sciences. 'Where they are retained, they tend to develop into economic botany and zoology, in response to the demands of the time. Laboratory accommodations which are adequate for biology will be satisfactory for this work also, and will permit the expansion of old-fashioned systematic 1 Hunter’s Civic Biology, American Book Co. Hodge and Dawson, Civic Biology, Ginn & Co. THE GENERAL SCIENCE AND BIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES 39 1 Mr. Edward, A. Stotz, Architect. Fig. 344. • — General Science Laboratory, Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. work into something more nearly akin to every-day needs. So far as “ physiology ” is concerned, the word probably stands for more kinds of courses, less standard- ized, than are found under any other one high school subject. If given in the first two years of the high school, it approaches in content a general biology course, with emphasis on the human aspects. Where given in the last two years, it may be almost anything from text- book work in anatomy and physiology, to a well- organized course in general physiology, and hygiene, in the stricter sense of the words. For the former course, no laboratory is needed ; for the latter, a well- equipped biological laboratory is adequate. As regards the applied sciences, elementary agri- culture can be accommodated in a laboratory of the general science type ; in schools where this work is more completely developed, especially designed labora- tories will be needed. Hygiene, taught as a laboratory subject, demands the same provisions as does biology. Biological Laboratory Facilities. — To the thought- ful student of secondary education, it is very apparent that the sciences, pure and applied, are in a state of transition. We shall never again have a formal academic division into specialized fields, any more than we shall go back to organization of our courses on the basis of text-book work. There will be constantly increasing efforts to afford opportunity for creative work by students, and thereby a chance for individual and com- munity betterment as a concrete result of this work. It is not an easy matter to plan a laboratory to fit exactly the needs of a class in biology ten years hence. But since school buildings are not built for a day, but for a generation, it would seem to be the part of wisdom to build a generalized biological laboratory in which all the essential tools of the special sciences are available, where classes and teachers will enjoy the greatest freedom in selecting problems and solving them. ‘LLLVATJOK or HOT HOUSA & TOOL HCOAL* “z: 0 H u *4 _r < 5 D H r O 0 1 — I THE GENERAL SCIENCE AND BIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES 393 Such a laboratory should offer : (1) Gas, water, electricity conveniently available for units of two to four students each. (2) Facilities for use and convenient storage of micro- scopes and accessories. (3) Provision for keeping plants and animals under observation in the laboratory. (4) Provision for plant and animal experimentation and cultivation on a scale impossible within the labora- tory. (5) Provision for free class and individual activity. The Laboratory Plan. — While the details of plan and equipment are bound to vary with local conditions and teachers, it is hoped that the accompanying lay-out of such a laboratory, suited to any of the biological group of sciences, may be of assistance. (See Figure 343.) A room about twice as long as wide, with its long axis east and west, in order to obtain north orientation, offers the most attractive possibilities for development. The general plan requires a laboratory and classroom in one, and does not demand a separate lecture room except where large groups of students, including several classes, are to be accommodated. One “ science assembly room ” as described in the discussion of the general science laboratory should be available for the use of the science department. There are unusually good opportunities for correla- tion in the work in biology 7 with the needs and activities of the community. This may often be greatly aided by talks by men and women who are working in some of the many fields of applied biology, and by reports of community projects carried on by individuals or groups I from the school itself. For biology especially it is true that the community is the laboratory, not merely to add interest and vividness to the school work as in the inorganic sciences, but to be itself the chief material of the school work in this field. In any true under- standing of the social function of biology, what goes on in the schoolroom is only for the sake of what can be accomplished in the life of the neighborhood. There- fore, it will be assumed that some room will be avail- able for the larger assemblies which are so necessary to this work, and the plan under discussion will provide only for the small class group, preferably not more than sixteen to twenty pupils. An informal grouping of tablet-armchairs at one end of the room (Figure 343) offers opportunity for class discussion or for individual work, and is helpful in stimu- lating the class and placing it on a socialized basis. It also deposes the teacher from his undemocratic eminence behind a “ lecture table.” An adjoining storeroom makes for convenience in the preparation of demon- strations by students. An exhibit case (D) with glass shelves, and a set of drawers below, provides facilities for displaying class productions, individual collections, loan exhibits, etc. A bookcase (G) brings reference material within immediate reach of the class. Drawers (F) underneath the blackboard supply facilities for storage of charts, maps, picture collections, and similar material. Storerooms. — The storeroom, opening to the right of this blackboard space, is provided with gas, and water, and storage cabinets of the type “ C ” used in the general science laboratory. While the storeroom is rather small (12' X15O, so much of the material ordinarily kept in a storeroom is provided for in the main laboratory that this amount of space should be adequate for all material that is really needed for class work. Store- rooms so readily become junk yards, that this limita- tion in size sufficiently strict is desirable to prevent accumulation of any material not in good repair and frequent use. In addition to the storerooms belonging to each lab- oratory, the science department should have a “ science warehouse ” or storage room where reserve supplies and material infrequently used could be kept. Such a storage room could be in the basement or attic, though it is more convenient if on the same floor with the laboratories. Experience has demonstrated the advan- tages of such a place. When the greater part of the experimental work of a class is turned over to the class itself, free access of students to the laboratory store- room follows. It has to be established that basic labora- tory supplies are primarily to be used, not kept ; and should be so stored as to be both safe and accessible, if possible, but certainly accessible. But while a modern science class has less and less need for elaborate and expensive apparatus, too good for anyone but the teacher to handle, there still remains an apparently irreducible minimum of instruments of precision, models and special pieces occasionally necessary, which cannot be left to the unsupervisecl use of adolescents, who are constitu- tionally careless however good their intentions. Also, there should be safely stored a surplus stock of basic supplies, upon which the department draws as needed. The Menagerie. — 'Any real biology class enjoys working with living material, and with the slightest encouragement will bring it in quantity. Such material should be available for class study first, and then housed on the school grounds for further enjoyment and work. This calls for two kinds of provision : first, a “ me- nagerie ” within the classroom, and second, an “ out-door laboratory.” The “ menagerie or live-table ” should be so placed as to permit of free observation. It should receive only north light and not too much of that ; enough for growing ferns is a rough criterion. It should Mr. H'wt. 13. luncr. Architect. THE GENERAL SCIENCE AND BIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES 395 Mr. Wm. B. Itlner, Architect. Fig. 347. — Physiology Laboratory, Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. not be placed near radiators. No animal can be expected to live under cramped and noisy limitations very long, but they can be kept long enough to gratify the curiosity concerning them and to raise a number of questions to be more fully answered by later painstaking study under the conditions of the outdoor laboratory. The live-table is of the same general construction as that described in connection with the general science labora- tory, but should be somewhat larger. The Microscope. — The storage and distribution of microscopes is a problem upon whose correct solution a good deal depends. The requirements of a good storage place are (1) freedom from dust and dampness, (2) provision for keeping each microscope separate from its neighbors, to avoid injury to fine adjustments and lenses, and (3) such an arrangement as will obviate as far as possible the danger of knocking the microscope against anything as it is returned to its place. A microscope is heavy, and a blow or a fall usually necessi- tates an expensive trip to the factory for repairs and readjustments. The detail of the case “ H ” shows a iesign which meets these requirements. Separate com- partments with glass doors, within a large cabinet, guard igainst dust and moisture, and prevent one microscope iamming another. The case has been kept low enough ;o that the top shelves are within easy reach of young People. One tier of compartments has been made wide enough to accommodate the binocular type of micro- scopes, a few of which should be found in every well- equipped laboratory. It is not wise to extend the com- partments to the floor, as it has been found that handling the microscopes at this low level is conducive to bumping and jarring of instruments. There is special danger of jamming the draw tube down into the stage as the micro- scope is withdrawn from the compartment near the floor. Therefore it has been found desirable to utilize the space below a convenient level — about 3' from floor — - for a series of small drawers in which microscope accessories, collections of slides, tools, and materials may conveniently be stored. The function of the microscope in biological teaching has become less formal and more incidental, less an end in itself and more a means to better vision. To fulfill this purpose, it is essential that the instruments be readily available to individuals, even if the class as a whole has not been directed to use them. A system that has been used with a good deal of success, indicated on the plan of the biological laboratory (Figure 343), consists in placing small two-microscope cases between the windows near the tables “A” and “ B.” These cases are of the type “ H ” described above, and contain also a small drawer for accessories. It is found that a few of these readily accessible instruments greatly stimu- late the use of the microscope, and help to develop in the 396 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE exceptionally good student with a definite scientific bent, a real mastery of the instrument. The tables “A” need no further description than can be obtained from the detailed drawings (Figure 342), table “A.” No drawers or lockers have been shown under the students’ tables, as these will vary with local conditions and methods of conducting the laboratory. At the rear of the room are placed two fume-hoods (E) with sinks and gas connections. Between these is a cabinet for storage of the projection apparatus and its accessories. Bacteriology. — In all modern work in high school biology the emphasis on civic interests has brought forward very prominently the subject of bacteriology. For any intelligent comprehension of bacteria and their ways of living, actual individual experimentation is indispensable, and facilities for this must be provided in the laboratory. Sterilizing may be carried on in Arnold steam sterilizers and pressure cookers, but to insure the growth of the organisms an incubator (I in Figure 341) must be available. This should be of the electric type, and should be placed in a sheltered recess, easily accessible to the class. The Outdoor Laboratory. — The “ outdoor labora- tory ” (Figure 345) is an indispensable adjunct to the equipment necessary for a satisfactory study of biology in secondary schools. Field trips, excursions, home projects, while highly desirable and very useful, cannot take the place of proper outdoor provision on the school grounds for practical biological work. In cold climates a greenhouse is a necessity, and even in California it is a decided advantage. This “ outdoor laboratory ” has been designed to meet the universal human interest in living, growing things, and to provide simple facilities for the wealth of experimental work which classes if given this opportunity will suggest and perform. It is of far greater usefulness and importance than any indoor laboratory, and where both cannot be afforded, provision should certainly be made for the outdoor one first. There might be almost indefinite extension of the plan, but there should be no reduction below the mini- mum here shown. The conservatory, the tool-houses, and the work- benches need no further description than the plans afford. The experimental plots should have some growing trees and shrubs, which will become more and more an asset with time. Hardy berry vines, such as blackberry, loganberry, etc., and shrubs, such as currant, gooseberry, and ornamental shrubs suited to the locality, should be planted around the border of the plots. These will furnish excellent material for practice in plant propaga- tion and opportunity for fighting of pests. Toward the far end of the laboratory, shrubbery should be massed to make a protected corner for the pool, the rabbit hutches, and the aviary. The pool should be large enough to support a considerable variety of aquatic life, and if nothing else in the whole plot can be secured, the pool by all means should be built and maintained. It is a world in little for the biologist, never the same two months or even weeks in succession, an inexhaustible source of fascinating material. The aviary should be octagonal in form, four of its sides and the roof being built solid to protect the birds from penetrating winds and weather, and the other four sides of sunny exposure should be covered with half- inch mesh galvanized poultry wire. The floor must be made rat-proof. A shrub or small tree growing within its walls is a very desirable addition. Drinking foun- tains, feeding troughs, and nesting boxes, all furnish opportunity for student construction. Rabbit hutches, which may be used for other small rodents, also, may well be placed in this sheltered part of the plot; in cold climates they will need to be provided with warm quarters. Around the pool and near the aviary, concrete benches will provide a place for embryo naturalists to loaf. The entire “ outdoor laboratory ” should be surrounded by a dog-proof and boy-proof fence, with a gate that can be securely locked. It would be desirable, where feasible, to have the conservatory adjoin the biological laboratory, opening out from it. In schools wdiere agriculture is taught extensively, a school farm should be available, and cooperative use of it by the departments of agriculture and biology will be of mutual benefit. Where only the minimum essen- tials of agriculture are dealt with, the “ outdoor labora- tory ” could be used by the two sets of classes and to the advantage of both. Such a plot as this has great value in making concrete the suggestions of the class- room work, and affords an opportunity for neighborhood demonstration of school work. It will be found that no investment a community 7 can make will yield better returns than the provision of ample and modern educational facilities. It costs more to teach by means of laboratories and shops than from books, but it is worth more. Such teaching under the best conditions pays dividends of health, initiative, and resourcefulness, of hands trained to execute the fertile conceptions of the trained minds ; it leads the school out into the community, and draws the com- munity into the school. CHAPTER XX COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT By Reginald R. Stuart, Principal Oakland Technical Continuation High School, Oakland, California Functions. Educational Experimental Laboratories. Relation to the School in General. Location in Plant. Organization of Department. Heads of Department, Duties, etc. First Floor Plan. Department Offices. Filing System. Psychological Tests. Placement Bureau. Keys. Auxiliary Telephone Switchboard. School Bank, Functions. School Bank, Organization and Equip- ment. School Store. Supplies. Advertising and Salesmanship. Continuation Courses. General and Specialty Salesmanship. Model Shop Window. Junior Chamber of Commerce. Office Training. Job Records. Student Secretaries. Principals’ Secre- taries. Bookkeeping. Farm Accounting. Household Accounts. Office Practice. Bookkeeping Desks. Maximum Use of the Plant. Continuation School. Evening School. Typing. Typing Desk. St. Louis Typing Room. Typewriters, Care and Repairs. Calculating Appliances. Second Floor Plan. Teachers’ Offices. Stenotypy, Radio, etc. Typewriters, Selec- tion. Commercial Geography. Laboratory Material. Filing Equipment. Commercial Exhibits. Recitation Rooms. Modifi- cations of Plan. Standardized Plan, New York City. Functions. — The primary functions of the commer- cial department of the high school are to offer specific training for stenographers, bookkeepers, store workers, and clerical assistants ; to afford a fundamental training in such drill subjects as penmanship, rapid calculation, and business forms that will meet the needs of the student in his capacity as an average citizen ; and to be most essential to the man or woman who is to play any important part in the reconstruction and post- bellum periods. Aside from these primary functions which the commer- cial department fulfills, no institution can neglect or ignore the many secondary possibilities which may accrue from a progressive business department. Among others may be mentioned the following : stenographic assistance for both administrative officers and instructors, valuable help in dealing with the large number of student activities involving bookkeeping principles, and many other functions which will be considered later in this chapter. Educational Experimental Laboratories. — - The com- mercial departments of the past have been experimental laboratories, to a considerable extent, in which educa- tional ideals have been practically tried out. A number of accepted and acceptable educational theories have been developed and proved in the commercial depart- ments of the country. This reason should influence the administrative officers both in the selection of the right type of director for this department and the arrangement of classrooms and equipment. The war has forever changed the position of the schools in this country. Whether we will it or not, the schools must now play a more positive and important part in the immediate life of the community in which they are located. Probably no other department offers as great an opportunity by being so closely linked up with the community life as does the commercial. This again should influence both the personnel and the architecture of the department. The plan outlined is for a commercial department in a high school having a registration of approximately 2500 students. A well-developed department in a school of this size will require not fewer than 1 5 instruc- tors. Appropriate modifications of the plan are given for a school with an enrollment of 1200 with 8 commer- cial instructors and for a school of approximately 300 with a single business teacher. These types will repre- sent in a fairly accurate manner equitable and propor- tionate distribution of students in the commercial work. Relation to the School in General. — In the past, it was customary to place the commercial department at the very outskirts of the school plant. In many schools, commercial departments are still housed in temporary buildings, in basements, or in almost any place not desired by some other department of the school. It is not uncommon to find the various class- rooms for business subjects scattered in almost as many parts of the plant as there are classes. This unfortunate condition is due, no doubt, to the rather recent develop- ment of commercial work in the high schools and to the further fact that administrative officers have not always been quick to appreciate the benefits which might accrue to the entire institution by having this department more fortunately placed. 397 t->4 -< ft-] i ft ft o ft! T-ft -=3; ft o_ ft! 8 vO u* Page jq8 Fig. 348. COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 399 Location in Plant. — If possible, the commercial department should be located very near the center of the plant and in close connection with the adminis- trative offices. This arrangement will make it possible for the commercial department to supplement the regular clerical help in the administrative offices and permit of the development of a workable plan to handle the stenographic and clerical work for department heads and teachers of the entire school. In addition to these advantages, it will be found that many features of the modern high school which are of a quasi-administrative nature, such as the school bank, the bookstore, student body accounts, junior chamber of commerce, and the like, will function more efficiently as an integral part of this department, and should be of necessity centrally located. Organization of Department. — An efficient organiza- tion for a department of 15 teachers calls for a depart- ment head, two assistant heads, and 12 regular instruc- tors. The head of the department should have at least one-half of his time available for supervision work in the department and for promotion and investigation work in the community. The assistants should carry full time schedules. They should be assigned, however, to organize and supervise the office training work and the various activities for which this department is held responsible. Heads of Departments. Duties, etc. — The depart- ment head should be held responsible for the general organization of the department and for specific super- vision of all subjects of a general commercial nature, such as industrial geography, commercial law, foreign and domestic trade, and the like. It is quite advisable, also, for the department head to be in direct charge of the placement bureau of the school. One assistant should be responsible for the supervision of all work which enters into the training of secretarial assistants, while the other will be in charge of all work leading to bookkeeping and accounting positions. After the office training work and the school activities are well organized, each assistant will find considerable time available which may be used in the supervision of his respective division. Of course, in certain high schools, it may be found advisable to alter the assignment of duties of the depart- ment head and his assistants. The department head may be much better fitted to direct and supervise stenographic training, or the work embraced in the bookkeeping division, than the more general work out- lined in the preceding paragraph. This will often happen in schools in which the commercial department has been established for some time and was organized primarily as a competing feature with the local business college. It is well to emphasize the importance, nevertheless, that the department head should be a man of vision, alive to the needs of his community, and in perfect harmony with the rather urgent forces which are, at present, altering our school system. To secure maximum results, no department head should fail to recognize the desirability of organizing the department in such a manner that the development of initiative on the part of the teachers will be encouraged. In other words, the wise director will endeavor to fore- stall such criticism as is sometimes made of him by his teachers : “ Only ideas which originate from headquarters are valuable.” “ It is simply my duty to follow directions and say nothing.” So many activities may be correlated with this depart- ment that the tactful director will have little difficulty in assigning special problems to each instructor in his corps. In some instances this feature is likely somewhat to affect the architectural arrangement, in others require additional equipment, and in still other cases call for alterations in the daily program. Its advantage, how- ever, in keeping up the esprit de corps is well worth the additional effort. Figures 348 and 349 are floor plans showing a desirable arrangement in the commercial department for a large high school of 2000 or more students. First Floor Plan. — Following out the ideas already out- lined, the first floor plan (see Figure 348) should include the offices of the department head and his assistants, closely connected with the office training and student activities headquarters, the advertising and salesmanship classroom, two typing rooms, two bookkeeping rooms, and a machine calculating room. The plan calls for a rather extensive delegation of student body activities to this department, but by no means a complete assign- ment. The relative personnel of the commercial depart- ment as compared with other departments of the school should be the governing factor in making the alignment of activities by the principal. It is believed, however, that the plan submitted is workable for the average high school. Department Offices. Filing System. Psychological Tests. — - The office of the head of the department is located near the main entrance of the building, and a side door connects it with the advertising and salesman- ship room. It is assumed that since advertising and salesmanship are subjects of more recent adoption than the other technical work, the department head will find it desirable to supervise these classes personally. This office will be the headquarters for all records collected from time to time by the department head and his assistants and should be provided with ample filing #1 °onnoD dUDDD onnann "d □ HD □ dnonn sUfUrLfluflo) d n □ □ □ dtmtm d a b □ □ dd EDO dd Add mmm m c/> S •r ^ g/Q-t gQ T if 4 r~®- «: e 4 -ti- sdj u. ■ d|Cdt I^Jd c 2 I— Z\ O § i w o *-4 t-o oi 0 Q c<; ai 0 0 io *4 — o_ 2; (*) t4 — (=1 1 — 3 ^ i — - £ ^ * vi *- vi g pi Sri 3 *— Zo o o SECOND FLOOR. PLAN - COMMERCIAL DEPART M E N T COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 401 facilities. Probably no other department in the school affords a better field for the inauguration of psychological testing than does the commercial. The director of experimental psychology will, therefore, welcome an opportunity to cooperate with the commercial teachers in initiating this important work in the school. It is needless to say, however, that such records, while avail- able for the various teachers, should never be open for the inspection of students. Incidentally, it would seem that the ideal place to keep such records for convenience and availability, should be in the offices of the various heads of departments rather than in the main adminis- trative offices of the school. Placement Bureau. — As Director of the Placement Bureau, the department head should have outside listed telephone connections, as well as connections with the local telephone exchange of the school. Other equipment which should be found in this office in- cludes two flat-top desks, typewriter and stand, a dic- tating machine, an adding machine, and a half-dozen chairs. Keys. — Aside from the outside telephone, the equip- ment of the offices for the assistant heads will be approxi- mately the same as for the department head. In the office of the assistant head for accounting, the filing room gives place to a key room in which keys for every locker and room throughout the building are kept. It will usually be found advantageous to have keys for labora- tories or students’ desks handled by the heads of the respective departments. Whether keys are kept in the main administrative offices or in the commercial department, will depend upon two factors : first, the amount of clerical help maintained in the administra- tive department, and second, the policy of the school authorities regarding the use of student help for such activities. High school principals recognize that not one school in a hundred has provided for any plan to handle keys and locker deposits in a safe and satisfactory way. With this plan, however, the responsibility is certain. No one comes in contact with the keys except the assistant head, and the advanced student who is ielegated to handle this particular problem. Auxiliary Telephone Switchboard. In the office the assistant head for secretarial training, this ;pace is used to house an auxiliary telephone switch- board which may take over the entire telephone system )f the building by special arrangement with the main )ffice. Business men offer more criticisms of high school students because of lack of training in the proper lse of the telephone than in almost any other single hing. This arrangernent does not throw the entire esponsibility of maintaining the exchange continuously in the department, but makes it possible to use this convenience and equipment as long as real educational training may be developed. School Bank. Functions. — The functions of the school bank are three-fold. It should be the organiza- tion whose duty it is to carry on a definite campaign of thrift and saving among the students. It should become the financial center of the school and as such should handle ticket sales for all entertainments, student body fees, etc. It should offer an invaluable office training for a limited number of accounting students who are preparing for positions in banking institutions. School Bank. Organization and Equipment. — Statutes in many of the states limit the activities of school banks to savings accounts. In states where this restriction is not placed on its activities, a fourth function should be the commercial or checking depart- ment, which will be generally patronized by both teachers and students. The school bank should always be authorized by the proper state officials, as well as by the local school authorities. It is almost always affiliated with one of the larger banking institutions of the city, and the close relations which are thus formed will work to a better mutual understanding of the prob- lems of both school and bank. Two entrances to the lobby of the bank are provided. This plan will make the handling of a large number of students, as e.g., the payment of student body dues, a relatively simple problem by routing them in one door and out the other. Ample writing space should be pro- vided in the lobby. An iron grill or glass partition isolates the section reserved for the bank officials. The plan provides for an entrance to this space through the office of the assistant head who is in direct charge of this activity. Equipment should include counter space with cash drawers and cabinets for supplies underneath, a Burroughs adding machine, typewriter, a flat-top desk, check pro- tector, and a filing unit for signature, ledger, and state- ment cards. School Store. Supplies. — As a matter of conven- ience and economy, most schools will find it desirable to handle the books and supplies required by students. Uniform prices and standardized supplies can be assured in this way with little difficulty. By a careful arrange- ment of the program it will not be found necessary to keep the store open for more than two periods daily after the first week of the term. The school store should handle all stationery supplies furnished by the board of education for departments and teachers of the school as well. Such supplies should be delivered on requisitions only. It will prove a relatively simple problem for the principal or department head to deter- mine exactly what has been the disposition of supplies at 402 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE the end of the school year. The school store will, therefore, not only make standardization of prices and materials feasible for the students, but furnish, as well, the data which may be used in formulating rules to govern a reasonable use of supplies by the teachers. The equipment should include a counter with cabinets underneath, together with shelving on three sides of the room. A desk and filing case should be located in the center of the room. A cash register should be used to record all sales. It may be thought that the room is too small to handle supplies for a school of 2500 students. However, if the room is used merely as the distributing point for supplies and a storeroom for additional material kept in the basement, it will be found entirely satisfactory. Advertising and Salesmanship. Continuation Courses. — The desirability of offering strong courses in adver- tising and salesmanship can be readily appreciated when it is realized that many more students will follow some line of selling than will go into stenographic or bookkeeping positions. Heretofore, little attention has been given these important subjects in the high school. It is probably true that the commercial department will always be concerned more with secretarial training than with selling. This is true because many sales- people enter this work from the grade schools rather than from the high school. Nevertheless, the tendency of modern education is to keep the boy and girl at their studies as long as possible. Consequently, school systems are extending their training to include work which has been given, heretofore, chiefly in the trade itself. If the school building is located near the business district — particularly the retail section — - a plan of co- operation usually can be worked out with department store managers for the loan of material for the study of textiles and window dressing ; for the training of em- ployees in continuation classes on the employers’ time ; and for a systematic placement and follow-up system of all students who enter this work. Oakland Technical Continuation High School Job No. 264. Date, Jan. 10, igig Miss (A) Please furnish stenographic assistance as follows : Amount Items Rate Value Multigraph copies as per sample 25 Line composition 40 $1.00 500 Sheets medium bond 2.00 Printing 3.00 Cost of material, $2.00. Labor, $4.00. Total . 6.00. Teacher Mr. (B), Department English. Fig. 350. — Order Blank for Stenographic Book. General and Specialty Salesmanship. — Aside from this course in retail selling, which may be labeled “ de- partment store selling,” “ merchandising,” or some other appropriate term, a class in business psychology, which may be called, “ general and specialty salesman- ship,” should be offered as a free elective. This work will prove most beneficial as a part of any student’s general training. A suggestion should be offered, per- haps, that a rather full outline of this course ought to be presented to the school authorities for indorse- ment, in order that it may not be built on selling tricks and questionable business practices. Model Shop Window. - The room is located next to the head of the department in order that this work may receive his personal supervision. A platform should be placed at the front of the room for staging demonstration sales. A panel of burlap should extend around the room, or some other provision be made for the suitable display of typical advertising material. A model shop window should be constructed in the wall next to the corridor. The class in window dressing will find little difficulty in securing the cooperation of merchants in the vicinity in arranging typical displays, while in the case of “ drives ” for the Red Cross, or other charitable or patriotic projects, most appropriate use can be made of the window in staging a novel and effective appeal to the entire student body. The location of this room near the center of the plant will greatly enhance its advertising value. Aside from the occasional use which can be made of the window to aid in promoting school activities, its location on the main corridor is fortunate, because the approval or lack of- approval of displays by the students who pass the window offers a most desirable incentive to the class in window dressing. Junior Chamber of Commerce. — - This room may be used quite appropriately by the junior chamber of com- merce as its official headquarters. In fact, this organiza- tion should be solicited to provide material for displays covering the products of the section. Office Training. — Office training is here intended to include the opportunities afforded the student to do actual stenographic or secretarial work. This is a most important part of his education and provision should be made accordingly. Aside from the advantages which the student himself derives, office training affords an excellent opportunity to aid materially almost even’ department and teacher of the entire school. In fact, it is obvious that every teacher in the modern high school has considerable stenographic work which must be done. He must either do it himself or have steno- graphic assistance at his disposal. Economy and effi- ciency should show the fallacy of requiring teachers to COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 403 Fig. 351. — Bookkeeping Desks. do any considerable amount of clerical work themselves. The director for secretarial training should develop a course which while being of practical assistance to the school in general, is truly progressive and educational for the students themselves. Job Records. Student Secretaries. — All work handled by office training students must be approved by the instructors and a definite record kept, which shows the nature, amount, and commercial value of each job, the name of the party for whom the work was done, and the estimated cost of materials used. Figure 350 shows a satisfactory job card. By direction of the instructor, student secretaries may be appointed to assist teachers or school officials when the work warrants it. The work of student secretaries must be carefully supervised in order that it may be of real educational value. The instructor may find it advisable to outline briefly the work which should be expected of these students. A plan which has worked satisfactorily in a number of schools is to install dictating machines in various parts of the school plant for use of teachers and officials. The “ filled ” records are sent to the office training room for transcription. This plan permits of stenographic assist- ance at all hours of the day or night. Principals’ Secretaries. — Advanced stenographic students from the various high schools of Oakland, Cali- fornia, are appointed by the superintendent of schools to positions as principals’ secretaries in the larger grade schools of the city. These students receive both school credit and a nominal compensation for their services. The room should be equipped with a power mimeo- graph, multigraph, addressograph, dictaphones, and ample filing cases. The location of the telephone exchange in the adjoining room makes this switchboard a part of the office training equipment. Bookkeeping. Farm Accounting. Household Accounts. — Bookkeeping should always form an im- portant part of the commercial training in any high school . The location of the school should determine to a large extent the particular applications of bookkeeping prin- ciples which will be made in the more advanced work. In 404 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. John J. Donovan , Architect. Fig. 352. — Bookkeeping Department, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. other words, farm bookkeeping should form a con- siderable part of the course in rural high schools. In the same way, departments enrolling a large number of girls should offer applications of the principles of book- keeping in household accounts. Nothing develops interest and enthusiasm as rapidly as a realization that the school work is directly applicable to the problems of life. It should be perfectly obvious that such direct applications to everyday problems will not only interest the students, but will create a favorable attitude of cooperation on the part of the parents as well. Bookkeeping. Office Practice. — No provision has been made for special office practice as developed by a number of authors of bookkeeping texts. It is believed that the management of the student activities outlined will prove an even more valuable training than the made- to-order work to which reference is made. If, however, no arrangement is made to assign student activities to the commercial department, then it should prove most valuable to have provision made for this type of office practice. Bookkeeping Desks. — The equipment should include the regular teacher’s desk, forty-five students’ desks, ample blackboard space, etc. The bookkeeping desk suggested (see Figure 351) offers sufficient space for books and forms, provides for two inkwells, and affords drawer accommodations for the temporary disposal of superfluous books and supplies not needed in this particular recitation. The question may be raised, should provision be made for the accommodation of bookkeeping outfits of the students in the desk itself. In determining the relative value of purchasing a desk with ample drawer space to accommodate all the students who may use the desk during the day (see Figure 352b the following factors should enter into the decision : 1. The maximum use to which the plant will be placed. 2. The relative floor space of the two desks. 3. The relative cost of the desks. 4. The relative convenience to the student in being able to store his supplies in the desk or being obliged to carry supplies with him to and from Iris locker. COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 405 Maximum Use of the Plant. Continuation School. Evening School. — At the present time, many schools are maintaining classes for from 10 to 12 hours daily, while not a few operate for longer periods. Oakland, California, Technical High School opens for recitation in the regular day school at 7 : 10 a.m. Classes con- tinue until 4 p.m. However, at 2:30 the continuation school opens a large number of adult classes in rooms not required by the day school for the remainder of the afternoon. These classes regularly continue until 4 : 40. At 5 o’clock, supper classes begin which extend to the opening of the evening school at 7 : 15. While a majority of the evening school classes close at 9:30, a number continue until xo : 30. In other words, this school operates classes for more than 15 of the 24 hours. For 12 hours daily it operates to its capacity. In such a school, provision must be made to handle at least 14 forty-minute periods per day. Estimating 2 periods daily for each bookkeeping student, accommodation must be made for at least 7 students per desk. Figure 352 shows a desk of seven drawers, one drawer of which, if not required as a locker, may be used to store temporarily the extra books of the student while reciting. This desk requires 50 per cent more floor space than the hrst desk shown. With the first desk, it will be easily possible to seat 45 students in the bookkeeping room. With the second desk, the room will be crowded for more than 30 students. It is believed that the live teacher in this subject can readily organize his work to handle the forty-five students assigned to each room. The first cost of the larger desk is nearly 50 per cent higher than the one recommended, and the operating cost per pupil is increased accordingly. Finally, it is believed that ample space is provided in the regular students’ lockers to accommodate all bookkeeping outfits and supplies, and that the carrying of such material to and from lockers will not prove unduly burdensome. Extreme care should be exercised in locating the bookkeeping rooms in a most favorable position with reference to the light. The great amount of writing and ruling required in this subject demands ample and well regulated lighting facilities. The window glass area should be equivalent to not less than 20 per cent of the floor area of the room. Typing. — The writer judges no thesis is necessary to convince school men of the importance of typing for commercial students, and even of the great desirability of throwing the subject open as a free elective to students of the entire school. The world’s business to-day speaks in terms of typewritten characters. Every man and woman in business or profession uses the typewriter. The only question involved is whether the expenditure of an hour a day for a year is too great an outlay for the time and energy saved in after life. Without ques- tion every high school boy and girl should operate the typewriter better than “ indifferently well.” If one side of the plant fronts on a noisy street, it would be well to locate the typing rooms there, since outside disturbances will cause less inconvenience in this work than for, say, classes in shorthand. Typing Desks. — - Two different desks are again shown. (Figures 353 and 354.) Exactly the same problem is in- volved as in the bookkeeping desk. There is no ques- Fk. 353. — Typewriter Desk. tion that the smaller desk is more economical. If the smaller desk is selected, additional desk keys are not required, and the amount of details is correspondingly lessened. Typewriter desks should have three drawers which may be used for covers, cleaning tools, and cloths. Typewriter companies advise against the bolting of machines to the desks. The ideal arrangement permits of the removal of the machine for adjustment or for cleaning the desk. St. Louis Typing Room. — Figure 355 is a view in the typing room of the Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Mo. A special type of drop-head desk is used. It is doubtful if the additional expense of this desk is really justified. 406 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Fig. 354. — Typing Room, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. Typewriters, Care and Repair. — A word should be said about the extreme wear and tear to which a type- writer in the modern large school is subjected. With from four to ten different individuals using it daily, practically all of whom are novices, the strain on the machine, even under careful supervision, is many times what it would be in the average office. It is advisable to have a repair man visit the department regularly to handle difficulties which are beyond the average student. It sometimes happens that a boy in the industrial depart- ment may be assigned to handle the repair work as a definite part of his shop course. Unless closely super- vised it is doubtful if this plan is advisable. Calculating Appliances. — Quite recently the call for calculating and bookkeeping machine operators has become so great that it seems probable that all large schools in the future will offer instruction on these machines. In the plan shown, a medium sized room, next to the bookkeeping classes, is left for this work. Classes in advanced bookkeeping will find machines conveniently located for their use. It will be advisable to have only a limited number of students become fa- miliar with the operation of the bookkeeping machines. A survey should be made of business houses in the com- munity to determine the probable demand for trained operators. Regular class work should be given on the comptometers and other calculating machines. Equipment in the calculating appliance room should include comptometers, non-listing Burroughs, an Elliott- Fisher Bookkeeping Machine, a Burroughs Statement Machine, Marchant Calculators, and other types now in common commercial usage. Where no special pedes- tal is furnished with the machine, as in the case of the Elliott-Fisher and the Burroughs Statement machine, the desk used for typing is recommended. Second Floor Plan. — - The second floor plan (see Figure 349), of the Commercial Department includes: offices for men and women teachers, two small-sized rooms which may be used for radio, Morse telegraphy, stenotypy, or for other small or experimental classes, five recitation rooms, two typing rooms and a commercial geography room. Built-in commercial exhibit cases are arranged throughout the corridors as in the first floor plan. Folding glass doors are located between the COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 407 Mr. Wm. B. inner. Architect. Fig. 355. — Typing Room, Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. two small rooms and the two typing rooms. This arrangement makes it possible to utilize the small rooms for standard sized classes if necessary. It also makes it possible for one teacher to supervise both typing rooms during practice typing period. Teachers’ Offices. — - The assignment of these offices will depend upon the relative number of men and women instructors in the department. Under ideal conditions, the number should be about equal. A survey of a large number of departments, however, shows that there are approximately 60 women instructors to every 40 men instructors of commercial subjects. If the plant is used to its maximum capacity, it becomes absolutely impossible for the teacher to meet pupils in her class- room at the close of the recitation. Some other place must be provided for this purpose. An office with a sufficient number of desks to accommodate the teachers will prove reasonably satisfactory. The trend in the educational world seems to lead toward a longer school day in the school plant itself. The actual teaching time may not be extended, but a number of office periods will be provided to afford opportunity for the counseling of stu- dents by class advisers. These periods will be utilized also in completing the necessary laboratory and preparatory work incident to the development of a successful recita- tion. Necessary locker facilities are provided in each office. Stenotypy, Radio, etc. — If one of the functions of the commercial department is to provide an educational experiment ground, then provision must be made for satisfactory “ laboratories ” in which ideas may be thoroughly tested. If after sufficient trial, a project seems not adapted to meet the needs of a particular community, it can be readily discontinued and some other “ possibility ” tried out. The plan whereby these rooms may be converted into regular classrooms with little or no difficulty aside from the rearrangement of equipment, does not involve either a great expense or an economic risk. The arrangement in the typing rooms on the second floor is exactly the same as that of the first floor. Typewriters’ Selection. — A word might be added regarding the selection of makes of typewriters and arrangement in the rooms. If possible a survey should be made of typical business institutions of the com- munity. The proportion of typewriters purchased d 0 a d d, 0 0 & a. fcol non pa o on DA p 0 Dd_ DPUDPd n un n [> DPDDPd E3 Jg P □ D D D° : p n □ n p° i p m d □> i o n-n □ o> s npEnnn 0 DPPPPd U c~ S 73 1 i Jo ON INlOfCIK uoilY7i.?iwiway C Oo o «1GH SCHOOL tNTGOLLMLMf Of ffGOM lOOO fO 1500 5JUD1N|S COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 409 non U v^M ; I,LPiNG _ citm n 0 > on 1-^ T, YP , IN an 0 BANK, OK. ] Q Q Offjjj.R- ACTIVITY COUNTS- LA * c a iL. 7 7Y7^<3C f7 , y 7/7A r WINDOW £ GR.ILL CoimMLicci/f EXHIBIT'S VNT. [YPi WP.lfLK, MI f ll.I NG- CA5£S' ////// Offict R_A I N I M G M£ J GfCAFH BULDL^IN boap^d zzzzzz; C O IF R. 1 do ro fLOOR, PLAH ' Of COMEXCIAl D£.PAR,TM«T ONL TtACHEL, SCHOOL U NDE. tc 500 SfUDtNTS 6 C s' ALL 10' Fig. 357. is should be about the same as the survey shows in use in the community. The arrangement of machines in all typing rooms should be identical in order that classrooms may be interchangeable. Commercial Geography. — The geography of industry should be included in any well-balanced commercial course. Eventually this subject should develop for the student a set of principles which will assist him in judging the relative future possibilities of both indus- tries and communities. By this suggestion the writer does not have in mind the impossible proposition of turning out industrial experts or municipal planning specialists. He simply recognizes the fact that one of the most potent causes of failure is a poor selection for the location of a business. Failure may happen either because the business is not adapted to the com- munity in which it is located, or the community may be I overstocked with that particular line. Laboratory Material. — If the course is a year in length, one half of the time should be spent in a study of local industries, while the other half should be given to a consideration of the world’s commerce. Since text books can furnish but a small amount of the data re- quired for such a course, it will be absolutely important to secure a large amount of original material from the industries of the section, from the publicity organiza- tions, and from state, federal, or municipal authorities. It is recognized that some of the material furnished will be more or less colored by local prejudices. This point is rather in its favor, however, since the student in mak- ing his deductions must exercise judgment in the selec- tion of data which he will use. Most of the material is put out in an interesting and attractive form. The students themselves should be encouraged to collect the material. This again will have a tendency to link the schools up more closely with the business and industrial life of the community. A course in Foreign and Domestic Trade may be given to seniors or continuation school students in this same room. Filing Equipment. — If original material is to be collected, it must be classified and filed in such a manner as to make it available for constant use in the classroom. Cabinets and filing cases should be provided for this purpose. Next to visiting a plant and actually seeing the various processes in the manufacture of raw material into the finished product, is to follow the same processes by means of appropriately selected lantern slides. Pro- vision should be made, therefore, for a balopticon, which handles both opaque projections and lantern slides. A curtain should be installed at the front of the room and the window casings constructed in such manner that the room may be easily darkened. Ordinary desks which will permit of map drawing should be installed. Commercial Exhibits. — Exhibits which show pro- cesses in the manufacture of industrial products should 4io SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE COHIU DOR. /V — -| Jr--: 7 / ■* «i □ □ P — □ □ □ □ □ □ — □ n PLAN OF C0MMERX1AL ROOM IN ELEMENTARY AND INTERMEDIATE PUBLIC SCHOOL *29, N. Y CITY, me C. B. J. SNYDER., ARC HI. SCALE 5 10 Fig. 358. 15 be collected for study by the students in commercial geography. It will be found that no more fascinating assignment can be made to average high school students than to secure appropriate collections of such materials. Hundreds of excellent exhibits, such as silk, cotton, rubber, oil, and the like, may be readily secured from industrial concerns. The location of the commercial exhibit cases in the corridors makes all of these exhibits available for the entire school. Recitation Rooms. — The plan calls for five recita- tion rooms. Each room should be furnished with 35 desks. In making the selection of desks it should be kept in mind that considerable writing will be required of the students using these rooms. Among other classes which will be assigned are the following : penman- ship, arithmetic, rapid calculation, business English, shorthand, commercial correspondence, and other sub- jects requiring no special equipment. It is assumed that the subjects named are so well recognized as form- ing a part of a symmetrical commercial course, that individual treatment is unnecessary. Modifications of Plan. — Figure 356 shows a modifica- tion of the plan suitable for a medium-sized high school with from 7 to 9 commercial teachers. The office of the department head is so placed that he can supervise the school activities. Approximately, one-half as much space is allowed for typing and bookkeeping as in the larger plan. Three recitation rooms should accommo- date work offered in advertising, salesmanship, com- mercial law, industrial geography, and other subjects requiring no special equipment. The distinctive features of the larger plan are retained in this modified one. If the location of the school seems to warrant the ad- ditional expense, one of the recitation rooms may be especially arranged to handle advertising, salesmanship, a ad industrial geography. This may readily be done by combining the features of these two rooms as shown in the larger plan. Figure 357 is a modification for a one teacher depart- ment. The essential features here are to retain as many of the good points of the more complex arrangement as possible, and yet have all the department so planned that it may be easily supervised by one instructor. The two small offices permit of practical application of both the stenographic and bookkeeping office training. If it is planned to operate very small classes throughout the entire day, the typing room may be made smaller. All partitions both between the rooms and inclosing the offices should be made of glass. Standardized Plans, New York City. — Figure 358 shows a plan for a small department in an elementary and intermediate school as worked out by Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect for the New York City Board of Education. Folding glass doors between the rooms permit of the supervision of both classes by one instructor. The wardrobe takes the place of student’s lockers. CHAPTER XXI THE DRAWING DEPARTMENT By Ralph C. Sisson, B.S., M.A., Instructor in Drawing, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California The Drawing Department. Elementary and Intermediate Schools. — Freehand Drawing. Mechanical Drawing. The Danger of Beginning Too Early. The High School. — The Trend of High School Education. General Considerations. Light. Night Lighting. Wallcovering. The Freehand Department. — The Courses. The Equipment. The Mechanical Drawing Department. — The Courses. The Geometrical Drawing Room. The Trade Drawing Room. The Technical Drawing Room. Some Rooms in the High School. — Library, Lecture Room, and Study. Offices. Store and Blue Print Rooms. Dark Room. Summary. The Drawing Department. — Drawing is the one universal means of expression. An object may be variously labeled in the written or spoken language of different peoples, but the same object, properly drawn, finds recognition in any land. This is true, not only of pictorial drawing, but also of the working drawings which must precede the making of any article or the building of any structure. In this country, with its intense development of con- structive activities, the need for general instruction in the principles of drawing is becoming apparent. In the realm of fine art America is just beginning to find a place, and the rapidity of her development in that direction depends upon the educated appreciation of the people. Advertising has risen to a place of supreme importance in the business world. One of the most important elements in the advertising organization is commercial art, a field of endeavor that offers rich reward to those who enter it. It calls for a study of drawing, composition, and color in addition to methods of reproduction and psychology. To the practical- minded man, it represents a kind of art that pays. In the rush of manufacturing, into which this country is about to enter as a leading nation, mechanical engineers and draftsmen will be in great demand. It is these men who will design the machinery and products involved. The mechanic must have a knowledge of working draw- ings to enable him to lay out and perform his work properly. What is true of manufacturing is also true of building. Every artisan as well as every architect and engineer must be able to understand and work from drawings. Even the clients should have an understand- ing of drawing to enable them to know that they are getting what they want. Thus it is seen that almost no one escapes the need of a study of the principles of drawing. For this reason, it is most unfortunate that mechanical drawing should be the aristocrat in the curriculum of our public schools. The cost of good instruments is so great as to be beyond the means of many students, while the cheaper grades are apt to prove more of a handicap than a help. In spite of the difficulties, school ownership of instruments seems to be the only solution of the expense problem. If the schools are able and willing to supply shop tools and musical instruments, why not mechanical drawing equipment as well? Two schemes have been tried with success. One requires a deposit covering the cost of the instruments. The student uses the set during the term, and upon returning it, receives his deposit minus deductions for breakage, etc. In the second scheme, the student signs for a set each day, returning it at the end of his period. A smaller deposit is required, as the instruments on no occasion leave the room. This scheme requires only one third to one quarter as many sets as the first, for each set maybe used by a number of students. Again, the instruments will be kept in better condition and last longer because of the inspection at the end of each period. The disadvantages of the scheme are that a tool room for storage of instruments is necessary, and the instructor or a student attendant must be in charge at the beginning and end of each period to give out and check in sets of instruments. The student inspects the instruments he receives to see that they are in good condition, and the attendant inspects those returned. Of course, the time thus taken is lost from the drawing period, and six min- utes a day means a loss of ten hours in two hundred days for each student. Students who can afford it should 412 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE be encouraged to get their own instruments, but some provision should be made for those who are not so fortunate. Elementary and Intermediate Schools. Freehand Drawing. — The freehand drawing offered in the ele- mentary schools is of a very informal nature. In fact, the subject has been looked upon with favor because it offered an opportunity for relaxation from the strain of more formal academic subjects. The subject matter is chosen with the purpose of interesting the student. Principles of perspective developed in the drawing of cubes, cylinders, and prisms would not hold the interest of young minds ; so furniture, model houses, etc., involv- ing the same principles, have been substituted. A high degree of accuracy cannot be expected from the younger students, and consequently the less exacting natural forms, such as flowers, find favor. All children are fond of color and take delight in its use. This element of interest is recognized and used very extensively. Since the teaching of elementary school drawing is not very formal, special drawing rooms, while desirable, are not absolutely necessary. In fact, in the crowding that comes with the growth of every school, it is the tendency to convert all special rooms not working full time into classrooms. It is probably better to arrange a classroom so that it can be used for drawing, rather than to lay out a drawing room which, when the conversion comes, may be neither a good drawing room nor a satisfactory class- room. Such a classroom would answer all requirements for elementary drawing, including even the lighting, since very little study of light and shade is carried on. Mechanical Drawing. — Mechanical drawing in the elementary school has, very properly, been limited to pencil drawings, mostly of the simple pieces of furniture, etc., which are made in the manual training shops. This drawing is usually done under the supervision of the manual training instructor. The equipment necessary in addition to that of the manual training room consists simply of a small drawing board, T square, and triangles. The manual training tables serve nicely as drawing desks, and additional lockers are unnecessary. The Danger of Beginning Too Early. — There is a very natural tendency to reach back and offer drawing at the earliest possible time. This tendency is the result of the attempt to cover a maximum amount of ground in the period given for the education of the average student. The idea is certainly a praiseworthy one, but the educator’s zeal in that direction should always be tempered by a realization of the danger of introducing a subject before the child has reached a maturity suffi- cient to deal with it. While the danger is present in both the freehand and mechanical drawing, it is more evident in the latter. The mechanical drawing is extremely popular with the students, and it is essential to any serious work in the shops. The result is that a subject formerly offered in the universities and in the fourth year of the high schools is now offered in the second year of the high schools, and some ambitious manual training teachers would introduce the same subject in the seventh and eighth grades of the grammar school. It is obvious that a grammar school student cannot master the principles of geometry necessary in geometrical draw- ing. Again, the adolescent child is growing rapidly, and his muscular action is almost certain to be erratic ; work with instruments requiring precision and the use of ink would prove to be discouraging and useless. The time would be wasted, and standards which would be difficult to raise materially later, would be established. The stu- dent is not ready for geometrical drawing with ink until his second year in high school. Until that time, his drawing should be with pencil and should consist of the simple working designs used in his shop work. The High School. The Trend of High School Educa- tion. — The tendency in recent years has been strongly in the direction of vocational education. The purely academic school of yesterday is felt to cover only a portion of the field of secondary education ; in conse- quence technical, vocational, and trade schools and departments are being organized and developed to cover the remainder. The combination of the vocational or technical school with the academic in one institution should prove one of the greatest forces conceivable working toward a true democracy. There are a great many difficulties to be met with, and it is probably to the smaller communities where the single institution is absolutely necessary that we must look for the successful solution of this problem. Among the departments most directly affected by this new development is the drawing department. But a few short years ago, the drawing department of the largest high school consisted of only one or two free- hand and mechanical drawing rooms. Generally the freehand teachers taught sewing, and the mechanical drawing teacher filled out his program with manual training, mathematics or science. To-day, in the free- hand department, courses are offered in commercial art. show-card writing, art metal work, pottery making, bookbinding, interior decoration, costume design, etc. The student completing any of these courses has no difficulty in finding permanent or part time employment with good pay in the local business houses. All the posters advertising school activities, such as plays and liberty loan drives, are made in the department, as are illustrations and decorations of the school papers and magazines which may be printed in the school shops. In the mechanical drawing department, the student CO d £ K, LOW SACKED CHAIR. DRAt/INTi RACK MODEL .STAND LOCKEK^ 4 , MODEL.5 FOR ROOM A W 1 UDOWJ MECHANICAL DR-AWWq DL5K.5 • THE DRAWING DEPARTMENT 4i5 may now add to his course in geometrical drawing very complete and well-organized courses in mechanical, architectural, or ship drafting, mapping, etc., as he may elect. These courses are, generally speaking, based upon the apprentice system as established in the various trades and professions. Local conditions and demands for labor will determine largely what branches of ad- vanced mechanical drawing will be offered. The ad- vantages to the student consist of a properly organized and complete course, increased personal supervision, and the opportunity for related technical studies. This development of the drawing department along vocational lines fills a long-felt need. Not only does it reduce the period of apprenticeship for the student whose schooling must stop with the high school, but it provides a proper foundation for the study of design should the student continue his studies in the university or else- where. University graduates have been notoriously lacking in knowledge of working drawings and simple detail, and it is just here that the technical school lays special emphasis. That this type of instruction meets with the approval of the outside business world is shown by the fact that large companies and corporations have offered to take on any student who completes such a course with the recommendations of his instructor. The first two years in the university, up to the present time, have been looked upon as a transitional period during which the student was expected to acquire a new set of standards, assimilate the traditions, and become accustomed to the atmosphere of the institution, — find himself. The studies in these two years are largely a matter of reviewing and finishing subjects taken in the high school, — in the engineering college such subjects are mathematics, science, drawing, history, and lan- guages. What engineer or architect does not remember the disappointment that was his upon finding his first year of college mathematics and science was simply a thorough review of his high school work? With closer correlation and sympathy established between the high school and the university, there seems to be no reason why at least one year of this reviewing period could not be eliminated, and the student thus enabled to begin his professional studies immediately. This change does not mean the elimination of cultural subjects, but rather increased opportunity for them. The subject of voca- tional guidance is being developed, to the end that the student should be enabled to find himself before arriving at the university, and start there with clear and definite ideas as to his future career. General Considerations. — Before discussing separately the various units of the drawing department it would be well to make note of some general considerations apply- ing to all. For both freehand and mechanical drawing the student requires a considerably greater amount of floor space than in the classroom. In elementary courses the ratio of space required for drawing to that for classrooms will be about four to three in freehand and five to three in mechanical drawing. These ratios will increase for advanced classes. The arrangements shown in the il- lustrations (Figure 359) of elementary freehand drawing rooms and (Figure 360) of geometrical drawing rooms show the maximum numbers of students for such classes. The instruction in drawing classes is of necessity largely individual, supplemented at more or less definitely fixed intervals by talks, tests, and discussions, progressively developing the basic principles of the subject. Such a scheme naturally reduces the number of students an instructor can effectively handle. Recognition of the value of individual instruction, possible only in smaller classes, is found in the Smith-Hughes Act, which limits to twenty the number of students of any class complying with its regulations. In freehand drawing the number of students should be limited to thirty in elementary classes and to twenty-four in advanced classes. In mechanical drawing the number of students should be limited to twenty-four in elementary classes and to twenty in advanced classes. Light. — - The problem of light in the drawing room and, in fact, in the whole school is one on which it is difficult to get any consensus of opinion. A northerly light is undoubtedly the best, but means a sacrifice of the warmth and cheer of sunlight. The orientation will depend upon local climatic conditions, and where instructors in charge have definite opinions they should be consulted. In cold damp climates, the warmth and cheer of sunlight will generally be felt to outweigh its disadvantages from the point of view of lighting. In very warm climates, where the sun is to be avoided, the reverse will be true. Let us say then that the light should be unilateral — to prevent the confusion of shadow resulting from cross lighting — and very plenti- ful, as drawing, especially mechanical drawing, is much more trying on the eyes than the work of the classroom. Particular care should be taken to see that the lighting conditions are as nearly ideal as possible. For mechanical drawing, the light should come from the front and left of the student in order that he may not be bothered by shadows cast by T square and triangle. It will generally be found most satisfactory to have the student face the light. This statement may occasion some surprise, as one’s natural thought is to have the windows to the left of the student. Experience has proved that the light is not often too strong even for the row next to the windows. Frosting the lower portion of the windows removes objection to the strongest light. 416 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE The tops of the desks being inclined, the student will not be bothered by the reflection of light in his eyes. To face the light, absolutely removes the possibility of having one’s T squares cast a shadow upon the drawing. It will be seen in the illustrations (Figure 360) that for the standard width of classroom this scheme gives the best arrangement. The light at the desks which are cross- hatched is undesirable. Night Lighting. — More spectacular in its growth even than that of vocational education is the idea of the continuation school. This kind of school makes possible a use of our costly educational plant more than doubling the operation of earlier times, and at only a slightly increased cost. One of the problems that the continuation school adds is that of lighting for night work. In the night lighting of the mechanical drawing room, the whole room should be lighted by a system of indirect or semi-indirect lights of low intensity, with points of higher intensic brilliancy to the front and left of each student. This double system is necessary, as the simple indirect system of lighting results in a confusion of shadow, severely handicapping the draftsman, whereas the old scheme of drop lights gives a sharp contrast of dark and light — a glare that strains the eyes badly. Wall Covering. — Each drawing room should contain a blackboard not less than twenty feet in length. The wall opposite the windows will usually be found to be most convenient. Any wall surface below the line of the head of the doors should be covered with a cork carpet, burlap-covered linoleum, or other suitable ma- terial, permitting a free use of thumb-tacks to hand drawings, etc. This covering makes possible the use of all the available wall space for the exhibition of drawings, prints, etc. There is no greater stimulus to the interest and activity of the students than the exhibition of their own drawings and those of their fellows. The concealed wire picture molds and the inlaid cork strip are not only inadequate but unsatisfactory in other ways. The concealed wire is mechanically such a nuisance to operate that it is seldom used if installed. The cork inlay idea has the unfortunate objection that the prints or drawings must cut across the molding. The appearance is very unpleasing. The walls should be of comparatively low tones — pleasing grays, tans, or browns that harmonize with the woodwork. The low tones will reduce the very distress- ing reflections. This consideration, especially in the freehand department, cannot be too strongly emphasized. Other general considerations of trim and floor covering are the same as those of the classroom and are dealt with in that chapter. The Freehand Department. The Courses. — The tendency to multiply courses in applied or industrial art has already been mentioned. A brief outline of some of the courses offered should be of value : I. Elementary Freehand Drawing covers the principles of perspective and a study of tone values in pencil and charcoal. This course is prerequisite to all other courses in drawing and design and fulfills the university requirement. This course covers a period of one year, generally taken during the first year. II. Advanced Freehand Drawing. In this course other mediums may be employed, such as watercolor or pen and ink. The student adds to his study of line, form, and tone that of color and composition. These courses develop into a great variety of allied or related subjects, such as : 1. Commercial Art. Special emphasis is placed on lettering, color, and composition. The various methods of reproducing posters, etc., and commercial methods are included in the course. 2. Art Metal and other art craft subjects, such as pottery making, weaving, bookbinding, etc. The study of design and technique. 3. Interior Decoration. A course that is often made a requisite in the domestic arts and science department. A study of harmony in color and arrangement of furnishings of the home, etc. 4. Costume Design. This course involves the study of anatomy, history, and design. The Equipment. — There are two general schemes which find favor in the equipping of the freehand drawing room ; each has its advantages and disadvantages. See rooms A and B of Figure 359. For the sake of convenience let us call the first, A, the informal scheme. In this scheme each student has an individual rack on which to rest his pad or board. These racks hold pencils, erasers, etc., and may or may not contain a shelf for the student’s books. A foot rest serves to steady the rack. In this scheme separate model stands should be provided, and they should preferably be made adjustable as to height. The second, or formal scheme, B, utilizes for models and studies large flat tables with a low partition running down the center and serving as a background. The student in this arrangement rests his board or pad on the edge of the table. These tables are made to accom- modate from eight to ten students. The formal scheme gives a fixed and permanent arrangement which greatly reduces the noise and con- fusion of a multitude of small pieces of furniture ar- ranged in an informal manner. The first scheme makes THE DRAWING DEPARTMENT 4i7 Mr. J onn J . uonuvan, rcnutct . Fig. 361. — Freehand Drawing Room, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. possible a greater variety of arrangement of studies and lighting. With an adjustable model stand, not only can the model be viewed from all sides, but the elevations may be varied. Added to the noise and confusion of the smaller units, is the difficulty of arranging suitable backgrounds. The informal scheme is the more ex- pensive of the two. In the classroom the development has been from the old benches, accommodating a number of students, to the present-day individual seats and desks ; so in the drawing room there has been a constant change from the larger to the smaller units. Undoubtedly the informal scheme demands more rigid discipline, and it seems that the best freehand teachers are not always the best disciplinarians. When the informal scheme has not proved satisfactory, there has been in almost every instance a lack of discipline or complete equipment. If the informal scheme is given a thorough trial, it will justify itself. For both the informal and formal schemes, low-backed chairs of oak or other suitable wood will be found most satisfactory. Lighter types of studio or folding chairs, while very desirable for out-of-door work, are too fragile for use in public schools. Individual lockers should be provided in all drawing rooms. In the freehand rooms they will probably be taken care of most satisfactorily in wall cabinets. There are two types in general use. The one in which each student has an individual key offers the objection that the keys are continually being lost and their replacement, as well as the handling of deposits, is an additional burden to the teacher. The other type, E, Figure 359, has groups of about ten lockers in a compartment to which the instructor only has a key. Three of these compartments will serve a class. This is undoubtedly the best scheme for the freehand drawing rooms. For advanced classes in watercolor, etc., the equip- ment noted above should be supplemented with a small, low table for each pair of students. This will provide a place on which to keep their colors, water, etc. Screens on which to hang models and drawings are desirable for advanced classes, although they are apt to - ADVANCED TECHNICAL DRAWING FXXDM Page 418 Fig. 362. THE DRAWING DEPARTMENT 419 interfere with the lighting of the interior of the room. Those shown in Figure 361 are too high. The height of the blackboard is about right. These screens would be improved if there was a shelf on each side instead of the one shown. The additional shelf would make the screen equally desirable and usable on both sides. For commercial art and design classes, mechanical drawing desks are the most satisfactory. For costume design large flat tables are desirable, as they afford freedom in laying out patterns, stencils, etc., which the smaller units do not. The artcraft courses offered will depend entirely upon local conditions and demand, and the special equipment required should be determined by consulting with the instructor in charge. The Mechanical Drawing Department. Courses. In this mechanical drawing department the courses usually offered are : I. Geometrical Drawing. This course covers the use of the instruments, the elements of geometry as applied to drawing, projections, and some perspective. It satisfies the university requirement and is pre- requisite to any course in advanced technical drawing. The course covers a period of one year, taken during the second year, if it is to be followed by advanced drawing. The periods are from one hour to one hour and a half a day. II. Trade Drawing. This course will generally be arranged to fulfill the requirements of the Smith- Hughes Act. The students in this group are to become mechanics, electricians, carpenters, etc. As they take but one period of drawing per day, the course is designed primarily to enable them to read and work from blue prints and to lay out their work properly. The course includes plates of essential geometrical problems, projections, and sketching. This course requires an extensive library of working drawings, as one does not learn to read blue prints without the blue prints. The number of students is limited to twenty. III. Advanced Technical Drawing. Upon completion of the course in geometrical drawing, the students may elect any one of a number of courses in advanced technical drawing, such as : 1. Machine Drawing. 2. Architectural Drawing. 3. Ship Drafting. 4. Mapping, etc. Elementary freehand drawing and geometrical drawing are prerequisite to all such courses. The student in these courses first draws and traces full size or large scale details, thus getting acquainted with the elements he is to use later in the small scale assembly working drawings. These will be followed by the complete working drawings of a gas engine, a house, etc., depending upon the course the student elects. The elements of design are introduced progressively, and the work in the drafting room is supplemented by related work in the shops, science, and mathematics departments. Thus the student gains a knowledge of materials, an essential to any serious work in design. By the use of laboratory methods, such courses as graphic statics and strength of materials may be effectively given in the high school. The Geometrical Drawing Rooms (Figure 360). — The number of students in geometrical drawing classes should not exceed twenty-four. The equipment will consist of the four-locker type “ A ” desks, such as shown in Figure 360; a small drawing board i6 // X2i // for each student ; a print rack and drawing file ; a desk and chair for the instructor. There should be no stools in any geometrical drawing class where the periods do not exceed an hour and a half in length. The stools make a great deal of noise and increase the necessary janitor service. It has been found that the students do a great deal more and better work if they stand. Since there may be a number of students who are unable to stand, a few stools should be provided. These stools will be kept in the storeroom when not needed. The desk of standard height will prove too high for some students, and so a few low platforms will be found necessary. Adjustable tops to the desks are probably inadvisable. The average boy will be inclined to go the limit with any adjustment, and, as a consequence, the inclination of the top of the desk will be too great, causing pencils, ink, etc., to fall to the floor. Again, parts will frequently be broken or lost — - school equip- ment should be not only fool-proof but boy-proof. Another objectionable feature of adjustable tops is the open space which serves as a catch-all for papers, dust, and dirt. The lockers should not be less than three inches wide in the clear and large enough to accommodate a twenty- four inch “ T ” square. There should be a shelf four to six inches from the top for the ink instruments, etc. The lockers should be provided with good locks, as instruments are expensive, and the danger of their loss should be minimized. The four lockers will accommo- date the three day-school classes and one continuation class for which the room should serve. A blue-print rack to hold the small scale prints should be provided. This may be combined with the drawing files. Drawings should not be kept in the students’ lockers, as they are certain to be damaged. The Trade Drawing Room. — Here the number of student desks will be limited to twenty. The desks 420 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE should be of the type “ B,” containing six lockers, as the classes are small and often in session for periods of only forty minutes, so there will be more of them to provide for. Besides the filing cabinet for drawings, there should be a model cabinet for the shop models, and a filing cabinet for the library of working drawings. The instructor should have a drawing desk in addition to the regular teacher’s desk and chair. The Technical Drawing Room (Figure 362). — An ad- vanced technical drawing class should not exceed twenty in number. The equipment will consist of type “ B ” six-locker desks (see Figure 360), as these rooms will be in demand for continuation school classes. A number of large detail tables should be provided, and some large drawing boards in addition to those which go into the lockers. These could be kept in the table serving the detail tables (Figure 362). The filing cabinets for drawings should be more elastic than for geometrical drawing classes, when the drawings are of a single stand- ard size. The machine drafting room should contain display cases for machine parts, etc., which the students study and draw (Figure 362). In the architectural drawing room, plaster models of the orders will make possible a better understanding of the classic form and afford an ideal comparison of the orders. The five feet or so above the blackboard might well be used for this purpose. In the technical drawing classes some such scheme for a detail rack as suggested in Figure 362 will prove very useful. Typical details at full size or a large scale for reference and instruction are absolutely essential. A roller arrangement is a very convenient one. The in- structor should have a drawing desk for his own use, as he will have constant need of one. Some Rooms in the High School — The Library , Lecture Room, and Study (Figure 363). — One of the real problems to be met with in any large high school is that of proper studying accommoda- tion. For best results, study rooms should not be larger than classrooms. Departmental libraries bring the special books, magazines, and catalogues to the department where they are used and re- duce the congestion in the main library. This latter consideration is very impor- tant, as large groups in high school are not conducive to good discipline or satis- factory study. In the drawing library, the instructors of the department would be in charge, and the students majoring in the shop and drawing departments would be the ones to study there. This room could meet the need of a lecture room for the department, and if necessary, could serve as a classroom. For lantern slides an aluminum painted curtain and a base re- ceptacle should be provided. Offices. — Small offices should be pro- vided, each to accommodate two or three teachers. These offices afford privacy for rest, work, and conferences with fellow teachers or students. Large rest rooms for teachers are unsatis- factory. The privacy is lost, and one cannot rest when many are free to use the room. Again, when the school grows, any rest room of size is certain to be turned into a classroom. This is a mistake, as it not only leaves the teachers no place to go, but makes an unsatisfactory classroom. The head of the department will keep in his office files of all drawings made on order of the Board, the principal, or other authorized parties. These will in- clude drawings made for work to be done in shops. Store and Blue-print Rooms . — .Ample storage space should be provided for the departmental supplies of tracing-paper, cloth, detail paper, inks, colors, etc. In - L1SRAKY - LECTURE. ROOM - 4 3TUDY - O 5’ IO* Fig. 363. THE DRAWING DEPARTMENT 421 Mr. Wm. B. Ittner, Architect. Fig. 364. — Mechanical Drawing Room, Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. Figure 362 an arrangement combining the office for two teachers with the storeroom and blue-printing room is shown. This is a desirable arrangement as it affords more definite supervision over the supplies and blue-print apparatus. Such a scheme will insure the making of blue prints in a neat, workmanlike manner, and without undue waste of materials. The tendency in schools has been to make shift with a simple blue-print frame carried by hand to the nearest accessible sunlight — when there was sunlight. Such an arrangement is, of course, inadequate where technical and trade courses are offered, demanding large numbers of blue prints. When the blue-print room has a sunny exposure, the cheapest satisfactory arrangement is one consisting of tracks on which the blue-print frame is run out through a window to the sunlight. There should be adjustments to bring the glass to a position perpendic- ular to the rays of the sun. This scheme has the objec- tion of being unsightly, and the tracks on the window sill offer difficulties in making it weather tight. Another scheme somewhat more expensive is to have the blue- print frame mounted on a carriage. Where the sunlight is readily accessible this arrangement will prove very satisfactory. If it is necessary to build a special plat- form or balcony for the exposure, the expense will count against it. The electric blue-printing machine is the most desir- able in every way. A vertical cylindrical blue-print frame can be installed at an expense not greatly exceed- ing that of the preceding scheme with a platform or balcony, and all dependence upon the sun is removed. This is important, as the demand for blue prints is not regulated by the sun. Blue-printing for and by evening school students becomes possible with the electric machine. In addition to these considerations the ex- perience of using an electrical machine will prove of real benefit to the student who goes to work for a com- pany or corporation which does its own blue-printing. The blue-print bath should be generous in size, say 3' o"X 5' o" . For drying, wires may be strung across the room at a convenient height. Dark Room. — In any school of size a dark room will prove very useful. The room will be used largely by the instructors in the drawing and science departments, 422 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. Wm. B. Ittner, Architect. Fig. 365. — Freehand Drawing Room, Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. but will also serve for advanced students in commercial art and printing, photographic work of all kinds — the making of plates, and slides of lecture and laboratory purposes can be done here. The arrangement shown gives ample working space and accommodation for two persons to work at once. Too much space is equally as objectionable as too little. One should, as far as is possible, be able to reach from one position everything that may be needed. An ordinary narrow porcelain kitchen sink is the most sat ; sfactory. A wooden mat, resting on the drain- boards and extending over the sink, serves to keep the trays on a level. In the main, plentiful open shelving, six to eight inches deep, is more desirable than cabinets with doors. A small cabinet with locks for material and equipment of value should be provided. A table not less than six feet in length should be provided for enlarging, etc. The approach or entrance to the dark room (there should be but one) should be so arranged that a person may enter without admitting light. The small cross partition should extend only far enough to cut off any direct rays of light. The approach should be painted black to prevent reflections, but the interior of the dark room, where the light is controlled, should be light in tone. Summary. — There is a very definite demand being made upon the drawing departments of our public schools for instruction in vocational drawing of every descrip- tion. This is true of both freehand and mechanical drawing. This demand must be met with properly equipped drawing rooms and capable instructors. The old idea that a person with a bachelor’s degree and a teacher’s certificate is fitted to teach anybody anything must be modified if we are to gain and hold the respect of the outside business world. Technical drawing instructors must have, in addition to their special technical training, actual practical experience if they are to render the sendee that is expected of them. The almost universal weakness of our shop departments has been that the men who had the necessary experience as machinists, carpenters, etc., did not have the necessary technical and educational qualifications. The tendency and danger in technical drawing subjects is of the op- posite nature but equally objectionable. In public schools special rooms for drawing are prob- ably inadvisable until the intermediate grade is reached. THE DRAWING DEPARTMENT 423 Special teachers are more necessary than special rooms. For obvious reasons the width and height of rooms will generally be the same as those established for the class- room. For the elementary freehand and mechanical drawing work in the high school the standard size of classrooms will prove satisfactory. The advanced classes will require more room. It will often be necessary, or at least be good policy, to have the same room serve for geometrical drawing and advanced technical drawing. The room should, of course, be arranged and furnished as an advanced technical drawing room. If the maximum number of students possible in geometrical drawing is to be ac- commodated, the room must be larger than that shown in Figure 362. The lighting of drawing rooms should be given special attention. Local climatic conditions are to be con- sidered, and the opinion of the instructors in charge should be consulted. The lighting should be unilateral (from one side) to avoid confusion of shadows. Figure 364 shows a good drawing room which would have been improved by the omission of the smaller windows. For freehand drawing, the scheme of inclined windows shown in Figure 365 is very good, and is recommended where cost and structural conditions permit. A small departmental library, which may serve as a lecture room and study, will prove to be of great value. The technical books, magazines, and catalogues will then be located where they will do the most good. There will be a vast saving of time and prevention of unneces- sary crowding in the main library. Small offices, combined with storerooms, blue-print rooms, etc., to take up the depth of a classroom, are most desirable. The drawing department, when possible, should be located in or near the center of the group of related subjects. These are the shops, the science, and home economics departments. The shops will naturally be farthest removed from the purely academic department, and the drawing department will generally be found to fit best between the shops and the other two depart- ments. CHAPTER XXII THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT By Walter A. Tenney, Principal of the Vocational High School, Oakland, California General Remarks. High School Shops. Location. Lighting. Correlation. Demonstration Room. Wash and Locker Rooms. Offices. Number of Students to Classes. Power. Pattern Shop. Grinding Room. Machine Shop. Foundry. Forge Shop. Automobile Shop. Electrical Shop. Plumbing Shop. Sheet Metal Shop. Cabinet Shop. Carpenter Shop. Exhibit Room. Central Storeroom. Intermediate or Junior High School Shops. Conclusion. General Remarks. — Educational thought has, for a number of years, had a pronounced and well-nigh uni- versal trend towards a wider recognition of the need for industrial and vocational education. The idea, that the modern school system should serve the needs of “ all the children of all the people,” has been generally ac- cepted, not only among educators, but among thinking men and women in all walks of life. There is an insist- ent and growing demand that the work of the school connect more closely with the future work of the students, — that in addition to the cultural studies there should be training preparatory to the work which the students will do for a livelihood. Since a majority of students, upon leaving school, engage in some form of commercial or industrial work, it follows that a democratic school system must provide courses and equipment which will prepare such students for the lives of activity they will enter with the same care and thoroughness with which other students are prepared for a professional career. Therefore, any study of modern school architecture must give prominence to the planning and arrangement of the rooms devoted to industrial and vocational training, — in other words, to the Industrial Arts department. The intelligent designing of a school building must have as the fundamental basis of all planning, a considera- tion of the activities to be carried on within the building. In planning any particular room or group of rooms the architect and school man must consider first the nature of the work to be done, the number of pupils to be accommodated, and the necessary equipment. These three factors will determine the size, character, and arrangement of the rooms to be built ; the funds avail- able, of course, being a determining factor in the quality of building. In a work of this kind it is impossible to give plans that are directly and completely adaptable to the needs of all communities, and all types and grades of schools. This chapter will attempt to give typical examples of what are thought to be good arrangements for shop or manual training rooms, and to discuss briefly the funda- mental elements which form the basis in planning similar units in any school, in the hope that architects and school officials may find here some assistance in the solution of their problems. The High School Shops. — The high school of the future, in all large communities, will undoubtedly be what is known as the cosmopolitan or inclusive high school. Because such a school would offer the greatest possible number of courses, and would furnish the greatest amount and variety of equipment, to be found in any high school, it will be used here to illustrate typical high school installations. The first question to answer is, what kinds of industrial training shall be given? What shops shall be built and equipped ? Local needs and conditions may lead to the emphasis of one or another particular industry, but in general, there are certain forms of industrial training that are common to all localities, certain trades which are basic, which form the foundation for many hundreds of specialized occupations. Such is the machinist trade. Its principles and processes are found in thousands of occupations, from the making of a watch to the building of a locomotive. These basic trades, then, should make up the main part of the industrial arts department. The machinist, blacksmith, foundry, and pattern-making trades form what might be called the iron trades group. These should be installed in the large inclusive high school. However, the installation of the high school foundry is a debatable question. A really practical foundry with up-to-date equipment including cupola, traveling crane, etc., will cost to equip $8000 or $12,000 in addition to the cost of the building. But few boys whose desire for 424 THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 425 Fig. 366. — Oakland Technical High I education holds them through the high school period will take up foundry work as an occupation. If the supplying of castings to the machine shop is argued as a reason for putting in a school foundry, it should be remembered that the castings so obtained are quite likely to be inferior, and to cost as much or more than if obtained from a commercial foundry. It is sometimes thought desirable to give a certain amount of foundry work to the pattern maker and machinist students, that they may gain some knowledge, through practical experience, of this trade which is so 'closely related to their own. It is very doubtful, however, if either the educational or practical value of such a course would justify the expense. Nevertheless, foundries are estab- lished in many of the large high schools, therefore a typical installation will be considered in this discussion. Automobile mechanics is a special branch of the machinist trade, yet so great and so widespread is the demand for this work that the large school should have a separate shop for it. This is the age of electricity. Its applications are increasingly numerous. A thorough practical and theo- retical knowledge of electricity will lead to employment m many different fields, making this one of the basic- trades. An electrical shop, then, will be included in our olan. Plumbing and steam fitting, sheet metal work, car- Dentry, and cabinetmaking comprise the building trades Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. School Shops, Oakland, California. group. These occupations are demanded in every com- munity. Cabinetmaking might be taught in connection with carpentry, using the same shop and equipment, but in the large school these departments should have separate accommodations. Printing is an occupation found in every community. It has a decided vocational value, and with its related courses in English, history, and journalism has an educational or cultural value probably unsurpassed by any course in the high school. The trades above named are common to all urban communities, and many of them are so basic that the graduate student, if he possesses the quality of adapta- bility, will be able to apply his knowledge to any one of a great variety of occupations. The inclusive high school in the larger cities should provide for most or all of these in its plan for instruction. Location. — The next question to consider is the loca- tion of the industrial arts department. The ideal ar- rangement is to have the shops in a separate building or group of buildings, and where sufficient land is available all on the ground floor. The initial cost is somewhat greater for this type of construction, but it has decided advantages. Figure 366 gives an exterior view, and Figure 367 gives the floor plan of the industrial arts department of the Technical High School of Oak- land, California, an example of the type of building above referred to, in the designing of which the writer THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT collaborated with the architect. While this example is not presented as a perfect solution of all the problems of school shop planning, it has many points of excellence and superiority over those of other school buildings throughout the country, which commend it to the study of architects and boards of education. Where the above arrangement cannot be secured, owing to lack of building space or funds, the next best arrangement is a separate building of more than one story. And last and least desirable of all, is where, as in a thickly populated city with limited building area, the whole school, shops and all, must be housed in one large building of many stories. When building under either of the two last-named con- ditions, the shops having heavy equipment and handling heavy materials, such as machine shop, forge shop, and foundry, should be located on the ground floor, and in the event of the shops being located in the same building with the rest of the school, care should be taken to isolate them as much as possible, and to separate them by specially constructed walls and floors from classrooms which would suffer from the noise or vibration of machinery. Lighting. — One very important feature in planning the shop building, and one which is often neglected to the discomfort and possible injury of the students, is the lighting. Not only is the quantity of light, but also the angle at which it falls upon the work, of the greatest I importance. Skylights have often been resorted to in shop buildings, and have found numerous advocates. In the opinion of the author, there is only one condition under which skylights are permissible, and that is when the building is so situated that it is impossible to obtain sufficient lateral lighting. The proper lighting for school shops is the modern factory lighting, in which the walls consist mainly of a series of supporting columns with the intervening spaces filled with glass set in steel sash. Figure 366 illustrates an excellent example of proper and adequate shop lighting. On the east, south, and west sides, it is advantageous to have the windows glazed with ribbed or diffusing glass. On the north side, plane glass is preferable. Correlation. — In a large group, such as is here con- templated, the position of individual shops with relation to each other should be considered. For example, the metal-working shops should be grouped together. The foundry and machine shop especially should be adjoining each other, and it is desirable to have the pattern shop not too far removed. As a general rule, it might be stated that the shops in which the work is of a similar nature, is interrelated or dependent upon each other, should be grouped together as far as possible. Demonstration Room. — In many schools a so-called iemonstration theater is provided in one end or corner 427 of each shop. In a “ class A,” or even less expensive type of building, where every square foot of floor space means an outlay of many dollars, this is, in most in- stances, an expense for which there is inadequate return. It is found that these demonstration theaters are in use but a very small proportion of the time. Therefore, if one lecture and demonstration theater can be located so as to be reasonably accessible to all the shops, it will serve all purposes, and effect a great saving both in floor space and equipment. Reference to Figures 367 and 400 will show how such a plan was worked out. This room is provided with blackboard, demon- stration tables and benches, also with an electric cabinet furnishing current both direct and alternating and of various phases and voltages, for electrical demonstra- tions or for furnishing power to operate machines for demonstration purposes. The room is also arranged for stereopticon or moving picture work and may be darkened for this purpose in the daytime. Wash and Locker Rooms. — Wash and locker rooms should be provided, within easy access of the shops. The washroom should be supplied with both hot and cold water. A very satisfactory method is to install an automatic gas water heater with thermostat. This will insure a constant supply of water of the proper tempera- ture. A portion of the washroom should be separated by partitions for toilets and urinals, the number depend- ing on the number of pupils to be accommodated. The lockers may be installed in the same room as the wash- stands. This is a very satisfactory arrangement, as it saves time and confusion of pupils running about from room to room between classes. Figure 367 shows a wash and locker room for each two shops. Offices. — Each shop should also have a small office for the instructor, and a tool and supply room. In some of the shops a supply or storeroom separate from the tool room is needed, in which to keep finished or unfinished work and supplies which it is sometimes advisable to draw in considerable quantities from the central storeroom. If a central storeroom for the entire school plant is not maintained, the supply rooms for individual shops will need to be larger in some instances. These accessories are all shown on the floor plans which illustrate this chapter. Number of Students to Classes. — The next question to consider is the number of students in a class. This will depend on whether the school is to conduct strictly vocational classes, or general manual training classes, or both. The passage of the Smith-Hughes Act has given a great impetus to vocational education, and doubtless under this influence most large high schools will offer vocational courses. These courses are now being intro- TOOL ROOM 00 oc n ,o a \ a n o o SSI SS- Page 429 Fig. 369. — Pattern Shop, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. 43 ° SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE duced in many of the college preparatory or classical high schools, which had previously given no attention to such work. One result of this law has been to limit the number of students in a class. It is generally agreed by experts that fifteen is the maximum number that can be taught with success in trade classes, and this is the limit fixed by law in some states, though in others a maximum of twenty is allowed, with the idea that the actual average attendance will be about fifteen. If strictly vocational classes are to be maintained, then the number of students to be provided for in a class will be fifteen to twenty. In so-called technical high schools, where shop work is given not with a view to teaching any particular trade, but to giving a general knowledge of a number of trades to boys who will perhaps later go to college and become engineers, or administrative officers, or at least will hold positions in industry other than that of me- chanics, twenty-four is considered about the ideal num- ber in a class. A larger number is sometimes admitted, but the results are less satisfactory. The shops illustrated in Figures 366 and 367 are equipped to accommodate a maximum of twenty-four students in a class. The equipment for these shops was selected and installed by the writer with a view to giving a high grade general manual training course to technical high school students. If planning for a strictly vocational or trade course, equipment for fifteen to twenty students would have been provided and the largest shops might have been slightly reduced in size. The shops here shown are forty-five feet in width and vary from sixty to one hundred feet in length. Figure 367 shows a further development by the author of the same general arrangement as shown in Figure 40. This is a larger and more cony lete shop plant, and has advantages in arrangement both of buildings and equipment. By a small addition to the equipment of the shops here shown and the employment of an additional teacher, two classes can be accommodated in one shop. Where there is a large number of classes, this plan effects a considerable saving both of room and equipment. Either two full-time day classes or one full-time and one part- time continuation class may be taught at the same time in one shop. And since there is nearly always a number of machines in a shop, particularly the larger and more expensive ones, which can be used only part of the time by one class, this arrangement allows double the number of students to use them without the purchase of additional equipment. Power. — The individual motor drive for the greater part of the shop equip- ment will be found most satisfactory. Though the initial cost of installation is more, the cost of upkeep and operation is less, due to the fact that if only a part of the machines in a given shop are running, there is only sufficient power used to run those few machines, instead of running a large motor and long lines of shafting. Another advantage is that, with the individual motor drive, a ma- chine may be moved at any time and set in any part of the shop, or turned at any angle, by simply running wires to the motor, which cannot be done if line shafting is depended on to transmit power. If the machines are belt driven, then the roof trusses or ceiling joists must be made stiff enough to support the transmission machinery which will have to be provided. This will include hangers shafting, pul- leys, belting, etc. The Pattern Shop (Figure 368). — This shop must have floor space for both bench and machine equipment, and for assembling large work. A lumber storeroom must be provided convenient to this shop, also a store- room for finished patterns, and a filing and grinding room, which is described later. The bench equipment should consist of one work bench for each member of a class, each bench equipped Fig. 370. — Pattern Shop Bench. THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 43i with side and tail vises, the side vise to be quick acting. A very satisfactory bench designed by the writer and made in the school shops for use in the high schools of Oakland, California, is shown in Figure 370. The bench contains an individual drawer for each student. Each drawer is equipped with the fol- lowing tools : One bench knife One 2' rule. One chisel. One chisel. One f" chisel. One 1 " chisel. One auger bitt. One f" auger bitt. One auger bitt. One f" auger bitt. One 1" auger bitt. One block-plane cutting-iron. One smooth-plane cutting-iron. One jack-plane cutting-iron. One pair 8" outside calipers. One parting tool. One 3" turning chisel. One turning chisel. One f" turning chisel. One 1" turning chisel. One turning gouge. One \" turning gouge. One f" turning gouge. One 1" turning gouge. One oilstone slip. The cabinet, on the end of the bench, contains the tools used by the students in common. They are as follows : One 1 f" block plane. One 2 " smooth plane. One 2 %" jack plane. One 6" sliding T bevel. One 6" try square. One 6" dividers. One marking gauge. One claw hammer. One oil stone 2 " X7" in box. One oil can. One mallet. One nail set. One spoke shave. One bitt brace. One countersink. One wood drill No. 4. One wood drill No. 5. One wood drill No. 6. One wood drill No. 7. One screwdriver. One backsaw. When individual sets of tools are provided, the drawers must have locks. A bench with four drawers as shown will accommodate four classes. A system of locks for these benches should be ordered from the factory, no two alike, but under one master key, and made up in sets of five locks each. The first four locks, of each set, will be put on the drawers, the fifth on the end cabinet. The first four keys are fitted so that each will open its own drawer, also the end cabinet, but will not open any other lock in the system. A supply of extra lathe tools, pattern makers’ shrinkage rules, pinch dogs, large-sized inside and outside calipers, sets of flat, medium, and regular sweep inside and out- side ground gouges, one core box plane, one adjustable curved face plane, one large jointer plane, extra hand- rip and crosscut saws, steel squares, etc., should be kept in the tool room. A 12" X.60" speed lathe with inside and outside face plates should be furnished for each student. The lathes should be placed as shown in Figure 368, giving each student a bench and lathe with outfit of tools as his complete working unit. The bench and lathe together require floor space 4X6 feet, and should be placed from four to five feet apart. The machinery equipment for this shop should be : Machine Floor Space Horse Power 1 16" or 18" universal circular saw, with motor 4 ' 5 "X 5' 6" 5 1 36" band saw, with motor 3' 0" X 6' 2" 5 1 24" cabinet planer, with motor . . . 6' 3" X 6' 6" IO 1 12" jointer or buzz planer, with motor . 2' 9 "X 8' 2" 3 1 2o"Xio' pattern lathe, with motor . . 2' 6" Xio' 6" 4 24 12" X60" lathes, with motor . . . . 2' 0" X s' 3" 1 each 1 5" X40" grindstone, with motor . . . 2' 0" X 4' 0" I 1 large wood trimmer 2' 2" X 4' 0" Hand 2 small wood trimmers, which will set on the work benches and may be carried from bench to bench as needed . The pattern shop should also have one or more glue heaters, and a large table centrally located for laying out and assembling large patterns, and an- other for varnishing, also a large supply of both wood and iron clamps of various sizes. A truck, for carry- ing materials from place to place about the shop, from machine to machine, or from shop to shop, is very desirable. The saws and planers should be provided with hoods and piping for taking out the shavings and sawdust. This also necessitates a shaving exhauster and motor to drive it, also a shaving separator and bin. If the shops are of wooden construction the shaving bin should be a small brick or concrete structure and separated from the other buildings. The installation of the shaving exhaust system is shown in Figures 368 and 394, where the exhauster and motor are under the floor (it might also be placed overhead), the shaving separator above the roof of the lumber or pattern storerooms, which are lower than the main building, and the shaving bin is under the floor of these respective rooms, with the outlet pipe from the separator leading vertically down through the center of the room. The shaving exhaust system eliminates breathing of dust by students, and is thus a health protection as well as a means of keeping the shop cleaner and more attractive in appear- ance. Safety guards should be provided for saws and planers, and also belt guards wherever needed. The Grinding Room. — In addition to the accessories and equipment named above, provisions must be made for sharpening the planer and jointer knives, and the circular and band saws. The ideal arrangement is to have a separate room about 15X20 feet in which should be installed the following equipment : Tioa i mi o o Page 433 Fig. 372. ■ — Machine Shop, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. 434 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect. Fig. 373. —Benson Polytechnic High School Machine Shop, Portland, Oregon. Machines Floor Space Horse Power 1 30" Automatic plane-knife grinder . . 4' 0" X7' 0" 2 1 Automatic circular-saw sharpener . . 2' 6" X2' 6" 3 4 1 Automatic band-saw sharpener . . . 1' 6" X2' 8" 1 4 1 Automatic band-saw setting-machine 1' o"Xi' 0" 1 4 * 1 Trip hammer circular-saw set .... T o"X2' 0" Hand 1 Circular-saw swage i' o"X 2 ' O" Hand The first two machines may be had with individual motors on the machines. There are several types of band-saw sharpeners. The one that holds the saw in a horizontal position will require a bench about 2' 10" X 8' o" to hold the machine and the two wheels which carry the saw. Another type carries the saw in a vertical position, hung on a wheel high up over the machine. This latter type requires only about 1' 6"Xi' 6" floor space. The band-saw setting machine requires only about one square foot of space, the circular-saw set and swage about two square feet each. One long bench or two smaller benches can be arranged to carry the band-saw filer, hand-saw setter, circular-saw set, and swage. The first two should be power operated. A small shaft can be installed under the bench, with pulleys and belts from which to drive both machines. Together they will require only one-half horse power. The two latter machines are hand operated. This room should also have a case or cabinet with drawers or shelves for containing the grinding wheels, files, wrenches, and other supplies for operating the machines, and racks for holding the band and circular saws. One filing and grinding room equipped as described will suffice for all the woodworking shops in the school plant. The Machine Shop (Figure 371). — This illustration shows a very satisfactory arrangement of equipment in the machine shop, benches against the wall, machines placed near the windows to get good light, and ample space in the center of the shop for erecting and assembling work. It also indicates the routing of material through the shop. THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 435 Fig. 374. — Machine Shop Bench. The individual equipment for each student consists of : One combination square with 6" scale. One pair 6 " inside firm joint calipers. Either a long continuous bench with drawers underneath and vises placed at intervals, or an individual bench such as shown in Figure 374 may be used. Since a large part of the class is likely to be working on the machines most of the time, it is not absolutely necessary to have a separate bench for every student in the class ; but enough drawers must be pro- vided so that each student may have a separate lock drawer for his equipment. With twenty-four students in a class, if double periods are given, four classes would be taught daily. This would re- quire 96 drawers. If continuation classes are also taught in the same shop, addi- tional drawers should be provided for them. The drawers should be of generous size to afford the student ample room to store his individual tools, working clothes, and small pieces of unfinished work. The drawers shown in Figure 374 are about 1 ' 6 " wide, \ 9 " long, 9!" deep. Fig. 375. 43 6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE One pair 6" outside firm joint calipers. One center gauge. One machinists’ hammer. One center. punch. One or two chisels. One pair 6" dividers. This is the most expensive of all the shops to equip. The machine equipment for a class of twenty-four should be as follows : Machine Floor Space Horse Power 8 Engine lathes 14" X6' 0" 2'o"X 7' 0" 1 1 each 4 Engine lathes 16" X6' 0" 2' 0" X 7' 0" 1 2 each 3 Engine lathes 18" X8' 0" 20X9 0 2 each 1 Engine lathe 24"Xi2' 0" 2 ' 6 "XI 2 ' 0" 4 1 Tool-makers’ lathe 14" X6' 0" . . . . 2'o"X 7 ' O" 15 1 Tool-makers’ lathe 16" X6' 0" ... . 2' 0" X 7' 0" 1-2 i Small tool-makers’ bench lathe . . . . i'6"x s' 0" I 1 Speed lathe 12" X5' 0" 2' o"X s' 6" I 1 Large milling machine 7' 0" X 9' °" 5 1 Universal milling machine 2' 4 "X 4' 7 " 2 1 Large universal grinder S' 0" X 6' 0" 2 1 Small universal grinder (for tool room) . 3' 0" X 4' 0" 4 1 30" Radial drill 6' 4" X 7' 0" 3 1 22" Back-geared drill press 30X4 0 2 1 Sensitive drill press 2' 0" X 2' 0" 2 1 Wet emery grinder 1' 6" X 2' 6" 2 1 Dry emery grinder 1' 6" X 2' 6" 2 1 Planer 3o"X3o"Xio' 0" S' 0" X16' 0" s 1 Power hack saw 2' 0" X 3' 6" 2 1 16" Shaper 2' 6" X 4' 10" 3 1 Gas hardening furnace 2' 0" X 3’ 0” 1 Brazing outfit with stand 1 Air pump for brazing and hardening 3' 0" X 3' 0" furnace 1 Acetylene welding outfit i' 0" X 2' 0" Portable 2 Other machines might be added, but the above list gives a very satisfactory equipment for a general machine- shop course. Two or three of the lathes should be fitted with taper attachments, and at least one with a relieving attachment, and each should have one universal three- jawed and one independent four-jawed chuck. Part of the lathes should be belt-driven and part motor-driven ; there should also be several different makes of lathes, so as to familiarize students with various types. A large assortment of tools should be kept in the tool room, such as milling cutters of various kinds, mandrels, taps and dies, reamers, drills, lathe dogs, clamps, planer jacks, standard gauges, scales, dividers, surface gauges, vernier and micrometer calipers, tool holders, etc., etc. If much tool and gear hardening are to be done a pyro- scope or pyrometer and a sclereoscope are very desirable. A convenient form of tool-room cabinet is shown in Figure 375. A useful tool stand to be placed beside each lathe is shown in Figure 376. Figure 377 shows a handy device for caring for chucks and face plates. It is fastened to the floor at the head of the lathe. The tool room is perhaps a more important adjunct in the machine shop than in any of the other shops. It should be centrally located so as to be reached by students from all parts of the shop without too much traveling. It should be well lighted and provided with a few machines such as tool makers’ lathe and universal tool and cutter grinder for use of the tool-room attendant in making and repairing tools. The Foundry (Figure 378). — A reference to the main floor plan of the shop building group, Figure 367. shows ii 3 Fig. 376. — Tool Stand. that the foundry in this design is a wider building than any other except the automobile shop. The floor space is divided into three areas running lengthwise of the shop. The roof over the central portion is higher than that over the two side portions. This allows height for operating a traveling crane. The crane as well as the clerestory is supported by the two rows of columns shown. The height of the walls of the other buildings is fourteen feet from the floor to the under side of the roof trusses. This does not give room to operate a traveling crane ; therefore, instead of making the whole building higher, the central portion only is raised, allowing a crane of shorter span to be installed. The smaller crane is 437 THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT less expensive to purchase and to operate, and will admit of lighter supports. The span of the crane that would be installed in this shop is twenty-four feet. This is sufficient space for all heavy floor molding or work requiring the use of a crane. The side areas can be used for bench molding or light floor molding. A smaller shop might suffice for a school, but if a building the same width as the other shops in this plan, viz., forty-five feet, is built, it is almost too narrow to divide into three areas as above, and if this is not done, and a crane is installed, it would have to be of forty-five foot span. Such a crane would require a heavy bridge, larger motors to operate it, and stronger supports to carry it, all of which increases the expense. It is not necessary that the crane should operate over the entire area of the foundry, therefore the plan suggested in Figure 378 is the best where a traveling crane is desired. If a small building is built for a foundry, then probably no crane or only a jib crane should be put in. The school foundry crane should be a two-ton, three-motor crane, operated from the floor. One motor is to drive the mechanism which propels the bridge from end to end of the building, the second motor moves the crane from end to end of the bridge, and the third operates the hoist. Safety stops should be installed to prevent over travel either of bridge, crane, or hoist. The floor of the foundry should have a depth of about two feet of molding sand, and in the central portion there should be a good-sized area excavated to a depth of four to six feet and filled with molding sand for pit molding. The cupola should be placed at one end of the foundry, as shown, and within reach of the crane. A two-ton cupola is about thirty-six inches in diameter above the tuyeres. This size is ample for the school foundry. A fan or pressure blower with motor to drive it is needed to operate the cupola. They may be placed in any con- venient position and piped to the cupola. Across this end of the building is the charging platform, from which the coke and iron are fed into the furnace. This plat- form is about 10 feet above the floor. The storeroom for coke and iron should be located as close to the cupola as possible, to avoid unnecessary time and labor in handling. The storeroom in the plan (Figure 378) is shown directly back of the cupola, so that the coke and iron need be moved but a few feet and picked up by the crane and lifted on to the charging platform. The core making may be carried on in the main room of the foundry, but it is preferable to have it in a separate room as shown. Ample bench room should be provided, also floor space for keeping core sand and other materials. A moderate-sized core oven with the necessary smoke- stack should be installed in this room. A metal truck which can be wheeled into the oven should be provided for handling large cores. There should be a room in which patterns may be stored in an orderly manner and protected from injury. The school foundry should provide facilities for making castings of brass, bronze, aluminum, and other of the softer metals. The brass furnace may be placed in any convenient part of the foundry, preferably near the supply of fuel and metals. The one shown in the plan is prac- tically three furnaces combined, so that three crucibles can be operated at once. Various types of brass furnaces are in use, some burning oil, others burning coke. A simple form of furnace to construct is that shown in the plan. It is built of brick with iron grate and top, and is lined with fire brick. The flues from the three fire pots lead into the same smokestack. Coke is used in this furnace, and it may be operated either with or without forced draft. The furnace is sunk into the ground, the top being only eight or ten inches above the floor. As the furnace is out of reach of the large traveling crane, a jib crane may be installed within convenient reach. Along the sides of the building are placed benches Fig. 377. — Chuck Rack. H O a 1 "H H 0 3 $ PLAN - OF FOUNDRY SHOP FOU, A. LARGE C05MQP0L1TAH' HIGH SCHOOL THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 439 Messrs. Perkins , Fellows & Hamilton, Architects. Fig. 379. — Foundry, New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, Illinois. upon which light molding can be done. These molding benches are sometimes built in the form of bins in which some special or fine grade of molding sand is kept. They are 4' 6 " wide, by 6' o" long, and are double so that a student may work from either side. Other stationary equipment needed for the foundry is : Machine Floor Space Horse Power 1 Core-wire straightener .... 2'o"X2'o" 1 Tumbling barrel with motor 4' 5" X8' 6" 2 1 Electric sand riddle 4' 0" X4' 0" 1 1 Emery grinder with motor . . . T 6"X2' 4" 2 Each student should be provided with a molder’s tool box and an assortment of molder’s trowels, slicks, and other tools for finishing molds, lifters, gate cutters, swabs and swab dishes, parting sand dishes and dusters, shovels, riddles, bellows, molder’s brushes, and camel’s- hair brushes, etc. There should be an assortment of large ladles with swivel shanks, also small hand ladles with shanks, snap flasks and weights of various sizes, flask clamps, clamp bars, wheelbarrows for coke and iron, a thousand-pound scrap-iron scale, crucibles, and other tools and appli- ances. Wooden molder’s flasks of all sizes should be made as needed in the woodworking shop. The Forge Shop (Figure 380). — The floor plan here shown and the photograph (Figure 381) illustrate the proper arrangement of equipment in the forge shop, two rows of double forges running lengthwise of the room, with ample working space between them, benches con- taining the blacksmiths’ vises against the wall, and the power hammer and other machines conveniently grouped at one side. The shop shown in the photograph has a concrete floor. The kind of floor that should be laid in the forge shop is a question requiring careful study. The earth or cinder floor is safe, from the standpoint of fire risk, and while it is soft to stand upon, it is ruinous to the shoes, and the black dust constantly arising from the floor makes it impossible for the students to keep either their persons or clothing clean. If the floor is sprinkled to keep the dust down, it is just as hard on the shoes, and standing on the wet floor is a menace to health, espe- cially in cold weather. The concrete floor is safe from fire, but is hard to stand on. The wooden floor is more comfortable to the feet, but offers more danger from fire. In a fireproof building the wooden floor on top of a concrete floor offers less fire risk, and more comfort. In a wooden building it is a question between fire risk and comfort ; one must be sacrificed to obtain the other. Page 441 Fig. 381. — Forge Shop, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. 442 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE If a wooden floor is laid, it may be of surfaced i" plank, overlaid with tongue and groove flooring, so the surface can be relaid from time to time as it becomes worn and splintered. A more satisfactory wooden floor is made of redwood blocks laid with the wood fiber on With each forge should be a set of the following tools 2 Set hammers (one large, one small), i Hand hammer, i Sledge, 5-lb. x Sledge, io-lb. i Set flat tongs from to i". i Set square bit tongs §" to . 1 Pair chisel tongs for eye chisels. 2 Pair tongs for hand chisels. 3 Pair chain tongs. 1 Hardie. 4 Hot eye chisels. 2 Cold eye chisels, i Eye center punch, i Poker, i Small shovel. Hand punches to suit the work, i Large flatter 3" face. 1 Round edge flatter T'XiY' face. The following tools should be provided, and kept in racks conveniently placed, for the use of all the students in common : The cast iron anvil base shown in Figure 381 is found more satisfactory than the wooden blocks frequently used, provided the forge shop has a very rigid floor. Several work benches should be placed in convenient positions with the black- smiths’ vises on them. Six or eight vises will be ample for the class. Work benches should be against the wall and about two feet to two feet six inches in width. The length may vary to suit conditions in the shop. If the blower and exhauster listed above are provided with direct connected motors, they will require floor space about 3' 6"X3' 6" and 5' 3"Xio' o" respectively. If twenty-five forges are installed, a blower with about a 32" fan run at 1200 revolutions per minute, outlet about nf" diameter, will furnish the necessary blast and require about 7! horse power. If the down draft system is used a steel plate exhauster with 50” fan at 900 R. P. M.. 24" inlet, will supply the draft and require about 15 horse power. The fans may be run at higher speed and correspondingly reduced in size and horse power. If Machine or Apparatus Floor Space Horse Power 24 Forges in pairs 2' io" X6' 3" 24 Anvils — 125-lb l' 3" X2' 0" 1 Large forge 4' 0" X4' 10" 1 Large anvil — 250-lb i' 4" X2' 6" 1 Power hammer .... 2' 6" X6' 3 " 7 h 1 Drill press — 22" back geared . 3' 0" X4' o" 2 1 Dry emery grinder 12" to 14" i' 6" X2' 6" 2 1 Gas hardening furnace .... 2' 9 " X3' 3" 1 Air pump for furnace .... i' 0" X2' 0" 2 1 Blower for forges i' 6" X3' 6" i\ 1 Exhauster for forges s' 3" xs' 3" 15 1 Bar and bolt cutter 1' 6" X2' 0" Hand Fig. 3S2. — Forge Shop. end, with a foundation of concrete or closely laid, seasoned and sized boards, well nailed to joist. the machine equipment for the forge shop should be : 2 Sets top swages from to 1%". 2 Sets bottom swages from to 1". 2 Sets top fullers from to 1". 2 Sets bottom fullers from to 1". 2 Eye punches (one large and one small). 1 Set round punches from \" to 1". 1 Set heading tools from to 1". 1 Swage block. 1 Coal shovel. 1 Water bucket. THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 443 ■ P LAN ' DETAIL AT A DETAIL AT 'EL ■ • ,5AND . . note; FOUNDATION TO bZ BOTTOMLESS REINFORCEMENT W° TWISTED 6AR5 SFACED 6’ ON CENTER. HORIZONT- : ALLY AND IZ- VERTICALLY f Le ■1 1 1 d • BLDE VIEW- •'FRONT VIEW- •FOUNDATION' FOR- A. POWER- HARMED ° NO .SCALE WALTER- A- TENNEY . VOCATIONAL DIRECTOR. JOHN J. DONOVAN . ARCHITECT OAKLAND CALIFORNIA collaborators Fig. 383. 444 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE the overhead exhaust system is used, a fan of much smaller capacity will serve, and if the smoke pipes extend from the hoods straight up through the roof the exhaust fan may be omitted altogether. The plan shows the fans for the forge blast and exhaust systems in a small separate room. This is preferable though not imperative. The sizes and arrangement of piping for the forge blast and exhaust are shown in Figure 380. The piping may be galvanized iron or drain pipe. If the forge shop floor is from three to five feet above the ground, iron pipe may be used and hung to the under side of the floor. If the floor is of earth or cinders, or of concrete and laid on the ground, then the pipe must be laid under- ground. If the piping is laid underground, it may be drain pipe, with joints thoroughly cemented, or it may be sheet metal bedded in concrete. Even if drain pipe is used it is better to bed it in concrete, as the settling of the earth is liable to crack the joints, and in rainy weather, if water soaks into the ground where the pipe is laid, it will fill the pipe and render it useless until it is pumped out. The concrete should be 4" thick around the pipe on all sides. If down draft forges are installed a double forge is recommended. They make a neat looking installation and save somewhat in floor space and in piping. The double forge requires a floor space 34 // X75" and should be placed eight or nine feet from center to center measured lengthwise of the rows as shown in Figure 380, leaving five or six feet clear working space between. When the forges are placed in two rows the center lines of the two rows should be about sixteen feet apart so as to leave ample room for a student using a sledge to swing it without interference. The forge shown in Figure 382 was designed by Mr. Frank Weaver, instructor in forge work in the Vocational High School, Oakland, California, and built by the students. This forge is not the down draft type. It has the mechanical blast and overhead exhaust. It may be used either with or without the exhaust fan. If in a one-story building, the exhaust pipe from each group of forges may be carried directly through the roof, and the natural draft will be found satisfactory without the fan. The exhaust pipe has a telescope joint, and the hoods are counterweighted so they can be raised or lowered. The cut shows a group of four forges built together. In this way they economize in floor space and in piping, are compact and neat in appearance, and easy to keep clean. The tuyeres are self-cleaning, by simply removing the cap on the pipe extending through the side of the forge and turning on the blast. Each group of four forges requires a floor space six feet by six feet and should have a clear space between groups of from four to five feet. These forges are the result of years of experience on the part of the designer both in commercial shops and in teaching, and are the most satisfactory of all the forges known to the writer. They are so simple that they can be built by the students of any manual training high school, as very few tools are needed in their construction. The large forge shown in Figure 380 near the power hammer is four feet in diameter, and the water and coal tanks extend 10", making the total floor space 48"X58". A single forge of the type shown in Figure 382 may be substituted. There are several types of power hammers in use. For a well-equipped high school shop, a hammer that will work stock about four inches thick is preferable, though smaller sizes are frequently installed. A belt- driven trip hammer, that will work stock up to three and a half inches in thickness, requires a floor space 36 // X5i' / , also belting, pulleys, shafting, and some source of power. It is also furnished with individual motor. A self-contained power hammer operated by compressed air generated in the machine itself has been found very satisfactory. This hammer is furnished for either belt or individual motor drive. It requires floor space 2 ' 6 " X 6' 3" and 7^ horse power. A genuine steam hammer can only be installed if the school has a high pressure steam power plant in constant operation. A steam hammer may be operated by compressed air. This will require an air compressor, tank, and motor or other source of power. The floor space occupied by the machine is 2 ' ioj'Xi' 9", and the tank, compressor, and motor will require about 4' o"Xi2' o". These latter may be placed overhead, upon a raised platform or gallery. A power hammer must have a special foundation. There are several ways of building it. One method is to make a solid concrete block considerably larger than the base of the hammer, set into the ground from one to three feet, depending on the height of the shop floor above ground. Pipes containing anchor bolts must be placed (so that the location of the bolts will coincide with the holes in the base of the machine) before the concrete is poured. Under the anvil the top surface of the concrete must be about eight inches lower than the general surface, so that a cushion of wood may be interposed. better method (Figure 383) is to build a bottomless reinforced concrete box, sunk into the ground three feet or more, depending on the height of the shop floor above ground. The box should be filled to a depth of two or three feet with sand. On top of the sand, laid lengthwise of the box, are timbers of soft wood that Mil withstand decay. They should be eight or ten inches thick and should fill the box from end to end and from 1 $ I s > § s ^b! III |l'§ Sll S-|S oo fO O £ <3 A* 446 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE side to side. On top of these are timbers 12" or 14" square stood on end, the top ends on a level with the top surface of the floor. The upright timbers should be bound together with iron bands and the machine bolted on as shown. The top surface of the timber foundation should be about three inches or four inches larger on all sides than the base of the machine, and the center of the anvil should be over the center of the sand box. Gas tool-hardening and tempering furnaces may be obtained in various sizes. A size that will be adequate for any work likely to be done in the school shop will occupy a floor space 2' g"Xs' 3"- It will require piping for gas and air, and an air pump either motor or belt-driven. The best arrangement is a rotary air pump with direct connected motor mounted on the same base, which may be placed in any out-of-the-way position, as overhead, or on a bracket on the wall, thus occupying no floor space otherwise needed. An air pump with 1" outlet and 2 horse power motor will be adequate. A dry emery grinder carrying two wheels about 2 // Xi4 // and mounted on an iron column will require about i' 6 // X2 / 3" floor space and a two horse power to run it. If an individual motor is used, a two horse power 1800 R. P. M. motor placed overhead and belted direct to the grinder will be satisfactory. A combination punch and shear, while not an absolute necessity, is a great convenience to the forge shop. A machine that will punch holes up to diameter in stock and cut rounds 1" diameter and flats 3 ,/ Xf // is recommended. It will require a 2 feet by 3 feet floor space and is hand operated. If a central storeroom is not maintained in the school plant, in which supplies for all shops are stored to be issued as the instructor needs them, then a stock rack to carry bars of iron and steel will be needed in the forge shop itself. An adequate rack will occupy floor space \ o"X S' o". A coal bin must be provided, in or adjoining the shop, large enough to contain two or three tons of coal. The Automobile Shop (Figure 384).- — The drawing shows a shop about sixty by eighty feet. A smaller shop could be made to render good service, but would not be quite satisfactory. The writer has operated a school automobile shop fifty by sixty feet, in which practical repair work has been carried on continuously with considerable success ; but it was found, that with a class of fifteen to twenty students, there was insuffi- cient room, and the efficiency was reduced on this account. This shop should have a concrete floor, and should be as near fireproof as possible on account of the danger from oils and gasoline. There should be ample floor space so that a number of cars, say twelve or fifteen, can be taken into the shop at one time. There should be a pit five feet wide, five feet deep, and twenty-four feet long conveniently located. A good plan is to have it about eleven feet from one wall, leaving room to pass around the end of a car when over the pit, and also within easy access of the machines and the tool room. A pit of the above dimensions will accommodate three cars at one time. The pit should have a cover of two inch planks, ten or twelve inches wide, set flush with the floor. The planks should all be separate from each other, and should fit closely so when they are all in place the pit is completely covered, and each should have a rope handle by which to lift it. There should be about three electric light outlets in the side wall of the pit, into which to plug light-cords, which will reach to any part of a machine which the workman desires to get at while in the pit. Another plan, and one which is in some ways prefer- able, is to have a raised platform about five feet above the floor, upon which the car can be placed while working underneath it. The platform is more convenient for the workman but requires more room, because of the space occupied by the incline upon which the car must be taken up and down. A small fireproof storeroom should be built at one side of the automobile shop in which to keep oils, greases, and gasoline. It is advisable to purchase oils in barrel lots. If this is done they may be kept in the barrels, in which case a rack will be needed on which to set the barrels, elevating them sufficiently above the floor for convenience in drawing oil. A better way is to have metal tanks into winch the oil may be transferred from the barrels in which it is received. In either case the door to this storeroom should be large enough for a barrel to be taken in and out easily. The larger supplies might also be kept in this room. There should also be a small room, fitted with drawers and shelves, for tools and small supplies, and also an office for the instructor. It is sometimes desirable to lift one end of a car from the floor and support it without putting jacks underneath. For this purpose it is convenient to have a one or two ton differential chain hoist attached to one of the roof trusses. Care should be taken to insure that the truss is strong enough to sustain the additional load. The list of equipment on page 449 includes the most essential items that should be found in the school shop. The garage press and the portable crane may be built by any school having a machine and forge shop. If the school has a separate electric shop, the charging of storage batteries may be done there, and the generator set omitted from the automobile shop equipment. If lo oo CO o £ 5 e 1 O (I I ^ 'I o o Mr. Floyd A. Nar amort' % Architect. THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 449 Mt. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect. Fig. 387. — Electrical Shop, Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Oregon. Floor Space Horse Power Floor Space Horse Power 1 Garage press 3' o"X3' 0" Hand 1 Electric drill Portable 1 6 1 Electric generator for storage batteries . 2' o"X3' 6" 5 1 Electric auto starter 7'o"X5'o" 2 1 Air compressor and tank 3' o"X4' 0" 3 1 Electric valve grinder Portable t 1 Steam vulcanizing outfit 2' 0" X3' 0" 1 Portable three-wheel jack 1 2" X 1 2" Two-wheel emery grinder . . 1' 6" X2' 3" 2 8 Auto jacks 1 14" X6' 0" Engine lathe 2' 0" X7' 0" 2 15 Machinists’ vises 1 16" X8' 0" Engine lathe 2' 0" Xg' 0" 2 15 Machinists’ hammers 1 20" Back-geared drill press 2 0 X4 0 I 1 Gas soldering furnace 1 One- to two-ton differential chain hoist, 3 Assorted sizes soldering coppers . . . attached to roof truss 1 Grease gun 1 Portable crane with differential chain 4 Sets solid open-end wrenches to f" hoist 1 Complete set “Ford” wrenches . . . 1 Brazing outfit 2' 6"X2' 6" 3 Assorted sizes monkey wrenches . . . 1 Acetylene welding outfit Portable 3 Pyrene fire extinguishers 1 Electric welding outfit 2' 0" X4' 0" s 15 Screwdrivers, assorted sizes installed in the auto shop it may be placed on a platform overhead or on a bracket on the wall so as to take no floor space. The same is true of the air compressor and tank. If a very extensive equipment is desired, more machines might be added. If no separate forge shop is maintained, at least one forge and anvil with set of tools should be installed in the auto shop, but if separate forge and machine shops are maintained, then the above makes a very good working equipment. The machines should be grouped together in one part of the shop where there is good light and out of the way of cars passing in and out. The Electrical Shop (Figure 385). — Where but one room can be given to electrical work, it should be large • ^ o a in ^ o o CC cc *0 6 THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 45 1 enough, and the equipment should be selected and arranged with a view to giving instruction in house wiring, telephone work, switchboard work, and con- struction and repair of electrical machines and ap- pliances. Such an arrangement is shown in the plan. To provide instruction in house wiring, a framework divided into three or four rooms should be built against one side or end of the shop, where it will cut off the least light. It should be built of full-sized framing lumber and put together in the same manner as a real building is constructed. It may be two stories in height. The students will use this for continuous practice in both knob and tube and conduit wiring, putting in and tak- ing out again different wiring arrangements. When, through cutting and boring holes, parts of the frame- work become unfit for further use, they will be removed and replaced by new pieces. It is a very good plan to make the electric shop the main distribution point for all the electrical service for the entire school plant. This arrangement gives the electric shop a large practical working switchboard providing both direct and alternating current for the students to observe, care for, and study, which is a valu- able piece of instructional apparatus, obtainable in no other way. The board should be guarded by an iron grillwork extending nearly or quite the full height of the board, and provided with doors at convenient inter- vals as indicated on the plan. A rack for holding a quantity of iron conduit of different sizes, and up to twenty feet in length, may be placed in a convenient position in the shop. The one shown in the figure is in direct line with the outside doors, so the pipe can be brought straight into the rack without turning or carrying around or over machines or other equipment. Convenient to the rack should be benches containing pipe vises, where cutting and threading may be done. If the floor space is limited and a central store- room is provided for the whole plant, the conduit rack may be omitted, and the conduit brought from the storeroom as needed for immediate use, or a limited quantity stored under the bench. A telephone switchboard may be installed in any convenient position, from which lines may be run to telephones stationed in various places about the room. Long work benches should be placed against the wall with large lock drawers built under them for pupils’ use. Machinist vises should be fitted on these benches at about five or six foot intervals, also soldering stoves. A small gas pipe should be run along the wall at the back of the bench and the stoves permanently connected to it. A table for storage batteries should be conveniently placed, preferably away from other equipment. If space allows it is better to arrange a separate room for storage-battery work. The generator, if the floor space is needed, may be placed on an overhead support which can easily be arranged. In addition to the items above mentioned, the fol- lowing will be found a very satisfactory list of equip- ment : Machines Floor Space Horse Power 1 16" X8' 0" Engine lathe 2' 0" Xg' 0" 2 2 14" X6' 0" Engine lathe •2' 0" X7' 0" 2 each 2 i2"X4' 0" Speed lathe with draw in collets 2' o"Xs' 0" 1 each 1 Universal milling machine 2' o"Xs' 0" 3 i Shaper 2' 0" Xs' 0" 2 1 20" Drill press, back geared .... 2' 0" X4' 0 " I 1 Emery grinder, two 2"Xi2" wheels . . 1 ' 6" X2' 3" 2 1 Armature disk slotter 2' 8 "X 4 ' 6" 2 1 Circular shear i'6"x6'o" 3 1 Armature coil winder 2' 0 " X2' 6" 3 1 Armature coil spreader 1' 0" X4' 0" Hand 1 Coil taping machine 1' o"Xi' 6" 1 4 1 Magnet winder for large magnets . . . 1' o"X2' 0" 1 4 2 Magnet winders for small magnets . . 1' 0" X2' 0" 1 6 1 5-k.w. generator set 2' 0" X4' 0 " 75 If no separate electrical laboratory is provided in the school, other generator sets of various types and sizes, also motors of various kinds, and one rotary converter should be installed in the electrical shop, for experimental purposes. It is better, however, to so arrange the work and equipment that the theoretical work and most of the electrical experiments can be performed in the electrical department of the science laboratory. The work in the electrical shop will then be almost wholly construc- tion, repair, and practice in the operations and pro- cesses of the electrician’s trade, and the equipment should be that which is necessary to carry out such a course. A quantity of small tools must be provided, such as hack saws, pipe cutters and reamers, pipe dies, pipe wrenches, pliers, soldering coppers, drills, lathe tools, milling cutters, etc. A tool room must be provided and fitted with shelves, drawers, racks, etc., for keeping the small tools. The Printing Shop (Figure 388). — The shop and equipment shown in the plan will require, to handle the work properly, three instructors, a compositor to teach hand work and the fundamental principles and processes of the printing trade, a linotype operator to teach machine typesetting, and a pressman to teach presswork. This shop will accommodate thirty or more students at one time. The equipment consists of : 45 2 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. Wm. A. Poland, Architect. Fig. 389. — Printing Shop, Junior High School, Trenton, New Jersey. E ii ■ || ;j % 11 V •$ Equipment Floor Space Horse Power 12 Type cabinets 3' 0" X 3' 0" 4 Imposing tables with built-in units . . 3' 0" X 5' 0" 1 Imposing table with built-in units . . 4' 0" X s' 0" 1 Proof press and stand 2' 0" X 4' 0" Hand 1 Galley press and stand 2' 0" X 4' 0" Hand 1 Miller saw 3' 0" X 3' 0" 1 2 3 Typesetting machines, three-magazine type, with extra magazines and side magazine attachment s' 0" X 6' 0" 3 4 1 Type dump 2' 0" X 3' 0" 1 Cylinder press 33" X46" bed .... 8' 9" X 13' 4" S 1 Stock table for cylinder press with dry racks under 3' 6" X 8' 9" 4 io"Xis" Platen presses 4' 0" X s' 0" j each 2 Stock tables with dry racks .... 3' 0" X 4' 0" 1 Folding machine 6' 0" X 6' 0" 2 1 Stock table for folding machine . . . 3' 0" X 6' 0" 1 Wire stitcher 3' 0" X 3' 0" l 6 1 Perforator 3' 0" X 3' 0" Foot 1 Punch 3' 0" X 3' 0" Foot 3 Tables for stitcher, punch and perfora- tor 2' 0" X 3' 0" 1 Spot table 3' 0" X 4' 0" 1 Mark-out table 3' 0" X 4' 0" 1 30" Paper cutter s' 0" X 6' 0" G 1 Table for cutter 3' 6" X 6' 0" 1 Chase rack 3' 0" X 3' 0" 1 Remelting furnace for type metal . . 3' 0" X 3' 0" 2 Proof readers’ tables 2' 8" X s' 0" Also a large assortment of type of different sizes, styles, and faces ; leads, slugs, rule, furniture, galleys, etc. The stock room should be separate from the print shop and accessible from the outside, so the stock can be delivered without taking it through the shop. Shelfing should be provided for storing stock in con- siderable quantities and of various sizes. It is desirable to have the paper cutter placed in the stock room if space will allow, also a stock table. A small separate room should be built for the furnace used in remelting the type metal. A gas outlet must be provided for supplying fuel to the furnace, and a vent pipe similar to a stove pipe for carrying off the fumes. A supply of iron molds for casting the ingots of type metal will be needed in this room, also a ladle. The space for proof reading and editorial work should either be partitioned off into a separate room or inclosed by a railing and provided with tables and chairs. Good light is needed for nearly all the printing work but especially for typesetting. Therefore the type cases and typesetting machines are placed as near the windows as possible. They should also be equipped with electric lights. The typesetting machines must be supplied with electric current for the motors which operate them. The melting pots on these machines may be heated by either gas or electricity. The latter is more convenient both to install and to operate. If gas is used for heating, THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 453 a vent pipe, extending to the outside of the building, will be needed to carry off the fumes. The cylinder press is a very heavy machine and in any but a very substantial and rigidly constructed building will cause vibrations, which will be very disturb- ing to the work in this department. If the printing shop is on the ground floor this difficulty may be overcome by building a separate foundation of concrete for the press. This foundation need not cover the entire area occupied by the press. Since the press rests upon the foundation along the two outer edges only, it may take the form of a hollow rectangle a little longer and wider than the base of the press. A section through one side of this rectangle would be about twelve or fourteen inches wide at the top and twenty or twenty-two inches at the bottom, and two or more feet high, depending on the height of the floor above the ground. Anchor bolts should be set in the concrete on the two long sides of the rectangle to hold in place two-inch planks placed on top of the concrete. The top surface of the planks should be level with the top surface of the floor. While the press rests only on the two long sides of the rectangle, the two short sides are necessary to tie them together. The central space may be filled with earth tamped down and covered with a three or four inch layer of concrete, making the top surface even with the floor. Owing to the noise made by the presses it is an advan- tage to have the press and composing rooms separated by a comparatively soundproof partition. In the plan a partition is shown, the upper part of which is double glass. A dead air space about four inches thick between the two thicknesses of glass helps to deaden the sound while admitting more light to the press room, and permitting a view of both rooms from either one of them, which is an advantage in super- vision. The glass should be set in hinged sashes, so that both sides may be easily cleaned. The school print shop will easily pay for itself by the output of work for the school system. The printing of school papers, a great variety of standard and special forms, reports, pamphlets and so forth both for the schools and the administrative offices will furnish valu- able material for teaching purposes and also enable the print shop to become practically self-supporting, without taking in any commercial work from outside of the school system. The Plumbing Shop (Figure 390). — The room and equipment here illustrated provide facilities for teaching the various branches of the plumbing trade in the modern high school. On one side of the shop are five large double benches at which twenty to twenty-five students can work. These benches are provided with gas stoves and solder pots, and on the end of each bench is a pipe vise. There will be taught the fundamental principles and opera- tions, such as cutting and threading small pipe by hand, making sheet lead seams ; overcast and cup joints ; wiping half inch, five-eighths inch, and two-inch round and branch joints, horizontal, upright, and vertical ; wiping stopcock on lead pipe ; flange joints ; wiping small and large nipples to lead pipe ; wiping two-inch and four-inch ferrules to lead pipe ; wiping short bends with ferrules ; half-S traps ; S traps, etc., etc. On the opposite side of the shop is shown the provi- sion for instruction in setting up and connecting various plumbing fixtures. This consists of a framework divided into several rooms in which the students will practice installing sinks, lavatories, boilers, hot-water tanks, laundry trays, laundry stoves and heaters, urinals, closets, bath tubs, kitchen ranges, instantaneous water heaters, radiators, showers, gas fitting, and gas fixtures. This framework is two stories in height so as to give more space for students to work. Another portion of the shop is devoted to practice in steam fitting, and still another to work on heavy soil and drain pipe, automatic cellar drainers, trapping and venting drain, soil and waste pipes, etc. The equipment consists of : Six Benches, 3' o" X16' o". One Pipe-threading machine, 1" to 4" pipe, Floor Space, 4'4"X7'o", H. P., 3 . Individual sets of tools, comprising ladles, shave hooks, turn pins, bending pins, rasps, compasses, pliers, tap borers and dressers. Equipment for general shop use comprises pipe cutters, pipe tongs and wrenches, pipe reamers, bending springs, calking irons, hammers, compass saws, blow torches, soldering coppers, levels, etc. Pipe racks are provided for storing both long and short lengths of pipe of various sizes and kinds. This rack is placed so pipe can be unloaded into it directly from the delivery wagon outside. Bins for pipe fittings of all kinds are also provided. Ventilating fans should be installed in this shop to carry off the lead fumes and keep the air pure. The Sheet Metal Shop (Figure 392). — The plan shows an ideal arrangement for a sheet metal shop for instruc- tion purposes. Long benches are provided against the walls under the windows, insuring good light. A gas pipe should be run along the back of these benches, to which are connected gas soldering stoves. There should be enough of these so that each student may have one. On these benches the preliminary work of the student, such as learning to solder, and practice work in laying out, cutting, and making various articles in sheet metal, will be done. Under these benches should be a set of -tI'x UlJ KO‘ (I li ti_! lone AM <3 >>IM ai o 0 W-I 3 u o ^ m Cu V5 ^ > -< m h o N 11 □ '8 irn Hifj P 4 J 6 z; 0 SAinii MS PM 3 o U kL ' © « "ilsyM - ’iniVM cnoo 4 i"*i 3 i’ N/ast? /roots, * 4 ' fronts 4 Sacks, d' s/des ond s/g~ bottoms. 4-5 Ntetot drover pa//s. 3 Drawers to ftt opening z-4W*6"*/3 *r N/ost? fronts ; drawers oat of w stock. 6 Pressed Meta/ drover pat/s. Verticot saScthdding members to Se go/ned info for/zonto/ members ’£>’ TOOL ROOM, .SUPPLY CABINET .SCALE Fig. 398. o(t r m r& o o 3 -^ 'O THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 465 shown in glass cases, while drawings and some other articles should be arranged upon walls or upon displayers, having large vertical leaves. The Central Storeroom (Figure 400). — -In a large plant, like the one here discussed, large quantities of supplies are annually purchased and distributed to vari- ous departments. In any well-managed institution, transactions of such magnitude must be systematically checked and recorded. In the school plant this can be best accomplished by having a central storeroom, where all supplies, of every kind, whether for academic or industrial departments, are delivered. This room should be located so that teams can drive up to it and deliver all supplies directly from the wagon, and doors of ample size should be provided for admitting readily large crates or packages. An exception should be made of wood, coal, or fuel oil for heating the school plant, and of blacksmith coal for the forge shop. Wood and coal should be delivered and stored near where they will be used. Fuel oil should be stored in tanks under the sidewalk and piped to the furnaces. Lumber for the carpentry, cabinet, or pattern shops might be kept in special storerooms adjoining the shops in which it is to be used. But if the central storeroom can be made large enough, and located within easy access of the wood shops, it is better to have the lumber stored there and delivered to the shops as needed. The supply room adjoining each shop could then be very small, holding only a supply for immediate use, or it could be omitted altogether. Supplies should be requisitioned by the different departments as needed. They should be issued by the storeroom clerk, and charged to the department receiving them. This room should be provided with shelves of various widths, wide shelves for holding paper stock for the print shop, and narrower ones for such other supplies as are best kept on shelves. There should be bins for other types of supplies such as plumbing fittings, etc., racks for steel and iron, both sheets, bars and pipe, and drawers for small supplies such as nuts, machine screws, cabinet- makers’ hardware, etc. The room should be fireproof, and metal tanks provided for storing oils and gasoline. A power hack saw should be placed in this room, also a platform scale, so that orders for steel or iron from the shops can be cut to size, and the quantity recorded exactly. In addition to the book accounts, as a means of facilitating stock taking, a manila tag should be attached to each bin, drawer, rack, or shelf, one for each kind of material kept in stock. On the tag should be entered the quantity of materials on hand. As material is drawn from this supply the quantity drawn each time should be entered on the tag and the balance brought down ; thus the tag shows at all times the quantity of stock on hand. The writer has operated such a store- room in connection with his school and found it very satisfactory. If the shops are built as a separate structure, as shown in these plans, then a main office for the shop building, centrally located, should be provided for the head of the industrial arts department. This office should be connected by telephone with all the shops, and also with the principal’s office and the outside. The central office in this plan is shown adjoining the lecture and exhibit rooms. The Intermediate or Junior High School Shops. — One of the most important developments in recent educa- tional policy is the intermediate school. Comprising the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, it forms the connect- ing link between the elementary and high schools, and should partake of the character of both. In the elementary school the pupil lays his educational foundation in a study of the fundamentals. In the high school he begins to specialize, and his election of courses should be determined largely by life career motives. The intermediate school should provide means for a gradual transition from elementary to high school methods. It should offer an opportunity for the student to try many different kinds of work, both academic and industrial or vocational, to discover his likes and dislikes, his aptitudes and limitations, that he may more intelligently choose his high school course. Vocational guidance should be commenced in the intermediate school. And if the student does not continue through the high school, there is even greater need for the widest opportunity for self-analysis and discovery, for investiga- tion and experimentation, as an aid to choosing a voca- tion or life career. Therefore, on the industrial side, the intermediate school should provide equipment that will enable the student to gain some knowledge of the general characteristics and fundamental processes of a number of occupations, at least sufficient to help him decide whether he would like any particular occupation, or is adapted to it. Since the students will not specialize, but will investi- gate many lines of work in this school, the equipment will be neither as expensive nor as complete as in the high school. It is much better to have simple equip- ments for many different kinds of work than to have one or two shops expensively equipped. The general principles of shop planning laid down for high schools, and the data on equipment, floor space, power, etc., already given, are easily adaptable to the planning of shops for the intermediate school. In a small H O (1 I H 'll O 9 ..9-£fr THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 467 intermediate school where but one shop for boys’ work is provided, it should be a general utility shop. One large shop could be so equipped that introductory work in carpentry, cabinetmaking, pattern making, electrical work, sheet metal work, plumbing, machine shop work, and forging can be given. Twenty-five to thirty work benches similar to those described for the pattern or cabinet shops should be furnished. By making a slight change in the benches so that a woodworking vise may be placed on one side and a machinist vise on the other, these could be used for all purposes for which a bench is needed. Or, if preferred, part of the benches could be equipped with woodworking vises and the rest with machinist vises. In addition to benches and hand tools, four to six wood-turning lathes, a circular saw, band saw, planer, and a grindstone will give sufficient woodworking equipment for doing the three lines of wood work men- tioned above. By selecting a very moderate amount of equipment from the list given under “ Sheet Metal Shop,” including a few gas soldering stoves, soldering coppers, snips, tinners, rolls, turning, wiring, setting down, and burring machines, several stakes, etc., a beginning course in sheet metal work can be given. The same suggestion applies to electrical work and plumbing. One or more forges of the hand blower type, two or three screw-cutting engine lathes about nine-inch to fourteen-inch swing, a small shaper, a drill press, an emery grinder, and small hand milling machine with the necessary hand tools will provide for an introductory course in forging and machine shop work. In the larger intermediate school, more shops should be provided, and additional equipment for each of them. For example, all the woodworking equipment in one shop, the sheet metal and plumbing in one, and forging and machine shop work in another. In a very large intermediate school this idea might be extended to the point of providing a separate shop and more extensive equipment for each kind of work ; however, the equip- ment should be more simple and less expensive than in the high school shops. A printing shop is very desirable in the intermediate school, largely for its educational value, it being a great aid to teaching Engksh. Two or three platen presses, sizes eight by twelve to ten by fifteen inches, preferably motor-driven, two or three imposing stones, eight or ten type cases with a good assortment of type, a paper cutter hand-operated, a stapling machine, proof press, and other small accessories should be provided. In a word, the industrial department in an inter- mediate school should be planned and equipped for introductory work only, not to give a vocational course, but to enable the student to decide whether he wants to go on to the high school and take a vocational course, or whether he is better adapted to some line of work outside the industrial field, or if compelled to leave school during his intermediate course to earn his living, to en- able him to choose intelligently the occupation he will enter. Conclusion. — This chapter has been written with a view of giving accurate, usable data regarding the equip- ment needed for the various kinds of shop work most commonly taught in manual training and technical schools, its general arrangement in the shops for efficient operation, the floor space required for each machine and the horse power required to run it. So far as known, this detailed information has never before been brought together in compact form, and could only be obtained by consulting a large number of catalogues and refer- ence books, or by extensive correspondence with dealers. Definite information on these matters is the first require- ment on the part of the technical school director or instructor who is planning to introduce industrial or vocational courses, or of the architect who is designing rooms or buildings for these courses. The information here given has been gathered by the writer during years of experience in planning, equipping, and managing industrial schools, and he believes it will be found reliable. From the data given in this chapter, school men or architects should be able to make selec- tions and arrangements that will meet the requirements for shops or manual training rooms in schools of all sizes and under all conditions, from the small intermediate school having one general utility shop to the large cosmopolitan high school offering trade and technical instruction in many different vocations. CHAPTER XXIII THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT By Agnes Fay Morgan, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Household Science, University of California Part I : Statement of the Problem. The Development of Home Economics Education. The New Meaning of Home Economics Education. Trade Education Growing out of the Domestic Arts. General Education Through Domestic Applications. Necessary Change in the Teaching of Home Economics. Part II : Equipment of the Elementary and Secondary Schools for Instruction in Home Economics. Location and Number of Rooms. The Cooking Unit. The Serving Unit. The Laundry Unit. The Housekeeping and Home Nursing Unit. The Clothing Unit. PART I Statement of the Problem. -The problem of planning and equipping laboratories for household science classes in the lower schools is complicated by the changing character of the material presented under this name. It may be too soon to venture any suggestions as to standard rooms for this work, certainly too soon to assume that the last word can be said in the matter. Since the mobility of the subject inheres not only in the actual material presented but in the ideals set up from time to time as representing the goals to be attained by such instruction, the character of equipment used must likewise remain somewhat uncertain. The Development of Home Economics Education. If one follows briefly the history of the home economics education movement it is possible to see the reason for this state of change. In the beginning, perhaps as early as 1870, there were developing two separate move- ments for women’s education in matters pertaining to the home. The one in the East, begun by the Woman’s Education Association in Boston, consisted of a series of excellent cooking schools, of which the Boston Cook- ing School is the best known. Under such leaders as Miss Parloa, Mrs. Rorer, Mrs. Lincoln, Miss Farmer, these schools undertook to train as skilled cooks any pupils, both adults and children, who came to them. These schools lasted about twenty-five years, and accomplished much in the way of introduction to the establishment of cooking as a part of the public school instruction for girls. The movement in the West, inaugurated by the agri- cultural colleges at about the same time as that in the East, was the result of the provisions of the Morrill Act. 1 Since the land-grant colleges, created by this act, were open to women students, some provision had to be made for their peculiar interests, and as a result the Colleges of Agriculture of Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, and other middle western states began about the same time to offer courses in household science, domestic science, or domestic economy, as the subject was variously called. The students enrolled in the classes were in general better prepared for possible mental as well as manual develop- ment of the subject than those in the eastern cooking schools. The presence of a staff of chemists, physicists, physiologists, and other scientists in the agricultural colleges made natural the attempt to correlate the cooking or food work, as it was now called, with the al- ready established courses in the science departments. That this correlation was and still is imperfectly es- tablished detracts not at all from the fundamental importance and value of this step. 2 The question of the educational as well as utilitarian value of instruction in the manipulation of foods, of clothing construction, and housing problems has been much discussed among educators, and such instruction has been admitted to the schools upon the same basis as the training in the manual trades for boys. There has been claimed, however, a peculiar universality for the domestic problem in the lives of women, as dis- tinguished from the specialization in trades and pro- fessions by men. It is in acknowledgment of this claim that training for the home has been so readily and generally introduced into the public grade and high school curricula. But the status of women as wage earners, as well as the machinery of the home itself. 1 In 1862 Congress passed a bill, often called the Morrill Act, granting 30,000 acres of land to each state for each senator and representative, for the maintenance of agricultural schools. The state colleges of agriculture have developed out of these land-grant schools. 2 For further history of this development see The Home Economics Movement, by I. Bevier and S. Usher, Whitcomb and Barrows, 1906. 468 THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 469 has been rapidly changing in the last decade. Edu- cation for trades and professions must now be provided for girls as well as for boys, and the real usefulness of the technique and the culture conveyed under the name of home economics must be constantly proved anew. The New Meaning of Home Economics Education. — Out of the critical consideration of the changing American home has come gradually, and as yet vaguely, a new twofold interpretation of domestic education. On the one hand has developed the vocational, practical train- ing in the doing of the daily manual tasks about the home, an interpretation favored by the Federal Board for Vocational Education and of particular applica- bility to girls of the junior high school age, and to those enrolled in continuation and special classes. This type of education has been called by Snedden 1 “ home- making ” as contrasted with “ household arts,” a cultural course. Such a term can hardly be accepted as final, for the word home connotes all the intangible social and spiritual relations of the family, preparation for which is dependent upon fundamental education, as well as the physical surroundings and service of the house. The type of domestic education demanded by the Smith-Hughes Act as interpreted by the Federal Board for Vocational Education 2 largely excludes the study of anything but the latter. Trade Education Growing Out of the Domestic Arts. — Out of this training there is emerging a definite body of trade or industrial preparation, since the industries which have left the home may still be followed most easily by girls trained in the so-called domestic arts. We have thus the anomaly of home economics educa- tion leading to wage earning outside the home. Such trades are, of course, chiefly concerned with garment and hat making or selling ; the cooking and serving of food ; the decoration, cleaning, and managing of the house; laundering; and care of children and the sick. Courses leading to skill in any of these occupations may well be termed vocational. Whether a general smatter- ing of all of them may very long be considered vocational is questionable, for even where paid employees take over the labor in the modern home the trend of such service is still toward specialization in a few of the duties in- volved. The view that any large number of young girls may choose an education which shall fit them only for performing the physical tasks and for making the ma- terial choices involved in the conducting of their own future households, is surely no longer tenable. The conclusion from these assumptions would seem to be that the technical training for household tasks should discard much of its present amateur character and take on an intensive professional attitude with definite out- look toward permanent and paid occupations. General Education through Domestic Applications. — The second interpretation now read into home economics is that of education in economics, science, and art con- veyed to young students through applications inevitably met in the American home. It is increasingly apparent that such education properly modified should be avail- able to boys as well as to girls. The new conception of the order in which information, perception, and reasoning may be used in education makes it possible to consider the teaching of chemistry at least partly through food classifications, cleaning, painting, dyeing ; physics through cooking, machines, ventilation, lighting, heating ; design through carpets, costumes, wall-paper ; accounting through the household budget. Of course, home economics subjects furnish only one of many avenues of instruction of this type, hygiene, physical education, dramatics, shop and trade training, and agriculture being some of the others. Whether the household applications be considered a vehicle for the teaching of the formal sciences and arts, or these formal subjects the subordinated means of explanation of everyday phenomena, the fact remains that modern education finds it possible and profitable to combine these two formerly unrelated fields. As one result, the appliances and technique formerly grudgingly allowed a small share of school time as a concession to future practical household needs, may now be welcomed as furnishing avenues of interest for academic instruction. If these avenues are to lead to valuable training for citizenship and more abundant life, the teachers of household subjects must present broader and deeper preparation in those subjects fundamental to the ap- plications taught than was formerly the rule. Technique in cooking, laundering, and sewing must surely become subordinate to explanation in terms which shall con- nect each operation with the general law which it is used to illustrate. The “ why ” instead of the “ how ” of the phenomena of everyday life would thus become the main objective of the teacher of home economics. Necessary Change in the Teaching of Home Econom- ics. — This latter conception of the function of education for the home would seem to be emerging as the permanent phase into which the movement can be expected to develop. It is founded upon no assumption as to the status of the home, nor as to the duties of women in society, and may therefore be safely embedded in a sternly critical and utilitarian scheme of general educa- tion. That the teaching of the subject must be radically 1 Snedden — Problems of Secondary Education , 1917, Chapter 23. 2 Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bulletin No. 28, pages 23 to 25, 1918. 470 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE altered in order to fit into such a scheme is readily ad- mitted, and even more apparent, therefore, is the need for a sweeping change in the training of teachers for the primary and secondary grades. Such a change would need to be constantly directed toward the elimi- nation of the amateurish and sentimental attitude of mind of these teachers, away from the limitations of home and housewife’s conditions for every operation, and toward professional, commercial, and scientific, or co- operative enterprises. If home economics education is to be either vocational in the specialized sense, or cultural in the sense that it may be used as a pedagogical device for the imparting of general basic information as well as for illustration of the scientific method, two distinct criteria must be applied to the type of equipment chosen for the schools in which such instruction is to be given. Practical equipment of the same size and kind in use in the com- munity should be installed for the former purpose, and a variety of scientific and simplified equipment for the latter. The elementary schools should, in general, be provided generously with practical appliances, the intermediate and secondary schools should have both types, since only in the higher grades can the more complicated phenomena of life be explained at all by concrete domestic problems. PART II Equipment of the Elementary and Secondary Schools for Instruction in Home Economics. — It is now the general practice to provide space for the teaching of home economics subjects in connecting rooms arranged more or less in the order of an apartment or house. Five units may be distinguished in this space : (i) the cooking unit ; (2) the serving unit ; (3) the laundry unit ; (4) the sewing unit ; (5) the home nursing and house- keeping unit. Of these only the cooking and sewing units are usually considered indispensable, and are first supplied, the serving, laundry, and housekeeping units being most frequently added in the order named. When the space provided is small, a single room may be utilized for instruction in all the varieties of home economics subjects by means of suitable portable equip- ment, or two rooms may be made to answer all purposes adequately. Location and Number of Rooms. — Formerly the domestic science rooms were often devised at the last minute in both new and old school buildings out of left-over basement space. Poor lighting, ventilation, and heating were usually the result, and cooking odors pervading the whole building added to the general dis- satisfaction. This unfortunate placing is less often en- countered of late years. The home economics rooms might well occupy a separate building or a separate wing from the rest of the school. If this is impossible the cooking-room should be placed either on the first or second floor, or near the lunchroom, for convenience in delivery of supplies. If all home economics instruction can be assembled in a separate building, either in the form of a cottage or apartment, a certain unity and concentration is gained, the value of which can hardly be overestimated. Lessons learned in physical surroundings not unlike those of the homes of the children are more apt to be carried over into immediate home life than if the usual school environment is used. At the same time care must be taken that home economics lessons shall not be so dissociated from the ordinary school atmosphere as to attain a separated and sometimes an inferior rating in the pupil’s mind. This danger can, however, be obviated only by the diligent care and improved training of the home economics teacher. The same advantage presented by the detached building may be obtained by the use of a separate wing for these rooms. Such a wing may be planned for either one or two floors ; the cooking, serving, and laundry units on one floor, if necessary ; and the sewing and housekeeping units on the other. If the apartment plan be used it is usually found convenient and economi- cal to provide the following rooms, as illustrated in Figures 401 and 402 : (1) A room of generous size, at least 480 square feet, which may be used as a living- room for the teaching of housekeeping and interior decoration, and as a community or school social room when occasion demands. (2) A smaller room pro- viding at least 200 square feet of floor space communicat- ing with the former and also with the kitchen, to be used as a dining-room and recitation room, or to be united with the living-room when larger space is required for lectures or social meetings. (3) A bedroom and bath- room to be used for instruction in housekeeping, home nursing, first aid, care of children, and at other times as a rest-room for teachers or pupils. (4) A room, vary- ing in size with the needs of the classes to be held, for instruction in cooking. At least one ordinary sized family kitchen should be included in the latter space, and also laboratory desks or long tables for class in- struction, as well as a pantry or storage cupboards. (5) A laundry, equipped with stationary and portable tubs, dryer, ironing boards, and benches. This room should be compact, and separated from the cooking room if possible. (6) A sewing-room equipped with tables, chairs, sewing machines, pressing boards, and walled-off or screened fitting place. The living-room mentioned above under (1), if necessary, may be used as sewing- room. i oO F— HD O rz CL. LU U-l LU oO HD o DC o g £ tU ° o £ o to Q 5 u> O X f— X X l— X O . 5 . IMAGINARY PARTITIONS, MOVABLE FURNITURE. MOVABLE WIRE GLASS PARTITIONS § FURNITURE, CUPBOARDS UNDER THE DRAIN BOARDS. • LEGEND - C. CABINET D. B. DRAIN BOARD D.T DROP TABLE R. RANGE 5. SINK T. TABLE scale: WOOD oo- GLASS PARTITIONS, BUILT IN CABINETS. UNIT KITCHEN ARRANGEMENT! Fig. 409. THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 483 provided for use with the latter as well as with the gas plates described above. It may be advisable where both coal and gas are commonly used to equip the unit kitchens with good combination coal and gas ranges. If coal, wood, or oil for use with these stoves are kept in the cooking-room, fireproof boxes should be pro- vided for them. Hoods. It is an excellent precaution wherever possible to install metal hoods or canopies over the larger ranges, the outlets being connected with the usual ventilating shaft. The installation of these hoods in the unit kitchens, unit kitchen desks, and lunchrooms should help to solve the problem of the ever present odors so often an objectionable feature of cooking instruction in the schools. Moreover, if these canopies are con- structed of steel, copper, galvanized or Russian iron, well insulated by asbestos from any wooden wall sur- faces, they lessen considerably the fire hazard. Where special care to avoid obstruction of the light is necessary, wire glass should be substituted for the metal. 8. Sinks. — (a) Standard porcelain sinks of the usual kitchen size, 1' 6"X2' o", should be used in the unit kitchens and unit desks, ( b ) smaller sinks at intervals of 4 to 8 feet let into the long table desks, or (c) small sinks and copper or other metal-lined trough. In Figures 405, 406, 414, and 420 sinks of type (e) are illustrated, the detail of which is given in Figure 414. An arrangement of type ( b ) is shown in Figures 420 and 412; type ( a ) in all the unit kitchens. In Figure 419 it may be noted that although the sinks provided are numerous and of excellent design the mistake of omitting drainboards has been made. Double inclined and grooved wooden drainboards should be attached to all the larger sinks in the cooking-room, being omitted only in the case of the small sinks and troughs, types (b) and (c) above, used with certain kinds of long table desks. In the latter case the sinks are designed to be mere catch-basins below the water faucets, not to be used for dishwashing. Other materials, such as germanstone or similar compositions, porcelain, or zinc, are sometimes used for drainboards, but for the same reasons given in the discussion of table tops prove less satisfactory than wood. Where space for a drainboard is not available, small movable porcelain top tables should be placed near the sink. In order that the time of pupils and teacher may be conserved, all dishwashing sinks should be piped with hot water, and whenever possible the table desks should be similarly equipped. In the unit kitchens, unit kitchen desks, diet kitchen, and dietetics laboratory, hot water should be available over each sink. In order to provide this a suitable type of water boiler should be installed in the cooking unit, preferably in a hall or separate inclosure with all precautions against fire risk, or hot water from the school steam plant may be used if available. A short nickeled, tin, or glass towel rod should be attached to some convenient part of the individual desk. It may be placed on the inner side of a cupboard door or the under side of the table top, ledge or sink drain- board. See side of sink in Figure 404. This is for use during the lesson, when constant employment of hand and dish towel is necessary. A larger towel drier or rack of the collapsible wall, laundry, horse, or inclosed steam types should be provided for the drying of towels between lessons. It should be candidly stated, however, that the minimum of time spent in laundering towels Fig. 410. — ’Movable Cabinet and Table with Alba Iron White Porcelain Top. should be exacted of pupils and teacher, since with a reasonably large supply and frequent consignments to a local laundry the towels can be maintained in a more sanitary condition, and school time saved for other more profitable exercises. For instruction in laundering pro- cesses, an occasional lesson in towel-washing should be given. The rolls of paper towels now so common may often be utilized for hand washing with resultant saving in laundry. These rolls should be placed over each large sink, with a waste basket for receiving the shreds on the floor beneath. 9. Storage Clipboards and Cabinets. — If sufficient storage space in drawers and cupboards be supplied each student in the desk tables, a smaller number of general cupboards will need to be provided. Usually some cupboards with shelves and drawers should be built into the walls, to store extra utensils and supplies not distributed in the individual desk space, or in the cabinets of the unit kitchens. If possible, all shelves 484 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE should be inclosed, and in some cases, at least, glass doors are desirable. If sufficient wall space for the construction of these cupboards is not available in the cooking-room a separate pantry should be provided. See Figures 401 and 404. In any case the shelves should be either movable or care- fully planned beforehand for certain uses. The drawers are more useful if their contents also are planned for, and thin wooden partitions properly distributed within them. There are several excellent movable kitchen cabinets on the market equipped with drawers, bins, shelves, and boxes, which may sometimes prove more economical and efficient than built-in appliances. Their best feature lies in their being easily moved about. In Figures 421 and 422 are shown some examples of these cabinets. Usually these articles are best confined to the unit kitchens, and a simpler arrangement of drawers, shelves, and bins built into the wall for the general use of the teacher and the whole class at the desk tables. Supply Shelves. Shelves for supplies may be made of plate glass or of wood covered with a good washable enamel or with well-secured oilcloth. All shelves and drawers need frequent washing and should be constructed and finished with this in mind. Large quantities of food supplies are no longer neces- sarily accumulated in school kitchens, even where family- size portions of food are prepared, for the saving in cost is not now so great as formerly when large amounts are purchased. Modern food economics points towards the more complete segregation of food storage in ware- houses under optimum conditions, and away from family storage and preservation. This tendency re- flected in price removes the former advantage obtained by large quantity buying, with its attendant danger of loss by spoilage. Overlarge storage capacity should therefore no longer be considered a necessary part of the school cooking equipment. The large flour, meal, and vegetable bins formerly used should now be replaced by 10, 25, or 50 pound capacity tin boxes or stone crocks and plenty of narrow shelves for package goods. Foods which can be kept in jars should be placed in well- labeled 1, 2, or 3 quart wide mouth glass jars for protection against dust and vermin. These jars may be placed on narrow open shelves on the side walls, just as on an opposite wall should be placed the jars and bottles of the simple chemicals needed for the demonstration of the composition and properties of foodstuffs. Supply Tables. Large plain kitchen tables, with or without drawers and cupboards below, should be used for setting out, convenient to the students’ reach, the supplies needed for a given lesson. These tables, not less than 2'X^ in size, should be equipped with large ball-bearing castors, and covered with heavy oilcloth, vitrolite glass, or porcelain tiling. Since every student should find herself within two or three steps of such a supply table, the number of these tables should be about one to each 4 to 8 students. If extra cooking or chemical equipment be needed for a given lesson, this too may be placed on the supply tables beforehand. The proper use of such tables may add somewhat to the work of preparation by the teacher, but can be made to increase very greatly the quantity and effectiveness of work done by the student in a short laboratory period. In- deed the habit of thus systematically preparing for the performance of any kitchen task is not the least valuable lesson to be learned by the cooking class. In the unit kitchen desks a two-gallon enameled garbage pail with cover, operated by a foot lever, is a useful part of the equipment. See Figure 404. Similar pails should be placed under the large sinks or at the ends of the desk tables. Sometimes small earthen garbage jars, with or without covers, may be used to advantage as part of the individual desk equipment. Refrigerators. An indispensable feature of the cook- ing unit is the refrigerator. This may be built into the wall, with an ice compartment which may be reached from an outside hallway, or better may be of the ready-built movable type which is furnished by refrigerator concerns in a large variety of styles and sizes. The size must be governed, of course, by the number and size of the classes which will use it, although an ice compartment holding less than 50 lb. of ice is usually expensive and inefficient. The style should be simple, washable in all parts, and readily disassembled for inspection and study. Porcelain or enamel lining is preferable to galvanized steel. The refrigerator should be placed close to an outside door or in a service hall for convenience in de- livery of the ice. In addition to the refrigerator a cool- ing closet of generous size is an excellent feature of the cooking unit. 10. Utensils and Apparatus. ■ — • Several types of equip- ment for food manipulation should be provided. These are (a) the individual desk table equipment ; ( b ) the unit kitchen or unit desk equipment ; (c) labor-saving devices ; ( d ) chemical or scientific equipment ; (e) hotel or lunch- room equipment ; (/) hospital diet kitchen equipment. For all the cooking utensils a few general words may be said as to material, design, and number. A variety of materials should be used for purposes of comparison and study, such as saucepans, double boilers, pie-pans, dishpans, etc., of gray, white, and blue enamel ware, aluminum, cast aluminum, tin. nickel, and galvanized iron. Each unit kitchen or unit kitchen desk should be equipped with a different type of ware. THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 485 -COOKING BENCHER- c/cale: %"=i~o" O' 1‘ 2’ 3' WINDOW/ ON THI / /IDE WINDOW/ --PLAN OF COOKING ROOM -TYPE IN U/E IN BO/TGN ELEMENTARY /CHGOL/~ c/CALE : o' 10 ^ 15' Fig. 41 1. 4 86 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE TABLE 0 0 RANGE 5 RANGES 0 O TABLE 0 0 O O 8 STUDENTS AT EACH TABLE SINK STOVES S. STOVES S. SINK STOVES $ STOVES s. ARRANGEMENT FOR TINGLE TABLET FACING EACH. OTHER Fig. 412. none that is efficient, safe, and properly constructed being omitted. Many teachers and housekeepers find the aluminum ware particularly convenient because of its lightness, durability, and high heat conductivity. American granite ware, gray or blue, and the Swedish white enamel ware are found also to be light, easily cleaned, and of lower original cost. When the granite ware begins to chip seriously it should be discarded be- cause of danger of antimony poisoning, difficulty of cleaning, and unevenness of heating. The heavy black iron kettles of the last generation need not be represented in the modern school kitchen, nor the copper ware which is now practically unobtainable for general use. Only the actually used wares of to-day should appear, but these in all of the approved types. Simple designs should be chosen for all cooking utensils ; those with no sharp corners, or cracks, rolled-over edges, or unnecessary indentations are best. The stream-line design is applicable to cooking utensils as well as to automobiles, and provides most surely against the ac- cumulation of dirt. (a) The Individual Desk Table and General Class Equipment. The number of utensils provided for each pupil should be kept small enough to avoid cluttering the table, waste of time in cleaning, or the cultivation of an undesirable dependence upon specific tools. At the same time the variety should be sufficient to prevent waste of time and material in cooking operations. A certain number of utensils should thus be available in the drawers and cupboards assigned to each student, including a small amount of the simplest chemical ap- paratus. In addition to such articles as trip balances and thermometers, a microscope should be stored in the wall cupboards or supply room ready for occasional use. In the same manner extra cooking equipment must be kept on hand in the cooking unit, ready for use on THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 487 Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Fig. 413. — Cooking-room, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California, occasion. This extra equipment consists largely of bread-baking, fruit-canning, jelly-making, freezing, and similar appliances . 1 ( b ) The Unit Kitchen Equipment. In the movable cabinet and table drawers of the unit kitchen should be stored family-size cooking equipment of rather large variety. Each kitchen may be equipped with a dif- ferent ware if desired, but care should be taken that all necessary articles are supplied in each. The setting out of the necessary supplies and of extra utensils should seldom be done by the teacher preceding a lesson in family-size food or meal preparation in the unit kitchen. All materials and utensils should be put away in their proper places in the kitchen and the pupils expected to get them out and do the work in an orderly and efficient fashion . 2 Family-size Cooking Utensils. It would scarcely be sufficient, as might be thought at first glance, to com- bine all the apparatus listed under individual desk and general class equipment in order to indicate the furnishing of the family-size kitchen. The difficulty is that in many cases larger size utensils must be used, as well as certain mechanical devices, the use of which is not required in the analyzed or idealized processes carried out at the desk tables during instruction in the principles of food selection and preparation. Examples of the latter are the bread and cake mixers, various types of egg beaters, mayonnaise mixers, etc. The different purposes for which the unit kitchen practice operations are pre- scribed must be kept in mind in choosing utensils for these parts of the cooking laboratory. Individual Serving Outfit. With the addition of a small outfit of serving dishes and silver, valuable practice in meal serving by small groups of pupils, or even by one at a time, can be carried on in the unit kitchens. Small movable dining tables may be placed in the space 1 For complete lists of utensils required, see Equipment for Teaching Dcmestic Science, by Helen Kinne, Whitcomb and Barrows, 1909. 2 See Iris Prouty O’Leary — Cooking in the Vocational School as Training for Home Making , U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1915, No. 1, whole No. 625. 488 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE directly in front of the open kitchen as shown in Figure 423, or the kitchen table maybe converted for the purpose into a temporary dining table. With this arrangement every article of food cooked may be served, at least by mock service. The dishes and other table ware used for this purpose should be of a uniform pattern so that when collected for larger meal service they may serve for the formal dining- room equipment. The unit kitchen desk, because of limited cupboard space, naturally cannot be equipped with as large an assortment of utensils as the larger kitchen, but may be provided with a considerably larger outfit than that described for the individual desks in the long table or class desks. In any case the latter may be looked upon as the minimum and the unit kitchen equipment as the optimum, any possible compromise being struck between the two. ( c ) Labor-saving Devices in the Kitchen. (1) Elec- trical appliances. If electric current is available, at least one type of electric toaster, thermostat oven, coffee urn, and water heater should be included in the cooking equip- ment. Special attention in high school continuation classes may thus be directed towards the rapid prepara- tion of the small family breakfast or lunch. The use of the small electric motor for beating eggs, salad dressing, turning the freezer, the sewing machine, the buffer, etc., should also be taught. (2) Fireless cookers. A number of simply constructed fireless cookers are on the market, and numerous di- rections are available for amateur construction of these labor-saving devices. At least one example of this piece of apparatus should be found in every school kitchen. (3) Pressure cookers. The small aluminum pressure cooker of vaselike shape is still probably the most satisfactory article for general use. Its shape and size are both poorly chosen for use in canning, however, so that if much canning work is to be done, as in country schools, this cooker should be discarded in favor of the square steam canner. Some type of pressure cooker should be available even in the elementary school equipment for demonstration of the processing of canned foods, sterilization for hygienic purposes, the rapid cooking of tough meats and otherwise usually long-process foods, as well as of the relation between pressure and boiling temperature. (4) Dish-washing devices. Although no efficient dish- washing machine for a small number of dishes and a small expenditure of money is yet available, there can be little doubt that simple devices to decrease the drudgery of dish-washing will continue to be made, and their use should be taught. A few articles of this 1 Survey of the Gary Public Schools. kind are: well-designed dish drainers, mops, plate scrapers, chain pot scrubbers, hose and spray attach- ments for rinsing dishes, rubber mats and stoppers for sink and drainboard, sink strainers, soap shakers. If hotel or lunch room trade classes are held, practice in the manipulation of a modern dish-washing machine should be provided as well. (5) Wheel tray. A thoroughly mobile wheel tray equipped with large ball-bearing rubber-tired castors with two trays and perhaps a drawer, is an excellent appliance for use in the school kitchen. If a formal meal is to be served some such wheeled device is almost in- dispensable. The article may be made out of any ordinary small table by adding the wheels as shown in Figure 423, but is preferably of metal, for durability and ease in cleaning. This tray is not to be confused with the pleasing bit of dining-room furniture known as the tea wagon. The latter may be loaded in the pantry or at dining-room door from the tray, for it is usually not constructed for the humble utilitarian purpose to be served by the wheel tray. {d) Chemical or Scientific Equipment. For the proper development of an experimental basis for the study of the selection and preparation of food, as well as for the illustration of scientific principles by means of such study, a certain amount of simple chemical apparatus is desirable for high school classes. Some of this ap- paratus should be stored in the individual desks and the students made responsible for it. Some of the apparatus should be stored in the teacher’s cabinets and distributed to the students only at the times when it is to be used. In the former list are included a few test tubes, filter funnels, beakers, flasks, test-tube brush, filter paper; in the latter, balances, thermometers, Bunsen burners, stands and clamps, condensers, pipettes, burettes, and reagents. Without such equipment the illuminating and interesting tests for the various characteristic food compounds cannot be made. (e) Hotel or Lunch Room Equipment. One type of trade requiring professional training, which may well develop out of home economics education as commonly under- stood, is that of cafeteria or lunch room manager or worker. To make a proper field for practice and super- vision in this training the school lunch room or cafeteria should be either under the direct charge of the home economics teacher or under a trained manager willing and able to cooperate with the department. It may be assumed to be unwise, if not disastrous, to attempt such a scheme as that tried in the Gary Schools 1 and elsewhere, in making the school lunch room de- pendent upon the output of the cooking classes, and the cooking teacher and the pupils responsible, with very Household Arts , by Eva W. White, 1918. ELECTRJC OUTLETS 2 : < § o £ i-i az i 2 £ o < E s s "7 o 3TUDLNT TABLE "J3" DIETETIC3 LABORATORY 5 gale: 49 ° SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE little paid help, for the food served. The working of this plan has nearly always been unfortunate, and illus- trative only of a theoretically plausible but actually impractical scheme of education. Instruction and pro- duction cannot be yoked in this way, for instruction which is not immediately measurable in results that all may see, is almost certain to be neglected. A legitimate use of the lunch room may be made, how- ever, for training in management, planning, and buying, small classes of older students, already well grounded in the principles of cooking, menu making, and serving. Very little or none of the drudgery of the lunch prepara- tion should be shifted on the shoulders of these students under the specious disguise of education. be finished in a hard washable white or cream enamel or tiling, the floor should be of tiling or covered with linoleum. 1 Effective relief of the hospitals from training of nurses in preliminary courses in choice, cooking, and serving of food cannot be brought about until the schools are able to duplicate such hospital devices as these in the training diet kitchen. ii. Care of Equipment. There is often expressed the view that one of the aims in the teaching of domestic science is training in habits of cleanliness in the conduct of the kitchen. This debatable view is expressed in one of the most inclusive and valuable of the treatises on home economics education. 2 ELEVATION 5 OF TWO TYPES OF DESK TABLES Fig. 415. Although the large quantity products of all the cook- ing classes should be marketed through the lunch room, there should be no contract to deliver every day a certain proportion of the food served. Large quantity cooking equipment need not be supplied in the cooking units, therefore, if the steam table, soup kettles, and other articles necessarily found in the cafeteria or lunch room kitchen can be used by the small class interested in that type of work. Thorough familiarity with the labor-saving and large- quantity cooking utensils in use in commercial food establishments should form part of this trade training. Here again we note the necessity of professionalizing parts of the home economics curriculum which were formerly taught with the housewife’s limitations con- stantly in view. (/) Hospital Diet Kitchen Equipment. One of the vo- cational or prevocational courses now often emphasized in girls’ high schools is that of food and nutrition or dietetics work for girls planning to enter nurses’ training schools. For the optimum development of these important classes a small diet kitchen should be attached to the cooking laboratory. See Figure 401. This room should con- tain, in addition to the usual refrigerator, sink, cabinet, table and range, a small steam table, broiler, tray rack, dish sterilizer, and heated food truck. The walls should The writer believes that in actual teaching far too much emphasis has been laid upon this aspect of the subject. Nothing is more natural or simple for the uncritical teacher than to make the piece de resistance of every lesson the thorough cleaning of utensils, sinks, stoves, and tables. Often as much as twenty minutes out of the total of 60 or 80 or even 45 are devoted to this drudgery. Yet even more time than this must be given to repetition of these operations if automatic response in later practice is to be expected. In the meantime, since new mental concepts are not taught, the intelligent con- trol of food choice and manipulation sought is entirely missed. An occasional lesson in kitchen housewifery should be introduced instead, and the work of scrubbing sinks and tables be left to the janitor. The janitor or janitress in charge of home economics rooms should have sufficient help to be able to keep these rooms in spotless order, and should understand the special requirements of such care. In some small schools the teacher, with student help, may be obliged to supplement the janitor’s efforts, but such work should be done out of school hours, and as a distinct part of the janitor’s and not the class’ duties. The Serving Unit. In addition to the improvised serving equipment already mentioned as of value in supplementing the unit kitchen and unit kitchen desk. 1 Ruth McNary Smith, Equipping a Diet Kitchen, Journal of Home Economics — Vol. 9, page 162 - — 1917. 2 Bulletin 36, U. S. Bureau of Education — Education for the Home, by Benjamin H. Andrews — 1014. Part I — page 28. THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT Fig. 416. — Domestic Science Room, Clawson School, Oakland, California. Mr. John J. Donovan , Architect. a more formal provision for meal serving in a dining-room should be made. The inclusion of some sort of dining- room in the home economics suite has of recent years become so general that only a few words need be said here as to details. Size of Dining-room. The room to be used for dining- room need not be, for teaching purposes, larger than that required for the ordinary sized family, but should never- theless be large enough to accommodate the occasional dinner or supper for school groups, such as faculty, school board, or students’ society. Such a room might be 15'XiS' to 20' X24/ in size. The intent in the latter provision is one of community usefulness which need have no bearing on the teaching carried on in the department. The caution mentioned before in the matter of the school lunch might be re- peated here. Even though equipment be provided for the serving of meals to groups having definite connection with the school life, it should be understood that teachers and pupils in the food study department should be ex- pected to assume responsibility for such service only when in the judgment of the director educational value may be derived from it. In planning the space allowed for the dining-room, a tnird consideration besides the practice for the classes in serving and community usefulness is involved, that of alternative use of the room for other purposes. Fre- quently, no recitation room is provided for home econom- ics classes, instruction being carried on in the cooking laboratory. For some lessons this arrangement is un- satisfactory and might economically be supplemented by use of the dining-room as a classroom. The extra equipment to provide for this double use of the room consists of a portable blackboard and a sufficient number of movable tablet armchairs. If a closet can be pro- vided into which the usual round dining table can be rolled when not in use, still further usableness of the room is possible. If the objection is raised that alternative use of this room for other than serving purposes is likely to detract from its homelike character, it may be pointed out in answer that only the skeleton of home conditions need be reproduced in the school, and that the exclusively domes- tic atmosphere often sought by domestic science teachers can be attained at too great cost, if efficiency in the use of expensive school space and equipment must be sacrificed. The Floor and Wall Finish. The dining-room floor will naturally be finished in the same durable wood used 492 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. Edward Stolz, Architect. Fig. 417. — Domestic Science Room, Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. in other parts of the school, the finish being wax, oil, or varnish. Often a good quality of large rug is pro- vided when the school can afford to use the room only as a dining-room. When it is used also for a recitation room the rug becomes a nuisance and may well be eliminated. The walls should be finished in some attractive home- like style, the plaster tinted in soft shades, or a simple, plain wall paper used. The choice of color scheme of the room should be guided by exposure, amount of light, and view. Sunny rooms may be finished in grays, cool browns, blues and greens without seeming cold, while dark north rooms require yellows and warm reddish browns for successful treatment. It is usually best to select a neutral grayish or brownish tone for the walls and rug and to provide variety and accent in window hangings and pictures. The whole problem of the selection of colors and fur- nishings for the dining-room, as well as for the house- keeping unit, constitutes a splendid exercise for the classes in house decoration. In order that the best use may be made of the opportunity by these classes, inexpensive and easily altered wall finish, curtains, and furniture should be chosen. In many large high schools the woodworking classes have been able to design and make part or all of the furniture, the sewing and art classes have designed and made curtains, wall stencils, table covers, and have repainted furniture and redyed fabric so as to set forth the dining-room frequently in new and charming guise. In Figure 424 is shown a view of the practical and good-looking dining-room furnished in this way in the Lux School in San Francisco. This room is large enough to be used daily as dining-room for all the teachers of the school, but it is so designed and furnished as to serve excellently also for the class practice in the serving of home meals. The color scheme used in this case is golden brown. Furniture. The necessary furniture for the dining- room consists of a round or square extension table, 6 to THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 493 20 dining chairs, and a serving table or buffet In addition there may be a china cupboard, tea table, tea wagon, muffin stand. The latter articles are not in- dispensable, and most of them are best stored away in a roomy closet off the dining-room except when in use. The china cupboard may be dispensed with if a pantry between the kitchen and dining-room is provided. This latter plan, as shown in Figure 401, is on the whole most efficient for school purposes, since the removal and putting away of dishes may then be carried on without disturbing the group using the dining-room. Where space is limited, however, see Figure 403, either a mov- able or built-in cupboard may form part of the dining-room furniture. The kind of furniture chosen should be governed by the taste and habits of the community as well as funds available. It is usually best to make a conservative choice, avoiding the passing fancy of the moment. The simple and graceful lines of some of the so-called colonial furniture will please long after the knobs and twists of certain other styles have become mo- notonous or tawdry. It need hardly be added that imitation woods or leather are entirely out of place in school furni- ture and that the best genuine materials finished to show what they are, which are purchasable with the money available, are most suitable under all circumstances. Plain oak furniture may be stained and waxed in a number of pleasing ways, all of them showing the grain of the wood, or may be painted and enameled to suit the surroundings and the needs of the classes. Birch, maple, even pine, cedar, or redwood furniture may be finished acceptably in either of these fashions, but should never be made to masquer- ade as mahogany or rosewood. The provision of an open fireplace in the dining-room has been found in some places an admirable addition to the cozy and attractive appearance of the room. An example of this treatment somewhat too formally carried glassware, and linen required for a given school will depend largely upon their collateral use for other than teaching purposes. If the serving of lunch for teachers regularly, or the occasional dinner for large groups, is contemplated, tableware must be provided accordingly. For teaching purposes alone, service for six is ordinarily considered sufficient. This is true particularly when the individual serving outfit suggested previously is pro- vided in connection with the cooking unit. It is not necessary to list here the minimum of types of dishes, glassware, silver, and linen required for the equipment of the serving unit, since common sense and out is shown in Figure 426. Serving Equipment. The quantity of china, silver, Fig. 418. — Electrical Equipment Used in the University of New Mexico. the experience of eating as well as serving meals will suffice to remind the reader of possible desirable additions. The quality in all cases should be of such character as to establish proper standards of taste in the minds of the students, but need by no means represent the outlay called for by expensive French china, Irish linen, and solid silver. Gay and beautiful patterns in semi- vitreous porcelain are obtainable, and are preferable to the monotonous and ugly durable dishes so often found in school dining-rooms. A bit less durability coupled with more endurability may well be found educationally efficient. A fair quality of linen of bold and handsome pattern might well be substituted for the severely plain covers so often used. In communities where the kitchen oilcloth and turkey-red cover are the rule in the homes, 494 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. Wm. B. inner. Architect. Fig. 419. — Cooking-room, Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. the cheapest sort of unbleached muslin attractively stenciled or stitched in the domestic art classes, plain white cotton damask, Japanese toweling, or other simple runner material might be used to indicate possible improvement without added expense. When electric current is available at a reasonable price, one or two electric outlets in the floor or wall beside the dining table, and a representative article or two to illus- trate the table use of electricity should be provided. An electrically heated coffee urn or percolator, toaster, or grill are appliances which are of considerable con- venience and increasing availability. Establishment of Standards of Taste. In choosing the table-service equipment the limitations of poverty and taste in the homes of the community should not be allowed to interfere too seriously with the introduction of the idea of higher standards of living among the students. In addition to poverty, lack of knowledge of, and desire for the more refined type of table service, as of other marks of good taste, sometimes may account for the existence of deplorable living conditions, par- ticularly among immigrants. Discontent of the student with immediate home conditions may therefore be a lesser evil than the continuance of the ignorance which helped to produce such homes. Emphasis should, of course, be placed wherever possible upon the use of the least expensive means to bring about the desired result in comfort, harmony, and good taste, but the estab- lishment of good standards of living in the real sense, apart from luxury or showiness, should never be sacri- ficed to unfortunate existing conditions. Service with no Dining-room. If no space is available for a separate dining-room, provision should be made for practice in serving meals in the cooking unit. In the laboratory desk type of kitchen, space for this purpose may be difficult to obtain if the tables are ar- ranged in parallel rows. In Figure 412 dining tables could be improvised in the four corners shown occupied by supply tables ; in Figure 403, representing the horseshoe or hollow-square arrangement, the dining table might be placed within the square. With the unit kitchen type of arrangement, practice in service is much more easily arranged, since the space in the center of the open side of each unit may be utilized for this purpose. This is illustrated in Figures 401, 407, 423. The Laundry Unit. Some provision should certainly be made for the teaching of the simple operations and the underlying principles of laundering in even 7 scheme of home economics education. In this as in the other fields already discussed, both domestic and commercial types of equipment and performance need to be included. It is of interest to note that in England and Canada domestic-science educators have always placed a good deal of emphasis upon the science and art of laundering, nearly as much time being spent on this subject as upon food preparation. In the United States until very THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 495 recently but little thought has been given to the matter, although a few training schools have equipped elaborate laundries. It would seem wise and reasonable, however, to give to so necessary and so tedious a form of drudgery such dignity and assistance as a few lessons in the house- hold science course will afford. The amount of time spent in this way will be governed by the nature of the training sought, and by the character of the students instructed. In certain schools and lo- calities only the simplest domestic type of laundry need be taught, while in others careful preparation of the girls for employment in commercial laundries is justified. The ever-growing tendency toward the specialization of this work and its performance outside the home must be considered by the domestic science teacher. As was mentioned in the discussion of the cooking-unit equipment, separated and analyzed processes should be carried out in order that the student may acquire in- f ZINC OR. CO PPER. STRIP,, / 0 O * MAGNESITE TO bc ATTACHED >TTOM O O C ZINC STRIP^ f O MOVABLE 2 BURNER. PLATE, FIGS. FIXED SINGLE BURNERS SINK O 1NED DRAl oo OO 00 00 00 00 Shelf iz" wide 00 h OO o_ OO 00 ARRANGEMENT OF SINKS <5 BURNERS IN TABLE DESKS SCALE'. O' r 2’ 3’ 4' 5’ Fig. 420. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 49 6 telligence in the control of the conditions of her work rather than merely rule-of-thumb skill by repetition of the task. In order to do this in the case of laundering instruction, the composition and physical properties of various types of water, soap, washing powders, starch and blueings, the structure of the textiles, and the reaction of common classes of dyes to different kinds of cleaning treatment, should be studied. The writer recalls asking the laundry instructor in a certain state university why pongee remains spotted when it has been Fig. 421. — Type op Ready-made Movable Cabinet. sprinkled before being ironed, and the answer, given with impressive authority, was that pongee silks must be ironed “ bone-dry.” Nothing further was forthcoming and no explanation was evidently felt to be necessary. Such a state of mind naturally results from the teaching of “ complete and approved methods ” of laundering, or cooking, or engineering, or any similar process. The equipment for teaching laundry in a scientific way should include besides the tubs, wringers, washing machines and other appliances, full sets of chemical and other testing apparatus for the demonstration of the properties of the various cleansing materials and fabrics under consideration. This apparatus may, if necessary, be shelved and used in the foods laboratory which, if equipped with the chemical apparatus mentioned, will serve for much of the testing work done in the launder- ing lessons. Similarly certain parts of the apparatus provided in the sewing unit may be called into use for this purpose. The ironing-boards and irons, as well as the hand lens or microscopes used in the study of textiles, may serve in common the two uses. In any case, separate space, however small, should be assigned for instruction in laundry problems if only to emphasize the need for eliminating laundry work from the home kitchen. Size of Room. Smaller classes than those usually planned for the cookery courses must be organized for laundry instruction, usually not more than twelve to sixteen in a section. The room should therefore be large enough to accommodate four to six batteries of two tubs each, and the same number of ironing-boards and washing-machines, in addition to space for the built-in drier, the mangle, and stoves. A set of specially designed storage cupboards to hold the outfit needed by each student or group of students in carrying out laundering processes should be provided, along with small individual lockers to be assigned to the students for the personal belongings inevitably left over from lesson to lesson. One supply cupboard may be suf- ficient for small classes, but individual lockers are almost as much a necessity as they are in the sewing-room. Floor space six by three feet in size should be allowed for each two students’ washing apparatus, and three by four feet for each ironing-board. The drier may be built into a corner and occupy from 2 to 6 by 4 feet floor space. The mangle will vary in size, usually not exceeding 2 to 4 feet. Armchairs, or benches for class use, well illustrated in Figure 427, the teacher’s desk, and two or three double burner gas stoves, or a small wood or coal laundry stove will take up the remainder of the space. The individual lockers may be built under the windows and need be only 12” deep X 18" wide X 30” to 40” high. This size admits hangers for waists and skirts without doubling them up. In addition a laboratory desk of the type shown in Figure 420 with space for four to twelve students and equipped with sinks or trough, gas outlets, and hot and cold water supply is needed for the scientific testing work. In Figure 428, in a room 30' X 26' in size, is shown an advantageous and complete arrangement of a de- sirable equipment for the teaching of domestic and in- stitutional or commercial laundry work. A smaller number of washing-machines, tubs, and ironing-boards may be used than that shown, but in order to make the subject worthy of school attention at all, the labor-saving devices and scientific testing must in some degree be included. Walls and Floors. The walls must be constructed of waterproof and washable material similar to that men- tioned in the discussion of the cooking unit. Tile or hard plaster are usually chosen. The floor should be provided with a drain and be made of composition or cement, covered with linoleum or rubber mats. Good lighting and ventilation are particularly in- dispensable in the laundry room. A canopy similar THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 497 to that suggested for the cooking stove may be installed over the boilers or tubs, and a good flue should be connected with the drier. An excellent example of such ventilation is seen in the laundry laboratory at the Teachers College, Columbia University, Figure 429. Equipment . 1 Stationary tubs or trays of porcelain or vitrified clay should be installed in groups of two with drains and hot and cold water outlets. If a single faucet is used the water may be carried into the adjacent washing machine more easily by means of a length of rubber hose. These tubs should be set at the right A good quality of ball-bearing wringer either at- tached to the machine or set up at each pair of tubs, a simple cold mangle, a gas heated or electrically operated mangle, are desirable additions to the laundry equipment. In rural districts an outdoor clothesline or revolving drier may profitably be installed in a convenient court or yard, but for most schools the drier will have to be of the indoor type. Clotheshorses or wall driers may, of course, be utilized if necessary, but require more space than is ordinarily available. The built-in drier - - A MOVABLE KITCHEN CABI NET - - Fig. 422. height for students of the size who are to use them, and may vary in height if classes of varying ages are expected. Portable tubs on benches may indeed be utilized in temporary or made-over quarters, but are not desirable for school use if stationary apparatus can be obtained. A large variety of washing machines operated by hand, water power, or electricity are now offered in the market, and samples of such kinds as are available to the community should be included in the school equip- ment. So far as possible machines of various types, such as rotary, suction, corrugated, as well as those driven by different modes should be used. These ma- chines may serve also as illustrative of the power machines in large laundries for vocational classes. with flue heated by the school heating plant or by a small attached stove forms in most cases the efficient solution of this problem. Wherever ironing-boards can be hinged to the walls and supported by a hinged leg when in use, they would best be installed that way, since the space can be utilized for other purposes when the boards are not in use. Heavy stationary iron standards such as are shown in Figure 430 are also acceptable. Separate sleeve boards should be provided in addition to the large board. Irons heated by the most convenient form of fuel in use in the community should be used. Electric irons, of course, are preferable for convenience and efficiency, since they furnish an even, easily regulated heat. Gas, 1 For further details of equipment of the laundry laboratory, see Laundering, by L. R. Balderston, published by I. R. Balderston, 1224 Cherry Street, Philadelphia. 498 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. Wm. A. Poland, Architect. Fig. 423. — Cooking-room, Junior High School, Trenton, New Jersey. charcoal, or alcohol irons are sometimes advisable, and the ordinary stove-heated sadirons occasionally are the only kind available. Clothes boilers, or a steam jet in the tubs, wash- boards of various types, sprinklers, starch kettles, clothes sticks, iron rests, iron holders, and clothes baskets are other necessary articles for the school laundry. All of these should be stored in properly designed cupboards when not in use. The spaces for holding the various articles to be stored should be carefully proportioned to their uses and la- beled. The largest spaces must be for the boiler and basket, within each of which certain smaller articles can be kept. The Housekeeping and Home Nursing Unit. The problem of the provision in schools of the most efficient equipment for the teaching of all those arts and technique and principles involved in the care and furnishing of the house and in the home care of children and the sick has long been a difficult one to solve. It cannot be claimed that any universally satisfactory conclusion has so far been reached, nor is there any general agree- ment upon a working scheme for such instruction. The most obvious answer to the question of equipment for this work is the practice apartment, or practice house. Many schools have installed such apartments with varying success. In certain districts where immigrants are numerous and the economic level is rather low these apartments or cottages have served as excellent social centers and Americanizing influences. Among the more prosperous and intelligent districts, however, they have been for the most part unused. In any case, such an apartment if built into the school in an isolated part of the building, accessible only to the students of the home economics courses and not occupied as an actual living place, is apt to take on an institutional and show character not compatible with the carrying out of the objects for which it was planned. Its furnishings are fixed and immovable and its use as a laboratory for house decoration is apt to be discouraged because of the expense involved in change. A detached house near the school building presents some features which are advantageous but some which are distinctly objectionable. The isolation which makes it distinctive in character may prove a detriment by separating the work done there too completely from the rest of the school routine. Occasionally such a practice cottage may be used to advantage as living THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 499 quarters for one or more teachers or other persons con- nected with the school. In these cases rather more convincing working conditions may be attained, but it is obvious that as a continued plan the arrangement has its disadvantages. Occasionally in high schools as in colleges or normal schools, groups of students are taken into the practice house to live for a given period and to discharge all the duties of the housekeeper under the supervision of a teacher. The writer questions the educational sound- ness of this plan, and certainly its difficulty of practical execution is plain. It would seem more rational than either of these schemes to provide for the housekeeping lessons a real laboratory in which separated and analyzed processes, rather than unthinking “ skills,” may be taught. The yearning for the exact atmosphere of the home which seems to dominate many home economics teachers may involve a greater sacrifice of efficiency than the momentary consistency will justify. Thus a labora- tory for the housewifery course equipped with numerous samples of textiles, woods, cleaning mixtures, labor- saving devices, plumbing plans, and samples may offer a good deal more of lasting value to the student than a nicely furnished practice apartment with only one kind of floor, wall finish, plumbing, and other appurtenances. 1 The same criticism might apply to a suite of rooms to be used for house-furnishing classes. The writer believes that the latter course would best be given in a large well- lighted studio, filled with various property sets of doors, windows, floors, and with very little resemblance to a furnished home. A valuable feature of this type of work should be the excursions to furniture stores, museums, and private homes whenever possible. In- deed a very useful course might be given in this way without set school equipment. The Community Room. In Figure 401 is shown a large living room with fireplaces, outside entrance, and connecting with a dining-room, which might serve as the studio for house-furnishing courses and the laboratory for the housewifery work. Its chief use, however, should be as a community social room, since it might serve as the center of the school life for students and teachers and parent teacher associations. For this reason it should be furnished with a goodly supply of simple comfortable chairs, with a rug or two, two or three tables, and possibly a piano. These articles are mentioned as valuable to the school rather than the home economics instruction, although they may be used occasionally in the latter. A convenient and charming social center for the school is shown in Figure 431 in the living-room of the Lux School in San Francisco. The walls of such a room should be finished in some unobtrusive neutral tone, since they must act as a back- ground for the hangings, rugs, papers, etc., to be dis- played in the furnishing discussions. The floor should be finished, if possible, in oak or other hard wood, well waxed, since it is not unimaginable that it might some- times be used for dancing. A number of exhibit cabinets with glass doors and fitted with narrow shelves should be built into the walls of the room. These cabinets offer a safe and usable storage space for the large variety Mr. Wm. C. Hays, Architect. Fig. 424. — Teachers’ Dining-room, Lux School, San Francisco, California. of sample collections which should form the background of the house management course. Occasionally furniture and hardware dealers are willing to loan pieces of furniture or fixtures for class- work and then to exchange these from time to time. This sort of cooperation, of course, is invaluable. The house-furnishing studio or community room would natu- rally be used for the exhibition of these loans. A few drawing boards or desks add considerably to the usefulness of such an exhibit room, and provision of steady light from more than one wall for the study of light effect on color is desirable. This room should con- sequently, if possible, be planned for a corner of the school building or of the home economics wing or building. 1 For further details of equipment of housewifery laboratory, see Housewifery, by L. R. Balderston, Lippincott, 1518. 5 °° SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr, Wm. C. Hays, Architect. Fig. 425. — Teachers’ Dining-room, Lux School, San Francisco, California. The Bedroom and Bathroom. A connecting suite of bedroom and bathroom are shown in Figure 401 as illustrating possible housing for the home nursing, per- sonal hygiene, or care of children lessons, which are now frequently included in even the junior high school course. These rooms should correspond in finish to those in the homes of the students, but should be con- siderably larger than those found in the usual residence. The bedroom when not in use for instruction in bed- making or housecleaning could serve as rest room for the teachers, or for tired or indisposed girl students. This is the case in the bedroom shown in Figure 432. Such a room should be equipped with a double and single bed, dressing table, crib, tables, and chairs. The walls should be neutral in color, the windows easily shaded, and the floor covered by a simple comfortable rug. Plenty of closet space should be provided for the storage of extra bedding and the home nursing supplies. The latter might well be kept in narrow wall cabinets with glass doors. A first-aid outfit which may be drawn upon for the use of the whole school in emergencies may be kept in this room, and used for demonstration purposes. Teaching Care of Children. Such equipment as is required for teaching the care of children should be stored and used in these rooms also. This should in- clude a large doll with complete infant’s clothing outfit, bathtub, brushes, crib, and feeding utensils. The services of a real baby and its mother should be secured for at least some of these lessons, since the handling of a live infant in bathing, dressing, and feed- ing may involve difficulties not presented by the doll. Whenever possible a day nursery or hospital in the neighborhood should be called upon for assistance in providing practice in these matters. 1 The bathroom shown in Figure 401 has been planned to offer all variety of equipment in the way of baths, such as sitz, foot, shower, which are used in professional nursing, as well as the usual home facilities, because of the possible pre-nursing instruction which may well be given in some schools to girls who plan on entering a hospital training school. In smaller schools less varied bath equipment is acceptable. It will be noted that all of these rooms which serve the various purposes here outlined when taken together 1 See further suggestions in Cooley, Winchell, Spohr and Marshall. Teaching Home Economics — Macmillan. 1918. THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 5°i Mr. Edward State, Architect. Fig. 426. — • Dining-room, Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. form an apartment or complete living quarters. The reason is obvious, in that processes are to be explained and learned which are connected individually with all the types of rooms which a family needs for comfortable living. The provision of a suite of rooms to represent an apartment independently of such intensive use of each of these rooms as is here indicated seems to the writer indefensible. The standard of furnishing and scale of living possible in the homes of the pupils must be kept in mind con- stantly in planning the details of this part of the de- partment. It should be noted, however, that the object of all instruction should be analysis and understanding of processes and the acquiring of standards of taste, rather than immediate skill in accomplishment, and that therefore the slavish reproduction of the student’s home conditions is neither necessary nor desirable. The case of vocational and trade training presents a slightly different problem, involving more immediate provision of manual technique. The Clothing Unit. The development of the teach- ing of sewing, dressmaking, and millinery in the schools has been truly astonishing in recent years. Partly be- cause of the rising prices of labor of all kinds a con- siderable impetus toward the home construction of at least simpler blouses, skirts, dresses, and hats seems to have occurred. To meet this tendency more and more classes in sewing have been organized for both school- girls and older women. For obvious reasons these courses are very often elected by girl students in prefer- ence to many of the more academic studies, whenever the choice is uninfluenced by such considerations as vocational or college preparatory necessities. How far the natural desire of the schoolgirl for the extra clothing made in this way should be allowed to interfere with the provision of less easily acquired mental training is a problem of considerable interest and difficulty of solution. In spite of the larger numbers enrolled of late in sewing classes the tendency in both junior and senior high school clothing courses is and should be toward greater 502 SCHOOL ARC HI TEC T U RE emphasis upon problems of purchasing, the economic condition of the garment-making trades, good taste in design and color, and away from the apportionment of much time for the acquisition of technique in hand and machine sewing, dressmaking, and drafting. Trade or vocational sewing classes in which power-machine work, machine hemstitching, and similar operations are taught constitute an important exception. In the equipment of the clothing unit, therefore, pro- vision should be made for textile testing and exhibits, sketching and draping on the one hand, and for power machines on the other. If vocational sewing courses are given they should be housed in a separate room from those occupied by the usual high school or grammar grade classes. The equipment to be provided for the latter may be divided into the following groups : 1. Textile testing and exhibits. 2. Drawing and modeling apparatus. 3. Sewing apparatus. 1. Textile Apparatus. Cabinets. Glass cabinets of the type mentioned in the description of the house- keeping unit are useful for the display of textile fibers, charts showing processes of manufacture, small models of weaving apparatus, and similar illustrative material. Storage space in cupboards with shallow deep drawers and adjustable shelves must also be provided for ma- terials not at the moment on exhibition. A filing case for samples of cloth adds considerably to the efficiency of the textile work. Laboratory Table. For the physical and chemical testing of fabrics which may well be introduced into the high school clothing course, a laboratory table of the kind described in the laundry unit discussion is of con- siderable value, provided no properly equipped laundry laboratory is at hand. It is unnecessary to duplicate this table in laundry and textile room, but it is usually wise not to rely for this purpose on the use of equipment in the cooking unit, since classes are often scheduled at the same time for cooking and sewing work. In small schools, however, the equipment in the cooking room if properly chosen should serve for the textile testing. Provision for running water with sinks and gas outlets is necessary for this laboratory desk. Ordinarily one double table 10 feet long and 5 feet wide, accommodating 10 to 12 students at a time, is adequate. The table \ \ ■q-g D a, M-l Cl) t— J o z: $ V ,2\ y .0I y ..8 m>DCn 91N3arU9 Sn.wkwwwvkwwwwwwxwwwwx . nwWWwW - l c> £ i r\7 ATX Q DRXS5ING \LOpK ; jmy UinkJ K.IJCHU a'A A nr DTUNK-JNG WATLR- 0 0 O 0 O O O O c O 0 O 0 O O O O c 0 0 O 0 O O O O r 0 0 O 0 O O O O c 0 0 P 0 O O O O c O c D 1 N 1 NG ELCDA 5IAT1NG ZOO O c 0 0 3 O 3 3 O 3 3 3 0 0 3 3 O OO 3 3 3 0 0 3 q Al LING J 3 v-4 1 SALAD JAHL BKXAD TMYS MAIN CO^IUDOIL PLAN Of CAfLTlk-iA fOL A SAALL HIGH SCHOOL 6 c All . Fig. 439. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 5 I& Fig. 440. — Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. Mr. Wm. B. IUncr, Architect. ventilation are used, a pipe 12" in diameter will be sufficient. Whenever the pipe runs near woodwork, precaution should be taken to insure against fire, as the accumulation of grease in such pipes is very inflammable and might cause serious results should it become ig- nited. The Cook’s Table. — The cook’s table is placed about \ in front of the range. It should be about i2 , X4 / X34", with the top made of the best grade of selected ash, set together and held tight with glued-in wooden dowels. A “bain marie” about 4 / X2o' / X9 // , set into the top, is a very handy arrangement for keeping the food at the proper temperature, until it is carried to the serv- ing table in the dining-room. This pan should be made of either heavy cold rolled copper or of No. 16 galvanized iron. It should have a perforated false bottom, made of the same material and set 1" clear of the bottom so that the food utensils will have a free circulation of hot water all around. The water should be kept at a proper temperature, using either steam heating coils, set into the pan, or gas burners of proper size placed under the pan. There should be a hot-water inlet for filling, and i\" standing waste outlet for draining. The cook’s side of table should be provided with drawers for the cook’s tools, etc. A galvanized iron latticed shelf, placed under the table and 10” clear of floor, is convenient for the accommodation of reserve pots and pans. The Saucepan Rack. — The saucepan rack of di- mensions 8' o"X2' o” should be constructed of iron bars and suspended from the ceiling about 5' o" above the cook’s table. The best style of rack is the triple bar type, with the center bar inclined ; the higher end being level with the side members, and the lower end about 1' o" belowc The pan hooks are riveted on, about T o” apart. The hangers should be well cross-braced to prevent swaying. The Cook’s Sink . — -The cook’s sink must be placed in a location convenient for the cook’s use, preferably at one end of the cook’s table. The sink should be made of galvanized iron not fighter than No. 14 gauge ; its dimensions are about 3o''X24”X33 ,/ with a depth of 16”. All joints should be well riveted, soldered, and scraped smooth. The top edges of the sink should have a half oval galvanized iron band or a w'rought iron riveted and soldered thereto ; the inside must be provided with THE CAFETERIA 5i7 Messrs. Perkins, Fellows & Hamilton, Architects. Fig. 441. — New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, Illinois. a standing overflow waste outlet, protected by a remov- able corner strainer made of the same material as the sink ; this strainer prevents the food scraps from enter- ing and clogging the sewer. The sink should have four galvanized wrought-iron legs riveted to each corner and extending to floor. The Meat-cutting Bloch. — The meat-cutting block should be located near the meat compartment of the refrigerator, so that meat can be cut to suit needs and returned without permitting it to become warm. This block is made in standard sizes, but 30" X 30" X 17^ is about the right size. It consists of a series of maple strips placed vertically, well glued and held together by iron rods running through and drawn up tight with nuts. The block is supported by four turned legs. The Power Food Chopper. - — The power food chopper (Figure 442) is placed near the meat block. This machine is a very convenient article of equipment and relieves the cook of the labor of chopping all meats and vege- tables ; in fact he is able to go on with his other work while the chopping is being done. The Mixing Machine. — The mixing machine (Figure 443) might be termed a machine for all work, and, be- cause of its general use, it should be placed at a point easily accessible from all parts of the kitchen. It is used for the mixing of pastry, mashing of potatoes and other vegetables, straining of soups, and for many other things. An attachment is furnished for each different operation, together with two one-piece, tinned mixing bowls of about 30 and 80 quart capacity respectively. The Power Vegetable-peeling Machine. — The power vegetable-peeling machine (Figure 444) should have a ca- pacity of about 30 pounds of potatoes at one charge ; this machine should be set near the vegetable compart- ment of the refrigerator and also near the vegetable table and sink. As water is constantly sprayed over the vegetables while they are being peeled, care must be taken to protect the electric motor. The machine must be equipped with a special guard for this purpose, or the motor must be set above and out of reach of water. This machine is provided with a waste outlet, but it is a better practice to have the discharge go into an open hopper rather than directly into the sewer. This ar- rangement eliminates the chance of sewer gas entering and mixing with the vegetables. The Vegetable Preparation Table. — The vegetable preparation table should be placed adjacent to the peeling machine and should be about 8' o"X2 r o". SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 5i8 Fig. 442. — Power Food Chopper. Heavy galvanized iron with edges turned down all around makes a very satisfactory and sanitary top. The legs can be made of either galvanized wrought iron or gal- vanized pipe with flange at the bottom as desired. A removable ash cutting board should be provided for the cutting of vegetables and a sink with dimensions of about 24" X 21" X 10" should be set flush with table top. Both sink and top should be of the same material. The Dish-washing Machine. — The washing and sterilizing of dishes and glasses is one feature of the whole system that should be given a great deal of con- sideration because of the danger of the spreading of disease if this work is not properly done. In fact, in many localities there are laws which require that the dishes and glasses used in restaurants and cafeterias be properly sterilized. The dish- washing machine (Figures 445 and 446) with the accompanying tubs should be set as near as possible to the exit door from the dining-room into the kitchen, so that soiled dishes can be immediately unloaded without having to cross the kitchen. This arrangement also leaves the clean dishes in a handy location for easy delivery to the serving tables. There are a number of dish-washing machines which are found to be very satisfactory, the inclosed stationary-dish type having perhaps more ad- vantages than the open submerging type, as the break- age of dishes in the former is reduced to a very small percentage. This absence of breakage is due to the fact that the dishes are placed in wooden racks which hold them away from each other, the water being forced over them through washing jets. The water is supplied by means of a powerful electrically driven pump which is part of the machine. The rinsing is accomplished by use of spraying jets placed in such position that fresh water, direct from the boiler, is sprayed on the dishes from all points. The Dish Tables. • — - The soiled- and clean-dish tables (Figure 447) should be set up and connected to the dish- washing machine, one on each end ; the connection must be made watertight so that no leakage will occur at the junction. The clean-dish table should be so set that it will drain back into the machine. The soiled-dish table drain to a 2" waste outlet at some convenient point in order to allow the liquids from the dishes to separate from the solid matter. A 6" rubber top scrapping ring plug should be fitted into a hole at proper location in this table to take care of solid matter. This ring plug should extend above the table top to prevent the silver from fall- ing through into the garbage receptacle below. These tables should both be supported by 1" galvanized pipe legs with floor flanges. The Pot Sink. — The pot sink should be made of No. 12 or No. 14 galvanized iron, having one washing and Fig. 443. — Mixing Machine THE CAFETERIA Fig. 444. — Vegetable-peeling Machine. Two drain tables, one on each end and about 24" long and the width of the sink, should be rigidly con- nected thereto. The sink and drains should have a 10" high splash back at the wall, and the drains should be turned up 4" at the front and ends. The front of the drains and the sink should be reinforced by having a \ oval galvanized iron band riveted and soldered to the top edge. The sink should be supported by galvanized wrought iron legs. The dish-washing machine, the soiled-dish table, and Fig. 445. — Small Dish-washing Machine. terial as the pot sink and should be constructed on the same plan, except that, instead of using a standing overflow waste plug in each compartment, a ground plug and chain should be fitted. The size of each com- partment should be about 24" X 24" X 17", this being of proper size to accommodate the i7"X22 // trays, which is the size commonly used. The Storeroom. — The storeroom should be placed adjacent to the kitchen. It should be of sufficient size to store all supplies necessary for a period of at one rinsing compartment, each 30" X 24" X 16", fitted with a 2" standing overflow waste outlet. Each waste outlet should be protected by a sliding removable cor- ner strainer made of same material as the sink ; this protects the waste lines from being clogged when the standing overflow plug is removed. A removable sliding pot rack should be furnished with the sink so that pots can be handled above the water line for the purpose of scraping. the pot sink should be connected to a water-cooled grease trap designed to catch the grease and allowing it to congeal therein instead of in the sewer pipes, thus reducing the danger of having them stopped up. The Tray and Glass-washing Sink .- — The tray and glass-washing sink should be made of the same ma- 520 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE least thirty days, except those articles which can be taken care of in the refrigerator. A storeroom of this kind should be about 30' X 30k It should be well venti- lated and, if possible, lighted by natural light. The walls and ceiling should be finished in hard wall plaster or like material, and the floor finished in white tile or cement with a sanitary base. A line of shelves 20" wide should extend from the ceiling down each side of Fig. 446. — Large Dish- washing Machine. the room, and another line down the center. Under each set of shelves and 32" from floor should be placed a counter top about T 6" wide, under which it is a good practice to accommodate a number of portable bins for the storing of loose cereals, beans, peas, etc. These bins are made of either galvanized iron or wood, and are equipped with rubber-tired wheels so that they may be rolled out to any location when it is found necessary to refill them or to scrub the floor. The Cold-storage Room. — This room should be roomy enough to store supplies for about three days, and should be divided into three compartments : one for meats, one for dairy products, and one for fruits and vegetables. The meat compartment is usually of dimensions about 8' 6"X6' o"x6' 6"; the other two compartments about 5' o"x6' o" X6' 6". The three should be finished on the inside with a good grade of cement or white glazed tile. When these materials are not available, a suitable interior may be had by using a good grade of white spruce, T and G, giving it three coats of boiled linseed oil and rubbing it well be- tween the coats. The meat compartment should be fitted on two sides with 14" wide removable latticed shelves and on the other side with a double row of re- movable tinned meat hooks. The other compartments should be fitted with removable latticed shelves on one side only, leaving the other sides free for the storing of boxes, etc. The ice compartment should occupy all the space above the food compartments. Behind the refrigerator, there should extend a hallway into which the door of the compartment should open, thus eliminating the necessity of carrying ice through the kitchen. An iron hook, fixed in the ceiling above the ice compartment door, makes a very convenient arrange- ment to which the iceman may attach his tackle in raising the blocks of ice. The front of the cold storage room should be built flush with the kitchen wall and access be made possible by means of doors opening through the wall into the kitchen. The floor should be laid 6" higher than that of the kitchen to prevent water from entering the food compartments should any of the doors be left open when the kitchen is being scrubbed. The room should be located as far as is conveniently possible from the range and other cooking equipment. The outside of the refrigerator may be finished to match the kitchen and hallway walls, or in natural woods. The Dining-room. — The food, after being prepared in the kitchen, is transferred to the steam table in set pots and pans, which are made of various sizes and shapes best adapted to the food to be served. These insets are then placed in the steam table in the dining-room, where the food is kept at the proper temperature dur- ing mealtime. This equipment is necessary, for a good meal can very easily become unpalatable if it is allowed to cool so that it will have to be reheated. Trucks for the delivery of food to the dining-room and for the return of soiled dishes are found very useful in many of the larger cafeterias. The Serving Counter. — The serving counter should be about 50' long X29" wide, and should be arranged to contain the following sections, beginning at the traffic entry : tray and silver table, bread and butter table, salad table, steam table, dessert table, cold-drink table, and last the hot-drink table. THE CAFETERIA 521 To construct the best type of serving counter for all sections except the steam table and cold-drink table, a frame of wood or iron should be erected in the proper location, and covered on the top and front with 3" X6 " white glazed wall tile, laid in cement on wire lath con- struction. The server’s side of the counter should be left open and should be fitted underneath with a shelf for the use of the servers. The Steam Table. — The steam-table section should be about re/ long and set with the top flush with the other sections, the front to be so constructed that the tile will show an unbroken line with the other sections throughout. The top should be made of No. 12 or No. 14 galvanized iron, into which are cut the openings for the insets required by the service. The iron top should be covered with polished nickel silver with the edges well turned under to prevent it from buckling and twisting. The Hot-water Pan. — The hot-water pan should be about 8" deep and should extend the full length and width of the top. The pan should be made of cold rolled copper weighing about 2 pounds per square foot. Under the water pan is constructed a compartment for the warm- ing of dishes. This compartment and the water pan should be heated by either gas burners of proper size or by steam coils as the case may be. The Dish-warming Compartment. — - The dish-warming compartment should be provided with tight-fitting doors in order to keep the heat in and exclude the dust. The Cold-drink Section. — The cold- drink section is constructed in the same manner as the other tiled top sections, except that the top should be countersunk about 8" deep, forming a pan about 3' o" longX22" wide. This is for the purpose of holding ice on to which the milk bottles, etc., are placed. There should be a 1" waste outlet and strainer set into bottom to drain off the water. The Urn .- — Coffee is not as a rule served in school cafeterias except to the teachers, chocolate taking its place. It is therefore desirable to have an urn from which can be served coffee and also hot water for the mixing of chocolate. This urn should contain about 4 gallons of coffee and 10 gallons of hot water. The urn should be placed on a combination urn stand and cup warmer. The top is constructed the same as the steam-table top, except that the edges are turned up 1" high all around to prevent dripping to floor. The warming compartment is constructed the same as the steam table and is heated in the same manner. A gas burner is brought through the top to heat the urn, care being taken to properly ferrule the opening in order to prevent leakage into the cups. The Tray Slide. — The whole serving counter must have a tray slide about 8" wide bracketed to the counter front about 8" above the top. This rail and bracket, if constructed of dark mahogany, makes a very pleasing combination with the white tile. The Checking Table. — - The checking table, containing the checking machine or cash register, is located beyond the end of the serving counter and so placed that food can be handily checked as it is being taken from the service. This table should also be made of dark mahogany to match the rails and bracket of the serving counter. The Drinking- fountain. — A drinking-fountain at which the pupils may obtain their drinking water should Fig. 447. — Arrangement or Dish Tables with Dish-washing Machines. 522 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE be placed at a convenient point in the dining-room not the general refrigerator, or a special ice box can be too far from the checker. It should be fitted with a provided. Each entire service must be identical in de- quick-opening and self-closing faucet of a type which sign and equipment, and the traffic aisles should each requires only one hand to operate. If desired the water be fenced off from seating rooms. The fence should can be cooled by connecting the pipes to coils placed in correspond to the other wood construction. CHAPTER XXV HEATING AND VENTILATING By Mr. George E. Reed, M.E. I. Introduction. II. Standard of Purity. III. Ozonating. IV. Air Filters. V. Humidity. VI. Air Volumes. VII. Cost of Ventilation. VIII. Window Ventilation. IX. Open-air Rooms. X. Stoves, (i) Jacketed Stoves. XI. Furnaces, (i) Defects of Gravity Furnace Systems. (2) Gravity-indirect Steam. (3) Aspirating Coils. (4) Defects of Gravity-indirect, (s') Types of Modern Plants. (6) Furnace Plants in General. XII. Steam Systems. (1; One-pipe Gravity Steam. (2) Two-pipe Gravity Steam. (3) Vacuum Return Systems. XIII. Hot-water Systems. (1) Forced Hot Water. XIV. Apparatus and Design of Plant. XV. Boilers. (1) Boiler Supports and Settings. (2) Boiler Furnaces. (3) Smokeless Boilers. (4) Boiler Location. (5) Smokestack. (6) Oil Fuel. (7) Boiler Room, Piping. (8) Boiler Feed Pumps. (9) Vacuum Pumps. (10) Lubricators, (n) Exhaust Steam. Danger from Oil. (12) Domestic Hot-water Heaters. XVI. The Heating and Ventilating Plant. (1) Heating of Special Rooms. (2) The Indirect System. (3) Air Intake. (4) Intake Dampers. (5) Heating Coils. (6) Fans. (7) Motors. (8) Air Washers. (9) Fan and Coil Connections. (10) Plenum Chambers, (n) The Duct System. (12) Air Inlet Heads. (13) Grilles and Deflectors, Vent Openings. (14) Vent Flues. (15) Roof Ventilators. (1 (19) Temperature Control. Introduction. — During the past few years mechanical ventilation, particularly as applied to schools and other public buildings, has been the object of rather severe condemnation. A return to the old system of window- ventilation is advocated by many, some of these ad- vocates being men of the medical profession ; some are persons with no actual knowledge of the matter, and there are those sincere faddists who cheerfully follow any leader in any direction. There is no doubt that cause for complaint exists. Not all plants are well designed, and in addition they may be antiquated and incompetently operated. Nat- urally but little should be expected from them. Many engineers charged with the design of plants are never brought into very intimate contact with the installa- tions after completion and acceptance by the owner, and it frequently may happen that operation faults develop, which are either not rectified at all, or some makeshift is attempted without a real study of the trouble. Sometimes the owner or the architect, from mistaken ideas of economy, will not make the proper provision financially for an adequate equipment. An- other source of trouble, and a very great one, has been the lack of interest in the results to be accomplished, but even when the interest is present it is not an easy matter to investigate, follow up, and check the results, especially in the classroom containing numerous occu- pants in varying states of health, dress, and cleanliness. Investigations and research work are expensive and involve more time and money than is available to the Roof Dampers. (17) Exhaust Fans. (18) Toilet Ventilation. average engineer. There is no doubt that our present systems of ventilation were evolved after the inadequacy of window methods had been demonstrated, and as the majority of the authorities apparently agree that the new systems are at least an improvement over the old, it would seem logical to continue as we are, improving the systems as better methods are made available. Taking the question of ventilation as a whole, al- though the great majority of authorities are quite agreed that artificial ventilation is beneficial, they all hold to widely varying theories as to the actual effect heating has upon the air itself, and the hygienic effect of dry or artificially humidified air, of different humid- ities at different temperatures, of dust, air currents, quantities, carbon dioxide, etc. All these points should be considered in relation to their effects, but since there is no agreement among authorities, any definite the- oretical working basis is manifestly impossible, and of necessity the plant in question must be designed along its mechanical phases, and in the light of the designer’s experience, past failures, and personal bias. The comment might be made here that nearly all of the most adverse criticism is centered about public and semi-public buildings. It is probably justified. Take two heating plants each equally good in design and material, one in a school, the other privately owned, and better results will be had from the latter. One does not have to go far for the reason. It is because im- properly operated private plants are simply not good business ; they do not pay. 5 2 4 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Very large industrial organizations have investigated the subjects of heating and ventilating in all their branches and by “ stop-watch ” efficiency tests have decided what method is best adapted to each given condition. Having decided what system is required, it is then designed with a definite end in view, and it is afterward operated so as to achieve that result. The Ford Motor Company installed fan ventilation in their great Detroit plant simply and solely because it increased factory output and consequently enhanced earnings. It is not probable that periodically the ques- tion is raised as to whether the system is good or bad. The company knew before it was installed. Silk mills, match factories, and munition plants all have to be provided with some form of artificial hu- midity control and certain departments must be regu- lated with extreme nicety, and it is done. Schools are very remiss in this particular. Even if the plant is provided with all the necessary refinements, use may not be made of them. The man who designs the school heating system has certain things in mind at the time, but unfortunately his connection often termi- nates with the completion of the building, if not at the time the contract is awarded. The result is that the actual operating supervision is left to the business office, and all the aims and purposes of the designer are lost sight of. Air is a mechanical mixture containing approximately 21 per cent of oxygen, the balance being composed principally of nitrogen with small amounts of several rare gases and metals. Air as exhaled contains about 16 per cent of oxygen, the difference being represented by products of combustion within the body, C 0 2 (car- bon dioxide) and water ; it also contains various debris from the tissues. Standard of Purity. — The presence of not more than six parts C 0 2 in 10,000 parts of air has been for years, and still is, quite generally considered the proper standard of purity for air in most ventilating problems, the CO-2 having been held to be very injurious. The idea that C 0 2 is in itself actually poisonous is now generally discarded in all well-informed quarters. The old standard of six parts in 10,000 is, however, almost universally retained, as it happens that an air supply sufficient to maintain this standard with the outside air at three parts, is about enough to carry off the bodily heat and dilute the various objectionable matters and odors. In other words, C 0 2 is really taken as an index to the condition of the air in other respects. The pres- ence of carbon monoxide, however, is distinctly another matter. It is doubtless unnecessary to state that carbon dioxide is the resultant gas obtained by the complete combustion of carbon and oxygen, while carbon monoxide is produced by the incomplete com- bustion of these two elements. Monoxide is com- bustible, having power to unite with more oxygen, then becoming, of course, carbon dioxide. The system in the course of its normal functions is constantly giving off dioxide as one of the products of the combustion of the fuels within the body, and even if inhaled it is gotten rid of with comparative ease. Carbon monoxide, however, is a deadly poison. It forms a large propor- tion of illuminating gas, and is the real cause of the so- called “ motor disease ” which has recently achieved some little press prominence. The action of carbon monoxide is very destructive, it breaks down the hemo- globin of the blood which constitutes the solid structure of the coloring matter of the red corpuscles and which is the oxygen carrier of the blood. Ozonating. — Ozone has been advocated quite ex- tensively, and excellent results are claimed by some who maintain that practically all refuse organic matter is oxidized by it. The opponents insist that ozonating air merely covers one odor with another, and that if enough ozone be admitted actually to oxidize the ob- jectionable substances then the odor would not only be unbearable but there would be actual danger of the formation of nitrous compounds. Quite a variety of apparatus is manufactured and sold regularly by very reliable electrical concerns, but in spite of this it is difficult to find warrant for the general adoption of ozonating apparatus in connection with ventilating problems. Just what effect upon the health is produced by the various excreta contained in exhaled air is not yet es- tablished. It is held by some that they are positively harmful, while others claim that they have no effect whatever, barring, of course, direct infection by germs. On the whole, it may be safe to assert that if the relative humidity and temperature be maintained at the proper points, no danger has yet been proven to exist. The actual cause of “ crowd poison ” seems to be the high temperature and high relative humidity produced by massing people in small spaces or limited areas, either indoors or out. It should be remembered that the temperature of the body must be kept normal and all heat generated by the various processes must be dissi- pated, and when the temperature of the surrounding air is equal to or above that of the body all this heat must be dissipated by the evaporation of water from the surface of the skin. If the air becomes saturated to such a degree that evaporation does not take place with sufficient rapidity, then the temperature of the body will rise and general disorder will ensue. Air Filters. — Dust is objectionable in various ways as a carrier of disease germs, as an irritant to the mem HEATING AND VENTILATING 525 branes, and if carried into buildings it soils walls, furni- ture, etc. Dust can be readily removed by means of air washers if desired. Air filters, composed of a filter- ing material of coarse texture, either wet or dry, have been extensively used in the past, but are now quite generally abandoned on account of their inefficiency, liability to clog with dust, and the excessive resistance offered to the flow of air when fouled. Humidity. — The question of humidity is important but difficult to solve. The term “ humidity ” as used is taken to mean relative humidity expressed in per cent of saturation. The capacity of air to absorb and hold water varies with the temperature, and increases with the temperature. Assuming that the cold outside air be at or near saturation and that it be passed over the heating surfaces without having moisture added to it, the capacity for the absorption of water will be in- creased, depending upon the final temperature. Since the air after heating has this increased power for hold- ing water, it will take it from all available sources ; from the mucous membranes, the linings of the nose, throat and nasal passages, and from the eyes. This naturally leads to inflamed eyes, sore throats, and in- creased liability to cold infections, due to the parched condition of the membranes. Another effect of low humidity is to increase the rate of evaporation from the skin, with the result that a temperature of 70 degrees, or even 72 degrees, may not feel as “ comfortably ” warm as a lower temperature and higher humidity. Although lower temperature could be maintained with comfort in humidified buildings, there would be no sav- ing in fuel, since what would be saved by operating on a lower temperature would be more than offset by the amount of heat required to evaporate the necessary amount of water to raise the humidity. If humidifying is undertaken, it should be with the anticipation that it will be an added expense and in no way a saving. It is not easy to effect a lower room temperature. Many persons are governed by the thermometer and not by their own sensations, and it might be predicted with a reasonable degree of accuracy that were all heated spaces lowered in temperature to say 64 degrees, many of the occupants would feel chilly as soon as they viewed the thermometer, regardless of the degree of relative humidity. Humidifying is not easy in practice. The best percentage has not been agreed upon, and there are some natural difficulties. In cold weather the windows are liable to become foggy, due to condensation, the CfeofqqE, t. Kixd Af, Fig. 448. 526 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE books and papers get wet and clammy, and blackboards slippery. While the average degree of humidity is much higher in Portland, Oregon, than in some of the eastern cities, there are periods when it becomes very low, readings sometimes showing as low as 20 per cent. Air Volume. — Air volume and the location of air inlets are of great importance, as well as the design of the inlet heads themselves. From 25 to 30 cubic feet of air per minute per occupant is about the amount required to maintain a standard of purity of 6 parts C 0 2 in 10,000 parts of air, and this is the amount usu- ally required by city ordinance where such obtains. In the schools of Portland 40 cubic feet per pupil is the standard, for the reason that while a smaller amount will maintain the standard of purity, it will not keep the odors down. Air movement is of impor- tance, but hard to control. The warm air entering the room naturally rises, traverses the room more or less uniformly, cools, and drops, passing back through the breathing zone and out through a vent opening near the floor, located in the same wall as the heat inlet. Little trouble is experienced while the incoming air is warm, but as soon as the problem becomes one of cool- ing instead of heating, the entering air may fall more or less compactly within limited areas near the inlet, re- sulting in “ drafts.” The personal equation compli- cates the situation, because if the air movement is not perceptible some persons will complain that the room is stuffy, while others will complain of draft if they feel any movement of the air whatever. Cost of Ventilation. — Ventilation is expensive — it takes as much and sometimes more fuel to heat to room temperature the air required for ventilation than to supply the actual heat losses due to transmission through walls and glass. The cost of ventilation can be reduced by recirculating a part of the air, always adding some fresh from outside, say one-fourth to one-third of the total amount, and if the recirculated air is washed, very economical and satisfactory results can be obtained. Recirculating is very generally done in industrial plants, but it is out of the question in schools, for psychological reasons, if for no other. Window Ventilation. — Window ventilation for schools has been strongly urged, but for reasons which should be obvious it can hardly be expected to supplant the forced system. In the first place, it would be very difficult to get enough direct radiation in a classroom to take care of the heat losses and also heat the proper of ror/y/icf r= &ETr//yG- d£t,»/lo or wrp/r cpatao - BOlUfL JLTTI1VGS ■ CtORGZ Z.AjJLD M-L Fig. 449. HEATING AND VENTILATING 527 amount of air for ventilation. Few classrooms can, for hygienic reasons, have windows on more than one side of the room, and any circulation of air through the room is difficult, if not impossible. On windy days there will be too much air admitted and the seats near the open windows will be cold and those on the opposite side of the room too hot. The leeward side of the build- ing can get no ventilation whatever, due to the fact that it is in a zone of negative pressure, and if it does get any air it is certain to be vitiated air from some other more fortunately located portion of the building. Another difficulty is the preven- tion of the entrance of snow and rain through open windows, and in very inclement weather the windows are not opened at all and there can then be no ventilation except leakage. Much opposition among occupants of artificially ventilated rooms comes from the fact that they are not supposed to open windows. In a properly designed plant the opening of a few windows will do no particular harm except to waste fuel, and it generally does no good except to the imagination. No air can come in, as the room is under a plenum of pressure, and all air movement will be outward unless there is wind enough to overcome the fan pressure. No control of humidity and poor control of temperature will be achieved in a room heated entirely by direct radiation. It can also be demonstrated that a plant composed entirely of direct radiation is not cheaper to install, if the same results and capacities are actually pro vided. The usual comparison is that of a direct system providing for the heat loss plus about three to four changes of air per hour, as against an indirect system with from six to seven changes, in other words, a little over one-half the capacity. Open-air Rooms. — Open-air rooms and the frank abandonment of any artificial means of heating or ventilating reached a spectacular climax of popularity a couple of years ago, but much less is heard of it to-day. There is no doubt that open-air rooms have their place, which is to care for special cases. Open-air work should be done by specialists, and the children constantly kept under proper supervision as regards dress, diet, etc. It should be noted that open-air schoolrooms were originally applied to children sub-normal in a physical sense, and while excellent results were obtained, it does not follow that like benefits would be achieved by the indiscriminate application of the principle to all schools by the general teaching staff and without es- pecial medical supervision, which would, of course, be prohibitive in cost on so large a scale. It is impos- sible to find any record of the scientific application of open-air work to normal children, and it no more follows that much good would result than that the indiscriminate application of hospital methods to healthy persons would prove particularly beneficial. The various agitations of the past few years have not been barren of results. There is an awakening both among laymen and among engineers, many of the latter having been in a some- what comatose state, and there is no doubt that many of the worst features of our systems will be eradicated or at least improved upon. Stoves. — The stove as a heating appliance is so simple and so familiar to almost everyone that it is perhaps superfluous to touch upon it in this chapter. Twenty- five or thirty years ago it was in very general use in pub- lic buildings and homes alike, and to-day it is by no means uncommon in the country. It is found in the portable schoolhouses of the city, usually in the modi- 528 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect, Mr. Geo. E. Reed. Mechanical Engineer Fig. 451. — -Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Oregon. lied form known as the jacketed stove. As a means of heating, the stove is a decided success, particularly in its immediate neighborhood, but inherent limitations confine its use to the very smallest and crudest of school structures. Jacketed Stoves. — The jacketed stove, in addition to its ability to heat, possesses some powers of ventilation. It consists of a simple heater inclosed in a metal casing, the space between the stove proper and the casing being connected to the outdoor air by means of a fresh air duct. The general arrangement is that of a small house-heating furnace with the top and ducts removed. The actual ventilating capacity of a jacketed heater is not great, but as the usual portable is not a very tight structure and is exposed on at least three sides, infiltration and leakage are sufficient to keep the quality of the air fairly good. The jacketed stove is a great improvement over the naked heater. The casing serves as a guard against accident by protecting the very hot surfaces, and less discomfort is experienced in seats near it. Furnaces. — The greatest single improvement over the stove in its elementary state was the invention of the furnace. All the fires were removed from the several rooms and centrally located in the basement near the fuel supply and where the firing, cleaning, and removal of ashes could be accomplished more satisfactorily. The concentration of a number of small heating units into a single large one resulted in fuel economy, less labor and attention, better control, and all the opera- tions could be carried on without entering the classrooms. The fire hazard was also greatly reduced. The furnace in one form or another is more generally used than any other form of heating appliance. It is comparatively inexpensive to install and is especially suitable for small buildings since it requires the minimum of skill in operation. The furnace is a variation of the jacketed stove and is wholly desirable in its proper field. Defects of Gravity Furnace Systems. — Furnace sys- tems are usually of the “ gravity ” type. All air move- ment is produced by the tendency of the heated air to HEATING AND VENTILATING 529 Fig. 452. — Mr. Floyd A. Naramore , Architect , Mr. George E. Reed, M. E. Boiler Room, Main Steam Piping, Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Oregon. rise, and this tendency of necessity varies with the de- gree to which the air is heated, and with temperature of the outdoor air. The greater the difference between the temperature in the heating risers and the outside, the more will be the air delivery. Long horizontal ducts between the furnace and bases of risers affect the air flow unfavorably and the direction of wind is a factor as well. In a still day the system may act perfectly, — given a strong wind blowing directly into the fresh air intake, gusts of cool air are sometimes felt at the heat registers, having passed through the furnace so rapidly that they were not heated. On the other hand, if the wind is in such a direction that the intake is located on the lee side, the proper air movement may be reversed and the warm air pulled out of the building through the cold air connections. These characteristics are prob- ably familiar to all who have ever operated the average house-heating furnace. Since the ventilating effect is a direct result of tem- perature difference within and without the heating riser, it should be apparent that in mild and warm weather this effect will be slight or nil. In other words, a gravity furnace will heat and ventilate in cold weather, it will warm the building when it is mild outdoors, but in warm weather it is of no avail for ventilation. This shortcoming of the system being recognized, the next step was to provide some means of removing the air from the building, which would be independent of external conditions and of the main heating plant proper. The earliest attempt within the recollection of the writer was in a school which he attended in Massachu- setts some twenty-five or thirty years ago. This build- ing was provided with a large exterior brick stack, at the bottom of which a coal fire was constantly burning, which created a strong natural draft. The vent flues from the classrooms were connected to the stack, and the rooms could be more or less ventilated at all times. This system was extremely wasteful of fuel, and the fires in the vent stack consumed as much as, if not more 53 ° SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. Floyd . 4 . Naramore Architect, Mr. Geo. E. Reed, Mechanical Engineer. Fig. 453. — Boiler Room, Metering Heater, Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Oregon. fuel than those on the grates of the furnaces which did the heating of the building. This method of air re- moval was the forerunner of the “ aspirating coil,” and neither should be recommended on account of high fuel consumption. As the iron and steel industry developed, boilers came into general use, steam and hot water became very strong competitors of the furnace, and finally elimi- nated it altogether except for small buildings or those where low first cost predominates. This was due in the main to two reasons. In the first place, a furnace must be absolutely tight in all its joints, else trouble will be experienced from smoke and dust finding their way into the air passages and thence to the building. It is next to impossible to construct a furnace so that it will neither burn through if of steel, nor crack and warp if of cast iron. In either case the result is a leaking furnace and soiled building wall surfaces. The second reason for steam supplanting furnace heat was that the rooms, if heated by steam, could be located within any reasonable distance from the heater, while with furnaces long horizontal ducts meant bad air distribution. Gravity-indirect Steam. (See Figure 448.) — The earlier steam ventilating plants usually consisted of some form of radiation, and differed from the furnace installation in that the hot-air furnace was dispensed with and radiators were placed in the ducts themselves. Sometimes each riser would have its own individual heater, and frequently a number of rooms would be heated by a bank of radiators, each group having its own fresh air intake. Aspirating Coils. — To remove the air from the rooms when the heating coils were not in operation the vent flues were each provided with a so-called “ as- pirating coil.” (See Figure 448.) This coil served to heat the air in the vent riser duct, causing it to rise and make its way to the atmosphere. This system, com- monly known as the “ gravity-indirect,” was exten- sively used before the application of the fan to heat- ing problems, and occasionally it is installed to-day. HEATING AND VENTILATING 53i Defects of Gravity-indirect. — The “ gravity-indirect ” system is faulty in some very vital points. Being based wholly on the gravity principle, its operation is often hampered by adverse weather conditions, as in the case of the gravity furnace. The movement of air by means of heat applied directly to the air itself is very costly when compared with moving the same amount by mechanical methods such as engine or motor driven fans. A serious defect, though one of operation and avoidable, is that the air valves and traps on the “ as- pirating ” coils may become clogged and the coils air- bound. In this case, and it is not an infrequent one, the coils do not heat, and the room is consequently not ventilated. Fans had been in use many years for ventilating mines, and after going through various stages of development, their application to building problems became more and more general. Types of Modern Plants. — Modern school heating systems in general are divided into three classes, fur- nace, steam, and hot water, each having its own pe- culiarities, advantages, and disadvantages. Furnace Plants in General. — As stated above, the fur- nace plant is cheaper to install, somewhat more simple in operation, and may be slightly more economical from a fuel standpoint. In addition to liability of dust, smoke, and gases from cracked or burned furnace sections and leaking joints, it is difficult to heat small service and special rooms without heating the entire building at the same time. This fact often offsets any fuel economy the plant may otherwise attain. In ex- treme weather the whole building may have to be heated in order to protect plumbing pipes and fixtures, all of which may be located in a few rooms. In case the building is too large for one furnace, two or more are assembled in battery. This presents diffi- culties in the way of even distribution of heat to different rooms. No trouble is experienced when the weather is cold, as there is then a fire in each furnace. In mild weather, however, all the fires will not be lighted, and those rooms will not be heated which receive their air supply from ducts leading out from near the cold furnaces, while the other rooms may be too warm. This is a condition which can be remedied in a degree by the installation of “ baffles ” and deflectors, but not satisfactorily. The janitor may forget the arrangement and location of these “ baffles,” and light furnaces which should not be lighted, or repairs may necessitate a dif- ferent arrangement from that obtaining before. Complaint is often made of the very dry and “ burned ” condition of the air from furnaces. There is probably just basis for it, but the reason has not yet been accu- rately determined. It is possible that the extremely hot surfaces of the furnace radiators burn the impuri- ties in the air or perhaps change in an unknown way some of the vital qualities of the air itself. The writer is of the opinion that low relative humidity is the cause of most of the discomfort. Steam Systems. — -The steam system is somewhat more expensive to install, and requires a higher grade of operating ability. Special rooms, corridors, offices, and toilets can be warmed by direct radiation (see Figure 460), making these rooms available outside of school hours and also permitting the heating of just those portions of the building necessary for the protec- tion of plumbing against freezing, all at a minimum fuel expenditure. One-pipe Gravity Steam. — The simplest form of steam is the one-p : pe gravity, which is usually operated at pressures up to twenty to twenty-five pounds per square inch. For all but the very largest buildings, where problems of drainage and pipe sizes would render one-pipe gravity undesirable, this system is probably the best-fitted for school work. It is comparatively cheap to install, and its simplicity of construction makes operation easy. It requires little by way of maintenance and is efficient. The “ one-pipe gravity ” system is so called because the steam and water of condensation are both con- veyed through a single pipe. For this reason the pip- ing system has to be large and high steam velocities avoided. In a horizontal pipe, for instance, the steam flows away from the boiler and the water toward it. If the pipe is too long or not sufficiently large or if the grade too low, the steam may impede or even stop the flow of water, resulting in “ water hammer,” broken fittings, and split pipe, with consequent damage to building and fixtures. Two-pipe Gravity Steam. — Two-pipe gravity systems are sometimes installed, in which case, separate returns are taken back to the boiler from the radiators. V acuum Return Systems. — The vacuum system is a modification of the two-pipe gravity. This system gives good results if properly designed and constructed. There are several vacuum appliances on the market, differing only in detail, workmanship, and cost. They are practically alike in principle. An important advantage of the vacuum system is that the pitch of piping can be reduced to less than that of the gravity, and the returns can be made higher than the radiators if absolutely necessary ; but this is bad practice. There are no air valves on the radiators to spit water, and much better control is possible, since the radiator valve may be partly open in any position. Hot-water Systems.— Hot-water heating systems may be either forced or gravity. In the former the water is circulated by means of a pump, and in the latter circu- 532 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig Mr. Floyd Narainore, Architect, Mr. Geo. E. Reed, Mechanical Engineer. 454. — Engine Room, Benson Polytechnic High, School Portland, Oregon. lation is produced by the tendency of the hot water to rise. The gravity hot-water system is admirably adapted for house heating, but it has limitations which prevent its being of much utility in schools. It will not be considered in this chapter. Forced Hot Water. — Forced hot water is a most satisfactory heating medium. It is agreeable, very flexible and easy to control. It is peculiarly adapted to the heating of scattered buildings. Where the ground is very uneven and the buildings are on different elevations, forced hot water conforms readily to the conditions, as the piping can follow the contour. This system is relatively expensive, although not excessively so: The cost of a forced hot-water installa- tion should not exceed that of first class vacuum work. Forced hot water requires more attention in design of plant and especially of distribution. The pipe sizes, in general, of a forced hot-water system will usually be about the same as for vacuum under the same conditions. The actual sizes depend entirely upon the limit of friction against which it is desired to pump the circulating water. Each and every main and branch should be figured as an hydraulic problem, and the nearest size of commer- cial pipe selected. The too common practice of estimat- ing pipe sizes by some rough and ready rule and then filling the system up with so-called “ chokers ” should be condemned. Like everything else in the scheme of things “ chokers ” have their place, but to install a four-inch heating main and then close it off with a “ choker ” having a two-inch orifice is anything but good engineering practice. Better and cheaper to install smaller pipe. Great care is necessary in the design of hot-water plants, to the end that no portion of the piping is exposed in such a way as to cause freezing. This can be pre- vented without difficulty. Apparatus and Design of Plant. — - It might be stated here that there is nothing in the design of a heating plant, of whatever type, which goes further towards HEATING AND VENTILATING 533 Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect, Mr. Geo. E. Reed, Mechanical Engineer. Fig. 455. — Engine Room, Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Oregon. promoting satisfaction all around, as well as economy, than simplicity and the elimination of every needless complication. Too many engineers inject all sorts of unnecessary apparatus into the plants intrusted to them for design, with the result that the operating history of an installation is one of repairs, renewals, and general expense to the owner. In general, the simpler a plant is the more efficient it probably will be. The inclusion of the many patent devices calculated to remove all necessity for brains on the part of the attendant, or to perform miracles in fuel conservation, should be avoided. Many of these contrivances are sold with guarantees which are very broad and binding, but often valueless. Not infrequently the maker or agent will have gone out of business before the buyer discovers that the mechanical wonder does not function. The selection of the various apparatus of the school plant is a question of vital importance, and one that never should be left to anyone having an interest in the sale of the equipment, either directly or indirectly, or the results may be bad. Every item included in the heating installation should be of high grade and of standard make. Boilers. — The boiler best suited to general heating work is the horizontal-return tubular, with the excep- tions that below forty horse power, a firebox boiler is equally good and cheaper, and for sizes of one hundred and seventy-five horse power and over, water-tube boilers are to be preferred. The return tubular boiler should be designed for a working pressure of one hundred and fifty pounds per square inch, with double butt- strapped joints and charcoal iron tubes. These last two details in normal times cost but little more as com- pared with a standard boiler, and add greatly to the life and safety of the installation. Boiler Supports and Settings. (See Figure 449.) — All boilers above one hundred and twenty-five horse power should be provided with a gallows frame, half or full suspension. The practice of carrying all the weight of a heavy boiler on the boiler brickwork is a bad one. It 534 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE inevitably results in cracked and broken settings with lowered efficiency due to air leakage, and is apt to be productive of bad strains in the boiler itself as a result of uneven support. The boiler should be inclosed in brickwork composed of the very best of materials, installed by men skilled in this particular branch of masonry. Every attention should be paid to the proper air spaces, linings, and the protection of structural members and supports from heat. Boiler Furnaces. — As regards importance of function, the furnace ranks second to no other part of the plant, but it is too seldom that much thought is given it. It can be stated that, as a rule, the furnaces are not large enough as regards combustion space, and it is not often that they are designed with any particular fuel in view. The greatest fault is that the boilers are contracted for with standard settings, and they are altogether too low for the economical or smokeless use of fuel. The combustion chamber should be increased in height by one to three and one-half feet in addition to the standard height. How much they should be raised depends upon the nature of the fuel and the size and type of boiler. Smokeless Boilers. — Smokeless operation is prac- tically impossible unless the boilers are equipped with “ smokeless ” settings or down-draft grates. Both of these, for application to the ordinary-sized plant, have been worked out to a high degree of perfection, especially in Chicago. “ Smokeless ” settings and down- draft grates, however, achieve their purpose at some cost to boiler capacity. Boiler Location. — If possible the boilers should be located outside the building proper, for considerations of safety and to facilitate the handling of fuel, ashes, and supplies. Smokestack. — - The breeching and stack are of prime importance. Both should be of ample size to carry off the waste gases, and the stack should be high enough to produce and maintain the draft pressure necessary for good combustion. No hard and fast rule can be laid down for the stack design which will be applicable for all conditions and fuels, since the requirements will vary widely. A low-draft pressure would be satisfactory for fuel oil, but higher pressures must be had if coal is used and particularly a strong coking coal. The stacks of school plants are too often not high enough for good results. This is frequently due to bad design as well as to limitations imposed by the architect. Oil Fuel. — - Crude oil is an ideal fuel, from the stand- point of cleanliness and ease of operation. It is economi- cal if the equipment is properly selected and installed, but its use is limited to a comparatively few localities. Boiler Room. Piping. — Everything in and about the boiler room should be heavy, and securely installed. All boiler-feed and blow-off piping and all other boiler piping up to the first valve should be extra heavy. It is good practice to make all valves and fittings in the boiler room extra heavy, since it is here that the greatest strains occur. Ample provision for expansion and contraction is a requisite throughout the entire system, but it is especially so in the boiler room. Boiler Feed Pumps. — Boiler feed pumps of the out- side packed plunger type are the most desirable, since any leakage is instantly visible, which is not the case with piston-packed pumps ; however, piston-packed pumps are satisfactory for small plants. Boiler feed pumps should be installed in duplicate, each pump large enough to handle the entire plant under maximum load. This will insure low piston speeds, few packing troubles, and long life. Vacuum Pumps. — Vacuum pumps having a rated capacity of one-third to one-half in excess of maximum figured requirements is good practice and the pumps should be equipped with suction strainers to prevent the entry of dirt and scale with consequent injury to valves and cylinders. Lubricators. — Forced-feed lubricators are a necessity in all pump installations. The action of boiler feeders and vacuum pumps is intermittent and the forced-feed lubricator supplies oil only when the pump operates, consequently reducing the cost of lubrication. The less oil is fed into the system, the less has to be eliminated. Sight feed lubricators should be installed, however, in addition to the mechanical ones, as a precaution against breakdown. Exhaust Steam. Danger from Oil. — The exhaust from the steam-actuated auxiliaries may be utilized in the heating system, provided proper means are adapted to remove all lubricants. Oil in boilers is a very serious matter, burned and bulged plates can very easily be the result, and it requires but little oil to do a great deal of damage. Domestic Hot-water Heaters. — Provision for heating water must be made, and the quantity to be heated will vary with the school, but for the average elementary school with eight hundred pupils, a two-hundred gallon tank containing from twelve to fifteen feet of two-inch brass pipe is ample. Schools having pools or large shower rooms, high schools and trade schools, present problems of their own. In schools having steam-actuated auxiliaries, it is not a bad idea to arrange the piping so that the exhaust can be utilized in the heaters exclusively, and the con- densation wasted to the blow-off tank or the sewer. This means some loss of heat with the condensation, but HEATING AND VENTILATING 535 Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect , Mr. Geo. E. Reed , Mechanical Engineer. Fig. 456. — Fan Room, Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Oregon. it is probably offset by the increased efficiency of the clean boilers. The Heating and Ventilating Plant. — The portion of the system most intimately related to the occupants of the building as regards health and comfort is the heating and ventilating plant proper. Generally speak- ing, there are two distinct methods ; one consists of the supplying of all wall and glass losses by means of direct radiation in conjunction with a fan system arranged to ventilate only, by supplying air at or a little below room temperature. (See Figure 448.) The other system eliminates the radiators and delivers air to the rooms at a temperature high enough to make up for the heat loss through walls and windows. (See Figure 448.) The first system is more expensive to install, but is better adapted to very low temperatures and is other- wise desirable. Any room can be used after school hours, for community purposes, for instance, without operating the fans. The second system costs less to install, is more simple of operation, and is particularly adapted to those localities not liable to extremes of cold weather. Heating of Special Rooms. — In either case corridors, toilets, rest, and emergency rooms, principal’s office, and other special service rooms, should be fitted with direct radiation hung on concealed brackets, and where the radiator is not located under a window, provided with a metal shield placed behind it to protect the walls from discoloration. The Indirect System. — The indirect, or fan system, comprises tempering and reheating coils, fans, air washer, galvanized iron ducts, inlets with grilles or deflectors and an appropriate system of vent flues for the removal of the vitiated air from the building. Air Intake. — - The air should be brought into the building through a fresh-air intake, with its inlet not lower than the second story and at a velocity not higher than eight hundred feet per minute.. The intake opening should be provided with fixed louvers for the exclusion of rain and snow, and a wire screen. The net 536 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect, Mr. Geo. E. Reed, Mechanical Engineer. Fig. 457. — Fan Room, Tempering Coils, Plumbing Manifold, Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Oregon. area through these louvers should never be less than the area of the intake itself. This is an important detail, and one that is often overlooked in the drafting room. Intake Dampers. — Louver dampers in the intake are a necessity, and they may be arranged for manual con- trol or by means of an air switch in connection with the thermostat air compressor; provision should also be made for recirculating air when heating up the building, as this means economy. Heating Coils. — The heating coils may be either of pipe or of cast iron. Under normal conditions they cost practically the same, and foot for foot there is no difference in efficiency, but the cast-iron heaters present certain inherent advantages. They can be installed in either a horizontal or a vertical position and can be assembled in various desired combinations. The most widely used cast-iron heater is the American Radiator Company’s “ Vento.” It is conservatively rated by the manufacturers and can be obtained in sizes to suit any condition. Fans. — There are many makes of fans in vogue, but they may all be roughly divided into three groups, steel plate or “ paddle-wheel,” multiblade, and some form of disc or propeller. The disc or propeller fan is not broadly adapted to heating work, although in small plants and where the resistance is low it answers the purpose. The steel plate fan has been practically elimi- nated from the heating field by the multiblade, not because it is less efficient necessarily, but because the latter is smaller for a given amount of air and possesses totally different characteristics, which better fit it for use in heating and ventilating. Substantially all the multiblade fans are developments of the Davison fan; they differ only as to details of workmanship and material. There is one departure, however, in the Buffalo Concidal, which has been de- veloped along lines entirely distinct from any other. It is very conservatively rated, possesses a very uniform delivery of air over the entire outlet, and is quiet in operation. No fan, however, can be quiet if the system HEATING AND VENTILATING 537 Mr. Floyd. A. Naramore, Architect, Mr. Geo. E. Reed , Mechanical Engineer. Fig. 458. — Boiler Room, Franklin High School, Portland, Oregon. is improperly designed. The velocity through the outlet of the fan should not exceed from twelve hundred to fifteen hundred feet per minute, and the total pressure of the fans should not be more than one and one-eighth inch water pressure. Motors. — Motors should be selected with relatively j low relative speeds to insure quiet running and long life. Motor pulleys should be one size larger in diameter than the standard pulleys regularly fitted to prevent belt ; slipping ; this is particularly applicable to alternating- current motors. Air Washers. — Air washers are a necessity in all localities where the air is smoky or dusty, such as in the congested districts of cities. Country schools, or those located in outlying city districts, need them less, as a rule. An air washer reduced to its prime essentials consists of a tank for holding the water, a series of nozzles for producing a spray, a set of eliminating plates for the removal of entrained water, and a circulat- ing pump. When in operation, the pump draws water from the tank, forces it through the nozzles, where it is broken up into a very fine mist-like spray through which the air is drawn in the process of washing, thus removing practically all solid matter. After leaving the nozzles the water falls to the tank or is caught on the eliminating plates and is recirculated. The washer maybe fitted with a humidifying apparatus consisting of some means of heating the washing water, thus raising the humidity of the air, which is under control of a humidistat. This heating may be accom- plished directly by means of a steam jet, or the water may be heated in a closed heater. For good results the velocity of the air through the washer should not exceed four hundred and fifty feet per minute, and the washer should always be placed on the suction side of the fan and never on the fan outlet, as there is then liability of producing “ blow holes ” through the mist and considerable quantity of the air will go through unwashed. Fan and Coil Connections. — - Good judgment and 538 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect, Mr. Geo. E. Reed, Mechanical Engineer. Fig. 459. — Boiler Room, Circulating Pumps lor Forced Hot-water Heating System, Franklin High School, Portland, Oregon. experience are necessary in the selection of fans, coils, washers, etc., also determining their relation to each other, and to the duct system. The most prevalent fault is short connections between the several compo- nent parts. All connections should be long enough to permit of easy air flow, especially the connection between the fan and the reheating coils. If this connection is too short there will be an area of high pressure in the plenum chambers directly in front of the fan outlet, which will tend to force heated air back through the coils at the ends into the tempered air chamber and upset the temper- ature control. This is the usual cause of “ back lash.” Plenum Chambers. — The plenum chambers should be as nearly square as possible, and the velocity across its cross section should not exceed three hundred feet per minute. The Duel System . — No part of the plant requires more skill in design than the duct system. It may be of galvanized iron, tile, or cement, or in part of all three. Such parts as may be of tile or cement should be ample in cross-section, and all interior surfaces of concrete ducts should be plastered, sharp turns should be avoided, and except where proper provision has been made for them, heating and plumbing pipes and electric conduits should be vigorously excluded from all ducts. The duct system deserves, but does not always get, close supervision during construction. It is not an uncommon occurrence that a good layout is destroyed by poor instal- lation. High velocities in the duct systems should be avoided. One thousand feet in horizontals and four hundred feet in vertical risers is excellent, .but not always possible. Each branch or duct should be provided with a damper to balance and control properly the flow of air. Air Inlet Heads. — Air inlet heads should be located at such height that their tops will be about six inches below the ceiling, and it is advantageous if they be pro- vided with air splits and deflectors to deliver the air uniformly into the room. (See Figure 450.) It not infre- quently happens that full duct velocity will be found over an area of from one-half or less of the inlet, and zero HEATING AND VENTILATING 539 Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect, Mr. Geo. E. Reed, Mechanical Engineer. Fig. 460. — Fan Installation during Construction, New Couch School, Portland, Oregon. or negative velocity over the remainder. A velocity of three hundred feet per minute should not be exceeded through the air inlets. Grilles and Deflectors. Vent Openings.—- Except where reasons of design render grilles desirable, their use has been abandoned by the Portland public schools, either for supply or vent openings. In this place it is now customary to install adjustable exterior deflector blades on the air inlets, as they permit of a much better distribution of the incoming air. The vent openings are brought to the floor line and are neatly finished by running the wall and base around the back of the vent and laying the regular flooring on the bottom. The usual grille presents an unnecessary amount of friction to the egress of the air and it is difficult to prevent the accumulation of dirt in the space behind it, while the open vent is easily kept clean. The open vent is liable to this objection, however, that unless rules are made and enforced, it is liable to become a favorite storage space for the waste-paper basket, lunch boxes, books, etc. V ent Flues. — Gravity vent flues should never be smaller than the corresponding supply risers of the rooms to which they are connected, and it is better, but not always possible, to construct them one-fourth to one- third larger in area. They should be run without bends or offsets direct to the roof ventilators. The practice of terminating room vents in the attic spaces and then providing one or more large ventilators for the attic has nothing to commend it. Nine times out of ten it will be found that if a corridor door or window is opened in a room, the air will promptly back down through the vent into the room concerned. Roof Ventilators. — - In the Portland schools the vents are run separately through the roof, with the provision, however, that where two or more vents are located side by side, they may be terminated in a single ventilator, but in all cases the ducts themselves are kept separate all the way up. Vents from toilets are never combined with any other vents, but are provided with their own independent roof ventilators. 540 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE ■ J BHPkagsJfl / f A/r. FZoyd A. Naramore, Architect, Mr. Geo. E. Heed, Mechanical Engineer. Fig. 461. — Fan Installation during Construction, New Couch School, Portland, Oregon. Roof Dampers. — - Every roof ventilator is provided with a damper having compressed air control from the engine room, except those from toilets which are pro- vided with neither dampers nor controls. Dampers in the roof ventilators are a necessity, and when used in conjunction with the louver dampers in the fresh air intake, the combination permits of keeping the building much warmer overnight and facilitates quick warming in the morning. If air is recirculated while heating up these dampers for closing, the room vents are a necessity. Exhaust Fans. — Exhaust fans are limited in their application to the school building. They should be installed, however, in connection with toilet rooms, swimming-tank and locker rooms, and sometimes the auditorium. The extension of the exhaust system de- pends upon the space for vents in the departments and facility for running the vent flues to the roof. Toilet Ventilation. — The best way to ventilate the main toilet rooms is through the plumbing fixtures by means of the local vent, sometimes called the “ Boston ” vent. In this system an air chamber is provided behind each bank of toilets and urinals, from which the air is continually exhausted by a fan. A connection is made between each fixture and the vent space, and the fixtures are provided with air openings through which the air passes. With this type of installation there need be no odor whatever in any toilet room. It might be said in passing that any attempt to accomplish this by con- necting the vent chamber with the chimney space is doomed to certain failure, for it will not work. Temperature Control. — Automatic temperature regu- lation is a necessity in the modern school. It promotes the health and comfort of the occupants and conserves fuel. Any form of hand control is a failure. If it is attempted it can lead to but two results. Either the person to whom the hand operation of such control is intrusted will manipulate it for his or her own personal comfort, or else it will be neglected in the press of other duties. In either case the results are bound to be un- satisfactory. CHAPTER XXVI PLUMBING By George E. Reed, M.E., Member of American Society of Mechanical Engineers I. Introduction. II. Mains. III. Excavation. IV. Main Soil Pipe. V. Cesspools. VI. Septic Tanks. VII. Roof Drains. VIII. Temporary Toilet Facilities. IX. Materials. X. Underground Pipes. XI. Constant Inspection. XII. Union Connections. XIII. Valves. XIV. Wall and Floor Plates. XV. Floor Drains. XVI. Testing. XVII. Water Supply. XVIII. Water Distribu- tion. XIX. Hot- water Circulation. XX. Fire Protection. XXI. Standpipes and Fire Hose. XXII. Pipe Covering. XXIII. Plumb- ing Fixtures. .Introduction. — The plumbing system of a modern building is far from being the simple affair it was twenty years ago, although there is nothing involved in it that could not be readily understood by anyone of ordinary intelligence. It is probably true that less care is taken in the design of a plumbing installation than is the case with almost any other branch of the mechanical equip- ment. In the olden days of lead plumbing and wiped joints, the plumbers’ trade, as it is to-day to a less extent, was a closely regulated one, and the journeyman did not divulge much information regarding his art to the layman. City ordinances and regulations generally have never permitted anyone not duly licensed to do any plumbing work extending beyond very minor repairs, and every plumbing installation is subject to strict inspection by the city authority. This is per- fectly right and proper, but it has resulted in making engineers and architects careless in regard to plumbing plans and plumbing specifications. Very often, even for large buildings, no plans for the work are prepared, and the specifications are the flimsiest sort of a pretext. Rambling through page after page of semi-technical text, describing weight and quality of material, how to make and calk joints in cast-iron pipe, how to join wrought to cast-iron pipe, etc., the specifications will set forth two things : that the entire system must comply with city ordinances, and it will include with some certainty a list of plumbing fixtures. There are many things that can make or mar a plumb- ing installation, and the specifications and plans should be so contrived that the former will be included, and the latter excluded. It is very easy for a plumbing con- tractor to comply with both the city ordinance and the contract documents, and yet skimp the work in many ways, that is, unless it has been definitely planned before- hand and what was wanted explicitly shown or stated. Usually the plumbing codes do not embrace anything outside the sanitary system proper, and the entire water distribution, which is vital to its satisfactory operation, is left to the contractor. The defects which will make themselves known after work is done under these conditions and a strong com- petitive system are too many to be enumerated here ; their name is legion. The chief one is inadequate water supply to fixtures ; sometimes twenty to twenty -five flushometer valves will be supplied through a i\" pipe run a long distance from the main. It is not the intention of this chapter to enter into a history of the development of plumbing as a science nor to include all the data necessary for the design of plumbing installations in general, but rather to emphasize those details which are most frequently overlooked or which may not be regulated by law. Mains. — - The first requisite in the intelligent plan- ning of a plumbing layout is an accurate survey of the building site. This should show all the adjacent sewers, water and gas mains, their respective sizes, distances from curb and lot lines, manholes, elevations referred to official datum, and if possible, the location of all stubs and branches. Where there are buildings on the site having connections to sewer, water, or gas, and which will be moved or demolished to make room for the new structure, provision should be made for discon- nection and removal of all old service pipes and for sealing of openings in street mains. This is not unim- portant, particularly with hard surface streets. It may save an extra expense caused by having to do it after the building is well under way or completed and all other street work done. Excavation. — - Excavation for the underground system is usually done by the plumbing contractor, and care should be exercised that no trench or other excavation S4i 542 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE is made close enough to footings or bearing walls to affect them. Main Soil Pipe. — The main soil pipe and branches should be run with standard pitch, which is usually one-quarter inch per foot. The fall can be reduced to one-eighth or one-tenth inch per foot, provided that permission can be obtained from the proper authorities. This expedient, however, should never be resorted to unless absolutely necessary on account of high sewer elevations. It should never be done merely for the sake of connecting to a conveniently located sewer, and at its highest part or start, the top of the drain pipe should not be less than one foot below the bottom of the floor slab. The Portland Public Schools invariably connect to the sewer wherever there is any possibility of so doing, even though it entails considerable cost. In one school a distance of about eight blocks was traversed before establishing sewer connection. Neither a cesspool nor septic tank is installed except as a last resort. If the sewer is so far away or its elevation such that connection to it is impossible, then one or the other may have to be constructed. Cesspools. — If there is a good depth of gravel, and if the surface water -stands well below the grade, a cesspool is the better, otherwise a septic tank with loose joints subsoil drain. Cesspools are five feet in diameter and range anywhere from twenty-five to fifty feet in depth. They are lined with brick laid without mortar, the tops being arched over. Septic Tanks. - — - Septic tanks are used where neither sewers nor cesspools are practicable. A septic tank based on seventy gallons per day per person and an actual capacity of one cubic foot for every twenty gallons is usually sufficient. The depth of liquid and width of tank may be made roughly equal, and the length twice the width. The depth of liquid should not be less than five feet. Roof Drains. — Roof drains should never be connected into the septic tank, but rather to dry wells if possible. In fact, the rain-water system and the house drainage system should always be kept entirely independent one from the other. Even where there are sewer facili- ties, all roof drains, except for small buildings, should go to the sewer direct. If the downspouts connect to the house drainage system, there is liability of backing up at the floor drains during a heavy downpour, and in case the building connects to a septic tank the sudden high rate of flow may entirely displace the contents of the tank, thus interfering with septic action. If the _5 tAT £»-£■- •610161 1. U 1 P • AVlCHAUICAl lliSINtl! PORTLAND OL1GON- Fig. 462. PLUMBING 543 Fig. 463. — Clawson Elementary School, Oakland, Callfornia, Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. outflow from the septic tank be discharged on the surface, the contents thus ejected may cause trouble. A case in point was one where, pending sewer construction, the writer installed a septic tank for a group of buildings comprising a large institution. The roof and drainage area were considerable, and the tank discharged on the surface. The roof drains were connected, without per- mission, into the house system, and during a very heavy rain, the septic tank was scoured out and the contents distributed upon adjacent property with the result that claim was made for damage. Roof water from large buildings should not be conveyed to the cesspool, on account of liability of overflowing the cesspool and backing up through the basement floor drains. Temporary Toilet Facilities. ■ — - Wherever possible it is desirable to have the plumbing contractors make sewer and water connections and install temporary toilet facilities for the workmen employed on the building. There is generally little excuse for the latrine so commonly employed on construction work. Materials. — All the material entering into the school plumbing installation should be of high grade, and as it is liable to be subjected to hard usage, every- thing should be heavy and substantial. Many cities require by code that all the underground drainage system beneath the building be of extra heavy cast- iron pipe. From five feet beyond the building line to the sewer, salt-glazed vitrified terra cotta pipe with cemented joints may be employed. The “ Durham ” system of piping with galvanized wrought-iron pipe and recessed drainage fittings is best adapted to all portions of the sanitary system. Cast iron is sometimes employed throughout on account of lower cost, but it is more bulky, and the saving usually is not worth the sacrifice in space and appearance. Naturally galvanized-iron pipe should be used through- out for all water piping, and malleable iron, beaded, and galvanized fittings should be employed. Gas and vacuum sweeper piping require black pipe, uncoated drainage fittings for the vacuum, and malleable iron for gas. Underground Pipes. — Under no circumstances should wrought pipe, either black or galvanized, be laid under- ground, particularly within the confines of the building. 544 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Air. John J. Donovan, Architect. Fig. 464. — Boys’ Toilet Room, Showing Urinals, Clawson School, Oakland, California. It will invariably result in early failure of the pipe so installed, and then will arise the necessity of digging up the basement floor to locate and repair leaks. If natural causes do not combine to destroy the pipes, then electrolysis, present in every city, will do it. The entire water distribution system, both hot and cold, fire protection piping, and gas should be run above ground, exposed if necessary. Something may have to be sacrificed in appearance, but it will pay in the end. In case, however, that a water supply main be four inches or more in diameter it may then be of cast iron and laid underground. An added advantage of having the piping installed as above indicated is that the runs of all pipes are readily followed, and in case of alterations, connection can be made at any time. Constant Inspection. - — Constant inspection should be maintained to prevent haphazard installation of pipes. Plumbers in the usual pursuit of their trade employ a great many forty-five and sixty degree fittings, and unless prevented, these may be too freely installed, to the detriment of an otherwise neat installation. These angle fittings are a logical and necessary part of the drainage system, but their use in other parts of the plant can easily be abused. For instance, if the work does not “ line up ” properly at some point it can be made to do so by “ two forty-fives ” and the result is a “ skewed ” run of pipe. Pipe runs should be run parallel to walls or ceilings unless there are good reasons to do otherwise. Union Connections. — The use of “ long screws ’’ with running threads and lock nuts is not permitted in the Portland schools. They do not make a satisfac- tory nor permanently strong joint. Except on large sizes of pipe, and at apparatus which might require disconnection at any time, right and left couplings are insisted upon. On apparatus, railroad unions are installed, or flanged unions in the case of large piping. No slip joints are permitted on supplies to fixtures, but ground seat unions are used instead. Valves. — Valves of good material and manufacture should be insisted upon and provision should be made PLUMBING 54-5 to the end that every valve installed have its stem packed with some high grade lubricated stem packing. Too many installations are left with the valves packed with lamp wick. This swells when wet, making it next to impossible to operate the valves, especially large ones. Each valve should be plainly marked with a brass tag secured to its wheel with a brass chain, and a chart should be prepared listing all such valves, together with the location and duty of each. One chart may be provided at the building and one should be filed at headquarters. If any valve is so located as to be inside any wall or in the floor, a metal box with frame and cover, all prefer- ably of brass, should be provided with it. Wall and Floor Plates. — Where piping passes through finished walls, floors, or ceilings, nickel-plated plates should be installed, and these plates should in no case be of light spun material, but of cast metal secured in place with set screws. Floor Drains. — The floor drains in all cases should be heavy, with galvanized iron body and brass ring and cover ; the cover not less than one-eighth inch in thick- ness, and removable. Hinged covers not secured by screws should be avoided. They are apt to become knocked open, and injury result from some one’s being tripped up. Considerable annoyance is frequently experienced in setting and maintaining floor drains in their proper positions during building operations. A very good method is to rough in for the drain and plug the outlet, then set a sheet metal form around it against which the concrete floor is stopped. After the floor is finished the floor drain fixture can be set and leveled, and the hole filled with concrete. This is also applicable to cleanouts. Testing. — Great care should be exercised to make sure that the drainage system is tight in all its parts, and no piping should be covered up until it has been tested. The methods to be employed in testing are usually prescribed by law in cities of any size. One as good as any is to plug all openings and fill the system with water to the top level of the vents, and watch for any settlement. If the water holds its level for thirty minutes the system may be declared tight, otherwise not. Smoke or air tests may be made where very low temperatures might cause freezing. Water Supply. — It goes without saying that an ade- quate water supply should be provided for all buildings. The water pressure in the main to which the service is to be connected should be ascertained ; also whether the pressure is subject to fluctuations, within what ranges, etc. Having the water pressure in view, the service and distribution system should be designed accordingly. Generally speaking, a high school will require a smaller service line than an elementary school. A grade school with morning and afternoon recess, at which times several hundred pupils may all be released at once, will produce a very high peak in water consumption. With seat-operating flushometers this is particularly so, and with some types of valve the pressure at the fixtures may be reduced by excessive demand so that no flush- ing effect is accomplished, after the procession is well under way. With manually operated valves or with tanks the result will be the same. In the case of tanks there would not be time for them to fill up enough to flush the bowl out after use. The writer has timed toilet use during recess in grade schools and has observed a flushing rate as high as once every eleven seconds per bowl, and that in schools by no means inadequately equipped with toilet facilities. A common fault in the water distribution of many schools is badly regulated pressure and lack of means to shut off or control fixtures or groups of them. The main water service of course should have a valve at the curb or elsewhere outside the building ; this feature is included in the regulations of most serving companies. The water supply line should be brought to some readily accessible location, the boiler room by preference, and it should there terminate in a manifold having separate valved branches to supply the various building require- ments. Every branch leading from the manifold should have a valve and drain; the manifold should be drained as well as the supply pipe leading to it. It is excellent practice to collect all these drains together and arrange the piping so that the discharge will be visible. This will guard against accidentally leaving any drain valve open and wasting of water, — a good point if the water is metered. Water Distribution. — It is generally sufficient if branches be taken from the manifold as follows, one each : boys’ toilet, girls’ toilet, boiler room, and heating plant, sill cocks, and general building water supply ; the last supplying fountains, isolated fixtures through- out the building, such as offices, emergency rooms, teachers’ rest room, etc. The hot water may also be included. This branch should be provided with a pres- sure regulating valve. If this is done less trouble will be experienced with fixtures, and the pressure at the fountains will be constant, or practically so, at all times. If no provision is made for maintaining a uniform pres- sure at drinking fountains, constant changes in adjustment will be necessary , and even then the results will be far from satisfactory. If regulation is made in the cups so as to prevent spouting during periods of high pressure, the flow will be so small during recess, when the toilets are in full blast, that the drinkers will be obliged to touch the cups with their mouths in order to drink, and direct contagion is possible. 'O PLUMBING 547 Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect. Fig. 466. — - Toilet Rooms, Franklin High School, Portland, Oregon. Supply pipes to fixtures and banks of fixtures should be proportioned to supply them adequately without undue pressure drop, and the distribution system ought to have the same care in design as would be exercised in laying out any other kind of piping installation. For reasons of strength, and on account of smaller sizes fouling easily, three-quarters inch is the least allowable diameter for branches. Every branch should be valved, and a valve should be provided for each group of fixtures exceeding two in number. This will be appreciated in case of accident, or if renewals and repairs are made to the system. In addition to the above, no hot-water pipe should be less than ten inches from cold-water piping. Low pockets should not be permitted unless a drain is installed, and every part of the system should be so arranged that it can be readily drained clear of water. Hot-water Circulation. — In most buildings a cir- culating system is a necessity to insure hot water at the fixtures promptly without waste of water. Usually these circulating systems consist of a series of circulating returns brought back to the hot-water tank. There are two things to avoid in installing a circulating hot- water system, — one is a long run of horizontal pipe be- tween the tank and riser, the other is a check valve in the return at the tank; poor or no circulation will be the result from either. The main hot-water riser should be carried up in a location as near the tank as possible, so that the flow will be vigorous. Fire Protection. — The details of the fire protection system are regulated by law in many cities ; but whether this be the case or not, the installation should be in- stalled in such a way as to meet with the approval of the fire department. Fire protection in most schools is limited to stand- pipes and fire hose, although some are equipped through- out with automatic sprinklers. The installation of sprinkler systems entails a very heavy expense, and its advisability is open to question in the majority of in- stances. Among the Portland schools there are but two or three fully equipped. With proper supervision of plant the hazard from internal fire should be very small. S4§ SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 467. — Clawson Elementary School, Oakland, California. Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect- Statistics show that practically all school fires start in or about the heating plant, and at early hours in the morning during cold weather. This may be due to defective apparatus, or from the janitor’s coming on duty late and attempting to heat up in too short a time. Fuel, especially wood, may be carelessly stored too near smoke pipes, and if soft coal, lignite for instance, is the fuel, the fire may result from spontaneous combustion. Most of the older schools in Portland were frame structures with hot-air furnaces and fuel storage in the basements, in some cases as much as seventy-five to one hundred cords of wood being stored in one building. Having been built before the days of competent fire regulations, many of these plants were anything but good fire risks. In 1916, however, adequate financial provision was made, and all furnace and fuel rooms were thoroughly fireproofed. The ceilings were protected by metal lath and plaster, all unnecessary openings were closed, wood partitions removed and replaced by tile. The doors opening into the space occupied by the heating plant and fuel were metal-covered, and air intakes, wherever they were of inflammable material, were replaced by metal. Finally, the heating and fuel spaces were equipped with automatic sprinklers, as were various out-of-the-way closets, storerooms, and in most instances the domestic science and manual training rooms. Each installation was provided with a regula- tion automatic alarm valve and bell on the outside of the building. Such installations go far to promote immunity from fire, contribute much to the safety of the occupants, and reduce the cost of insurance. Standpipes and Fire Hose. — -Standpipes and fire hose should be installed so that any portion of the build- ing can be reached by a length of hose not exceeding seventy-five feet. Hose should be provided in attic spaces and should be so located as to be readily accessible. The hose outlet should be full size, two and one-half inch, with standard fire department thread. One and one-half inch unlined linen hose in lengths of not over seventy- five feet, and racks which allow the hose to hang in loops are better than reels for holding the hose. Racks with a rated capacity of twenty-five feet more than the actual length should be employed, as this does not crowd the hose so much and there is less liability of its coming loose. It is understood of course that each hose outfit PLUMBING 549 requires a hose reducer if small hose is used, and in addi- tion, a spanner and two extra hose gaskets should be secured to each rack. Pipe Covering. — Some form of non-conducting cover- ing is required on hot-water piping. It is usually asbestos or magnesia. The cold-water should be covered with felt covering to prevent the drip of condensation and reduce liability of freezing. In some localities subject to very low extremes of temperature, covering is also extended to include roof conductors in cold attics and to portions of the drainage piping. Plumbing Fixtures. — Plumbing fixtures should be selected with all due regard to the school and to their particular uses within the school. It might not be out of place to state here that range closets and range urinals have no place in any building making any pre- tense to sanitation. They are prohibited by law in most cities and should be in all. No attempt will be made here to state what the best types of fixtures are, but briefly what is customary in the Portland school district. Water closets are siphon-jet, and if installed in main toilet rooms, they are provided with raised rear vents and fan exhaust ventilation — for boys’ toilets extended lip, girls’ toilets raised front. Seat-action closets are used in all elementary schools. This is open to discussion. The opponents claim, among other things, that seat-action, self-flushing closets, tend to make the children careless at home and else- where. Up to 1916, many flushometer valves had been in- stalled, but few came up to anything like expecta- tions. The combination giving the best satisfaction is a high vitreous tank with or without seat-action feature. For elementary schools 13-inch bowls are specified, weighing not less then fifty-five pounds each. For high schools and trade schools, 14-inch bowls, 60 pounds. Buff ware vented stall urinals, 18" wide and set 24" on centers with one five-gallon vitreous flushing cistern for each four urinals. The tanks are furnished with automatic flushing mechanisms, and a separate stop is placed hand high from the floor. Vitreous lavatories are used, and are provided with self-closing stops of the very best quality. Porcelain slop sinks, one on each floor, with hose bibb on the cold-water side. No porcelain enameled ware is used, excepting in sinks, which always are provided with roll rims and with back. CHAPTER XXVII ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION AND ILLUMINATION By Romaine W. Myers, Consulting Electrical Engineer Kind of Electric Service. Electric Lighting of Assembly Halls. Electricity for the Different Departments. Science Department Service. Switchboards and Panel Boards. Clock and Program Systems. The Telephone System. Lighting of Schools, (i) General Consideration. Specific Recommendations, (i) Natural Lighting. (2) Artificial Lighting. (3) Examples of Classroom Lighting. Code of Lighting School Buildings by Illuminating Engineering Society. Preface. General Requirements. Intensity of Artificial Illumination. Shading of Lamps. Distribution of Light on the Work. Color and Finish of the Interior. Switching and Controlling Apparatus. Emergency Lighting. Inspection and Maintenance. Daylight : Intensity of Daylight. Direction of Light. Window Openings. Lighting Value of a Window. Window Shades. Light Courts. Maintenance. Artificial Light : Systems of Lighting. (1) a Direct Lighting System ; (2) a Semi-indirect System ; (3) an Indirect System. Shad- ing of Lamps. Glossy Surfaces and Eye-strain. Color of Light, the Lighting of Old Buildings. Maintenance. Kind of Electric Service. — In planning the electrical installation for a school, the first requirement necessary after a study of the proposed building and local regula- tions, is to decide upon the system, that is, whether to use alternating or direct current and the voltage. As a rule the choice is limited by the service available from the power company. When choice is not thus limited it is of prime importance that a decision be made at once. Very often the power and light are taken from the same service. Where a separate power service is not obtainable, it is advantageous to install separate trans- formers, one set for light and one set for power. This installation will eliminate to a great extent any fluctua- tions of voltage that would otherwise exist in lamps if the lighting load were on the same transformers as the motors. The services to a school building should preferably enter underground and run direct to a main switchboard located in a switchboard room. This room should be locked and only authorized persons should be allowed to enter. The size of the services will, of course, depend upon the number of lights and motors that may be in the building. To obtain this estimate, it is necessary to make a complete layout of the proposed installation A typical plan for a grade school is herewith shown in Figure 468. First, the outlets are carefully spaced to give a uniform illumination, the wattage being obtained by calculation. The next step is to circuit these outlets, placing no more on a circuit than are permitted by the National Board of Fire Underwriters or by the local rules and regulations. The wiring should all be placed Design of Lighting Installation. Blackboards. Rehabilitating in conduit, the sizes of conduit and w r ire therein should be shown on the plan for each run. The circuit runs terminate in stage switchboards or panel boards. Figure 469 shows a typical panel board of a safety type, which is strongly recommended for all school work. All corridor and exit lights should be connected to a separate section in the panel board. They should be fed by direct feeders from the main switchboard and connected for emergency lighting to another meter located ahead of the regular one. Where separate service is available it is recommended that the emergency lighting be con- nected to it. All circuit runs should be carefully calcu- lated for size of copper. The voltage drop should not exceed 2 per cent. Electric Lighting of Assembly Halls. —The assembly hall and stage lighting should be controlled from the stage switchboard. Figure 469 shows diagram of con- nections for a grade-school stage switchboard. In Figure 470 is shown a diagram of connections for a high- school stage switchboard. A front view of this board is shown in Figure 471, the switches being all of the dead front safety type. A safety switch is recommended for all switches and switchboards that are not locked and under the exclusive supervision of one versed in electrical work. Industrial accident commissions in several states require a switch of this character. A detail of the safety switch used in switchboard (Figure 471) is shown in Figure 472. This switch has an iron handle similar to that of an oil switch, the exterior face being of sheet metal. On the lower portion of this face is a door, through which admission to the fuses may be obtained 550 TYP/CAL PLAN OP ELECTRIC WPP ft FOP A GRADE SC WOOL. Page 551 Fig. 468. 552 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE L n iMEt V. “r — 4“ "' L> (' | TYP/CAL SAFETY PA /VF L ~ 30 A RD Fig. 469. when switch is not in contact. The switch cannot be closed without closing the fuse door. Thus there are exposed no live parts whereby anyone could possibly receive a shock. In Figures 470 and 471, No. 1 is the grand master (400 amp. T. P. switch) ; No. 2 is the stage main (400 amp. T. P. switch) ; No. 3 is the main for the assembly-hall lights (100 amp. T. P. switch) ; No. 4 is the remote control switch (xoo amp. T. P. switch) operated from push button No. 21 and from the moving picture operator’s room ; No. 5 is the assembly-hall indi- vidual circuit switches ; No. 6 is the white-light master (100 amp. T. P.) ; No. 7 are the white footlights, first, second, and third border lights through dimmers No. 16 ; No. 8 is the red-light master (60 amp. T. P.) ; No. 9 are the red footlights, first, second, and third red border lights through dimmers No. 15; No. 10 is the blue master (60 amp. T. P.) ; No. n are the blue footlights, first, secondhand third blue border lights through dimmers No. 17; No. 12 is the A. C. pocket master (100 amp. T. P.) ; No. 13 are the D. P. switches to pockets through dimmers No. 20 ; No. 14 are D. P. switches for operation of lights in assembly-hall lights ahead of remote control switch No. 4; No. 18 is the direct current master (100 amp. D. P.) which controls switches No. 19 pockets on stage. At the ends of the above board grill doors made of iron wire (J") mesh should be provided. Direct current is generally obtained, when not other- wise available, by the installation of a motor generator set placed in the physics laboratory. In any school with a stage of sufficient size for the production of plays it is essential that an equipment as outlined above be included. It is recommended when purchasing a motion-picture projection machine that one be obtained that is equipped with an incandescent lamp for motion-picture projection service, as this is an improvement over the regular arc lamp type. Its simplicity and ease of operation com- mends it for school work. In providing for a motion- picture projection machine it is necessary to make provision for sufficient size feeds to the machine. Electricity for the Different Departments. — In a great many cities, cooking is now being done exclusively by electricity; this method is rapidly on the increase. In building a school, the domestic science department should be supplied with copper feeds of sufficient size to take care of several complete electric ranges and enough individual electric plates or combination cookers to supply the class. The feeds should run to a central panel located in the department, and from this panel individual circuits can be run to each operator; each circuit should be controlled by an approved indicating switch, preferably the bull’s-eye type. The domestic arts department should be provided with a separate panel from which separate circuits can be run to electric irons, mangles, sewing machines and washing machines. Science Department Service. — The science depart- ment should be equipped with a special switchboard so that current of various voltages and character can be transmitted at will to the labor atorv tables and lecture rooms. A switchboard providing these functions is shown in Figure 473. The diagram of connections which are self-explanatory is shown in Figure 474. The connect/onj ro/f stage sw/tchboand shown /n hg- S §§ 't) K S 3 jS n 5,8> I 2 C Sj 3 O “i Vi vj £ ^ k ^ ^ JJ v . ^ <^ <^ § <5 ^0 }OO O O '* * V V is* >u « J s < i 4 ?? ? * 5 t ; Jj fc ^ ? * S 3 i ? & $ i | ? ? I U"!,W V f *g § $* ^ b R ? Or N'n «. n K I ■ rs >0 vi Oj g S V| e * o * ■Co /?. ,/• ■ If^huss/tNoee- hecmt ecf- &o^oOf=f-Di/cApo/j- C/hcaso. .Scaled l-o Fig. 514. Page 59° Fig. 5* 5- • — J. < c*> * O Jj o i lr^ E-.-J 'o < u_, 592 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE DBREOUN 5CA00L Detroit. Lincoln Z ro jte.il ave ; j Toledo, o«io JECOAD-FLOOE'PLAA 5CALC '/glNCn EQCJALJ 1 TOOT DtPAOTENT Of A6CMTECTUBE j eOAED' Qr HDVCATIOfl EDWIN/MEE • AUGrtlTEXT- QETOOUF! 5 CA 00 L DETROIT. LTACOLW 8 FOJTER. AVCJ i Toledo, Ohio TfllRD FLOOR. . PLA^ Scale inch equa.lj 1 Toot Figs. 517 and 518. 5 UPPLEMEN TA R V ILL US TRA TIONS 593 SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 595 PLAN 5cale iiN -1 Foot Franc i 5 W- Parker. school 5AN DIEGO • CAL. Fig. 521. 596 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. William Templeton Johnson, Arcnitect. Fig. 522. — Francis W. Parker School, The Patio, San Diego, California. Mr. William Templeton Johnson , Architect. Fig. 523. — Francis W. Parker School, The Portico, San Diego, California. SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 597 Messrs. Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton, Architects. Fig. 524. — Lincolnwood School, District 75, Evanston, Illinois. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE ' \5CHGDL WJ11D1NG-DL5T-Z5- EVAN5TON- ILL- • COLFAX JTtLtET & M8 DANIEL AVfcUUt • -PELKIM5- FELLOWJ & HA M ILT OH • ARCHITECTS * SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 599 Messrs. Guilbert and Belelle, Architects. Fig. 526. — Details of Doorway, State Normal School, Newark, New Jersey. Messrs, Gnilbcrt and Betelle, Architects. SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS Messrs . Guilbert and Belelle, Architects . Fig. 528. — Ridge School, Newark, New Jersey. SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 603 604 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect, and Mr. Louts C. M ullgardt. Associate Architect. Fig. 532. — Durant Elementary School, Front Elevation, Oakland, California. SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 605 DtfUKT * JC/fOOL 04 XL A/W CAL/ fOM/A JOM J DO HOY AN AND lOWS CNUSr/AN Nl/UNAAOT USSOC/ATL /h(lW/r£OTS ■ IN £Sf SrASSf - ■ f/w /laot />//?/■ SCALS &'•/ -O' Fig. S 33. 'm/NTf Ua*rN sri/i/- ■ 6o6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Al/AJ/tT SCHOOL OAKLAND CJl/LOLH/A JO//// J AO AZOV/)// AND loo/s cyzz/STMN MM/f/IMT assoc/aac. A/tcM/rtcrs Fig. 534- Page 609 Fig. 540. — Central Grammar School, Astoria, Oregon. 610 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE ’ G LOU M D 'FLOOL'PL^W’ Messrs. Whitehouse and Fouilhaui, Architects. Fig. 541. — Central Grammar School, Ground Floor Plan, Astoria, Oregon. SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 611 > F I L S T * F LOO k » P L ArM 1 Messrs. Whilehouse and Foullhaux, Architects Fig. 542. — Central Grammar School, First Floor Plan, Astoria, Oregon. Messrs. WMtehouse and Fouilhaux, Architects. I Mr • Edwin M. Gee , Architect. lo -t »o O £ N >C fc-C Mr. Edwin M. Gee, Architect- vO •' 3 - 10 d £ *3 5 U PPLEMEN TARY ILL US TRA LIONS 617 W ^ a It- SC HOOL HOUSE Atlantic Heiohtj. A H H- IKarn and llop&ins . * '/ ^ x 0 e* -> > v NR >•*• _ . - — ^ Oitj/ of Portsmouth. . Owner -Nffyi to v erf By U. *r J ffioan/’ . Fig. 548. — Schoolhouse, Atlantic Heights, New Hampshire. Messrs. Kilham and Hopkins, Architects. Fig. 549- 1 i i? I? iT n Zl ?■? ?? :: jji m it VJ -» S i 6 CL Page 618 Fig. 550. Messrs. Lawrence and Holford, Architects. Messrs. Lawrence and Hol/ord, Architects. Page 6ig Fig. 551. — Fernwood School, Portland, Oregon. Fig. 552. — Fernwood School, Portland, Oregon. 620 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 6 T R. t E T 5 T H. E E T F I H 6 T F L O O L P L f\ FER.NWOOD QR.AMMAH SCHOOL - PORTLAND- OIL. Messrs. Lawrence and Holford, Architect* Fig. 553. UPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 621 1 622 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE BASEMENT FLOOR PLAN FIRST FLOOR PLAN SECOND FLOOR PLAN Messrs. Garter and Woodward, Architects Fig. 555. — ■ Lafayette Bloom School, Cincinnati, Ohio. Messrs. Garter and Woodward. Architect: Fig. 556. — Lafayette Bloom School, Auditorium, Cincinnati, Ohio. I Messrs. Garber and Woodward, Architects. SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 625 SECOND FLOOR PLAN THIRD FLOOR PLAN Messrs. Garber and Woodward , Architects. <3 ■sol Avditojaiua\ o * 5 J u r < T. V o _i t o P - I o > Q- Q z < J cu oS pu b AO i — ilJ ro ■ - 1 'S, ■2 < . ■ o a € Ov <>j *> tuj o o <3 •. John J. Donovan, Architect Mr. John J. Donovan , Architect , and Mr. Walter D. Reed, Associate Architect. Page 633 01 J : AY£ 3L~£ s 7; - *-v‘ /r v 5 CUo^ZdXlD f ■XHiii rija A/r. Jo/m Donovan, Architect, and, Mr. Walter D. Reed, Associate Architect. Fig. 567. — Claremont Elementary School, Oakland, California. Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect — Mr. Washington J. Miller, Associate Architect. Page 635 Fig. 569. — Jefferson School, Oakland, California. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 636 - PLAN or WEST WINS - • Plan or east wins * PLAN or PO^VEP BUILDING Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect — Mr. Washington J. Miller, Associate Architect. Fig. 570. — -Jefferson School, Oakland, California. SUPPLEMENT A R Y ILLUSTRA TIONS 637 Fig. 571. — Elementary School, Albany, California. Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. nrrxxiia | Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Fig. 572. — Elementary School, Albany, California. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 573. — Addison School, Cleveland, Ohio. Mr. W. R. McCornaci, Architect. Air. u . u. AlcUomuct, A.rcnueci. Fig. 574. — Addison School, Cleveland, Ohio. Page 63Q Fig. 575. — Addison School, Cleveland, Ohio. Page 641 Fig. 577. — Almira School, Cleveland, Ohio. OO 10 6 £ Mr. W. It. McCornacl, Architect. I o 10 o' £ 'O <3 As SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 645 Fig. 581. — Empire School, Cleveland, Ohio. Mr. W . R. McCornack, Architect. Fig. 582. — Empire School, Cleveland, Ohio. E. M E Q m M 6 § £zj §* g V £ ®- a ^ 5 "' © UN ^13 Sa j a^l |o- I § O il/fCornac*, .1 rc hit set. EL /N T ni 3 <: iU > 2 " e Mr. W. R. McC or nack, Architect. L M P ! 12. E A V El Al Mr. IV. It. McCornack , zlrc/ii/tfc/. SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 649 Mr. William B. Itlner , Architect. Fig. 586. — High School, Greenfield, Ohio. 650 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. William B. IUner, Architect. Fig. 588. — High School, Greenfield, Ohio. SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS ■ bASE/AENT • FLOOL-PLAN- SCAIIE :£»INCH ■ ESVAI.S • 1 ■ FOOT- SKETCH • PLAN- -HIGH -SCHOOL ■ AT - GilEEN FIELD • OHIO- •FOIL /A*. E-L- /AC CLAFN- Fig. 589. •WM'E'ITTNER. • AtCHITEXT- JT LOUU MI5J0US.I. IEC. / 51 S Fig. 590. — High School, Ground Floor Plan, Greenfield, Ohio. •finsT • Floor. • -plan • -second- Floojl-?lan- Mr. William B. inner. Architect. Mr - William B. inner, Architect. Page 652 Fig. 591. — High School, First Floor Plan, Greenfield, Ohio. Fig. 592. High School, Second Floor Plan, Greenfield, Ohio. SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 653 ELKO COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL. ELKO. NEVADA C w DICKEY AND JOHN J DONOVAN ARCHITECTS Fig. 594. 654 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. C. W. Dickey and Mr. John J. Donovan, Architects Fig. 595. — Elko County High School, General Elevation, Elko, Nevada. Mr. C. W. Dickey and Mr. Jolm J. Donovan, Architects. Fig. 596. — Elko County High School, Main Floor Plan, Elko, Nevada. SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 655 C. tf^/CKtr / yS A&or/t* , ■/jLdr/7'£C7’s- '•jU& 6./Z1T* //*C# - Z>4/cZjt/r0 Cr^/*oM /EN.VIUGNJ LIQMT COUrVT .LIQMT COUNT cconjuo vCkJCM (VODM nui/nikio ivw" yXWikJQ :nrnwo' TCWIkJG NODU DPu^rTik/o rv-M- jcd v/m .KlTf^Ky UVIKJQ MFW" Hion 5 ctwl QN^ukiP ru2?rv. PA^Lrru’ov’^: -W' -Vipgnia r l_ Paooarj? ARcrirrC«rT*Co4/. Fig. 643. — High School, Ground Floor Plan, Parkersburg, West Virginia. SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 689 1 lU J I J 1 Ml' 1 J J Mr. Frank L. Packard , Architect, Mr. Ralph Snyder, Associate Architect, and Mr. Edward N. Babitt , Engineer. Fig. 644. — High School, First Floor Plan, Parkersburg, West Virginia. 690 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE CL-A /7 N 3 DM POTAVJY MU/IC N£OM ^tcitatiojj DiOL.OQY LADONftTONf r^TDTSAQC. UPPCN PANT OT AUDI TO MUM LIQIIT COUNT L.K3I1T COUNT UDY HALL* •JAMITO.’ NXITATIOKJ Ni pnvyic/ ladctsatony* PvCCiTATIOM M ■CHEMICAL LADONATCNf CLA// MDU LCCTUWl NODM Mian 5crm_ yrcowp ri_a?N. A/r. Frank L. Packard, Architect, Mr. Ralph Snyder, Associate Architect, and Mr. Edward N. BabiU, Engineer. Fig. 645. — High School, Second Floor Plan, Parkersburg, West Virginia. Alessrs. Maginnis and Walsh, Architects. 692 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE : "■ ■ gi- . * Messrs. Maginnis and Walsh, Architects. Fig. 648. — ■ Regis High School, Lobby, New York City, 5 UPPLEMEN TARY ILL US ERA TIONS 693 Messrs. Maginnis and Walsh , Architects. Fig. 649. — Regis High School, Main Hall, New York City. Fig. 650. — Regis High School, New York City. E I V £ 694 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE iisnmi JWict of luanmt JiahHaii6 JfllB-ltSl'? fcH Gwcrasur QuAPBAAGif II wa Punt Of Omasiiih Gsutcv C la»et CfGI^TEfvn ^}d!TT|- III to JIo JbraltoiDJNG kb Ie lacu Oman fla buCitr Jii jW.V Iliuji-ij WiBit , I J5 hart.- TftJtA//*/ (XlttU Ait I>onct 696 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Fig. 653. SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 697 Fig. 654. 698 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Mr. A. F. Hussander, Architect. Mr. A. F. Hussandcr, Architect. Fig. 656. — Cartes H. Harrison Technical High School, Chicago, Illinois. Fig. 655. — Carter IT Harrison Technical High School, Chicago, Illinois. HH 5ll§lllsl • :■- . 3 U(P Q X ?OJiu-U H't'-Zh' % r o ^ b '■' j(«u 7 Sg£ 45 W 5 r to u •• )D 0 W ix a J kgg I^iqW ^ VIRacumj Hinog •aavAinnos ~nvwsavw. yoo SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE MEZZANINE FLOOR PLAN. (between 1 5 - t and 2*-° floor. ) CZELTER HMAPDIOOH TECHFrCAL HIC^H SCHOOL^ LOCATED AT MARSHALL -siiS W. 24™ BOULHVAT2DS. A.E HU-5-5 ATiDT 12 ACTINq ARCHITECT BOARD OT EDUCATION CHICAGO ILL. SCALE : M6 INCH = 1-fOOT. Fig. 658. bflW _j :j Sgto fgi 0 . cv t- o o vy ~o 0 2( a u w Xhggy P < X aSsIgfe g'¥«h£ S^ 5 ( B g 7 ^ p <) W 3 X S ^ i o Q u X i 5 w 5 tUlQ^Jgo* §Eg|ga %§^gs O EX io 7, 115-118, 121-123, 125, 129- 131, 136-137, 143-146, 153-156, I 73-H4, 177, 179-181, 1S3- 187, 189-192, 194, 196, 197-199, 214, 215, 244, 246, 280, 283, 288, 426, 428, 432, 435, 438, 440, 443, 445, 447, 450, 454, 457, 459, 464, 466 ; of open-air classrooms, 214-215 ; of gymnasiums, 223, 224; of administrative offices, 244, 246, 249, 250; of class- rooms, 254-259, 261-262, 264-267, 269; of libraries, 293, 295, 299,300; of stairs, 310, 314 ; of assembly halls, 321, 343-345 ; for seating orchestra, 343-345 ; of music department, 347 ; of science departments, 355, 360, 366, 369, 372, 376, 3S6, 387, 389, 392; of commercial department, 398, 400, 40S-410 ; of drawing department, 413, 414, 418, 420; of home economics department, 471-474, 476, 478, 480, 485, 4S6, 4S9, 503, 50S, 511 ; of cafeteria, GENERAL INDEX 717 514, 515; of plumbing system, 546; of electrical installation, 55 i, 567 - Floors, material for and construction of, 272 ; oiling of, 275-276; dressings for, 276; of libraries, 296; of corridors, 309. Floor space, for general school buildings and for industrial schools, 159; in trade schools, 164; for home economics department, 200; in elementary classrooms, 255; division of, 571-572. Flowers in school grounds, 64; proper use of, 67, 69. Fond du Lac, Wis., Edward S. Bragg School at, 100, 101, 337. Foods, study of chemistry of, 384. Foreign and domestic trade, course in, 409. Foreign-born residents, special type of education for children of, 4. Forges, types of, 444. Forge shop, industrial arts department of high school, 74, 439-446 ; estimated cost of equipment, 81. Formal activities in physical education, 223. Forsyth Dental Clinic, Boston, Mass., 216. Foundry, high school, 74, 424-425; construction and equipment, 436-439. Francis Nicholls School, New Orleans, La., 191. Francis W. Parker Elementary School, San Diego, Calif., open-air classroom at, 213; kindergarten, 284, 594, 595, 596. Franklin High School, Portland, Ore., heating and ventilating plant, 537, 538; toilet rooms, 547. Freehand drawing department, 412 ; 416; equipment for, 416-419. Fremont School, Sacramento, Calif., open-air kindergarten, 290. Fresno, Calif., Longfellow School, grounds of, 238. Furnaces, heating by, 528-531. Furniture, purchase of, for schools, 80; size of, in classrooms, 260; for dining-room of domestic-science department, 492-493. Future, school of the, 21-24, 573 - Games, among activities of physical education, 222-223; special room for, in gymnasium, 234-235; taught in kindergarten, 282. Gardens, protection of, in school grounds, 9 ; experimental, for high schools, 9. Gary schools, lunch room experiment in, 488. Gary system, distinctive curriculum and conduct of studies under, 4 n. Gates Institute. See Jane Hayes Gates Institute. General education and vocational education, 1 57-1 59. General industrial school, the, 161-162. General science and biological laboratories, 385-396. Geography, commercial, 409. Geometrical drawing rooms, 419. German system of physical education, 219. Gilkey, Howard, on landscape development of school grounds, 61- 69. Girls, trade and industrial schools for, 190-195; home economics school for, 199-203 ; instruction in chemistry for, 384. Girls’ gymnasium, apparatus for, 233. Girls’ Trade School, Worcester, Mass., 193-194, 200. Girls’ Vocational School, Newark, N. J., 200. Girls’ yard, play area and equipment for, in elementary school, 8, 237-238; in junior high school, 8; separation of, from boys’ division, 9. Glasgow School, St. Louis, Mo., 104. Glass, thickness and quality of, in school construction, 32 ; amount of area of, for classroom, 264, 266; for blackboards, 268; use of, in classroom doors, 274. Glendora, Calif., Grammar School No. 2, 108, 109, no, 607, 608. Gravity furnace systems, 528-531. Gravity steam systems, 531. Greenfield, Ohio, views of Edward Lee McLean High School, 230, 317, 649, 650, 651, 652. Grinding room, equipment of, 431, 434. Grounds. See School grounds. Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Mo., 141-146; audi- torium, 331, 332 ; music room, 349 ; chemistry laboratory, 382 ; physics laboratory, 361 ; conservatory, 394 ; typing room, 407 ; drawing rooms, 421, 422; cooking- room, 494; laundry labora- tory, 505; cafeteria, 516. Guilbert, E. F., architect, influence of work of, 18. Guilford School, Cincinnati, Ohio, 624, 625, 626. Gulick, Luther H., Public School Athletic League organized by, 219. Gulick and Ayres, Medical Inspection of Schools, cited, 217. Gymnasium, separate building for, of high school, 9 ; locating the, 21 ; estimated cost of, and of equipment, 80, 81 ; in junior high school, 1 13; time-allotment for physical training in, in high schools, 147-148; combination of assembly hall and, 149; ar- rangement and equipment of indoor, 225-236; outdoor or semi- outdoor, 236-242. Gymnasium, plans of, 223, 224; Pontiac High School, Mich., 227 ; Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, Chicago, 111 ., 228, 231; Junior High School, Trenton, N. J., 229; Edward Lee McLean High School, Greenfield, Ohio, 230. Gymnasium apparatus, space for, in elementary school play area, 8 ; in junior high school, 8. Gymnasium frames, at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 238. Gymnasium requirements, high elementary school, 71 ; in junior high and pre-vocational school, 72; high school, 73. Gymnastics and physical education, 221-225. Haldane, Report by, cited, 205. Hall, Mary E., writings on school Library by, 291. Halls in elementary school, 85. Hamilton, Ohio, High School, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685. Handball courts, for elementary school, 8 ; for junior high school, 8; at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 238. Hand-rails in stairways, 3 12-3 13. Hardware, quality of, in school construction, 32. Harmony in planting, 63-64. Health, measures for safeguarding, 212-213, 216-217. Health and sanitation, equipment relative to, in elementary schools, 93-94. Health education, effectiveness of comprehensive high school for, 1 29-130. Heating of school buildings, 207-208; use of stoves, 527-528; by furnaces, 528-531 ; steam systems, 531 ; hot-water systems, 53 x— 53 5 ; description of plant for ventilating and, 535-540. Heating plant, location of, 21. Heating systems, types of, 77 ; calculating cost of, 78-79. Heavy gymnastics in physical education, 222. Height of elementary school buildings, 88. Henry O. Shepard School, Chicago, 111 ., 585, 586. Hetherington, Clark W., California State Manual of Physical Education by, quoted, 221-222; classification of physical education activities by, 222-225. High schools, location of, 2,3; size of sites, 2 ; choice of sites for, 9 ; location of building, 9-10; photographs of, 19, 41-55, 133-135, 141-142, 152; of the future, 23; influence exerted on student by architecture of, 27-28; floor plans of, 44-45, 56-60, 136-137, 143-146, 153-156; requirements for buildings for, 72-75; classification of, in estimating cost of school buildings, 78 ; costs for construction of, and installation of heating, ventilat- ing, and electrical systems, 78 ; estimated cost of building and equipment, 80-81 ; measuring static capacity of, 82 ; organiza- tion and administration of, as affecting buildings, 126 ff. ; com- prehensive vs. special-type, 127-131 ; determination of contrib- uting area for, 131-132; advantages of union, 132; internal organization of, as affecting accommodations, 138-148 ; estimate and tabulation of accommodations needed in, 148-150; voca- tional education in, 158; floor space given to manual-training shops in, 159; vocational home economics department in, 200- 202 ; best sizes for classrooms, 208 ; place of physical education in curriculum of, 225; playground equipment for, 242; ad- ministrative offices in, 248-252; age of pupils in, 260; class- 7 i 8 GENERAL INDEX rooms in, 260-263 ; blackboard data for, 271 ; library facilities for, 294; corridors in, 307 ; assembly hall for, 321, 323 ; music department of, 346; place of science in curriculum of, 351; commercial departments of, 397-410 ; department of drawing in, 412,415; shops in industrial department, 424-425 ; cafeteria for, 513-S22. Hockey field, at Mosswood Park, Oakland, Calif., 241. Hodgdon, D. R., quoted on teaching of science, 385. Home economics, schools for instruction in, 158-159, 199-200; standards in selection and equipment of rooms for instruction in, 202-203 ; development of education in, 468 ; new meaning given to, 469 ; change in teaching of, 469-470 ; equipment of elementary and secondary schools for instruction in, 470 ; rooms for department of, 470, 472; the serving unit, 470, 490-494; the cooking unit, 472-490; the laundry unit, 494-498; the housekeeping and home nursing unit, 498-501 ; the clothing unit, 501-512. Home economics department, requirements for, in high school, 74 ; estimated cost of building and of equipment, 80, 81 ; chapter on, 468-512. Home-making education, 199; rooms for, in high schools, 74; provision for, of comprehensive high school, 129-130; separate schools for, 200. Home nursing, education in, 498. Hospital diet kitchen equipment, 490. Hospitals, location of schools relative to, 6. Hot-water circulation in school buildings, 547. Hot-water heating systems, 531-535. Household accounts, courses in, 403-404. Household arts, instruction in, for pupils who would ordinarily leave school after sixth grade, 4. Household arts department, location of, 21; planning of, 22; requirements for, in elementary school, 71 ; in junior high and pre- vocational school, 72. Household chemistry, study of, 384. Housekeeping and home nursing unit, home economics depart- ment, 470, 498-501. House painting and decorating, rooms for instruction in, and equip- ment, 169-170. Humidity, factor of, in connection with ventilation, 205, 525-526. Hunting games, among physical activities, 223. Hussander, A. F., influence of work of, 18; seating plan of class- rooms by, 255, 258. Hutchinson Central High School, Buffalo, N. Y., library of, 298, 299 ; museum cases at, 304. Hydraulics, courses in, 364 ; laboratory for, 365 ; experiments in, 36_5, 367- Hygiene of schools, 204-217. Hygiene courses, laboratory accommodations for, 390-391. Illinois, union high schools in, 132. Illuminating Engineering Society, code of lighting school buildings, quoted, 557, 559-568. Imperial Valley, Calif., Westmoreland School grounds, 68. Inclines, impracticable for school buildings, 318. Incubators, electric, in general science laboratory, 388. Indenturing of students, at Williamson School, 177. Indigenous plants in school grounds, 64, 66. Individual unit kitchen desk, home economics department, 475. Indoor baseball grounds, 9 . Indoor gymnasium, arrangement and equipment of, 225-236. Industrial arts, instruction in, for pupils who would otherwise leave school after sixth grade, 4. Industrial arts department, planning of, 22; requirements for, in junior high and pre-vocational school, 72; high school, 74; chapter on, 424-467. Industrial shops, high school, location of, 9. Industrial schools, 158; buildings for, 159-160; serious need for buildings, 160; general, 161-162; new buildings for, and their equipment, 162-190; for girls, 190-195. See Vocational schools. Industrial type of junior high school, building for, in. Inspection, of school buildings, 31-33 ; of plumbing work, 544. Instruction, department of, in low elementary school, 71; re- quirements for department of, in low and in high elementary school, 71; in junior high and pre-vocational school, 72; in high school, 73. Instructional period in physical education, 221-222. Instruments for mechanical drawing course, 41 1. Intermediate schools. See Junior high schools. Internal organization of high school as affecting accommodations, 138-148. Ittner, William B., influence of work of, 18 ; report by, concerning costs, quoted, 83-84. Jacketed stoves, use of, for heating, 527-528. Jails, avoiding locating schools near, 6. Jane Hayes Gates Institute, Kansas City, Mo., 190, 194-195 ; home-making department of, 200. Janitor’s quarters, in small elementary school, 245 ; in large ele- mentary school, 247. Jefferson School, Oakland, Calif., 634, 635, 636. Job records of office-training students, 403. John Muir School, Berkeley, Calif., landscape plan, 64. Johnson, George E., work of, for playground movement, 219. Jordan, Arthur L., chapter by, on physics and chemistry, 350. Jumping-pit, at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 15, 238. Junior chambers of commerce, 402. Junior high schools, location of, 2, 3 ; avoiding duplication of de- partments in elementary schools and, 2, 4 ; use of, as community centers, 8 ; play areas and equipment for, 8 ; planning and architecture of, 23; requirements for buildings for, 71-72; or- ganization of, as affecting buildings, 111 ff. ; academic, industrial, neighborhood or community, and cosmopolitan types of, in- x 1 2 ; photographs of, 112-114, 119-120, 124; floor plans of, 115, 116-118, 121-123, 125, 128-131; cosmopolitan type of, 1 12; science laboratories in, 112; library in, 112, 293-294; office equipment, 113; teachers’ rooms, auditorium, and gym- nasium, 113-114; coqrse of study, as bearing upon building plans, 1 14; reasons for introduction of, 126-127 ; arguments in favor of comprehensive type of, 12 7-13 1 ; determination of con- tributing area for, 133 ; best sizes for classrooms, 208 ; place of physical education in curriculum of, 225; playground equip- ment for, 241-242 ; administrative offices in, 248-249 ; age of pupils in, 260; assembly hall for, 321, 323 ; music department of, 342, 346; place of science department relative to, 351; drawing department in, 412 ; shops for, 465, 467 ; plan of house- hold art suite for, 51 1. Kansas City, Mo., account of Lathrop School in, 177-178; Jane Hayes Gates Institute in, 190, 194-195. Kenilworth, 111., New Trier Township High School, 15, 41 ; cafe- teria, 517, 659, 660, 661, 662. Keys for gymnasium lockers, 226. Kidder, Architects’ and Builders’ Pocket Book, quoted, and cited, 3i3, 325- Kimball, Heating and Ventilating of High Schools, quoted, 207. Kindergartens, location of, 88 ; standardization of rooms, 95 ; age of pupils in, 260; blackboard data for, 271; planning of room for, 279; exposure and size, 279-281 ; plans of rooms, 280, 2S3, 288; furnishings for, 281; subjects taught, 281-282; plans and interior views, 280, 281, 284-287, 289-290. Kingsburg, Calif., Union High School landscape plan, 67. Kingsley, Clarence D., on organization and administration of senior high schools as affecting buildings, 126-153. Kinne, Helen, Equipment for Teaching Domestic Science by, cited, 487. Kirkwood, Mo., Grammar School, 106, 107. GENERAL INDEX 719 Kitchen, in home economics department, 200-201, 475; location and size of, 203 ; of cafeteria for high school, 513-519. Kitchen laboratory in home-making departments of schools, 200. Laboratories, requirements for high school, 73-74; science, in junior high schools, 112; size of, for senior high schools, 139; use of rooms in, for recitations, 149, 197 ; science, in connection with vocational industrial shop, 172; domestic science, at Jane Hayes Gates Institute, 194; agricultural, 198; kitchen, in home-making departments of schools, 200 ; special, for courses in applied physics, 364-370; general science and biological, 385-396 ; commercial departments as educational experimental, 397- Laboratory, the physics, 361; chemistry, 372-373; dietetics, 475, 477; laundry, 496-498, 503, 504. Laboratory breakage fund, science department, 356-357. Laboratory desk type of arrangement of cooking unit, home eco- nomics department, 472-473. Laclede Elementary School, St. Louis, Mo., 86, 87 ; kindergarten, 287. Lafayette School, Newark, N. J., 32, 33. Lafayette Bloom School, Cincinnati, Ohio, 622, 623. Landings of stairs, 312. Landscape architecture, value of, 69. Landscape designer, cooperation of physical director with architect and, in planning school grounds, 9. Landscape development of school grounds, 61-69; estimated cost of, 80, 81. Lanterns for lecture room of science department, 353-354. Lantern slides for science department, 355. Lathrop School of Mechanical Trades, Kansas City, Mo., history and location of, 177 ; buildings of, 177-178 ; equipment, courses, and other data, 178. Laundering, teaching of, 494-496. Laundry equipment in home economics department of vocational school, 202. Laundry unit, home economics department, 470, 494-498. Lavatories in school buildings, 210. Lawn as surface of playground, xo. Lawrence, Mass., assembly hall of Oliver School in, 339. Lecture room, science department, 353-356; physics, 357-361; chemistry, 372 ; for courses in applied physics, 372 ; in drawing department, 420. Legge, Robert T., chapter by, on the hygiene of schools, 204-217. Legislation concerning school buildings, suggested, 29. Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School, Palo Alto, Calif., 96-99 ; open-air classroom at, 212. Library, location of, 21, 292-293 ; in high elementary school, 71 ; requirements for high school, 73 ; estimated cost of equipment, 81; in elementary school, 95 ; in junior high school, 1 12 ; articu- lation of study halls with, in high schools, 147 ; in large ele- mentary school, 247 ; importance of, in relation to whole school plant, 291-292 ; course in the use of, recommended, 292 ; ques- tion of size, 293-295 ; interior construction, 295-296 ; ventila- tion and lighting, 296 ; finish and equipment, 297-304 ; fire- proofing, 304; of music department, 349; of science depart- ment, 352 ; of drawing department, 420, 423. Lighting, of factory type of industrial school, 162-163; °f home economics departments, 203 ; of schoolrooms in general, 208 ; of gymnasium, 229; of classrooms, 263-267; of school library, 296; of corridors, 307; of stairways, 315; of assembly hall, 331-332 ; of physics lecture room, 359, 361 ; of physical labora- tory, 361 ; of laboratories used for evening work, 384; of book- keeping rooms, 405 ; of drawing rooms, 415, 416, 423 ; of school shops, 427 ; of exhibit room, 463 ; of laundry room, home eco- nomics department, 496; resume of requirements in school lighting, 557, 559. lighting installation, design of, 565-567. Lincoln Elementary School, Toledo, Ohio, 285, 590, 591, 592, 593. Lincoln High School, Portland, Ore., 152-156; trade-sewing room, 512. Lincolnwood School, Evanston, 111., Assembly Hall, 338. Lindblom High School, Chicago, 111., 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709. Linoleum for classroom floors, 276. Literature, taught in kindergarten, 281. Little Rock, Ark., Junior High School, 1 19-123. Location of school buildings, 6, 9. Locker rooms, school shops, 427. Lockers, in gymnasium, 225-226; in corridor walls, 308. Lockwood Elementary School, Oakland, Calif., 580, 581, 582. Logan County Industrial Arts High School, Sterling, Colo., 197, 198. Longfellow School, Fresno, Calif., grounds of, 238. Los Angeles, Calif., high school landscape plan, 65; high school library regulations in, 292 ; Lincoln High School, trade-sewing room, 512. Lunches for open-air classes, 211-212. Lunch rooms, in home economics work, 202 ; for teachers, 248 ; education in management of, 488. Lux School, San Francisco, Calif., teachers’ dining-room, 499, 500 ; laundry room, 502 ; household arts classroom, 506 ; teachers’ rest room, 507 ; household arts drawing room, 509. McChesney Elementary School, Oakland, Calif., 582, 583, 584. McCormick Open Air School, Chicago, 111., 211. McKinley School, San Leandro, Calif., 577, 578. Machines, for direct and alternating current electricity laboratory, 368-369. Machine shop, in industrial arts department of high school, 74; estimated cost of equipment of, 81 ; construction and equipment of, 166-167, 434-436. Madison, Elizabeth, writings on school library by, 291. Manhattan Trade School, New York City, description of, 191, 193. Manual training, requirements for department, in high elemen- tary school, 71 ; in kindergarten, 282. Masonry work in school construction, 32. Massachusetts, conditions in, as to high schools, 132; size of high school classes in, 140. Materials for school buildings, economy distinguished from cheap- ness in, 29, 31. Measurement of schoolhouse plan for standardization, rules for, S?I ' Mechanical department, in low elementary school, 70; in high elementary school, 71 ; in junior high and pre-vocational school, 71- Mechanical drawing, in public school curriculum, 411, 412; high school department of, 412, 415; courses in, 419; geometrical and trade drawing rooms, 419-420. Mechanical plant, high school, requirements for, 73. Mechanics, courses in, 364; laboratory for, 365. Medical department, in low elementary school, 70; in high ele- mentary school, 71 ; in junior high and pre-vocational school, 71 ; in high school, 73. Menagerie, of biological laboratory, 393, 395. Microscopes, in biological laboratory, 395-396. Millinery, teaching of, 501. Mill work for classroom interiors, 272. Milwaukee, buildings of Trade School for Boys in, 160; account of Boys’ Technical High School in, 181-182 ; Public School of Trades for Girls in, 193. Modeste, Calif., high school grounds, 62 ; sewing-unit layout for high school, 508. Monrovia, Calif., Polytechnic High School, 673, 674, 675. Morgan, Agnes Fay, chapter by, on the home economics depart- ment, 468-512. Morrill Act, passage of, 468 n. Mosswood Park, Oakland, Calif., tennis courts at, 240; hockey field at, 241. 720 GENERAL INDEX Motive of American school architecture, 18. Mott School, Toledo, Ohio, 613, 614, 6x5, 616. Moving pictures, apparatus in auditorium of junior high school, 113-114; screen for, in school assembly halls, 324 ; booths for, in assembly halls, 327, 328, 331 ; apparatus in science depart- ment, 353-356- Mxdtiple uses, principle of, applied to rooms in high school, 149. Museum cases in school libraries, 298, 304. Music, taught in kindergarten, 281. Music department, 342-349 ; separate building for, in high school, 9; requirements for, in high elementary school, 71; in junior high and pre-vocational school, 72; in senior high school, 74; estimated cost of equipment, 81. Music room, combination of, with auditorium, in elementary school, 88. Myers, Romaine W., chapter by, on electrical installation and illumination, 550-568. Naramore, Floyd A., suggestion by, for tacking strips, 271. Nash, Jay B., chapter by, on physical education, 218-242. National Education Association, recommendations of, on size of school sites, 6, 8. Nationalizing of immigrants, 22. See Americanization of for- eigners. Natural play activities in physical education, 222-223. Nature study, in kindergarten, 282. Neighborhood type of junior high school, 111-112. Newark, N. J., Lafayette School in, 32, 33; South Side High School in, 133-137; Boys’ Vocational School in, 188-190, 191, 192; Girls’ Vocational School in, 200; kindergarten of Cleve- land School, 290 ; assembly hall of South Side High School, 340 ; State Normal School, 599; Ridge School, 600, 601. New Bedford, Mass,, building of industrial school in, 160; ac- count of Vocational School, 182-183. New Couch School, Portland, Ore., fan installation, 539, 540. New Orleans, La., Lrancis Nicholls School in, 191. New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, 111., 15, 41 ; foun- dry, 439; cafeteria, 517, 659, 660, 661, 662. New York City, Manhattan Trade School in, 191, 193; investi- gation of ventilation question by Health Department of, 207 ; playground movement in, 219; elementary school floor plans in, 255, 259 ; Regis High School, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696. New York State, law of, in regard to physical education, 220. Nolan, Thomas, editor of Kidder’s Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book, 313. Northampton, Mass., Smith Agricultural School at, 196-197, 199. Nurses, school, 212, 216, 217. Oakland, Calif., layout of Emerson School site, 12 and 234 ; 14-15 ; views of Emerson School, 25-28 ; views of Clawson Elementary School, 89-93 j kindergarten porch, Emerson School, 236 ; ap- paratus in play yard of Emerson School, 237-238, 241 ; Bushrod Playground, 239; Mosswood Park tennis courts, 240; track in Bushrod Playground, 241 ; hockey field, Mosswood Park, 241 ; classroom, Clawson Schoi 1, 270; open windows, Emerson school, 273 ; kindergarten, Clawson School, 281 ; kindergarten porch, Clawson School, 282; theater-auditorium in, 329, 330; Clawson School manual-training room, 461 ; Clawson School domest c science room, 491 ; plumbing installation, Clawson School, 543, 544, 546, 548; Santa Fe Elementary School, 579, 580; Lockwood Elementary School, 580, 581,582; McChesney Elementary School, 582, 583, 584; Durant Elementary School, 604, 605, 606; Claremont Elementary School, 632, 633 ; Jeffer- son School, 634, 635, 636. Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, Calif., group plan of, I 3> I 5; views of, 42-49; description of administrative offices, 2 49- 2 5 0 ; use of library by pupils, 293 ; physical lecture room, 356; physics laboratory, 362; chemistry lecture room, 377; chemistry laboratory, 378; bookkeeping department, 404; typing room, 406; freehand drawing room, 417; shops, 425, 429, 433, 441, 460; cooking-room, 487; costume-designing classroom, 510. Oak Park School, Sacramento, Calif., 30, 31. Oakton School District 76, Evanston, 111., 102, 103. Odors, in relation to school hygiene, 205. Office, arrangement of library and, in elementary school, 95; music, in music department of high school, 349. Office equipment, junior high school, 113. Offices, in gymnasium, 225; administrative, in public school buildings, 243-252; of commercial department, 399 ; teachers’, in commercial department, 407 ; of drawing department, 420 ; of school shops, 427. Office training, in commercial department of high school, 402-403. Oiling of classroom floors, 275-276. Oil macadam surface for playground, 10-11. O’Leary, Iris Prouty, Cooking in the Vocational School, etc., by, cited, 487. Oliver School, Lawrence, Mass., assembly hall, 339. Open-air schools, 211-212; classrooms in, and plans of, 2 12-2 14; discussed, 527. Open type of plan in school architecture, 24. Orchestra, accommodations for, in assembly halls, 343, 344, 345, 346. Organ, in assembly halls, 327 ; a valuable acquisition to any high school, 348. Ornamental embellishments in school architecture, infrequent use of, 18. Outdoor laboratory for study of biology, 396. Ovens, in cafeteria kitchen, 515. Overhead lighting for classrooms, 264. Ozonating air, ventilating by, 524. Packard, Frank L., architect, influence of work of, 18. Painting, inspection of, in school construction, 32 ; of classrooms, 275; of corridors, 308-309; of assembly halls, 332-333. Painting and decorating, workshops for teaching, 169-170. Palo Alto, Calif., Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School in, 96-99, 212. Parkersburg, W. Va., school assembly hall, 341, 686, 687, 688, 689. Partitions, movable, in industrial schools, 163 ; for inclosing stairways, 311-312. Part-time schools, 158; accommodations for, 160; bu ldings for, 172; home economics taught in, 199. Pattern-making shop, room for, and equipment, 171-172, 430-431. Pergola porch, open, at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 15. Periods in high school day, relation of. to accommodations needed, 148 ; length of, 148. Periods of leadership and instruction in physical education, 221- 222. Perkins, Dwight H., architect, influence of work of, 18. Personal combative activities in physical education, 223. Physical director, collaboration of, in planning school grounds, 9. Physical education, for pupils who would ordinarily leave school after sixth grade, 4 ; facilities for, in elementary schools, 93 ; time-allotment for, in high schools, 147-148; need of, 218-219; history of, 219; rise of playground movement, 219; new era in, from 1914 to 1918, 219-220 ; State laws concerning, 220-221 ; definition and aims of, 221 ; periods of leadership and instruction in, 221-222; phases of, 222-225; place of, in the curriculum, 225 ; plant and equipment for, 225-237. Physical-training periods, classification and relationships between, 221-222. Physics, provision for department of, 357-364; applied, 364-372. See Science department. Physics department, high school, requirements for, 74. Physiology, laboratory accommodations, 390-391. Picture moldings in school corridors, 309. Pictures, for physics lecture room, 359. GENERAL INDEX 721 Pittsburgh, Pa., playground movement in, 219; interior views of Schenley High School, 296, 297, 313, 315, 334, 383, 391, 492, 501, 663, 664, 665. Placement bureau, commercial department of high school, 401. Planning of school buildings, 18, 20-21. Plans, for school sites, 1-2, 3 ; of playgrounds, 5, 242 ; of athletic fields, 7, 15 ; of school grounds, 12-14, 26, 37, 43, 62, 64-68, 97, no, 127-128, 178, 234, 238; of shops, 165-171, 198, 426, 428, 432, 438, 440, 445, 447, 450, 454, 457, 459! of vocational home economics department, 201 ; of unit kitchens, 202 ; of eye- strain-preventive desks, 208, 209 ; of lockers in corridors, 308. See Floor plans. Planting on school grounds, relation of architecture and, 61, 63; border for fence, 69. Plastering, quality of, in school construction, 32; for classrooms, 274- Play activities in physical education, 222-223. Playground movement, rise of, 219 ; a phase of physical education program, 225. Playgrounds, importance of, 1 ; plans of, 5, 242 ; of elementary schools, 8; of junior high schools, 8-9; of high schools, 10; surfacing of, 10-11; fencing of, 11; community use of, 11 ; toilet, dressing-room, and other accommodations for, 11, 14; location of accommodations, 21; for elementary schools, 85, 96; photographs of, 239-241; for kindergartens, 279, 281. Playground supervisor, offices for, in schools, 245, 248. Playrooms in schools, an essential, 20; covered, 88. Play yard, equipment, plan, and size of, 236-237; views and plans of, 237, 239, 241, 242. Plumbing, room for instruction in, and equipment, 171 ; of school buildings, 209-211; special, for science department, 352-353; complexity of modern systems, 541 ; survey of building site and excavation work, 541-542; soil pipes, cesspools, septic tanks, and roof drains, 542-543 ; toilet facilities, materials, and under- ground pipes, 543-544 ; constant inspection to be maintained, 544; union connections, valves, wall and floor plates, 544-545 ; water supply and water distribution, 545, 547 ; hot-water circu- lation, 547 ; fire protection system, 547-548 ; standpipe and fire-hose installation, 548-549 ; pipe covering and plumbing fixtures, 549. Plumbing shop, functions and equipment of, 453. Polytechnic High School, Monrovia, Calif., 673, 674, 675. Pontiac, Mich., High School, gymnasium of, 227, 656, 657, 658. Portable schoolhouses, stoves used for heating, 527-528. Portland, Ore., Lincoln High School, 152-156; Benson Poly- technic High School, 434, 448, 449, 455, 458, 528, 529-536; Franklin High School, 537, 538, 547 ; New Couch School, 539, 540; Fernwood Grammar School, 620, 621. Power food chopper, school cafeteria, 517. Power hammer, for school forge shop, 444; foundation for, 444, 446. Power plants in industrial schools, 163. Practice house in vocational home economics department, 202. Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., laboratories, 367, 368, 370, 371, 373- Pressure cookers for school kitchens, 488. Pre-vocational school, requirements for buildings for, 71-72. Primary grades, provision for schoolroom activities in, 95-96. See also Elementary school. Principal’s offices, requirements for, 70, 71, 72; cost of equip- ment, 81; in small elementary schools, 244-245; in large ele- mentary schools, 246; in medium-sized high schools, 248. Principals’ secretaries, 403. Printing, rooms for instruction in, and equipment, 75, 168-169, 451-453, 467; high school course in, 425. Program systems, electric, for schools, 555. Projectoscope equipment in elementary schools, 94. Psychological tests, commercial department of high school, 401. Psychrometer, wet-bulb, for determining temperature and relative humidity of rooms, 205. Puente, Calif., Union High School plan, 66. Pullman Free School of Manual Training, 187 ; description of, 187-188. Pupil, cost per, as method of computing cost of school buildings, 75 - 76 . Pupils, reach of, 271. Pupils’ service department, in low elementary schools, 71; in high elementary schools, 71 ; in junior high and pre-vocational schools, 72 ; in high schools, 73. Quietness, an essential in assembly halls, 327. Radiators, recesses for, in school corridors, 309. Radio classes, 407. Railroad crossings, attention to, in planning for school sites, 2. Railroad tracks, avoidance of school sites along, 6. Ramps in school buildings, 318. Ranken School of Trades. See David Ranken Jr. School of Me- chanical Trades. Reach of pupils, data concerning, 271. Recitation rooms, size and number of, in high schools, 139 ; com- bination of laboratories and, 149, 197. Recreational facilities in elementary schools, 93. Reed, George E., chapter by, on heating and ventilating, 523-540; chapter by, on plumbing, 541-549. Reflectoscopes for lecture room, science department, 354. Refrigerators for cooking unit, home economics department, 484. Regis High School, New York City, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696. Registrar’s office in high school, 72, 251. Related activities included under physical education, 223, 225. Requirements for schools, lists of, 70-75. Research, recent impetus given to, 21-22. Rest rooms in schools, 245, 246-247, 249. Rezin Orr Public School, Chicago, Ilk, 586, 587, 588, 589. Rhythm, taught in kindergarten, 281-282. Rhythmic activities in physical education, 223. Richardson, Anna E., account of vocational home economics schools by, 199-203. Risers of stairs, 313. Rochester, Minn., school library regulations at, 291-292. Rochester, N. Y., industrial school, building of, 160. Roof dampers, use of and necessity for, 540. Running track, in indoor gymnasium, 226. Rural communities, the 6-4-2 plan in, 127 ; union high schools for, 132. Rural schools, farm bookkeeping in, 404. Sabine, Wallace C., work on architectural acoustics by, cited, 324, 325 - Sacramento, Calif., Oak Park School, 30, 31; kindergarten of Fremont School, 290. Safety welfare work in schools, 212-213, 216-217. St. Louis, Mo., Clark Elementary and Soldan High School, 19; Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, 20-24, 285, 286; La- clede Elementary School, 86, 87, 287; Glasgow School, 104, Ashland School, 105 ; Grover Cleveland High School, 141-146, 33L 332, 349, 352, 361, 394, 4°7, 421, 422, 494, 505, 516; de- scription of David Ranken Jr. School of Mechanical Trades, 174-175- Salesmanship, courses in, in commercial department of high school, 402 ; general and specialty, 402. Sand box, in space for small children, elementary school, 8; in junior high school, 9; at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 15, 237, 238. San Diego, Calif., Francis W. Parker Elementary School, 213; kindergarten of Francis W. Parker School, 284; study-room library of high school, 298, 594, 595, 596. 722 GENERAL INDEX Sand table, in general science laboratory, 388. San Francisco, Calif., interior views of Lux School, 499, 500, 502, S06, 507. 5°9- Sanitary installations in school buildings, 77. Sanitation, of school sites, 6; laboratory accommodations for courses in, 390-391. San Leandro, Calif., McKinley School, 577, 578; Washington School, 578. San Luis Obispo, Calif., Elementary School, 631. Santa Barbara, Calif., High School, proposed new, 14, 127-131. Santa Fe Elementary School, Oakland, Calif., 579, 580. Santa Monica, Calif., High School, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679. Schedule providing for limited introduction of supervised study in high schools, 150-151, 153. Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pa., library, 296; stairway at, 313; main entrance lobby, 315; auditorium, 334; chemistry laboratory, 383 ; general science laboratory, 391 ; domestic- science room, 492; model dining-room, 501, 663, 664, 665. School architecture, motive of American, 18 ; formation of plan, 18, 20-21; correlation of departments, 21; planning school of the’future, 21-24, 573 ; the exterior composition, 24-28; ques- tion of standardization, 28-29 ; relation of planting and, 61, 63. School bank, the, 401. School-building codes, securing of uniformity in, 29. School-building inspectors, 31-33. School buildings, proper planning for, 18, 20-21 ; of the future, 21-24 ; exterior of, 24, 26-28 ; pros and cons of standardization, 28-29 ; legislation suggested for governing construction, 29 ; materials for, 29, 31 ; inspection of construction work, 31-33; choice of architect and his service, 33-3 5 ; cost of, 70-76 ; types of construction for, 76-77 : classification of heating and venti- lation, 77; sanitary installations, 77; electrical installations, 77-78, 550-568 ; classification of educational grades, 78 ; calcu- lating costs of heating and ventilating systems and electrical installation, 78-79; cost of equipment, 80-81; comparative costs and records, 81-82 ; static capacity as a basis for comput- ing costs, 82-83 ; for vocational schools, 157 ff. ; new, for trade or industrial education, 162-163 ; for agricultural schools, 195- 197 ; matters of hygiene connected with, 204-217 ; adminis- trative offices in, 243-252 ; the kindergarten, 279-291 ; the library, 291-304; corridors, stairways, and entrances, 305-319 ; the assembly hall, 320-341; the music department, 342-349; physics and chemistry departments, 350-384; general science and biological laboratories, 385-396; the commercial depart- ment, 397-4x0; the drawing department, 411-423 ; the indus- trial arts department, 424; the home economics department, 468-512; the cafeteria, 513-522; heating and ventilating of, 523-540; plumbing system of, 541-549; electrical installation and illumination, 550-568; standards of planning of, 569-574. School clinics, 213, 216-217. School day, periods in, and length of, 148. School farms, 396. School grounds, size of, 6, 8 ; avoidance of waste in planning, 9 ; plans of, 12-13, 62, 64-68; landscape development of, 61-69. Schoolhouse planning, standards of, 569-574. School hygiene, 204-217. School library, chapter on, 291-304. See Library. Schools, part-time and evening, 158. School sites. See Sites of schools. Science, modern teaching of general, 385. Science building, estimated cost of, and of equipment, 80, 81. Science department, location of, 21; planning of, 22; require- ments for, in high elementary school, 71 ; in junior high and pre-vocational school, 72;. in high school, 73-74; room for, in elementary school, 93; laboratories for, in junior high school, 112; connected with vocational industrial shop, 172; plans for, in school building, 350-357; electric service for, 552, 554. Screens for lantern pictures, science department, 354. Secretaries, student, 403 ; principals’, 403. Seesaws, in small children’s space, elementary schools, 8; in junior high schools, 9. Self-testing activities in physical education, 222. Senior high school. See High school. Septic tanks for schools, 542. Service department, high school, requirements for, 73. Serving counter, school cafeteria, 520-521. Sewing, teaching of, 501-509. Sewing department, high school, 74. Shades for classroom windows, 277 ; use of Venetian blinds, 277- 278. Sheet-metal shop, room fitted up for, and equipment, 170-171; arrangement of, 453, 456. Shops, location of, 21, 425-430; in industrial arts department of high school, 74, 424-425; estimated cost of building and of equipment, 80, 81 ; in industrial type of junior high school, 111 ; size of, for senior high school, 139 ; equipment for, 161 ; floor space for, 164; floor plans of, 165-171, 198, 426, 428, 432, 438, 440, 445, 447, 4So, 454, 457, 459! description of typical shop, 165-166 ; separate building for, 197 ; combination, 197-198. Shop window, a model, 402. Shorthand and typing department, high school, 73. Shower baths, 14; locating the, 21; a necessary part of school equipment, 93 ; in gymnasium, 226. Shrubs in school grounds, 64. Sinks, for unit kitchen arrangement, 483 ; in cafeteria kitchen, _ 516-5x7. Sisson, Ralph C., chapter by, on the drawing department, 41 1-423. Sites of schools, selection of, 1 ; foresight necessary in choice of, 1-2 ; general plan of, 2, 3 ; advantages of zone planning, 2, 4; characteristics of good, 4, 6 ; size of, 6, 8 ; of high schools, 9 ; relation of, to cost of school buildings, 75 ; size and location, for elementary school, 85; for junior high school, 111 ; of schools for trade or industrial education, 162 ; importance of, in con- sidering ceiling height, 260; and lighting of classrooms, 263. Skokie Elementary School, Winnetka, 111., 34, 35, 36. Slate, use of, for blackboards, 268-271. Slides, in small children’s space, elementary school, 8 ; in junior high schools, 9; at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 238. Slides, lantern, for science department, 355. Smith, Ruth McNary, Equipping a Diet Kitchen by, cited, 490. Smith Agricultural School, Northampton, Mass., 196-197, 199. Smith-Hughes Act, for promoting vocational education, 159 ; impetus given vocational education by, 427. Snedden, David, quoted on “home-making” education, 469. Snyder, C. B. J., influence of work of, 18 ; cited on standardization, 28; classroom plans by-, 255, 259; quoted concerning stair re- quirements, 31 1 ; plans of stairs by, 314; quoted on fireproof stairways, 318. Soccer posts, at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 238. Socialization, emphasized in kindergarten, 282. Sound, action of, and its control, in assembly halls, 324-327. Sound insulators for classroom floors, 272. South Side High School, Newark, N. J., 133-137; assembly hall, 340. Special corrective period in physical education, 222. Special rooms in elementary school, 88. Special school buildings, types of, 160. Special-type high schools, comprehensive vs., 127-131. Springfield, Mass., industrial school, building of, 160. Stables, location of schools relative to, 6. Stacks, library, 295-296. Staff of senior high school, relation of. to accommodations, 13S-139. Stage of assembly hall, 320, 323-324. Stairs and stairways in elementary school, 85, 88 ; in schools in general, 310-318. Standardization, in school planning, 28-29 > of classrooms, SS. Standards of schoolhouse planning, 569-574. Standpipes in school buildings, 548-549. GENERAL INDEX 723 States, promotion of vocational education by, 159; laws of, con- cerning physical education, 220-221. Static capacity, computation of school-building costs by, 82-83. Steam and gas engines, courses in, 364; laboratory for, 367-368. Steam systems of heating, 531. Steel work in school construction, 32. Stenotypy classes, 407. Stereopticon equipment in elementary schools, 94. Sterling, Colo., Logan County Industrial Arts High School at, 197, 198. Storage spaces under stairs, 318. Store, the school, 401-402. Storeroom, for physics lecture-room apparatus, 361 ; the central, for industrial arts department, 465; of cafeteria, 519-520. Storerooms, connected with school playgrounds, 14 ; connected with physics laboratory, 363 ; for applied physics laboratories, 370; for biological laboratory, 393; for drawing department, 420-421. Stoves, in domestic-science department, 481 ; use of, for heating, 527-528. Street-car lines, precautions in locating schools near, 6, 9. Street conditions, attention to, in planning for school sites, 2, 6, 9. Strength of materials, courses in, 364; laboratory for, 365. Stuart, Reginald R., chapter by, on the commercial department, 397-410. Study, provisions for, in high schools, 140 ; directed and undirected, 140, 142 ; schedule providing for limited introduction of super- vised, in high schools, 150-151, 153. Study halls, size of, in high schools, 147; articulation of, with library, 147. Study-sittings, number of, in high schools, 142, 147. Supervised play period in physical education, 221. Supervised study in high schools, 150-151, 153. Supplies, kept in school store, 401-402 ; regulations governing, for school shops, 465. Surfacing of school playgrounds, 10-n. Surveys of proposed school sites, 6. Swedish system of physical education, 219. Swimming-pools, for junior high schools, 8 ; essential in school equipment, 20, 93; locating, 21; in high schools, 75; plans and view of, 224, 231, 232 ; specifications and requirements for, 235-236. Swings, in small children’s space, elementary schools, 8 ; in junior high schools, 9. Switchboards, for lecture rooms, 357, 358; laboratory, 362, 365, 37°, 373-375, 379; for electric service, 554-555- Tables, for chemistry laboratory, 375, 381 ; in cooking unit, home economics department, 477, 479, 481. Tabulation of accommodations needed in high schools, 148-150. Tacking strips, suggestions and devices for, 271. Taunton, Mass., Taunton High School, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672. Teacher’s closet in wardrobe, 267-268. Teachers College, Columbia University, laundry laboratory at, 497, 504- Teachers’ dining-rooms, 499, 500. Teachers’ lunch room in large elementary school, 248. Teachers’ rooms, in elementary schools, 70, 71, 245, 246-247; in junior high and pre-vocational schools, 71, 113 ; in high schools, 73, 249. Technical drawing room, 420. Technical education for adults, 384. Teeth, care of school children’s, 216, 217. Telephone, training business students in use of, 401. Telephone system in schools, 556-557. Temperature, of rooms, 205; of open-air classrooms, 211. Temperature control in school buildings, 540. Tenney, Walter A., chapter by, on the industrial arts department, 424-467. Tennis courts, for elementary schools, 8, 237; for junior high schools, 8; at Mosswood Park, Oakland, Calif., 240. Tests, psychological, in commercial department of high school, 401. Textile apparatus, clothing unit of home economics department, 5°2, 504- Texture, harmony of, in plant composition, 63. Theater-auditorium, Oakland, Calif., 329, 330. Three-block system, introduction of, 126-127; variations in, 127. Toilet rooms, near playgrounds, 11, 14; in school buildings, 210; in gymnasium, 226; ventilation of, 540; plumbing of, 543; plumbing fixtures for, 549. Toledo, Ohio, Lincoln School, kindergarten, 285, 590, 591, 592, 593 ; Mott School, 613, 614, 615, 616. Tools, for manual-training and technical high schools, 161 ; for equipment of shops, 166-171. Trade drawing room, 419-420. Trade education, growing out of domestic arts, 469. See Home economics. Trade schools, 158; planning of buildings for, 159; photographs of, 172, 176; for girls, 190-195 ; home-making departments of, 200. See also Industrial schools and Vocational schools. Trade -sewing equipment, 507, 509. Trade shops of high school, location of, 9. Trade unit plan of construction for industrial schools, 164-165. Transoms in classrooms, 274. Treads of stairs, 313, 315. Trees in school grounds, 64. Trenton, N. J., Junior High School, 112-118, 333 ; gymnasium of, 229 ; printing shop of, 452 ; cooking room of, 498. Trim for classroom interiors, 272. Tuition at vocational schools, 175, 181. Types of construction for school buildings, 76-77. Typewriter desks, 405. Typewriters, care and repair of, 406 ; selection of makes, 407, 409. Typing, importance of, 405 ; classes in, rooms for, and desks, 405. Unification, comprehensive high school as an instrument for, 129. Union high schools, 132. Unit basis, construction of factory type of school building on, 165. Unit kitchens, home economics department, 473, 475, 477. Unit plan of buildings at Wentworth Institute, 184-186. Unit trade courses, equipment of typical shops for, 164-172. Unit trade schools, 160. University of California, Berkeley, Calif. (Dental Clinic), 216; (bookstack), 297. Utensils, for equipment of unit kitchen, home economics depart- ment, 484-487. Vacuum piping for science department, 353. Varnish, floor, for classrooms, 276. Vegetable-peeling machine, school cafeteria, 519. Vegetable preparation table, cafeteria kitchen, 517-518. Venetian blinds, use of, for window shades, 277-278. Ventilating systems, types of, 77 ; calculating cost of, 78-79. Ventilation, means of, in elementary schools, 94 ; of home eco- nomics departments, 203 ; of school buildings in general, 204- 205; summary of requirements for, 206; of toilet rooms, 210, 540 ; of gymnasium, 229, 236 ; location of air registers, 276-277 ; of library rooms, 296 ; of lecture room, science department, 353 ; of laundry room, home economics department, 496-497 ; criti- cism and discussion of mechanical, 523-524; standard of purity, 524; ozonating, 524; air filters, 524-525; humidity, 525-526; air volume, 526; cost, 526; by windows, 526-527; open-air rooms, 527 ; powers of, possessed by jacketed stoves, 528; where furnaces are used, 528-531 ; plant for heating and, 535-54°- Vermont high school system, 127; for rural areas, 133. 7 2 4 GENERAL INDEX Vestibules of entrance to school buildings, 318. Vibration, guarding against, in locating science group rooms, 351. Vice-principal’s suite, high school, cost of equipment, 81. Vines on playground fences, n. Visual instruction, equipment for, in elementary schools, 94. Vocational education, for special type of pupils, 4 ; comprehensive high school best for effectiveness of, 128-129; a i ms of general education contrasted with those of, 157-158; recent develop- ment of, 158; agencies which are promoting, 159; trend of high school education toward, 412. Vocational music, equipment for instruction in, 346, 348. Vocational schools, organization of, 157-158; function of, 158- 159 i types of and buildings for, 158, 160-161 ; description of typical, 173-190; floor plans of, 173-175, 1 77, 179-181,183- 187, 189-193, 196-199, 201-202 ; photographs of, 182, 184, 188 ; equipment of, 195-198; for teaching home economics, 199-203. Volley ball courts, for elementary schools, 8; for junior high schools, 8; at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 238. Walls of classrooms, treatment of, 208; material for, 272-273 ; of corridors, 307-308. Ward, Gilbert 0 ., writings on school library by, 291. Wardrobes, location of, relative to classrooms, 267-268. Warren, Irene, writings on school library by, 291. Wasco, Calif., Union High School, arrangement of buildings and grounds ojf, 242. Washing machines, school laundry unit, 497. Washington, D. C., Central High School, 50-60; main corridor, 306. Washington School, Oakland, Calif., 578. Wash rooms, school shops, 427. Waste, in duplication of departments in schools, 2, 4; avoiding, in planning of school grounds, 9. Water activities in physical education, 223. Water distribution in schools, 545, 547. Water for swimming-pools, requirements for, 235-236. Water supply for toilet rooms, 545. Watson, F. R., work on architectural acoustics by, cited, 324. Weaver, Frank, forge designed by, 442, 444. Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass., buildings of, 160, 184-187. Westmoreland School grounds, Imperial Valley, Calif., 68. Westwood Public School, Cincinnati, Ohio, 627, 628, 629, 630. Wheelwright, Edmund M., architect, influence of work of, 18. White, Eva W., Household Arts by, cited, 488. Wider use of school grounds, n. William Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, Minn., buildings of, 160, 180; history and location of, 178- 180; equipment and courses at, 180-181. Williamson, Isaiah U., school founded by, 175-176. Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, buildings of, 160, 176; history and location of, 175-176; equipment and courses at, 176-177; requirements for admission, indenturing of stu- dents, etc., 177. Windows, handling of, 264, 266; in Clawson School, Oakland, Calif., 270; in Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 273; for classroom, 277; shades for, 277; specifications and recom- mendations in connection with lighting, 561-563. Window stools, height of, 266-267. Window ventilation for schools, 526-527. Winnetka, 111 ., Skokie Elementary School, 34, 35, 36. Winslow, Charles H., survey by, 189. Winslow, E, A., cited on ventilation, 205. Winter activities in physical education, 223. Wood finishing, workshop for teaching, 169-170. Woods, Glen H., chapter by, on the music department, 342-349. Woodworking shops, description of typical, 167-168. Worcester, Mass., Boys’ Trade School, 160, 172, 173 ; account of, 1 73-1 74; equipment and courses, 174. Worcester, Mass., Girls’ Trade School, 193-194 ; home-making department of, 200. Workers, two types of schools for, T58. Working pupils, schedule for, in high schools, 151, 153. Workshop, science department, 351-352. See Shops. Wright, J. D., chapter by, on buildings and equipment for voca- tional schools, 157-203. Zone planning for school grounds, benefits of, 2, 4. Zoology, courses in, and laboratory accommodations for, 390-391. Printed in the United States of America.