/ )^-' ^\ t Hi A. \ f V * ^ V v/ ^, y V ■iT 7) ;v^ .A Digitized by the^lntern in 2013 v^^ Archive X / / / / ^^ y V /^ http://archive.org/details/manualofgeographOOmaur M AURY 's Geographical Series. • MANUAL >■ O F • G K o G R A P A H Y : COMPLETE TREATISE ON MATHEMATICAL , CIVIL , AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By M. F. MAURY, LL,D. Author of " Physical Geography of the Sea," etc. > UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY, NEW YORK AND BALTIMORE. * 1878. MAUEY'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES. ■ FIRST LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY, For Young Learners; in wliieh the Autlioi-, in an imaginary voyage and joni-nej, takes the pnpil \vnce round the world, shows him various parts of it, and easily and pleasantly introduces him to the study of Geography. THE WORLD WE LIVE IN: An Intermediate Geography; in which the Author has sought to present the leading facts and principles of Geographical Science in a familiar and attractive manner, with constant reference to the maps, and with carefully adapted Questions, Exercises, and Map Studies. MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY: A complete Treatise on Matliematical, Civil, and Physical Geogi-aphy ; presented in an attractive manner, with abundant helps and adaptations to awaken and sustain the interest of the pupil in intelligent study. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: In which the Natural Features of the Earth, its Atmospherical Phenomena, and its Animal and Vegetable Life, are fully treated, with an attractiveness of style and freshness and interest of detail that charm the j)upil and the general reader. Illustrated with mimcrons maps and engravings. WALL MAPS: With new and original features; furnishing invaluable aid in teaching Geography in classes, and comprising, I. The World. II. North America. III. The United States. IV. South America. V. Europe. VL Asia. VII. Africa. VIII. Physical and Commercial Chart of the World. Entered nccording to Act of Congress, in the year IS70. hv M. F. MAURY. In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. *** 32:5. CI PREFACE. As the matured fruit of the author's earnest and protracted labors this work is now sent forth, an humble contribution to the cause of geographical education. The time seems fullj' to have arrived when geography demands an hon- orable place among her sister sciences. Every scholar of the present da}- is aware of the increased and increasing need of geographical te.xt-books which, while within the intellectual grasp of young pupils, shall be fitted to ex- pand the minds of those more advanced in tlieir studies ; and to redeem the most delightful of subjects from tlie bondage of dry statistics, on the one hand, and, on the other, from the drudgery of vague generalities. In the preparation of this volume, as in that of its two predecessors, no pains have been spared to lead the young geographer by easy and gentle gradations to vantage-ground, from which he may overlook and survey -nature for himself, and where the enchantments of the prospect will con- strain him to pursue his geographical inquiries with zeal and enthusiasm. " The study of physical phenomena," to borrow tlie words of Humboldt, " finds its noblest and richest reward in a knowledge of the chain of con- nection by which all natural forces are linked together and made mutually dependent on each other ; and it is the perception of these relations that exalts our views and ennobles our enjoyments." While, therefore, the author has sought to reproduce in the pupil's mind the same vivid pictures of the various pails and places and objects of the globe which, as an eye- witness, he himself retains, he has constantly aimed at pointing out geo- graphical laws, and at giving the learner glimpses into the terrestrial machin- ery, and frequent foretastes of the pleasures that await his after researches. As regards the success which lins attended tlie author's efforts to carry out his views, in these pages, tiie public must now judge. The teacher and scholar, however, are alike requested to mark the follow- ing statements, which present some features of the Manual and furnish direc- tions for its most efiective use in the class-room. (1.) Map-Drawing from memory is felt to be a necessity to all who would know the surface of the earth as illustrated by maps. The study of geog- raphy without a knowledge of the map is mere groping in the dark. The Treatise on Map-Drawing here given is so simple in principle, and so easy in practice, tliut it cannot fail to commend itself to both teachers and pupils. Any one, however inexperienced, can use it, and pupils should be exercised in it from the beginning to the end of tiieir course. A uniform projection for maps is as desirable for schools and teachers as is a uniform system of weights and measures for business men — a con- summation for which all nations are striving. Universally, at sea, the Mercator Projection is used by navigators. That is the best for them. Likewise the Rectangular Tangential Projec- tion is the best for the land. It is something new, and it is here presented for the first lime, it is believed, in an American geography. The impor- tance of it must not be measured by the space allotted to it. The attention of teachers is earnestly invited to it. (2.) To avoid blurring the maps by dark shading and coloring in showing physical elevations, and to stimulate the pupil in getting the clearest ideas of the principal Mountain Chains and River Systems of the world, special maps have been prepared witliout regard to labor or expense. These designs are entirely original, new, and unique, and have already been greatly admired and warmly commended by old and skillful teachers. The various degrees of light and shade represent the elevations and de- pressions of the earth's surlace ; the darkest shades show the lowest lands and deepest valleys, and the lighter tints tlie liigher lands. To make rivers per- fectly distinguishable and traceable, they are marked in the darker shade by a white line, and in the lighter shades by a black liue. Such representations of- the earth's surface are indispensable in a school geography to the study of other maps. (3.) To give greater elevation and zest to the study of the text, more than thirty Diagrams have been introduced explanatory of the earth's rotundity, of its revolution in its orbit, of the Stars of tlie Northern and Southern hemi- spheres, Isothermal Lines, the Great Lakes, the Trade Winds, the Monsoons, the Snow-line, the Barometer, Tides, Whirlwinds, the Size of Waves off the Cape of Good Hope, the differences of Time on different meridians, also some specimens of animal life in the sea. Additional illustrations, drawn from life itself by the best artists of Europe and America, have been judiciously and lavishly inserted. (4.) The Alaps and the Map Studies are arranged to face each other, (o.) The Map Studies are not mere questions on the map, but are among the most important pages of the book, on which the utmost care has been bestowed. To give them greater brightness and value, much pleasiug matter, with occasional cuts and diagrams, have been thrown into them. (G.) Pronunciation of difficult names has been generally given where they are first met with in the text ; but there has been added at the close of the book a carefully compiled and judiciously selected Pronouncing Vocabulary. (7.) Full Tables of Statistics have been appended to this work, but a large number of striking statistical data have been interwoven with the text. The population and area of the different countries are furnished from the latest and best autliorilies. (8.) The questions are merely suggestive, but to keep the pupil wide awake to all he has previously learned, it has been thought not unwise to ask oc- casional questions, especially in the Map Studies, which require him to ex- amine other maps than the one just before him, and to draw upon t!ie text. (9.) The text has been broken up and marked by numbers and side-head- ings for convenience of reference. (10.) A valuable Trade and Voyage Chart, exhibiting the great routes of commerce and their distances, the Ocean-Telegraph Cables, both finished and contemplated, the Currents of the Ocean and the Winds of the different Zones, with descriptive text, will be found near the close of the book. (11.) Lastly, the resume of the Most Recent Geographical Events and Discoveries up to the present time, by which, within the last two years, a new complexion has been put upon the geography of some portions of the earth, will be found specially interesting. M. F. MAURY. December, 1870. CONTENTS. I. INTRODUCTORY. Lesson Page I. DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS 5 II. DIURNAL AND ANNUAL MOTIONS OP THE EARTH 6 m. THE AXIS OF THE EARTH AND THE SEASONS 7 IV. THE EQUINOXES 8 V. STUDY OF THE HEMISPHERICAL MAPS 9 VI. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 12 VII. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY 14 VIII. DEFINITIONS IN NATURAL GEOGRAPHY 15 IX. THE LAND 15 X. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY AND THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF RELI- GIONS IN THE WORLD l(i XL GOVERN.MENTS is XII. THE INDUSTRIAL PURSUITS OP MAN AND THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR 18 XIII. THE INFLUENCES WHICH REGULATE THE GEOGRAPHICAL DIS- TRIBUTION OF LABOR 1!) XIV. STUDIES ON MERCATOR S MAP OP THE WORLD 22 XV. ABOUT CLIMATES ti II. DESCRIPTION OF COUNTRIES. XVI. xvn. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. xxxn. xxxm. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. xxx\^I. XXX\TII. OUR OWN COUNTRY— ITS DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 2i STUDIES ON THE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA 27 OUR OWN COUNTRY-(Continued) 2S GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION AND FEATURES OF THE NEW WORLD. 28 A GENERAL VIEW OF THE GEOGR.\PHY OF THE UNITED STATES 31 STUDIES ON THE MAP OF THE UNITED STATES 31. THE POLITICAL SUBDIVISIONS OF THE UNITED STATES ai THE NEW ENGLAND STATES 35 THE NEW ENGLAND STATES— (Continued) 3H STUDIES ON THE MAP OF NEW ENGLAND 39 THE MIDDLE STATES 39 MORE ABOUT THE MIDDLE STATES 41 STUDIES ON THE MAP OF THE MIDDLE STATES 44 THE ELEVEN SOUTHERN STATES AND TWO TERRITORIES *i THE SOUTH JIRN STATES— (Continued) 48 THE SOUTHERN STATES— (Continued) 51 STUDIES ON THE MAPS OP THE SOUTHERN STATES AND TERRI- TORIES 56 THE WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES— THEIR GEOGRAPH- ICAL POSITION AND FE.\TURES 5S THE WESTERN STATES— (Continued) 59 THE WESTERN STATES— (Continued) 62 STUDIES ON THE MAP OF THE CENTRAL OR WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES 68 THE PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES 69 THE PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES— (ConUnued) 70 Lesson page XXXIX. STUDIES ON THE MAP OP THE PACIFIC STATES AND TERRI- TORIES 74 XL, BRITISH AMERICA 74 XLI. THE PROVINCES OF BRITISH AMERICA 76 XLII. STUDIES ON THE MAP OF BRITISH AMERICA 82 XLIU. DANISH AMERICA 82 XLlV. .MEXICO 84 XLV. THE STATES OF CENTRAL AMERICA 86 XLVI. THE WEST INDIES 87 XLVII. STUDIES ON THE MAP OP MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES Sit XLVIH. SOUTH AMERICA do XLIX. EQUATORIAL SOUTH AMERICA 91 L. EQUATORIAL SOUTH AMERICA— (Continued) ^TRODXJCTORY. LESSOM I. Definitions and Descriptions. 1. Geoffraphy is divided into mathematical, political, and natural or physical Geography. 2. 3Iathefnatical Geof/rap7itj treats of the shape and size of the earth, the determination of positions, and the measurements of distances and areas on its surface. 3. TJie liotundity of the ^ar^/i.— Philosophers suspected that the earth was round, because, in watch- 8HIP SAILINQ TBOM SHORE. ing a ship departing from the shores of any country whatever, they had observed it to sink gradually below the horizon until, tips of the masts, which "^vere the smallest, but the tallest parts of the ship, were all that could be seen. Early navigators thought the earth must be round, because, whenever they came in sight of land, they first saw the tops of trees, or the needle-like sum- mits of the mountains, while yet the huge dark masses of land beneath lay concealed from view. In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan, a bold sailor of Portu- gal, confirmed these conjectures by actually sailing round the world. Astronomers, finally, established them by remember- ing that the shadow cast by the earth, when it comes between the sun and the moon, so as to eclipse the moon, is as round as the shadow cast upon the wall by an orange ; but, though the shadow of the earth is circular, and its form spherical, the exact shape and size of the earth had to be determined by laborious calculation. JJ ECLIPSE OP THE MOON. 4. Definitions. — The Circumference of the earth is the distance around it. DIURNAL AND ANNUAL MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. The Diameter of a circle is the distance through its centre, from one point on the circumference to the point opposite. An Arc is any part of the circumference of a circle, as a rainbow. A Meridian circle is one passing around the earth through the two poles. 5. The Size and Shape of the Earth. — From meas- urements which several Grovernments have caused to be made in various parts of the world as to the length of certain arcs of a meridian, it has been ascertained that the polar diameter of the earth is 26? miles less than its equatorial diameter — which is 7,9251 miles long — and consequently that the figure of the earth is that of an ohlate spheroid. An "oblate spheroid" is flattened at the poles, some- what as an orange is at the stem, especially if it be slightly compressed between the finger and thumb. 6. TJie 3Iean Circiifnference of the earth is ap- proximately and for convenience usually taken to be 25,000 miles. 7. Area. — Mathematical reckoning also tells us that the surface of a globe of such dimensions has an area of about 197,000,000 square miles. Of this area, it is estimated by Geographers that about 145,000,000 square miles — or three-fourths of the whole area — are water, and the rest (52,000,000 square miles) land. Questions. — What are the three principal brandies of Geography? — Wliat is Mathematical Geography ? — Why did philosophers and navigators suspect the earth to be round ? — How did Magellan confirm its rotundity ? — By whom and how was this proof established ? — What is the diameter of a chcle ? — What is an arc of a ciicle ?— What is a Meridian ? — Which is the longer, the Equatorial or the Polar diameter of the earth? — What then is the exact shape of the earth ? — What is an oblate spheroid ? — Can you calculate the mean circumference of the earth ? — The diameter of a circle being multi- plied by 3"/7 — gives its circumference nearly — (exactly, if multiplied by 3.141o9) ; can you tell by your own calculation what is the circumference of the earth at the equator ? — How many square miles does the surface of the earth contain ? — How much of this is supposed to be land, and how much water? LESSOJV II. Diurnal and Annual Motions of the Earth. 1, Daily Rotation. — It has been proved by obser- vations on the stars, that the earth has a diurnal rota- tion from West to East, by which it makes a complete revolution on its axis once in every 24 hours. This period of time is called a day. As the circumference of the earth is 25,000 miles, a man standing on or near the equator will be moving toward the East at the rate of about one thousand miles an hour. If an observer could watch our globe from the moon, and his eye first discern North and South America, these objects would, in a few hours, move out of sight ; the Pacific Ocean would come into view instead ; then the islands of Oceania, successively followed by Australia, Asia, Europe and Africa, the Atlantic Ocean and, finally, America again. 2, Yearly Hevolution. — In addition to this axial rotation, the earth has its annual revolution round the sun, which it accomplishes once in eveiy 365? days, or, more accurately, in 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 50 seconds. This period makes a year, though we call 365 days a j'ear, and correct for the fraction of a day (5 h., 48 m., and 50 s.) by adding another day every I'uurth year ; this makes leap-year, which has 366 days. But this allowance of i of a day, or 6 houra, for every year is too much by 11 minutes and 10 seconds; to correct for this, so that the seasons may return forever at the same time of the year, it is necessary to count every !53d leap- year as a common year of 365 days, and, by skipping the one day, we cause the 21st of March and the 22d of September to be the days upon which tiie eciuinoxes must always occur; and so, for all time, mid-summer is made to fall in July, and mid-winter in January. ^. Eartlt's Orbit. — The path of the earth in its annual revolution around the sun is called its Orbit. This orbit is not a circle, but an oblong called an ellipse, and the distance of the sun from it, and conse- (piently from us, is about 91,500,000 miles. The di- ameter of a circle is a little less than one-third of its circumference : by doubling 91,500,000 of miles j'ou get the diameter of the circle that the earth annually describes in its orbit around the sun. Now multiply this by 3+, then make the calculation, and you hud that in our annual journey around the sun, we are travelling at the rate of more than a thousand miles a minute. The motion of the earth in its annual revolution causes the seasons, and its diurnal rotation on its axis causes day and night. 4. Day and Night. — The sun is always shining on one half of the earth, and then it is day ; while the other half, being turned away from him, is in its own shadow — that makes it dark, and then it is night. When the sun is directly overhead, it is said to be vertical. The line in which an apple would fall from the top of a tree to the ground is called a perpendicular. The phenomena of the solstices, the equinoxes, and the seasons are also easy of explanation. You will learn about them in the next lesson. THE AXIS OF THE EARTH AND THE SEASONS. Quefstions. — How many motions has llie earth ? — What is its diurnal rotation V — How long does it take to make a complete rotation on its axis ? — Is this rotation from East to West, or in the cimtraiy direction ? — Which motion causes day and night ? — What is its annual motion ? — How long does it take the ea.-th to make a complete revolution around the sun ? — How do we correct lor tlie fraction of a day ? — How much is it ? — What is the orbit of the earth ? — What is the shape of the orbit ? (If the teacher have a globe in the school-room, he should use it to illustrate the motions which cause day and night, summer and winter, etc.) How far is the earth from the sun ? Can you tell how far the earth, in its orbit around the sun, travels in a minute ? When is the sun vertical ? — What do you understand by a perpendicular line ? LESS OX III. The Axis of the Earth and the Seasons. 1. Axis. — The earth, in its diurnal rotation, turns upon its polar or shorter diameter, as the spinning-top turns upon its own axis. This polar diameter is what is meant by the axis of the earth. A Plane, in mathematical geography, means an out- stretching le^l, like an immense floor or a perfectly flat meadow of boundless extent. 2. The Inclination of the Earth's Axis to its Orbit. — The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of its orbit, as the axis of a leaning top is inclined to the floor. The leaning top spins round on its axis, and travels round some point on the floor ; the floor is the plane in which the top revolves. In like manner, the earth wheels round on its axis in dii|rnal rotation in the plane of its orbit, and travels round the sun in that |)lane in annual revolution. Now there is this difference between the earth and the top : the top in- clines more and more as its spin- ning slf^cks, but the earth never slacks its rate, and the inclina- tion of its axis to this plane is always the same. It inclines from the perpendicular at the constant angle of 23° 28' ; and our north pole con- stantly points to the north star. This may not be so always. If all things continue as they now are 12,000 years longer, a bright star called Vega, in the constellation known as Lyra, will be our polar star. Theie are seven stars called the " seven point- ers" or " the dipper," two of which point directly toward the north star. The first clear night look toward the north, and see if you can find " the dipper," and tell the north star by it. As the dipper never sets in this coun- try, it may be seen any clear night. It is by virtue of this simple contrivance of the Divine Architect in inclining the earth's axis, that the year is TE:/vfp the inclination of the earth's axis. DIPPEK AND NORTH STAR. divided into seasons. I told you that the cause of the seasons was as simple in explanation as day and night, and here you have it all fully exemplified by the leaning top as it spins about the floor. If the earth's axis were perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, as the axis of the sleeping top is to the plane of the floor, the days and nights would be of equal length all the year ; neither would there be any change of seasons. Refer to the diagram. Lesson lY., or to a globe, and you will understand how at one season of the year the north pole is toward the sun, and at another season the south pole ; and that, therefore, the sun in his an- nual round appears to travel from north to south — being high up in the heavens at noon in summer, and low down in winter — whereas the sun is standing, and the earth is moving under him. 3. The Troxncs and the Solstices. — It is owing to this apparent motion of the sun from one tropic to the other and back, that he is so high in the heavens at noon in summer, and so low in winter. When he reaches the highest point in summer and the lowest in winter, he appears to stand still, for he gets neither higher nor lower at noon for several days. One of these '' stand- stiir' places is called the summer solstice, and the other the winter solstice [sun-stand). Thus you see how the revolution of the earth around the sun, combined with the inclination of its axis, causes the seasons. At the summer solstice the sun at noon is directlj' overhead to all places in lat. 23° 28' north. Here he appears to stop, to turn back and begin to go south again. This turning place is on the Tropic of Cancer. Tropic is from a Greek word which signifies to turn. The Tropic of Cancer is a circle drawn around the earth parallel to the equator, and at every point exactly 23° 28' distant from it. In like manner, when the sun reaches the winter solstice, it is vertical at noon to all places in lat. 23° 28' south ; and a circle drawn here around the earth and parallel to the equator, is called the Tronic OF Capricorn. These two circles are 46° 56' (twice 23° 28') from each other. THE EQUINOXES. The sun is never vertical to any place north of the Tropic of Cancer nor to any place south of the Tropic of Capricorn. 4. OT/ie Zones or Belts of the Earth. — The belt of the earth between these two parallels of latitude is called the Torrid Zone. It embraces an area of about 78,000,000 sqr. miles, or two-fifths of the entire surface of the earth. TJiese are the Inter-tropical regions. The sun is vertical twice a year to all places within these regions, and there is no cold weather ; it is sum- mer all the year round and the people do not, as a rule, even build chimneys to their houses. At the same distance from each pole, viz. : 23° 28', there are two other circles drawn parallel to the equator. The one about the north pole is the Arctic Circle, and the one about the south pole is the Antarctic Circle. The area embraced between each of these circles and its nearest pole measures 8,000,000 sqr. miles. The space that lies between the Arctic Circle and the north pole is the North Frigid Zone. In it the sum- mers are short and cold, and the winters long, dreary, and severe, and as 5'ou approach the pole the days become longer and longer, till you get where they have but one day and one night during the whole year, each being six months long. The same is the case with the South Frigid Zone, which lies be- tween the Antarctic Circle and the south pole. These two zones to- gether contain an area ofupwardofl6,000,000 sqr. miles, most of which has never been trod by human foot, or seen by the eye of man. Con- sequently we do not know whether these unexplored re*gions contain most land or most water. But we do know that when the sun shines at one pole, it is night at the other. Questions— yVlxKi is the axis of the Earth ?— What is a Plane ?— What is the inclination of the earth to the plane of its orbit ?— Suppose the axis of the earth were perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, what effect would that have upon the seasons, and the length of day and night ? — How many solstices are tliere ? — When do they occur ?— Wliat do you mean by a solstice ?— What are the Tropics? — In what hemisphere is the tropic of Cancer? — How far is each Tropic from the Equator ? — How far from each other ? — What are the regions called that lie between the tropics ? — How many sqr. miles does the torrid zone contain ? — What portion is this of the entire surface of the earth ? — Is the cli- mate of the Inter-tropical regions all winter or all summer? — Describe the Arctic and the Antarctic Circles. Where are the Frigid Zones? — What is their area ? — Describe the climates there and the length of the days. LESSOM IV. The Equinoxes. 1. Tlie Vernal Equinox. — Owing to the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit, the sun, as you have been told already, appears to move up and down the heavens from the tropic of Capricorn to the tropic of Cancer, and back, once a year. (See Hemi- spheres, Less, v., and point out the two tropics.) Though this motion is only apparent, 3^et for the con- venience of explanation we will consider it as real. In consequence of this inclination, the sun, in passing from the tropic of Capricorn to the tropic of Cancer, crosses the Equator on its way to the North. This hap- pens on the 21st of March every year ; on that day the sun sets at the south pole and rises at the north pole. Autumnal Equinox ORBIT OF THE EARTH. At all other places on that day it rises and sets at six o'clock, consequently the day and night are then equal : this is the Vernal Equinox. 2. The Autnmnal Equinox. — Six months afterward — on the 22d Sept. — as the sun returns from the tropic of Cancer to the tropic of Capricorn, it again cro.sses the Equator, when it sets at the north, and rises at the south ZONES.— STUDY OF MAPS. pole : day and night are again equal, and this is called the Autumnal Equinox. 3. Seasons. — Thus the year is divided into seasons, and the seasons on the two sides of the Equator are opposite ; that is, when it is winter with us in the Northern Hemisphere, it is sum- mer with the people on the other side of the Equator, in the Southern Hemisphere. -2^; Hemisphere means /wZ/ sphere, and we can divide the earth into Northern and Southern halves, as well as into Eastern and 'Westera. As the earth's orbit is an Ellipse, the earth is not always at the same distance from the sun. It is about 8,000,000 of miles nearer the sun in winter than in summer ; but, in winter, tiie North- ern half of the planet leans fiirthest away from the sun, and also receives his rays less vertically than in summer— hence it is colder. 4. The Teni2)erate Zones. — The region em- braced between the tro|)ic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle is called the North Temperate Zone. That between the tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle is the South Temperate Zone. The North Temperate Zone is the one in which we live. All parts of the United States, except the northern portion of Alaska, lie within it; and in it. as SUN AT MIDNIGHT IN FBIOID ZONE THE n E M I S Pn B R E S. you know, we have summer and winter with the pleasing diversity of seasons. 102,000,000 square miles, or a little more than half the earth's surface, is contained in these two zones. ,5. Uie Friffid Zones, — When the sun, in his appa- rent motion, goes south of the Equator after the 22d of September, as has been indicated, darkness settles down upon the North Frigid Zone, and night reigns for six months with uninterrupted gloom. At the time of the Vernal Equinox, when the season for his return draws near, the -cheerless inhabitants of these icy lands anxiously look for him, and are said to climb mountains to catch a glimpse of his earliest beams. When he rises upon them in the spring, it is also for six months, during which time they have no night. These circumstances of day and night, occur in re- versed order in the South Frigid Zone. Questions. — When do the Equinoxes occur? — In what month is the Vernal and in what the Autumnal Equinox ? — How long are the days then ? Describe the season in the Southern hemisphere when it is winter with us. Where are the Temperate zones ? — IIow much of the earth's siuface do they contiiin? — In what zone do we live, and iu which hemisphere? — Describe the day and night iu the Frigid zones. LESSOJY V. Study of the Hemispherical Maps. It is impossible for a scholar to make satisfactory progress in Geography without constant reference to maps. Next to visiting all parts of the earth and seeing the objects themselves, the best thing is closely to in- spect pictures or drawings which represent them. In beginning our map-studies, for convenience, we divide our globe into two parts, called the Western and East- ern Hemispheres. When Columbus sailed on his voy- age of discovery, as you have already learned, he sailed to the West, and, consequently, the new country he found was called the Western World. Eastern means turned toward the point where the sun rises. Western, turned toward the point where the sun sets. lO "^^'' ^4.. ^h,.\. ••»o,».o'=<3'=^ / 1^^° ^T"^^-'''^ ' I Buds""' \ ^^e.„. J/e//,. 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St. Hoquo (W -•i o/ I'eriiainljuco X Juanieruandezls.^^, ^'alparaisox^ljf,; B}' what meridian circle have we here divided the earth into hemispheres ? Alls. By that 20" west of Greenwich (near Loudon, Eng. ; seep. 108). — AVhat great land-masses do you find in the western hemisphere ? — What in the eastern hemisphere ? — What great body of laud lies partly in each hemisphere ? — The islands of the Pacific Ocean from the American coasts to the {)'Uh meri- dian of ea^l longitude, form Oceania. — Which is tlie largest island in Oceania? In which hemisphere is Greenland? — In which is Spitzbergen? — Victoria Land? — The Unexplored Rciiions? In what direction does North America lie from Europe ?— From Africa ? — In what direction is China ft'om the United States ? — In what is Australia ? What grand land-masses lie wholly north of the Equator? — What are divided by that geographical line into two parts ? — What immense island lies wholly south of the Equator ? What is the most northerly cape of Europe?— Which is the most .southerly cape of South America ? What grand divisions of Die earth are intersected by tlie Troi)ic of Cancer?— What, by tlie Tropic of Capricorn?— Wiiat, by the Arctic Circle?— AViiere does tills circle touch Europe ? — Are there any large bodies of land intersected by the Antarctic Circle ?— Through what parts of the world, both land and water divisions, does the 60tli meridian of west longitude pass ?— Through and near what parts does the loOth meridian pass ?— Through what parts does the 90lh meridian of east longitude pass?— Tiirough what does the meridian of Green- Wich i)af west of the coast of Africa ? — What, northeast of tiie United States ? — Wliat, southeast of the United States ? — What large island lies east of Africa ? — What large island north of Australia? — Where is New Zealand? — Borneo? — Java? — Sumatra? — What islands together form a great Empire in the Pacific Ocean? Ans. The Japan islands. — What large islands in the Arctic Ocean are begirt with ice? Ans. Nova Zenibla and Spit zbergen. What are the most southerly capes of Africa? — What, the most easterly? — Wliat, the most southerly cape of India? — Where is Kerguelen's Land? Falkland Islands ?— Isle of France ?— Where is the Strait of Sunda? 12 PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS. LEssoj^ ri. Latitude and Longitude. 1. TJie Equator is a circle passing from West to East round the earth midway between the poles. It divides the earth into two equal parts, one called the Northern, and the other the Southern hemisphere. 2. Any circle that divides the globe into two equal parts, is called a Great Circle, All meridians are great circles. 3. A small circle is any circle that divides a sphere into two unequal parts. The tropics of Cancer and Cap- ricorn and all parallels of latitude are small circles. The position of places on the earth's surface is desig- nated by their latitude and longitude. Parallels arc parallel to the equator. The ancients supposed the earth was longer from East to West than from North to South. 4. The Latitude of a place is its distance, expressed in degrees (°-'-") from ihQ Equator. If on the North side, the place is in North Latitude ; if on the South side, it is in South Latitude. The pole is at 90° of latitude. No place can have more than 90° of latitude, because no place can be i'arther from the Equator than the pole. Those regions of the earth lying within the tropics and near the Equator, are said to be low latitudes. High latitudes are those near the Arctic and Antarctic circles and the poles. NORTH POLE 90 SOUTH POLE PARALLELS AND MERIDLANS. 5. Parallels of latitude are circles that pass round the earth, parallel to the Equator. The lines that pass from left to right across every map are parallels of latitude. Point out a parallel of latitude on the map, Less. V. 6. A Prime Meridian is any meridian from which a nation may choose to reckon longitude. 7. TJie Longitude of a place is its distance, like- wise in degrees, from the Prime Meridian. If the place be East of the prime meridian, it is in East Longitude, and if on the other side, it is in West Longitude. Places on a prime meridian have no longitude whatever. 8. A 3IerkUan is a great circle that crosses the Equator at right angles and passes through the poles. Those lines that run from North to South on maps are Meridians of Longitude. Point out meridians of longitude on the map, Less. V. So you see that the lines on the map that run from one side to the other are Parallels of Latitude, those that run from top to bottom are Meridians of Longitude. And you see, moreover, by looking at the map, that all meridians cross each other at both the north and the south pole, each of which is 90° from the .Equator. The distance between the poles is therefore 180°. 9. negrees of Longitude. — As all the meridians cross at the polos, and diverge or spread out thence till they reach the Equator, the distance between any two variTjs with the latitude. Therefore a dooroe of lon': Hainan i I Manilla' o .^^^* r 0^ MERCATOR'S MAP OT^ n "v:? i.'j-'v-;;^ YKI)0 (TOKIO) . S"- ?l%. C0>°'- uv;*- Tropio of Cancer C Lad rone Is. > c •^ .1!.^! BrcniUli of UceaD 0»1iroriitt W> E .|.._ Chin?.-. s Pt. Bariow „ C. Beecliey / F ... v-a ^ Hoiidocinq/ \fSa| / i iau Frauci8cjJ?o ' J BQUATOR INDIA Suiid* si<- i ' C^Ariifjir ma^'agascab ^lauritius (9 C E A c N° E A' ^ N Marqi esaa Society J3onrl:)on. or I St: Mary l^opic of Capi'i ;orn '^^ New Caledonia (To rr»no#J Breadth of Oceal kBBISBANE 16000 [ ) OUK.VE Qj'!, '« Sir. ^^^^ VyilOBAHT TOWN or*^ PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS "/IuyM^'^^ s^-^si^ > 6 7s ITRQ^'C 1. r7rti*-(«aftJl:rtr . . 29.00?. 2. Jlliawnlniihiri . . JX.OOO. 3. Jamalura . , . S.'i.-VK). <. namar .... 21.000. 6. XaunaKea. . . 13 970. i 6. Oi)Air .... I:i.8l2. S AMERICA ;. Arnnraqita . . . 2.1. fU(. i J. VhimUurazo . . 21.401. 4 3. Co(o;.,iJ-i . . . 1K.K76. > <. Mi.si.Eiim . . n.m. 6. Sierra Nevada . 15."0.>. i 6. St. IMrna . . ■ 15.700. 7. Poparalapeil . . 17.80". «. BackyUU. ■ ■ 13.507. EUROPE 1. Mt. Blanc . . . 15.740. i t. m.-fi. 4. Shrrckhnrn . . UM«. < 5. Sl.ncmard . . ll.oiH. > "• Simptan . . . It.ono. i '■ Mt. Etna ... 10 W.1. 1 " Col de Ccrvin . . 10.50.'. 1 AFRICA 1 Gerth Mt: . . . IS.n.'iO. m ■'■ Kilimandiaro . . SI. 0(10. ™ 3. Atinii .vm, . . . r!..'.i». ' 1. <■ TcnrrHTr. . . I2.r.H. iL. s. Lamalmon. . . Il.'-'IM 1 »= 150 East of IfiS Gi-eenwkh isij Wi:«i of Hi liJ m ninift. rniNciPAi NoTB.-Tli>- Sniitlic.ii Occiin embraces the cold oceanic re;,'i(.iix ^oiiili of the Pa- cinc. Atl.inlic, ami Indian OceanH. The portion of it within llie Antarctic Circle, is pomelinics called the Antarctic Ocean. 105 tf Eaatuf li (jciiiiumvlt 3U JO 22 STUDIES ON MERCATOR'S MAP. CLIMATE. LESSOJV XIV. Studies on Mercator's Map of the World. What great land-mass occupies a central position on tliis Map?— Where does it approach nearest to another great body of land ?— Name the six largest divisions of land, including the largest island.— Which of these are partially represented on both the Eastern and Western sides of the Map ?— How many Oceans are there?— Name all the Oceans.— Where is Cape Horn?— Cape St. Roque ?— Cape Race ?— Strait of Belle Isle ?— Cape Farewell V— Point Bar- row?— Cape Prince of Wales ?— Cape Blanco?— Cape of Good Hope?— Cape Guardafui ?— Cape Comorin?— The Strait of Sunda ?— Tasmania ?— The Sand- wich Islands ?— Kamtchatka ?— Nova Zembla ?— Nortli Cape ?— Lofodeu's Is- lands ?— Cape St. Vincent ?— Cape Verde?— The Canary Islands?— The West Indies ?— Spitzbergen ? What Ocean lies east of America?— What lies west ?— What division of the Earth lies east of Europe?— What Ocean west?— What Ocean lies south of Asia ?— East of Asia ?— North of Asia ?— How are North and South America united ?— What Ocean east of Africa ?— What west ?— What Sea north ?— What is the greatest breadth of the Pacific Ocean ?— What of the Atlantic ?— Where is the Atlantic narrowest?— How wide is it there?— The term Antarctic Ocean is sometimes applied to the ocean sujrposed to exist south of the AntarctiA Circle. Through what parts of the world does the Arctic Circle run?— the Tropic of Caucer ? — the Equator ?— the Tropic of Capricorn ? — the Antartic Cii-cle ? — What great cities lie near the 40th parallel of north latitude?— the 50th?— Through what parts does the 30th parallel of south latitude pass?— Through what parts of the Earth does the meridian of Washington run? — the meridian of Greenwich ? — the meridian of Peking?— that of San Francisco ? Bound North America — South America — Asia — Europe — Africa — Aus- tralia — Spitzbergen — Arctic Ocean. Where is the Caspian Sea?— the Red Sea?— the Great Salt Lake?— Hud- son's Bay? — the Great Lakes of North America? — the Mediterranean Sea? — the Black Sea?— the Baltic?— the North Sea?— the Caribbean Sea?— the Gulf of Mexico ?— the Gulf of California ? Where is the Mississippi River ? — the Amazon ? — the Nile ? — the Rhine ? — the Danube? — the Volga? — the Ganges? — the Amoor? — the Darling? Where are the Alleghany Mountains ? — the Rocky Mountains ? — the An- des ?— the Himalaya ?— the Alps ? Find Washington, New York, San Francisco, Quebec, Livei-pool, London, Paris, Madrid, Hamburg, Berlin, Bogota, Lima, Mexico, Florence, Constan- tinople, St. Petersburg, Yakutsk, Petropaulowski, Honolulu, Melbourne, Havana, Reikiavik, Peking, Yedo. Which contains the most land, the Northern or Southern Hemisphere? Ana . The Nortliern contains three times as much as the Southern. — Which con- tains most, the Eastern or Western Hemisphere ? Ans. The Eastern contains twice as much. — Which Zone has the greatest proportion of land ? Ans. T7ie If&rth Temperate Zone : it has thirteen times as much land as tfw South Tem- perate Zone. — How much of the earth's circumference in the equatorial re- gion is water? Ans. Four-fifths. — How are the great Peninsulas of the Eai-th generally projected ? Ans. Toward tlie south, e. g., Spain, Arabia, Indo- China, Corea, Kamtchatka, Africa, South America, Alaska, California, Ma- lacca, and Greenland, and several other peninsulas. — How far have geo- graphers explored the Northern Hemisphere toward the North Pole ? Ans. iVo< farther than the %2d parallel of latitude. — On what parallel of latitude are both the Old and New World broadest? Ans. On the 50th parallel of north latitude. — Considering Australia a Continent, what proportion of the Earth's known land do you suppose c(msists of islands? Ans. About one-twerUy- fifth. — How do the mountain ranges of the New World run ? — How do those of the Old World run, mostly ? — In and near what Zone do you find the highest mountains? Ans. The Torrid. — Compare the coasts of North and South America with those of Greenland, Europe, and Africa, and see if they would ^< into each otlwr, if brought togetlier. Note. — Does not the eastern angle of South America look as if it had been torn out of the Gulf of Guinea, and the western projection of Africa out of tlie Gulf of Mexico ? You see how the projections of one coast correspond with the recesses in the opposite coast ; even the mountains and plains of the one correspond with those of the other. The meridian of Teneriffe, one of the Caniry Islands, divides the Earth into two parts ; in one of them the land greatly predominates, in tlie other the water predominates. On M'liich side of that meridian is the great mass of Land? LEssojv xr. ;About Glimato. 1. Climate is' the combined effect of light; heat, elec- tricity, and moisture, and is manifested in what we call '7Ae weather J^ It was held for a long while that the climate of a place depended only upon itvS latitude, but i)laces in the same latitude may and often do have very different climates. 2. Jlotintain To^ts. — rit is a Avell known fact that the weather on the top of u mountain is generally cooler than the weather at its foot. Indeed there are some parts of the Rocky Mountains, even in our own country, unin- habitably cold. They arc alway's covered with snow, both in winter and summer. There are, in South America, where the Andes are crossed by the Equatoi, peaks, such as Antisana, wliieh, although it is a burning volcano, jiuslies its top up to the height of It), 1:17 feet above the level of the sea — so high as to reacli frozen regions. On the top of that mountain, even in the Torrid Zone, with the sun directly overhead, the cold is bitter. The line of elevation above; which the cold is, at all seasons of the year, sufficient to congeal the moisture of the air and form snow, is called the Snow-Line. 3. The Snow-Line at the Bquator. — The limit of the snow-line at the Equator is 16,000 feet above the sea ; so there are mountains in the Torrid Zone on the tops of which the weather is as cold as it is at the North Pole. The ice never thaws, and no green thing can grow there. In descending these snow-capped moun- tains in the Tropics, we experience, in a ride of a few hours, all the changes of climate that would be felt in travelling from Spitzbergen to Cuba in a single day. 4. Causes wJiich influence climate. — From facts like these, it appears that climate depends upon height above the sea, as well as upon distance from the Equator. But climates are influenced bv other circumstances also. CLIMATE AND LABOR. 23 The Island of Great Britain and the Territory of Labrador lie between the same parallels of latitude, and yet, notwithstanding the Highlands of Scotland and the mountains of Wales, are higher than the hills of Labrador, the winter climate of England is so mild that the pastures are green all the year, and London has to depend upon the ponds of New England, which are six degrees nearer to the Equator, to fill its ice-houses ; while the winter climate of Labrador, on this side of the Atlantic, is so cold as to render the country uninhabitable. Scotland, ia the northern part of Great Britain, is not only more moun- tainous than Labrador, but it is also farther from the Equator ; yet its winter climate is very much milder than tluit of Labrador. This difference of climate depends both upon the situation of those countries with regard to the sea, ami ui)on the prevailing direction of the winds. In the British Islands, the winds come from the ocean.^ They are l(;ade(l with moisture from the sea, and warmth from the Gulf Stream. In Labrador they cfnne from the land, and are dry and cold. It is owing to the direction of the winds with regard to the sea that the cli- mates of Oregon and British Columbia are mild like tliose of "Western Europe, not cold like tliose of countries in the same, latitude on the east- ern coast of America. 3. A Hide for Climates. — In (;ountries within the temperate zones, where the prevailing winds come from the sea, the climates are not so cold in winter nor so warm in summer as they, are where the winds come from the land. The prevailing direction of the wind throughout the teuiperate zones is horn the westward, but from the eastward in the torrid zone. Xotwilhstauding the mild winter climate of Great Britain, the summer there is too cool for Indian corn to grow. Thus, in order to judge proi)erly as to the climate of a country, the geographer has to take into consider- ation not ouly its distance from the Ecjuator and its height above the level of the sea, but its distance from the sea and the prevailing direction of the winds also, and ascer- tain whether they come from the land or from the water. The Uible-land of Mexico is six or eight thousand feet above the sea ; and notwithstanding it is in the torria zone, it is not so high as to have a cold, or so low as to have a hot, climate. There are only two seasons there. We have four. With the Mexicans, the year is divided into the rainy and the dry seasons ; they have no wintry weather. The cactus, with its variety of forms, is the characteristic vegetation of the Mexican table-land. 0. I.sothermfil lAnes. — To give a better idea of climates than a knowledge merely of latitude would convey, Humboldt introduced the plan of drawing on the maps lines through all places having the same aver- age temperature. These lines are irregular curves, Jind they are called Iso-therms (same temperature). They do not tell the climate, but they convey a bet- ter idea of what the climate of this or that place prob- ably is, than a mere statement of its latitude or eleva- tion above the sea would do. The striking lend of these isotherms is due to the presence of moisture in the air, the agency of the winds, and of the great currents of the Ocean. The isotherm of New York, immediately on leaving the Atlantic coast, is bent down by a cold Arctic current running near the coast ; but as soon as this line enters the Gulf Stream it inclhies northward toward Europe, and conies out on the other side of the Atlantic, 1500 miles farther north than New York. Sandwich. Is. -Havftniv- Jamaica S. Domingo Caracas I S O T II K K M A I. LINES. 7. Industries ami Climates. — Though the geo- graphical distribution of all (ujricultural labor is almost wholly ail affair of climate, there are other industries, such as mining and manufacturing, that are, to a certain extent, independent of climate. The laboring man in some countries abandons th.^ cultivation of the .soil, especially in those parts of thr, world where the sea with its bounties, or the factorj- with its attractions, or the forest with its game, becomes more tempting than the soil. H. Tttde for Labor. — From all this we derive this geographical rule : As you recede from the warm cli- mates of the South and approach the cold regions of the North, human labor becomes less and less agricultural, 24 OUR OWN COUNTRY. and the occupations of man more and more diver- sified. It is in obedience to this law that the Northern States are more devoted to manufactures and commerce and seafaring than the Southern States are. Quesfions. — "What is climate ? — Does the climate of places depend en- tirely upon latitude and elevation above the sea-level ?— What other two conditions influence climate ?— As you ascend a high mountain does it grow warmer or colder?— What is the snow-line ?— How high above the level of the sea is the snow-line at the Equator ?— How high is Antisana ?— Compare the climate of England with that of Labrador.— They are in the same lati- tude : show the contrasts.— Point out these countries on the map. (Mer- cator's.) Can yon describe the difference in their climates ? — How do you account for that difference ? — How does the climate of Oregon and British Columbia compare with the climates of countries between the same parallels of latitude that front on the Atlantic, as Maine and Labrador ? — What is the general direction of the prevailing winds in the temperate zone ? — What in the torrid ? — What are the conditions upon which climates mainly depend V — Wluit is the height of the table-lands of Mexico ? — Describe the climate there. — Does Indian corn grow in England ? — Wliat are isothermal lines ? — Who suggested them ? — Can you trace the isotherm of 40° V — How many de- grees of latitude does it cross in running from the west to the east coast of the United States? — Is there any geographical reason why the people of the New England States should, more readily than the people of the Southern States, resort to the sea, the railroad, and the fiictory for a living ? — Point out on the map those countries whose sea-coast lies within the temperate zone. — What geographical rule does this lesson teixch with regard to human labor? =>*-= II. DESCRIPTION OF COUNTRIES. '"mm ANIMAL LIPE OK NOKTU AMEKICA. LUSSOJV XVI. Our own Country — its Discovery and Settlement. 1. The Discover If of America. — America is our country, and it is both interesting and instructive to learn its geography before it was inhabited by the white man. Though America is one of the grand divisions of the world, as late as four centuries ago it was unknown to the people of Europe. It was then inhabited by red men and wild beasts. It was discovered, you remem- ber, by Christopher Columbus in 1492, and was named America after Americus Vespucius, one of his compan- ions, a Florentine. The first land discovered was j\^hat is now caHed Watling Island, which is one of the small islands of the West Indies. This event led to the discovery of other islands, and finally of the American continent itself. DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 25 2. Tlie West Indies. — Columbus at first thought that the islands he had discovered were the East Indies, and when he found out they were not, they were called the Wed Indies. In soil, climate, and productions there is a striking similarity between the two groups. 3. Indians. — Both North and South America, with their adjacent islands, were inhabited by Indians, of whom only the Peruvians and the Aztecs of Mexico were civilized.- ALPACA IiLAMA , 4. Domestic Animals — There were no horses and no milch kiiie on the Continent at the time of its discovery. Neither was there any draught animal, beast of burden, or domestic animal of any kind known to the natives, except the hairless dog of Cuba and the llama of Peru. .5. Sarf/asso Sea. — Among the strange things that Cohimbiis and his men came across on their outward voyage was, as you have learned in a previous book, the Sargasso Sea. That same sea of weeds is still there. It embraces an area of thousands of square miles. 6'. The Trade-Wind. — Another thing that amazed and alarmed his crew was that, after leaving Si)ain and getting out to sea, they found the wind did not change its direction. Day after day it continued from the northeast. They feared that they shoul-d never be able to return to their own country against such a wind. This was the northeast trade-wind, well known to every sailor of the j)rcsent day. 7. Sfraiif/e Things in the New ITorir/— But as wontlerful and as nuirvellous iis these thinj^s were, the red men of America, witli their jMpes, bows, and tomahawks; the inter-troi)ieal ve,!,'etation of the islands, with lis delicious fruits and beautiful flowers; and the perpetual summer of the Tiop- ics, with its soft climates, were still more so ; and the stories told by the simple natives of mifchty nations and golden treasures in a land still farther to the westward, filled the minds and inflamed the imagination of these daring mariners with the most dazzling pictures and extravagant allurements — such 4 as a fountain in Florida, whose waters imparted perpetual youth to all who bathed in them ; and a King in the fastnesses of South America, who every morning was anointed with oil and covered with gold-dust. This was the famous but fabled El Dorado {gilt with gold), who lived somewhere on the banks of the Orinoco, in a city called Manoa. Its houses were roofed with gold, and its streets paved with precious stones. 8. Spanish and Portuffuese Settlements. — Spain followed up her splendid discoveries in the New World by immediate possession, and the prompt establishment of colonies, of which Cuba and the Spanish Republics of America are the living memorials. She was closely followed by Portugal, who afterwards claimed Brazil by right of sup- posed priority of discovery. Bartiiolomew Dias, one of her navigators, doubled the Cape of Good Hope six years before Columbus saw America. Another, Vasco de Gamo, made the first voyage to India by that route. 9. The Line of no Variation. — Between these two powers the New World was partitioned according to a sup- posed physical, but an ill-defined and ever-changing line — the Urn of no variation. In Europe the needle points to the west of north, ("olumbus, as he crossed the Atlantic, was the first to discover this variation ; and the Pope, who was then at the height of his power, used this line of no variation as a line of geographical division between the possessions of the two wrangling powers. But this line is ever changing its position, and fiiiled entirely to subserve the purposes of a geographical boundary. 10. Early Colonies. — The first colony was estab- lished on the James river at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. That was soon followed up by the establishment of other colonies. The Roman Catholics settled Maryland, the Quakers Pennsylvania, the Puritans New England. The Dutch had settlements in New York, the Swedes in New Jersey, and the Danes in Delaware ; but in 1662 the inhabitants of these colonies became subject to the rule of England. San Augustine {San au-gys-teen'), in Florida, is the oldest settlement in the whole United States. Florida belonged to Si)ain until 1810, and the Spaniards had a settlement there — at San Augustine — nearly fifty years before Capt. John Smith established at Jamestown England's first American colony. Qiicfifions. — 1. On what Continent do you live ? — When and by whom was America discovered? — By whom was it inhabited? — Whence does it derive its name? — What was the first land discovered? 2. How did the West Indies get their name ? 3. Were any of the aborigines of America civilized ? — Who ? 4. What was their only domestic animal and beast of burden ? S. What and where is the Sargasso Sea ? — Point it out on the map. a. What natural phenomenon alarmed the crew of Columbus ? — Why ? 7. What things in the New World aj^peared most astonishing to the discoverers? — What fabulous stories did they hear and believe? — Where was the Foun- tain of Youth? — Who was El Dorado? S. What Nation was the first to jilant colonies in the New World ? — Why did Portugal claim a portion of it ? — Who was her great navigator, and what discoveries did he make ? — By whom and how were the rival claims settled ? i). What is the line of " no varia- tion ?"— Is it stationary ? 10. Which is the oldest city in the United States ?— How long after Spain established settlements in America before England began to plant colonies in the New World ? — When and where was her first colony established? — What were the other early settlements? 58 '^"^ or-lTashington , ^— i3 28 1-' 60 / / ^- / lU , t0B(. .;;.<./"' •? /f \ /v '^ V ^ ico i^S'-" <,oety ■V«Vio'» ;?»»" S-corroI. c.C"^'^l„«e» ^^ f»<» ^S"' ,<^' ]00 200 300 400 500 coo 700 Statute Miles 3^»«»« L "Weat of lireeinricli.. STUDIES ON THE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA. 27 LESSO.'N' XVII. Studies on the Map of North America. Boundaries. Within what Meridians and Parallels is North America included ?— How is North America bounded? — What body of water connects the Atlantic with the Arctic Ocean?— What Strait connects the Arctic and the Pacific Oceans ? (see p. 10).— What Sea and Gulf wash this Continent on the south- east? — What great body of water in the northeastern part of the Continent ? —What land lies east of Baffin Bay ?— Is Greenland anywhere united to North America ?—M««. Nowhere, e.\cept by the ice in Smith's Sound. Where is Smith's Sound? — In what direction does Greenland extend? — Point out' Cape Farewell. — Where and what is Iceland? — Point out Cape North in Iceland. What Cape is first seen by a vessel crossing from England to America ? Indentations. How and where does the Atlantic Ocean make indentations into the -shores of North America? Ans. In the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. — Where does the Pacific indent the Continent? Aim. In the Gulf of Califoriiia. — Does not the Gulf of Mexico look as if the Ocean Jiad scooped out tlie land? The great Eiiualorial current, coming from the Eastern side of the Atlantic, enters the Gulf of Mexico between Yucatan and Cuba,and sweeping in a circuit of the Gulf, issues at tiic Florida Channel, in the Qlulf Stream. Confij^ufation. Through what Strait would you enter Baffin Bay from tiie Atlantic ? — How would you enter tlie Arctic Ocean from liie Pacific '; (p. 10).— Point out Yucatan {yu-cH-taii). — Where is the Bay ()f Honduras? — Point out the West Indies. — Point out Cape Sable — Cape Ilatteras— C'a|)e Cod — Cajjc Race — The Strait of Belle-isle — Hudson Strait — Lancaster Sound — Barrow Strait — Melville Sound — Cape Bathurst — Point Barrow — Fo.x. Cliannel — IJehring Strait — Melville Ishtnd — Queen Charlotte Sound — Cape Flattery — Cape Mendocino {men-do- aee' no)— Toint Conception — Cape San Lucas. Watei- Divisions. Find Lake Nicaragua — Great Salt Lake — Lake Superior — Lake Michigan — Lake Winuepeg — Lake Athabasca — Great Slave Lake. Find Ballenas Bay — Chesapeake Bajr — Ascension Bay — Gulf of Te- huantepec (Itih-tcan'te-pek) — Bay of Panama. — Where is the Gulf of Darien ? —Where is Campeche Bay ? — Where is James Bay? Mountains. What three mountain-ranges are tliere in North America? — Do they run m the general direction of the sea-coasts near them ? — How do liie Rocky Mountains run ? — Tlie Sierra Nevada ? — The Alleghany Mountains ? — Which is the longest range ? — Which the shortest ? — Which the loftiest ? — Which contains Mount Shasta? The Rocky Mountain range crosses the Isthmus of Panama and is prolonged in the Andes of South America to the extremity of that continent at Cape Horn. — How long is that? (See Map, p. 20.) Where are the Sierra Madre Mountains ? — The Cascade Mts. ? Point out Mount St. Elias. This is the highest peak in North America. — Where is Mount Hecla?— Long's Peak ?— Pike's Peak ?— Spanish Peaks? How are North America and South America imited ? — How wide, by the Map and Scale, is the Isthmus of Darien in its narrov/est part? Islands. Name some of the principal islands near the Arctic coast of the Continent — near the Atlantic coast — near the Gulf of Mexico — near the Pacific coast. — Point out Cuba — Hayti — San Domingo — Porto Rico — Andros Island — New- foundland — Vancouver Island — Queen Charlotte Island — Long Island — Prince of Wales Land — Breton Island — Anticosti. Rivers. Where is the Mississippi River ?— Trace its course — Where, the Missouri ? — Trace it. — The St. Lawrence — the Ohio — the Ottawa — the Cumberland — the Brazos — the Rio Pecos — Lewis River — Clark's River— Red River — the Arkansas — the Tennessee — the Platte — the Saskatchawan — the Mackenzie — the Yukon — tht; Columbia — the Colorado — the Rio Grande ? — How long is the Mississippi? — The Missouri? Where does the Rio Gi-ande del Norte rise? — In which direction does the Mississippi flow ? — the Ohio — the Saskatchawan — the Yukon — the St. Law- rence — the Mackenzie ? Peninsulas. Point out the Peninsulas of Yucatan, Florida, Nova Scotia, Alaska, and California. — Victoria Land, King William's Land, Boothia, Melville Penin- sula. Political Divisions. What three great countries lie wholly north of the Trojiic of Cancer? What are the boundaries of the United States ?— What, of Alaska?— Of Labrador?— Of the Dominion of Canada? — Of Mexico? Bound Mexico. — What CQUutry lies between the Caribbean {k/ii--ih-be' Council Bluffs LZi^^* V?. TOVilLi. BuilijigSih^-" ^ I '- • . , /- T^. .. -, I !„.,= l«»t — ^-T'„u)lii III*"" -U.„_ -« ^3^ liiaepeadence^''''"t ". "'•Jes PVinuounesK lsT.yn;i3 llermart^ ' <> '^•^'"'■''To/ICa Springfield x." ^ a^- o "Van.Buren^' EnWin'rise neoT.l • ' 1. J C '. - -1 - j^ I'" 1^1"^" I ^^^ •iv\«' 1 ..rkS'/-""* I — s. LewiflbuTg Ft. SmitK* ft.'CTowsoiV LITTLE ]10C^ IHeua. Naroleouo . " I I 'In ;iiT^iii ^-"T"^ r ] ■ ->.- 1 r - - /oOirfori e yoNTOTOC Serdeeu-'" Cdlinnlms "i miWd^'"' -^'""./^H^J.UESTOS 34 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. the scale on the map, what is the length of the Mississippi from north to south ? — Through how many degrees of latitude does it flow ? — Which is its largest tributary from the west ? — What from tlie east ? You observe that the Mississippi River is less crooked than the Missouri ; the latter flows east through Montana into Dakota and then southeast to its juncture with the Mississippi at St Louis. Measuring in like manner in a straight line from the source to the bend in Dakota, and then to its mouth, how long is the Missouri? From its junction up, which drains the largest valley, it or the Mississippi ? — Which drains the largest valley, the Ohio or the Mis- sissippi — above their junction? You observe in California an inland range of mountains, the Sierra Nevada (snowy mountains), witli a Coast Range in front, flanked in Oregon and Washington by the Cascade Range, and that tlie valley between the Nevada range and the Rocky mountains is very broad. In this valley lies the Great Inland Basin of the Continent. It has no sea-drainage, and in it the Great Salt Lake and other lakes of like quality are found. Remember this as a general rule : All lakes that ham no outlet are salt. What rivers rise west of the Rocky Mountains ? — Which way do they flow ? — Which of them is the longest, measuring in a straight line from source to mouth ? — Repeat the general rule about salt lakes. — Why do you call a part of the valley between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains an inland basin ? — What is the meaning of Sierra Nevada ? Bays, Straits, Gulfs, Capes. — Name the bays along the Atlantic shores of the United States ; the straits; the gull's; the capes ; the peninsu- las. — Where are the Bahama Islands ? — What large river drains the great lakes ? — What large river flows into the Gulf of Mexico ? — Describe the course of each. — What range of mountains runs parallel with the Atlantic coast ? Name the gulfs and bays along tlie Pacific coast of North America. — Name the straits, capes, and islands. — Name tlie two largest American rivers that empty into the Pacific Ocean. — What chains of mountains run parallel with the Pacific coast ? Name the principal islands and capes along the Ai-ctic shores of North America. — The bays, sounds, and gulfs. What large river empties into the Arctic Ocean ? — Describe its course. — Which is the largest, British America or the United States, judging by the eye ? — Mexico or the United States ? — Which of these three divisions abounds most in lakes and islands, and indentations along the sea-shore ? States. — Beginning with the most northerly, name, in order, the thirteen Atlantic States and their capitiils. — Mention in the same way the States bor- dering on the Gulf of Mexico. — The States and territories on the Pacific. — Name the eight States on the Great Lakes. — What State is partly bounded by the St. Lawrence river ? — What States touch British America ? — What territories lie contiguous to Mexico ? Koutes. — What States and rivers would you cross in going directly from New York to Chicago ? — What States, territories, and rivers would you cross in going directly from New York to San Francisco ? — From Washington to Charleston ? — Should you take a steamboat at Pittsburg for St. Louis, on what rivers and near what States would you pass ? — In going from Pittsburg to New Orleans by steamboat, what States would you see ? — Sliould you sail from Portland, in Maine, to Galveston, Texas, what Stiites, bays, and gulfs would you pass ?— What islands and capes ?— Sailing from Alaska to San Francisco, what capes, islands, and States would you pass ? — How would you go by steamer from New York to San Francisco ? Ans. By the way of Aspinwall, where you would cross the isthmus on the Panama Railroad, and take an- other steamer from Panama to San Francisco.' Through what river-valley would you pass in going by steamboat from New Orleans to St. Paul ?— How would you go to Omaha by steamboat from New Orleans? — How, by the same means, would you go to ]\Iobile ?— To Louisville?— To Fernandma, Florida?— To El Paso, Mexico?— To Austin? LESSOJV XXII. The Political Subdivisions of the United States. 1. The Census. — A census is taken by the general government of the United States once every ten years. By the census of 1860, the population was ni, 443, 321 : by that of 1870, it was nearly 39,000.000. This r.iakes the United States more populous than any of the European nations, except Russia and Germany. The population of GriMt niit.iin is 37,000,000; of France, 35,000.000; of Russia, in Europe, 69,000,000; and of the new German Empire, 4."), 000,000. 2. States, Territories, e^c— The United States con- sist of thirty-eight States and ten Territories, which are variously divided into groups or sections for the convenience of reference. 3. JJi vis ions.— The ordinary grouping of these thirty- eight States and ten Territories, is this : 1st. The six New England, or Easxni States, — Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 2d. The five Middle /States, — New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland, with the Dis- trict of Columbia. 3d. The eleven Southern States, — Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Fh^-ida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Tennessee, with the Territories, New Mexico and Indian Territory. 4th. The thirteen Western States, — West Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Mis- souri, Iowa, Wi.'sconsin, Minnesota, Ncbra.ska, Kansus, Colorado, with the Territories, Wyoming, Dakota, and Montana. 5th. The three Pacific States, — California, Nevada, and Oregon, with the Territories of Washington, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, and Alaska. By a more natural classification, we might group the States as the At- lantic, the Gulf, tlie Inland, tiie Lake, and the Pacific States. We also speak of the Valley States, meaning those that are in the Mis- sissippi Valley; or the Cotton States, meaning those in which cotton is the principal stiiple, as Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina. Questions. — 1. What is the Census? What was the population of llie United States in 18T0 ? — How does it compare with tlie population of Eng land?— How with that of France ?— of Russia ? 2. How many States and territories are there? 3. How many and what sectional divisions are there? — Name the States and Territories of each section. — Wliat other groupings are sometimes made? — Point out (m Map of United States all the above- named States and Territories. — Bound them in order. GENERAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 35 LESSOJV XXIII. Tho New England States. Total Population, 3,487,924. State. Maine New Hiinipsliire. Vermont Massachusetts . . . Rhode Island. Connecticut . . Capitals. Chief Cities and their Population. Augusta Portland 31,413 Concord Manchester 23,.')3G Montpelier : Burlington 14,387 Boston Boston 250,526 ( Providence / / Newport f Hartford. Providence 08,904 New Haven.... 50,840 1. Map Study. — The most lively impressions as to the geojrraphy of a country are to be obtained by travelling" over it ; but this cannot always be done, and the best ideas that we can obtain as to all except the Political Geography of a country, are to be obtained from the map. Study the maps ; look at them often and attentively, and you will soon get the sections of the country fixed in your mind as indelibly as your play- ground and gymnasium. Let us, therefore, begin.to study, with the map before us. the geography of the six New England States. They are situated in the northeast corner of the United States, between the parallels of 41° and 47° 20' north latitude. They are nearer to Europe than any other part of the United States. " They are small States. The six put together are not as large as Missouri, nor one-third the size of Texas ; but, according to area and population, they have more power in Congress than any other part of the United States twice their size. They are bounded — See Map — on the west by the State of New York, on the north and east by the Dominion of Canada, and on the south by the Atlantic Ocean. Rhode Island is the smallest State of the Union. Rhode Island has two Capitals. 2. Coast iHflentations. — One of the first things that strike the eye of the geographer, as he turns it for the first time upon a map of these States, is the very jagged appearance of their coast-line, especially of Maine, and the number of rocky islets which curtain the shores — sure signs that there is no lack of dee}) water and good harbors. The New England States are, as you might therefore infer, ridi in harbors, bays, «ipes, and islands, for this is shown by a glance at the map. Vermont is the only one of the New England States that has no sea- front. 3. Lakes and Mivers. — Another striking feature also most prominent in Maine, is the number of fresh- water lakes that dot its surface, as well as the number of small streams which, in all the States of this section, thread their way from the hills to the sea. Some of these rivers flow west into Lake Champlain, some north into the St. Lawrence ; but most of them run east and south, and empty into the Atlantic Ocean. Thus the New England States, in their orography, are like a " hipped-roof house" which sheds the water off in four directions, their largest watershed sloping toward the Atlantic Ocean. 4. " Orogrftj}hf/" means the irregularities of tho earth's surface up and down, or in the vertical way. You have already seen an Orographic View of the United States, (p. 30.) .5. Mountains. — Now when we remember that, after those of North Carolina, the highest mountains in the "Atlantic States" are in the New England States (Mount Washington, White Mountains, New Hamp- shire, 6,234 feet ; Mount Mitchell, a peak of the Blue Ridge, North Carolina, 6,770 feet high), and when we consider how close the mountains and highlands of New England are to the sea, we may understand that the streams which flow thence to the sea have a great de- scent, with rapid currents and falls sufficient to afford abundance of water-power. 0. Facilities for Mills and Factories. — Such is the case : and the New Englanders recognizing the force of those principles which regulate the geographical distribution of labor, have erected mills, factories, and manufacturing establishments along the Ijanks of these streams. They have invoked the aid of this power, and made it subservient to their purposes. 7. Mauufacturiuff Totvus. — Fall River, Lowell, Lawrence, Manchester, Springfield, Nashua, with many other places, are celebrated for their water-power and for their manufacturing industry. The New England States have no coal-mines, and their hills are poor in metallic ores. 8. Climate. — Their winter climate, though they front on the sea, is very cold. The sea there, however, is never frozen, and the harbors very seldom closed, not because the weather is not cold enough, but because the sea is so- deep and the tides so rapid. Therefore, even in the severest weather, its waters, on account of their depth, are comparatively warm. Because the waters are warmer than the air, the coast of New England is not so cold as the interior. MAINE. You know that the water from a deep well or a good spring is cool in summer, warm in winter. It only appears so because in winter tlie weather is colli and in summer it is warm, while the temperature of the water in the well or spring is nearly the same in winter as in summer. It is for this reason that the winds which blow over large bodies of water are cool in summer, warm in winter. .9. Prevailing Winds. — The prevailing winter winds in New England are from the land, not from the sea. They are consequentlj^ dry and cold ; the weather, therefore, is often bitterly severe. But when the wind comes from the sea, as it sometimes does, it makes damp, foggy, and disagreeable weather, especially in winter, late autumn, and early spring. Moreover, the winters there, besides being severe, are, by reason of the latitude, long, while the summers are short. Con- sequently the soil yields scantily, and agriculture is by no means the most profitable branch of industry that the inhabitants of a country so favored with watcr- l)ower, so blessed with harbors, so convenient to the sea with its bounties, and so rich in timber for ship- building, may pursue. 10. Resources and Industries. — The agricultural labor of New England does not yield food enough for home consumption. But they gather abundant harvests from the sea and its fisheries. With the severe climate and stingy soil on one hand to make agriculture uninviting, and with their forests of ship-timber, their capacious harbors, their water- power, and sea-fisheries to attract on the other, it is no wonder that the sons of New England should have re- sorted to these industries, for they find in them am})le rewards for the labor and hardihood which they demand. 11. Fisheries. — Marblehead, Newburyport, and Gloucester are the chief towns that are engaged in the fisheries ; they are all three in Mas- sachusetts, and their fishing-grounds for cod and mackerel are on the banks of Newfoundland. These they salt and dry, and then bring them home, and afterward send them to all parts of the world — especially to the Roman Catholic countries, where the people during Lent eat no other animal food. Thus the people of the New Eng- land States, consulting the geographi- cal position of their section in con- nection with its natural resources, have made lumbering, shipbuild- ing, ice-harvesting, seafaring, and manufacturing their most important industries. Questions— 1. What can you learn from maps ?— How large are the six New England States ?— Where are they situated ?— Between what parallels of latitude do they lie?— How are they bounded ?—Whicli is the smallest State in the Union V— How does their jjower in Congress compare according to and in proportion with other parts of tlie Union? 2. What is the most striking feature presented by tlie map of these States ?— Which of Uiese States has the longest sea-coast and the best articulated coast-line ?— What geographical conclusion do you derive from these indentiitions of shore-line? 3. What striking feature in the land do you observe on the map of the New England States ?— To what can you liken the watersheds presented by these States ?— Which way do they slope ?— Where do the rivers from them empty ? 4. What is the Ovocjraphy of a country ? 5. What, where, and how high is the loftiest mountain of New England ?— Is it the highest mountain in the Atlantic States ? 6. What effect have the hills of New England and their distance from the sea upon the industry of these States ? 7. What and where are the most famous manufacturing towns of New England ?— IIow do you account for its mild coast climate ? H, Does the sea freeze off the coast of New England ? U. Wliy are the winters in New England long and the summers short ? 10. Can you explain why the industries of New England are rather commercial and manufacturing than mining ; seafaring, than agricultural ? 11. Name three of the principal fishing towns in New Eng- land. — Point them out on the map. — Where are their principal fishing- grounds ? — Where are their fish markets ? — What are the chief industries of the New England States ? LESSOM xir. The New England States — Gontmued. Maine. Maine excels in shipbuilding, the lumber-trade, and the harvesting and export of ice. The timber is cut during the winter, hauled in the frozen snow to the banks of the streams, upon which it is launched and lOE-BA BVEBTINO. NEW HAMPSHIRE.— MASSACHUSETTS.— RHODE ISLAND.— CONNECTICUT.— VERMONT. 37 floated down in the spring. Most of it is drifted down the Penobscot river to Bangor, whence it is exported ; but much of it finds its way to Bath and other seaport towns which are celebrated for their himber-trade and shipbuilding. The fine ships that they send thence to help cSrrj on the commerce of the world, have spread the fame of the New England shipwrights along the sea-coasts of all countries. Portland is the principal seaport of Maine. It is in railway connection with Canada. A vast amount of the direct trade between Canada and England is car- ried on through Portland. Emigrants and travellers from England to Canada often, especially in winter, go through Portland, and frequently through Boston. New Hampshire. This State has only a few miles of sea-front, and her people are not given to seafaring so much as those of Maine and Massachusetts, which have extensive lines of sea-coast. The people are extensively engaged in her quarries of stone, and in the manufacture of cotton and woollen goods. Manchester, Nashua. Dover, with other towns, prosper in this business. Portsmouth, on the Piscataqua [pis-hat' a-kwah) river, is the only seaport town in New Hampshire. It has a splendid man-of-war harbor, upon wiiich, just across the border, at Kittery " in Maine, the United States have one of their finest navy-yards. Hanover is the seat of Dartmouth College. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut are more extensively engaged than any other States in manufacturing. More than one-third of all the woollen, cotton, and leather goods that are manufactured in the United States are manufactured in these three States, Boston is the commercial emporium and pride of New England. This famous city is situated on a fine harbor in Massachusetts. Yielding to New York in commercial importance, it boasts of rich merchants and much capital, and vies with Philadelphia and Baltimore in foreign trade. The largest and most celebrated manufacturing estab- lishments 11 Massachusetts are at Lowell and Lawrence, famous for their woollen and cotton goods. The United States have their most extensive armory at Springfield, where muskets and other small arms, for the public service, are made. Lynn is celebrated for shoemaking. New Bedford and Nantucket are largely engaged in the whale and other deep-sea fisheries. Ehode Island. Newport, in Rhode Island, is situated on one of the finest harbors in New England. It is a noted watering- place, where the sea-bathing in summer is exceedingly fine. The largest manufacturing establishments in Rhode Island are in Providence, where there are extensive cotton factories. Connecticut. Connecticut is especially famous for the manufacture of small wares, such as clocks, sewing-machines, pistols, hooks and eyes for ladies' dresses, etc. There are large establishments in Bridgeport for the manufacture of sewing-machines, and one in Hartford for the manu- facture of fire-arms. SEWING-MACHINE WORKS. Yale College, at New Haven, Harvard in Massachu- setts, Princeton in New Jersey, and William and Mary in Virginia, are the oldest colleges in the country. New London and Stonington, on Long Island Sound, are engaged in whale-fisheries. Vermont. Vermont is an inland State ; it is therefore cut off from the sea and its marts ; consequently the industrial pursuits of Vermont are more or less different from those of her five sister States, for they can be neither commercial, seafaring, nor fishing. In Vermont, grazing seems to be the most important branch of industry. Vermont is famed for her horses, and has fine quarries of marble and slate. Both she and New Hampshire are also fine wool-growing countries. Note. — Common schools are more general in New England than they are in any other section of the United States. Their best endowed and most renowned institutions of learning are: Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Yale College, New Haven, Conn. ; 72 Longitude VTast 71 from Greenwich. Longitude East from \Va.sliinffti>n STUDIES ON THE MAP OF NEW ENGLAND.— THE MIDDLE STATES. 39 Brown University, Providence, R. I. ; Middlebury College, Vt. ; and Dart- mouth College, N. H. The University of Vermont is in Burlington. Questions. — What is the principal branch of industiy in Maine? — At what season of the year is the timber gathered ? — What are the chief seaport towns in this State ? — What, the shipbuilding places ? — Where is Portland ? — What business is done through it ? What are the principal branches of industiy in New Hampshire ? — Why are they not connected with the sea as extensively as Maine and Massachu- setts? — How does the coast-line of New Hampshire compare with theirs as to extent? — How many seaport towns has New Hampshire ? — What great pub- lic establishment is situated on Portsmouth harbor ? — Point out some of the principal manufacturing towns in this State. Which three of the New England States are most extensively engaged in the business of manufacturing ? — What and where is the commercial empo- liimi of New England ? — Where are the most extensive manufacturing establishments in New England? — Name the principal wares that are manu- factuied at each. In what industries arc New Bedford, New London, and Nantucket largely engaged? — Whei-e is Newport, and what is it famous for? — For what class of wares is Connecticut especially celebrated ? — Name the oldest institutions of learning in the United States. — Where are they? — Whj^ do the industries of Vermont differ from those of the other New England States ? — For what class of industries is Vermont most noted ? — Name the chief colleges and univereities ni New England. — Tell the capital and chief city of each State. — Population of chief city in each State. LESSOjY XXV. Studies on the Map of New England. Honndnries. — How are the New England States bounded? — Bound each one separately.— Which one has the greatest length of sea-coast "r Water Divisions. — Name the principal bays, capes, and islands along tlic coast. — Wliat Rivers have their rise in the. New England States, and tlieir mouth in the British possessions ? — What, judging by the eye and accord- ing to the valleys, are the largest Rivers in Maine ? — Which is the longest River in the New England States ? — Where does this River rise ? — Which way docs it flow ? — Where does it empty ? — What River rises in the White Moun- tains? Mountains. — The White Mountains are a cluster of high peaks in New Hampshire, of whidi Mount Washington is the highest. Tliey are an offsliool or spur of tlie Oreen Mountains, in Vermont, which are a branch of the AUeghanies, that take their rise in Georgia and skirt the Atlantic sea-hoard all tlie way until tliey end in the Green Mountains of Vermont, and are cut off by the St. Law- rence in Canada. Note. — The Rivem of New England, for reasons already explained, liavc a rapid fall, and therefore none of them are navigable any great distance, althouj?h the tides I'ise to a great height along the New England coast. Trace the irregular line which, in the New^ England States, divides the watershed of the Atlantic from the watershed of the St Lawrence. T7*c Divide. — You observe that all tfie Rivers on one side of this line flow for the most part in a southwardly direction' while those^on the otlier side flow northwardly. This line, you must remember, is called the " divide" between the two watersheds. Note. — You discover, also, that it is among the valleys in the upper and middle parts of these watenheds, that Lakes most abound. Tjaken serve an important office as reservoirs or cisterns for receiving the water during floods, or in periods of heavy rains, and distributing it gradually, by evaporatio* in times of drought. Look at the map and tell which are the largest Lakes. Which of the New England Lakes has outlets to the sea through the St. Croix ? The Penob- scot ? The Kennebec ? The Androscoggin ? The St. Johns ? The Mer- rimac ? The Richelieu {ree-she-lu') ? Tlie St. Francis ? Where are the two last named rivei-s ? To which watershed do they belong ? What lake borders on Vermont and New York ? — What is the distance from the head of Lake George to the head of Richelieu River ? Capitals. — Name the Capitals of each of the New England States. — Tell upon what river, and upon which bank of the river — right or left — they are situated. {Remember, the right or left bank of every river is tlte right or left hand side of that river as one descends it.) What is the coui-se and distance of each one of these Capitals from Boston? — How far, and in what direction, is each Capital from the centre of the State ? Chief Towns. — What is the chief town in each of these States ? — De- scribe its situation. — Where is Cambridge? — Bath?— Bangor? — Lawrence? — Lowell ? — Newburyport ? — Lynn ? — Gloucester ? — Marble Head ? — Spring- field ? — New Bedford? — Nantucket? — Tell what each one is noted for. Routes for Travellers. — How would you go from Boston to Lowell ? —From Boston to Hartford?— To Lynn ?— To New Bedford?— To New London ? — To Manchester ?— To Montreal ? How would you go from Providence to New Haven ? — From New York to Brattleboro ? — From Hartford to New York by steamboat ? — From Con- cord to Boston? — From New York to Rutland by railroad? — From Man- chester to Providence ? — From New York to Boston by water ? Questions. — Can you explain any use of lakes in physical economy ? — What is llie right bank of a river? — Are the rivers of New England naviga- ble for great distances? — Why not? — Of what mountains are the White Mountains a spur? — Of what are the Green Mountains a branch? — Where do the AUeghanies begin ? — What is the highest peak of the White Mountains ? LESSOJY' XXVI. The Middle States. Total Population, 9,848,255. State. New York. New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland ■District of Columbia . Capital;^. Albany... . . Trenton . . . Harrisburg. Dover Annapolis . Chief Cities and their Population. (New York 942,293 / Brooklyn 396,009 Newark 105,059 Philadelphia 674,032 Wilmington 30,841 Baltimore 267,354 Washington 109,199 1. Geof/rapJilcal Features. — Always keeping the map before you, let us now proceed to gather from it .some idea as to the principal geographical features of these five States, with the District of Columbia, (p. 45.) You see that they are traversed by the Alleghany 40 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE STATES. Mountains, which run from southwest to northeast, nearly parallel with the coast, and that these mountains are divided into ridges, which lie parallel with each other ; the distance between the top of the eastern and the western range varying from 50 or 60 to 100 miles, or more. These mountains divide these States into two grand watersheds, one of which slopes toward the southeast, and carries the drainage off into the Atlantic Ocean ; and the other to the northwest, with drainage both for the great Lakes, by numerous small streams, and for the Gulf of Mexico through the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. You observe, therefore, that the Middle States lie partly in the Mississippi valley, partly in the basin of the great Lakes, and partly along the Atlantic slopes. You notice, also, by the rivers, that there are here and there gaps in the mountains, through which the waters break and pass from one side to the other Thus the head-waters, both of the Delaware and the Susquehanna, rise beyond what appears to be the crest of the AUeghanies, and passing through a gap in these mountains, find their way to the Atlantic Ocean. These water-gaps, as they are called, are found in all mountainous countries ; and sometimes the scenery about them is very beautiful, wild, and grand. 2. Position. — The Middle States lie between the parallels of 38° and 45° ; they embrace seven degrees of latitude, and extend several degrees farther to the south than the New England States do ; consequently their climates are milder, their agricultural productions more varied, and many of their chief industrial pursuits different. 3. Size. — New York is the largest and Delaware the smallest of the Middle States. New York alone is three-fourths the size of all the New England States put together ; while all the Middle States together are about half the size of Texas. 4. Coast-Line. — The coast-line of the New England States — especially of Maine — is, as you remember, of rock, while that of the Middle States is chiefly of loam. 5. Allufial Country. — In one section tlie sea is encroaching upon the land, and has worn the shore away to the soUd rocks ; in the other the land is encroaching upon the sea, and is gaining upon it continually. The seaboard of the Middle States, and of all the country to the south, is formed in pait of what the sea has cast up, and in part of what the rivers liave brought down from the mountains. It is therefore an alluvial country. Every rain muddies the rivers, and these muddy waters flow into the sea; there the mud settles and gradually forms land. A large portion of the best and rich- est countries of the world are alluvial ; that is, the soil has been brought down little by little, by waters from the hills. The meadows and low grounds along the margins of the brooks and streams are alluvial. 6. Alluvial Country in the United *Sto«es.— The extent of this alluvial country in the United States in- creases as 3'ou go south ; following the coast-line until you get to the mouth of the Mississippi, it extends far up on both sides of that river, and embraces large por- tions of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. The coral, the sea- shells, and other marine fossils found there, show that there, also, the sea once roHod its waves. (Map, p. 32.) The inland limits of tide-waters are marked by falls or rapids, as those of the Schuylkill at Philadelphia, of the Patuxent near Baltimore, of the Potomac at G-eorge- town, of the Rappahannock at Fredericksburg, of the James at Richmond, of the Roanoke at Weldon, and so on along the whole Atlantic seaboard. 7. Falls. — These falls are at the head of navigation and of tide-water, and the belt of country between them and the sea is called in each State the tide-water or low country. This belt, though it increases in l)readth as you go south, is not so broad as it would be had the rise and fall of the tides been as great in the South as they are in the North. 8. Tides. — In the Bay of Fundy, which borders the coast of Maine, the rise and fall of the tide is sixty feet, whereas, as you go south and reach the shores of the Carolinas, it is only as many inches ; and when you get to the shores of Florida, in the Gulf of Mexico, it is not so much as a foot. 9. Climate. — The Gulf Stream, with its tepid waters, sweeps close to the shores of the Middle States. The New p]n<'land States have high and cold moun- mills from which the west winds blow. The Middle States, on the contrary. New York esi)ecially, have the lakes to the westward of thoni, and they temper in winter the keen west winds as they sweep by. Sudi is the influence of lakes and large sheets of open water in mitigating the severities of winter climates. In sheltered spots upon the borders of Lake Ontario it is so mild that even the peach will mature in the open air. The cold west winds, after crossing the mountains and being cliilled, make the climates of New Eng- land entirely too severe for this delicious fruit. 10. Pursuits. — The difference of climate in these two sections is also both seen and felt in its effects upon the industrial pursuits of the people. Consequently there is less of seafaring and manufac- turing in the Middle States, and far more agriculture and mining industry. The former States are poor in mines, but the latter are rich in both coal and iron. NEW YORK. 41 11. P Inducts. — Wheat, rye. oats, and Indian corn, buckwheat, orchard-fruits, berries, and garden vegetables, all do well in the Mid- dle States. Still, so great is the town and city population of these States in comparison with their rural population, that as you pass in review State after State from Maine toward the South, you find none of them producing corn and wheat enough for their own consumption until you come to Maryland. She is the first State tluit regularly produces enough and to spare. Slic also grows more tobacco than she requires for her owu use, and sends large quantities of it abroad. Questions. — Name the Middle States. 1. By what range of mountains are they traversed ? — What are their principal geographical features as shown on the map ? — Describe the great water- sheds into which tL.ey are divided by these moun- tains. 2. Where do the jVIiddle States lie ?— Be- tween what parallels ? — What rivers have water- gaps through the AUeghanies ? 3. Which is the largest and which the smallest of these States ? 4. Describe their coast line. ii. Wliere in tiie Middle States is the alluvial c-ountry ? G. Descrilie it. — Describe the tide- water country and the navigation of the rivers. — How are its limits marked ? 7- Contrast the tides and the shore-line of the New England and the JVliddle Stiites. 8. How high does the tide rise in the Bay of Fundy V — How high in the Gulf of Mexico? 0. Which of these two sections has the mildest climate? — What is the cause of this difference? 10. What are the industries of the Middle Sta:tes? II. What are the agri- cultural productions of the Middle States ? — "What, the mineral productions ? — As you travel south along the seaboard from Maine, which is the first State you c:)me to that produces breadstuffs enough for home consumption ? 8CENB IN BROADWAY, NEW 7 B K . LESSOjY XXVII. More about the Middle States. New York. The climate of Western New York is tempered by l.hc lakes, which soften the west winds as they sweep over them. That part of the State is, therefore, a fine wheat and corn country. It is also a good grazing country, and the hardier orchard-fruits do w^ell there. New York is also a wool-growing State. There are salt-springs at Syracuse which arc owned by the State : the water is sold to the salt-makers, who produce annually about one-sixth of all the salt that is consumed in the United States. Apart from her salt-works and stone-quarries, her beds of gypsum, and some iron ores near the Pennsyl- vania line. New York is poor in minerals. 6 The city of New York is the em|)oriuin of trade for the whole country, and the largest city in the New World. Albany is one of the most important inland towns in the Middle States, and is, besides, the capital of the most populous State in the Union. It is situated at the head of navigation, on the right bank of the Hudson and at the mouth of the Erie canal, where vessels from the Lakes freighted with western produce meet those that ply up and down the river from New York. Lake Erie, as is shown by the falls and rapids of Niagara, is more than three hundred feet above Lake Ontario. The smaller lakes, which give such a charm to the scenery in this part of the State, are situated on the terrace with Lake Erie ; consequently the rivers which from these lakes carry water into Lake Ontario, have, like the Niagara, to leap a precipice in order to escape from this terrace. Their rapid falls afford fine water-power for mills and manufacturing purposes. Rochester and Oswego have availed themselves of it, and are extensively engaged in milling and iminun^ictur- ing. Grist is sent them even from Canada and the West. A2 NEW JERSEY.— DELAWARE.— PENNSYLVANIA. Thi falls of the Hudson are near Albany, and Troy avails herself of the power afforded by them, and ap- plies it to various manufacturing purposes. At Water- vliet, between Albany and Troy, the United States have an arsenal. The Military Academy at West Point is on the right bank of this beautiful river, and a few miles below Newburg. There is also an extensive navy-yard at Brooklyn. The country bordering upon the Hudson is in a high state of cultivation and improvement. The fine houses and beautiful grounds lend enchantment to the scenery, and many travellers take passage in steamers that ply on the river merely for the pleasure of enjoying the beautiful views that meet the eye at every turn. The scenery on the right bank, between West Point and New York, is rendered bold by columns of basaltic rock called the "Palisades," that rise up perpendicu- larly to the height of four or five hundred feet. Notwithstanding the number, splendor, size, and fleetness of the steamboats that ply on the Hudson be- tween New York and Albany, a railway has been built directly on the bank all the way between the two cities. The trains run very swiftly, and carry crowds of passengers. New Jersey. New Jersey has more sea- front than New York. This State lies almost entirely in the tide-water coun- try. It is not so far north as New York ; it has, there- fore, a milder climate. New Jersey is famous for its fruit-orchards, and for peaches especially. It is richer in mines of iron and zinc than New York. There are some flourishing manufacturing towns in this gallant little State. Paterson, at the falls of the Passaic, is celebrated for its railway cars and locomo- tives — Newark for the extent and variety of its manu- factures ; and among them, those of india-rubber in par- ticular. Its population has been doubled within the last seven years. Princeton College is one of the most renowned and ancient seminaries of learning in the United States. Delaware. Delaware has no mountains and is poor in minerals, but, like New Jersey, it lies mostly in tide-water re- gions, is rich in soil, and favored with a mild climate. It is a fine grazing country, and the laboring-classes find profitable employment there in supplying the markets of Philadelphia, New York, Baltimore, Brooklyn, and the other large cities and towns in that part of the country with fresh meat, butter, fruit, and vegetables. The most celebrated powder-mills in the United States are on the Brandywine, near Wilmington. Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania abounds in coal and iron ; the richest wells of petroleum oil are found near Lake Erie, in the upper valley of the Alleghany river, in this State. The anthracite coal of Penn.sylvania is the chief ar- ticle of fuel that is used for domestic purposes in the Middle States. It is largely consumed, also, for smelt- ing and other manufacturing and mechanical purposes. It constitutes one of the most im})ortant branches of trade in the United States. The flourishing cities of Reading and Scranton owe their prosperity chiefly to it. A COALCRACKEU, The quantity of coal exported from this couutry is very small. All that is mined is required in our domestic economy. Petroleum lias suddenly sprung up into great commercial impoitance : the first oil wells were dis- covered about fifteen years ago; it is, after cotton and provisions, the chief article of export from this country. It is used mostly for ligiits, and Ger- many is our best customer. Cotton is our most valuable article of export. The following is an official statement of the exports from this country for the year ending .Inly, 1871 : Cotton, $221,885,000 ; Breadstnffs, |79.382,000 ; Oils and Petroleum, $.3r,:n:5,000; Provisions, $:J6,444,000 ; Tobacco, .f;22, 200,000; Naval Stores, $2,704,000; all others, $12,917,000; Total, $412,o47,00(). The German farmers of Pennsylvania are noted for their good husbandry and fine barns, which are gener- ally more elegant buildings than their dwelling-houses. Philadelphia is celebrated for the cleanliness of Its streets, its fine market-places, its medical schools, its academies, and its charitable institutions. In proportion to its population, Pittsburg is more extensively engaged in manufacturing than any otiier MARYLAND. — DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 43 t oitv in the State. Iron and glass are among its chief articles, and it has a large trade, also, in bituminous coal, with which the neighboring hills are bountifully stored. Maryland. The peninsula between Delaware Bay and the Chesa- peake, belongs, a part to Delaware, a part to Mary- land, and a part to Virginia. Its elevation above the sea-level is not much : for it is without mountains, and its climate is softened by the mild temperature of the ocean and warmtli from the Gulf Stream in winter, and by the cooling sea-breezes in summer. Moreover, the Chesapeake Bay, with its ojjcn water and other benign influences, reaches up into the heart of Maryland, and imparts to the country along its shores, in this State, a softer climate than any other part of the Middle States can boast of. Tobacco is prominent among the agricultural staples of Maryland, which embi-ace corn, wheat, and the other cereals. Its mountains abound in coal and iron, and mining constitutes a large and important branch of the industry of this State. Baltimore, on the Patai)sco river, is the sixth city in the Union. A BCENE IN BALTIMORE, Cumberland, at the western terminus of the Chesa- peake and Ohio canal, is the centre of the mining region. Frederick, on the border, and Hagerstown, where there is an excellent college, are in the middle of that ex- ceedingly fertile belt of 30tintry, of which the celebrated Valley of Virginia forms a part. Its fertility is owing to the same vein of limestone that makes the Falls of Niagara. The Genesee country, the finest agricultural part of New York ; the Harrisburg country, the best in Pennsylvania ; and the Shenandoah valley the garden spot of Virginia, are all upon this vein of limestone. Weirs' Cave, with its splendid stalactites, near Staun- ton, and the Natural Bridge in Rockbridge county, near Lexington, with its fine archway, both in Virginia, are formed of this limestone rock. This vein forks in Virginia, one part passing through Lexington and the Green River country of Kentucky, tliu other via Abingdon, Virginia, into Tennessee, and so on to the Muscle Siioals of the Tennessee, where the two forks come together and continue tlieir course toward the southwest. It crops out from under tlie Walnut Hills of Vicksburg ; that is the last that is seen of it. The country, all the way from the banks of the Mississippi to those of the Niagara River, is one of unsurpassed fertility. The blue-grass country of Kentucky and Tennessee, owes its celebrity to this fertilizing vein. Trace this limestone vein on the nuip with the eye, for it will enlighten j'ou as to the distribution of labor, and help you properly to understand the geography of your country. No sheet ot water in the world surpasses the Chesa- peake Bay for the variety, excellence, and abundance of the fish and game with which its shores and waters abound. Its shad and herring fisheries are very valu- able. Seines, a mile long, are hauled for them. The canvass-back duck, the terrapin, and the oyster of the Chesapeake Bay, are unsurpassed in flavor and excellence. They often grace the tables of royalty in Europe, as delicacies. This sheet of water, on account of the v;ilue of its fisheries, has been compared for wealth to the gold mines of California. The oyster-sellers through- out the West are supplied chiefly from its bounties. DiSTKicT OF Columbia. This District, embracing originally an area of 10 miles s(|iuire, was ceded, a part by Virginia and a part by Maryland, to the general Government. In 1846, Congress ceded back to Virginia the portion on the right bank of the Potomac that was originally ceded by her, so that now the District contains only iiboul 60 square miles. Washington City was planned by General Washington. It is beautifully laid out, on the left bank of the Potomac, and contains many magnificent public buildings, the prin- cipal of which is the capitol. It was called District ort^olumbia after Columbus. It is no longer governed directly by Congress, but, like the territories, has a legislature and one delegate to Congress. The peoi)le of the District have a Governor appointed by the President and Senate. 44 STUDIES ON THE MAP OF THE MIDDLE STATES. THE NATIONAL CA r I T o 1. . Georgetown, availing itself of the water-power de- rived from the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, is engaged extensively in the manufacture of flour ; it has also a considerable trade. This city is connected with Alex- andria by the canal which crosses the Potomac at Greorgetown, over a magnificent aqueduct. Washington is without commerce or manufactures ; it derives its importance entirely from the presence of the Government. Questions.— ^hich State embraces the most degrees of latitude ? — What effect have the Great Lakes upon the climate of New York?— What are its principal agricultural staples V— Where are the aalt-works?— To what does Alhany owe its importance ? — How high is the level of Lake Erie above that of Lake Ontario ?— Uow do the streams get from one level to the other ?— What use is made of these falls?— Wliat two cities have availed themselves extensively of this water-power?— For what purpose ?— Where are the Falls of the Hudson? — What city makes the most extensive use of this water- power? — What important Government establishments are at Watervliet and Brooklyn ?— Where is West Point?— What makes it so noted?— Where are tlie Palisades? — What are they ? Which has the mildest climate and the longest coast-line, New York or New .Jersey ?— How do you account for this difference of climate?— For what industries are Paterson and Newark noted ?— Where is Princeton, and for what is it celebrated ? What are the most valuable minerals in which Pennsylvania most abounds ?— What is the chief article of fuel in the Middle States ?— Whence is it obtained ?— Name the chief article of export.— What is the most valua- ble?— What is the chief market for petroleum?— What can you say of Penn- sylvania as an agricultural State?— For what is Philadelphia especially noted?— For what is Pittsburg?- To what do Reading and Scranton chiefly owe their prosperity ? — Where are they situated ? What can you say of Delaware ? — Name the staple productions of that State, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. — What famous works are on the Bran- dywine near Wilmington ? — By what States is the Delaware peninsula occu- pied ? — Describe it. — To what do you attribute its mildness of climate ? What are the staple productions of Maryland ? — Where are her coal mines ? — Upon what vein of rock is Hagerstown ? — Look at the map, and name the parts of the Southern States that are situated upon it. — What do you know about the fisheries of the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries ? What is the Territory of Columbia? — How is its name derived? — Are its inhabitants entitled to representation ? — Who makes their laws ? — Describe Washington City. — Who planned it ? — To what does it owe its importance ? — Where is Georgetown? — In what business is it chiefly engaged? — How is it connected with Alexandria ? LESSOJY XXVIII. Studies on the Map of the Middle States. Soundaries. — How are the Middle States bounded ? — Bound each one, and the Territory of Columbia, separately. Ctrpitals and Towns.— Giva the population of each State, with that of its chief town. — Tell the situation of each capital. — Tell the bearings and distance of each Capital from the chief town of the State. — Which of them exteads from tide-water to the Lakes ? — AVhich has the greatest length of sea-coast ? Const Marks and Indentations. — Name the principal Bays along the coast of the Middle States. JSIcntion the principal Islands. — The chief Capes. Mountains. — What mountain .system crosses this section of tlie United States? — In what direction does it extend? — What part of New York does it cross? — Where does it cross New Jersey? — Point out the Adirondacks. — What is the most eastern range of the Alleghany Mountains called ? — Name the chains in Pennsylvania, beginning at the eastern part of the State. — Name the mountains in New York. Faffs. — Where are the Niagara Falls ? — Trenton Falls are near Utica, X. Y. — Where is Harper's Feny ? — Wliere is the Delaware AVater-Gap ? Ann. Where the Delaware River forces itself through the eastern ridge of the Allcghanies, in the northwestern part of New Jersey. — What Falls are thereat Rochester? Ans. Those of the Genesee River, as it nutkes its way into Lake Ontario. Comparative Geof/rapfii/.—Lonk at the map, and describe the difference between the sea-coast of the Middle States and of New Eng- land. — Which has the greatest breadth of tide-water country, and lh(; greatest length of navigable rivers, the New England or the Middle States ? — On account of what natural cause is it, that the alluvial country in the Middle States is so much broader than it is in New England ? — What infer- ence do you draw from this, as to the extent of inland navigation in the two sections?— Name, in each section, .some of tlie principal seaport towns, and describe their situation. Towns and Cities. — How far is New York from Sandy Hook? — How far from the Gulf Stream ? Aiij<. About 240 miles. — Where, in New York, is Syracuse ?— Rochester ? — Buffalo ? — Binghamton ? — Ithaca ? — Sara- toga ? — Poughkeepsie ? — Brooklyn ? Point out, in Pennsylvania, Pittsburg. — Where is Harrisburg? — Reading? — Scranton ? — Mauch Chunk ? — Gettysburg ? Where, in New Jersey, is Trenton ?— Elizabeth ?— Paterson ?— Newark? Princeton ? Where is Dover ? — Wilmington ?— Where is Annapolis ?— Baltimore ?— Ellicott's Mills ?— Port Tobacco ?— Frederick ?— Havre de Grace ?— Hagers- town ? — Georgetown ? Rivers and Lakes.— Descnhe the coui-se of the Hudson. — Trace the Mohawk.— The Delaware.— The Susquehanna.— The Potomac— Trace the headwaters of the Ohio.— What streams form the Ohio?— Find Lake George.— Lake Champlain.— Where does the St. Lawrence empty its waters V— What lakes are drained by the Oswego River ?-Wiiat rivers and lakes border on the Middle States?— What State most abounds in lakes ?— Upon what watershed are these lakes chiefly situated ?— Name the principal rivers of the Southern, the Western, and the Northern watershed.- What tributary of the Ohio takes its rise farthest to the North ?— Wiiat farthest to the East ?— Which is the longest, the Che.sapeakc or llio Delaware Bay?— y>etei t^Manibsburg ||^^ r ) // Carriillton UV^>^-f 'aintrilleo !^^ 4 ^ Via jfepnugti eld [;**Caiiil.riage UaijiUndg;^ ' Hill8l>oro Fiketon I^COLUMBL'S nZANtSvlLLE r Lexington ^Lancaster v."*v rCirdev-illL "^X^^s,, ^s:^ MARIETTA ^iiiLi.icoiiiE ^Tion3^_ ( JlJ^PAKKEltSlJ ^llamden ', , Pomeroy JacJuuu jt^ Ilafi Ft. 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J/^-n ^-;^"-'y .„ .^— ^^ '^ ^' AM1>EN - \V^ Tom s ^Atoco ^ !ape I. City r^ '^''Oape May ^ Cape Uculopeu^ s 3It. rieasait Wp^i. GJadcsrille Qhi-istia/isliurg /jiSiJ ;«aitviiij;i;;r:j;<(i»*^.,..--ong Branch ?— Cape May?— Atlantic City? Miscellaneous.— To which of the four cities, Boston, New York, Phil- adelphia, and Baltimore, measuring in a direct line, is Chicago, at the head of lake navigation, nearest? Ans. To Baltimore.— To which of these four great Atlantic Cities is Cleveland, Ohio, nearest? Am. To Baltimore.— To which of them is Buffalo nearest ? Ans. To Baltimore. On which bank of the Delaware is Philadelphia ?— On which bank of the Hudson is New York ?— Jersey City ?— How is Baltimore situated ?— Wil- mington ?— How is Washington located ?— Georgetown ? LESSOM XXIX. The Eleven- Southern States and Two Territories. Total Population, 9,591.260. State. Capitals. Chief Cities and their Population. Virprinifl . . . . Richmond Richmond 51,037 ^ortli Oci'ol i n a Raleigh Wilmington .... 13,446 Columbia Charleston 48,956 rilpnrp'in Atlanta Savannah 28,235 Ti^loridn. . . Tallahassee Pensacola 3,347 Montgomery Mobile 32,034 TVTississiDDi Jackson Natchez 9.057 Louisiana New Orleans Austin New Orleans . . . 191,418 Texas Galveston 13,818 Arkansas Little Rock Little Rock 12,380 nr**nnps*?t*p Nashville (Memphis 40,220 "( Nashville 25,865 Tahlequah 1000 Indian Territory Tahlequah Santa Fe Santa Fe 9,699 1. Geographical Position. — The Southern States lie between the parallels of 26° and 40°. These are the most favored latitudes on the earth, both as to climate and production. Between these parallels are found such countries in Europe, as Grreece with its Archipelago ; Southern Italy and Spain ; the Land of Goshen, in Egypt ; and in Asia, the Promised Land — the Yale of Cashmere — the Valleys of the Hoang Ho, and the Yang-tse-kiang, where lie the great City of Pekin, and the choicest parts of China and Japan. Excepting the two countries of Italy and Greece, the Southern States arc better watered than any of them. 2, Past and Present Condition. — Domestic servi- tude was one of the established institutions of the South ])rcvious to the recent war. In round num- bers there were 4,000,000 of negro slaves, who were emancipated by proclamation from the President of the United States. In consequence of this and the ravages of war, the industry of the South has been greatly deranged, and the people have not yet had time fairly to adjust them- selves to their new situation. Let us, therefore, content ourselves by looking not so much at the present industries and political condition, as at the natural geography and resources of the South- ern States. :i. Peculiar Features. — The Southern States em- brace nearly twice the breadth of latitude contained in the Middle States and the New England States together, and they contain f(mr times their area and four times their extent of sea-coast. The population of the Southern States, however, amounts to only four-lifths of that of the two other sections. E.xcepting Virginia, the shores of the Southern States are curtained with a chain of long, narrow, and sandy islands, with navigable inlets and pass- ages here and there obstructed by sandbars which prevent the entrance of ships that draw more than si.xteen or eighteen feet of water. The largest ships draw 28 feet As we go from the sea iuliuul, anywhere between Virginia and Texas, we cross a belt of swamps, covered with cypress, magnolias, yellow jessamine, and jungle. Then we come to a sandy soil in the piny belt. In some parts these two belts are 300 miles broad ; nowhere less than 100. After them come the oaks and the deciduous trees. The cypress belt is noted for its pendent mosses, parasites, and flowers — Magnolia grandiflora, and tlie yellow jessamine, the loveliest of them all ; the pine belt, for its ship-timber and naval stores. In the Gulf States, the cotton produced by this sandy sjil, which extends through Mississippi as fur up as Tennessee, is called uplands. 4. Watersheds, — The Alleghany Mountains divide the Southern States east of the Mississippi into three watersheds, sloping severally to the east, south, and west, and sending their streams and rivers off into the Atlantic Ocean, into the Gulf of Mexico, and into the Mississippi River. New Mexico and Western Texas are evidently dry countries, for, as the map shows, they have few water- courses. Consequently, in these regions you would ex- pect to find severe droughts and much barren land. " Llano Estacado," the Staked Plain, in Texas, is an THE SOUTHERN STATES. 47 immense barren waste across which the early Mexican travellers and traders marked their way by sticking up stakes along the trail. o. Minerals. — The mountainous regions of Virginia, North Carolina, G-eorgia, and Tennessee are rich in minerals. Iron, coal, lead, copper, salt springs, min- eral springs of rare virtue, quarries of marble and gyp- sum, and veins of gold ; in Louisiana, salt-beds ; in Arkansas, salines and quarries for the best of whet- stones ; in Alabama, artesian wells with power to turn machiner}' : — these are some of the mineral riches and sources of wealth in the Southern States which depend not upon climate. 6*. Climate and Occupations. — You already un- derstand enough about climates to infer simply from the map that there is a great difference between the climates of Virginia and the New England States on the one hand, and the climates of Virginia and the Gulf States on the other ; and that, consequently, there should be a corresponding diflTerence in the industrial pursuits. In Virginia the chief occupations consist in the cul- tivation of wheat, corn, rye, oats, and tobacco, fruit and vegetables ; in the cutting of firewood and ship-timber for the northern cities ; and in wool-growing, grape- growing, cattle-raising, mining, and fishing. lu the more Southern States, industr}^ in addition to the raising of flocks and herds, is directed to the cul- tivation of rice, cotton, and sugar, with breadstuflfs and fruits for home consumption, and to the turpentine and lumber business. 7. Influence of Inventions. — Human inventions and improvements are important geographical agents, for they often change or alter the industrial pursuits throughout extensive regions of country. So far as they, do this, they bear upon questions, especially of political geography, and they should not escape the attention of those who study this most important and instructive de- partment of human knowledge. Not only the face of our country, but the chief indus- trial pursuits of the people have been greatly changed or aflfected by the invention of the cotton-gin, by the application of steam to machinery and locomotion, and by the various mechanical improvements of the age. Before Whitney's invention of the cotton-gin, the cultivation of cotton in tiie Southern Stales was confined to a small " patch" on each farm, capable of producing a few pounds only, from which the seeds were picked by hand, and tiie wool washed, carded, spun, and woven by the women of the family into cloth or " homespun," then the chief article of clothing. The staple production of South Carolina and Georgia, at that time, was indigo, and cotton was known, as an article of commerce, only in India and the East. But, with Whitney's gin, which in a few minutes could pick the seed out from as much wool as a whole family could pick in a day, the sagacious people of these States perceived that the cultivation of cotton would be much m(>re profitable than indigo — so they gave up indigo and undertook cotton. Tlie farmers in India, perceiving how much superior to theirs the American cotton was, gave up cotton and undertook indigo— for the indigo of India is as good as ours. About seventy years ago, an American ship, from Charleston, arrived in England with ten bales of cotton as a part of her cargo. She was seized, on the ground that so much cotton could not be produced in the United States. Before the war, the production had reached four millions and upward. The invention of the spinning-jenny and the power- loom, about that time, tended still further to stimulate the })roduction of cotton ; and as raiment is to the human family next in importance to food, the production of cotton in those States continued to increase until the year before the war, when it had reached the enormous quantity, before stated, of four millions of bales and up- ward, and which, at present prices, would be worth not less than $200,000,000. 8. Value of Productions. — Before the war, the people of the Southern States addressed themselves with great skill and energy to the various branches of agri- cultural industry, wisely trusting to the natural advan- tages afforded by their soil and climate to give effect to their labor ; and though numbering but little more than one-third of the population of the whole country, they produced, in value, two-thirds of the whole amount of its exports. Questions. — 1. Name the eleven Southern States. — Between what par- allels of latitude do they lie? — What countries remarkable for fertility in the Old World lie between the same parallels? 2. What is said of domestic servitude ? 3. How do the Southern States compare, as to climate, area, and population, with the New England and Middle States? — Contrast their coast- lines and compare their harbors, from Norfolk to the mouth of the Rio Grande. — What obstructs the harbors ? — Where is Noifolk ? — Trace out on the map, and describe, the chain of islands in the Atlantic that skirts the Soutliern coast- — How much water do the largest ships draw ? — Describe the three principal watersheds into which the Southern States are divided, and point out the principal streams which carry off the drainage. — What parts of the Southern States suffer most from want of water? — Point out and describe the Llano Estacado. 5. Point out on the map those parts of Virginia that are richest in minerals. — Those in Tennessee. — Those in North Carolina. — What kind of minerals? — What kind in Louisiana? — What kind in Arkansas? — In Ala- bama? (i. How does the climate of Virginia compare with the climate of New England, on the one hand, and of the Gulf States, on the other? — What are the chief industrial pursuits of Virginia? — What, in the more Southern States ? 7- Can you give instances in which industries of people have been changed or created by human inventions ? — Before the invention of the cotton- gin, what were the chief staples of South Carolina and Georgia? — Why did indigo go to India and cotton come to Carolina and the South for cultivation ? — Why was an American ship, with a few bales of cotton on board, seventy 48 VIRGINIA. years ago, seized in Liverpool ? — How many million of bales had the annual cotton crop reached before the war ? 8. What portion of the exports of the country at that time was of Scutheru growtli ? LESSOJV XXX. The Southern States — Continued. ViKGINIA. Yirginia, the oldest of the States, and "Mother of Statesmen,'"' was the largest of the "original thirteen,"' and nsed to be called the " Old Dominion." In the Revolution of 1776 she took the lead, and played a most conspicuous part. She was renowned for the virtue of her sons and the wisdom of her statesmen. Some of the greatest men— Washington, Madison, Mar- shall, Jefferson — that the country has i)roduced, were Virginians. This State is situated between the parallels of 36° 30' and SQ*^ 40' north latitude. It fronts for more than two hundred miles on the Atlantic Ocean, and on the mag- nificent Chesapeake Bay, itself an arm of the sea. Its western borders extend back to the tributaries of the Ohio, and form a part of the Mississippi Valley. They are drained into that river through the Ohio by New river and the Tennessee. The climates of Virginia correspond nearly Avith those of Cashmere and the best parts of China. Her latitude, the length of her days and nights, and the skies overhead, arc the same as those in some parts of Asia Minor ; but the climates of the two countries differ chiefly in this — Asia Min(>r is a iby couutr}', Virginia is well watered. The mountains here, though they rise into peaks 4,000 or 5,000 feet high, are neither snow-capped nor barren, but are clothed with forest-trees and undergrowth from the bottom to the top, affording fine range and pasture* for cattle. This woody vesture is a striking and peculiar feature of the whole Al- leghany range. Both these mountains and their spurs are forest-clad from Maine to Georgia. Upon them, as well as in the valleys between their ridges and spurs, are to be found medicinal plants, timber, and ornamental woods of various kinds and fine quality, such as cypress and cedar, maple, walnut, chestnut, beech, wild cherry, dogwood, and lignum vitae, pines and oaks of many varieties, with hickory, ash, mulberry, snake-root, ginseng, sumac, etc In tide-water Virginia, the cutting of ship-timber for northern builders, and of fire-wood for northern brick- kilns and other purposes, creates profitable industries. The Natural Bridge, in Rockbridge County, is an object of great interest to tourists. NATURAL BBIDOB. The Alleghany Mountains, and their outlying range of the Blue Ridge, run along in a zigzag course, but nearly parallel to each other ; the valleys between them vary in breadth from 30 to 70 miles, and are very fertile. The Valley of the Shenandoah is the largest and most fertile among them. Rising on the eastern slopes of these mountains, and flowing through these valleys, are the Potomac, the Shenandoah, the James, and the Roanoke rivers. The Rappahannock and the York rise east of the Blue Ridge. The New river has its head-waters in North Cai-olina, and empties into the Ohio river, on the western slopes of the mountains, where the head-waters of the Tennessee take their rise. These are noble rivers. The smallest of them is larger than the Thames in Europe. All tiiese rivers which flow down the Atlantic slope, are navigable from the sea to the head of tide-watei, and for distances varying from 100 lo 200 miles from the ocean. The distances from their sources to tide-water varies from 50 to 250 miles, with a total fall in their descent of from 300 to 3,000 feet in the aggregate. This affords, all along these streams, from the mountains to tide-watci-, abundant water-power for mills and machinery of all sorts. The whole country is well wooded and watered, and is rich in minerals. The coal-fields near Richmond have been j)rofitably worked for many years. The coal is bituminous, and is extensively used in Philadelphia, New York, and other cities, for the production of gas. Winchester, in the Shenandoah Yallev, and Fred- TKCfT'E^The Soutk-Weslern boitvdnry 0/ Maryland is the ri;rht bank 0/ /he Palontar Kifrr from iff iourre to S»itf/i's f'oint at tH month and the Southern Loundary u at sHmvn t>j> thi ime on the Ata^t "3^ NORTH CAROLINA AND TENNESSEE. 49 ericksbiirg. on the Rappahannock, are celebrated for the great battles that were fought at and near them during the late war. The latter has fine water-power. Williams- burg was, in colonial times, the capital of the State ; and William and Marj, situated there, is the oldest college in Virginia. The University at Charlottesville and the Virginia Military Institute with Washington College, both at Lexington, are flourishing institutions. The harbor of Norfolk, for capacity and depth of water, is not surpassed in the United States. Richmond has most extensive flour-mills, large found- ries, and a great number of machine-shops. Richmond flour is especially valuetl, because, in shipping it across tlie Equator, it is not liable to " heat" or ferment. Petersburg and Lynchburg ai'c largely engaged in the manufacture of fobacco, for which the climate of the latter is particularly favorable. Staunton, in the valley of Virginia, has asylums for the blind, the deaf and dumb, and for the insane. Alex- andria, eight miles below Washington, has a good trade. XOKTH C.A.ROLIXA AXD TkNNESSEE. North Carolina and Tennessee are between the same l)arallels of latitude, and, except in the tide-water country of the former, the industrial pursuits of the two States, so far as the soil is concerned, are very much the same. Tennessee is the daughter of North Carolina, as Ken- tucky was of Virginia. Tiie , territoiy once be- lonj^etl to lier, and Tennessee was settled diiefly by emi- grants from Nortli Carolina. Daniel Boone, the celebrateil backwoodsman, who led the way for settlers, both ini" Kentucky and Tennessee, ! was a North Carolinian. The cypress swamps and forests of pitch-[)ine, whicli abound in the tide- water country of •North Carolina, af- ford to her i)eoj)le important and valu- able branches of in- dustry, in the cutting aORAPINO CBUDK TURPENTINE. and getting out of cypress staves, shingles, of lumber and naval stores. Tar, pitch, and turpentine are all the productions of the yellow i)itch-pine. The turpentine is obtained by blazing the tree, and dipping the gum from a box that is put at the root to receive it as it exudes from the tree. Many of these trees are very tall and straight, and they make the finest masts and spars for ships in the world ; large numbers of them are sent to the dock-yards of France and England for their men-of-war. The mild climate and the tides in the flat country of North Carolina, adapt many parts of it to the cultivation of rice, and in the geograjihical dis- tribution of labor in this State the people find profitable branches of indus- try in their rice-fields, as well as in their pine-forests, the presence of which, in Tennessee, is forbidden by geographical law. Both States are admirably adapted to the growth of Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, peas, beans, and barley ; fla.K and hemp ; to the vine, fig, and peach, with other orchard- fruits ; to melons, peanuts, and sweet potatoes ; and along the southern borders of both States cotton is extensively cultivated. In the mountainous portions of these States are found valuable deposits, and veins of gold, copper, tin, lead, iron, coal, and marble. The marbles of Tennessee are more esteemed than those of anv other State for their beauty and variet3^ Tennessee also excels in stock- Y'd'mng. Mount Mitchell, the highest peak of the Alleghanies, is in North Carolina. The University of North Carolina, at Chapel Hill, is an old and excellent institution. Wilmington is the chief place of export for the naval stores, staves, shingles, timber, rice, and cotton of North Carolina. It has many saw-mills. Newbern is famed for its Indian corn, peanut, sweet potato, and melon trade with the North ; Albemarle Sound for its fisheries, — more than a million of herrings are sometimes caught there at a single haul. Memphis and Chattanooga, in Tennessee, have not been surpassed in the rapidity of their rise as places of importance by any towns of their size in the South. The former derives its imi)ortance from its situation on the left bank of the Mississippi; the latter, from its situa- tion at the junction and crossing of a grand system of railroads. Memphis is the chief cotton port for the planters of North Alabama and Mississipj)!, who send their crops there to be shipped by steamboat to New Orleans. Norfolk has of late become the chief shipping port of Tennessee ; for she sends, by rail, more cotton to Norfolk for shipment thence by sea, than she sends to New Orleans via Memphis and the Mississippi river. The Tennessee river is navigable from its mouth up to Florence, Alabama, at the foot of Muscle Shoals.' 5o SOUTH CAROLINA AND GEORGIA.—FLORIDA. Tliese celebrated rapids— twelve or fifteen miles long — are formed b y llie river as its waters rush over that remarkable vein of limestone which gives us elsewhere tlie Falls of Niagara. Attempts have been made to improve the navigation of these rapids by a canal like that round the falls of the Ohio at Louisville. United States en- gineers are now at work upon them. These officers, coming from the severer climates of the North, are charmed with the lovely climates and tine coun- try here. This river drains 16,000 square miles of country above the Muscle Shoals, with 825 miles of natural navigation, which is capable, with inexpensive improve- ments, of being extended to 1300 miles. The advantages of this section of the country over the Northwest must have their weight ; and when it is more generally known that its climate permits the Malaga grape, the fig, and the pomegranate to flourish in the open air, immigration must be turned to the Ten- nessee valley in the vicinity of Chattanooga and Hunts- ville. The vast resources of this lovely valley, as an agri- cultural and stock-growing district, are demonstrated by the fact that upon them both armies subsisted for nearly two years during the late war. The coal deposits of Hamilton and Roan counties, in this State, are enormous, and the coal is of a (juality equal to the best Pittsburg coal for all purposes. South Carolina and Georgia. South Carolina and Georgia resemble each other in climate. The}^ both front on the Atlantic and abut against the mountains. Their industries arc the same, and we speak of them together. South Carolina takes the lead in the production of rice. Of all the Southern States, she and Georgia were the foremost with railroads. The University of South Carolina is in Columbia, a beautiful countr}^ town and an elegant capital. Charleston is the principal city and chief seaport town of the State, but like all Southern ports, the en- trance to it, for large ships, is obstructed by a bar. The palmetto grows in the streets of Charleston. As an emblem of sovereignty it was borne on the shield of the State ; for that reason she is called the Palmetto State. The palmetto is a tree-palm. or all trees, those of this family are the most useful and beautiful. Among its varieties— of which there are not less than 60 in the " New World," which are entirely unknown in the " Old" — are found specimens which fur- nish man with food and shelter, with weapons and garments. The shores of Georgia and the south coast of Carolina are curtained with the " Sea Islands," which are cele- brated for a superior kind of cotton, called the " Sea Island" cotton. This cotton, formerly growing only in these Islands, is now also culti- vated very successfully in Soutlieastern Texas and Southern Louisiana, near in C E P I^ A N T . the Gulf Coast. It has a long silky fibre, and is chiefly used in Europe, especially in Brussels, for the manufacture of laces and other fine fabrics. It is sold at four or five times the ordinary value of other cotton. Rice is one of the chief staples of both South Carolina and Georgia. In Georgia the seasons are so far in advance even of those no farther north than Virginia, that it is no unusual thing to see green peas and strawberries grown in the open air and lit for table use, in March. The State University is at Athens. Augusta and Atlanta are celebrated for their workshops. Georgia is more ex- tensively engaged in manufacturing than any other Southern State. The gold mines of Georgia, as well as those of North Carolina and Virginia, have been worked with prolit, and before the gold mines of California had revealed their richer treasures, the}' were considered very rich. The climates of Georgia, on account of its low latitude on one hand and its high mountains on the other, are very varied. The hill country of Georgia, like that of Tennessee, produces the finest of wheat, while the rice delights in the low country along the coast. Savannah is the chief city of Georgia. BAT VIEW or SAVANNAH. Florida. Florida has the mildest climate of all these States. It fronts both on the Gulf of Mexico and on the Atlantic, and though its winters are too warm for frost, its sum- ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI. 5l mers are so tempered by the sea-breezes and the ocean that the heat is less oppressive there than it is in New York and other States. Though the Spaniards established a settlement at San Augustine, in Florida, long before any otlier Europeans had begun to found colonies in America, this State is so thinly settled at this day that there is only one in- habitant for eve:y 300 acres of land ; in New York there is one for eveiy 6^ acres. Florida is adapted to the cultivation of all that is grown in the four other Atlantic States immediately to the north of it, with the addition of the sugar-cane, of intertropical fruits, and even of coffee in favored spots. Florida is famous for its oranges and other fruits. The sweet potato pro- duces there until killed by the frost, and in the soulhera parts the people gather it from the same patch, witliout replanting, for two or three years consecu- tively, and until there comes a killing frost, so mild is the climate. This Stale is mountainless, but abounds in swamps and everglades, and its live-oak forests are one of its chief ornaments. Live-oak is the hardest, the heaviest, and most durable of woods ; it is considered well-nigh impervious to decay, and is, on that account and for its strength, extensively used in ship-building. The soil of the country is of limestone and coral form- ation. It abounds in beautiful lakes and clear, deep s})rings. Some of the latter, of lake-like proportions, are deep enough to float a line- of-battle ship, yet so limpid that the pebbles can be distinctly seen on the bottom. The Gulf Stream sweeps around this State and sepa- rates it from the great Bahama banks and islands, which are also of coral — making navigation dangerous. The Dry Tortwjas, off the coast of Florida, belong to the United States, and are fortified. Key West is a famous wrecking station, where the property rescued fi"om shipwreck is brought to be dis- po.'^ed of. Pensacola has the deepest water of any liarbor on the Gulf-coast of the United States. The Government has a navy-yard there. Questions. — Between what parallels of latitude docs Virginia lie?— What is the length of her co:',st-line? — What part of Virginia lies in the Mis- .nssippi Valley V — Tliio.igli what rivers is it drained into the Mississippi river?— \v'liat parts of the Old World are in the latitudes of Virginia? — Which of them resemble her most in climate ? — AVhatis the chief ditfereuce? — Descri*x! the mountains in Virginia. Name some of their oiTiamental woods and medicinal plants. — What are the principal rivers in Virginia? — Which empty into the Chesapeake? — Where do',M New river ri.se and empty ? — The Tennessee ? How far are the rivers, that are tributary to the Chesapeake, navigable ?— What, from their source to the head of tide-water, is tiieir total fall? — What, the distance ? What kind of coal is mined near Richmond ? — Where is Staunton, and for wiiatis it noted? — Fredericksburg? — Where is William and Maiy Col- lege ? — Where is the University of Virginia? — Where, Washington College, and the Virginia Military Institute? — Point out the places where they are, and tell their bearings from Richmond. — What is said of Norfolk harbor? — What can you say about Richmond? — Petersburg? — Lynchburg? — Staunton ? What State has the finest marble in Hie United States? — Where and what is the highest peak of the Alleghany Mountains ? — Where is the University of North Carolina? — What can you tell about Wilmington? — Newbern? — The fisheries of Albemarle Sound? — In what rural industries does Tennessee particularly excel ? To what do you ascribe the rapid rise and importance of Memphis and Chattanooga? — Does Tennessee export most cotton via New Orleans or Norfolk? — To what town is the Tennessee river navigable from its mouth? — Where are the Muscle Shoals ? Upon what vein of rock are the Muscle Shoals? — How far is the river navigable above them ? — What is the area of its valley above them ? — What account do the officers of the engineer corps of the army give of this valley ?— Of its climates? — Of its agricultural and mineral resources? — In what part of the State are the Tennessee and Cumberland rivei's ? How do South Carolina and Georgia resemble each other? — In what branch of industry does South Carolina take the lead of Georgia ? — In what line of improvements are these two States ahead of the other Southern States? — Where is the University of South Carolina ? — Wliy is South Carolina called the "Palmetto State?"— Are there many varieties of the palm-tree ? — How many are there in the New World? — Where does the Sea Island cotton grow ? — What is it used for? How, as compared with those in Virginia, are the seasons in Georgia ? — Where is the State University of Georgia ? — For what are Augusta and At- lanta noted ? — Which of the Southern States is most extensively engaged in manufacturing? — What part of Georgia is best for wheat? — What for rice? How does Florida compare in density of population with New York? — Is Florida tliickly settled ? — What can you cultivate in Florida that cannot profitably be grown in Georgia and the States north ? — What delicious fruit is abundantly cultivated in Florida? — Describe the face of the country. — The springs. — What excellent ship-timber abounds there? — How is Florida sep- arated from the Bahama Islands? — What makes the navigation along Floiida coast so dangerous ? — Where are the Dry Tortugas ? — Where is Key West ? — For what is it noted ? LESSOJV XXXI. Southern States — Continued. Al.vbama and Mississippi. "With the exception of the hilly regions in the north- oast corner of Alabama, tlie face of the countiy in these two States is similar. Their latitude and climates are tilso much the same. Cotton is their staple })roduction, ill which they excel all the other States, as Alabama and Tennessee did, iiccording to the census of 1860 in the |)roduetioii of corn. The pine forests and cypress swamps of North Caro- lina extend all the way along the coast to the mouth of the Mississippi river, and even beyond. The Mississippi river, as it flows through the lowlands of the South, is prevented, in many places, from over- flowing its banks and converting these low grounds into swamps, by embankments called levees. In this way a vast extent of land, remarkable for its fertility, has been reclaimed. These reclaimed lands were known as the "Mississippi bottoms." Before the levees were constructed, the whole an^a of lands in the Missis- sippi Valley, subject to overflows, and therefore unsalable, was estimated to 52 LOUISIANA. SCENE ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVEB. be not less than 34 millions of acres. The State of New York does not con- tain as much as 34 millions of acres. The rain-fall in the Southern parts of Alabama, Mis- sissippi, and Louisiana (60 inches) is nearly twice as heavy as it is between the same parallels of latitude in Georgia and Florida on the one side, and in Texas on the other. It is greater than in any part of the country east of the Rocky Mountains. The University of Alabama is at Tusca- loosa, and that of Mis- sissippi, at Oxford. The latter has been successfully revived since the war. Alabama has rich de- posits of coal and iron,, but Mississippi lacks coal, and is poor in metallic ores of all sorts. Mobile is one of the two gulf ports from which most of the cot- ton produced in these States, as well as in those of Louisiana and Arkansas, finds its way to the sea and to distant ports. Louisiana. Creoles, a term that has been bor- rowed by the natives generally, who call themselves Creoles instead of na- tive Louisianians. Louisiana was purchased from France in 1803, chiefly to secure a free outlet to the sea ; but, in the pur- chase, was included all the country west of the Mississippi, even as far as the Pacific Ocean, except Califor- nia, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. During the war, when the people of the South were suffering for the want of salt, the usual supplies of which, except in Virginia, being cut off, an island of excellent rock salt was discovered on the coast of Louisi- ana. It continues to be profitably and extensively mined. New Orleans is the great emporium and produce market of the South and West. It exports more cotton than any other seaport town in the world. At certain seasons of the year its levees are piled up with produce that has been sent there from the up-country for ex- NEW ORLKANf L I^ouisiana was settled by the Spaniards and French : the descendants there of the latter are called French portation, and its wharves nre lined for miles with steamboats, shijjping. and other craft that are engaged in the carrying trade. The waters of the Mississippi are veiy smooth ; the tall frees and thick forests on the banks break the violence of the winds, therefore the Mississippi _J TEXAS.— ARKANSAS.— NEW MEXICO AND INDIAN TERRITORY. 53 steamboats are built to stand high out of the water. Some of them are like floating palaces, the^^ are so large and splendid. All along the banks of this river, and those of its navigable tributaries, the business of cutting and hauling wood for these steamers (for wood is their favorite fuel) is an important branch of industry. It was worth, before the war, seven or eight millions of dollars annually. The industry and en- ergies of the people of this State are directed chiefly to the cultivation of cotton and sugar. The climates along the Gulf-coast are semi-tropical, and many of the fruits and flowers of the torrid zone, such as the magnolia- grandiflora, the orange, pomegranate, and fig, flourish there in great beauty and perfection. From the mouth of the Red river to the Gulf the level of the Mississippi and its outlets — called Bayous— is higher than that of the adjacent country. There the drainage is from and not toward the water-courses. There the people say, '' Let us go up to the river," instead of " down" to it, as we do. In this low and flat country, called " the coast," the river banks are the highest lauds. The palm-leaf fims that you use in summer come from these swamps and niai-shes, with tiieir exuberant vegetation. The depression of the country lying on both sides of the Mississippi, south of the Red river, exposes it to fearful floods and inundations. In the lowlands and swamps, from North Carolina, extending along the seaboard, and for many miles l)ack in the interior, all the way to Texas, the forest-trees of the South arc drai)ed in gray moss, a parasite that hangs down in long and graceful fest(jons from the branches, imparting to the forest scenery a striking and picturesque feature. This is the moss which is so extensively used in upholstery for beds, cushions, and mattresses. Texas. Texas lies between the parallels of 26° and 36° 30'. It is the large.st State, as to area, in the Union, though it has a population of less than seven persons for every square mile — Massachusetts, one hundred and eighty- five. Texas is thirty-five times the size of Massa- chusetts. Texas was formerly a part of Mexico ; she separated from that country in 1837; her independence was acknowledged, and then, in 1845, she was an- nexed to the United States. In Northern Texas the atmosphere is dry, and the quantity of rain which falls there annually is small, A dry climate makes hot summers and cold winters, a fact which will be explained in the Plij-sical Geography, but which should be remembered, for it will serve you as a key to the climates of many countries. In some parts of Texas the climate is ad- mirably adapted to the cultivation of cotton and sugar ; in others, to corn, the olive, and the vine. Texas is also a fine grazing and wool-growing |^J country. San Antonio is the oldest town in Texas. Houston is a flourishing shipping port for a large section of rich country. Galveston is the chief port of Texas, as it has a fine harbor. The dry part of the State begins with the celebrated "Llano Estacado" (the staked plain) already spoken of, that borders Texas and New Mexico. It is about 200 miles from east to west, and 300 from north to south. Texas is famed for its beautiful prairies and the Severity of its north winds. These come on at times so suddenly in winter, and are so cold and severe, that both man and beast have been known to perish in them. There are, in Texas, New Mexico, and also in the In- dian Territory, vast plains which abound in prairie dogs, buffalo, wild deer, and other game, Arkansas. Arkansas abounds in swamps and lowlands. About one-fourth of the State was liable to overflow before the system of leveeing the Mississippi Avas commenced. The famous Red river raft, which was so instructive to the geologists of Europe, is in Louisiana, near this State. There the driftwood has lodged for ages. In that warm climate plants, vines, and creepers soon began to take root upon this mass of trees and logs which covered the river fnjni one side to the other. Presently trees began to grow upon it : these, with their roots, tendrils, and branches, bound this drift matter in one compact mass. It extends miles up the river, which dis- appears from view as it flows under the raft, near Shreveport. Arkansas has but few towns, and none of them are large ; thus indicating that her industry is rural. The western part of the State is a good grass coun- try, and, among its mineral resources, it has a (juarry of the most valuable whetstones known to commerce. Valuable deposits of zinc, coal, iron, lead, and anti- mony, with perhaps copper and silver, are also known to exist within its boundaries. The hot springs of Arkansas are celebrated for their medicinal virtues. New Mexico and Indian Territory. These territories are both bounded on the north by the same parallel, of 37°. Congress set apart this In- PEAIRIE DOG VILLAGE. 54 NEW MEXICO AND INDIAN TERRITORY. dian territory, and gave it to the red-men and their descendants, to be occupied and governed forever in their own way. The Cherokees, Chickasaws {cMck'a- saws), Chocktaws, Creeks, and Serainoles, are the most noted of these tribes. They till the soil, and have a constitutional government, schools, and churches. Tahlequah {tah'le-kwah), the chief town, is in the Chero- kee division. Some members of this tribe have elegantly furnished houses, are accomplished in manner, and re- fined in taste. Some of their neighbors, however, in the old-fashioned wa}' of their fathers, still scour the plains in search of game and adventure. SCENE IN NEW MEXICO, New Mexico was formerly a part of Mexico, and was settled by emigrants from that country. Spanish is still the language in most common use. Its landscapes abound in grand and imposing scenery, but they too frequently lack the charm of green pas- tures and still waters. The face of the country is often as dreary and wild as naked rocks and barren wastes can make it ; but, wherever there is water, the soil is, as it is in the Indian Territory, exceedingly fertile. Certain varieties of potato thrive in New Mexico. Indian corn, wheat, and the small grains do well. Onions, cymlings, and melons attain to an enormous size, and great excellence in flavor. The grape commences to ripen in July and ceases in October. The celebrated " El Paso" wine — a superior kind of Madeira — is made from this grape. The olive and the date would do w.ll in that country. Near Las Vegas, in New Mexico, are some celebrated hot springs. There is a cluster of thirty or forty of them, of various temperatures, from 80° to 140°. Near the city of Colorado are four remarkable soda-springs, which, within a short distance of each other, come bubbling and boiling out of the earth as though they were fresh from the fountain. Zuni is a small Indian village, situated in a desolate region. There are some remarkable ruins in its vicinity, supposed to be the habitations of a former generation, made desolate by famine or pestilence. Questions. — Which are the five Gulf States ? — Which has the most hill country, Alabama or Mississippi ? — Has either of them any mountains? — How are the climates ? — What arc their staple productions? — In what brancli of industry do these States excel all others ? — How far do the pitch-pine forests extend ? — Can 3'ou give an example of tlie effect tliat soil and climate have upon the industries of people ? — How, since the Missis- sippi river is higher than the country a little way back, is it prevented from overflowing its banks at high water, and drowning these low grounds ? — What are the " bottoms ?" — levees? — What, before tlie levees were built, was the area of land in the Mississij)pi valley tliat was subject to overflow ? — What part of the country' on tliis side of the Rocky Mountains receives the heaviest rain-fall ? — What is the depth of tliis fall in inches ? What State has the largest city in the South ? — What city, of all in the countrj', exports the most cotton ? — How far from New Orleans to tlie Gulf? (Sec map.) — Describe the appearance of the city. — W'hy are the Mississippi steamboats built to stand high out of the water?— To what important branch of industry have the steamboats of the West given rise ? — What are the two chief branches of industry in Louisiana? — Which way does the cotton go for a market ? Am. — Largely abroad. — How ar<} the climates of Louisiana? — What tropical fruits and flowers tlourisli tliere ? — Describe the lowland forests along the sca- l)oard from Nortli Carolina to Texas. — Wliat use is made of this parasite? — By whom was Louisiana settled? — When and from whom was Louisiana purchased ? — What was the main object of this purchase ?— What extent of territory was in- cluded in this purchase? — What valuable mineral deposit was recently discovered in Louisiana? Between what parallels of latitude does Texas lie?— (See Map, p. 57.)— How does it compare with the other Statei as to area?— W'hat poptdation does it average to the square n^ile? — How many times larger than Massaciiusetts is Texas? — Suppose it were as thickly inhabited, how large would its population be?_When was Texas annexed ?— Which is the driest part of Texas?— What effect has a dry atmosphere on the summer and winter temperature of a countiy ?— What is the chief port of this State?— WHience are the rivers that flow through the diy parts of Texas fed?— How large is Llano Estacado (staked plain) ?— How high is it above the sea-level ? (See map.) — What wind is particularly severe in Texas?— Are tliere any plains in Texas ? — What animals do you find upon them ? How much of Arkansas is liable to overflow ?— Describe the Red River raft. —What is the industry of the State ?— Its minerals ?— Its springs ? How are New Mexico and Indian Territorj' situated as to latitude ? By whom, and for what purpose, was Indian Territoiy set apart ?— De- scribe the Indian settlements. — Chief town. — Habits of Indians. To what power did New Mexico once belong?— What language is in use ? — Its scenery? — Soil and products? What is the "El Paso" wine ?— Wh;ii is said of Zuni? 56 STUDIES ON THE MAPS OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. ^ o U a o a ID to 5' o o ffi (T> o :^ o ;r!i CO a ? •"* B s- S3 o a I p cr p 5 p I d O Ct. P* c o B 3^ O 3 P ■^ S Ki 2. - 3 ^ o o s o g o B o o B I B- ^ (n? S. •■c c I « o o =3 5- t^ to p o c ^ m N gh P O" 1 S< O "-J b c CD •s o ^ o £. p* B" P cr c d3 c c ■-) C a O B I o o W ►1 t^ o m re re t" B B- .V. to T* -T) B K| re P S td a* p' I O B o B 5* B- B o B- P I td p G I I 2. " B 2, on tr r . P re > V trj B 2 c w 5.- f> £- £ 5^ f-^ /^. ^^. C P P- "I Cfi p B a* S '^ 3. oq B I I p p B P B* I w B O X k B- •" 2, ffl O ►I B -c B =- o p* p o B Si B* P a? re 4 " 2. i-H O B p- I •^ a = p- ;3. '-^ =1 -n, g: re 5. 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I B re o & re •-) B' o B a B O 2 S =• o p ts >C S re § I * ■^ I cs W _ o a- P 5^ B 2. g. I CD o B B ^- ^^ c p (O P B & ^ O B I »-3» CO g. » P ."1 3 ■-1. «. -• o ■a I a o p 5' ^ s- 2. Ht 2 ci- - 2. re 3 to ■- w C. B re I B ~ r =^ p* 5" b- B re o r> "> ?r P- re ft! re B re X o s c = i2! P & re, re S- B "5 B- O p- re fei o £. ff ^ 3. 5, ^2 S S 2 'J3 S " 3' S" <^ p' " >2 o re CO •:^ ^ ?^- g 2 o =. >< re 03 S' &- B- C: o I O re B B P "3 S. c o CR — . »- re rr ^ .>s o o o 3. P* p- p a- P L-> 0=5 K- -^ ~ E- CO C 3 C 13 b! p" p p a. !^ o CO f* 2. I 2 g p- p* w o B B ■E H B crq s -- I c ° B" P" P O o C»t) p I H o p^ p o o h *l p B 3 o B o c p B B P P" p' p "2. GD (D CD 95 iX (D 0) B" iJ P P fL CD Ul tr 3: — CO ^ s p- p 3. by Go 58 THE GENERAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE WESTERN STATES. LESSOJV XXXIII. The Western States and Territories. — Their Geographical Position and Features. (Maps, pp. 67, 73.) Total Population, 14,813,713. State. West Virginia. ... Ohio Kentucky Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Missouri Iowa , Minnesota Kansas Nebraska Colorado Montana Territory. Dakota " Wyoming " Capital?. Wheeling . . . Columbus . . . Frankfort ... Indianapolis . Springfield. . . Lansing Madison Jefferson City Des Moines. . St. Paul Topeka Lincoln Denver Helena Yankton . . . . Cheyenne. . . . Chief Cities and their Population. Wheeling 19,380 Cincinnati 216,2o9 Louisville lOO,?');} Indianapolis 48,214 Chicago 298,977 Detroit 79,577 Milwaukee 71,440 St. Louis 310,8(54 Dubuque ]8,4;J4 St. Paul 20,030 Leavenworth . . . 17,893 Omaha 1(;,08;J Denver 4,750 Helena 3,106 Yankton 737 Cheyenne 1,450 1. Position and Orography. — These States and Territories are all inland, and all of them, excepting Michigan, give rise to streams that empty into the Mississippi river ; they occupy what is often called the Upper Mississippi Valley. They also embrace portions of the two great watersheds, which are formed by the Rocky Mountains on the one hand and the Alleghanios on the other, so as to carry their waters off into ihe Mississippi, which lies between them as a gutter, and delivers the drainage into the Gulf of Mexico. This river, therefore, occupies the line of lowest level (see the Orographic Yiew^ of the United States, p. 30) that can be drawn from north to south along the valley drained by it. 2. Course of the 3lississippi. — You observe that the Mississippi does not occupy the middle of this valley, it is far to the east of the middle, winding along, especially in Kentucky and Tennessee, not very far from the out- lying ridge of the Alleghanies. The geographical conclusions that, with the orographic view and the map of the United States before you, you are able to draw from this fact, are : — 1st. — That the eastern tributaries of the great river, as compared with the western, are more rapid in their descent. 2d. — That they are not navigable to so great a distance. 3d. — That the plains watered by them are not as broad or as long as arc those through which the more gentle streams of the -western watershed flow. 4th. — That when heavy rains occur, these long and gentle streams of the West require more time than do the shorter and more rapid streams of the East, to discharge their floods into the main gutter — the Mississippi river itself 3. Climates. — The Orographic Yiew shows all this, and more ; it shows that these States and Territories, all lying between the parallels of 36° 30' and A9°, are separated from the sea by a range of mountains on the east and on the west ; and you have already learned enough about the influences which regulate climates, to teach you that the differences of climate among these States and Territories are to be accounted for chiefly by mere difference of latitude and elevation, regardless of their distance from the sea. You may also infer that those portions of these States that lie along the margins of the Mississippi and its great lakes are the warmest, because the lowest, while those parts that lie among the hills wliieh give rise to its tribu- taries are the highest, and therefore the coldest, the latitude being the same. 4. Cfmfinental Sf opes and Drains,— You may observe, by look- ing at the map of North America a little mort' closely, that from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Ocean the continent is divided into two grand water- sheds, whicli, together, include all the minor ones that we have hitherto con- sidered; and that, near the parallel of 50° north, and extending across our continent fiom the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean, there is a ridge which divides the whole country into two grand watersheds, one of which inclines to the Qorth, and drains the waters off into the Arctic Ocean and its Bays ; the other inclines toward the south, and drains off into the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Me.xieo, or into the South Sea, as the Pacilie was called. The head- waters of these two drains — the Mississippi and the Red Kiver — rise about 1,000 feet above the level of Lake Superior. The distance between them is short, as it is between the Saskatchawau and Athabasca, So if there was a canal across these two narrow portages, an Indian entering the ^Mackenzie, from the Arctic; Ocean, in his bark canoe, might, after ascending that river and passing these two canals, descend the Mississippi into the Gulf of Me.xieo, and so pass by fresh water channels from the regions ol' eternal winter to perpetual summer. The ascent to the top of this ridge would be about 1,000 feet, and the descent as much; the descent from St. Louis to the Gulf being over 380 feet From Minnesota to Ihe Atlantic this ridge seems to have been depressed and hollowed out, as it were, to make a cistern tipon the top of it, and form a basin there for the great lakes. The St. Lawrence is the gutter for draining these lakes ; it carries the water off to the east and empties it into the Atlantic Ocean. 3. Favored Position. — The regions occupied by the Western States are the granaries of the country. Every year they satisfy the land with bread ; and after it is fllled, they have enough to relieve famine abroarl. 6. Population. — The thirteen Western States occupy an area of 767,000 square miles, and have a population of 19 persons to the square mile, or an average of 31 acres per inliabitant. Belgium, which does not lie in such sunny climes, and whose soil is no more generous, averages only an acre and a half per head for her inhabitants. According to this ratio, there is yet in these Western States, exclusive of the Territories, room for more than 290,000,000 of people. The extent of their grassy plains and prairies, the cheapness of the lands, the facility with which they are brought under cultivation, together with the fertility of the soil, are the attractions which direct immigraticm to this part of the countiy in preference to any other portion of our wide domains. 7. Supply of Water. — The winter rains of the Pacific coast, to be treated of at another time, turn to snow on the Rocky Mountains, and there the snow re- mains as a reservoir to feed the rivers when it melts iu spring and summer. Now, when the heavy rains of the spring and early summer happen to flood the eastern WEST VIRGINIA. 59 tributaries at the time that the tributaries from the west are discharging great volumes, arising from a thaw in the mountains, the Mississippi river receives two floods at once. The river sometimes swells over with these floods and attains the proportions of a sea. In the spring-flood of 1 867, the Mississippi was estimated to be, at Memphis, more than 40 miles broad. 8. Prairies and Plains. — The most striking fea- ture of the Western States is the size and picturesque loveliness of their treeless plains. They are covered with grass, gay with flowers, and alive with herds of wild cattle. On the east side of the Mississippi they arc called prairies, and on the west side, plains. Nearly the whole of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota is a level country, and the plains stretch out to the declivities of the Rocky Mountains. f). Products. — The Western States are a grazing and agricultural country, and the staple productions arc corn, wheat, oats, rye, and barley ; potatoes and culinary- vegetables ; with hemp, grapes, fruits, and tobacco. The soil and climate are also admirably adapted to the growth of sorghum, or Chinese sugar-cane, which is rapidly assuming in its cultivation the proportions of an agricultural staple. The people of the W^estern States are also extensively engaged in wool-growing, and in raising cattle, horses, beef, and hogs. The annual wool-clip both in Ohio and in Michigan is very great. JO. Minerals. — The Western States and Territories are richer than the Southern States in minerals. The coal-fields of West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, are the largest and the most bountifully stored in the world. They embrace an area of many thousand square miles. There arc in the United States four great coal-fields. Those of Pennsyl- vania can yield 50,000,000 tons per annum. In Maryland the seam which supplies our steamers witii tlie best fuel is 14 feet thick and 50 miles lon.i;. The coal-fields of Missouri alone have coal enou^^li to last the world 3,000 years, while it would take 100,000 years to exhaust those of Illinois at tlie present rate of consumption. Masses of native copper, tons in weight, have been quarried out of the mines in the Lake Superior copper region. Lead abounds in Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Mis- souri. In the last-named State there is a mountain of iron. Salt springs and wells abound on the east side of the Mississippi : in the mountains of the west, gold and silver. Michigan now produces nearly as mueh salt as New York. The fisheries of the great lakes are a profitable source of industry, especiall}^ to Michigan. The white-fish of the lakes, when salted and packed, are highly estcemcil as an article of food. The Mississippi liver also yields bounteously of its fresh fish to the people along its banks. Questions. — 1. Do any of the Western States border on a sea or lake? 2. What is the course of the Mississippi ? — Name some of tlie conclusions you draw from a study of its course. 3. Why have some of the Western States a different climate from others ? 4. Name and describe the two great slopes of Nortli America. — Do you observe any depression or hollow on the Oro- graphic View which lead you to conjecture that tliere is here a grand natural cistern ? 5. Is the region occupied by the Western States favored ? 0. What is the ratio of area to Uieir population ? 7- Where do the floods of the Missis- sippi come from? — How can you illustrate their magnitude? 8. What is said of the Prairies? — What are the Plains? 9. Products and industries of the people ? — Which States grow the most wool ? 10. What is said of tlic mineral resources of the Western States ? — Wlicre does lead abound? — Where is there a mountain of iron ? — What is said of Michigan fisheries ? LESSOJV XXXIV. Western States — Continued. West Vikginia. (Map, p. 45.) This State was formed out of the " Old Dominion" dur- ing the last war. It is the most mountainous of the West- ern States, and is classed with them, because it adjoins them, is in the same latitude, lies on the western waters, and is an interior State, as they are. Its hills abound in coal and iron : in its valleys are to be found salt-springs, petroleum-wells, and mineral-waters of great excellence, — among them the celebrated White Sulphur Si)rings. No part of the world can surpass the mountains of the two Virginias in the abundance, variety, and excellence of their mineral-waters. OIL WEIiL Some of the finest varieties of coal known to com- merce, such as splint and cannel coal, are found in the valley of the Kanawha river, on which Charleston, 6o KENTUCKY.— OHIO. the former capital, is situated. It is at the head of slack-water navigation. down There also are the salt-works. The water is obtained by boriu through the rocks below the bed of the river. The Kanawha salt is extensively used by the meat packers of Cincinnati. The chief article of food for sailors at sea is salt beef and pork. Most of that used by the navy of the United States and in our merchant ships, and much also of that which is used on board the ships and navies of Europe, is packed in Cincinnati, and cured witli the salt which comes from Kanawha and from Pomeroy, Ohio. This salt has peculiar jiroper- ties, which give a special value to the meats that are packed with it. The hills which surround Wheeling also contain valuable deposits of bitu- minous coal. This, with its position near the head of navigation of the Ohio, and its connections by railroads with Baltimore on one hand and the Western States on the other, gives Wheeling great importance. It is proposed to enlarge the James River Canal • and make it a great national ship-canal, capable of passing large steamers and other vessels to and fro, between the Ohio and Chesapeake, so as to give, in war, a water route between the Atlantic seaboard and the West, entirely within our own borders. Kentucky. (Map, p. 67.) This State was a colony of Virginia. It was settled chiefly by Virginians. It is separated from the Atlantic seaboard by a mountain barrier, across which the passage in those early times, even on horseback, was difficult, and ren- dered perilous by the Indians. Kentucky was separated from the Gulf of Mexico by a long and tedious river navigation, and to get her produce to markets then, she had to ship it on flat- boats and drift down vf'iih the current. Arriving at last at New Orleans, the cargo was sold, and the boat broken up for firewood — for it could not be poled back against the current ; and the crew were left to find their way home on foot through almost pathless forests, infested, too, frequently by hostile Indians. Thus it took one year to grow a crop, another to carry it to market and return, so that these early settlers could produce for market only one crop in two years. Such was the condition of the Western States about fifty years ago, when steamboat navigation first reached the Mississippi River, and the revo- lution that steam and the steamboat have made upon the industrial pursuits of the people of these States is, with its efi'ects, the most remarkable feature in their political geography. It has turned the howling wilderness into smiling gardens. In many parts of the State the soil is of surpassing fertilitv. Lexington, in the midst of the famous blue- grass region, is on the vein of limestone that forms Niagara Falls, Mammoth Cave of Ky., and the Muscle Shoals of Alabama. It makes Kentuckv rich in cattle. M A M M U 1 1 1 Hemp and tobacco, with corn and the cereals, are the chief agricultural staples of Kentucky. It is also a fine fruit country. Iron mines are profitably worked in the lower part of the State. Coal also is abundant. Kentucky and Tennessee are the only States east of Uie Mississippi tiiat give their drainage entirely to that river, and are wholly within its valley. Louisville is at the Falls of the Ohio, where there is a canal capacious enough to pass the largest steamers that ply on those waters. Ohio. The Ohio river, with its connections, placed this State in water communication, at an early day, with all the commercial marts of the Mississii)pi Valley. Iler geo- graphical position on the lakes, and the early completion of the Erie Canal, gave her great advantages, which were increased soon after by the construction through this State of several canals between the Ohio river and the Lakes. These works at that time contributed power- fully to the prosperity and i-apid settlement of Ohio. At a later day the railways of New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland completed the connection with the East- ern and Middle States, and made Ohio the great thoroughfare of trade and travel between the Atlantic seaboard and the West. This State was also once a part of the " Old Dominion," and many of the first settlers of Ohio were Virginians. There are no mountains in this State ; the country is INDIANA AND ILLINOIS. 6i comparatively level ; there is no lack of limestone and other rocks, and so it was quite easy for the early settlers, before steam was introduced as a locomotive power, to interlace this State with good turnpike roads. Ohio has already become the third State of the Union, and her people are more largely engaged in mining and manufacturing than those of any other Western State. She has a growing trade with the South. There are valuable deposits of coal and iron in the region round about Ironton. Ohio is a fine grain country, and the grape is exten- sively cultivated there for the manufacture of wine. The Catawba of Cincinnati is classed in Europe with the favorite wines of the Rhine. Besides Cincinnati, which is the largest city of Ohio, Cleveland, Toledo, Sandusky, and Columbus (the capital of the State), are important and flourishing cities. Pork-packing is the branch of industry for which Cincinnati is most noted. Indiana and Illinois. These States arc in the Prairie country ; they have no mountains ; their latitude, climate, and agricultural staples are the same. Next to Ohio, Illinois is the most populous of the Western States, and, like Ohio, is greatly favored in its geographical position, Chicago is one of the most flourishinq; cities in the OHIO A «0 . West. It is especially remarkable for its grain and provision trade. It is the chief place for the shipment of grain and breadstuffs from the West to the East. Ex- cepting London, Chicago is the greatest grain market in the world. Vessels sometimes take in the cargo at Chi- cago, and sail thence direct for Europe. Galena is in the midst of the lead-mining regions. Cairo derives geographical importance from its position at the junc- tion of the Ohio with the Mississippi, and that impor- tance has been vastly increased by the Illinois Central Railway. Evansville, Indiana, is a flourishing city. New Alban}^ is a boat-building place, where many of the steamers that ply on the Mississippi are launched. A new and magnificent bridge now connects Louis- ville with New Albany. Questions. — What kinds of coal are found in the Kanawha valley ? — For what is the Kanawha salt especially valuable ? — How is the salt water obtained there V — What kind of coal is found in the hill-sides at Wheeling ? — Wliat waters is the James River and Kanawha Canal to connect? — Why is it proposed to make it a national work? To what State did the territory whicli now forms Kentucky formerly be- long? — By whom was it settled? — What made the journey for the early set- tlers there so difficult and dangerous ? — How, before the introduction of the steamboat on the Western waters, did Kentucky get her produce to market ? — How long did it take them to make and get a crop to market? — W^hat is the most remarkable feature in the political geography of the Western States? — Can you give another example of the bearings of luunan inventions upon the geography of a country? — Where is the blue-grass region of Ke'n lucky? — What great natural curiosity is found there ? — What are tiie chief agiicul- tural staples and mineral productions of Kentucky ? — What two States east of the Mississippi lie wholly in the valley of that river? — W^here is Louisville ? — How do steamboats pass the falls there ? What State was the first to send settlers to Ohio ? — Describe tlie face of the country. — How came Ohio to be a thoroughfare between the West and the East ?— What advan- tage do the farmers of Ohio now enjoy on account of her geographi- cal i)osition? — How, in the order of population, does Ohio rank among the States of the Union? — How, among the Western States? — Whicli one among the States of the Union is the first in population ? — First in area? — Besides the agricultural, what are the industries that chictiy engage the attention of the peojile of Ohio ? In what part of the State are mines of coal and iron e.xteu- sively worked ?— What celebrated wine comes from Ohio ?— For what business is Cincinnati so noted ? Wliy are the staple productions in Illinois and Indiana the same? —In what respect is Illinois so favored in position?— Which two are the largest of the Western 62 MICHIGAN.— WISCONSIN. States ? — Upon what rivers and lake does the State of Illinois border ? — Upon what river and lake does the State of Indiana border? — Judging by the eye, which has the most river-front? (see Map.) — In what branch of business is Chicago especially noted ? — Do vessels ever go from Chicago to Liverpool ? — Where is Galena, and for what is it noted ? — What increases the importance of the geographical iwsition of Cairo ? — For what branch of industiy is New Albany noted ? — Where is Evansville ? LESSO-JV XXXV. Western States — Continued. Michigan Is divided into two peninsulas {see Map). It is nearly surrounded by the great lakes, and, like Ontario, its climate is milder than that of any of the other States in the same latitude. Its shores, that look out upon Lake Michigan to the west, are, on account of their softened climates, excellent for fruit culture. Though navigation on the great lakes is annually ob- structed by ice for about live months, they are frozen entirely over only for a short time. Fresh water can never be colder than 33°, because that is its freezing point, when it becomes ice. In winter, when it is very cold, water at 32° feels comparatively warm, as you know by putting your hand into the water of a boiling spring. With extensive sheets of open water, like those on Lake Michigan in winter, to temper the biting west winds as they approach the eastern shores of the lake, you can imagine that the winter temperature of these shores is very mueli milder than that of the opposite shores. PICTURED ROCKS OF LAKE SUPKRIOR. Lake Superior is the largest of the great lakes, and the highest above the sea-level, as is shown by the Falls of Sault St. Marie, over which its waters escape into the lakes below. A ship-canal has been constructed around the Falls, so that vessels may now pass to and fro between Lake Superior and the ocean. The Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior are often visited. Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Erie are on the middle level, for the water is poured from them over the Falls of Niagara into Lake Ontario, which is still considerably above the sea-level. The Welland Canal, constructed by the British Government, on the Canada side, passes around the Falls of Ni- agara, and opens a way for navigation, through which the vessels that trade between Chicago and Liverpool find their way. Lake Huron is the deepest of all the lakes. The Lake Superior copper-mines are in Michigan. They bring shipping to Ontonagon and Eagle Harbor. This State is next to Pennsylvania in its manufacture of iron ; it is rich in agriculture, and next to New York in the production of salt. There are extensive salt-works in Saginaw Valley. Michigan has but few rivers or mountains of anj conse(iuenco. Much of the State is heavily timbered, and the timber trade is thcreforo very valuable, as there is so much lake coast from which it can be easily floated to market in any direction. The steamers on the lakes consume im- mense quantities of wood that is cut in tliis State. Moreover, the lak(! frontage of Michigan, you will be surprised to find, is more than 1000 miles in length, and greater thau the sea-front of any other State in the Union, e.\cept Florida. Wisconsin. This is the youngest of the five States into which the magnificent land-grant made by Virginia to the United States, in 1787, has been erected. You see by examining the map tiiat the head- waters of the Wisconsin river almost join those of the Fox, one of the lake tributaries. In former days, and when the country was a wil- derness, the Indian traders and trappers used to pass this w;iy in their canoes from the lakes to the Mississippi. They had to carry their canoes overland only a short distance. The {)ortage was near the place where now stands the city of Portage. Wisconsin is level, or rolling ; it has no mountains, and there is in it but little land unfit for cultivation. This State, more than the other four, abounds in lakes. Madison, the Capital, is ))eautifully situated in the midst of a nest of them. Prairie-du-Chien {-sheen), on the Mississippi, is one of the most beautiful of prairies. The agricultural resources of AYi.sconsin are the same as those of Michigan and her sister States. trade of the State is very large. The timber THE GREAT LAKES.— MINNESOTA.— MISSOURI AND IOWA. 63 Wisconsin has also valuable lead-mines. The west winds of winter sweep across this State from tlie laud, and are cokl ; on their passage across tlie hxke to tlie Michigan shore, they are warm. Hence, though in the same latitude, Wisconsin is colder than Michigan. Hie Great Lakes. — These border chiefly on the Western States, and separate them from the Dominion of Canada. You now understand (see the Orographic Yiew of the United States) how the Falls and Rapids between Lake Superior and the sea, show that the Lakes are situated upon three terraces, one above the other, and in such a manner that, in going from the sea to Lake Superior, you ascend b}' three steps. The first lands you on the Lake Ontario terrace ; the second, above the Falls of Niagara, where lie the three middle Lakes, and the third, above Sault St. Marie, on Lake Superior, at least 600 feet above the sea-level. On a plateau 1,000 feet above this terrace, both the Mississippi and the Red River of the North take their rise. 1.600 feet MIJliM O.N LAKE tll'EHIOr^. therefore is the total descent which the waters from this plateau, and 600 feet the descent which the waters from tlii.s terrace, have to make before they get to the sea. Now, by observing the falls of the rivers, as they come from their sources .n St. Louis. The Railroad to the Pacific has placed St. Louis in commercial connection with the marts of that ocean, and the early compleiion of the railway-bridge now in process of construction across the Mississippi, will make the connec- tions of that city, bj' rail, complete from East to West, as they already are, by water, from North to South. Iowa is a level State. It has no mountains, but hills enough to divide it into watersheds, and with inclination sufficient to give the country wholesome drainage and abundant water-power. Its lands are fertile, yielding bountiful harvests of wheat and corn. Dubuque, on the Mississippi, is the centre of a grow- ing business. In some parts of this and other Western States, coal is often so dear and fire-wood so scarce that the people use corn as fuel. The great expense of sending their grain to market makes it cheap. So great is the expense of getting the raw produce of Uie West to the At- lantic seaboard, that the engineer officers of the army who have been sent out there, report that, by present routes, corn grown 100 miles west of Chicago cann( t pay the expenses of carrying it to New York. The study of geography, as it bears upon questions of political economy, is highly instructive and profitable, and facts like these are important. So also are the routes of commerce, because these touch the prosperity of all of the States in an eminent degree. Kansas and Nebraska. (Map, p. 73.) The surface of these States consists of barren wastes, lolling prairies, and grassy plains, with borders and clumps of timber along the streams and in the bottom- lands. Bears, deer, wolves, and buffalo abound in many parts. A very small portion of the country has been reduced to cultivation as yet, but the soil and climates are suitable to the great staples of the States in correspond- ing latitudes east of the Mississippi river. These States are also without mountains. The best lands in Ne- braska are in the eastern half, which is the most thickly settled. The wx'st- ern half is more suitable for pastoral life. Omaha is a flourishing and growing city. The Platte, like all the western tributaries of the Missouri, during summer and autumn, w'lien droughts |)revail, often presents the singular spectacle of a river in flow near its sources and its mouth, but without any continuous stream in the intervening portion of its bed. Its head-waters are fed by the snows, and lower down in the valley the rains, the rivers, and lateral tributaries are sufficient to keep up the current ; but as it crosses the " mild winter belt" the water is cither absorbed by the earth or sucked up by the sun, and at this season in this part of the country many " drj' creeks" are found, which at other seasons of the year are dashing rivers. The soil in the valley of this river is fertile, and is very productive when there is water. DAKOTA TERRITORYo— COLORADO, WYOMING, AND MONTANA TERRITORIES. 65 The climate of Kan- sas is mild, and the winters are not of long duration, nor of great severity. The staple is Indian corn. Gypsum and coal abound in the State. The eastern part of the State has been rap- idly settled ; the west- ern part still contains some Indians. Leavenworth is the metropolis of the State. Dakota Territoky. This territor}^ though it lies between the same parallels of latitude with Minnesota, differs greatly from it in climate ; it is not as well watered, its rain-Fall is not as great, neither is it as abundantly supplied with lakes ; it is a much drier country than Minnesota. The buffalo still swarms over its plains at certain seasons, and hunting and trapping is an important branch of industry among the hardy settlers of this territory, who furnish us with bear-skins, buffalo-robes, hams, and tongues. Colorado, with Wyoming and Montana Territories. This region, one State and two Territories, though lying chiefly on the eastern side of the Rocky Moun- tains, nevertiieless occupies on both sides portions of the great watershed whicli separates the waters of the Atlantic from those of the Pacific ; for you observe that both the Colorado and Coluuiljia rivers have their head-waters, the former iu Colorado, the latter in Mon- tana. These two rivers eventually find their way through tlie water-gaps in the mountains to the Pacific. (See the Orographic View of the United States.) The crest of this dividing ridge is from 5,000 to G.OOO feet above the sea- level, though some of it.s peaks have more than twice that altitude. These high peaks are always covered with snow, and it is the melting of tlie snows of these mountains in warm weather which feeds the rivers on the eastern slopes and prevents them from running dry in summer. The heiid of navigation of the Missouri — 3,000 miles above St. Loui.s — ^is at Fort Benton, in Montana. Large numbers of steamers go up there every season, bringing gold from the mines of the settlers. M 1 - > o i 1! I i; 1 V 1. 1. In the centre of Montana are the great falls of the Missouri river, among the most picturesque in America. The lovers of the chase frequently come over from Europe, and taking an Indian for their guide, spend the summer iu the western prah-ies, hunting Ijulfalo and other large game. In the highest ])arts of this very mountainous region, the snow lies on the ground all the year. The pre- cious metals abound, and the mines of silver and gold are worked with great profit. Tliere is a peculiar climate along this part of the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains. It may be called The Mild Winter Belt; for when the plains of Minnesota, Dakota, Nebraska, Iowa, and Missouri, are covered with scow so as to deprive the wild cattle of subsistence, the buffalo finds abun- dant pastures in this mild belt, where it passes the greater part of the winter. Thus you see that, although in the same latitude as the States east, and higher above the sea-level, yet here, at the base of the mountains, you have winters so mild that the lizards and reptiles of Texas are found here; and the win- ters at Fort Laramie, on the heaf-waters of tlie Platte, in Wyoming, are so much milder than they are at St Louis, that the river, at the fort, does not generally freeze until long after thv, navigation has been closed at that city. Fort Laramie is not only higher than St. Louis above the sea-level, but it is further north : for both of these reasons the winters at the fort ought to be the eoldei'; but the winter rains make them milder. It is well for the geographical student to be ac- ([uainted with these facts ; but he should not be content with that ; he should strive to understand their cause. AVinter is the season of the heavy rain-fall on the Pacific slopes of the Rocky Mountains. It is then that their summit is snowed up to the depth of m:niy feet; and it is a law of nature that when vapor enough is condensed to make'a gallon of snow-water, heat enough is liberated and set free in the sur- rounding air to boil nearly six gallons of water. It is the heat from this source that tempers the winter climates all along the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains and the plains many miles to the eastward. With this explanation you arrive at a knowledge of this fact touching the climates of the trans-Mississippi 66 COLORADO, WYOMING, AND MONTANA TERRITORIES. country — viz., that as j^ou go west, the winter climate grows milder, till you reach the Rocky Mountains. Of all the States and Territories, Wyoming is the only one where women are allowed to serve on juries. The soil about Cheyenne is very rich, and, when irri- gation can be had, never fails to produce abundantly. Coal has been found in this neighborhood. In the same vicinity, also, is tlie picturesque and unique scenery called the " Garden of tlie Gods," through which a beautiful stream is consUmtly flowing, and into which you enter through a natural gateway cut out of the solid rock. In the territory of Dakota there is a district covered by large masses of indurated clay and marls, which have been worn by the weather into archi- tectural forms and fantastic shapes. In this district are the " Bad Lauds" of Dakota. Colorado is famous for the deep and enormous Canons (kan-yons') or gorges, which maik the line of the Colorado river. Colorado embraces within its bordere a remarkable system of mountain peaks, and the head-springs of four large rivers, namely,— the Colorado, flow- ing west into the Pacific ; the South Platte, flowing in the opposite direction to join the Missouri ; the Rio Grande ; vnd the Arkansas. Quesfions.—Uow, geographically, is Michigan State divided ?— Why is its climate no mildV— V/hat is the freezing-point of fresh water?— How long is navigation suspended on the lakes annually ?— What tempers the cold wes"t winds of winter as they approach the eastern peninsula of Michigan?— Which is the largest of the great lakes ?— Why do you suppose it to beliigher than the rest above the sea-level ?— How do vessels get from it to the lower lakes, and back?— How many steps or levels do the Lakes occupy ?— "Which lakes are on the middle level ?— What canal passes around the Falls of Niag- ara?— On which side of the river is the Welland Canal?— Suppose you knew the fall of each river or strait between Lake Superior and the sea, could you tell the height of each lake above the sea-level ?— Which is the deepest lake ? —Where are the Lake Superior copp?i'-mines ?— To what lake towns do they give importance?- In what branches of industry does Michigan vie with New York and Pennsylvania?— Where are her salt-works ?— Describe the face of the country in this State.— How does Michigan compare, as to the length of her shore-line on the lakes, with the Atlantic States ? What, on the map, are the most striking geographical features of Wiscon- sin and Michigan ?— Between what rivers, which empty their waters into the Mississippi, and others which empty into the lakes, is there a short portage? —Describe the face of the country in Wisconsin.— Whicli State can boast of the greatest number of lakes ?— In what iuiportant branchiis of industry, be- sides agriculture, are the people of Wisconsin engaged ?— Why is the timber trade so important in prairie countries? Upon how many terraces do the great lakes lie ?— How high is the Lake Superior terrace above the sea-level ?— How can you find out the edges of this terrace ?— How, as to magnitude and importance, does the commerce of the lakes compare with the foreign trade of the country ?— What is the total navigable length of tlie Mississippi and its tributaries ?— How many ves.sels, including canal-boats, are annually engaged with lake commerce ?— Are the lakes vexed with storms as the sea is ?— Describe the face of the country in Minnesota. — What are its chief agricultural productions ? What States, east of the Mississippi, do ilissouri and Iowa resemble? (See page 63.)— What agricultural staples, besides wheat aiul corn, aie cultivated in Missouri? — What famous mountain is in this Slate?— By wdiom was St. Louis settled ? — What geographical circumstances make the .site of this city so important? — Describe the ad- vantages of its situation. — How many miles of railway have the Western States ? Is Iowa a mountainous State? — Describe tlie face of the country. — Its (;()mmercial relations. What great river rises in Minne- sota? — In what lake? — AV here is the head of navigation on the Mississippi ? — Ujjon what two great watersheds does tlie State of Minnesota lie? — De- scribe its climates. — Can you explain why the winteis here are so much colder than they are in Wisconsin ? — How far north does3Iinnesota extend? — What trade is actively carried on in Pembina? — Witii whom? — To what l)ninch of business do the forests of lliis State give rise?— WHiat famous falls are at St. Anthony?— Its water- routes to the markets of the Atlantic seaboard ? — What are its slajile pro- ductions? Describe the face of the country in Kansas and Neljraska. — What wild animals are found there ? — With the climates of what States would you C(miparc the climates of these? (Refer to the Orographic View of Ilie United Slates.) Between what parallels of latitude does Dakota lie?— How does its climate compare with that of Minnesota?- Describe its natural aspects.— What still constitutes an imi)ortant branch of industry U) the settlers of this Terri- toiy? Do Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana lie wholly within the Valley of the Mississippi ? How high above the sea-level is the crest of the great watershed between the two oceans?— How high the loftiest peaks?— To what point is the j Missouri river navigable ?— How far is Fort Benton above St. Louis?— I How long on tht; Rocky Mountains does the snow lie? In what other miuerals besides the precious metals does this sec- tion abound ? — What is a peculiarity «)f its winter climates ? — How far does the mild-winter belt extend?— What proof can you give of the mild- ness of the winters in this belt '—Can you explain why the climate is milder here than it is several hundred miles to the eastward, and in the same latitude ?— At what season of the year does tlie great snow-fall lake ^ place in the Rocky Mountains ?— What is said of the soil about Cheyenne? j::::- wiii'isMr wiMi. {For West Virgi:nzankee FonldilXao S PenliVaterTJigyariils • -' "^^ **.Bt'nona Is/ ■'sroTcee akliai •SI llacino p.™gatu_ , 7^,1 All/agaiiVClia-Hoti ■a.kt;i^,';^.^ii'-"i<=V- C~< /^ \ ^ CoTlulg >T1 7$^atV ,TON^ anSBf RtaiileW x)i\iV ^^r'^'^'^i^iisf^^^^S^^ hi. 1 Jw (^-^iJiSBURfi /joX,atV>n ^ / I Brofl-nTiIJeO .__._T;>T]»Ci ..iMtOCf;! Tro JFt..\f ^, /^ip^ , -LaGraa" f ^ '- * '!]> JJJ'" ,/p-i.-at)ir u (oRoikMe Ilo)riiiigGreejSlc.S?/ CarUiiviHe -Af— ■?*fJ"'y"V;^,^ .. 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Cartbage CUnton' ASHVILLE 1 "^O-Y^ i Pulaski 14 l^Q%i\M^e'^\^t 12 from'Wa&hiugton. 10 68 STUDIES ON THE MAP OF THE WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. LESSOR XXXVI, Studies on the Maps of the Western States and Territories. (Pp. 67, 73.) Extent and Boundaries.— Name the Western States ana Terri- tories (p. 58). — Between what parallels of latitude do they lie? (i\Iap, pp. 33, 33). — How are they bounded, as a whole, on the north? — On the south? — Between what meridians of longitude do Ihey lie ? — How do you bound them on the east ? — Hovi', on the west ? What Western States border on Lake Erie ? — Wliat, on Lake Huron ? — What, on Lake Superior ? — What, on British America ? — On the Ohio river ? — On the Mississippi river ? Bound each of these States and Territories separately. Judging by the eye and the map-scale, which is tlie largest of all the Western States? — Which is the smallest? — Which has the most Lake coast? — Which has the greatest extent of border ou the great rivers ? Rivers, — Trace the three great rivers of the Western States : the Mis- sissippi ; the Missouri ; the Ohio. Across what, and between what States and Territories does the Missouri flow? What river flows between Indiana and Illinois ? — What two rivers from Tennessee traverse Kentucky ? — How far above its mouth do they empty into the Ohio? — How near do they approach each other? — Which empties into tlie Ohio farthest up ?— Where is the Muskingiun river? — Wliere does the Cumberland rise? — Describe the Lickuig, the Kentucky, and Green rivers. — Name the rivers of Ohio. — Describe their course, and tell where tliey empty. — What rivers empty into the Mississippi from the Western States?— Does the Minnesota river empty above or below St. Paul? — Are most of the rivers of Minnesota di'ained into the Missouri or Mississippi ? — Is New Madrid above or below the mouth of the Oliio ? — Does the Missouri empty into the Mississippi above or below the mouth of the Ohio? — Where does the Kansas river empty ? — Is this above or below Jelfei-son Citj- ? - ~ ' Where is the Red river of the North? — Its source? — Its course and ter- minus ? — Where are the head-waters of the Missouri ? — Which way do they flow from their source for a considerable distance? — Where does the Des Moines river rise ? — Where does it empty ? — Trace the Kansas river. — What rivers, which find their way into the Pacific, flow from Colorado, Wyo- ming, and Montana ? Where does the Platte river rise? — Its course? — Its mouth? — Through what States do the Kansas and Platte rivers ruu?— Wliere is Smoky Hill Fork ? (See Kansas, p. 78.) Lakes. — Describe the lake-basin of the Western States. — What rivers con- nect Lake Huron and Lake Erie ? — What lake lies between them ?— What is the river that flows into it? — How are Lakes Huron and Michigan con- nected? — Lakes Huron and Superior?— Erie and Ontario? — Ontario and the sea? — How long, judging by the eye and tlie map-scale, is Lake Michigan? — How wide ? — How broad is Lake Superior ? — Do most of the rivers of Min- nesota rise in lakes? — Which is farthest to the north, Lake Traverse or Lake Itasca ? — Where is Lake Pepin ? Bays and Straits.— Y^het^ is Green Bay?— Saginaw Bay?— Kee- weenaw Bay? — Georgia Bay?— Where is the Strait of Mackinaw? Routes and instances. — What is the course and distance from Wheeling to Baltimore ? — From Wheeling to Parkersburg ? — To Charleston ? — How far is it from Charleston to Point Pleasant at the mouth of the Great Kanawha river? Map, p. 45. How fixr is it, going by steamer, from Charleston to Cincinnati? — ^To Louisville ?— To St. Louis ?— To New Orleans ? —Find Lexington, Ky. — How far is it from Louisville? — From Cincinnati? — How far is Louisville from Nashville ? — From Memphis ? — Is Louisville above or below Cincinnati, on ' the Ohio ? — How far is it from Louisville to Chicago ? — To St. Louis ? — How would you go from Chicago to Indianapolis ? — From St Louis to Indianapolis V —How would you go from Cleveland to Dayton? — From Cleveland to Chicago ? — To St. Louis ? — To St. Paul ?— How far from Cincinnati to Lake Erie ? — How would you go ? — How would you go fi'om Springfield to Terra Haute? How would you go from Fort Wayne to Terre Haute? — From Fort Wayne to Milwaukee? — How far is Dubuque from Pembina? — Hew far is Pembina from Omaha City ? — From St. Louis ? — How would you go from Des Moines to Chicago ? — Where is Burlington ? — How far above St. Louis ? — How far is St. Louis from New York? — From New Orleans? — From Chicago? — From San Francisco ?— How could you go from Omaha to Topeka? Mountains. — What part of West Virginia is most mountainous?— What mountains are there in Kentucky ? — Which part of this State is most mountainous? — Describe the mountains of the Western States generally. — Where is Pike's Peak? — Where is Lang's Peak? — Where is Iron Mountain? — Are there any mountains in Dakota? Watersheds. — Describe the watersheds of the Western States and Terri- tories generally. — State, in order, how each one of these States and Tenitoi-ics is drained. Note. — The scholar will do well to examine the Orographic View of tlio United States, at this point. Mines. — Wliere are the lead mines of Missouri ? — The iron mines ? — The lead-mines of Illinois? Chief Towns. — Point out Wlieeling. — Charleston. — Point Pleasant. — Parkersburg. — Louisville. — Frankfort. — Covington. — Henderson. — Newport Faducah. — Danville. Cincinnati. — Columbus. — Dayton. — Where is Cleveland? — Where is Toledo ? — Chillicothe ? — Marietta ? — Steubenville ? — Where is Peoria ?— Sandusky? — Springfield? — Where is New Albany? — Cairo? — Terre Haute? — Where is Fort Wayne? — Where is Detroit? — Lansing?— How far is Detroit from Chicago ?— From Buffalo ?— Where is Sault St Marie ?— Where is Dubuque ? — Where is Des Moines ? — Where is St Louis ? — Is it above or below the mouth of the Missouri? — Where is JeScrson City? — Kansas City? — To- peka? — Lecompton?— Omaha?— Where is Pembina ?— Where is Duluth? — What towns in Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, are at the junction of rivers? — Where is Cheyenne City? — Where is Gallatin? — Virginia City in Montana?— Yankton ? — Lincoln?— Leavenworth ?— Denver ?— Does the Platte river empty above the city of Omalia or below it? Miscellaneous. — Where are the salt-works oi Kanawha river. West Virginia?— Where are the White Sulphur Springs?— What is the only river, rising in West Virginia and emptying into tlie Atlantic Ocean? — Upon what long vem of rocks are Lexington, Ky., and the Greenbrier country situated? — Where is Fond du Lac V— Isle Itoyale ?— Where are the Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior? Ans. In the northern part of Michigan, on the Lake. — Where is Fort Snelling ?— How would you go from Chicago to Liverpool all the way by ship ? Note.— The Government of the United States has organized a Storm Bureau, for tlie pui-pose of rendering the navigation of the Seacoast and Lakes much safer by applying science to the prediction of storms, and estab- lishing a system of signals for warning vessels of their approach and force. THE PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. 69 LESSOJV XXXVII. The Pacific States and Territories. Total Population, 835,059. State. California Oregon Nevada Arizona Territory. Utah " " . Idaho Washington " Alaska " Capitals. Sacramento. . . Salem Carson Tucson Salt Lake City Boise City. . . . Olympia Chief Cities and their Population. San Francisco . . 149,473 Portland 8,293 Virginia City.. . 7,048 Tucson 3,224 Salt Lake City.. 12,854 Boise City 995 Olympia 1,003 Sitka 2,000 1. Coast-Ijine and Orofjrapliij. — We come now to the Pacific slopes of our country, and the first thing that a geographer does when he reaches a new country is to study its maps and its orography, to learn how the land lies. The map of the United States tells you tliat the coast- line of the Pacific, along our southern borders, is not curtained with islands, as is our Atlantic coast in the same latitudes ; nor is it indented with deep bays and harbors, as the coast of Xew England is. Parallel with the coast there is a range of mountains, as on the Atlantic side. On the Atlantic, this coast- range is separated from tiie sea by a belt of lowlands, varying in breadth from 50 to 250 miles ; ^vhile on the Pacific side the hill-country comes down to the'sea, and the coast is bluff and steep. Consequently the tide- water country along our Pacific shores is confined to a very narrow belt. The San Joaquin [mJin wah-ken) river runs between the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range. IAN JOAQUIN It I V K 11 2. The Pacific Table-Land. — Between the Nevada and the Rocky Mountains there is an immense table- land or valley, situated several thousand feet above the sea, and varying in breadth from 300 to 700 or 800 miles. This table-land extends all the way from the isthmus of Tehuantepec through British America and Alaska to the Arctic Ocean. The city of Mexico, at the height of 7,500 feet above the sea, stands upon it, and from north to south its total length is scarcely less than 4,000 miles. In the widest part of this table-land is the great inland basin of our continent, which is chiefly occupied by parts of Utah and Mexico. You recognize (see Orographic View of the United States) the various parts of this inland basin by the lakes here and there which have no outlet ; such lakes are sometimes salt, sometimes brackish, seldom fresh. 3. Jlinerals. — The hills and mountains that rise up from this plateau are stored with rich mineral deposits. Silver, gold, copper, and quicksilver, with mines of iron, surpassing in quantity and quality even the celebrated iron mountain of Missouri, have been found in this region. Veins of tin, zinc, lead, and other metals, and beds of salt and soda of unknown extent, are also found. The chief industry of all this region of country at present, js mining ; but the agricultural resources are immense, especially in California and Oregon. 4. Cliniates. — Latitude for latitude, the climates of our country along its Atlantic slopes afford no clue to the climates of the Pacific slopes. In the former case the winds are from the land, and in winter are cold ; in the latter case they come from the sea, and are warm and moist. This difterence of climate depends simply upon the way the winds hlow. It is so marked, that the seasons in California, instead of being divided into summer and winter, are often al- luded to as the rainy and the dry seasons. This is . the case all along the Pacific slopes, from California to Chili, except in Peru, where it does not rain at all. For weeks together in summer not a drop of rain falls in California ; lier winter is the rainy season ; but, as you proceed north, the westerly winds become more dominant, and the rains more copious, so that from Oregon, all the way up to the north, the American slopes of the Pacific are well watered,— whereas from Oregon all the way to Valparaiso in Chili, there is lack of water and a dry season of six months every year. Oregon and the New England States are in the same latitude. In New England the farmers have to liouse and feed their cattle all tlie winter, while in Oregon they lie down in green pastures, and require no shelter. Here you again ])erccive that, as a rule, climate mainly depends upon the direction of the prevailing winds. This rule is one of the keys to Geography, for when you understand tlie climates of a country, you can judge of its productions, and by its pro- 70 CALIFORNIA. ductions you can judge of the occupations and industrial pursuits of its inhab- itants — and by their pursuits you may form some idea of their general char- acter. Questions. — 1. What diflFerence do you observe on the map between the coast-line of the Pacific and Atlantic States ? — Where are there most harbors, in New England or in California and Oi-egon ? — Which has the most tide- water country, the Atlantic or Pacific States ? — Why is the tide-water belt of the Pacific so narrow ? 2. Describe the' table-land between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains. — How high is it? — Point out on the map some of the inland basins that are situated upon it : How do 3'ou tell an inland basin ? — Are its lakes fresh or salt ? 3. What are the minerals that are found here? — What is the chief industry of this part of the country? 4. The country here lies between the same parallels that some of the Atlantic States do : why can you not judge of the climates of the former by those of the latter? — Upon what does the difference depend? — How are the seasons along the Pacific coast generally divided ? — Wliy is not the year in Peru divided into the rainy season and the dry,as well as in Chili and California? — What is the dry season in California and Oregon ? — Oregon and the New England States are in the same latitude ; contrast then- climates. — What, by simply knowing what the climates of a country are, can the geographer tell about it ? LESSOJY XXX nil. Pacific States and Territories— Continued. California. This is the oldest of the Pacific States. The Spanish Jesuits established missions or settlements in it at an early day. But it was thinly settled, except by the Indians, until it was purchased of Mexico in 1848, for $20,000,000. Soon after that gold was discovered, and there was such a rush to the rich mines from all parts of tlie w s OP MONTMORENCI. Montreal, with a population of 107,000, is tlie largest city in the Dominion. New Brunswick. New Brunswick, also one of the provinces of the Dominion, has a population of 285,000. Its inhabitants are more maritime in their pursuits than those of either Dtitario or Quebec. TJK! forests of New Brunswick afford abundant sup- plies of ship-timber, both for the navy and the commer- cial marine of England. This y)rovince abounds in coal and iron as well as iu ship-timber ; but the industrial energies of its people are directed chiefly to the lumber business, and the sea fisheries. St. John, with a population of 30,000, is its cliief town. Nova Scoti.\. Nova Scotia, you observe, is a peninsula. The island of Cape Breton belongs to it, and the two together, with a population of 388,000, form the fourth grand division of the New Dominion. The shores, both of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, are scoured by the tides of the Bay of Fundy. These tides rise twice and fall twice, daily ; attaining at the full and change of the moon, the enormous height of sixty and sometimes even of seventy feet above low-water mark. This great rise is effected in the brief space of six hours. The flood rushes in with such force that it has been known to overtake and swallow up, ere they can escape, herds of deer, swine and other animals that happen to be passing or feeding along the shore. These are the highest tides in the world. Nova Scotia is on the way-side of the great thoroughfare for all vessels passing to and fro between North America and Europe. It is the most eastern point of our continent south of Labrador, and is the nearest to Eu- rope. Many of the ocean steamers that ply between England and the United States touch at Hali- fax, both coming and going. The harbor is unsurpassed by any other in America. It is the ]irincipal naval station of Great Britain on this side of the At- lantic. English men-of-war are constantly to be seen putting in there for orders, supplies, fresh outfits, and repairs. Halifax — population 67,000— is, therefore, as you may imagine, a place of much importance. It is a flourishing town, and has a large trade with the United States, chiefly in potatoes, fish, coal, gypsum, and grindstones. Nova Scotia has a healthful climate, and the timber business is an important one. Herds of moose and deer are still to be found there. During the deep snows of winter, these animals fortify themselves against the wolves by ramparts, called " Elk-yards," which they build in the snow. Prince Edward's Island. Prince Edward's Island is of nearly the same size as Delaware. It has 95,000 inhabitants. It is nestled in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and is ])rotected by Newfound- land from the icebergs that float in the Atlantic. It is sheltered by the highlands of New Brunswick from the west winds of Quebec. Consequently, it has a milder climate than either of these provinces. The chief industry of the island is fishing and ship- building, tillage and pasturage. Newfoundland Is cold and sterile ; the soil does not yield enough to feed the people, who number 147,000. They derive their means of living mainly from the sea. Fishing and 78 LABRADOR. sealing is their chief occupation. One-fifth of the inhabi- tants of the island reside in the city of St. Johns, which has a population of 25,000. F I s 1 1 I N ( l; .\ N I) BANKS OP N E K F The Grand Banks of Newfoundland lie to the eastward of this island. The depth of water upon them varies from ten to one hundred fathoms, and they embrace an area of more than 100,000 square miles. They are one of the treasuries of the ocean, for they are the most extensive and valuable fishing-grounds in the known w^orld. In the spring and summer of every year, immense shoals of cod, mackerel, and other fish resort there, and are taken in great numbers by the French, English, and Americans. Seal-lishiog on the icebergs, as they drift down along the shores of New- foundland, commences in the spring. ST. .JOHNS. In the city of St. Johns, entire acres of ground are to b,e found covered with sheds that are shingled over with codfish, split in two, and spread out there to dry ; and in that beautiful harbor, ships from all parts of the world, may be seen taking in cargoes of fish. The celebrated Newfoundland dog attains his most complete development in this island, and is used as a draught animal. Bears, wolves, and reindeer also are common. It is off" the shores of Newfound- land that the cold cui-rent which comes down through Davis Straits meets with the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, which flows out through the straits of Florida, and produces those dense fogs which envelop the shores of New England, as well as those of Newfoundland, and which often make navigation dangerous. Many a noble ship has been run on Cape Kace because of these fogs, and been lost. In late sunuiicr and in autumn the cold current I' • ... from Uie north brings down, ui immense ([uanti- ties, huge icebergs, some of Uiem more than one huiulred feet high, and measuring miles in circumference. These are also very dangerous to navi- gation. They reach hundreds of teet below the surface, and when a ship strikes against one it is like striking against a- rock. They often lodge on the Grand Banks, where they remain until broken up by the sea, or melted away by the warmth of the Gulf Stream and the rays of the sun. One end of the Atlantic telegraph crosses these banks on its way from Valentia Bay, Ireland ; it was successfully landed in 1866 at Heart's (^jntent, a small cove of Trinity Bay, New- foundland. There are three cables now ; one French and two English ; the latter have several times been broken. Labrador is under the jurisdiction of Ncwfoiiiid- land, but it is a cold and inhospitable country. Al- though in the latitude of .some of the fairest parts of Great Britain, Labrador has a climate too severe to ripen any of the ordi- nary cereals ; but barley cut when green makes goad fodder, and pota- toes and a few vegeta- bles sometimes do well. The country is resorted to in the summer by fishermen and trappers for the sake of its seals and other fur-bear- W^^^«B*» MANITOBA. 79 ing animals. It is peopled on the north, especially on the Bay of Ungava, by the hardy Esquimaux, ESQUIMAUX, Manitoba and the Northwest. Nearly 200 years ago the king of Great Britain granted a charter to a company of English merchants, called the Hudson Bay Company, which gave it the exclusive right to trap and trade in all that part of British America which lies north of Canada and the United States, and which has lately been annexed to the Dominion, The beaver, tlie marten, the muskrat, hare, wolf, fox, reindeer, and bear all abound here, and afford excellent furs and peltries. Tiie Company estab- lished various trading-posts throughout these regions, the chief of which is Fort York, at the mouth of Nelson's river, on Hudson Bay. The new province of Manitoba, which embraces the Red River Settlement, established in 1813 by Lord Selkirk, south of Lake Winnipeg, in what was formerly a part of Rupert's Land, has a population of 12,000 (Census of 1871), made up chiefly of the descendants of the early Scotch and French settlers, and of half- breeds and Indians. It has a Lieut.-Governor, a nom- inated Legislative Council, and an elective assembly. The vast Northwest Territoiy is governed under a separate commission \>y the Lieut.-Governor of Manitoba, The country consists of wild prairie, unclaimed for- ests, and treeless wastes of moss and lichens, rocks, ice, and snow. British Columbia and Vancouver Island. These have been united into one province. They are rich in minerals, pasturage, and tim- ber ; Yancouver particularly in coal, and Brit- ish Columbia particularly in gold, but both in grass and forests. They are in the Dominion. They have a sea to windward, and though they comprise parallels of latitude that are included within Labrador — which is uninhabitable — their winter climate is so moist and mild that the = country is not only inhabitable for man, but the cattle in winter can face the cold without shelter, and can also find green pastures. These colonies have been recently established. Their entire population, including Indians, does not exceed 50,000 ; conse- quently, they have not yet industrial force enough to develop the resources of the country ; nor has there been time for industry to adjust itself in regular and permanent channels. Questions. — What provinces form the Dominion of Canada? — By what Act? — Describe the face of the country in Quebec and &s=* a? Ontario. — Which is the most populous province ? — What is its p(jpu- -^ _ lation? — Its productions? — Which is its chief town? — What, its "^ population? — Which is the colder country, Quebec or Ontario? — Who first colonized the Canadas? — What city did they found? — In what year was the great battle there fought, which decided the question of their commercial supremacy? — How large is England's fleet of merchantmen? — What religion do the inhabitants of Que- bec still profess ? — Why has England required the Assembly of Quebec and the Parliament of the Dominion to publish their acts both in French and English ?— Bj whom was Ontario settled? — What is the pievailing religion there? — Describe the city of Quebec. What is the population of New Brunswick ? — What are the chief branches of industry of its inhabitants ? — What minerals has it ? — What is its chief town ? — What is the shape of the province of Nova Scotia ? What large island belongs to it? — What is the population of the two? — How high do the tides rise on some parts of the shores of Nova Scotia ? — De- scribe the position of Nova Scotia with regard to Europe. — What makes Hal- ifax a place of so much importance? — What is its population? — In what does its trade with the United States chiefly consist? — What wild animals abound on this peninsula ? — What is an " elk-yard ?" How large is Prince Edward's Island ? — What is its population ? — What is the chief industry of its inhabitants ? — What is the population of New- foimdland ? — Desciibe its climate and soil. — How do the people live there ? — What are their chief occupations ? Tell where the Grand Banks of Newfoundland are. — Describe them. — When is the fishing season? — Wliat do they "fish" f(u- on the icebergs ?— Where do tiie Newfoundlanders dry their fish? — What is the cause of the dense Newfoundland fogs? — Of M'hat inconvenience are these fogs? — What else besides fogs endangers navigation there ? — How large are some of these icebergs ? — What is the season for them ? — What inconvenience sometimes occurs from the grounding of icebergs on the Grand Banks? — What Province has jurisdiction over Labrador? — Why is it so thinly inhabited? When was Hudson's Bay Company chartered? — For what purpose? — What animals did they hunt and trap ? What is the new name of Winnipeg? — Of whom does this population consist ? — What is their religion ? — Describe the general character of the coun- try? — Of what two provinces does British Columbia consist? — What are their natural resources? — They are in the same latitude as Labrador; why are their winters so much milder? — What is their present population ? LcngltuJe Weat ift) tcum Greenvriuh. 82 STUDIES ON THE MAP OF BRITISH AMERICA.— DANISH AMERICA. LESSOJV XLII. Studies on the Map of British America. boundaries and Siibdivisions.—Bound British America on all sides. — What great Bay iuterwashes Britisli America ? — Where are the seven pro- vinces of the Dominion of Canadi\: Nova Scotia; New Brunswick ; Quebec; Ontario; Manitoba; British Columbia? — Where is Newfoundland"? — Prince Edward's Island ? — Cape Breton ? — Labrador ?— Between what meridians and jiarallels does British America lie ?— How far is it from Cape Race to Queen Charlotte's Island V — How far, measuring by the scale, is Melville Sound from the 49th parallel of north latitude? — What is the latitude of Newfoundland ? Mountains and Watersheds, — What mountains traverse British America on the West?— What are their highest peaks? — How high is Mount St. Elias ? — Where can j^ou find an}- watersheds in British America ? — Ton can always find the icater sheds of a country by lookinrj for the sources of the rivers and tracing the outlines of tfie country draifudby tfiem. (See Wall Map.) Rivers. — What river separates Quebec from Ontario? — Where are the sources of the St. Lawrence? — Its mouth? — In what direction does it flow? — What purpose does the St. Lawrence serve ? Ans. As a waste-gate stream : IT DISCHARGES THE SURPLUS WATERS OF THE Great Lakes. (See the Dia- f/ram of the Great Lakes.) — Name all the principal rivers of British America. — Where are the head-waters of the Mackenzie ? — Describe its course and tell its tributaries. — Describe the Red river from source to mouth. — What do you know of the Saskatchawan ?— The Churchill ?— The Nelson?— Tlie Severn? — The Great Fish river? — AVliere does the Columbia river rise? What river rises in British America and runs through Alaska? ILahes. — What lake lies between Lake Ontario and Georgian Bay ? — Where is Lake Winnepeg ?^vLake of the Woods ? — Lake Athabasca ? — Great Slave Lake? — Great Bear Lake? — Lake Nipissing (nip'iss-ing)^ — From what lake does the St. Lawrence river issue? — Name the Great Lakes in order. Gulfs, Bays, and Sounds. — Where is the Gulf of St. Lawrence?— Where is the Bay of Fuudy? — Where is James Bay? — Find Coronation Gulf— Gulf of Boothia.— Where is Baffin Bay ?— Melville Sound?— Lancas- ter Sound ?— Fox Channel ? Straits and Capes.— BeWe Isle Strait ? — Davis Strait ? — Hudson Strait ? —Strait of Prince of Wales ?— Cape Sable ?— Cape Rjxce ?— Cape Chidleigh ?— Cape Bathurst ? Islands. — What islands are in the Gulf of St. Lawrence? — What islands border it? — Where is Anticosti Island? — Melville Island? — Vancouver Island? — Queen Charlotte? Cities. — Where.is Quebec ? — Montreal ? — Ottawa ? — Toronto ? — St. John's (Newfoundland)?— Halifax?— St. John?— Where is New Westminster? Motites of Travel and Trade.— What is the course and distance from Toronto to Ottawa? — Toronto to Detroit? — Toronto to Kingston? — To Montreal? — To Quebec City?— What is the route and distance from Quebec to Portland in Maine? — Which way is St. John from Frederick- ton? — Course and distance from St. John to Halifa.v? — How far is it from the head of the Bay of Fundy to the Gulf of St. Lawrence ? — How far is it from head of the Hudson river to St. Lawrence river? — How would you go from Halifax to Pictou? — How far from Newfoundland to Labrador? — How far is Prince F.dward's Island from New Brunswick ? — From Nova Scotia ? Miscellaneous, — What is the area of British America? — Where is Fort York ? — Where is the Northwest Passage f (Refer to the Trade and Voyage Chart, the last map in the book ) — How is Nova Scotia separated from Cape Breton? — Describe the location of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. — What is their area ? — Where was the Atlantic cable successfully lauded in 18G6 ? — How would you go by ship from Toronto to Cleveland ? LESSOJY XLIII. Danish Amorica. Danish America consists of Grrecnland, Icclant], and three small islands in the West Indies. Greenland. Of the geography of G-reenland little is known, ex- cept as to the Western and Southern coasts. It lies just in the midst of the great icy and ice- bearing currents tliat come out of the Arctic Ocean. It stretches from the i)arallel of G0° north to an un- known extent toward the Polo. The western shores are rugged, mountainous, indented with numerous fiords and creeks, and fringed with islands. The lofty interior seems like one immense glacier, and some have supposed that Grrecnland was made up of a multitude of ice-islands frozen perpetually together. No trees flourish there. A few culinary vegetables are occasionally raised, but the hardiest cereals have failed. The population consists of about 1000 Danes, with a native and mixed element numbering 9,000. The commerce consists mainly in the exchange of the skins of seals, reindeer, and other animals, with eider- down, train-oil, whalebone, and fish, for the comforts of European life. Godhavu (god'hown), situated on a small island, is the principal place toward the North. Upernavik, in latitude 73°, is, as far as we know, the most north- erly permanent abode of man. Frederickshaab is famous as the place where Otto Fabricius spent the long winter nights translating the Scriptures into the Greenland language. Greenland, it is supposed by geographers, extends to within a few hundred miles of the Pole. In 1854, Dr. Kane's expedition, after forcing its way over the ice barrier of Smith's Strait, amid intense cold, reached nearly to the high and mild latitude of 83° north. There they discovered an open and iceless sea, having a temperature of four degrees above the freezing-point of fresh water. The waves of the sea dashed on the beach with the swell of ocean, and the tides ebbed and flowed. Seals were sporting, and water-fowl were feed- ing in the open waters. ICELAND. 83 kane'8 open polar sea. Iceland. Iceland contains an area of 30,000 square miles. Its inteiior is marked by vast plains of cracked and frac- tured lava; deep, yawning crevasses; swollen, unbridged streams; deep bogs, and natural steam and vapor baths. THE GREAT OETBER. The ice-mountains called Yokuls are volcanoes, occasion- ally in violent erup- tion. The loftiest of these, the Oeraefa Yokul, on the south- east coast, is 6,42(5 feet above the sea. Mount Hecla, in the interior, is 5 110 feet. The Geysers (gMsers), or Boiling Springs, are, however, the most striking physical feature of Iceland. The vegetation of Iceland, though dwarfed and scanty, is far better than that of Greenland. Grain will not ripen in Iceland, but garden vegetables are raised, and, along the coast, grass grows in quantities sufticient to sustain the cattle. Iceland-moss is a valuable article of* food, and is exported. Sea-fowl, in- cluding the eider-duck, abound ; splendid trout are found in the streams, and important fisheries are con- ducted on the sea-shore. Reindeer run wild in large herds, and the polar bear is occasionally lodged on the island by a cake of drift-ice from the North. The animal is said to be easily killed, being exhausted for want of food during his voyage from distant shores. On the easiern coasts, much drift-wood from the Tropics is obtained for fuel ; it is washed there by the warm Gulf Stream. Reikiavik {re'ke-a-viJc), the chief town, is a small hamlet. The population of Ireland is (50,000. The language is Norwe- gian. The people are fond of lileratiire, and have made from their ancient .mguK vahiable contributions to the history of America, claiming its discovery by them 500 years before Columbus. Qtiesfions.^Of v,h;\\ docs Danish America consist? — Is much known of Greenland V— Where does it lie ?— Its extent ?— Bound the three known sides. (Se<- ISIercator's Chart of the World.)-De- scril.e its vegetation— Its population— Commerce— Some of its towns Wliat is the area of Iceland ? (Refer to Mercator's Chart of the World.)— Describe its interior.— What are YOkuls ?— Describe the Gevsers.— Vegetation.— For what is Iceland-moss used?— What is saidofgame?— Of drift-wood?— Name a town in Iceland.— When do the Icelanders claim to have discovered America? 84 MEXICO. LESSOJV XLIV. Mexico. 1. Mexico, before the Discovery of America.— Before America was discovered by Columbus, Mexico was the seat of a most civilized and powerful empire. Montezuma was its king ; the Aztecs were his sub- jects. His splendid Capital, adorned with statues and paint- ings, stood where the City of Mexico now stands. In it he had groves and fountains, temples, baths, and palaces. His fish-pools, his zoological and botanical gardens wei'o better stocked and filled than any at that time in Europe. Indeed, the idea of a garden of plants, in which the capitals of Europe now boast themselves, was borrowed from Mexico. The Mexicans of that day had laws, common-schools, institutions of learning, and an academy of science and art. In astronomy they were almost as far advanced as the Europeans. Their calendar-stone, which has been dug up from the public square in the City of Mexico, showed the move- ments of the heavenly bodies, and divided the year into months and seasons. Tliou"h not so tall, tin- base of the Pyramid at Cliolula covers four tiiiies the space of the grand Egyptian Pyramid of Cheops, which occupies 11 acres of ground. 2. Soil and Productions. — Under that fine cli- mate, the rich soil of Mexico was, when Cortez first went there, in a high state of improvement. The chief agricultural staples were the banana, Indian corn, and the vanilla bean, with the celebrated cocoa, and the lordly maguey or pulque (pool'kd) plant, now called the Mexican aloe. From tlie cocoa we get chocolate, a beverage borrowed by Europe, and called to this day by the name chocolall, vvliich the Mexicans gave it. The maguey is peculiar to Mexico. Its leaves served the natives for a natural parchment, upon which the national records were preserved. Its juice, when sutiered to ferment, becomes " pulque," the national beverage of the Mexicans. It is like cider, and when sullieiently " hard" is intoxicating. The plant is beautiful. Its leaves, six or eight fieet long, supi)ly the natives with weather-boarding and shingles for their hinnble dwellings ; its thorns supjily them with nails, jtins, and needles; its fibre, with strings audc'ords; and its juice with sugar as well as pulque. Nor is this all. In some parts its leaves are used in iee eiillmitioii. The iei; gardens are covered with the leaves, which in the evening are filled with water, like so many little troughs, each holding about a quart. They are porous ; also powerful radia tors. The radiation from them and the evaporation of the exuded water, bring down the temperature at night to freezing, and in tlie morning the ice- crop is ready for market. S. CoHt/Hcsf of Mcjico. — In 1519, Cortez invaded the domains of Montezuma, and on his death, he took possession of his kingdom in the name of the King of Spiiin. Thus Mexico became a f)ossession of Spain. The Spaniards are still the dominant race there, and their language is the language of the country, and their le- ligion is its religion. They are Roman Catholics, as are all the nations in North Aiuciica except the United States and the British colonies. In 1813 Mexico threw off the Spanish yoke, and declared herself inde- pendent. 4. Chief Staples.— Sugar, coffee, cotton, hemp, to- bacco, cocoa, chochineal, pimento, indigo, wheat, corn, grapes, and olives all find genial climates in this mag- nificent country, and, when well cultivated, the yield is enormous. On the plains of Mexico violets are in bloom, straw- berries are ripe, and green peas in season all the year. In the orchards and garden.^ are gathered the most delicious fruits. The forests abound in ornamental woods and dye-stufis, and the groves with gums and spices, drugs and medicines of much value. Among them may be enumerated the india-rubber tree, the vanilla bean, licorice, sarsaparilla, and jalap — so called from the city of Jalapa {/la-lah'pah), where it grows wild. In Yucatan there is made from a variety of the celebrated Maguev, called heiiopiii, a superior kind of MEXICO. 85 hemp, known in commerce as Sisal {si-sal) hemp, from the place of export. In the Tierra Caliente of the Gulf coast, and in the folds of the mountains to the south of Tampico and Vera Cruz, the new textile called Ramie grows finely. The Mexicans call it Pochote (po-cho'-id). It is very white, with a long, lustrous, and silky fibre. o. Climate of Tiet'ra Caliente. — By looking at the map of Central America you will see that in Mexico there is a range of mountuins on both sides of the country, which is separated from the sea by a belt of low-lands, varying in breadth from a few miles to a hundred or more. This low-land belt is the tierra caliente, or hot coun- try, rank in vegetation, and rife with the pestilence. Its diseases are terrible ; the yellow fever is the most common and fatal among them. In tliis belt is the city of Vera Cruz, whose citizens, during the sickly season, often resort to Jalapa, which is near but on high and healthy ground. a. The Table-Land.— A?,cQmVmfr, this coast-range of ujountains, j-ou reach, at the height of from 5,000 to 8,000 feet above the level of the sea, the table-lands already described. They extend entirely across the countrv from coast-range to coast-ransre. This table-land is nothing more than a broad mountain top, which you climb as you go west from the Gulf of Mexico ; upon wliich you travel many miles, and then descending, find yourself again in Tierra Caliente, upon the shores of the Pacific Ocean. This broad mountain-top, or table-land, is the Tierra Ternplada, or the temperate land of Mexico. The cli- mate is delightful. It is never cold enough to pinch with frost, nor hot enough to oppress with heat. The city of Mexico is situated upon this table-land, at the height of 7,500 feet above the sea. The houses there are built without chimneys, as the win- ters are not cold enough to make fires necessary. The descent from the table-land to the low-land is very precipitous on all sides, but especially on the east, where, if seen from a distance, it appears like a range of mountains. Tliere are only two carriage-roads to it from the Gulf of Mexico, by passes 500 miles asunder: one at Jalapa, near Vera Cruz, and the other at Saltillo, west of Monterey. The table-lands extend to the Arctic Ocean. 7. Mountains. — Its top is not a smooth or level surface, as might be supposed from the word " table-land," but it is diversified with hill and dale, mountain and valley, like other parts of the earth's surface. It has other mountain ranges on the top, some of them shooting up peaks, as Orizaba and Popocatapetl, to the height of 17,800 feet above the sea, and far enough up to reach the regions of perpetual ice. Both cf these are slumbering volcanoes, though they are capped with snow. Orizaba is in sight from the sea, and Popocatapetl from the city of Mexico. The latter is a solfatara, down into the caverns of which Cortez, during his conquest of the country, sent one of his followers to gather sulphur for the manufacture of gunpowder. When a volcano ceases to emit flames, and is in the process of extinction, it sends out fumes and gases which deposit sulphur in large quantities ; it then becomes a solfatara. The solfataras of Italy and the Mediterranean supply commerce with most of the sulphur used in the manufacture of gunpowder. 8. Tlie Seasons.— In Mexico, as in all the inter-tropical countries in the world, the seasons are marked by the rains. These commence in Jupc, and last till November. In Tierra Templada the rainy season is the most delight- ful, but in Tierra Caliente it is the sickly season. 9. Mines.— This table-land in Mexico, as it is in the United States, is rich in mines of gold and silver, copper, lead, tin, quick- silver, zinc, and iron. Indeed, from Pata- gonia, all the way up into British Colum- bia, and in Alaska too, as far as miners have explored, minerals abound, and the riches.t mines in the world of their kind have been found in this range. It is the metalliferous treasury of the earth. Silver is the chief article of export from Mexico. Sonora, Chihuahua {che-ioah'v)ah), and Guerrero {ger- rd'ro), are the provinces richest in minerals. 10. Important Cities. — Vera Cruz and Tampico {tam-pee'ko) arc the chief seaports on the Gulf coast ; Guaymas (c/wi'mas), Mazatlan, San Bias, Acapulco, on the Pacific. The city of Mexico is encircled by a range of mountains, from which rise two snow-clad peaks — viz., Popocatapetl, 17,800 feet high, and Iztaccihuatl (eeH-ldhk-se-hwaVl'), or the woiium in white. These two giant sentinels stand 86 THE STATES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. side by side, lending glory to the landscape, while they impress and charm the beholder. its boundaries on all*sides? — What Gulf indents its western coast? — What peninsula between Mexico and the Pacific Ocean V How far is it from Yucatan to Cuba? — From Yucatan to Matamoras? — From Yucatan to New Orleans? Where is Tiburon Id.? — Cape San Lucas ?— Cape Corri- entes? — Cape Roxo? — Cape Catoche? — Where is the Bay of Campeche? — Where is the Gulf of California? — Of Mexico? — Where is the Gulf of Tehuantepec ? Where is the table-land of Mexico?— What mountains run through Mexico ? — Name some of the volcanoes of Mexico. — What river forms the northern boundary of Mexico ? — Name the other chief rivers of Mexico. — Where is the City of Mexico? — Wlicrc is San LuisPotosi? — Monterey? — Presidio del Norte? — Guanaxuato (gicah-nah-wah' to) ? — Merida ? — Chihuahua ? How fixr is it from the City of Mexico to Galveston, Texas?— To Vera Cruz?— To Tehuantepec ?— How far from the City of Mexico to San Francisco V — Point out in Mexico the Tierra Caliente. — AVhich are the best mining regions of Mexico ? CITY OP MEXICO. In the climes of perpetual summer, tlie sight of snow-clad mountains is 'idescribably grateful. As objects of contemplation they are as pleasing as running water, and as suggestive as the sea. About two miles from the city of Mexico is Lake Tezcuco, which is con- nected with the city by a canal, and is the largest and lowest of five lakes in the v-cinity. It is salt ; the others are fresh. 11. Fojmlation.— Tho population of Mexico, by tbo official returns of 1869-70, was 9.170.000. Questions. — 1. Where, at the time of the discover}^ of America, was the mightiest empire in the New World ? — Who was its ruler ? — Where was its capital •' — Describe it. — Of what public establisliments did the capitals of Europe borrow the idea from Mexico? — What facts can j-ou mention as showing the degree of civilization that existed among the Mexicans? — Wliat was their calendar-stone? 2. What was the agricultural state of their coun- try? — What their staple productions? — What bever.nge do we get from the cocoa? — Whence the name? — What plant thrives in no other part of the world except in Mexico ? — What is pulque ? — What use is made of the pulque plant and its various parts? 3. When did Cortcz invade Mexico? — Who was the reigning monarch there? — What became of him ? — AVhat is the lan- guage of Mexico ? — What, the religion ? 4. Name the chief staples to which the climate and soil of Mexico are congenial. — What fruits and flowers do you find in season all the yer.r on the plains of Mexico ? — Name some of the most valuable drugs and medicinal plants which are indigenous to Mexico. — From what does the medicine called jalap derive its name? — What is henepin? — Where is it grown? — What does it produce ? — What is the pochote of Mexico ? 5. Howls the table-land of Mexico separated from the sea? — Where is Tierra Caliente ? G. How high is the table-land of IS[exico ? — How broad is it ? — Where is Tierra Templada ? — Contrast the climate of Tierra Caliente with that of Tierra Templada.— On which " Tierra" is the City of Mexico ? — How many carriage-roads on the east of the table-land ? — Where are they ? — How far does this table-land extend ? 7. Is the top of it a level country ? — What vol- canoes have you upon it ? — What is a solfatera ? — Where are the great sources which supply sulphur for gunpowder ? 8. How are the seasons divided in Mexico ? — When does the rainy season commence? — How long does it last? — Which is the sickly season in TieiTa Caliente ? 9. Where is the metal- liferous treasury of the earth ? — What is the chief article of export from Mex- ico ? — Name some of the principal cities in Mexico. 10. What are the chief seaport towns on the Pacific coast ? — Which is the largest city in Mexico ? — Name some of the principal towns? 11. Population of Mexico? Map Studies. (Refer to Map of Mexico, p. 89.) — Within what pa- rallels of latitude is Mexico included ? — Within what meridians ? — What are LESSO.y XLY. The States of Central America The States of Central America all belonged once to ^^pain. Spanish is the language spoken, and the domi- nant race is of Spanish blood. Their religion is the Roman Catholic. These States, with Mexico, occupy the central portion of our continent ; they lie between the United States of Columbia, in South America, and th(> United States of America, in North America. They derive their importance, not so much from the value of the commerce we have witli them, as from their vast natural resources and from their geograi)h- ical position ; for across their borders lie the shortest routes that can be constructed, cither by rail or water, between the two oceans. It was here that Columbus placed the Gates of Ocean which he longed to unbar. Central America is situated in a belt of volcanic fires that girdles tlie Pacific Ocean. Izalco, a burning mountain, in San Salvador, was formed in 1770, and has been active ever since. Coseguina is noted for its eruption in 1885, when tlie air was so darkened by its ashes, even at places TjO miles dis- tant, that friends could not recognize each other, and the fowls went to roost. These States consist of five Republics and the Bali/.e, a British Province. The Republics, exclusive of Mexico, are Guatemala {guah-te-mah'-Iah), Honduras, San Salva- dor, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica {ree'Icah). These are all small States both as to area and population. The smallest of them in population (Costa Rica) has not as many inhabitants as the city of New Orleans, and the largest of them in area (Nicaragua) is smaller than the single State of Georgia, with only a little more, in- cluding Indians and all, than one-third its population. THE WEST INDIES. 87 Guatemala 40,777 San Salvador 7,334 Hnnduras 47,091 Nicaragua 58,1G7 Costa Rica 21,494 Area. Population. sciuare miles 1,180,000 " 600,000 " 350.000 " 400,000 " 135.000 Total, 5 Republics . . . .174,863 Balize (British) 17,008 Central America 191,871 .2.065.000 . 25.635 .2.093,635 These five Central American Eepublics, all taken to- gether, are not so large as the State of California, nor as populous, in the aggregate, as the single State of New York. Their mountains are filled with useful minerals, and richly stored with the precious metals. Their climate, like that of Mexico, is superb ; their soil is generous, and their harvest-time lasts the live-long year. Yet these countries are not prosperous. The soil and climates of Central America are admi- rably adapted to the production of tea and coffee, cocoa and sugar, cochineal and indigo, colton and corn, hemp and flax, tobacco and vanilla. Cochineal is an insect. Tlic forests, like those of Tierra Caliente, in Mexico, abound in ornamental woods, dye-stuffs, gums, spices, drugs, and medicines. Mahogany of fine quality comes from the forests of Central America. Cattle of all sorts thrive well. Numerous mines of silver and gold in the hill-country, lie there ready to be wrought with profit whenever |)i()per energy and skill are brought to the work of development. These States export a few hides and a little cochineal ; some coffee and cocoa, but no tea or sugar, cotton, rice, or hemp. The largest city in them all is New Guatemala, with an estimated population of 40,000 souls. The geogra[)liical position of Central America is both instructive and important. Turn to Mcrcator'a Map of the World and study this country. You obsci-ve it connect.? North and South America, and separates, by a narrow strip of land, the waters of tlie Pacific from tlie waters of the Atlantic Ocean. A ship-canal across the istlmuis would do away the necessity of vessels eiiira^'cd in tiie coasting-trade of th(; United States between the two oceans, :ind save tiiem more than 10,000 miles in the distance to be sailed. Oltserve on the map the lakes and rivers of Nicaragua; they seem to offer ■' I ivorable route for a ship-canal, (p. 89.) A railway has l)een established across the Isthmus of Punama, and it is used as a thoroughfare for passengers and emigrants going to Califoi-nia and China. Quf'stionfs. — From what do the Central American States derive their iiiil)ortance?— Name tiiem.— To whom does the Balize belong? — Which of these Republics is the smallest in population? — Which the largest? — How large is it? — Mention some of their natural resources. — Are these countries prosperous? — Name some of the productions for which these countries are adapted. — What do their forests yield ? — What do the people there export? — What is the population of the largest city ? — In which of the Republics is it ? — Describe the importance of their geographical position. — How much would a ship-canal across here, for vessels in the coasting-trade between the Atlantic and Pacific ports of the United States, save?— Where does the most favor- able route for a ship-canal appear to be ? — What makes it so ? — What improve- ment has been completed? LESSOJV XLVI. The West Indies. These islands are like stepping-stones across the ocean from Florida to the Orinoco; they are in sight from one to another, almost all the way. They embay the shores of Central America, and form the dividing line between the Caribbean Sea and Grulf of Mexico on one hand, and the Atlantic Ocean on the other. They keep out the tidal-wave, and make both that gulf and sea all but tideless. None of these islands, except Hayti, are independent. Those near the coasts belong to the neighboring Repub- lics; but all the West Indies proper, that is, all the islands in the group that lie between Florida and the mouth of the Orinoco, or south of the Bahamas, belong to some European power, and are ruled by governors sent out for the purpose. Cuba is the largest of them all, and belongs, with Porto Rico, to Spain. They are governed by the Captain-General of Cuba. Martinique and Guadaloupe belong to France; St. Thomas, the islandof San Juan, and Santa Cruz to Den- mark ; Curacoa (cu-ra-so) and St. Eustatia to the Dutch, St. Bartholomew to Sweden, and the whole of the Bahamas, with Jamaica and the greater por- tion of the lesser Antilles, to Great Britain. The West India Islands, with the exception of the Bahamas, are all intertropical. They will produce almost anything that the inhabitants choose to cultivate, but their chief staples for export are coffee, sugar, and to- bacco, with summer fruits and garden vegetables for the markets of our northern cities. They have other industries and other sources of wealth besides those which spring from the soil. The sea and the mines, and their cigar foctories, are very profitable. Cuba. Cuba is called the Queen of the Antilles. It is 720 miles long and averages CO miles in width. In extent it embraces half the area included within all the islands ; it is in size equal to Tennessee. Havana, with a population of 150,000, is the chief seaport. 88 MAYTI. —JAMAICA.— THE BAHAMAS.— TURK'S ISLAND.— ST. THOMAS.— BARBADOES. A tTUEET SCENE IN HAVANA. It is the largest and most wealtliy city in tlie West Indies, and has one of the finest liarbors in the world. The entrance to it is narrow, and is guarded by the celebrated Moro Castle. The cathedral in Havana contains the remains of Christopher Columbus. Hayti Once belonged to France and Spain. The island is now inhabited chiefly by negroes and mulattoes, and is divided into the Republics of Hayti and San Domingo. The town of San Domingo is the oldest of the cities founded by Europeans in the New World. It was established in 1504, and contains 13,000 inhabitants. This island, like Central America, is unsurpassed in its agricultural re- sources, and is rich in minerals. The exports of Hayti consist of mahogany and other woods in the rough, a little cotton, and some coffee. Jamaica Is the third island in size, and belongs to England. Its exports are sugar, molasses, rum, coifee, tobacco, cocoa, allspice, and indigo. The Bahama Isl.-^ds belong to Great Britain. Nassau, the capital, is the chief town. The coral rocks and reefs which skirt these islands on the west are dan- gerous to navigation. Sponges, sea-shells, and corals are also collected in considerable quantities, and sent to New York and ul.uion 1,080,000 England " " \nmy Hayti " " 2^-0- France " " 1.0b"). Holland " " ■'>^'~>- Denmark " " 120. Sweden " " l-^- Note. — The population of San Domingo Questions. — Between what places, on the shores of North and South America, do the West India Islands lie?— Between what sheet.s of watei- do they form the dividing line ?— Wliich of these; i.slands are independent V— To whom did they belong? — Which is the largest of them ? — Point out those that belong to Spain — To France — To Denmark — To Holland — To Sweden — To England.— Compare Cuba with Tennessee. — Tell its population. — Wliich is the largest city in the West Indies ? — For what is it noted ? — Name some of O:jr),000 710,000 275,000 32,000 38,000 3,000 a prirtion of Hayti, is l;j(i,.')00. //(? q3 MAP STUDIES : MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND WEST INDIES a 5- ? w o o o ra 2 '^ ^ O > 8 2 a o — :i- ~ ^ W Is '32 S- 3 ^ - 1 ^ %^ 3 — ^ 5 "> — = 5 -d =• 3 (^ =: ;; -^ 'n rr. 'Z n 'M ^' ±f _ ^ ,« = S- r: n CO ::. o CQ & •3, O 3 " o o o. S ^ o I — I •— ■■ a o & ° 0:1 c:! CD -J P3 ^ bd H e-. 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O c» • -5 N s a r: o j! 3 i '^^ 9 g ?r -^ re a a -1 p p p '2 •:3 <1 a 2 n ^ '^ & ^* ^ 3 "^ 2 N TT 3 •^ --e 5 o o f" p 3 re p O ^ CO P • PC s Si a o o & p O 2 <-: a <« S^ 5 5'* ^ *« =3' h: ~ O Si a «5 r ^^ •« re 3 ^ •^ CO 2 90 SOUTH AMERICA. A N I M A I. AND VEGETABLE L 1 J' E c J E >( I I ' T II A M E li I <^ A . LESSOJ^ XLVIII. South America. (Map, p. 102.) 1. Shajye and Bxtent. — South America is triarifjn- lar in shape and lies partly in botli hemispheres, but by far the largest part of it is included within the tropics and in the southern hemisphere. The narrowest part ot North America and tue broadest part of South America lie between the tropics. As you recede from the Troi)ic of Cancer toward the North Pole, our continent gets broader and broader ; as you recede from the southern tropic toward the South Pole, South America gets narrower and narrower. The area of South America is 0,961,864 square miles, and the area of North America is 8,851,728 square miles. 2. Comparative Geof/i'aj^Jiy.—The great river of North America runs from North to South ; the great river of South America runs from west to east The Mississippi is extra-tropical. "With every degree of latitude in its course from north to south, it changes its climate; and with climate, production and industry vary. The Amazon is inter-tropical. It runs from west to east. It marks no change of climate, and the variety of production and industry along its banks is such only as is due to the change of height above the sea, as it flows eastwardly from the mountains to the ocean. Consequently, these two rivei-s already present conditions for striking con- trasts in their geographical relations and commercial aspects. The lessons of our science teach us to expect that when tliese two, the most magnificent river-basins in the world, shall be occupied, eacJi according to its cai)acity, the Mississippi will excel in way-business — the Ai'jazon in throurjh- commeree. 3. Mountains and Rivers. — The Andes skirt the shores of the Pacific all the way from Patagonia to Panama, and give to the Atlantic slopes of South America a breadth of area that comprises 15-16ths of the whole country. Consequently, all the great rivers of South America are diained toward the east and empty into the Atlantic Ocean. The waters tiiat are diaiiicil off into the Pacific are only mountain-streams that are fed by the meliinj; snows on the western slopes of the Andes. (See p. 96.) 4. Early Civilization. — What Montezuma and the Aztecs were to Mexico, the Indians, under Atahuali)a. were to Peru. What Cortez did to the former, Pizarro did to the latter. He claimed the whole of South America, as Cortez did of North America, for their master, the King of Spain. The Peruvians had beasts of burden, as the llama; the Aztecs had none, nor any other domestic animal. The Peruvians had i>ublic highways and paved roads. The remains of the great road from Quito to Cuzco, and thence along the plateau of the Andes to Chili, like tlie Appiaii Way to Ilome, arc still to be seen. This road was cimstructed, for nearly 1000 miles, over paililess heights buried in snow ; galleries were cut for leagues through the living rock ; EQUATORIAL SOUTH AMERICA : THE UNITED STATES .OF COLOMBIA.— VENEZUELA. 91 ravines were crossed by suspension bridges ; precipices were scaled by means of stairways hewn in their steep sides ; stone pillars were set up as mile-stones by the wayside to mark the distance. The breadth of this magnificent road was 20 feet ; it was paved with heavy flags, and covered in some parts with bituminous cement. The Peruvians had also temples, fortresses, terraced gardens, and aqueducts ; superb palaces and splendid cities. In Cuzco was their great temple of the sun, the most magnificent struc- ture in the New World, and in its day far sui'passing, for the costliness of decoration, any edifice in Europe. For the royal baths the water was con- ducted into bisins of gold through subterranean channels of silver. Cuzco, like the city of Mexico, on a table-land, is overlooked by snow-clad mountains, and stands 11,800 feet above the level of the sea. o. TJie Three Great Inland Basin S' — It is worthy of the geographer's notice that there are but three great inland basins in the New World: that of Cuzco, with Lake Titicaca ; that of Mexico, with Lake Tezcuco ; and the Lii-eat inland basin of North America, which includes L'tah, New Mexico, and Nevada, with the great Salt Lake. Of all parts of the continent, these inland basins most abound in the ruins of empires and in the memorials of ancient civilizations. 6*. I*hfjsical Geof/rajjJit/ of Intertropical America. — The physical geography of all of intertropical America is alike. Witliin this region soil and climate are found that are adapted to all the great agricultural staples of the world. Cotton, sugar, tobacco, cocoa, coffee, tea; the poppy, the banana, and potato ; hemp of several kinds, flax, cochineal, indigo, wheat, rice, corn, incense, gums, spices, perfumes, drugs, medicines, dye-stuiTs, and ornamental woods; with boundless pastures for herds and cattle of all sorts ; all these abound in this favored country as they do no- where else. Cochineal is a dye ; the insect feeds on cactus plants. Therefore, in telling of the agricultural i)roductions of one of these intertropical States, we describe the agricul- tural resources of them all. Quest ions. — 1, What is the area of the two Americas? — Of their Islands? — Compare North and South America. — Show their points of reseniblanc(! and contrast. 2. Compare the largest rivers.— Describe the influence which the course oi a river has upon its commerce. — Why should you expect the river traffic on the Mi.ssissijjpi always to surpass that of the Amazon? .'{. On wliicli side of Uie Andes are its largest rivers? — Into what ocean do fliey flow ? 4. How did the Peruvians compare in civilization with the Aztr-cs of Mexico?— Had tlie aborigines of America any beasts of burden? — Who was the ruling Inca when Pizarro invaded Peru ? .5. Describe tlie three American Inland Basins, and tell for what they lie remarkable. (I. What is said of the physical geography of intertropical America ?— What are the productions of the soil ? LESSOJV XLIX. Equatorial South America. (Map, p. 102.) The United States of Colombia. These States have a population of 2,900,000, and an area of 357,000 square miles. They are, in size, equal to Texas and New Mexico combined. The United States of Colombia, like British America and the United States, extend from sea to sea, ind em- brace Panama, with its railway, which is one of the chief sources of revenue to the State, and which, by treaty with the United States, is bound to be neutral in war. The farmers there grow corn, sugar, coffee, cocoa, and tobacco ; but they produce not much more of these than is required for the scanty home consumption. C;ii'tagena {car-ta-jeena) was once a great commercial mart of Spain. A few miles back from it, in the interior, is a group of those curious phe- nomena, the air volcanoes. They are truncated cones, about 25 feet high, filled with water. The plain on whieh they stand is about 10,000 feet above the sea. This city is the principal seaport of the Colombian States. In the colonial times it was a place of consider- able importance, but now its tenantless houses and deso- late streets show that not much business is done on its wharves. From Panama we get straw hats and grass hammocks, and these, with a little chocolate, are the chief manu- factures that come from these States. There are no manufacturing establishments of consequence in any part of intertroi)ical South America, except in the fiistmjsses of the mountains, where transportation of merchandise from the sea becomes very costly. Bogota, with a population of 45,000, the capital of the United States of Colombia, is situated 8,700 feet above the sea-level. It has two rainy seasons annually, so its climate all the year round is as charming and delightful as the month of May is with us. Persons at Bogota have only about three-fourths as much atmosphere above them as we have. The diminished pressure caused bj' this is often, at first, very distressing to strangers. The feeling is like that caused by a short- ness of breath. Indeed, owing to the diminished pressure, at great eleva- tions, the blood often gushes from the eyes, mouth, and ears of travellers who ascend the neighboring snow-capped peaks. In these mountains are found the two natural bridges of the Icononzo, which span a foaming torrent — one at the distance of 250, and the other 300 feet above. Silver, gold, and precious stones are found among the mountains in these States. Venezuela. Venezuela is about three times the size of the Islands of Great Britain and Ireland ])ut together. It contains 2 200,000 inhabitants, including 50,000 Indians, and has an area of 368,220 square miles. The early Spanish explorers, observing that the natives had built their houses on piles along the shores, called the country Venezuela or "Little Venice." It is traversed by the Orinoco river. It does not extend as far back as the crest of the Andes, and is therefore less mountainous than the United States of Colombia. 92 THE THREE GUIANAS.— ECUADOR, Venezuela is a prairie country. More than two-thirds of it, it is computed, consists of llanos (prairies), upon which immense herds of cattle constantly feed. These llanos (lyah'rws) lie mostly on the left bank of the Orinoco ; forests occupy the right bank, and extend tlience toward the south, where they min- gle with the selvas of the Amazon. A vast extent of these plains is annually overflowed. In the rainy season the low flat country of the Orinoco becomes, like the borders of the lower Nile, a boundless sea. Tliese waters teem with creepinij things: with alli- gators, reptiles, and the curious fish known as the electrical eel. Horses, when fording the pools, are sometimes knocked down by the latter. In the dry season verdant plains become barren wastes. The cattle wander for pasture off to the hills ; the ponds dry up, and the alligators bury tliemselves in the mud to hibernate till the coming of tlie next rainy season, when they may be seen coming up like hideous spectres from the bowels of the earth. The tides ascend the Orinoco to the distance of more than 200 miles ; above that, for a considerable distance, it is navigable. It was somewhere on the banks of the Orinoco that the vivid imagination of the early discoverers placed the gilded king, El Dorado, and his golden city of Manoa. The flora of Venezuela is wonderfully rich and varied. A species of mimosa grows wild there, which spreads out its umbrella-shaped top until it attains the enormous l)roportions of se¥eral hundred feet in circumference. Tlie "cow-tree" is also found in Venezuela; the natives Uip it and draw from it a milk-like beverage. Growing wild in its forest and U|)()n its llanos, there are iT} kinds of medicinal plants, 3G that yield gunis and resins, and 240 kinds of trees that yield excellent dye-stuffs or atford fine timber. In addition to these, 180 kinds of useful plants and vegetables are cultivated for food and domestic use. The inhabitants produce for export, but in (luantities by no means large, sugar, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, cotton, and indigo ; and their herds yield for the West India markets jerked beef and hides. Caracas, the capital, with a population of about 40,000, is a city famed for its elegant hospitality. It stands on the seashore, 3,000 feet above the water, and immediately in the rear is the "Silla"' (tlw saddle), which, with it^ two peaks, readies the lieight of 8,600 feet. They may be seen many miles out at sea, and are well known landmarks to the navigator. Caracas was the birthplace of Bolivar, sometimes called the Liberator, the Washington of South America. Varinas is noted for its tobacco. All this part of the countrj', as indeed are many other parts of Spani.sh America, is subject to earthquakes. Caracas was visited and well-nigh destroyed by one in 1812. Maracaybo is a fine old town, with 20,000 inhabitants. It lies within the air-volcano region spoken of in a former paragraph. Asphaltum and petroleum in large quantities have been cast up, and the " Lantern of Maracaybo" is a volcano lit up with petroleum prepared in the laboratories of nature. It serves as a lighthouse. Cumana was the most ancient city in South America. Eng It declined with the industry of the country, and in 1853 its ruin was com- pleted by an earthquake. Ciudad Bolivar is situated on the Orinoco, 240 miles above its mouth, and is an active place of business. It was there that this standard-bearer in the Spanish Revolution assembled the first Venezuelan Congress. The Three Guyanas. These three provinces belong respectively to the ish, French, and Dutch. They are the only por- tions of South America that remain in the possession of any European power. Together they are about the size of California, with an aggiegate popu- lalion of 246,000 ; viz., Hritisii Guyana, 103,000 ; French, 58,000 ; Dutcli, 25,000. Here the rainfall is greater than it is in any oth(;r part of the world, except on the Khasia Hills and at Cherrapungee in India. The Great Kaie- teur Waterfall is on a tributaiy of the Essequibo in British Guyana. It was discovered in 1870. It makes a clear leap of 822 feet where the river is 123 yards broad and 15 feel deep. The surrounding scenery is unique and pic- turesque, nuide so by a succession of long, flat-topi)ed mountains lising abrujitly from the plain, with precipitous sides like walls of masonry. Of lhe.se, Mt. Horaima is the most remarkable. It is 18 miles long and 7,500 feet high. The Essequibo, Orinoco, and Amazon, all have tributaries which take their rise on these singular elevations. They gather strength as they go, and, dashing down the mountain-sides, form a succession of the most beautiful cascades and waterfalls, some of which accomplish a leap of 1,500 feet at a bound. The coast country is low and flat. It is a continuation of the swamp-belt which skirts the seaboard all tlie way from tlie Dismal Swamp in Virginia through Mexico and Central and South America, till you pass the Delta of the Amazon. In all parts of this belt, but especially here, the air is filled with insects, vegetation is rank, and the forests teem with wild dogs, tiger-cats, armadilloes, deer, sloth, ant-eaters, wild boars, raccoons, opossums, etc. ; the tree-tops are lively with songsters, gay witli jjarasites, air-plants, and flowers, and noisy with howling monkeys, preaching monkeys, weeping monkeys, and monkeys of various other species. In lhe.se lowlands of intertropical America, as in the jungles of India, the forests are so thick set with trees and undergrowth, and so interwoven with vines, parasites, and air-plants, that the only way of getting through Uiem is to go by the watercourses in a canoe, and, unless you use the axe, you may travel a whole dsy without finding room on the banks to land, or a place among the trees large enough to light a lire upon. The interior is un- explored. It was on the upper waters of tlie Berblce (hcrlx-.i) River tliat the mag- nificent water-lily (Victoria Regia) was first discovered in 1837. Its leaves lie on the water like broad and shallow dishes ; they are large enough to float a child ; the flower is fragrant, white, and beautiful. Tlie Guyanas are inhabited by Negroes, Indians, and Europeans. The streams and rivers in the tide-water region of this country are deep and shiggisii— a sure sign that the country lies low, is flat, and has but little fall fiir drainage. The products are sugar, cocoa, and coffee, most of which is consumed in Europe. The capitals are the largest towns ; they are- Georgetown Population 25,000 Paramaribo " 20,000 Cayenne (from which we get the pepper) " 8,000 Ecuador. Ecuador is the Spanish for Equator. The Equator passes through this Republic, hence its name. ECUADOR. 93 Ecuador, with Venezuela and New Grenada, once formed the Republic of Colombia. Torn by faction and civil war, they separated about 30 years ago, and set up each a nationality of its own. The climates and capacity for production are similar to those of the United States of Colombia. Ecuador, with a population of 1,300,000, of which one-third are Indians, 8,000 negroes, and 37,000 mixed breeds, is fine for fruits and flowers. It is not so large as Texas. Quito, its capital, having a population of 80,000, is situ- ated 9,528 feet above the level of the sea. It lies at the foot of Pichincha, a volcanic mountain 18,976 feet high, with a crater half a mile deep. No less than eleven peaks, all white with their snow-caps, are in full view from the Plaza, or great public square of tliis city. Guayaquil, having a population of 18,000, is the port of Quito, and the principal seaport town of the Republic. From it are exported hides, straw hats, grass hammocks, timber, cacao, Peruvian bark, and tobacco. It is situated on the Guayaquil river, which is navigable thence to the sea for large vessels. The watere and shores of this stream, wliere there is no winter to freeze or to chill, are very prolific. The branches which hang in the river are often loaded with oysters, whicli cling to them as they do to tlie rocks — hence it is said that in Guayaquil " oysters grow on trees." Iguanos, alligators, and reptiles abound. Tlie natives on the banks of this river build tlieir liutson piles, to prevent tiieir children from being devoured by these monsters. It is here that you see the bud, the blossom, and the delicious fruit on the orange-tree all at the same time. There is a famous old University at Cuenpa ; and Loxa, which is 6,760 feet above the sea, was once famed for its cinchona forests. The bark of the cinchona-tree is the well-known " Peruvian bark" of commerce, and yields to the phar- maco[)ia of our times the valuable medicine of quinine. Instead of cutting down the tree, stripping all the bark from the trunk, and leaving the stump to put out a new growtli, tlie custom among those thrift- less people was to strip the tree as it stood, as high as they could reach, and then leave it standing with most of its bark still upon it. All trees left in tliat condition are attacked by a worm that destroys tliem root and branch. This tree is indigenous to the eastern slopes of the Andes, from Bolivia to the United States of Colombia, and to no other part of the world. The cinchona forests are nearly all destroyed. The hamlet of Antisana, at the height of 13,500 feet, was long thought to be the highest human habitation on the earth ; but there are in Peru inhabited places much liigher, such as the village of Tacora, which is 196 feet higher, and the Relay House of Rumihuasi, in Peru, 15,540 feet. This station is situated at the edge of the snow-line. At the Equator the snow-line is 16,000 feet above the level of the sea. Beyond that height the air is too attenuated for long-continued human existence. There is about the Equator in this Republic a group of remarkable mountain-peaks. Among them is the dome-shaped Chimborazo, one of nature's most impos- ing structures, standing at the enormous elevation of four miles in perpen- dicular height above the level of the sea. The Andes also have higher peaks than Chimborazo. Mariners have descried this mountain at the distance of more than one hundred miles out at sea, and by moonlight the author has seen it at the distance of ninety miles. Last in this wonderful arra}"" of burning mountains, with their layers of colored snow, we come to the terrific and awfully grand Cotopaxi, the loftiest volcano of the Andes. It is near the Equator, and stands in perpendicular height 18,870 feet above the surface of the sea. In its eruptions, and with a noise that is said to have been heard at the distance of six hundred miles, it shoots out a column of flame into the upper air half a mile high. All the way from the Straits of Magellan up, theie is, arranged along on the tops of the Andes, like a line of sentinels, a succession of these snow- capped volcanoes. The Galapagos Islands, situated -under ''the /u/e,"* belong to Ecuador ; they are the only inhabitable group of islands in the Pacific Ocean that were uninhabited at the time of their discovery. Quesfious. — What are tlie area and population of the United States of Colombia? — In wlial country does the Panama railway lie? — What do we get from Panama? — What are the chief agricultural staples for which the climates of these States are adapted? — Wliere are the chief branches of manufecture in South America? — Describe the air volcanoes. What is the capital of the United States of Colombia? — What is iis I)opulation ? — What is said of Bogota and the ascent of its surrounding peaks ? Describe their climate. — What inconvenience do travellers experience when they ascend high mountains? What are the mineral resources of the United States of Colombia ? What are the area and population of Venezuela? — What large river has it? — How does tlie face of the country compare with that of the United States of Colombia ? — What are its chief sources of wealth ? — What are tiie Llanos? — Describe tlie seasons. — Tlie overflowing of the Orinoco. — The aspect of the country in the rainy season, and then in the diy. Describe the flora of Venezuela, with the mimosa and the "cow-tree." — What does Venezuela export? What is the population or the capital? — Describe the sUla of Caracas. — Wliat place in Venezuela is celebrated for its tobacco? — For what is Caracas celebrated? — Tell about the ancient city of Cumana, and the celebritji of tlie Ciudad Bolivar. What are theGuyanas?— Describe the Guyinas and tell their size.— What is their population ?—TIieir climate and productions ?— Describe the rivers and the rainfall of that part of this country.— Describe the forests and rivers of these countries, with the beasts, birds, fish, and reptiles that are found in them. — Wliat celebrated flowering-plant was first discovered in the Berbice ? —Can you tell anything about the Victoria Kegia? — By whom are the Gui- anas inhabited? — What is the population of their capitals? — What do we get from there ? * The Equator is called by pailorg " the line." 94 BRAZIL. How does Ecuador derive its name? — What is tlie port of Quito? — What paradox does the Guayaquil river present? — Which city is situated at tlie greatest height above the sea, Mexico, Bogota, or Quito? — Describe tlie situa- tion of Quito. — Describe the situation of Guayaquil. — Tell its exports. — Tell about the river and the country-houses on its banks. — What is the chinchona- tree ?— Describe these Stated in their orographical aspects.— (The scholar may examine, at this point, the Orograjjhic View of the Valley of the Amazon, p. 9G). LESSOJV L. Equatorial South Amoxica. Brazil. The chief magistrate of Brazil is the only ruler in America that wears a crown. This empire lies between the parallels of 4° north latitude and 30° south latitude. For geniality of cli- mate, breadth of border, and capacity for production, it is surpassed by no country on the globe. With an area (3,230,000 square miles) ,arger than that of the United States without Alaska, Brazil has a little more than one-fourth as many inhabitants as we have. It is a limited monarchy. Brazil was accidentally discovered by a Portuguese navigator in the year 1500. He was bound to India, and, much against his will, was drifted to the westward by the trade-wind, and found himself on a lee-shore near Cape St. Iloque. Owing to this circumstance Portugal asserted her rights as a discoverer, and Brazil became a Portuguese po-ssession, and was colonized by Portugal. Its inhabitants are of ditferent races and of mixed bloods. The " King of Rivers," as the Indians call the Amazon, diains the largest imrtion of Brazil. TBB LOWER AMAZON. This river has tributaries that in their course traverse more parallels of latitude than the Mississippi does. The La Plata, too, has its head-waters in this empire. There is a gentleman iu the province of Matte O rosso who has in his garden two never-failing springs. One flows northwardly, into the Amazon, tlie other soutliwardl3% into the La Plata, and the distance between the navigable waters of these two rivers is only some three leagues, so that if a canal were cut across tliis portage, inland navigation would be possible from Buenos Ayres, up the La Plata into the Madeira, thence into the Amazon and the Rio Negro, thence through the Cassiquiare into the Orinoco. The language of the country is Portuguese, and the religion, like that of all Sjjanish America, the Roman Catholic. Its principal industries are agricultural, pastoral, and mining. Coffee, at present, is the great agricultural staple, and the United States the principal consumer of it. Both Europe and the United States are sup- plied with this berry mainly by Brazil. Indigo, sugar, mandioc, and cotton are by no means unimportant articles of cultivation and export. The cotton of Brazil ranks, in the Liverpool markets, with our own, wiiicli is the most esteemed ot any. Cattle, as in the La Plata country, are raised chiefly for their horns and bones, hides and tallow, large quan- tities of which are brought to the United States. The richest gold-mines in the world are in Brazil, which also has diamond-mines, and precious stones of rare beauty and great value, with exhaustless treasures of the baser metals, such as copper, zinc, lead, iron, etc. The diamond-mines are in the province of Miuas Geraes. Besides cattle, the plains and forests of Brazil abound in birds and insects of the most brilliant casques and beautiful plumage. The catching of them, for ornament;il work, is a special branch of indus- try. The feather-work from the convents of Brazil is famed for its elegance. From the forests of Brazil we get our chief supi)lies of india-rubber. The best comes from the Amazon. Other gums, spices, nuts, perfumes, drugs, ))alsams, and medicines, such as rhubarb, sarsaparilla, jalap, sassafras, holy wood, dragon's blood, licorice, and ginger, amounting to a large sum in value, are likewise exported from Para. -- -- — — —- Brazil, consider- ing its extent, is one of the most abun- dantly watered r " ^ countries in the world. Tlie num- ber and length of the rivers indicate this. The waters of the Ama- zon abound in a species of turtle tliat is highly es- teemed as an article of food, and valued on account of tlie oil obtained from its eggs. At the laying season it scrapes a hole in the sand in which a single terrajiin will deposit a half-bushel or more of eggs ; it then fills up the hole with sand and leaves them to hatch by the warmth of the sun. The egg-hunters collect many millions of them annually. On the banks of the Amazon the boa-constrictor and alligators are abundant, and all along its borders vines L THE ANDEAN STATES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 9^ and parasites cover the trees and make the woods gay with the most beautiful flowers. Parrots build their nests, and other birds sing among the branches of the trees, which are so closely matted together that the monkeys may travel for days on the tree-tops without ever coming to the ground. The valley drained by the Amazon contains an area of 1,796,000 square miles. The Cassiquiare (cah-see-kcc-ah're) forks, one branch flowing; north into the Orinoco, the other south into the Amazon. It unites these two river systems, and brings the valleys drained by them into one hydrographic basin. If, therefore, we include the valley of the Orinoco, we have, in South America, a river basin that contains more than two millions of square miles. Belgium has a population of 440 persons to the square mile. According to this rate, there is room in this maguiticum livur basin for more than 800,000,000 of people. There is a line of steamers on the Amazon that ply regularly between Para, at its mouth, and Nauta in Peru. (See Map, p. 96.) The Madeira is its largest tributary. Its navigability is interrupted by rapids at the distance of about 1000 miles from its mouth. Above these falls it is again navigable for five hundred miles or more. Rio (le Janeiro, generally called Rio— tlic capital of tlic cnii)iie, and its cliief city— with a population of 420,000, aud a harbor unsurpassed, is the largest city in the Southern Hemisphere ; and, with its museums, its institutions of learning, its operas, prados, public promenades, and botanical gardens, is the most splendid capital in the New World. Bahia, with a population of 150,000 ; Pernambuco, of 120,000; and Para, of 10,000, are the other chief towns in Brazil. The United States have a large trade with Brazil. Questions. — Between what parallels of latitude does Brazil lie ? — De- scribe it. — When and how was it discoverd ? — By wlioni was it settled ? — By whom is it now peopled ? — What is its form of government? — Describe the climates and productions of Brazil. — Describe the garden springs of Matte Qrosso. — Suppose a voyager should undertake to go in a canoe, by inland nav- igatiou, from the mouth of the La Plata to the mouth of the Orinoco, what route would he take, and what portage would he make? — Wliat are the lan- guage, the religion, and the chief industries of Bnirds answering to their ostrich and condor. The wild cattle of ihe pampas are chiefly descended from cattle brought from Europe. They became so numerous that immense herds of mares were slaughtered solely to obtain grease for the soap-boiler. Instances have been known in which, owing to the scar- city of wood, carcasses of sheep were used for the brick-kilns of Buenos Ayres. Great numbers of cattle are still slaughtered for their hides, hair, horns, and bones, which are brought to our coun- try to be dressed and prepared for use. This country is at present attracting more immigration than any other part of Spanish America, and its government has decided upon a liberal policy to encourage it, exempting the immigrant from military conscription and his farming implements from custom- house duty, at the same time making liberal concessions with regard to lands. Thus encouraged, a tide of immi- gration is setting thitherward from Itah', France, Eng- land, and the United States. The La Plata with its valley is the Mississippi of South America. Its coui-se, unlike that of the Amazon, is not along parallels of latitude, but like that of the Mississippi, across them. With every bend in the river you reach a different latitude, and with eveiy new latitude there is a change of climate, and with change of climate there always follows change of human wants and change of productions. THE ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION. — PARAGUAY. — URUGUAY. lOI The course of the La Plata, with its tributaries, from north to south traverses 23° of latitude. The valleys drained by these two rivers embrace these areas : — the Mis- sissippi, 982,000 square miles, and the La Plata, 886,000 square miles. The La Plata crosses more degrees of latitude; the Mississippi drains the broad- est but the La Plata the longest valley; and within this long valley are soils adapted to the cultivation of wheat, corn, coffee, tobacco, sugar, rice, cocoa, hemp, flax, indigo, and mandioca. Land is cheap and abundant, and the pampas for pasturage are boundless commons. There is a large exportation of horns, hair, hides, jerked beef, etc., from this country to Europe. The climate of this river-basin is free from frost and remarkably healthy. Furious tornadoes, calletl pamperos, sweep across the pampas to the sea. They are sometimes accompanied by those fearful dischai-ges of thunder and lightning which engender the " fulgurite." In the absence of pinnacles the lightning often strikes the ground. It then makes a hole in the earth, melts the sand, and leaves around the hole a vitrified funnel-shaped mass. As in all the other parts of Spanish America, the Spaniards, though in the minority as regards numbers, are in the ascendant as to control and manage- ment. Theirs is the language of the country. The majority of the inhabit- ants consists of Indians and cross-breeds, and is Roman Catholic in religion. Those that live on the pampas are most expert horsemen. They have the liabit, when going to the charge in battle, of throwing the heel across the horse's back and riding under his belly. These are the Gauchos. They are very dexterous in using the lasso. Armed only with this, they chase over tlie pampas the ostrich, the wild horse, and the bullock, and they throw the lasso with such precision that they can catch the biid or the beast by the f(j()t while it is yet lifted in flight. GAUCUOS CATCUINQ CATTLE. Tli(! governments of all the fifteen nations of Spanish America are republican in form. The Argentine Confederation. This Republic, sometimes called Argentina, contains only 1,465,000 inhabitants, though it has an area of 820,000 square miles. It has a larger area than that of any nation in Europe except Russia. Buenos Ayres, the capital, is also the chief town of the confederation, and has a population variously esti- mated at from 120,000 to 200,000. You observe that the La Plata has no delta. Its mouth is an estuary of the sea, which as high up as Buenos Ayres is still 30 miles broad. The water as you approach the shore is shallow, so that vessels have to anchor several miles out and use lighters for loading and unloading. All this part of the country is stoneless and treeless. There is a line of railway in process of construction by way of Rosario and Cordova, which is designed, at no distant day, to connect Buenos Ayres, on the At- lantic, with Valparaiso, on the Pacific. The Salado is remarkable for its brackish water. Tucuman, with its 11,000 inhabitants, stands in the " Garden of Argen- tine ;" 8dn Juan, at the foot of the Andes, is a flourishing new town of 20,000 people. The first congress of the La I'lata States was held there in 1816. Paraguay Has an area of 126,000 square miles, and a popula- tion of 1,337,000. Though called a Republic, Paraguay has been goveined by three dicta- tors ever since the loss by Spain of these colonics. First by Doctor Francia who would allow no foreigner to come within his dominions; then by Lopez, and afterward by his son ; and of all the Spanish American countries, it 1ms had tlie most stable government and prosperous industry. Paraguay jiroduces a holly, which the inhabitants call yerha (the vegetitble), and of which mate is made. Mate is a tea, and is a favorite beverage in Brazil and throughout all the La Plata country, Bolivia, Chili, and Peru. It is the only nation in America without a sea front. Asuncion, the capital, is also the chief town. It is estimated to contain between 12,000 and 20,000 inhabitants. The La Plata, with the Parana and Paraguay, is navigable for steamboats far above Asuncion. Uruguay Is the smallest of the South American Republics, and is not quite as large as Missouri. It contains a population of only 241,000. Its capital, Montevideo, with a population of 100, 000, is situated near the mouth of the river, where it is GO miles wide, and has an extensive commerce both with England and the United States. Lines of steamers now ply regularly up and down the La Plata. Questions. — Where is the La Plata country ? — By wliat States is it occu- pied? — What are the chief industries of these States V— Describe the pampas. — Is there any immigration to the La Plata country ? — Why is the La Plata called the Mississippi of the southern hemisphere ?— Compare the valleys of the two rivers, their length, and the direction .in which they run. — Describe the climate, productions, and exports of the La Plata country. — Its lan- guage and religion.— What are fulgurites ? — Pamperos ?— Who are the Gau- chos ?— What is the form of government?— What is the area and populalion of the Argentine Confederation ?— Of Uruguay ?— Of Paraguay?— Descrilie the Argentine Confederation. — Its capital and chief towns. Describe Tucuman, and the route of the proposed I'ailway from Valpa- raiso to Buenos Ayres. — How has Paraguay been governed ? — What are its area and population ?— What is mate, and where does it coine from ?— What is the population of Uruguay? STUDIES ON THE MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA. 103 LESSOJV LIII. Studies on the Map of South America. Boiindaries. How is South America bounded ? — Through, and near what countries does the Equator pass ? — Between what nieridians of longitude does South America lie ? — What parts of South America are traversed by the Andes ? — By the Amazon river? — By the Rio de La Plata? — What countries lie south of the Tropic of Capricorn ?— Upon what parallel of latitude does Cape Horn lieV — Through liow many degrees of latitude does South America extend? How do you bound the United States of Colombia ? — How do you bound Venezuela ?— The Guyauas '—Ecuador ?— Brazil ?— Peru ?— Bolivia ?— Chili ? — The Argentine Confederation ? — Paraguay ? — Uruguay ? Islands. • Where are the Falkland Islands? — Chiloe? — Juan Fernandez? — The Chincha Islands ?— St. Felix ?— Barbadoes ? — Staten ?— Tierni del Fuego ? Mountains. Name the chief range of mountains. — In what direction do they run ? — Wiiat moimtains can you name in the northeastern part of South America? — What, in Brazil? — Tlie highest peak of the AndcT? — Wlicre is Pichincha? — Cotopaxi ? — Chimborazo ? — Aconcagua ? — Illimani ? Rivers. What is the course of the Magdalena river? — Of the Amazon river? — Of the Orinoco ?— Of the Rio de La Plata?— Of the Madeira?— The Ucayalc? —The Huallaga?— Tlie Tocantins?— The Cassiquiarc ?— The Parana ?—Tiic Para? — The Paraguay? — The Uruguay? — Does the Amazon receive most of its tributaries from tlie soulli or from tiie north ? — Name the largest tributaries of the Amazon— Of tlie La Plata.— Where does the Magdalena river empty? —Into wliat ocean is Soiitli America chiefly drained ?— Where is tlie Piirus? — The Pilcomayo?— The Mamore?— Tell where Uie Essequibo river is. ^ . Gulfs and Bays. Begin at the Isthmus of Panama, and nanu' the chief bays that indent the coa-st of South America. — Name, in the same way, the chief gulfs. Capes. What ari! the chief capes of South America ? — Name them, in order, from Panama around the continent? — Where is Cape St. Maria? — Cape St. Roquc? —Cape Frio?— Cape San Antonio ?— Cape Horn ?— Cape Blanco ? Lakes. Name the principal lakes of South America. — Where is Lake Titicaca? — Where is Lake AuUagas? — Guanac ulic? — .\I;\racaybo ? Political Divisions. Name the political divisions of South America. — Which is the largest? — Which is the smallest? — How far, in an easterly direction, do the United States of Colombia extend ? — What two important cities on the isthmus, con- nected by railway, lie within these States ? — Does the greater or less part of Ecuador lie east of the Andes ? Chief Cities. Where is Aspinwall ? — Panama ? — Bogota ? — Caracas ? — Georgetown ? — Quito ?— Paramaribo ? — Cayenne ? — Rio de Janeiro ? — Montevideo ? — Buenos Ayres ? — Sucre ? — Asun^on ? — Lima ? — Callao ? — Santiago ? — Valparaiso ? Where is Maracaybo ?— Triaxillo ? — La Guayra ? — Cumana ? — Cuzco ? — Arequipa ? — Guayaquil ?-Conception? — Villa Rica ? — Nauta ?— Para ? — Mar- anham ? — Pernambuco ? — Bahia ? — Diamantino ? ^ Cuyaba ? — Victoria? — Caldera?— Cobija? — La Paz ?— Where is Coquimbo ? — Copiapo? — Potosi?— Ayacucho. Routet^ and Distances. In what direction and what distance (always, of course, using the scale of miles) is Bogota from Cartagena? — From Panama? — From Quito? How far is Quito from Lima? — Prom Guayaquil ? — From Valparaiso? How far is Quito from the mouth of the Amazon? — How wide is South America on the Tropic of Capricorn ? How far is it from Rio to Asuncion? — To Montevideo? — How far is Asuncion from the sea ? — How far, from Rio to Bahia ? — To Para ? — How far are the Galapagos Islands (Map, p. 20) from the coast of the continent ? Miscellaneous. Which of the countries of South America has the greatest extent of sea- coast? — What extent of sea-coast has Ecuador? — Can you point out on the map where the chinch;)na-tree grows ? — Can you point out on the map the famous old road of the Incas (see page 90) ? — Can you find the hamlet of Antisana (13,453 feet above the sea)? — Point out the Cumbre Pass. It Imds _from Valparaiso to Mendozn, mider (he shadow of Aconcagua. The summit of Aconcarjua is several thovsund feet above the snow-line. 16,000 ft. SNOW-LINE At the Equator tJie snow-line is \{\fi()0 feft high, and the furtlier you go from the Equator, eitli^r to the north or the south, the lower is tlie snow-line, until, nboni the 70th parallel of latitude,it touches tlie earth's surface. This is a geographical law which you ought to remember. Where is Hermit Island ? — Trinidad ? — The desert of Atacama ? I04 EUROPE. "'^^^^AVV^ SCENERY ANn A N I M A I- LIPE IN EUROrE. LESSOJV LIV, Europe. (Map, p. 124.) 1. Political Geoifraphy. — Europe is an oM country, and its nationalities count their ages by centuries. The States of Europe are four Republics, four Em- pires, and fourteen Kingdoms, besides a number of Duchies, Principalities, and free States which belong chiefly to Grermany, and arc not recognized among nations as separate and independent powers. The new Gei-mau Empire includes the kingdoms of Prussia, Saxony, Ba- varia, and Wiirtemberg — all of wliicU. are one power. Sweden and Norway are under one king, and the Emperor of Austria is king of Hungary also. These four countries, therefore, make but two powers. Of the nations of Europe one is infidel, and the rest are either Roman Catholic, Greek, or Protestant. Europe is well developed and overflowing with popu- lation. Two of the States of America are each nearly as large as Europe. But Europe contains seven times the population of the United States, and more than twenty times that of Brazil. Europe lies chiefly in the North Temperate Zone. The habitable portions of America lie in the Torrid Zone as well as in the two Temperate Zones. In Europe, land is dear and labor abundant. In America, land is cheaj) and labor scarce. From such points of resemblance and contrast between tliese two coun- tries, we arrive at conclusions of high import to the political gcograi)her; for the facts just stated show that it is easier for the working-man to make a living in a new country, as America, where land is cheap and labor dear, than it is in an old one like England, where land is dear and labor clieap. Hence the great migration of men from the Old World to the New. ^. Social Features. — To an American who visits Europe for the first time, the most striking features in its political geography are the high state of improvement i)f the country, the absence of fences, the vast extent of cultivated or improved lands in proportion to wood- lands, the number of villages and lordly mansions and spacious barns and outhouses, which such an extent of highly cultivated fields suggests. He is surprised also, at the number of female laborers that he sees in the fields, especially on the continent. In America, particularly in the Southern States, both farmers and laborers generally reside on the farms ; but in England, France, and Germany they usually reside in towns and villages. The excellence of the country roads, the size of the carts, and the im- mense loads that he meets, drawn by one or two horses, also attract tlie at- tention of the American in Europe. 3. Population. — Europe is so thickly settled that there is one person EUROPE. io5 to every eight and one-half acres of land, whereas in America there is one only for every one hundred and twenty acres. 4. Occupations. — You may observe by the map that Austria and Prussia have a small extent of sea-coast ; consequently, they have never had a large seafaring population. It is the seafaring population of every countrv that furnishes it with sailors for its navv. Hence Austria and Prussia, though ranking as first- class powers, have never been ranked among the great naval powers of Europe. On the other hand, Greece, Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, England, Holland, and Denmark are on the sea, and are regarded as the mari- time States of Europe. Spain and Portugal are called the Peninsula. 5. Xfitui'fil Peculiarities. — The Volga is the largest, but the Danube and the Rhine are the two most impor- tant rivers in Europe, and the Alps the highest moun- tains. The highest peaks of the Alps are about 15,000 feet above the sea-level. Do you remember that you have been told to consider, in your geographical studies, the slopes of the mountains and hills in every country as watersheds, and the rivers as gutters for carrying off the water and emptying it into the sea ? Now j^ou can tell why, in Europe, we have no such rivers as the Amazon, the Mississippi, and the La Plata. You observe that the continent of Europe is not one-third the size of America. The mountain-ranges of Europe lie, some east, some west, some north and south, and some obliquely to these : they therefore divide it out into a great number of river- basins or watersheds, each of which (as you will see by studj'ing the Orographic Yiew of Central Europe, p. 119), is drained directly into the sea. In South America there is but one grand range of mountains — in North America but two, one of which, the AUeghanies, runs to the northeast, and the other, the Rocky Mountains, to the northwest, with a great valley and immense watersheds between them. The highest peaks of the Alps are always covered with snow. Immense fields of ice, called Glaciers, are formed on the sides of the mountains, and are always sliding from the top toward the bottom. They bear to the moun- tains very much the same relation that snow-slides do to the roof of a house. There are about 400 glaciers between Mont Blanc and the Tyrol in Germany. 0. Climates and Productions. — Stretching from the heated waters of the Mediterranean up to the frozen ocean of the north, Europe has every variety of cli- mates and productions except those of equatorial lands. 14 7. Natiofialities. — Only one-third of the Russian and Turkish empires lie in Europe ; they are, neverthe- less, classed among the European powers. The European powers, in the order of their respective population, consist of — Fow Empires. — Russia, Germany, the Austro-Hun- garian Empire, and Turkey. Foiirtee)i Kingdoms. — Great Britain, Prussia, Italy, Spain, Holland, Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Portu- gal, Belgium, Bavaria, Saxony, Wiirtemberg, Greece, and Hungary. Four Republics. — France, Switzerland, Andorra, and San Marino. Five Grand Duchies, Eigid Duchies, Four Free Cities, Nine Principalities, One Landgraviate, One Electorate. All that part of Europe that extends from the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic, to Switzerland, Italy, and the Adriatic on the South ; from Belgium, Holland, and France, to Russia, Galicia, and Hungary on the east, is called Germany, not because it is one power, but because it is inhabited by the "yellow-haired" races who speak German, and who have agreed to maintain a certain community of interests. These peo- ple, numbering at least 57,000,000, occupy an area of 332,000 sq. miles in the heart of Europe. But tills country, as the map shows, lacks sea-front, except upon what are called " closed seas," and therefore, though a mighty nation and power- ful on land, the Germans have never been ranked as a naval power. Questions. — 1. Is Europe an old country? — How many nations are mere in Europe V — How many kingdoms are there in Europe ? — -Emijires ? — Republics? — Which countries have the same king? — What is the religion of Europe ? — Which is the most densely populated country, Europe or America ? — What two American nations are each nearly as large as Europe ? — Can you explain why there is such a large tide of immigration flowing from Europe into America ? 2. When a traveller from America visits Europe for the first time, what geographical subjects most (excite his notice? — Do the farmers and planters in the South generally reside in town or country ? — Where do those of Europe reside ? 3. How many acres of land in Europe to the inhabitant ? — How many in America ? 4r, Why cannot Austria and Prussia boast of a large seafaring population ? — Are they first-class powers ? — Have they never been ranked among the great naval powers? — Which are the maritime powers of Europe? — What nations occupy the Peninsula ? .5. What are the most important rivers and the highest mountains of Europe ? — How high are the tallest peaks of the Alps? — Why do you see no such rivers in Europe as the Amazon, La Plata, etc. ? — What are glaciers? (i. What is said of the cliuiates and productions of Europe? 7. Are Russia and Turkey classed with the European powers? — How much of their territory lies in Europe? — Name the Empires of Europe in the order of their population. — Name the Kingdoms. — Which is the largest in size? — Name the Republics, and point them out on the map. — How many Free Cities are there? — How many Principalities? — What nations constitute Germany? — Why are they called Germany? — What is their i)opulation? — Area? io6 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. LESSOJ^ LV. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 1. JPolitical Geoffraphy. — ^Tn okleii times, England, Ireland, and Scotland were separate and independent kingdoms. About 250 years ago they were brought together under the rule of King James I., and were called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The United Kingdom consists of two principal islands and a number of smaller ones in the adjacent waters. The island of Great Britain includes England, Scot- land, and Wales. Ireland and Scotland are in size each equal to Maine ; Wales to Massachusetts, and England to Alabama. The government is monarchical, but liberal. The majorit}' of the people profess the Protestant religion, and the Episcopal church is the Church of the State. This small country has ruled the :^ seas and spread her name in all parts ^ of the world. She has carried her conquests and established her col- onies so widely that the sun never sets upon them. Hav colonial posses- sions have an area of 8,500.000 sq. ms. and a population of 165,000,000. She rules one-seventh of all the people, and owns one-sixth of all the land in the world. She is the richest nation, and excels all others in tlic extent of her manufacturing, sea- faring, and commercial industries. We and the English have the same literature and speak the same language. We de- rive our notions of law and liberty from the same source. We carry on more commerce with the English and are more closely al- lied to them than to any other people or nation, and therefore, to an Ameri- can, the geography of England is almost as interesting and as important as the geography of his own country. Moreover, it is instructive for you to examine into the geographical con- ditions that are peculiar to England, and which have helped her to ascend so high in the scale of national greatness and renown. 2. Early and Stibsequent Development. — Four hundred years ago, neither the existence of America nor the passage round the Cape of Good Hope was known. In the ignorance then existing as to the science of navigation, commerce was carried on chiefly by caravans overland. Ships dared not launch out upon the broad ocean because they could not find their way ; the instruments of navigation were so rude that voyages were confined to closed sheets of water like the Black and Mediterranean Seas. In this state of things England found herself excluded, in a groat meas- ure, from the commercial circle of the world, wiiich at that time consisted of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Trade was carried on chiefly by caravans. 3. Positioti. — But after the discoveries of Columbus, and after Vasco dc Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope, conunerce began to unfold its wings and spread them over the seas. It abandoned the backs of camels and asses, and, instead, took to ships. From that moment England began to occupy a new commercial position. iVs ships began to do the cariying business of the world, the insular position of Great Britain told immensely in her favor, and in more ways than one, for, besides giving her the lead in the conunercial race, which all the maritime nations of Europe at once commenced to run, it protected her oftentimes from hostile invasions to Mhicli her competitors were liable. From having occupied the utmost verge of the world's commercial circle, England now stood in its very focus. From the white chalky cliffs on the south coast of the island, near the Strait of Dover and the city of that name, England obtained, in early times, the name of Albion. ( HAI, K CI. IF PS OP IX) VI 4. Plttpilcal aeof/rap/n/.—VihQn you study Physi- cal Geography (and there is no branch of knowledge more interesting and instructive) you will understand how that, the very moment Colnmbus reported the ex- istence of "the New World," the winds and currents of the sea conspiring, England at once became the outpost and half-way house for Europe. You will understand how that, in consequence of the great discovery of Vasco de Gama, vessels trading to India from England could oftentimes pass the (Aipe of Good Hope even before their competitors from Venice, Genoa, and other Mediterranean ports could clear the Strait of Gibraltar — and how that England thus became the entrcpnt between the " Old World'' and the " New.'" 5. Ttiflusfri/ and Itesources. — The position of England being in- ENGLAND. 107 sular, her population, as commerce increased, became more and more sea- faring, and thus tlie elements of naval strength and power were placed within her reach. Her hills and valleys were richly stored with iron and copper, tin, lead, and coal, and other minerals. They became the source of a great mining industry. In modern times, another agent has arisen which the geographer is bound to take knowledge of in its influ- ences upon his science. It is destined, in a measure, to compensate other nations for the advantages which England derived from her position with regard to the winds and currents of the sea. The modern steamship is to a great extent independent of these natural agen- cies, and has served to diminish, rehi lively, the naval and commercial superiority of England. Questions,— J. Why do you call the kingdom of Great Britain the United Kingdom V — Describe tlie means by which England acquired her importance. — Why should the geography of the British Isles be so interesting to us ? 2. How was the commerce of the world earned on before the dis- covery of America and of the passage around the Cape of Good Hope? — Why •was England geographically excluded from that commerce? 3. Enumerate the advantages which England derived from lier insular position. 4, What may we learn upon this subject from physical geography? .5. In what industry did tlie people engage ? — What is said of the English mineral resouices ? — What is said of the modern steamsliip? LESSOJV LVI. The United Kingdom — Continued. England and Wales. The island of G-reat Britain is in the region of west winds. Its shores are bathed by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream and consequently its win- ter climates are mild — milder thanfS the winter climate of South Carolina. Look at Mercator's map and see the difference in latitude between South Carolina and the British Isles, and tlicn you will be better able to ap- preciate the modifying influence oJ this stream and of these winds upon the climate. In consequence of her geographical po.sitiou, the fields of England are green all the winter through. The country is highly pastoral as well as agricultural. Wheat, hay, pease, hops, and the root crops, are the chief agricultural staples. But, as great and important a^ these branches of industry now are, and, unlimited as her capacities now are to sustain population, yet 300 years ago, in the time of Elizabeth, she could not, with- out the frequent visitation of the most severe famine, sustain a population of 4,000,000. London, the capital of the United Kingdom, is situ- ated on both banks of the Thames, and a few miles be- low the head of tide-water navigation, above which the river becomes an insignificant stream. Parliament sits, and the Queen holds her Court, in London. It is the largest city in the world ; it covers an area (122 sq. ms.) twice as large as the District of Columbia, and contained, April 1, 1871, 3,880,000 inhabitants. In England the railroads have double tracks. They are not allowed to cross each other on the same level, as they do with us, but they are com- pelled to cross by going under or over. In London the cars on some lines run over the house-tops, and on others under ground and below the cellars and basements of the houses. There are 28 tow-ns in England and in Wales, 4 in Scotland, and 3 in Ire- land, with a population of more than 50,000 each. Among these are Livci-- pool, Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Newcastle, Stokc- upon-Trent, Hull; in Scoiiaiul, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee, and Aberdeen; and, in Ireland, Dublin, Belfast, and Cork. Liverpool is the grand cotton market of the world. Manchester, only 37 miles distant, is the chief place for its manufacture. Next to London, Liverpool is more extensively engaged in commerce than any other city. Birmingham is in the "Black Country'' — made so by its number of coal and iron mines. It is the great iron mart of England Leeds is widely known for its woollens, Nottingham for its laces and stockings, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne for its coal trade, glass bottles, and chemicals. Sheffield is celebrated for its cutlery and shot-proof iron plates for men-of-war. BTBEL-WORKB AT f H E F P I K L D . Meridi&n of Qreeuwich. SCOTLAND.— STUDIES ON THE MAP OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 109 Portsmouth and Chatham are among the chief naval stations. The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge are the most famous in England. Wales is a hilly country, and its high state of im- provement makes some of its landscapes most lovely. Wales is celebrated for its mines, especially those of coal and copper, a tunnel in one of which has been car- ried out some distance under the sea, where it is still worked. Merthyr-Tydfil, with a population of 97,000, is the largest town in Wales. Scotland Is the most mountainous part of the island. Its geo- graphical position makes it also the most dreary and bleak. In winter the winds are cold, and the nights long. In the extreme northern parts there is at the time of the summer solstice no night. The sun sets, but a twilight, bright euyUgh to read by, lasts until sunrise again. The chief agricultural staples in Scotland are oats, barlej', and the root crops. The hills afford fine sheep-walks, and good pasturage for cattle. Among the hills of Scotland are found those beautiful lakes which histoiy, soiiLr, and story have made so famous. Many tourists visit the llii^hlands of Scotland annually, merely to enjoy the beautiful scenery and to indulge their fancy in associations around which history and romance have thrown their enchantments. Tlie Scotch are a steady and thrifty people, fond of learning, and given to hospitality. In religion they are inclined, for the most part, to the Presbyterian form of worship, as the Irish are to the Roman Catholic, and the English to the Episcopal form. Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, but Edin- burgh, on account of its traditions, its institutions of learning, and the eminent men that it has sent forth into the world, is the most illustrious. Scotland, with a population of 3,369,000, has four large cities, viz., Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee, and Aberdeen. Glasgow is the chief manufacturing town. Its indus- try is directed mainly to the manufacture of cotton goods, and to the building of ships and marine engines. The largest chemical works in the world are here. Dundee is extensively engaged in the manufacture of linens, and Paisley in the manufacture of shawls. The famous Caledonian Canal is in Scotland, and Fingal's Cave is in the island of Staflfa. The inhabitants of Scotland call themselves Lowlanders or Highlanders, according to the part of the country in which they live. Those who live near the Border resemble the English in manners, and are the Lowlanders. Those who live beyond the Grampian Hills are called the Highlanders. Note. — For questions on this lesson, see end of Lesson LVIH. LESSOJV LVII, Studies on the Map of the British Isles. Bound England. — Scotland. — Wales. — What is the shortest distance from England to Ireland ? — From Scotland to Ireland ? — What sheet of water scp- arates Ergland from France? — How wide is it? — What strait between Eng- land and Ireland? — How wide is it? Point out and describe 'the position — with regard to the coast — of Lon- don, Liverpool, Portsmouth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Edinburgh, Dundee, Aberdeen, Glasgow, Paisley, Belfast, Dublin, Queenstown. — Which of these cities are upon rivers? Describe the course of the rivers. — In what part of the island, and how far from London, is Birmingham? — Leeds? — Sheffield? — Oxford? — Cam- bridge? — Where is Manchester? — How long, from north to south, is the island of Great Britain ? — Name and describe all the rivers of the island. Mention its lakes. — Its mountains. — Channels. — Straits. — Seas. — Friths. — Bays. — Capes and headlands. — What is its greatest breadth from east to west ? — What islands lie along the west coast ? — What, along the north and south? — On which coast are the most islands? — Where is the Caledonian Canal ?— Where is the island of Staffa ? — What is it noted for ?— Name and describe the rivers, capes, lakes, bays, and islands along the coast of Ireland. On which coast are the islands most numerous ?— Where is Rathlin island ? — Where is Cape Clear? (These two are famous landmarks in navigation.) — Wliere is Holyhead? {The Innh mail is carried between Dublin and Holy- hcad by the fasted sea-Htcamers known.) — Where are the Grampian Hills?— Name all the seaport towns on the south coast of England, and tell which way each < MININS SALT. "Wielicza, in Galicia, is famous for its salt-mines, which have been worked for more than 600 yeare. There is a chapel in tlie mine dedicated to St. An- thony. It was built more than 400 years ago. Its walls, ceilings, and floors ; its columns, with their ornamental capitals; its altars, and images, and chan- cel, are all carved out of the natural salt. Lemberg, the capital of Galicia, is noted for its fairs. The quicksilver-mines of Idria, in the neigh- borhood of Lajbach, are second only to those of Almaden in Spain, the most celebrated in the world. The hills of Austria, which abound in almost every kind of metallic formation, are rich in mineral waters also. Those of Carlsbad, Toplitz, and Seidlitz are of world-wide celebriety. During the great Earthquake at Lisbon in 1775, the waters of Toplitz and Carlsbad became turbid, then ceased temporarily; afterward they gushed out in blood-red color-it is said. Bohemia is also famed for its mines, its waters, and its fruits. Forests of damson and plum- trees arc found there. You have, no doubt, heard of the Bohemian glass. The Jewish population of Austria, Hungary, and Poland is very large. They, for tlic most part, Cixny on the trade of the country. 15 Vienna, on the Danube, with a population of 607,000, is the capital, and the chief seat of the manufacturing industry of the Austrian empire. It is the principal focus of its inland trade, as Trieste is of its foreign trade. The workshops and artisans of Vienna. send forth annually large quantities of hardware, porcelain, silks, jewelry, gold and silver em- broideries, and musical instruments elaborated with much taste and skill. Prague, with a population of 142,000, has the oldest University in Germany. It was the birthplace of John Huss, Kepler, and many other eminent men. It is extensively engaged in manufac- tures, which are of the coarser sorts, and are intended chiefly for the inland markets of Germany and the neighboring States. Gratz, the capital of Styria, with 63,000 in- habitants, is in a rich country, and affords the cheapest living of any place in Europe. Briinn, with 58,000 inhabitants, is to Austria what Leeds is to England for woollens, and Lyons is to France for silks, Belfast to Ire- land for linens, and Pittsburg to Pennsylvania for glass. Pesth, with a population of 131,000, on one side of the Danube, and Buda (sometimes called Ofen, the oven, from its hot springs) on the other, with a population of 55,000, form Buda-Pesth, the capital of Hungary. The cele- biated crown of St. Stephen, which was given to hiui by the Pope in the year 1000, is kept here. 1^- HUNGARIAN COSTUMES. -~ — 114 TURKEY IN EUROPE.— GREECE AND ITALY, SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. The nobility sometimes own, as in feudal times, immense estates. From the banks of the Danube all the way up in the direction of Brlinn toward the head-waters of the Vistula and the Oder, the country, almost without interruption, for the distance of 200 miles, is the private property of a siogle Austrian nobleman. Turkey in Europe. 3. The Turkish empire lies, a part in Africa, a part in Asia, and a part in Europe. Turkey in Europe, Turkey in Asia, - Turkey in Africa, Area. 110,689 667,244 9r)2,8:J0 POPULATTON. 9,213,702 17,000,000 9,000,000 Total, 1,7;}0,703 35,213,702 Turkey in Europe is semi-peninsular. It has a sea on the east and on the west, and, at no great distance, on the south. This modifies the climate. See p. 62. The Turks, like the Arabs, have dark complexions. Constantinople, the great Turkish emporium, was founded by Constantino the Great in 328, on the site of old Byzantium. He was the first Roman emperor pro- fessing Christianity. Eleven centuries and a quarter afterward it fell into the hands of the Turks. They have held this city ever since. They have converted the splendid Christian church of St. Sophia into a mag- nificent mosque. The seraglio {se-ral'yo) of the Grand Turk adjoins it. The geographical position of Constantinople confers such advantages upon it, in a military point of view, as to make it, in the eyes of the great powers of Europe, " the Key to the East:' Generally, the streets of this city arc narrow and filthy, and the private nouses are mean, and built chiefly of wood ; hence the frequency and de- Etructiveness of fires in Constantinople. It is said to be burnt down on the average once in every fifteen years. The city is given up to idleness and luxury. li is computed that there are no less than 80,0b0 wherries plying daily for hire on " the Golden Horn " and its adjacent waters. " The Golden Horn " i.- an inlet of the Bosporus. Its chief manufacturing industry is directed to meerschaum pipes and leather. (The word meerschaum means the foam of the sea. It is really a kind of soft chalk.) The population of Constantinople is 1,075,000. Adrianople is in the land of roses ; plantations of them are cultivated for their essence. Like Constan- tinople, and most Turkish cities, Adrianople is beautiful in the distance, but when the traveller enters it, the enchantment which distance lends is gone. Bucharest, the capital of Roumania, exports vast quantities of grain, wool, timber, salt, wa.\, and other raw produce. Salonika, with 90,000 inhabitants, is also beautiful in the distance, with its mosques, minarets, domes, and towers. It, too, has a large trade based on the expor- tation of raw j)roduce. Bosna Serai has 122 inos(|ues. The celebrated Mount Athos stands on a peninsula to the east of Sal- onica. It has been occupied from time immemorial by a community of Greek monks, who pay the Sultan an annual rental of about $20,000. Tiiey are governed by one of their own order styled " the tirst man of Athos," and one of the rules of this order is, that no woman or anj' other female creature, not even a cow or a hen, shall enter their domains. Tlieir villages are in habited entirely by bachelors. The government of Turkey is styled the Sublime Porte, and its sovereign the Sultan or Grand Seignior. Many of his subjects are Jews. The Danubian provinces of Scrvia and Roumania, and the mountain principality of Montenegro, by the treaty of Berlin (1878), were made inde- pendent of Turkey. The new provinces of Bulgaria and Ivist Roiunelia luivc Christian Governors, but are partially dependent on Turkish lule. In Servia there is no distinction of classes. Nearly every fiunily has a freehold. There are no paupers. They have trial by jury ; no established church, but tolera- tion for all. The country abounds in natural resources. THE BOSPOUUS. LESSOJV LXI. Greece and Italy, Spain and Portugal 1. General Geof/rajihy.— These three peninsulas lie between the same parallels of latitude. They have corresponding climates, and, consequently, similar industrial pursuits. They have an ag- gregate population of 40,480,000. There is no city in Greece with a population as great as 50,000. 2. Cities of the Spanish Peninsula. — In the ])cninsula of Spain and Portugal there are, be- .^idcs the cai)ital of Spain, only four inland townr, with more than 50,000 inhabitants, and two Granada and Saragossa owe their present, though declining, proportions, rather to their ancient re- nown, their traditions, and the prestige of their former glory, than to present industries or any living spirit of enterprise among their inhab- itants. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.— ITALY. ii5 Each was once the capital of a powerful empire. Saragossa — a corruption of its Eoman name, " Ceesar Augustus" — was in the days of Rome a noble city. In 1808-9, when the French made an aggressive war upon Spain, this city was made iUustrious by the noble stand whicli the inhabitants made for its defence. It was the capital of Aragon, of which the patroness of Colmnbus — Isa- bella — was the queen, at the time of the discoveiy of America. The glory of Granada has also departed. The splen- did alabaster monuments of Ferdinand and Isabella arc there. It was the last stronghold of the Moors in Spain. 3. The AlJifttubra was the great Moorish palace, and it is the finest si)ecimen of arabes(iue architecture in Europe. 4. Gibraltar is a celebrated fortress cut out of the solid rock. It commands the passage between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The town is inhab- ited by people of all nationalities. It is a free port, and belongs to England. .5. Alpine Passes. — One of the best passes across the Alps leads tlirougli Milan, the entrepot of trade from Genoa and Northern Italy with Central Europe. There is a considerable Swiss trade with Italy across Lake Lucerne and over the pass of the St. Gothard. The Great St. Bernard (crossed by Napoleon and his army in 1800), the Grimsel, the Cervin, and the Splugen are the other passes most frequented. Turin, like Milan and most of the cities in this part of the country, live upon their ancient renown. Its manufacturing industry is chiefly in silk. 6*. TJie 3font Cents Tunnel. — By means of the Mont Cenis Tunnel, which is cut through the Alps, and is the grandest work of the kind in the world, Turin is connected with all parts of France and Germany. MONT CENIS TUNNEL. 7. Staples — The staple productions of these three peninsulas are the same. Corn, wheat, the olive, and the vine, the silk-worm and fruit, all thrive equally well in them. Spain and Portugal. 8. Spain and Portugal are both mountainous coun- tries, many of the peaks being high enough to be always covered with snow. In the last century they were both ranked among the first-class powers of Europe. They failed to catch the spirit of progress and improvement, however, which mark the age, and have consequently dwindled down into second and third rate powers. Both of these countries profess the Roman Catholic religion. Their in- habitants are of a dark complexion, with black hair and eyes, quite different from the yellow-hai)-ed, blue-eyed Germans. But like the Italians, and all other people who live in mild climates and under bright skies, they are lively and gay ; prone to out-door amusements, fond of bright colors, and much given to music and dancing. The clii(;f articles of export are wine and oil, olive, aloes, and other fruits, both fresh and dried. Tlio Andori-a R('i)nbliolias 150 scj. ms. ; pop. 13,000. Our merchants have quite a number of vessels employed especially tr oring raisins, grapes, and oranges from Malaga, and there is a large trade also with England in these fruits. Madrid, with a population of 476,000, is the capital and largest city of Spain. Barcelona, with 252,000 inhabitants, is next in size. Spain is rich in minerals, and among the most famous mines in the world are the quicksilver mines of Alma- den — famous for their yield, and the centuries for which they have been worked. Lisbon is the capital of Portugal, with 225,000 in- habitants. It was the scene of a fearful earthquake in 1755. Italy. 9. Italy was the seat of ancient Rome. It was the land of Galileo, Dante, and Tasso. I From her peninsular position, Italy, as did Eng- land in her insular position, stood comparatively secure from outside attacks in olden times. Italy now contains Piedmont, Lombardy, Tus- .,,(,1 cany, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and the States of the Church. The ruins, the traditions, and the as.sociations connected with Rome make it famous, and contin- uallv crowd it with students, scholars, learned men, and tourists. Rome is on the classic Tiber. It has been lately seized by the Italians and occupied as Ibeir capital. This renowned city is in hUilude 41° 50', and lias now n population of 220,000. '■*"' NoTi;. — Let the pupil compare the latitude of Rome with that of - some oflhe capitals of the great nations which have made their mark in histoiy, and note their difference in climate. Italy is also Roman Calholic in religion. The Pope still holds his court in Rome; though his temporal power is limited to the Stales of the Church, with a population of 733,000, and an area of 4,550 square miles. The Pontine Marshes are in the southern part of the pontificial territory. They were once so poisonous, tluU to sleep in them for a single night was considered fatal. ww^wawi^wwww ii6 GREECE.— GERMANY AND THE SMALLER STATES. Venice, with 120,000 inhabitants, occupies 72 small islands, connected by bridges. The streets are navi- gated in gondolas. Naples, with 420,000 inhabitants, is the largest city of Italy. Italy grows the mulberry, the olive, and the vine ; riee, cotton, and the cereals are also cultivated there. ^ Lombardy is the best-cultivated part of the country. Its system of irriga- tion is perhaps unsurpassed. It is also a fine cattle country and famed for the produce of its dairies. Iron and sulphur, boracic acid, and marble are the chief mineral produc- tions of Italy. The climate of Italy is mild, and oranges and lemons ripen, in some parts, as early as March. From the marble-quarries of Greece and Italy the artists of all ages have cut their finest statues. The picture-galleries of Italy are very famous too, and they attract young artists from all parts of the world. The volcanoes of Etna, Stromboli, and Vesuvius arc in the domains of Italy. The cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were swal- lowed up in the lava and ashes from Vesuvius hundreds of years ago. The government of Italy is causing these cities to be excavated, and the ■svorkmen find the bodies of tlie bakers at their ovens, of the potter at liis wheel, of the servant in the kitchen, of the mistress in the parlor, and all the inhabitants at their various occupations, just as they were at the moment of the great catastrophe. San Marino is a little republic set on the top of a rugged mountain over 2,000 feet high. Grenoa, famous as the birthplace of Columbus, manu- factures the finest of silks and velvets. The peninsula of Grreece, with its islands, is about half as large as South Carolina. It contains 1,097,000 inhabitants, mau}^ of whom are brigands. Greece suffered under Turkish misrule for many generations. At last, in its struggle for independence forty years ago, it was assisted by the great powers, and erected into a sejjarate kingdom under their guarantee. It has a large seafaring population. Greek merchants and Greek sailors are to be found in all the ports of the Mediterranean. Its industries are chiefly agricultural. We get from Greece, currants, figs, and other dried fruits. Attention there is paid to the cultivation of the vine and the mulberry, and to the making of wine and the manufacture of silk goods. But the country is intested with highway robbers and brigands, and the laws are badly administered. Athens, with a population of 40,000, is the capital of Greece, and is unrivalled for the fame of its ancient philosophers, poets, i)ainters, and orators. The Ionian Republic comprises seven islands. Corinth was in ancient times famed for its wealth, its s])lendid edifices, and its moral corruption. Gbeeck. 10. — Greece, like Rome, was also once the seat of an empire that ruled the world. LESSOJV LXII. The New German Empire and the Smaller Powers. /. General Geo{ft'((ithtf. — The smaller Powers are the Kingdoms of Holland, Belgium, and Denimirk. These three Kingdoms form no part of Germany. The new German Mnpire consists of the Kingdoms of Prus- sia, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Saxony, 13 Duchies, 6 Principalities, 4 Free Cities, an Elec- torate and a Landgraviate, with the newly-acquired provinces of Alsace and Lorraine ; but all these States, with Bel- gium, Holland, and Denmark, embrace an area of 205,000 scpiare miles, with a population of 51,000,000. It is worthy of note, that these 51,000,000 people all inhabit a region of country not quite so large as Texas. The total population of the New Ger- man Empire is 41,000,000 ; its area is 225,000 square miles. These 51,000,000 people have built up 31 cities, each with a population of 50,000 and upward. There is a large emigration annually from these coun- tries to the United States, chiefly from the ports of Bre- men and Hamburg, from wliich tlicre are lines of steamers to America, as there are from Havre, South.uupton, and Liverpool. 2. Hamburg and Bremen.— Hamburg, with a population of PRUSSIA. 117 305:000, is the chief seaport of the North German states. It is on tlie Elbe, about 70 miles from its mouth. Bremen has a population of 75,000, and is a rival of Hamburg for German commerce. Lubeck, another of the Free Cities, next in importance to Bremen, has a population of 51,000. The crust of the earth at Lubeck has been, in the course of a few centuries, perceptibly raised out of the sea. 3. Intellectual C/tar«c^c>\— The inhabitants of these countries are highly intelligent, and very industrious, ingenious, and thrifty. To promote trade, great commercial fail's are held at stated periods and at various places. Among the most famous are those held at Leipsic. This town is celebrated for its tj-pe-foundries, printing establishments, and the cheapness, variety, and numbers of its publications in all languages. Prussia. 4:. Prussia is the master-spirit of Germany. Berlin the capital of Prussia and also of the German Empire, has a populationofl,000,000, and is one of the finest cities of Europe. ROTAL PALACE AT BERLIN At Berlin resides Williuni, the first emperor of the new Geniiau Empire. In the war of 1800, which lasted hut seven weeks, Prussia completely ab- sorbed the Kingdom of Hanover, the Electorate of Hesse-Cassel, the Duchy of Nassau, the free city of Frankfort-on-the-Main, and tlie Landgraviate of Ilesse-Homburg. At the same time, the Duchy of Holstein and the Duchy of Schleswig, once Danish, were annexed to Prassia; twelve States, free cities, viz., the Kingdom of Saxony, the Grand Duchies of Mecklenberg- Schwerin, Mccklenhcrg-Strelitz, and Oldenberg, the northern half of the Grand Duchy ot Hesse-Darmstadt, the Duchies of Brunswick and Anhalt, the principalities of Lippe and Waldeck, the six Thuringian States, and the Reuss States, all entered into most intimate and dependent relations with Prussia. Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemberg, and the southern portion of Hesse- Darmstadt, entered into a treaty witli the King of Prussia, agreeing, in time of war, to put their armies under his control. These States have fine climates and a productive soil, under which is stored away mineral treasures of great value and abundance. They are rich also in mineral springs and medicinal waters of various sorts and tem- peratures. The most famous watering-places are the hot springs of Baden-Baden, the warm springs of Aix- la-Chapelle, and the boiling springs of Wiesbaden. The most famous mineral production of Prussia is the zinc of Silesia, with which the markets of India are supplied. But the most singular production is amber, wliich is cast up by the waves of the Baltic, and the collection of which is the prerogative of the crown. Konigsberg and Stettin are important seaports. Cologne, with 126,000 inhabitants, is the most popu- lous city of Prussia, on the Rhine. Ehrenbreitstein, opposite Cologne, is one of the strongest Prussian citadels. From Dantzic, large .^^ quantities of grain are shipped. ^^ Frankfort, with a population of 80,000, J^ was the capital of the old Germanic Con- federation. It stands on the right bank ol the Main. Munich, the capital of Bava- ria, is renowned for its literary institu- tions and its galleries of art. 5. Saxony is celebrated for its breed of sheep, and its wool. G. Belgium is the best cultivated and most densely populated country in Eu- rope, Brussels, the capital of Belgium, on the Senne, with 190,000 inhabitants, is widely known for its race and its carriages. Ghent nearly equals Brussels in population, but Antwerp is the great commercial emporium of Bel- gium, and has 125,000 inhabitants. Leige, with 97,500 inhabitants, is the seat of the Bel- gian iron-works. Ostend is an important seaport on tlie North Sea. 7. Holland has literally been re- claimed from the sea, the waters of which are kept out by means of embankments called dykes. It is a low and flat country, intersected with canals as others are with roads. Holland is a sort of a dairy-farm, from which the markets of Hull, London, and other English towns are chiefly supplied, especially with cheese, beef, cattle, and butter. The Dutch are a sober, provident, and industrious ii8 SWITZERLAND. people. They are fine sailors, and are extensively en- gaged in the sea-tisheries as well as in commerce and navigation. Holland used to be a great naval and commercial power. She has large possessions both in the East and West Indies. The chief branches of indusliy licrc are connected with the soil and llie sea. The most celebrated lapidaries are in Amsterdam. AMSTEBDA! Amsterdam is the largest and mcst important town in Holland, with 265,000 inhabitants. The Hague is the capital of Holland. LESSOA' LXIII. Switzerland, Norway and Sweden, and Denmark. Switzerland. 1. The Republic of Switzerland, though only one- third larger than Maryland, consists of 22 separate States or "Cantons," which are as distinct from each other as are the States in the American Union. Their independence dates from 1307, and the affairs of the Republic are, as with us, managed by a Congress. Regarding Europe as a watershed that is drained, as its rivers show, off to the north, south, east, and west (study the Orographic View of Central Europe), Switzer- land, with its Alps, is at the top of the roof, for you see that the great rivers, as the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po, rising in these mountains, empty into the Black Sea, the North Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Adriatic. ii, Mont Blanc, 15,740 feet high, is the highest peak in Europe, and, though situated within the borders of France, belongs to the Swiss Alps. Mont Cervin, or " Tlie Matlerliorn,^'' the rival of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa, is an imposing obelisk, and has defied every attempt to scale its ice-clad pinnacle. These mountains are celebrated for their snow-clad peaks, beautiful lakes, grand scenery, and their glaciers, which are immense masses of ice and snow tluit are always sliding down from the mountains into the valleys below. As they move, rocks, soil, trees, and every- thing are overwhelmed and carried down before them. Some of the most cele- brated philosophers of Europe have spent much time there in studying these curious phenomena. More than 1000 square miles are covered by the glaciers, and they are estimated to vary in thickness from 200 to 5000 feet. Switzerland is the most mountainous country in Europe. The celebrated institution of charity, the Hospice of Mount St. Bernard, is m Switzerland. It is situated 8,185 feet above the level of the sea, and is tlie higiiest place of human habitation in Europe. The Hospice of St. Bernard has been occupied for ages by Benedictine Monks, whose business it is to refresh and relieve travellers. They teach the celebrated dog of St. Bernard to hunt and relieve wayfarere who get lost in the snow. These sagacious animals are always sent out during a snow-storm with baskets of provisions and wine tied around their necks to relieve and revive those who are perishing in the bitter cold of these mountains. In the dead-house are contained the frozen and unrecognized bodies of travellers who have perished in the snow ; they never thaw, and lie there like so many statues of marble. The Swiss are said to be the Dutchmen of the moun- tains ; they are phlegmatic, industrious,and liberty-loving. Owing to the mountainous character of their country, which is better adapted to grazing than to tillage, they do not produce breadstuffs enough for tlieir own use, and their industries are devoted chiefly to cattle-raising, dairy-farming, and manufacturing. 5. We get from there Swiss muslins, ribbons, toys, and carved work. They excel in the manufacture also of watches and musical-boxes. Geneva is famed for these. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. ••THE -M A T T E II II ORN" AND ITS GLACIER. [List of names answering to numbers on Orographic View of Ct'iitral Europe. 9. Stockliolm. 10. Copenhagen. 11. Oldenburg, 12. Bremen. 13. Berne. 14. Florence. 15. Rome. 16. Turin. 17. Paris. 18. Madrid. 19. London. 20. Edinburgh. 21. Dublin. 22. Athens. 1. St. Petersburg. 2. Moscow. 3. Constantinople. 4. Vienna. 5. Berlin. 6. Prague. 7. Dresden. 8. Munich. Note. — Let the pupil carefully find all of these places and observe their comparative elevations.] Switzerland is classed among Protestant nations. There are 22 Cantons in Switzerland, of which Berne, with a population of 30,000, is the capital. SWEDEX AKD NORWAY 4:. Are two goveraments under one king. Each country makes its own lews. They form a mountainous peninsula, often called ScANDrsAvr.A.. They lie between the parallels of 55° and 72° north latitude. This country is so rugged, and the rays of the sun strike so feebly into the deep glens, that the cultivation of the soil is not very remunerative. In the northern part of Norway, during several weeks in summer, the sun does not set at all, and travellers often go to the North Cape there just to see the midnight sun. It is a very curious and most in- teresting sight. The chief branches of industry are connected with the forests, which are very extensive and furnish timber for the navies of Europe ; with the mines, which furnish our markets with the beautiful Swe- dish iron ; with navigation, that furnishes the navies of the world with the best of sailors ; or with the sea-fisheries, which furnish the chief sup- plies of fish for Europe. The Swedes and Norwegians are Lutherans in religion. They there- fore belong to Protestant Europe. The Mormons of Utah are recruited chiefly from Norway and Wales. Lajjland, a cold region of Sweden, Norway, and Russia, is inhab- ited by the diminutive Lapps. Hammerfest, within the Arctic Circle, the most northerly town o/ Europe, consists of a single street of detached, one-storied frame-houses An obelisk on the outskirts marks the end of ihc meridian line of 25° 20', measured ^^^_ by the geome- g^aSP" ^|^^^i_- ters of Norway, _^ ^=- Sweden, and Russia, from a point on the Dauube. It is common for the poorest Lapps to pos- sess a dozen reindeer, while occasionally a herd of a thou- sand is owned by a single in- dividual. The Lapps are highly intelligent, are not lacking in literary cul- ture, and are remarkable for a lapp lady. their sweetness of expression. Stockholm, with a population of 140,000, is the capi- tal of Norway and Sweden. It is built on a few small islands near Lake Malar. Gottenburg, and Carlscrona, the naval arsenal of Sweden, are commercial cities. The Norwegian city of Christiana has 40,000 inhab- itants. Frederickshall. with 7,500 inhabitants, stands on a bav of the Christiana fiord, and has an obelisk to mark DENMARK. —RUSSIA. 121 the spot where the famous Charles XII. fell, in 1718, ■while besieging the fortress. Bergen, with about 26,000 inhabitants, is chiefly en- gaged in the Lofoden fishery. Denmark. Denmark is one of the oldest States in Europe. It consists of a peninsula projecting towards the southern coast of Norway, and comprises Jutland and several important islands near the entrance of the Baltic Sea. At no very remote period the peninsula was largelj- covered with forests, and wolves were common and in great numbers. The coasts of Denmark are in some places low, and dykes are necessar\' to keep out the waters of the sea. To its peninsular form its climates owe their humidity, evenness, and mildness. The government is a monarchy, and the religion of the people is Lutheran. The Duchies of Schleswig Holstein and Lauenberg once belonged to Denmark,- but were wrested from her in 1864. and in 1860 ceded to Prussia. Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, with a popula- tion of 160,000, is an elegant and important city. Its University library contains 100,000 volumes. It was on his way to attack Copenhagen in the winter of 1658, that Charles X. of Sweden, against the warn- ings of his ablest generals, marched his whole army, horse, foot, and artillery, over the frozen Baltic. Elsinore, on the Danish Sound, is an important naval station. LESSOJV LXIV. Russia (Map, p. 124.) 1. Russia inchides all of northern Europe not here- tofore treated, and the whole of northern Asia. Russia in Europe lies chiefly between the parallels of 45' and 70°, and Russia in Asia, between those of 50° and 78°. In the two continents it embraces an area far greater than that of the United States. Its climates are cold and inhospitable ; its geograph- ical position is such as to exclude most of its inhabitants from navigation and the pursuits of the sea. Throughout the vast area included within the domains of this empire only five cities of 100,000 inhabitants and upward are to be found. 16 2. The chief industries of Russia are connected with the land rather than with the sea. They are mining, agri- cultural, and manufacturing. But the productions of her factories are intended chiefly for home consumption. S. Russia in B^irope is, for the most part, a level country, sloping as the rivers flow. (See Orographic View.) That part of it which lies south of 60°, and borders on the Caspian and Black Seas, is agriculturally very rich ; the soil is black and warm. It forms the country known as the "Black Lands of Russia," and resembles the prairies of Minnesota and other Western States. This section of Europe is very fertile ; the soil is inexhaustible, yielding annually, without manure, two crops, a green crop and a cereal. Its wines are also very fine. 4. This part of Russia, with European Turkey, and Eastern Asia, is the granary of Europe. The corn from tliese regions meets in the marl^ets of Great Britain and Western Europe the grain and breadstufFs from tlie United States, and thus tlie farmers of the far West find in tlie markets of London — wliich is the greatest grain-market in the woild— competition from tlie far East. Russia also sends to Great Britain hemp, tallow, leather, skins, and furs in large quantities. J. Russia has the largest population of any State in Christendom. In Europe and Asia together she has a population of 77,000.000, and an area of 7,862,585 square miles. Russia, Great Britain, and the United States, exercise dominion over one-third of the land surface of the earth, and one-fourth of its inhabitants. The English possessions lie cliiefly in warm climates, the American in temperate, and the Russian in cold. Russia has but fourteen cities of more than 50,000 in- habitants ; thus indicating that her peoi)le live rather by tillage and i)asturage, than by manufacturing and ocean commerce. St. Petersburg, Uie capital, has a popiiladon of 550,000; Moscow 360,000; Warsaw 245,000; Odi'ssa 120,000; Rig:i 100,000. 6*. The Steppes of Russia extend along its southern borders all the way from the foot of the Carpathian Mountains, in Europe, to the borders of China, in Asia. This is a prairie countrj^, and but for its distance from the sea and its summer droughts, would be as smiling as ours is. 7. Russia has a considerable inland trade with the bordering States both in Europe and Asia, and it is car- ried on by caravans, and disposed of by means of fiiirs, the most famous of which are held at Nijnii {mzK-ni) Novgorod. Merchants from China, Mongolia, India, Af- ghanistan, Persia, Turkey, and from all parts of Europe attend this fair. The annual concourse ranges between /^ 122 RUSSIA.— FINLAND. two and three hundred thousand merchants with their followers. RUSSIAN TRAVBLIKHS. hy. — Part of the do- mains, both of Eussia and Turkey, are in Asia. Not counting these, there are in Asia but six States that are recognized as free, sovereign, and independent nations. These are Persia, Siam, Anam, Burmah, China, and Japan. They are absolute monar- chies. With their dependencies they embrace an area of 5,849,767 square miles, which is occupied by a population of 537,000,0(10. The rest of this continent embraces an area 128 CHINA. of 11,500,000 square miles, with a population of 268,600,- 000, consisting partly of possessions that the maritime powers of Europe have acquired by conquest : as India, which belongs to England ; the Island of Java, and otlier islands, which belong to Holland ; the Philippine Islands, to Spain ; much of Cochin China, to France, etc., etc. Or it consists of districts, such as Arabia, Turkes- tan, Thibet, Afghanistan, Beloochistan, etc., etc.. that have no responsible government, and are divided into tribes, hordes, and other factions, which do not pretend to be clothed with the dignity of national sovereignty. 4. llodes of Life and Civilization. — Most of these hordes and factions lead a sort of half-savage, half-civilized life — tending their flocks, robbing their neighbors, and plundering the helpless. Parts both of Asia and Africa were inhabited by civilized people long be- fore Europe and America were. Almost all the great events recorded in the Bible took place in Asia. 5. Woman. — In these lands woman is degraded. In parts of India the practice of widow-burning is still con- tinued ; that is, when the husband dies, his \vives, for he often has many, are burned at his funeral. 0. The Grand Plateau of Asia. — If you will study the Orographic View of Central Asia (p. 13.3), mark where the rivers rise, and note the direction in which they flow, you will see, by the natural drainage of the land, that there is an extensive inland region which has no sea-drainage and but few watercourses. This is the grand plateau where the Steppes of Asia are, and the great Desert of G-obi is on it. The highest land in the world is here. Among the peaks of the Himalaju, which form the southern rim of this great inland basin, stands the majestic Gaurisankar, also called Mount Everest, towering more than 29,000 feet above the level of the .sea. LESSOJV Lxrii. The Asiatic Powersr China. 1. China is the oldest and the most densely populated empire in the world. "With an area, including adjoining dependencies, of 4,095,000 square miles, it now contains, by my estimates, a population of 480.000,000. The land is filled to overflowing with peoj)le. Its civilization dates from time immemorial. The country is in a high state of cultivation and im- provement, to which Europe did not approximate, even at the beginning of the present century, and to which she has not yet attained. 2. The most famous works in China are its canal, 700 miles in length, constructed nearly one thousand years ago, and its celebrated wall, 1200 miles in length, from 15 to 30 feet high, and so thick that six men on horseback can ride abreast upon it. It was designed as a work (\f defence against the Tartars, and was com- pleted upwards of two hundred years before the birth of Christ. 3. The Chinese are an industrious, patient, economi- cal, and ingenious people. Of all the industrial pursuits, the cultivation of the soil is most honored by the Chinese ; and, to do it homage, the Emperor, with his nobles, and in the presence of his subjects, annually puts his hand to the ])lovv and runs a furrow. 4. You ought now to know enough about climates and geograi)hy to tell, merely by looking at the map, that the sea-slopes of this country are well watered, and that therefore it has climates and soil adapted to the cul- tivation of all the great stai)les that are grown between the same parallels of latitude in America. 5. Tea is the great agricultural staple in China. It will grow equally well in our Southern States, and it is not cultivated there, simply because labor is scarce and can be more profitably employed in other branqhes of industry. Tea is produced by labor in China that costs only a cent or two a daj-, and none of the great agricultural staples of commerce require more labor than tea. The leaves not only require to be gathered by hand, and one by one, but each one has afterward to be rolled up separately, also by hand. They make great use of the bamboo. They build houses and bridges of it. They use it as food wlien it is young, and they make mats, furniture, and liousehold utensils of it when it is matured. The^- glow and manufacture silk, cotton, and calico. Every available foot of land in China is cultivated, and for the want of dwelling space, many CHINEBB RAT-OATOBKB. JAPAN. 129 thousands of people live in boats, arranged in streets on the water, as houses are in a city. The Chinese are extensively engaged in sea-fisheries, and their chief article of food is rice. The internal commerce of Cliina is immense, and is carried on by means of its water communication througli canals and navigable rivers. In the mountain districts donkeys are used, and in crossing the deserts, the camel. 6. Their religion is Buddhism. The government is an absolute mon- archy, and the laws are severe. Their country is the " Celestial Empire," and their Emperor, according to them, is of such high descent as to be brother of tlie sun and moon. Tlie geographical information of the Chinese does not extend beyond their own countrj', which they maintain is the centre of the world, and they liave the greatest contempt for all foreigners, whom they call " outside bar- barians." 7. Their domestic animals are generally of the scavenger sort, such as swine, dogs, ducks, geese, and poultry. They are very poorly off for sheep, horses, and horned cattle. 8. Their cities are compactly built and the streets are narrow. Their temples and pagodas are very grand, and enhance the beauty of many a landscape. Rebellion, revolution, and civil war have been raging in China for more than a quarter of a centuiy. We have a valuable commerce with China. Nanking, population 300,000, once an imperial city, is on the Yangtse- kiang river, or "Child of the Ocean." Shanghai has an immense commerce and a population of 300,000. Peking, the capital of the Empire, about 106 miles from the sea, with 1,650,000 inhabitants, is in latitude 40° north. There are three cities in China on the Yangtse-kiang so connected with each other, that they may be said to form one city, under the name of Hoang- Chou, or Hankow, with a population of nearly 8,000,000, the largest known collection of human beings in so small a compass. Mongolia Is a part of the Chinese Empire. It is an arid and chilly country, mostly desert. The Mongols are nomadic by necessity, for their soil is too poor to sustain their flocks with grass but for a short period of time. UONOOLIAN EMIOnANT. 17 LEssoj\r Lxriii, Japan. 1. The Enii)iro of Japan consists of four large islands, viz., Niphon, Yesso, Kiu- siu, and Sikolce, and 3,850 smaller islands. Its area is about one-fourth larger than that of the British islands. It is separated from Corea and the continent of Asia by the Corean Channel and the Sea of Japan : its coasts are generally bold and rocky : it has an inland sea of great beauty and abounds in convenient harbors. 2. Both these nations have opened certain of their ports, called llie "treaty ports," to foreign trade and residents. These free ports in Japan are Nagasaki, Hakodadi, Simoda, Yedo, Osaka, Ilioga, Niigata, and Kanagawa. The honor of making the first negotiations which led to the opening of Japanese ports to the commerce, of the world, was reserved lor Com. Perry and the naval officers of the American expedition of 1853. The first anU)assadors ever sent from Japan were accredited to the United States in 1860. A large trade and very friendly intercourse have already sprung up between the two countries. Not less than five hundred Japanese students have come (1872) to the United States to be educated. 3. The Japanese trace their history by authentic records through a period of 2,539 years, under 124 emperors, who have borne the title of Tenno or Mikado. For tiie last 000 years the Shiogoon or Tycoon has, as a subordinate, governed the empire ; but since the revolu- tion of 1867, the Mikado has assumed his ancient preroga- tives. The influence and revenues of the formerly numer- ous and powerful feudal lords called Daimios, have also been greatly modified and reduced. 4. The Japanese resemble the Chinese in appearance, though they are a finer-looking nice of people. The Japanese have a literature, and writers of great antiquity and repute, and used the art of printing long before it was invented in Europe. I30 ANAM AND BURMAH.— SIAM. 5. They have severe laws and singular manners and customs. When a person of rank offends the government a sword is sent to him, and he is then in honor bound to commit suicide ; tliis is the Hara-wo-liiru. 6. Their country is volcanic. In consequence of this fact their dwellings are generally of wood, and are all built according to one of three or four plans; so that, in furnishing a house, j'ou have only to go to the upholsterer and order carpets or mats for a house of one of these patterns. 7. They have no chairs, sofas, or beds; but, using their clothes for cov- ering, thej^ sleep on the floor, npon the mats on which they sit and receive their company during the day. The married women pluck out their eyebrows, use pigments to turn their teeth black and their lips red, and powder themselves witli rice flour. RICE S T O IS E-H OUSES AT VEDO. The usual mode of travelling is, not in carriages drawn by horses, but in either iialanquins or norimons borne by two or four men. S. The cities of Japan are numerous. Yedo, or Tokio, the present capital, has 1,550,000 inhabitants. IMiako, long known as the western capital, was founded in a.d. 794, and has 370,000 inhabitants. Osaka, tlie port for Aliako, is accounted by its inlialiit- ants the Paris of Jajian. Yokahama is the most in)i)()rtant port of the em- pire. Hakodadi is tlie principal port of Yesso. Nagasaki is the port wliere Europeans were first permitted to locate as merchants. f>. The islands of Japan lie lu'twcen the parallels of 30" and 4.^", and their climates rcsemlde those of our Atlantic seaboard, though somewhat milder, from their insular position. At Yedo, the summer temperature ranges fivm 70° to 90° ; in winter the snow seldom lies long. In addition to the staples that are cultivated with us they have the lacquer- tree, from which they get the gum for their beautiful Japan-ware ; the wax- tree, from which they get the resin for their candles — the manufacture of which is an important branch of industry ; and the paper-mulberry, ft-om whicli they manufacture their paper. Of the food-plants, rice is most extensively cultivated — on the hill-sidea as well as in low, marshy regions, as in South Carolina and Georgia. 10. Japan also, like China, is rich in mineral re- sources. Both the base and precious metals are found, and coal is obtained in large quantities. ;| 3[ineral springs, both cold and hot, abound, and near the island of Kiusiu there is a^mall islet with solfalaras and a burning volcano, wliich answers capitally for the mariner all the inirposes of a first-class lighthouse. Foosiyama, tlie Parntissus of Japan, with its majestic ce pupil diligently verity each of these places.] iiiifiii»BSiiiiiaii:iiili 134 ARABIA, BELOOCHISTAN, AFGHANISTAN, TURKESTAN, AND PERSIA. 8. Benares, with 600,000 inhabitants, with its thousand Hindu temples and its 333 mosques, the splendid one of Auruugzebe among them, and its baths, is celebrated for its diamond-dealers and the wealth of its bankers, and is a" place of extensive industries and much trade. Allahabad (God's House) is another place of pilgrimage for this singular people. 9. The Jumna and the Ganges are sacred rivers, and they meet at Allahabad, where pilgrims go to bathe. Cawupoor and Mirzapoor are near together, and are in a fine cotton, grain, indigo, tea, and tobacco country. Agra is noted for its mausoleum and pearl mosque. Delhi, the capital of the ancient Mogul sovereignty, is magnificent with its ruins. It has a large trade now in jewelry and cotton goods. Hurdwar, not far otf, in the gorge of the mountains through which the sacred river runs, is the place of pilgrimage and fairs. 10. Lucknow, with its monuments and domes, its air}' palaces, and picturesque style of architecture, is a most fairy-like city, with 300,000 inhabitants. In quelling the Indian mutiny of 1857, the heroic Havelock made it famous in Anglo-Indian history. Cashmere is noted for its shawls and its goats, its flowei-s, roses, and floating gardens, Tliere are no roads in this valley nor any wheeled vehicles Hyderabad is renowned for the skill of its lapidaries. It is in the vicinity of the rock-temples and monolithic palaces of Ellora, all cut out of the solid rock as it lies iu the mountain. LESSOJ^ LXXL Arabia, Persia, Beloochistan, Afghanistan, and Turkestan. 1, You observe, by a glance at the map and at the Orographic View, that _^-, -.^_.=^=--.,-^^ _ — ^^^__ ^-_ the watershed of Indin is separated from the j streams in these conn- ^: tries by the Hala Moun- ^ tains, and that all of country east, and the country west of the Hala Moun- tains. On the east you have the elephant, the tiger, and the monkey, the bamboo, and the banyan ; and on the west, the oak, the ash, the fig, the date, camels, dromedaries, horses, goats, cows, and sheep. Where there is so little rain the air is dry, and radiation of heat goes on much more rapidly tlirough a dry atmosphere than it does through a moist one ; for tliis reason the climates of the two sides of the Hala range, even in the same latitude, and at the same elevations, are very different. On the dry side the daj s are warm and the nights are cool, with the sum- mere much liottcr, and winters much colder than they are on the India side. Remember this i-ule ; it is an important one in Physical Geography. Akabia 8. (Area 1,026,000 square miles, population 4,000,- 000) is celebrated for its horses, its camels, and its coffee. It is divided into a number of petty States and Prov- inces under separate chieftains. Travelling in Arabia is both difhcult and dangerous. We know scarcely more about the interior of it tlian we do about the geography of the polar regions of tlic north. This part of Asia, as an inspection of any rain mui) will show, is as dry and sterile as the Great Desert of Sahara. It is of interest to us now, chiefly on account of Bible associations. Mount Sinai is in Arabia. I Asia west of that, and r south of 40°, including Turkestan, is poorly watered. 2. The people in these diy countries are all Mahommedan- War seems to be the normal stai except in Persia and Asiatic Tui key aq^I Russia. Many of them live in tents, and their chief wealth consists in their flocks and herds. A man there who has as many as 1000 sheep is rich. The annual pilgrimage to the tomb of Mahomet in Mecca, is a time for trade and traffic, and a great fliir is held in the city at that time. 3. There is a marked contrast between the physical aspects of the CKOSSINO ▲ DESERT. ASIATIC TURKEY AND ASIATIC RUSSIA. 135 Beloochistan, 5. With an area of 165,828 square miles, and a pop- ulation of 2,000,000 inhabitants, is occupied by a num- ber of semi-barbarous tribes who have no common ruler. Kelat, with a population of 12,000, is the chief town. Afghanistan 0. Has an area of 258,520 square miles, and a popula- tion of 4,000,000, and is inhabited by a warlike, brave, and fine-looking race of people. They are the people who, in 1843, drove the English out of Cabool with such terrible disaster. They, too, are divided into factions or tribes, each with its separate chief, khan, or sheik. Cabool, with a population of 00,000 ; Kandahar, of 75,000; and Herat, of 45,000, are its chief towns. Turkestan 7. Has an area of 640,436 square miles, and a popula- tion of 7,870,000, and is, as you might infer from the map and Orographic View, for the most part a desert country. The inhabitants live now as they were said to liave lived more than one thousand years ago. "They exercise robbery and live by spoil." Bokhara — population 125,000 — "the Treasury of Science," within a mud wall 24 feet high and 8 miles round, has 103 colleges and 10,000 studeut.s. Nearly all of Turkestan is under Russian control. Persia, 8. With an area of 5 6 2,326 square miles, and a popula- tion of 5,- 000,000. is a dry coun- try ; but wherever there is '■ the scent of water" the little hills rejoice on evoiT s i d e, the pastures are covered with flocks and herds, and the valleys are clothed with waving corn or with the most fragrant roses. This is one of the oldest monarchies in the world. It has the signs of decay and the marks of better days. The artisans of Persia are skilled in various branches of industry, especially in the manufacture of silks, shawls, carpets, and small arms. In all dry countries like these, the fruits and melons, such as grapes, pears, peaches, apricots, nectarines, cantelopes, watermelons, plums, cherries, damascenes, figs, pomegranates, etc., etc., are of unsurpassed beauty and flavor. Teheran, the capital, with a population of 100,000, is in a region which answers in latitude and geographical aspects more nearly to Albuquerque, in New Mexico, than to any other town in the United States. Ispahan, with a population of 180,000, with Casbiu, Astrabad, and Tabriz, population 150,000, arc among tlie chief towns. The King of Persia is called the Sheik, lie is a Maliomniedau. LESS O.N' XAMTJ. Asiatic Turkey and Asiatic Russia. Asiatic Turkey, Which is inhabited by 13,000,000 Mohammedans, 3,000,000 Christians, and 1,000,000 Jews and Gypsies, is likewise a dry country. We have some commerce with it through Smj'rna, a city having a pop. of 1 GO. 000. mim JERUBALEH. V ^rl h 136 y SYRIA.— GEORGIA.— SIBERIA. I SHE HIES ON THE COAST Of SYKIA. 2. Syria, one of the })roviiices of Turkey, contains the land of Palestine, famous in all time for the events recorded in Holy Scripture. Jernsalcm, the Valley of the Jovclan. and tlic Dead Sea, arc visited by all Oriental travellers. The " Holy Places" an; in Jerusalem. Sponge and coral fisheries on the coast of the Medi- terranean are important sources of Syrian commerce. Sponges are fonnd on the bottom of the sea. They are animal produc- tions, livinf; in water from five to twentj'-fivc fathoms deep, crowing on the rocks or on marine vegetables, and sometimes on sea shells and corals. Asiatic EugsiA 3. Embraces a large portion of Asia. It includes Rus- sian Armenia, Shirvan, wliich extends along the south- western shores of the Caspian Sea, Georgia, and Siberia. Russian Armenia contains Mount Ararat, where the Russian, Persian, and Turkisii empires meet. 4. Shirvan was the scene of a bold but ineffective campaign of Peter the Great. It is famous for its springs of naphtha, an inflammable fluid, which often ignites, and, flowing into the Caspian, sets its waters on fire. Near these springs is tlie celebrated Field of J''ire. A natural and inflam- mable gas issues constantly from holes in the ground, and the Guebres or Parsees, fire-worshippers, at Bakou, tiie chief town of Shirvan, have built their temples over the openings in the earth, and conduct the gas to chiumeys in the roof of the temple, where, night and daj', it burns with dazzling brilliancj-. 5. Georgia, on the south side of the Caucasian Moun- tains, also belongs to Russia. It is celebrated for the beauty of its women, with whom the Grand Turk stocks his harems. Tiflis, having a population of 40,000, is the chief town. The Tartars are a race spread over all parts of Central Asia, chiefly in Caucasia and in the Crimea of Southern Russia. 6*. Siberia occupies an area of 5,600,000 square miles, one-third more than the entire sur- face of Europe, while its population does not equal that of Scotland. The climate is intensely cold, and the mercury is frozen for several months. The silver and other mines of Siberia are worked chiefly by exiles who have been ban- ished from the European domains of Russia, and who are sometimes sent in vast numbers to Si- beria. Poland has supplied many of these un- fortunate exiles. The Sanioiedes, a race similar to our Esqui- maux, live on the marshy shores of the Arctic Ocean. These lands are called Tundras. Tobolsk, on the Irtish river, has a popvdation of 32,000. I TO0NO TARTAR NOB1.B C\s^^ STUDIES ON THE MAP OF ASIA. 137 What are the marine boundaries of the Japan Empire? — Where is the Kiighis Steppe ? — Kamtchatlia V — Bound Corea — Anam — Siam — Bound Syria — Tartary — Mongolia — Man- chooria. Moiantaiiis, Table-Lands, and Steppes. How do the Asiatic mountains generally run ? Arts. Not as the American mountains, from north to south, hut in an eastwardly and westwardly direction. — Begin at the Taurus Mountains, in Turkey, and trace the mountain system of Asia to the northwest of Siberia. — Describe the Altai — The Yablonoi — Tliian Shan — Peling and Meling — The BolorTagh — The Karakorum — The Hala-The Himalaya— The Eastern Ghauts— The West- em Ghauts— The 'lau.iis— Caucasus- HindooKoosh — The Suleiman Range — Kuen Lun — The Ural Mountains — The Nanling Mountains. — Trace the limits of tlie table-land of Thibet — That of the Deccan in India. (See Orographic View of Central A&ia.)— Where is Mount Everest? PBTBOPAUI-OWSKI. Irkutsk is the seat of government, with a population of 20,000. Yakutsk, 5,000 miles distant from St. Petersburg, is near the Asiatic Pole of greatest cold. It is surrounded by forests and marshes. Petropaulowski (the Port of Peter and Paul), on the east coast of Kamt- cliatka, is the Russian naval and military head-quarters in Kamtchatka. It is nestled in a pleasant nook, and has a fine harbor. LESSOX LXXIII. Studios on tho Map of Asia. Boundaries. Between what parallels of latitude and meiidians of longitude docs the continent of Asia lie? — IIow many peninsular projections do you count in Asia ? — What are its natural boundaries ? — What are its political boundaries on tlje west ? — Name the great seas and bays tliat indent the contment. — Wliat sea makes the deepest and widest indentation ? Bound the Chinese empire, as far as possible, by its natural or physical boundaries. — What States are its political boundaries ? — What are the bound- aries of Tliibet? — Bound Russia in Asia, physically and politically. — Bound Ilindostan — Burmali — Siam — Anam — Persia — Afghanistan — Beloochistan — Arabia — Turkey in Asia. 1» Riveiv*:, Lakes, and Inland Seas. Wliat rivers of Asia empty into tlie Indian Ocean ? — What, into the China Sea? — What, into the Yellow Sea and Sea of Ja. pan ? — What, into the Arctic Ocean ? — Wliat rivers have no sea. drainage, but are inland ? — Is tlfe Volga in Europe or Asia ? — The Ural river? — Tlie Amu ? The ancient name of this was Oxits. Wliat liver of Asia crosses the greatest number of degrees of latitude? — What river crosses the greatest number of degrees of longitude ?— Excepting the rivers emptying into the Arctic Ocean, which is the longest river of Asia? (See at bottom of Mercator's Map of the World.) Where is tlie Indus ?— The Songko?— The Nerbudda ?— Irra- waddy ?— The Brahmapootra ? — The Godavery ?— The Ganges ?— The Hoog- jy?- Tlie Canton?— The Cambodia ?— The Yang- tse-Kiang?— The Hoang Ho?_Tlie Amoor?— The Obi?— The Yenisei ?— The Lena?— The Irtish? Where is the Caspian Sea ? This inland sea has no outlet, and, though it receives the VoUja, the largest river of Europe, its level is falling, owing to thi great solar evaporation from its surface. — Where is the Aral Sea? This and tlie Caspian are both salt-water lakes. — Where is the Dead Sea? — Lake Balkash ? — Lake Baikal ? Lake Baikal is the largest fresh-water lake in Siberia. In win- er it is covered with ice four feet thick, and is then traversed by sledges laden with tea, from China. It receives 160 7-ivers and 'reams. Capes, Bays, Grulls, and ^*"i*aits. Where is Cape Ras-al-had ? — Cape Comorin ? — Cape Romania ? — Cape Lopatka ?— East Cape ?— Cape Engano ? Where is the Bay of Bengal ? Where is the Persian Gulf?— The Gulf of Oman?— The White Sea?— Gulf of Martaban ?— Gulf of Siam?— Gulf of Tonquin ?— Gulf of Cutch ?— Gulf of Anadir? Where is Amur Gulf ?— Strait of Malacca ?— Strait of Formosa ? On the east side of the island of Formosa tlie Black-stream of Japan sets very stronglg to tlie north ; on tlie west side of the island the cold counter-current from the Arctic seas sets strongly to tlie south. A branch of it enters the seas between Japan and China through tlie Qulf of Tarta/ry, the Straits of Perouse and San- gar, and tlve Corea Channel.— Where is Behring Strait? 15 75 \ ~T JL<50»/1 ¥':'hi 'h- -^'^* p ou,., '■"le. ^-i^o; 4^ ^^^ &(r>, DencJi tova SfAsXOMSK fc''^ SOLD A>4^- zd2anj k:^^^"'M^2C'^w^>I '■ ' Oft: .^ r^^^^^ - -- "^jQi^ ^"Hjuj/,' #^Al'S*^l^ ., O 7 -. I\"^ -^ ■■-7-" JSr G^: Aindaman Islands :^ Nicol lilar -East of 90 Greet ^t,r-p- 5>% ^ /o ^Hi3^^ ^^' ^.-^' ^^ ^ -< -1 I *° 1 \ Si ' ^J-i-^^^Z -A'r I'.crV' -T»-a6 j! - T ■* — ' <^l-^'^ r'o^S Ligor 140 REVIEW QUESTIONS ON ASIA. Seas and Islands, and Deserts. Where is the Arabian Sea?— The Red Sea?— The Caspian Sea?— The Aral Sea ? — The China Sea ? This sea is often swept by the fearful storms knoicn as typhoons. — Where is the Yellow Sea ? — Sea of Okhotsk ? — Behring Sea ? How many Japanese islands are there? — Name four.— Where is the island of Socotra ?— Where are the Laccadive Islands ?— The Maldives ?— Cey- lon ?— Nicohar ?— Andaman Islands ?— Hainan ? — Hong-Kong Island ?— Sag- halien? — Staten Island? — Kurile Islands? Trace the limits of the Arabian Desert. — The Great Desert of Gobi, or Shame. Gobi means " naked desert," a term charactei-isttc of this desert, which is covered with loose sand, bare roc.h fhingly stones, and water-worn pebbles. Cities, Routes, and Distances. Where is Jerusalem? — Damascus? — Mecca? — Mocha? Our best coffee comes from 3/oe/u(.— Teheran ?— Ispahan ?— Bokhara ? — Cabool ?— Tobolsk ?— Yakutsk? This is near "the Asiatic pcle of Greatest Cold'' — Calcutta? — Bombay? — Singapore? — IIong-Kong ? — Canton ? — Shanghai ?— Peking? — Where is Osaka? — Nagasaki? — Yokohama? This is tlie jwt of Tedo. — Ilakodadi ?— Pctropaulowski ?— Point de Galle ?— Bankok ?— Yedo (Tokiol ? How would you go from Aden to Bombay? — From Bombay to Calcutta? — Point de Galle to Singapore? — Shanghai to Ilakodadi? — From Peking to St. Petersburg ? (See page 126, at the end of Map Studies on Europe.) How would you go from Yakutsk to St. Petereburg? — What is the dis- tance in a straight line from Peking to Yakutsk ? — From Canton to Hakodadi ? — By water from Hong-Kong to Singapore ? — From Calcutta to Cashmere ? — From Jerusalem to the mouth of the Indus ? Miscellaneous. Find Mount Sinai. — Where was ancient Babylon ? — Point out the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. — How far is Bombay from Calcutta ? — Find Lucknow — Delhi. — What is Thibet? Ans. A plateau. In Thibet and Tartai^y is found the strange Yak, or grunting ox, which loves to roam above the snow-line. Where is the great watershed of Asia? Ans. N . of the Knen-lun Mts. ; this watershed is called " the Roof of tlie TVc^/'W."— Measuring by the scale, what is the length and breadth of the Desert of Gobi ? Tliis is tlie cradle of the ')nonsoo7is of tlie Indian Ocean. Study here the Orographic View of Ce.ntral Asia. The southwesti:rn portions of Asia and the northeastern regions of Africa are subject to peculiar dust-whirlwinds, which bear, in minature, a resemblance to cyclones or revolving storms. In the nortliern liemisphere they revolve against the hands of a watch; in tfie southern, with titese Jiands. \^ A DUST- WHIRLWIND. Where is the volcano of Foosiyama? — Where are the Bonin Islands? What are the Tundras'* Tliese are vast marshy plains on tJie Arctic Ocean. Where is the Dead Sea? It is 1300 feet lower t/uin tlie Mediterranean. THE TAK or TARTABT. Revie"w Questions. Lesson LXVI.— i. What do you know of tlie Asiatic races? 2. Of the population of Asia? .7. Political geography? 4. Its modes of life and civilization? 5. Woman in Asia? 6*. The grand plateau of Asia ? Lesson LXVIL— i. Describe China. 2. Its famous works. 3. What is said of the Chinese ? 4. For what productions are their soil and climates suited? 5. Name the great agricultural staples of China, and de- scribe their uses. 6'. What is said of tiie Chinese religion ? 7. Domestic animals? S. Name the cities, and give their popula- tion. — What is said of Mongolia ? Lesson LXVIII. — 1. Describe tlie Japanese. 2. What are tlieir free ports, and who opened them ? 3. Explain their government. 4. Their literature. 5. Their laws. G. Tlie nature of tlieir coun- try. 7. Domestic furniture. S. What is said of the Japan Lsl- ands? .9. Their climates and products? 10. Minerals? 11. Japanese cliaracter? 12. Cities? Lesson LXIX. — /. Describe Siam, A nam, and Bunnah. 2. Soil. ,?. Forests. 4. Wlial is said of the elephant? .'>. Trade and religion? 6*. The Malay Peninsula ?— Singapore ? 7. Tin region of Asia? *. Products? .9. Animals?— The wliile elephant?— Bankok and its population? Lesson LXX— J. Extent, history, etc., of India? 2. Divi- sions? .?. Commerce? ^. Seaports?— Explain the Monsoons. r>. Cotton of India ? 6*. Opium? 7. Cities? «. Describe Benares. 9. Describe other cities of India. 10. Lucknow— Vale of Cash- mere — Hyderabad. Lesson LXXI. — 1. Describe the countries of this chapter. 2, People. 3. Physical aspects.— Mention a nilc of physical gr-ogra- phy. 4. Describe Arabia. 5. Beloochistan. (i. Afghanistan. 7. Turkestan. 8. Persia. Lesson LXXIL— i. Describe Asiatic Turkey. 2. Syria. 3. Asiatic Russia — Russian Armenia. 4. Shirvan. 5. Georgia, (i. Siberia — Pctropaulowski. AFRICA. 141 AFRICAN FAUNA AND FLORA. LESSOJf LXXIY. Africa. (Map, p. IM.) J. General Geoqvaplnj. — Africa is to the geog- rapher an uukuowu laud. It is the abode of the negro and of the wild Arab. Out of its vast forests and impene- trable jungles come forth those strange animals, the gorilla and chimpanzee, that bear such a painful resem- blance to the human form. 2. Political Geoffraphy. — Egypt and the Barbary States profess the Mahommedan religion, and own a certain degree of allegiance to Turkey. Algeria and St. Louis belong to France. The Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the Diamond District, and Sierra Leone, are English colonies. Our telescopes have made us better acquaiuted with the geography of the moon tliau exi)lan''a r^-Ambor Passlndavap*? p^^""'""^'"'^ C.St. Andre' ^i^i ■'^ r T Tamatave ^ p-^ -LtlvA^ A It 1 V O .^idlUmaue ; '""'"' S }^^„."7/VManoiiroa. ^'^'^^"'^^^^^"''^ij^y^.ananzar^ ^ « E_uroiml.\ X.-rr,; ..f : iReuuioa France. ^ Birdl. •rlj'' 'WeTbeyVale ^olo'^ji^ . „ . , , ^ - , \-=r '^ >|( 3CnrHchai^i\ ?i^j.f/f /^-T't- Cw % S -—- *--c>— - C9 ^TrojncjrfCancer ^ Bird I ®^^Dlvrp Kauhal ~*^'iA' Nihaii°° OaTial. '^Q^ UOKOLCLff* Lanai r.^^Maui ?ii ^* Mauna Lua ( Vul ) ^ hawau I. / c> - » .. • • •3 Marahalllds. A- N I •• ^ A GILBERT IS. "* Equator -^ KiogsmiU G 'OUp ^l^ , Ta»weTl Is. «. o» ElliceUs. ♦ MARQUESAS IS. ■." De Peysters Or. _ ' . tjBion Group EUicea Gr. * V 'a ». Cral U. •■• * Vanikoro I. , Banks 19. ' ■^^ L ":ejee •W HEBRIDES ^ *■°^•- ^ Sandwich I. .Erromango T""^^. « levu. / NAVIGATORS ir Savaii => j^Upola 'l-utuila ISLES Y w ^aima Levu • • . '■'■ ' '•: • Tonga ls.° p ^ ' " Sv COOKS ISLES illiser IB. '-P*, Cj ;• •■• « . Rcaolutioa I. TAHITI . ••••Bowl. 2a & l^jyoiiy Is. Tongalaliu • . Osnaljurgh I. ^ . Gambier Is. . l^ince or Walea Tropic of Capricorn .f iKaiin I. * • o FOSrOLKI. Q It OCEANIA JToTth Cape AND Cape 5. ' ULSTER L^LHA. I ^'^'°^») *°V\Eai • ____ /^"r-^M^iAhaOpen 5?' ^^■^'UUUeC i^HCTl 40 /j^fj-i^J NEW MUN3TEB ..^ChathaiRl. Antipodes I. >2A«t from Greenwich. Mi) I^nKitnde 165 West from Gre«nwich. IM ^_4/yu.i\ c'?sy i5o ISLANI/S OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.— MAP STUDIES. crust which always surrounds their tissue. Thousands of islands in the ocean are of madreporic formation. The illustration represents half the natural size of a madrepore. \ MADREPORE OP THE INDIAN OCEAN. 8. The Sandwich Islands are the only group in Poly- nesia that have attained to the dignity of nationality. We have a treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation with the king of tlie Sandwich Islands, who is a highly accomplished gentleman. Honolulu, the capital, (popula- tion 14,000), is the most iniixntant island town in the wliole of Poly- nesia. It has an extensive trade with the-United States. Hawaii, the lai-gest island of the group, is volcanic. On it towers, at the height of 13,700 feet, Mauna Loa, with its seething cauldron of molten lava, 1500 feet deep and two miles in circumference. These islands are a famous place of rendezvous for our whalers. Lot's wife, a shaft of granite rising 300 feet out of mid-ocean, is one of the wonders of Polynesia. Formosa belongs to China. The French have occupied New Caledonia, the Society, and the LOT'S WIPE. Marquesas islands. Islands of the Atlantic Ockax. (^lap, p. 152.) 9. All the islands in this ocean have, under the influ- ences and agencies of commerce, been brought within the pale of civilization. St. Helena, a rock, owned and fortified by Great Britain, is of note chiefly because it was there that Napoleon Bonaparte was imprisoned and died. The Cape deVerdes, Madeira, and Azores all belong to Portugal. They are volcanic, and are famous for ft'uits and wines. Tiiey produce also coffee, sugar, and tobacco. More than half the oranges imported into Great Britain are said to come from St. Michael's, one of the Azores. As many as 20,000 oranges have been known to be gathered from a single tree there iu one j'ear. The Canaries, also volcanic, belong to Spain ; they too are famous for their wines. To them we owe the sweet little singing-bird that bears their name. The Bermudas, said to consist of nearly 3,000 islets, belong to Great Britain. On them she has a naval station and an excellent dockyard.- ^. /^ LE8S0K LXXIX. ■/' Studies on the Map of Oceania and Australia. Botnidarics and Positions.— Between what parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude does Australia lie?— Bound New South Wales- Bound Victoria— North Australia— South Australia.- Bound West Australia. Wliere is Queen's-Land ?— Tasman Land ?— Wlure is TasuuiniaV— New Zealand?— What are llK'ir brarings from Mu cross the Tropic of Capricorn ? Arts. Because the southeast Trade- Winds )m|)<;l you. In returning from Melbourne to New York, would you go by way of the Cape of Good Hope or Cape Horn ? Why by Cape Horn ? Aiis. Because thus you have the Counter-Trades in your favor. Wiiy do vessels from England bound to India, Cliina, and Australia go by the Cape of Good Hope? Ans. Because the Counter-Trades assist tliem, and if they went by Cape Horn tlie Counter-Trades would be against them. Trace the course of a vessel going from Liverpool to India. Why does she run across the Atlantic so close to the shores of South America? Ans. Because the Equatorial Current and the Trade- Winds force her over. What is the shortest route from Liverpool to Bombay? Am. By the Suez CanaL Through what waters would you take this route ? How would you go from New York to San Francisco by rail ? Point out the chief Ocean Telegraphic Cables of the world. Point out the long-gought Northwest Passage. Oapt. McClure, of the British Navy, is the only explorer who has made this ixiesage. ^ PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. In this Vocabulary the best and most recent authorities have been consulted for both spelling anil pronunciation, a. e. i, o, (I, are to l)e pronounced as in bate, mete, bite, note, tube : a, S, I, 6, ii, as in bat, bet, bit, not, but. The sound of a in far is indicated by ah ; a in fall, oy aw ; o in rfo, by oo ,• g in get, l)y qk. Tlie nasal sound occurrinj; in some Frencli words is indicated by N, as Toulon, (too-loN) ; this nasal sound is somewhat like that of ng sounded through the nose. Letters enclosed by ( ) indicate pronunciation. Aalborg (ol'borg). Aar (alir). Aarhuus (or'hoos). Abyssinia (al)-is-sin'i-a). Ab-er-deen'. Abomey (ab-o-mS')- Acapuico (ah-kah-pool'ko). Acerra (Italy) (ali-clier'rah). Aconcagua (ah-kon-kah'gwa). Adc^n (a'den or ah'den). Adige (ad'e-je ; It. ah'de-ja). Ad-i-ron'dack. Ad-ri-au-o'ple. Ad-ri-at'ic. Aegean (S-jS'an). Afghanistan (af-ghahn-is- tahn'). Af'ri-ca. Agulhas (a-gool'yas). Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-lah-shah- pel'). Ajaccio (ah-yaht'cho). Alabama (al-a-bah'ma). Aland (ah'land). A-las'ka. Albans (awl'bans). Al-be-marle'. Al ci'ra (Sp. ahl-th5'rah). Aleutian (al-oo'she-an). Ai'bi-on. Albuquerque (alU-bu-ker'ka). Al'der-ney. Alen^on (ah-len'son). A-lep'po. Algiers (al-j5rz'). Al-''(;'i-ia. Al-li-gha'ny. Allaliabad (ahl-la-hah-bahd')- Almaden (ahl-mah-den'). ANace (ahl-sass';. Altai (ahl-tl'). Altamaha (al-ta-ma-hawO- Altona (al'to-na). ' • Altmuhl(ahlt'muhl).. . ' ■ Amarapui'a (ahm-ah-ra-p'u'ra). Am'boise (Fr. ahN'bwahz). Ara-boy'na. Am'i-ens (Pr. pron. ah-me- ahlST'). Am'a-zon. A moo (ah-moo'). Anioor (ah-moor'). Anioy (ah'moy). Am'ster-dain. Anadyr (an-a-der'). Anam (a-nam or a-nahm'). Anaphy (ah-nah'le). An-da-man'. An'des (an'dez). An-dor'ra. An'do-ver. An-dros-cog'gin. Angara (an-gah'rah). An>;lesey (ang'gl-se). Ann-ap'o-lis. Ann Ar'bor. Antigua (ahn-te'gwah). Ant-arc'tic. An-ti-cos'ti. An-til'les (or ahn-t51'). Ap-pa-lach'ee. Ap-pa-la-chi-cola. Ap'en-nines. A-ra'bi-a. Ar'ab. Ar'a-rat. Ar-au-ca'nia. Araguay (ah-rah-gwi')- Archangel (ark-3u'jel). Archipelago (ark-i-pel'a-go). Arc'tic. Ardennes (ar-d6n'). Arequipa (ah-ra-kee'pah). Argentine (ar'jen-t6n). Ar-kan'sas. Armagh (ar'mah or ar-mah'). Artois (ahr-twah'). As-cen'sion. Ash-an'tee. Asia (a'shi-ah). As'gam (or ae-samO. As-sump'tion. As-tra-khan'. Atacama (ah-tah-kah'mah). Atchafalaya (ach-af-a-ll'a). Ath-a-bas'ca. At-lan'tic. Augustine (au-gus-tenO . Aus-tral-a'si-a. Aus-tra'li-a. Aus'tri-a. Auvergne (o-vairn'). AurungabadCo-rung-ga-bahd'). Avignon (ah-vSn-yoN')- Ava (ah'vah). Az'ov. Az-ores'. Balbec (bahl'bec). Bab-el-Man'deb. Baden (bah den or bad'en). Ba-ha'ina. Bahia Honda (bah-6'ah Ou'da). Bahrein (hah-rau')- Baikal (M'kahl). IJalize (bah-leez'). Balkan (Dald-kahn'). Biilmoial (l):ilil-mn'rahl). Baltic (bawl'tic). Balzac (bahl-zahk'). Balaklava (bah-hli-klah'vah). Baug-kok' or Ban-kok'. Barataria (bah-ra-tah'ri-a). Bar-ba'does (-doz). Barcelona (bar-se-lo'nah). Barnaul (har-nowl'). Ba-ta'vi-a. Baton Kouge (bat'un roozh). Ba-va'ri-a. •Bayonne (bah-yon'). Bayou la Fourche (bi'oo lah foorsh). Beaufort (bu'fort). Beirut (ba'-root). Beled-el-jerid (bel'ed-el-jer'- eed). Bclem (be-lem' or ba-lcN'). Bel'gi-um. Belleisle (bel-Ile'). Bel-oo-chis-tan' (-tahn). Bel-grade'. Benares (ben-ah'rez). Bengal (ben-gawl'). Benguela (ben-ga'lah). Benm (ben-6n'). Ber'gen. Ber-mu'das. Berne (bern). Behring (beer'ing). Ber-nard'. Besanfon (ba-sahn-8oN0. Biafra (bg-af'rah). Bid'de-ford. Binghamton (bing'am-ton). Bir'mah. Biscay (bis'ky). Blenheim (blen'im). Bogota (bo-go-lah'). Bo-he'mi-a. Boise (bois). Bokhara (bo-kah'ra). Bo-liv'i-a. Bom-bay'. Bonifacio (bon-e-fah'cho). Bonin (bo-nSn'). Bordeaux (bor-doO- Bor'ne-o. Born'holm. Bos'po-rns. Both'ni-a. Bourbon (boor'bon). Bosna Serai (boz'nah sei"-!'). Bonrges (boorzh). Brah-ma-poo'tra. Brazil (brah-zil'). Brazos (hrah'zOs). Brem'en (in D. S. BrS'men). Bres'lau. Brescia (bresh'e-ah). Brisbane (briz'bane). Britain (brit'tn). Bucharest (buck-a-rcsf). Bu'da. Buenos Ayres (bway'nos I'res). Bul-ga'ri-a. Bushire (boo-sheer'). Butte (bQt). Cabool (kah-bool'). Ca'diz. C'a'en (or kahN). Caf-fra'ri-a. Ca-ha\v'ba. Cairo (ki'ro ; in U. S. ka'ro). Calais (kal'is ; Fr. i)ron, cal-ay'). Calcasieu (kahl'ka-shoo). Caldora (kal-da'rah). Cal-i-lor iii-a. Call 111 (kabl-lah'O, or kahl- yah'o). Cam'bray. Can'a-da. Ca-na'ry. Canda-har'. Ca-nav'cr-al. Can-ta'bri-a. Can-ton' (in U. S. can'ton). Cape Bre'ton (or brit'tn). (;aracas (cah-rah'cas). Car-pen-ta'ri-a. Carib-be'an. Carta-ge'na. Cas'pi-an. Cassiquiare (cah-see-kee-ah'- ra). Cau'ca-sus. Caxamarca (cah-hah-mar'- kahK Cavenne (kl-en'). Celebes (set'e-bcK). Ceph-a-lo'ni-a. Ceutu (>u'tah). Ceylon (sC'lon, or se-lon'). Cevennes (sa-ven'). Chagres (chah'g'res). Chartres (shartr). Cbauiplain (sham-piane'). Chary bdis (ka-rib'dis). Chat-ta-hoo'che. Cha;idiere (sho-de-air'). Chelsea (chel'se). (Chenango (she-nang'go). Cherbourg (sher-boorg'j. Cheyenne (she-en'). • Cherapungee (cher-ah-poon- je'). Ches'a-peake. Chicago (she-caw'go). Chili (chilOe). Chimborazo (chim-bo-rah'zo). Chi'na. Chin'cha. Chihuahua (che-wah'vvah). Chil-li-cmh'g. Chinese (clil-n5z'). Chip'pe-wa. Chnstiania (kris-te-ah'ne-ahV Chuquibamba (chu-ke-bahm'- bah). Chuquisaca (chu-ke-sah'kah). Cienfuegos (se-en-fwa'gOs). Cincinnati (sin-sin-nah'ti). Co-an'za. Cobija (ko-be'hah). Coahuila (kn-ah-w5'lah). Cologne (kn-lone'). Colorado (col-o-rah'do). Cojutepeque (ko-hu-ta-pa'ka). Comayagna (ko-ml-ah'gwa). Comorin (kom'o-rin). Con'chos. Connecticnt (con-net'i-cut). Con-Ptan-ti-no'ple. Concord (kong'kord) Constantine (kon'stahn-tfin). Copiapo (ko-pe-ah'po). Co-penha'gen. Coquimbo (ko-kSm'bo). Cor'do-va. Corpus Christi (kris'tJ). Cor'si-ca. Cor-ri-en'tes. Coseguina (kos-a-gwe'nah). Costa Kica (kos'tali re'kali). Cotopaxi (co-toi)ax'i). Cracow (krah'ko). Croustadt (krOn'staht). Covington (kuv'iug-ton). Crim'e-a. Cu'ba. Ciievas de Vera (kwa'vah dii va'rah). Ciimana (ku-niah-nah'j. Cuiacoa (ku-ra-so'a). Ciitch (kQtch). Cuzco (koos'ko). Cyclades (sik'la-dCz). Cy -clone'. Cy'prus. Dah-lon'ega. Dafu (dah-too'). Dakota (dah-ko'tah). Dahomey ((iahho'ma). Dalton (iiaurtou). Damios (dah'mi-Oz). Dant'zic. Dan'ube. Dar-da-nelles'. Darfur (dar-foor'). Da-ri-en'. Dauphinc (dO-fe'na). Dec'can. Del'a-ware. Delhi (del'hl in U. S.; del'e in Asia). Den'mark. Des Moines (da moin'). De-troit'. Dhwawalaghiri(da-wol-a-ghe'- re). Diamantina (deah-mahn-te'- nah). Dieppe (de-5p'). Dijon (de-zhoN'). Dnieper (ne'i)er). Dniester (ne^'ter). Do'fra-ficld. Dominica (doni-e-ne'kah). Dona Ana (do'nah ah'nah). Dor'thes-ter. Dorpat (dor'paht). Douai (doo-a'). Douro (du'ro). Droutheim (dront'Im). Drave (drahv). Dres'den. Dubuque (du-book'). Dumfries (dum-fr5z'). Dun-bar'. Duncansby (dunk'auz-by). Dun'kirk. Dus'sel-dorf. Dwina (dwe'nah). E'bro. Ecuador (ek-wa-dOr'). Ed^ecumbe (ej'kum). Ed'in-burgh (or -burro). Ed'is-to, El'ba. Elburz (el-boorz'). EI Dorado (do-rah'do). Rl Paso (pah'so). Elbe (elb). England (ing'gland). Erie (e're). Eseequibo (cs-se-ke'bo). Esquimaux (es'-ke-mo). Estacado (es-tah-kah'do). Estramadura(es-tra-mah-doo'- rah). Etienne (a-te-6n'). Eu-phra'tes. Eure (Are). Eu-re'ka. Eux'ine. Kv'ans-ville. Ev'o-ra. Ex'e-ter. Eyre (air). Faenza (fah-en'zah). Falkland (fawk'land). Falmouth (fai'mnth). Fa 'roe. Fayal (O-awl'; Port, fl-ahl'). Fee'jee. Felipe (lil-IG'pa). Fernandina (-de'nah). FiM-rara (I'er-rah'rah). Ferrol (fer-rfll'). Fez'zan . Fiesole (fe-es'o-lS). FiuL'al (flng-gawK). Finisterre (fln-is-tair'). Fiord (fe-ord'). Fiumc (fe-oo'mS). Flcir'enre. Flor'i-da. Fond-du-I-ac'. For-mo'sa Foocboo (foo-choo'). Franche Comtfi (fraNsh koN- ta'). Fnink'fort. Fred'c-ricks-burg. Freiburg (fri'boorg). Fucino (It. foo-che'no). Kiiegos (foo-a'gOs). Fu'nen. Furneaux (foor-no'). G. Gal-a-|)a'gos. Galatz (gab-lahtz'). Galicia (gal-ish'e-a). C.allas (gsdil'ahz). Gallinas (gal-lee'nas). Ga-Ie'na. GanL'es (gan'jCz). Garonne (gah-ron'). Gauley (gau'll). Ge-ne'va. Gen-es-see'. Gen'oa. Geor'gi-a. Geral (zha'rahl). Ger'ma-ny. Ghauts (gauts). Gib-ral'tar. Gila ( jG'la or hS'la). Gloucester (glos'ter). Go'a. Gobi (gO'be). Godavcry (godah'ver-I). Gon'dai-. Gracias a DIos (grah'se-as ah de'Os). Granada (gra-nah'dah). Greenwich (grgn'ij or grGn'- Itch) Grecn'land. Greitz (gritz). Gricsbach (grGs'bak). Grisons (gre-zoN'). Gros Ventres (grO vaNtr'). Guadalaxara (gwah-dah-lah- hah'rah). Guaymas (gwi'mahs). Guadalquiver (gaw-dal-quiv'- er). Guadalupe (sraw-'da-lupe). Guadiana (L'avv-de-ah'na). Guanahanitu'wah-nah-hahsT). Giianaxiiato (gwah-nah-hwair to). Gnardafui (gwar-dah-fwfl'). Gnatemalji (gwahta-mah'lah). (iiiavaquil (gwi-ah-keel'). Guelph (gwelf), Guiana (ge-an'ah). Guinea (ii>^-n-t(m'ic (boos-). lloti-ion (hfl^'ton). Iliiallaga (hwal-yah'gah). HuaiHU'o (wahn'oo-ko). Hue (boo'a). Hni-lva (wel'vah). Hum'boldt. Ilun'ga-ry. Ilu'ron. Hyderabad (hl-dcr-a-bahd'). Ice'land. I'da. l'(la-bo. iL'iiape (e-g\vah'pa). Illinuis (il-lin-oiz or -oi). Illimani (Cl'ye-mah'ne). In-(li-aii'a. In-di-an-ap'o-lis. In-tli-a-no'la. Indies (in'diz), Iii'dus. Innsbiuck (ins'prook). Interlacken (in'ter-lahk-en). In-verness'. I-o'ni-an. I'o-wa. Ire'land. Irkutsk (ir-kool8k'). Ir'ra-wad-dy. Iscre (G-zair'). Iser (G'zer). Is'lip. Ispa-han'. It'a-ly. I-ta^'ca. Itapna (G-tah-j)oi)'ii'.iV Il(m (Fr. G-toN). Ivifa (C-ve'sahj. IztarcihuatI (J.-tahk-se- bwahtl'). J. Jaen (hah-en'). Jalapa (liab-Iah'pab). Jalamnit'za (yal-). Jamaica (ja-ma'k«h>. Jan Mayen (yahn mi'en). /I, f. 1/.'^ V r VOCABULARY. i55 Ja-pan'. Jipura (hah-poo'rah). Jassy (yas'sl). Java (jah'vah). Jfb'el Sham'mer. Je'na (or ya'nah). Je-m'sa-lem. Jiloco (he-lo'ko). Joannes (zho-ahn'nes). Jo'li-et. Jorallo (ho-rool'yo). Jn-an Fer-nan'dez. Ju'im de Fii'ca. Jii5;;7 ^ — - Many of the statistics usually given at tEe close of works of tliis order have been carefully inteiwoven in the text itself. The subjoined Tables arc compiled from the best anthoritiee and the most recent data. For many of these the Author is indebted especially to the Census of the United States, 1870, to the Census of Great Britain aud of the Dominion, 1871 (the latter, with their valuable information, kindly furnished by Mr. Alplieus Todd, Parliamentary Librarian), and to Behms' Ueographisches Jahrbuch. %^" The Class should be exercised on these Tables by such questions as these : What is the area of the earth ? Uovv much laud ? How much water ? Population ? What Nation owns most land ? Which rules most people ? What is the population of the United States ? Railroads, length of Rivers, heights of Mountains, &c., &c. DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH. Polar Diameter Equatorial Diameter Equatorial Circumference . Superficial Area 7,89yj miles. 7.925+ " 24,899i " .196,8(il,750 square miles HEIGHTS OF CHIEF MOUNTAINS, (Pupil will find these statistics i:i the table at bottom ot pp. 20 and 21.) LENGTH OF CHIEF RIVERS. (Pupil will find these at bottom of pp. 20 iind 21. He will also refer for additional inlbnnatiuu to the appropriate place in the text.) TABLE OF ENGLISH MILES TO A DEGREE OF LON- GITUDE FOR EVERT FIFTH DEGREE OF LATI- TUDE. (See p. 12.) AREAS OF GRAND DIVISIONS, OCEANS, AND UNEX- PLORED REGIONS. Europe, with islands 3,846,038 Asia, " " 17,.361,971 Africa, " " 11.5.511.293 North America, '• 9,021.15:1 South America, " 6,9.57,271 Australasia and Pol- ynesia 3,425,302 Total land surface. 52,168,028 Square Miles. Unexplored Polar Regions. Arctic Ocean Atliintic Ocean Pacilic Ocean. . . Indian Ocean . . . 1,000,0(10 ,513,722 ,000,000 ,00.1.000 .OUO.OOU Total earth's sur- face 196,681,750 TABLE OF THE EXTENT, ELEVATION, AND DEPTH OF THE GREAT AMERICAN LAKES. Lake Superior. Green Bay — Lake Michigan " Huron... " St. Clair. " Erie " Ontario. . Leiit^th. Miles. ISi-eaillli. Miles. Deplh ill Feet. Elevafri .iliove sea ill Feet. 400 80 850 630 100 20 500 600 320 70 1000 600 240 : 80 10.50 600 20 . 18 20 570 240 • 38 150 56> 180 35 650 294 Ar ft ill Sq. Miles. 32,000 2,0UJ 22,4(10 20.400 360 9,600 r.,300 The lakes contain 11,.300 cubic miles of water, or more than one-half of all the fresh water on the globe. AREAS OF OTHER PRINCIPAL LAKES. Square Mile.s. Lake Nicaragua 4,000 Luke Wener. 2,12i) Great Salt Lake 1.900 Great Bear Lake 10,0(10 Lake Geneva 82 POPULATION AND AREA OF THE EIGHT LARGEST ISLANDS. ■ Squ ue Miles. Caspian Sea. .147,000 Sea of Aral . 31.100 Lake Baikal . 15,000 Great Slave Lake. . . . 12.000 Lake Winnipeg. . .. . 7,000 Lake Titicaca . 4,000 Population. Square Miles. Australia 2.000.000 2.945,000 Borneo 1.200,001) 285.000 New Guinea 1.000.000 275,000 Madagascar 5.000.000 2:12.000 Sumatra 2,600.000 172,000 New Zealand 201,712 106,259 30.000,000 26,000,000 95,000 87,000 The United States owns no islands except the Aleutian Islands, and those that are near our own shores, called lUtmal islands. Neither does China, nor Turkey, nor Russia, nor Brazil, own any except their littoral islands. The United States has possessions only on the American Con- tinent. Great Britain, on the contrary, has possessions in the four quarters of the globe— her iftncUlesl possessions being in Europe; these are now as follows : Ilihaliitaiits. Square Mil'-' In Europe In Africa 31 .629.000 2.900.00(1 150.000.000 2.0OII.0OO 6,1:30,000 121,000 500 000 981,000 In Australia and Polynesia.. . 3.078.000 3.597.:155 Total 192,659.000 8,277,355 THE SIX NATIONS THAT OWN MORE THAN HALF THE LAND AND GOVERN MORE THAN HALF THE PEOPLE IN THE WORLD, are- liiluiliitants. Square Miles. China Great Britain Russia 480.000,000 193.000.000 77.(i00.fl00 :19 00.1.0 10 13.000,000 41.000,000 4,695,000 8,320,000 7,860.000 United States Brazil Turkey 3,612,000 3,2:30,000 1,820,000 Total 843 00;),000 29,537,000 AREAS AND POPULATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, (By Census op 1870.) Maine 35,000 N. Hampshire 9.280 Vermoiii 10.212 Massacliusetts 7.800 Rhode Wand. 1.30(> C'onneciicut.. . 4.750 Nkw Enul'nd States, agg. 68.;348 New York.. New Jersey . . Pennsylvania. Delaware Maryland District of Co- lumbia Mm. States, aggregate. . . . Virginia N'rth Carolina So. Carolina. Georgia Kloriaa Alabainii Mississippi.. Louisiana Texas Arkansas.: . . Tunnesseo. . . Indian Teiri- Ifiry (est) . Ntw Mexico. .Southern States, agg West Virginia Ohio Kentucky Indiana HIinois Michigan Wisconsin Missouri Iowa Minnesota Kansas Nebraska Colorado Montana Dakota Wyoming Western States, agg. California* . . . Oregon Nevada A rizona Utah Idaho Wax/iington... Alaska (est). . , Pacific States, agg Total Aggre gates StlU'ire Mile>. Asere^nte Po)iulation. 626.915 318,;300 3:30..wl 1,457,.3.51 217,:3.5:3 537,454 3.487.9M 47.000 8.:320 46.000 2,120 11,124 60 114,624 38..3.->2 50,701 31,000 .58.000 .59,268 50.722 47,156 41.346 274.356 52,19S ^5,600 68,991 121,201 941,894 23.000 39,9tM .37.(180 13:3.809 55.40!t 56,4-.l 53.9-24 65.310 .55.045 8:3.5:31 81,318 75,995 104,500 143,776 150.932 97,88:3 1,158.567 188, 95. 112, 113 84, 86 69 577, ,328.4 1 C 3,611,849 ■l,.382.759 !K)6.09r, 3,.521,951 125.01.'-. 780,894 131,700 9,818.415 1,225.16:3 I,071.:361 705,606 1.184,109 187,748 9i»6,!t92 827,922 726.915 818.579 481,471 1,258,520 12.000 91,874 9..591.260 6^,809 317,697 329.613 1,443,1.56 212,219 527,519 1.606 ,580 924 13,947 4.!»80 9.668 CJihiPM, 5(10 23 14 248 1)4 237 3,455,013: 31,705 4,:5.}0.210 875.407 3.4.56.609 102.221 605,497 88,278 9,458,222 712 089 678.470 289,667 6:38,926 96.037 521. .381 382.896 362.065 564.700 362.115 936,119 !)0.:393 1.6:34.881 412.014 2.665.260 l.:3-21.011 1.(180.6:37 2..5;39.891 1.184.0.59 1.054.670 1.721.295 1.194.020 439.706 .3&I.399 122,993 39,864 20,595 14.181 9,118 14.813.713 560,247 90,923 42.491 9.658' 86,78(; 14,9!(9 23,9.55 6,000 8:35.0.59 424.033 2,601,946 1,098.692 1,6.55.8:37 2..511.096 1.167.28:; 1.051. .351 1.61 13. 141 1 1K'<.20'; 4:38 2.57 ai6 :i77 122.117 ;39.221 18,:30(1 12.8H' 8.726 14.289.481 38,576,371 t 499.424 86.929 .■38.9.59 9, .581 86.014 10.618 22.195 6,000 7.59,7.50 .33,595,374 52,081 .30,658 65.J94 22,794 175,391 43,404 389,622 .512,841 ;391,6.50 41.5.814 .51.5.142 91.689 47.5.510 444.201 :364,210 25:3.475 122.169 322,331 172 3.9.39.204 17.98!! 63,213 222.210 24,560 28,762 11,849 2.113 118,071 5,762 7.59 17.108 789 4.56 1*3 94 18:3 514.092 1,272 .346 3.57 26 118 60 207 5.386 4,880,009 1.176 4(« 31 48 18 571 2:i3 1.211 125 41 2 98 825 (VIO 404 187 70 1.309 5,175 1 101 109 240 a3 4.928 1,206 78 51 690 914 87 187 2.106 1,2011 209 12.140 56.551 3.(M8 3.175 51 624 4,.321 1,553 69,923 88,985 * California has 43,310 Chinese. + Exclusive of Navy, Mariners at Sea, and Wild Indians, estimated at 367,227. GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES IN STATES AND POPULATION, 1775. . 1790. . 1800. 1810,. 1820.. repulatlou. . 2.803 000 Colonies, 13 3,929,827 Slates. 5,:i(15,937 7.2.39,814 9,6:38,191 13 15 16 20 1830. 1840. 18.5(1. 1860. 1870. I'epulatlon. .12,866,020 States. . 17,069,4.53 " . .2:3.191,876 " . 31,719,765 " . . :38,576,;371 " . 23 25 30 33 37 OTHER PARTS OF AMERICA. Greenland (osiiraated) Newpoundi.and Laf/radoi- (estimated) Prince Edward's Island. . . The Dominion Ontaiw Oiif/jic Aora Scotia A't w III It m wick Maiiitolia Biitish Colum/jia (est) Northwest Teiritoiies (est) Mexico Cent. America (p. 87), est West Indies (est) .. Viilxi, ■■ Infiind San Domingo (est). South .America (est). ... lin The Guuanas Venezima I'niled Slates of Colombia . Ecuador I'eru Jioliria Chili Argentine Confederation.. I'araijiiay Uriig'iaj/ Patagonia. 1871. 1870 1868. 1871. 1872. 1865. 1867. ropulatiou. Sq. Mile . 10,000 146.536 5,0(10 94.021 3.576..577 1.620.812 1.191.505 :387.W)0 285.777 11.9,53 50.000 28.700 9.116 082 2.690,6:35 4.000.000 1,400.000 710. (K)0 :3(I.(H10.000 10,000.(M10 216,000 2.200,000 2,900,000 l.:300,(IOO 2,.5(I0.(K10 1,987,000 2.0R5,000 1.801,000 l,:i:37,(X)0 250,(100 30,000 7,59,789 40,200 74,N.O 2,100 3,-347.045 210."-,'0 121.2(10 18,660 27,105 13.000 22(1,000 2,7:37.000 773,119 188.;3(i:i 93.H-.2(I 45.,^W) 2.'<.(::iO 6,9,57.271 3,2,30.9 (1 197, SI5 36H.2J5 3.57. IIIH 219.978 509.(191 5:16.752 132.619 826.801 12ti,:i48 66,613 376,:i02 EUROPE, Dale. Population. Sq. Miles. BlilTISII ISLKS 1871 . . 31.465.480 120.760 Enqldnd " .. 20,982.326 50.!»22 Wales " . . 1,721, 7:10 7,;398 Scotland " ., 3,:3,58.615 30,686 Ireland " . . 5,402,759 31,7.54 France (est) " .. 35.,346,644 ]89.:3,54 New Gerhan Empire — 1884.. 40,,577,744 22.5.000 J'riisda " .. 26,521,412 156.928 Bavaria '* ., 4,(-2,5,0(K) 29,602 Saxony " . . 2,.343,994 5,708 JIanorer *' 1.923.492 14.8,51 Wiirtembmg " .. 1,748,.328 7„514 AlsTRIA ** 35,292,547 210.:3.50 Ilan/ioi y 1866!! 10,684, :i">4 9,(100,000 82.8:36 Turkey in Europe llO.Crfffl Greece 1867 . 1,096,810 18,:347 Ionian Republic 1865. . 251.712 1,006 Sun Marino " 18,50.. 5,700 21 Switzerland " I860.. 2,510.494 15.510 Andorra " (est) 1871 . . 12,(100 1,50 Ilalv (estimated) '* 25,091.(100 114:385 Spain 1864.. 16.302.625 195.,5i^2 Portugal *.. 1863.. 3.987,861 :36.493 Belgium I»i5.. 4,984,4,51 ll.:i74 Holland 1866. . 3.552,665 13.664 Denmark 1860 1.6(8.(195 14.7,33 Sweden 1864.. 4.070.011 170.627 Norway 1865.. 1.701.478 123,290 Russia in Europe 1864.. 68.224.8:32 2,110.769 Poland \mi'.'. 4,971.:i03 1.844.008 48,992 Finland 14.5,316 The Caucasus 186:3.. 4,157,917 166,780 ASIA, Hate. 1865.. ropulallon. 195.390.142 Sq. Miles. British India . 1.. 576.6 11 Ceylon 1865.. 2.049.728 24.703 F.MiTHER India.. 18(i7.. 20.769.915 7,52.072 Burmah{cf{) ** 4.600.000 liKI.Sll Stam *^ 6.298.998 309,014 Atiam " 9.000.000 198,037 French Cochin China " 9:9.116 l,(l«l East India Islands (est)... 1871 . . 27.678 804 KOil.OOO Japan (est) " . . :3.5,OOO.l)00 14»,394 GEOGRAPHICAL STATISTICS. 157 ASIA.— Continued. Chinese Empire (esti... Riis;//«'/• inch ? Yes, sir. Very well; so you cati draw the whole of it inch by inch. Meas- ure again the width of it with your pencil in the eastern part; now in the western part, and remember the diflFerence. Now measure the length, and see how many times the width it measures. Now notice the moun- tains. Next notice the beginning of the Neuse River, the directions from which and in which it flows, and where it empties. Again, six boys at the blackboards and the rest with slates, have five minutes given to sketch the map. The boundaries are retraced according to yesterday's instruction. — Now, scholars, you may draw the rivers. Make a wavy or vibratory motion with your crayons, thus : Can you do this? A few MrauTEs are silently spent in prac- ticing. Now, scholars, to-morrow North Carolina will be a special lesson, and I wish you to study the map, the rivers, location of the towns, etc., and impress upon your minds the features of the State, as you would those of a man you wished to remember for life. [Let pupils here refer to General Hints for Map-Drawing, p. 160.] MOUNT A INS. The next day spend about ten minutes in drawing maps of Nortli Carolina. Let the pupils represent mountains in the following manner, and after tracing lightly the coast-line, go over it witli the blunt end of the crayon, making a broad, heavy stroke. Now, scholars, to-morrow morning I want you all to bring ia a map of North Carolina, drawn either with pen or pencil ; but I prefer tliat drawnwilh a pencil. Always require maps to ke drawn as large as the slate or BLACKBOARD WILL ALLOW ; a better effect is produced and more freedom of the hand acquired ; the pupils' attention for the present being called particu- larly to the coinparddce, lather than to the absolute measurements. Let pu[)ils use the book until they become experts, then require them to sketch from memory. They may indicate by a small cross the extreme N., S., E., W., N.E., N.W., S.E., and S.W. limits, measuring with their pencils, and comparing distances, and then connecting the various points with sliglit dotted lines, following as nearly as possible the contour of the map, afterward retracing with heavy lines. Rapidity rather than accuracy should be re- quired at first; for time is precious. Accuracy will come with practice. Pupils must execute at home every map drawn in the class-room, but only after repeated drawings. The knowledt;e of ceoOTapliy thus acquired, will have been attained through a procous which trains the eye and tnc hand— ^ivinj; judgment and skill— developinK the perceptive faculties, and creating tastes of incalculable value to the individual. MaI'-I)RAWIN() on I'AI'KR SIIOII.D advance. J^O)t /;a^*?/, WITH OrP-HANI) MAP-DRAWINO ON TiiK BLACKBOARD AND sLATK. .\fler a map has been drawn and redrawn, and discussed in all its physical features before the class, it should be given as the special lesson of the next day, and every pupil be required to execute a map. The comparison of these maps will awaken a high degree of interest in the pupils, (iradually, as the work becomes fa- miliar, details may be insisted upon. Kequire the paper to be of a certain size and form. Bristol-board is best ; and instruct the pupil to leave one and one-half inches of while mar- gin, and to make marginal lines resembling those in their buoks. M ARG IN A L LIN After some proficiency has been attained instruction may bo given in msiking the wavy lines representing water lines along the coast, heavy at first, and becoming lighter and wider apart until they fade into indistinctness, thus. For coasting, the crayon may be notched and used as wo liave indicated. Many pupils will acquire such skill in map-drawing that they will imitate, and even surpass, in artistic effect, the printed map ; nor are such pupils e> ceptional ca.ses. Let any teacher persistently and systemat- ically pursue this method, and the results will astonish himself and charm his pupils. NOTCHED CRAYON. DRAWING COAST-LINES. J MAP-DRAWING. 1 59 II.— HIGHER COURSE OF MAP-DRAWING. Having for some months diligently put in practice the former method of map-diawing, you are now ready to apply a more exact system. You will fiud no royal road to map-drawing by the use of mathematical ficrures. Each and every continent, island, and state must be known as the painter knows the face he portrays. Advantages 0/ using ParalUls and Meridians rather than Geometrical Figures.— The use of any line?, except those actually impressed on the face of nature, may be objected to as arbitrary; hut it is found that the earth's natural marks and boundaries are not sufficient helps in laying off a map. From time immemorial all geographers have agreed to represent the earth as a globe, on which certain parallels and meridians are drawn. Those lines are in universal and daily use by the statesman, the merchant, the seaman, and the explorer. They recur at regular, convenient, and known intervals, aud afford all the aid needed in map- drawing. Their points of intersection are as fixed and familiar as the junctions of our great railways ; and. ulthoiiijh they were ori.;inally artificial, they have become next to natural, are conceived of as actual furrows in the earth's crust, and are respected as if they were the most ancient landmarks. I. To draw a Map after Mercator's Projection is now the first thing to be done. (See " Mercator's Projection" in Map-Making, p. 1(50.) In a Mercator's map tlic meridians of longitude arc all parallel. Of course this enlarges the countries, toward the poles in their longitude. To preserve the bearing of places on this map, there must be a proportional increase of the degrees of latitude as, you go from the equator toward either pole. Suppose it is desired to draw, at first, an easy map, as that of the Stale of Kansas. Having first learned tJie latitude and longitude of a few places in Kamds, as Fort Dmhje, Toptka, etc., the scholar is sent to the blackboard, and is directed to proceed according to the following Form of Recitation. Outline. — I am to draw the map of Kansas. This State lies between the 37tii and 40th parallels of north latitude and the 94th and 102d meridians of west longitude. As Kansas extends through eight degrees of longitude, draw a line for its northern boundary, aud divide it into eight equal parts. The table below shows that one degree of longitude on this boundary (40°) is 46 miles long, aiainst 60 miles for one degree of latitude. Therefore laj' off the western IxHindary of Kansas (which extends thiough three degrees of latitude) in three parts or degrees, each one being made '"As or V3 (nearlj') as long as one of the degrees of longitude. Thus I construct the following skeleton for Kansas, approximately accurate. SKELETON POR KANSAS. There are mountain chains a little west of Kansas, and the surface of the State is high on the west, and slopes toward the east. The rivers of Kansas, therefore, flow eastward. Smoky Hill Fork comes in on the 39th parallel, and the Arkansas on the 38th, and Red Fork on the 37th parallel. Smoky ti'Al soon becomes the Kansas, and the Arkansas, on reaching long. 97" 20', flows south. The Missouri cuts off one corner of Kansas. The cities and towns of the State are mostly on its rivers. The railroad generally follows the courses of the rivers. Directions for applying this Method in Practice. (\.) In drawing a map of an irregular country, first lay down parali.kls and merid- ians supficiENT TO roNTAiN IT. Mcmorize the latitude and longitude of four or five of the salient points or chief corners of your country, and locate them on the scheme of parallels and meridians. Then draw the outline of the map by connecting these points. (2.) In drawing Mercator's Map of the World, it may be well for the pnpil to refer to the last two paragraphs of Lesson XIV., p. 22. Having learned the bearings of the Atlantic coast of North America and South .\merica, the pupil can sketch the opposite shores of the Atlantic by observing how the two great shores of this ocean might fit into each other. Qi.) It will be well, at first, to draw States of easy construction, aud afterward the pupil can take more difficult subjects, as Europe. (4.) Towns should be marked with a round stamp and capitals with a star, thus: © ■^ . „ ., , , , K ■ 1- . 1 ., l limiNllli ll llll'iimffltfftttttfi Railroad. Railroads and cauals may be indicated thus : Canal. (5.) In drawing, either on blackboard, slate, or paper, the geographical lines should be drawn %Atfy— afterward they may be made heavier, or may be removed, as required. n. To prepare, with approximate accuracy, a skeleton of converging me- ridians and curved parallels appropriate for such countries as the United States, North America, Europe, and Asia, all lying wholly one side of the equator, will now be easy of execution. Take Europe for an illustration. Our unit) OP MEASURE IS ONE DE- GREE OP LATITUDE, Oil SIXTV GEOQRAPUICAL | MILES. (1.) I!y inspecting llie| map. we find that Europe mostly lies between the 40th and the 70th paralkls of N. latitude, and the meridian of Greenwich and the 00th meridian of E. longitude. Ittherefon- extends through 30° of lat- itude aud 60° of longitude. (2.) Draw a perpendicu- lar line, P (very light), cut- ting the space to be occu- pied by your map into two equal parts. This is your Central Meridian. (3.) As Europe extends through .30 degrees of lati- tude, lay off on the Cen- tral Meridian three equal spaces, each representing 10 degrees of latitude. Select those parallels that most nearly divide the latitude embraced by Europe, into three equal parts: these parallels are, in Europe, the 50th and the 60th. At the 60th parallel (see Table), 1° of longitude is in the ratio of ;30 to 60, or 1/2. of a degree of latitude: the desired 60° of longitude are, therefore, equal to '/s of 60° of latitude, or equal to the .30° of latitude already marked off on the Central Meridian. Of this length, lay off at the 60lh parallel a dotted line 1—2, perpendicular to the Central Meridian and divided by it into two equal parts. At the 50th parallel (see Table), 1° of longitude is .38, instead of 30 miles ; therefore, lay off at the 50th parallel the dotted line 3^1 'V30. o'" about V3 of that laid off at the 60th parallel. TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL MILES IN A DEGREE OP LONGITUDE AT EVERY FIFTH DEGREE OP LATITUDE FROM THE EQUATOR TO THE POLES. ,S K E L K T O N Lat. Miles. Lat. Miles. Lat. Miles. 0° 60 35° 49 65" 25 5^ 59 40° 46 70° 20 10° 59 45° 42 75° 15 15° 58 50° 38 80° 10 20° 56 55° 34 85° 5 25° 54 60° 30 90° 30° 52 (4.) This done, draw straight lines through 3 and 1 and 4 and 2, intersecting each other in the C. M. Take the point of their intersection, C, as a centre from which to describe the arcs, or parallels of latitude through the points already marked in the C. M. On the lower parallel divide the distance between the converging lines into six equal parts (10°), and con- nect these several points with C by straight lines ; these lines will represent the meridians. (5.) To make meridians outside of Europe, you have only to mark, on the 70th parallel, points 10° of longitude apart; and from C draw straight lines through these points to the margin of the map. Parallels outside of Europe may be made as the others, using C as a centre for describing them. You now have your scheme of parallels and meridians for the map of Europe, after drawing marginal lines to enclose the appropriate space. (6.) You can now locate the principal capes and indentations on the outline, a.-aAfillin the whole skeleton as before. III. To prepare a sketch of parallels and meridians for South America, i6o MAP-DRAWING. Africa, or Australia and the East Indies, lying on both sides^vpf the equator, the parallels are best represented as straight lines and the meridians arc traced in Curved lines drawn according to the law of the successive decrease in the length of the degrees of longitude. Draw first the requisite number of parallels and the Central Meridiak, perpendicular to them. Mark off on the equator to the right and left of the C. M. spaces equal to those separating the parallels. In like manner, mark ou each parallel corresponding spaces having the same proportion to those on the equator, as a degree of longitude on each respective parallel has to a degree of longitude at the equator, by the table. Curved lines drawn through those successive series of points on each side of the C. M. will represent the meridians. The larger the country, the more inaccurate are methods IT. and III. (IV.) To Draw Curved Lines and Parallels. This may be done with a flexible ruler, The ruler should be made of hickory or ash, '/a x '/g in. To use it, set off a few of the points or places through which the meridian or parallel you wish to draw must pass. Then pressing the ends of the flexible ruler against two pins or tacks securely fixed in the drawing-board, bend the ruler with one hand, and draw the curve with the other, as by the following figure. A DESERT. USING THE FLEXIBLE RULER. (V.) The Scale op Miles may be made by dividing a degree of latitude into six parts. One part would equal 10 geographical miles ; five parts, 50 miles ; and ten, 100 miles, etc. General Hints for Map-Dr.\wing. (1.) No pupil knows a map until he can draw it from memory. (2.) The order for drawing the Continents is, (1.) South America, the least difficult; -(2.) Africa; (3.) North America; (4.) Asia; (5.) Europe. (8.) It is desirable to give the class a special drill in drawing cities, moun- tain ranges, hills, peaks, coast-lines, and deserts. Peaks may be indicated thus : ^. Deserts are represented by dotted spaces thus : (4.) It is often found well, to quicken the attention of the class, to send one pupil to the blackboard with instructions to name and describe, in a clear lively tone, every part of the "* map as he draws it. But concert recitation should be hab- itual and always with rapid sketching. (5.) Copying on slate or blackboard may be done at first willi advan- tage, where the class is composed of beginners. Always, then, begin with small, easij^'-drawn States, as Colorado, Kansas, Alabama, etc. (fi.) The Materials necessary for drawing on paper, and coloring, are a lead pencil (No. 2), Bristol-board, a piece of india rubber, pen, cake of india-ink. and gamboge, a i)late in which to rub the paints, and one or two camel-hair brushes, and a flat brush for coloring. (7.) Maps drawn in lead pencil should be finished before j'ou commence coloring. All lines should first be drawn lightly, and afterward corrected. In drawing rivers, be- gin at the sources, and gradually increase the breadth of your lines as you descend the stream. Draw the backbone of mountains before the spurs. (8.) Cdoring. — Begin by makins the boundaries in narrow bright lines, using the camel- hair brush. Do not pass the brush more than once over any part of the map; the brush should be quite full of the tint. To produce a shaded line, take your flat brush and fill one side with water and the other with the tint. Blue is the color for the water. • (9.) India-ink Maps should be firet finished in pencil and colored com- pletely ; afterward the mountains, rivers, cities, and shores may be put in with india-ink. (10.) A Pine Board for Drawing.—The use of a plain soft pine board on which to lay your paper in drawing will be found an important aid. [iVrte.— Hitherto your exercises in map-drawing have been practiced with an aim only to approximate accuracy, in impressing the bolder features ani general outlines of conntries on your mind, and in tutoring the eye and hand to sketch them for the aid of the memory. You may now begin the higher and more satisfactory study of map-making, which is a distinct art in itself.] Map-Making. The fii-st step in map-making is to decide as to the projection. For maps that contain more than 120° of longitude Mercator's is the best. For .smaller areas, especially when they are made up chiefly of land, the Rectangular Tangential projection is to be preferred. I. A Mercator's map is the development of the earth's surface on a cyl- inder, supposed to revolve, tangentially at the equator, upon its own axis once while you are rolling it on the equator once round tlie earth. By tliis development the meridians of longitude are all straight lines, and parallel witli each other, and so are the parallels of latitude, but tlic distance between the latter, as marked ou the cylinder, increases as you approacli tlie poles. The advantage of this method is that the course and distance between any two places on the map are straiglit lines. It is for this reason tluit all charts used for navigation by every nation are Mercator's. Sui)pose we wish to construct a Mercator tsay of Kansas) on a scale of one-third of an inch to 60 miles (1°) at the equator. You will then assume GO meridional parts = 1° = '/a inclL Now draw your meridians one-third of an inch apart to represent degrees of longitude. Kansas lies between the paralles of 37° anjl 40°. There are more meridional parts, as you see by the table, to a degree of latitude between 3T° and 40° than there are to a degree near the equator, cons"qnently you must increase the distances between the parallels of Kansas pro- portionally. Between .37° and 38° lat., there are seventy-five meridional parts = Oln. .41fi; between :J8° and 39° lat., seventy seven meridional parts = 0>" .427; between 39° and 40° lat. there Sire seventy-eight meridional parts = O'". .4.33. Mark these distances on the margin of your map sheet; draw In ink your parallels through them, and you have the skeleton of your Mercator. (See map of Kansas, p. 159.) Now draw on the map from which you are copying parellels and meridians also for every degree. Thus you have both the original and the copy divided oflinto sections of 1° square, and you can transfer by the eye and in pencil from one square to the other, first putting in the roads and rivers, as per diagram. This done, fill up with details, then ink, letter, rub out pencil marks, and the map is done. Where great accuracy is required the squares both on the original and the copy should bo smaller, so as to contain areas of 30. 20, 10, 5 miles or 1 mile square. A little practice will soon accustom the eye to great accuracy. The advantage of this plan of working by squares, is that any error that may be made is not carried from one square to another, but is confined within the square to which it belongs. Please look at the Mercator's map, jip. 20, 21, and you will see how the distance behveen the several parallels of latitude increases as you recede from the equator, and you will moreover see that on maps of this projection alone the north is always at the loj), and the east to the right-hand, as you have been taught. This rule holds good for no other projection when the map includes a large extent of the earth's surface. For instance, look at the hemispheres, pp. 10 and 11. Ou the Western Hemisphere the North Pole is to the left of Iceland and to the right on the Eastern. On account of this confusion of bearings of places, especially near the edges of the map, the Mercator projection is generally preferred by physical geograjjliers as well as by navigators for their guidance at sea, and their researches and illnstratious. NUMBER OP MERIDIONAL PARTS IN THE 1st AND EVERY .'iTii DEGREE OP LATITUDE, FROM THE EQUATOR TO THE 85th DEGREE. Lat. 1° Meridional Parts. Lat. Meridional Parts. Lat. Meridional Parts. 00 30' 69 60" 118 5' GO 35° 73 05' 140 10' 61 40' 78 70° 172 l.V 02 45° 84 75' 234 20' 04 50' 92 80° 329 25' CO 55° 102 85° 628 II. The Rectangular Tangential Projection is developed by laying together on a flat surface a large number of small planes, nearly rectangular, supposed to liave been tangentially placed on a globe and to have received an impressitm of the country to be mapped. This method is preferred chiefly for the land, as Mercator's is for tlie sea. The smaller the country, the more accurate the mtip ; for on this i)rojection greater accuracy may be developed on a nitip of America thtui upon a map (if Asia, and greater still upou a map of Europe, which is smaller than either, while on maps of smaller portions of the earth's surface, the room for accu- racy is all that can be desired. This projection has been introduced into chartography by Col. Sir Henry James, of the English Ordnance Survey, who is in charge oF the most cele- brated map establishment in the world. The principles of it are very simple, though the mathematical demonstra- tion of them here would be ou'- of place. But after a proper explanation of them and a little thought, you will be able to form a very good idea of them. Imagine, as Sir Henry did, a terrestrial globe of sixty-seven feet, with all places laid down upon it in their true position. Now take a set of plane surfaces, each just large enough to cover a space on tliis globe 4° x 5° in extent. Lay them tangentially on the globe, and side by side over tlie coun- try to be mapped. Now suppose, for the sake of illustration, each of these little planes to be transparent, and so prepared as to receive a correct impression of all the geographical features within the 4° x 5° covered by it— somewhat after the manner of the image in the camera of the photographer. Further suppose, that all these little transparent planes, after having received the impression, are taken off the globe and laid side by side on the drawing-board. The liicory of the Rectangular Tangential projection may be understood from this illusn-aiion. The practical application of it maybe learned elsewhere. M-: K V A ,'*''♦ ? .V > :,XT TSr 1 »- 35 K S i T Y S E 14 1 E S ^"^ ^ HOOL ATO College Text-.books] sliVERS'lt'PpUBblSHlNG COMPANY, NEW YORK. ^. * The books of the " Univcr^Mty Swies" arc 3ch' . :, nn.i praclical, rombining. the iY>..Its of the highest culture with the, best mctho.y authors o.M.u-nt in their rcspeetivc .s,KKialties every ,lK>ok >. admnaLly suited to .r« f,.:,. ti. ular .lcparttne«. Their selections, exai:M)ies, and iih^^ua.iou ■ ...e\>r the n^ost i.uerosting a>.(l unexceptionable charaijicr, and the ';';'"^ ^^J'*-'^ / ^l . r.it and purpose. 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