.(] M YORK'S 9 ENGLISH GBAMMAB p 1^ [r o V, ^ IlEViSEb AND ADAPTED TO S'OUl:H]iM SCHOOLS ht REV. BRANTLEY YORK, TiURl) EDITION KALEIGH, N. C: H R A N « N , F A R R A R \ h AYKTTEVILLK LTRKKF. 6 o O - 4?^ I 0^ Si ('T; ;/'' y \ y^,r^j2^M. ^d "^-^ DUKE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Treasure %gom GIFT OP Dr. H, A, Moore T. '\ \; 'i5^->>^^^^ coisrT;EisrTS PAKT I, ■~ ..^z. JT Page. LESSON I. A Sentence, Subject, Predicate, EzerciseB. LESSON IL Sentences, 1 Simple, 1 Co-ordinate Connective, 2 Complex, 2 Compound, 2 Bxercisea, 3 LESSON IIL Clausee, 2 Leading Clause, 2 Co-ordinate " 3 Subordinate " 3 Excrciaes, 3 LESSON IV. Kinds of sentences, 3 Affirmative, 3 Subfirmative, 3 Interrogative, 3 Exclamative, 4 Imperative, 4 Petitionative, 4 Exercises, 4 LESSON V. Construction of Subject and Predicate, 4 Exercises, 5 LESSON VL Elements of Sentences, 5 How many Elements, 5 Subtantive elements, 5 Noun, 5 Pronoun, 5 Verbal elements, 5 Verb, 5 Klementa continued, 6 LESSON VIL Adjective elements, 6 Adjective, 6 Article, 6 Participle, 6 Adverbial elements, 6 Adverbv 6 Connective elements, 7 Conjunction, 7 Preposition, 7 Moael for Elements, 7 Exercises, 8 LESSON VIIL Elements of the First, second, and third class es, 9 Phrase, 9 Model, 9 Exercises, 10 Paob. Page. Exercises, 14 LESSON xin. LESSON IX. Principal and Subordinate Elements, 10 Modification of Subject or predicate Indirect- ly, 11 Model, 11 Exercises, 11 Construction of ele- ments, 14 Promiscuoas Exercisee, 16 LESSON XIV. Monologic Analysis, 16 Characters used, 16 Connectives, 16 Such as give Clauses, 16 do Phrases, 16 Co-ordinate, 16 Subordinate, 17 Exercises, 17 LESSON X. The Subject— Simple, Compound, and Com- plex, or Logical, 12 Exercisee, 12 LESSON XI. The Predicate, Simple, Compound, and Com- plex, 12, 13 Copula, 13 Exercises, 13 LESSON XII. Possessive and Objec- tive elements, 14' LESSON XV. Dendrology or Construc- tion of Sentences, 17 The Trunk, or leading clause, 26 The Branch, or Subor- dinate members, 18 LESSON XVL « Dendrolog)' continued, 18 Order, is Notation, 18 Integrity, 19 Rank, 19 LESSON XVIL Dendrology continued, 20 Position 20 Sub and Super Mem- bers, ao Illustration by Diagram, 21 Exercises, 28 •TV- LESSON XVIIL Alligation, Diagram, Exercises, 23 24 24 CONTENTS. PART II. Page LESSON I. Language, 25 LESSON IL Grammar, 25 Lottery, 26 Division of Letters, 26 Table of Elementary Sounds, 27 LESSON in. English Grammar, 28 LESSON IV. The Divisions of Gram- mar, 28, 29 OrlhoCTaphy, Etymolo- gy, Syntax, and Proso- dy, 20 LESSON V. Parts of Speech or Clas- sification of Words, 29 Primary and Secondary Words, 29 Definition of the Parts of Speech, 30 Exercises, 31 Paqb LESSON XIIL Modes of the Verb, 39 Diagram, ^ 40 LESSON VL Nouns, 31 LESSON YII. Gender and Person, 32 LESSON vin. Number, 33 LESSON IX. Case, 34 LESSON X. Parsing, 35 Model^ 36 Exercises, 36 LESSON XL The Verb, 36 Division of the Verl», 37 Transitive and Intran- sitive, 37 Voice, 37 LESSON XIL The Verb Continued, 38 Regular, 38 Irregular, 38 Auxiliary, 38 Defective, 38 )P; LESSON^XIV. Tenses of the Verb, 41 Diagram, 43 LESSON XV. Number and Person of the Verb, 44 Personal or Verbal ter- minations, 45 Familiar and Solemn Style, 45 LESSON XVL Conjugation, 46 Conjugation of the verb To Be, 56 LESSON XVIL Conjugation of the verb Love, 50 Passive Voice, how formed, 53 LESSON XVIIL Formation of Tenses, 54 LESSON XIX. List of Irre";ular Verbs, 55 Model for Parsing the Verb, 59 Exercises, 60 LESSON XX. Participle, 60 Imperfect, 61 Perfect, 61 Pluperfect, 61 Model, 61 Exercises, 62 LESSON XXL Pronouns or Substi- tutes, 63 Two Classes— Personal and Relative, 62 LESSON XXIL Declension, 63 Diagram of Declension of Pronouns, 64 Model, 65 Exercises, 65 LESSON XXIIL Relative, or Connective Pronouns, 66 Paqb. LESSON XXIV. Of Whoever, Whichev- er, What, 67 Models, 67 Exercises, 68 LESSON XXV. Article, 69 Model and Exercises, 70 LESSON XXVI. Adjectives or Attri- buteSj 71 Qualifying Adjectives, 71 LESSON XXVII. Formation of the De- grees of Comparison, 72 Illustrated by Diagram, 73 Model and Exercises,* 73 LESSON XXVIIL Specifying or Limiting Adjectives, ' 75 Model and Exercises, 75 LESSON XXIX. Adverbs or Modifiers, 75 Four Classes, 7iB Model and Exercises, 77 LESSON XXX. Prepositions, 77 Model and Exercises, 78 LESSON XXXI. Conjunctions or Con- nectives, 79 Models and Exercises, 79 LESSON XXXIL Interjections or Excla- ^ mations, 80 Model and Exercises, 80 fl| LESSON xxxin. ^ Cases Independent, Ab- ^ solute, and Apposi- tion, 81 * Models and Exercises, 82 Promiscuous Exercises 82 LESSON XXXIV. Syntax, 84 Government, 84 Concord, 84 Position, 84 / CONTENTS. IX LESSON XXXV Rules of Syntax, LESSON XXXVI. Rules of Syntax with Notes ; and Sentences to be corrected, 88 Excrcisee, 88 LESSON XXXVIL Rnlcp, Notes, and False Syntax continued, SS Moclel and Exercises, 8;) LESSON XXXVTTL False Syntax continued, 89 Model and Exercises, 1)0 LESSON XXXIX. False S\Titax confin'd, iKI Model and Exercises, '.)'l LESSON XL. False Syntax continued, 91 Model and Exercises, Page. Page. LESSON XLIII The same continued, 9G LESSON XLIV. Same continued, ' 9 Page. 85 92 LESSON XLL False Syntax contin'd. *.);3 3!wdrl aiid Exercises, 94 LESSON XLTL False Syntax contin'd. 9.") ilodels'and Exercises, !)j LESSON XLV. Same coutinued, 98 LESSON XLVL Same continued, 98 LESSON XLVIL Same continued. 99 To be corrected by the Diagram of Tirrie, 100 Model and Exercises, 100 LESSON XLVIIL False Syntax Promiscu- ously Arranged, 101 LESSON XLIX. Colloquial Inaccura- cies, LESSON LX. Punctuation or Gnomo- nology. Comma', Rules and Remarks, Semicolon, Rules and Remarks, Colon, 101 105 105 106 110 110 111 Rules and Remarks, Ill Period, 112 The Dash, 112 The Parenthesis, 113 Interrogation Point, 113 Exclamation Point, 113 Brackets, 113 Quotation Marks, 113 The Caret, 113 The Hyphen, 113 The Ellipsis, 114 The Index, 114 Accent, 114 The Apostrophe, 114 The Asterisk, 115 Marginal Points, 115 LESSON LL Capitals, 115 LESSON LIL Versification, IIG Measure, 11(3 Verse, 116 Stanza, 11« Common Meter, 116 Short Meter, 110 Long Meter, 117 Blank Verse, 117 Rhyme, 117 Scanning, 117 Eight kinds of Feet, 117 Iambic Verse, 117 Alexandrine, lis Trochaic Verse, 118 Anapaestic Verse, 119 Dactylic Verse. 120 INTRODUCTION TO THE Illustrative and Constructive Grammar. PART FIRST. LESSON I. — OF SENTENCES. What 18 a SenUnce! A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as asserts a fact ; as, The sun shines. What elements are necessary to assert a fact ? The Subject and Predicate. What is the Subject of a Sentence? It is that of which something is said. What is the Predicate f It is that which is said of the subject. Which is the subject in the foregoing sentence, " the sun shines ? Sun. Why? Because something is said of it. What is said of it? • Shines. What then is shineil It is the Predicate. Why? Because it is said or affirmed of the subject, #wm. EXERCISES. [Point out the Subjects and Predieates in the following sentences :] Boys play. John reads. Mary studies. Birds sing. Flowers bloom. Trees grow. Fishes swim in the sea. LESSON II. OF SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. What is a Simple Sentence ? A Simple sentence has but one subject and predicate, asserting one fact only ; as, Rivers flow. -: YORK 3 ILLUSTRATIVE AND What 18 a Coajpound sentence ? A Compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences, united by a coordinnte connective ; a?, Wheat groviS, and men reap it. \TLat do 30U understand by a co-ordinate connective? A co-ordinate connective unites two clauses or elements of equal rank in construction. Whht is a Conipiux feutoncc.^ A Complex sentence must contain at least one leading clause, and one subordinate, or modifying one ; as, The boy ivho studies, will improve. '.V'hicb is the leading clause ia this sentence ? The boy will improve. WL'.c'a is the Subordinate or modifying clause ? Who studies. Why is this called the Fubordinate or modifying clnnse .* Because it is not only incapable of making sense of itself, but it also modifies the subject of the leading clause. EXERCISES. [Point cut the Simi>lc, Compound, and Complex pcntcnces.] The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the young ones. Flowers grow in the gardens. The bird which sung so sweetly, has flown. John has a new book. When he comes, we shall hear the news. John reads; and James- writes. LESSON IJI. OF CLAUS i:s. What is a Claude ? A clause is a subdivision of a sentence, containing a sub- ject and prodicaie. Hjw many kinds of clau.'^es arc there ? There are three kinds, viz: ihc leading, the co-ordinate, and the subordinate, or modifying. "What is the leadinj; clau-e ? The leading clause generally stands first in the sentenc. and contains the principal subject and predicate. c^ * jr- r-'-eONSTRUCTIVE gMM^AR^ / /s Waat 13 the co-ordinato clause ? The co-ordinate clause is equal in rank to the leading clause, and can make sense independent of it. What is the sxib ordinate, or modifying clause ? The subordinate is inferior in rank to the loading clause,- and incapable of making sense without it. The following sentence contains a clause of each kind ; '' The sceip- *'" TURES CONTAIN THE REVEALED WILL OF GOD ; they were ivritten at different periods^ hy holy men who wrote as they were moved by the Holy Ghost." You will perceive that the leading clause is in small capitals, the co-ordinate, in italics, and the subordinate, in roman letters. EXERCISES. [Point out the different kinds of clauses in the following sentences.] Henry works ; and John plays. Eliza will improve, if she study. We shall hear the news when the messeno-er arrives. James is a good boy, and he learns well. The boy who does not study, will not improve. LESSON IV. OF AFFIRMATIVE, SUBFIRMATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, EXCLAM- .ATIVE, IMPERATIVE, AND PETITIONATIVE SENTENCES. What is an AflBrmative sentence? An Affirmative sentence expresses the highest degree of affirmation or verbal force ; as. Snow is white. What is a Subfirmative sentence ? A Subfirmative sentence expresses a less degree of ver- bal force than the affirmative ; as. The reporter may have been mistaken. If Mary study, she will improve. What is an Interrogative sentence ? An Interrogative sentence contains a question; as, Is Henry at home ? Who wrote that ? How many kincs of Interrogative sentences are there t Two, viz : Direct and Indirect. When is a question Direct ? When the question is asked with a verh^ the answer being yes or no ; as, Is he at home ? No, 4 York's illustrative akd When is ft Indirect .' When the question is asked with an adverb or Interrog- ative pronoun ; as, WTiere is thy home ? Who art thou ? What is an Exclamatire ■•ntence .' An Exclamative sentence expresses some feeling or emotion together with the affirmation ; as, How cold and feeble is my love ! that I had a hiding place ! What is an Imperatire sentence ? An Imperative sentence contains a command ; as, " Go ye into all the world." What is a Petitionative sentence ? A Petitionative sentence contains & petition; as, "For- give us our debts." EXERCISES. [Point out the different kinds of sentences in the foUowinf :] May I go ? May the Lord prosper your ways ! Boys, attend to your studies. He is at home. Whither shall I fly ? If he study, he will improve. I may have said it. Who can abide his coming. Washington was a patriot. LESSON V. CONSTRUCTION OP THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. How is the Subject oonatmad in affirmatire and Sub>firmative eentenoeB f It is generally construed before the predicate ; oi, Flow- ers bloom. The husbandman is happy, if he knows his ad- vantages. How is the Subject oonstrned in Interrogatire sentences ? It is generally construed after the predicate, or between its parts ; as, Is Mary at home ? Does he know me T How is it construed in Exclamatire sentences ? Generally c^er the predicate ; as, fiow short is life f How is the Subj«et construed in Imperative and PedtionatiTe eentenoes t It is construed after the predicate ; as, Go thou. For- give thou us our trespasses. Rem. The subject is generally understood in such sen- tences as the last. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 5 EXERCISES. "[Point out the construction of the Subject in the following sentences.] Wolves howl in the woods. Dogs bark. If the boys "Study, they will improve. Has John lost his pencil ? Is Mary studious ? Obey my precepts. Pity thou me. How poor is gold ! How swiftly time glides ! t LESSON VL OP THE ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES, An Element is a constituent part of a sentence. How many Elements are there ? There are five, classified according to th'e office they perform in the sentence. What are they called? Substantive, Verbal, Adjective, Adverbial, and Connec- tive, How would yon define a Substantive element ? Substantive elements are the names of things, or their substitutes, or whatever can be made the subject of affir- mation. What do Substantive elements embrace ? All nouns and pronouns. What do you mean by a noun ? A Noun is the name of anything ; as, Man, Raleigh. What by a Pronoun ? A Prone an is a word used instead of a noun; as, he, she, it. What are Verbal elements ? Verbal elements are such as affirm or express action. What do they embrace ? All verbs and their variations. What is a verb? A Verb asserts or affirms ; as. The bird flies, 2 6 rfORK'a ILiUSTRATIVE AKI> LESSON VII. 1LEMBJ?TS CONTINUED. Wbat arc adjective elements? Adjective elements limit substantive elements ; as, Fair ladies ; men of inisine s. What do Adjective elements embrace? They embrace all adjectives, articles, and participles. What is an adjective ? An Adjective is a word added to a noun, to express it» quality^ or limit its meaning ; as, a studious boy ; that book. What ii an Article ? An Article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit their signification ; as, A man; the men. Remark. — It will be perceived by the pupils that the article difi'ers but little from the specifying adjective ; some authors have, therefore, classified it with the adjective. What is a Participle ? A particle is a word derived from a verb, and partakea of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective ; as, I see a, man ivalking. Rem. — Such phrases and clauses as limit substantive elements, are also included in Adjective elements. What are Adverbial elements ? Adverbial elements limit the Predicate or some other verbal element. What do they embrace? They embrace all adverbs, phrases, and clauses used adverbially. What is an Adverb? An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, participle, adjective, or adverb ; as, a very good ptn writes extreniely well. The bird was singing sweetly. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. " 7 What are Connective elements ? They are such as unite other elements in current dis- course. What do they embrace ? They embrace cxjnj unctions, prepositions, relative pro- nouns, and connective adverbs. What is a Conjunction ? A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or clauses of sentences ; as, James and John are at home. What is a Prep osition ? A Preposition is use LESSON X. ON THE SUBJECT, — SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX. Your attention was oalled to the aubject in Lesson let; now can you teli me what the subject is ? The Subject is that of which something is said, and ap- pears to be a kind oi foundation word. Now tell me what you understand by a simple subject? The subject is Simple when it consists of a single word; as, John writes. When is the f-'.ibject Compound ? When it consists of one or n;ore elements co-ordinately united ; as, Henry and William obey their teacher. "When is it Complex ? It is Complex when it is limited by an element of the second or third class ; as, The day of vengeance is at hand* Rem. — The Complex subject is generally called the Log- ical subject. EXERCISES. [Point out the Subjects, and tell whether they are Srmple> Compound, or Complex.] Birds fly in the air. John of Boston has returned. — James and Joseph reside in New York. The boy who studies, will improve. Eliza is handsome. Mary and Martha went to the grave. LESSON XL OF THE PREDICATE — SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX. As the Predicate is a very important element, we will call your attention to it again. Can you tell me what the Predicate is ? The Predicate is that which is affirmed or denied of the subject. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 13 Then is anything tho Predicate, that can be said of the Subject ? It is. A Verb, Adjective, Noun, or Pronoun, can be- said of the Subject; can all these parts of speech be Predicate ? Certainly ; for, of the subjeet, may be predicated Ac- tion, Quality, or Identity; as, Peter walks, (Action); Solomon was ivise, (Quality) ; John u a student, (Identity.) Rem. — The verb " to 5g," in Logic, is called the Copula, but, in Grammar, it is generally regarded as a part of the Predicate. When is the predicate simple ? It is simple when it consists of one element; as, the hivdi flies. Rem. — The verb, in such examples, is said to include both the Copula and Predicate, and is equivalent to " the bird is flying.'' When is the predicate Compound? It is compound when it is composed of two or more elements, united by a co-ordinate connective ; as, King- doms rise and fall. When is it Complex? It is complex when limited by an element of the second or third class ; as, Isaac walked into the field. EXERCISES. [Point out the Predicates, and tell whether they are Simple, Compound, or Complex, also whether Action, Quality, or Identity is predicated ] The rivers flow. Flowers bloom in the spring. Susan walks and talks. She is wise. Washington was prudent. Henry is a student. James walks through the fields. The girls walk into the garden. David was pious and brave. We shall hear the news when he comes. 14 York's illustrative and LESSON XII. OF POSSESSIVE AND OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. What is the Poasessivo element ? ^ When one substantive element limits another by deno- ting Possession, it may be called the Possessive element ; as, John's book. Rem. — Since John's limits book by pointing out the thing possessed, it might, properly enough, be called an Adjective element ; but, as in parsing, we call John's a Noun in the Possessive case, it is better, perhaps, to call it the Possessive element. What is an Objective element? When a substantive element limits the predicate or verbal element, it is called the Objective element; as, Peter struck Thomas, When the Objective element limits the predicate or verbal element, what does it point out? It points out the object of its action. Thomas, for in- stance, in the foregoing sentence, points out the object of the action, expressed by the verbal element struck. EXERCISES. [Point out the Poesoesive and Objective elements in the following sen- tences.] Peter's dog bit John's finger. Mary tore Eliza's book. James hid Susan's bonnet. The boy lost the girl's gloves. Henry wants Sylvester's dog. Peter has lost his book. Jane left her shawl. LESSON XIII. OP THE CONSTRUCTION OF ELEMENTS. What do you understand by the construction of Elements? The order in which elements are arranged in a sentence, is called Construction. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 15 With what are Adjective elements construed? With subtantive elements. When Adjective elements of the first class are assttmed of their supers^ where are they construed? They are generally construed before them ; as, a toise man, A beautiful lady. A studious boy. When such elements a.re predicated, how are they constmod ? They are generally construed after the predicate ; as, she is handsoyne, James is tall. Where are adjective elements of the second or third class construed? They are generally construed after the substantive ele- ment ; as, a lady of prudence. The boy who studies. With what are Adverbial elements construed ? They are construed with verbal elements. Can any precise rule be given for the construction of Adverbial elements of the Jir«t class 1 No. They should, however, be so construed as will best promote the euphony and perspicuity of the sentence. How are Adverbial elements of the second and third classes construed? They are generally construed after the predicate, or be- tween its parts ; as, happiness or misery is, in a great measure, placed in our own hands. Isaac walked into the field. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. [You may now analyze the following sentences as directed in preceding models.] Henry resides in New York. The young ladles who study their lessons, improve rapidly. Mary is handsome. A wise man is useful. The lowering clouds are moving slowly. She walks in the garden. A man of studious habits grows in knowledo;e. The sun shines throui^h the Window. 16 York's illustrated and LESSON XIV. OF MONOLOGIC ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. What do you understand by MDnologic Analysis of sentences? It is resolving sentences into clauses and phrases. What is each eleuient called ? It is called a member, or mono as denominated by Mr^- James Brown of Philadelphia. What characters are used in this Analysis? The loading clause is inclosed in brackets, and all others in parentheses, as exhibited in the following example : [Elijah smote the water] (of Jordan) (with hi& mantle.) What can you say o'l the words of which each member is composed ? They have an inseparable, constructive relation to each' other, and, in parsing, they must be disposed of in their own members respectively. What are such words as give members, called ? They are called member-givers. What are they called in grammar, generally ? They arc generally called Conjunctions. Connective Adverbs, Relative Pronouns, and Prepositions ; but they might all be included in one general term. Connectives. How may these connectives or member-givere be divided ? They may be divided, first, into such as give clauses and phrases. Which of thom give clauses ? Conjunctions, Connective Adverbs, and Relative Pro- nouns, Which phraser ? PrepositionSo la what other rospocts may they be divided? They may be divided, secondly, into Co-ordinate and subordinate. How would yoa Jofine the co-ordinate connectives ? The Co-ordinate connectives arc such as unite clau;?'"... CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 17 ?a^«. TThat is a participle ? A Participle is a word, derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective ; but de- pends upon a noun or pronoun in construction ; as, I see- a bird fli/ing. What is a Pronouni A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, and gener- ally to avoid its repetition ; as, James reads, and he will soon read well. What is an Article .' An article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit the extent of their signification ; as, A man. The boys. What is an Adjective .' An adjective is a word joined to a noun to limit its meaning, or express its quality ; as, A beautiful lady. That river. What is an Adverb 1 An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, Mary writea ver^ well. What 18 a Preposition ? A Preposition is a word generally placed before some noun or pronoun which it go.verns ; it, also, shows the re- lation which this word bears to some other word which precedes it in construction ; as, Henry went with me* CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 31 What is a Conjunction / A Conjunction is a word which joins together parts of a sentence, or parts of a discourse in a regular construction ; as, John goes to school, and learns well. What is an Interjection or Exclamation f A.n Exclamation generally expresses some emotion of the speaker, but has no dependent construction ; as, " Alas \ and did my Saviour bleed?'* EXERCISES. [Point out the different parts of Speech in the following sentences.] The river flows slowly. The sun shines by day, and the moon gives light by night. Henry lost his hat. Alas ! that man has made a fatal mistake. I see a man walking. John went ; but Peter stayed. LESSON VL OP NOUNS. What is a Noun .' A Noun is the name of any thing ; as, Man, Virtue, How many kinds ef nouns are there ? There are two, viz: Proper and Common. What is a Proper noun ? A Proper noun is the name of an indiridual per&on or thing ; as, Mary, Delaware. What is a Common noun ? A Common noun is a name common to a whole class of persons or things ; as Man, river. What is a Common noun, comprising several persons or things in one col- lective body, called .' A Collective noun, or Noun of raultitute ; as, Commit- tee, army. 82' York's illustrative and What belong to Nouns ? To nouns belong Gender, Person, Number, and Case. LESSON VII. OF GENDER AND PERSON. What is Gender ? Gender is the distinction of sex. How many sexes are there ? Two, viz: Male and Female. How many Genders are there? Since there are but two sexes, strictly speaking, there are but two genders. How many Genders are thought, by some grammarians, to be convenient in parsing ? Four, viz: Masculine, Feminine, Neuter, and Com- mon. What does the Masculine Gender denote ? The Masculine Gender includes all males; as, Man, horse. What does the Feminine denote ? The Feminine includes ^\\ females ; as, woman, hen. "What does the Neuter include? The Neuter includes such as have no sex ; as. Chair, river. How may the Common Gender be defined ? Nouns which are equally applied to both sexes, are called Common Gender ; as. Friend, child. Rem. — The application of the Neuter and Common Genders in parsing, is of little or no practical utility; since it adds nothing to the sense. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 3 o What is Person in grammar ? Person distinguishes the relation of a noun to the speaker. IIow many Persons have nouns? Three, viz : the First, Second, and Third. "What does the First Person denote .- It denotes the speaker ; as 7, Jolin^ saw him. What the Second Person T The Second Person denotes the person or thing spoken to or addressed ; as, James, I desire t/ou to study. What the Third Person / The Third Person denotes the person spoken of, or about ; as, Peter wept bitterly. LESSON VIII. OF NUMBER. What is Number ? Number is the distinction oi unity iindpluralitn/. How many numbers have nouns? Two, viz : the Singular and Plural. What does the Singular number imply ? It implies unity, or but one ; as, A hook^ What does the Plural number denote ? It denoteB plurality J or more than one; as, Books. How is the Plural of nouns formed ? The Plural is generally formed by annexing s or es to the singular. When is « on]y annexed / When it will coalesce in sound with the other letters ; as, Table, tables. 34 York's illustrated and When is c« annexec" ? When 8 will not coalesce in sound with the preceding let- ters; as, Branch, 5ranc7ie». Ifl the Plural of nouns formed in any other way 1 Yes, in various ways. Mention a few of them. i. Nouns ending in y , preceded by a consonant, form their plurals by changing y into i, and annexing es ; as, Flj, flies, Spy, spies, 2. Fifteen nouns in f or fe, viz: beef, calf, elf, half, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wharf, wolf, life, knife, and wife, form their plurals by changing / into v, and annexing es or s ; as, Beef, beeves. Wife, ivives ; other nouns, in / or, fe, form their plurals in the regu- lar way: as. Dwarf, dwarfs. Handkerchief, handker- 'chiefs, 3. Some nouns are very irregular in the formation of their plurals; as, Man, men. Child, children^ &c. Do Proper nouns adimit of a plural ? They do not ; for, in such case, they would become Com- mon; as, The twelve Ccesars, The P/o^osoftheage. LESSON IX. . OP CASE. What is meant by Case .' Case, as applied in Grammar, distinguishes the rela- tion of a noun or pronoun to a verb, participle, prepo- sition, or another noun. How many cases have nouns and pronouns .' Three, viz : the Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. TThat relation does the Nominative Case bear to the verb ? It bears the relation of subject; as, John walks; it CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 35 is, also, said to be in the Nominative when predicated of the subject ; as John is a student. It is L What relatioa does the Possessive Case show / It shows the relation of possession or ownership; as, Pe- ter^t wife's mother. Henry's horse. Rem. Some nouns, having the Possessive /orw, do not imply ownership ; they are, strictly speaking, Specifyin'^ Adjectives ; as, Harriet makes ladies' bonnets. Johnson sells hoys' hats. TVTiat relation doer the Objective case show / The Objective case shows the relation of an object and is either the object of an action^ or of a relation * as Charles struck John on the head. When is the Objective case the object of an action ? It is the object of an action when it is governed by a verb or participle. When the object of a relation ? It is the object of a relation when governed by a prepo- sition; LESSON X. OF PARSING. What is Parsing 1 In Parsing a word, I first name the part of speech or class of words to which it belongs. What next ! I next mention the properties or accidents belonging to the word. What else ? I then state its agreement or government, as the cas^ may be, and quote the rule. I will now present you with a Model for Parsing. 86 York's illustrative and MODEL. James loves Mary's sister. James is a Proper noun, Masculine gender, third per- son, singular number, and nominative case to the verb loves J according to Rule 1. (Repeat Rule.) Loves is a regular. Transitive verb, Active voice, Indi- cative mode, Present tense, and of the third person, sin- gular number, agreeing with its nominative John, accord- ing to rule 6. Mary's is a proper noun, feminine gender, third per- son, singular number, and in the possessive case, governed by sister, according to Rule 4. Sister is a common noun, of the feminine gender, third person, singular number, and in the objective case, gov- erned by the verb loves, according to Rule 19. EXERCISES. Peter's dog bit John's finger. Foxes kill women's geese. Elza's cat caught a rat. James lost Henry's ball. Rivers flow. Birds fly. Arthur's dog killed Henry's cat. Rab- bits eat people's peas. Thomas hurt Robert's finger. Boys love play. LESSON XL OF VERBS. What is a Verb? A Yerb is a word which asserts or aflirms, or expresses acfion ; as, The river jloivs. He went to join the army. p^E^t. — Perhaps no single definition can fully unfold the varied import of the verb ; but, in some sense, it may be said, under all circumstances, to express something of the nature of an affirmation. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 37 How may the Verb be divided ? It may be divided into Transitive and Intransitive, Re- gular and Irregular, Auxiliary and Defective. When is a verb Trinsitive ? When it has the power to affect an object ; as, Jane writes letters. Must the object of a Transitive verb always be expressed ? No ; if the object is obvious, it need not always be ex- pressed ; as, The boy reads^ i. e. he reads boohs or some- thing else. How are Transitive verbs distinguished ? By voice. What is naeant by Voice ? Voice has been defined to be the particular mode of in- flecting or conjugating the verb, or it may be said to ex- press the condition of its subject as active or passive. Mow many Voices have verbs ? Two, viz : Active and Passive. When is a verb in the Active Voice ? It is in the Active voice, when the nominative performs the action ; as, i5rutus slew Caesar. Here Brutus the sub- ject, performs the action. When is a verb in the Passive Voice? It is in the Passive Voice when the subject receives the action ; as, Caesar was slain by Brutus. Rem. — In this example, Caesar is the subject of the verb, tvas slain , but is still the object of the action expressed by the verb. When is a verb Intransitive ? It is Intransitive when it has no power to affect an ob- ject ; as, The bird flies. Do Intransitive verbs have voice ? They do not ; though a few of them admit of the form of the Passive voice ; as, He is gone. 38 York's illustrative and LESSON XII. OF VERBS CONTINUED. When is a verb Regular ? When it forms its Past tense and Perfect participle by annexing d or ed to the root or simplest form of the verb, it is Regular ; as, Love, loved, loved. Walk, walked, walked. Rem. 1. — It will readily be seen, that, if the root of the verb ends in e, d only is annexed ; but, if it ends in any other letter, ed is annexed. Rem. 2. — Such verbs may be said to be Regular ; be- cause their Past tense and Perfect participle, are formed according to rule. Rem. 3. — Some verbs appear to be Regular when they are not ; such, for instance, as those whose root ends in some other letter besides e, yet having their parts formed by annexing d only ; as, Hear, heard, heard. When are verbs Irregular ? They are Irregular when the Past tense and Perfect participle are formed by varying the root, or when they are monotonous, admitting of no variation ; as, see, saw, seen. Set, set, set. Rem. — In the first example, the root of the verb see is varied, i. e, the other parts assume a form different from the root ; but, in the last example, the root is not varied, the parts all having the same form. What is aa Auxiliary verb ? Such verbs as are used to assist other verbs in forming the modes and tenses, are called Auxiliaries ; as, May, can, must, might, could, should, &c. Wh&t is a Defective verb ? Such a verb as can only be used in some of the modes and tenses ; as, Ought, can, &c. Rem. — The learner should bear in mind, though we have mentioned several classes of verbs, yet all verbs whether •CONSTEUCTIVE GKAMMAiR. 39 Regular 'or Irregular, Auxiliary or Defective-, are either Transitive or Intransitive, What belong to vorfes ? Mode and Tense, Num\)«r and Person, LESSON XEIL OP MODES, What is the Mode of a verb / Mode is the manner of representing affirmatioru How many Modes are there ? Five, viz : Iiadicative, Subjunctive, Potential, Imperative, and Infinitive. How does the Indicative mods represent nSnnation ? Positively iiud without limitati'on ; as, She loves. How does the Subjunctive represent affirmation ? The Subjunctive mode affirms a thing, subject to some condition ; as, If Eli^a study ^ she will improve. How does th'e Potential represent aQmation ? The Potential mode affirms possibility, liberty, power, will, obligation, or necessity ; as, It may rain. He may go. lid can go, lie would yo. lie should go, lie^nustgo. For what is the Imperative mode used? It is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting ; as, Obey my precepts. Go in peace. How does the Infinitive represent affirmation ? It does not limit it to any particular subject; as, Mar- tha went to meet Jesus. From what, doeB the Mode of verbs arise 7 From the various ways in which affirmation is made 40 YOKK S ILLUSTRATED AND concerning the subject, as illustrated in the following- Diagram ; Tlie perpendicular column represents the subject of aflSr- mntion. Figure 1 represents M'liat is affirmed indicatively ; as ♦lie figuYo is in juxta-position -with the subject, it shows that whatever is indicatively predicated, belongs absolutely to the subject ; as, The bird fties. Job was patient. Figure 2 illustrates the S-ubjunctire Mode, or -what is predicated with some limitation ; as but one of the parallel lines of which the figure is con^posed^ is in juxta-position with tiie subject, it shows that what is affirmed of the sub- ject, may or may not belong to it; as, If Caisar was a tyrant, he deserved death. Figure 3 illustrates the Potential Mode, or what is affirmed potentially ; as the figure is not in juxta-position with the subject, it shows that whatever is affirmed poten- tialljs does not belong absolutely to the subject, but that only the probability, power, liberty, necessity, &c., of ac- tion or quality, is predicated ; as. The bird can fly. John may he. good. Figure 4 illustrates the Imperative Mode, or what is affirmed imperative!}'. In this Mode, the subject is com- manded to act, or to possess a quality ; it is clear that at ^the time ^of command, the action or quality required, does not .exist in ihe subject ; but, as it is presumed that the CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 41 speaker has power to enforce obedience, there is a very strong probability, that what is commanded will be performed; the figure, therefore, though not in juxta-position with the subject, is made to approach v<}ry n<3ar it; as, Ohey my precepts. Figure 5 illustrates the Infinitive Mode ; ae the figure is not connected with the subject, but w^th the part of the Diagram which represents the predicate, it shows that the Infinitive never makes a direct affirmation concerning the ■subject, but depends upon some other element in construc- tion ; as. He ivoit to join the army. Questions. What (iocs the perpendicular column of the Diagram r«rpre8entr What x-^o the other parts repc^-sentf The Predicate. Wiiat does tig. Ist represent/ ^,Vhat fig. 2d, ^g. 3d, &c. ? LESSON XIV. OF TENSE. What is Tense ? Tense meaiis tim>e. How many TeHses have verbs? Six, viz : Present, Past, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future, ,?.nd Future-Perfect. What does the •I'resent'teCiSe.deoot-e ? Present time; as, I write, I am writing now. "What does the Past tenne denete? Simply ^a%t trsie ; a^^ I ivrote yesterday. What does the Perfect denote ? The Perfect tense r as, I had written the- letter before the mail arrived. What does the Future tense denote ? Simi^l J future time ; as, I shall write to-morrow. What dees the Futnre-rerfect tense represent ? It represents an event that will be past at or before some other future time specified ; as, I shall have written by the appointed time. You may now oxamme the following Piagram which illustrates the six Tenses of the verb. ■Past.V.::"-''.:^ Future Perfect. Futiire h Timt is duration measured. Etentilyy: is duration , without me^-sure ■ ; or-encf. The space included by the vertical lines (1), represents present time. The space on the left of the vertical lines, represents- past time, and that on the right of the vertical lines, rep- resents future time. Figure 2, which consists of but one line, having no con- nection with the Present, illustrates the Past tense of tho verb. This tense is properly used in speaking and writing,, when both the event and the neriod of time in which it CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 43 occurred, are past ; as, Philosophers made great discove- ries last century. '' Figure 3, which consists of two parallel lines, illus- trates the Perfect Tense. This tense embraces a period of time which is not only connected with the present, but frequently extends into the future, as shown by the first line in the figure. This period, as a whole, consists of three component parts ; — the Event part marked E, is past, the Speaking part, marked S, which is present, is the time occupied in uttering the sentence, and the Post speak- ing part, marked P, which is future, denotes that portion of the period of tima subsequent to the uttering of the sen- tence. But the period embraced by this Tense of the verb, sometimes only approaches the Present, as shown by the second parallel line ; this is the case when the speaker refers to all the past part of his life ; as, " I have never seen trees so tall." This tense is correctly used in speaking and writing, when the period of time in which the event occurred, is connected with the Present ; as, I have studied hard this week. Figure 4, which consists of two lines connected, illus- trates the Pluperfect tense. When two past events are connected in sense, the Plu- perfect is correctly employed in the prior past of the two ; as. The thief had escaped before the goods were missed. That these two are connected in sense, is obvious ; for, when X\iQ former is uttered, the mind is so much under the influence of the expectation of the hatter, that it is disap- pointed, if it is withheld. The thief had escaped, — and what else ? before the goods were missed. Figure 5, which consists of a single line, illustrates the Future tense. This shows that this tense of the Verb denotes future time simply, having no connection with any other event or 44 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND time. This tense is correctly used when future time is simply indicated. Figure 6, which consists of two lines connected, illus- trates the Future-Perfect tense. When two future events are connected in construction, this tense is correctly used in the prior future of these two ; as, John will have completed his task by the appointed time. This tense is called Future-Perfect, because the action or event will be completed at or before the post future event with which it is connected. QUESTIONS. What does the space included by the vertical lines, represent ? What time does the space on the left of the \ortical lines, represent? What does that on the right repreeent? What does figure 2d represent ? When is the Past tense correctly used ? What is meant by the event? The actual occurrence of the action, as expressed by the word made in the example. What by period of time ? By period of time, is meant that portion of time in which the event occurs; as, ''^ last century'' in the example re- ferred to. Rem. — The Teacher may ask similar questions on the rest of the Diagram. LESSON XV. OF NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. Are Number and Person dependent or independent properties of the verb ? They are dependent. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 45 Why? Because the verb depends upon its nominative for these properties. In order, then, to know the number and person of the verb, to what must yoa look ? To its nominative. In what tense, do the variations of the verb principally take place? In the Present. What are these terminations called ? They are called personal or verbal. What terminations does a nominative of the second person, singular, tolemn style, require the verb to assume ? T, st, or est ; as, Thou arf, thou loves^, thou Yinlkest, Does the nominative you of the second person, singular, familiar style, reqaire the verb to assume the same terminations? It does not ; for the verb generally assumes the root or plural form ; as, John, where are youl Does the verb ever assume the singular form in such instances ? Yes ; some good writers use a verb of the singular form, in the Past tense with such a nominative; as, ''Witness, where luas you standing during the transaction." What terminations does a nominative of the third person, singular, famil- iar stylo, require the verb to assume ? S OX es) as. He walks. She goes. What terminations does the same nominative, solemn style, require? Th or eth', as, "The Lord lovei5^ the gates of Zion.'" " He walkei/i through dry places." What does a plural nominative of any person require ? It requires the verb to assume the root or plural form ; as. We love\ you love\ they love. What effect does a nominative of the first person singular have? It generally requires the verb to assume a similar form ; as, I love. Rem. 1. — When an Auxiliary verb is employed, it is always varied instead of the principal verb ; as Thou canst do It. 46 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND Hem. 2. — A nominative of the second person, singular, solemn style, requires a verb in the past tense to vary ; as, Thou walkedst. Rem, 3. — The solemn style is the style used in the Bible, and the familiar style is that used in common conversation. LESSON XVI. OF CONJUGATION. V/hat is meant by the Conjugation of a verb? It is, literally speaking, yoking the verb with its nomi- native throughout all its Modes, Tenses, and Voices. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE. lioot. Be. Principal Parts. Present, Am or be; Past, Was; Perf. Participle, Been. INDICATIVE MODE. present tense. Singular. Plural. 1st Person, I am. 1st Person, We are. on r> S Thou art, or „ . P^rcnn i ^^ ^^®' ^^ 2d Person, | you are. 2d Person, -j you are. 3d Person, He, she, or it is. 3d Person, They arc. Past Tense. ist Person, I was. 1st Person, We were. ^. ,, n^hou wast, or „. a J Ye were, or I You were. ] You were. 3d '' lie was. 3d " They were. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 47 Perfect Tense. 1 I have been. 1 We have been, Thou hast been, or „ j Ye have been, or You have been. ^You have been. 3 lie has or hath been. 3 They have been. Pluperfect Tense. 1 I had been, 1 We had been, ^ rrhon hadst been, or ^^ jYe had been, or " ) You had been. / You had been. 3 He had been. 3. They had been. Future Tense. 1 I shall or M-ill be, 1 We shall or will be, ^ oih€tical Form. 1 Were I, or if I were. n S Wert thou, or if thou wert, \ or Were you, or if 3^0 u were. 3 Were he, or if he were. 1 Were we, or if we were. f, j Were ye, or if ye were, or / Were you, or if you were. o Were they, or if the}' were. Perfect Tense. If I have been. S If thou hast been, or ) If you have been. If he hath or has been. 1 If we have been. \ If ye have been, or ( If you have been. If they have been, Pluperfect Tense. If I had been. S If thou hadst been, or ilf you had been. If he hc'.d been. If we had been, jif ye had been, or ] If you had been. If they had been. Future Tense. 1 If I shall or will be. o ^If thou shalt or wilt be, or 3 If you shall or will be. If he shall or will be. 1 If we shall or will be. f) \ If ye shall or will be, or *^ ) If you shall or will be. 3 If they shall or will be. Future-Perfect Tense. If I shall or will have been. (^ If thou shalt or wilt have ■\ been, or ( If you shall or will have been. If he shall or will have been. If we shall or will have been. !If ye shall or will have been, or If you shall or will have been If they shall or will have been. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 49 POTENTIAL MODE. Indefinite Tense. — [Present.] Singular. Pluual. 1 I may, can, or must bo. 1 TVe may, can, or must be. ^Thou mayst, canst, or must f> j Ye may, can or must be, or 2 ■} be, or *" |You may, can, or must be. (You may, can, or must be. 3 They may, can, or must be. 8 Pie may, can, or must be. Indefinite Tense. — [Past.] 1 I might, could, would, or should 1 We might, could, would, or be. should be. ( Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, ty I or shouldst be, or o i You might, could, would, or [ should be. 8 He might, could, would, or 8 They might, could, would, or should be. should be. ' l^e might, could, would, or should be, or You might, could, would, or should be. Perfect Tense. 1 I may, can, or must have been. 1 VYe may, can, or must have been. ' Thou mayst, canst, or must f Ye may, can, or must have Q j have been, or p j been, or You may, can, or must, have j You may, can, or must have been. 1 been. 8 He may, can, or must have been. 3 They may, can, or must have been. Pluperfect Tense.* — [Past Tense.] 1 I might, could, would, or should 1 We might, could, would, or have been. should have been. 'Thoumightst, couldst, wouldst f Ye might, could, would, or or shouldst have been, or „ J should have been, or You might, could, would, or ] You might, could, would, or should have been. [ should have been. 3 lie miglit, could, would or should 3 They might, could, would, or have been. should have been. * This tense expresses nothing more than simply pa.^t time; con- sequently it is not embraced in the definition given of the Pluperfect tense. As things ought to be called by their proper names, I would suggest the propriety of calling this tense Past. 50 York's illustrative and IMPERATIVE MODE. Present* Tense. — [Future.] Singular. Plural. \ Be, or be ye or j'^ou, or 2d p < Be, or be thou, or f, ^ Be, or be ye or yc rers. -j -p^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^ ^ j^^ ^^^ ^j, ^,^^ ^^^ INFINITIVE MODE. Present Tense, To be. Perfect Tense, To have been. Pari iciples. Imperfect, Being. Perfect, Been. Pluperfect, Having been. LESSON XVII. The Conjugation of the Regular, Transitive Verb, To Love — in the Active Voice. Root, Love. Principal Parts, Love, loved, loved. INDICATIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular, Isi Person. I love. 2d *' Thou lovest, or you love. 3d " He loveth or loves. * This tense is generally called Present, though, strictly speaking, it is Future ; since, if the event were actually occurring at the time of command, it would supersede the necessity of it. constructive grammar* f) i Past Tense. 1st Person I loved. 2d *' Thou lovedst or you loved. 3d " He loved. Perfect Tense. 1st " I have loved. 2d " Thou hast loved, or you have loved. 3d '* He hath or has loved. Pluperfect Tense. 1st " I had loved. 2d " Thou hadst loved, or you had loved. 3d " He had loved. Future Tense. 1st " I shall or will love. 2d ** Thou shalt or wilt love, or you shall or will love. 3d " He shall or will love. Future-Perfect. 1st " I shall or will have loved. 2d *' Thou shalt or wilt have loved, or you shall or will have loved. 3d " He shall or will have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Tense. Common or Indicative Form. Singular. If I love. If thou lovcst, or you love. If he loveth or loves. 1st a 2d (( 3d u 52 york's illustrative and Past Tense. 1st Person If I loved. 2(1 " ' If thou lovedst or you loved. 3d '' If be loved. Perfect Tense. 1st " If I have loved. 2d^ " [If thou hast loved, or you have loved. 3dj '• If he hath or has loved. Pluperfect Tense. 1st '• If I had loved. 2d *' If thou hadst loved, or you had loved. 3d '• If he had loved. Future Tense. 1st " If I shall or will love. 2d " If thou shalt or wilt love, or if you will love. 3d " If he shall or will love. Future-Perfect Tense.'] 1st " If I shall or will have loved. 2d " If thou shalt or wilt have loved, or you shall or will have loved. 3d " If he shall or will have loved. POTENTIAL MODE. Indefinite Tense.. — [Present.] Singular. I may, can, or must love. Thou mayst, canst, or must love, or ^ You may, can, or must love. 3 lie may, can, or must love. constructive grammar. 53 Indefinite Tense, — [Past.] 1 I might, could, would or should love. ^ j Tiiou mightst, couldst, woulist, or shou-dst love, or ,( You might, could, would, or should love. 'I lie might, could, would, or should love. Perfect Tense. 1 1 may, can, or must have loved, iy f Thou raayst, canst, or must have loved, or ( You may, can, or must have loved. S He may, can, or must have loved. Pluperfect Tense. 1 I might, could, would, or should have loved. ^ f Tliou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved. \ You might, could, would, or should have loved, o He might, could, would, or should have loved. IMPERITIVE MODE. Present Tense. — [Future.]] 2 / Love or love thou or you, or \ Do thou or you love. INEINITIVE MODE. Present Teuse, To love. Perfect Tense, To have loved. Participles. Imperfect, Loving. Perfect, Loved. Pluperfect, Having loved. Hem. 1. — Since tlic verb undergoes no variation tu agree with a nominative in the plural, the plural number has been omitted in the above conjugation. Rem. 2. — The Passive voice is formed throughout all 54 York's illustrative and the Modes and Tenses, by prefixing the variations of the verb To Be to the Perfect Participle of a Transitive verb : afl, I love, Active ; I am loved, Passive Voice. LESSON XVIII. Formation of the Tenses. The Root of the verb, as found in the Infinitive Present, is its simplest form. How is the Past Tense of Regular verbs in the Indicative and Subjunctive Modes, formed ? By annexing d or ed to the root ; as, Love, loved. How is the Past of Irregular verbs formed ? By varying the form of the root ; as, See, saw. How is the Perfect Tense formed f By prefixing have or its variations to the Perfect Parti- ciple ; as, Have loved, hadst loved, hath or has loved. How is the Pluperfect Tense formed f By prefixing had to the Perfect Participle ; as. Had loved. How is the Future formed? By prefixing shall or ivill to the root of the verb ; as, Shall or will love. Shall or will see. How is the Future-Perfect formed ? By prefixing shall or will have to the Perfect Partici- ple ; as, Shall or will have loved. Shall or will have seen. How is the so called Present Potential [Indefinite], formed f By prefixing may, can, or must to the root of the verb ; as, may, can, or must love. How is the Potentinl Past [Indefinite], as it ia called, formed ? By prefixing might, could, ivould, or should to the root; as, Might, could, would, or should love. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 55 Rem. — Both of these tenses should be called Indefinite. How ia the Potential Perfect formed / By prefixing may, can^ or must have to the Perfect Participle ; as, May, can, or must have loved. How is the Potential Pluperfect [Past] formed .' By prefixing might, could, would, or should have to the Perfect Participle ; as Might, could, would, or*should have loved. How is the Present Infinitive formed ? By prefixing to to the Root ; as, To love. How is the Perfect Infinitive formed.' By prefixing to have to the Perfect Participle ; as To have loved. LESSON XIX. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Present. Abide Am or Be Awake Bear, (to bring forth,) Bear, (to carry,) Beat Begin Bend Bereave Beseech Bid Bind Bite Bleed Blow Past. Perfect Participle. abode abode was been awoke, R,* awaked bore born bore borne beat beaten, beat began begun bent, R, bent bereft, R, bereft, R, besought besought bid, bade, bidden, bid bound bound bit bitten, bit bled bled blew blew * Those verbs whose Past tense and Perfect Participle are followed by R, have also a regular form ; as, Awahe or awaked. 56 York's illustrative ahd Present. Break Breed Bring Build Burn Burst Buj Cast Catch Chide Choose Cleave, (to adhere,) Cleave, (to split,) Cling Clothe Come Cost Creep Crow Cut Dare Deal Dig Do^ Draw Dream Drink Drive Dwell Eat Fall Feed Feel Fight Find Flee Fling Forsake Freeze Freight Get Gild Gird Give Go Grave Grind Grow Past broke n bred brought built, R, burnt, R, burst bought cast caught, R, chid chose cleaved clove, cleft, clung clad, R, came cost crept crew, R, cut durst dealt, R, dug, R, did drew dreamt, R, drank drove dwelt ate, eat, fell fed felt fought found fled flung flew forsook froze freighted got gilt, R, girt, R, gave went graved ground grew J PERrECT PARTICrPLK. broken bred brought built burnt, R, burst bought cast caught, R, chidden, chid, chosen cleaved cloven clung clad, R, come cost crept crowed cut dared dealt, R, dug, R, done drawn dreamt, R, drunk, dranky driven dwelt eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled flung , flown forsaken frozen fraught, R, got, gotten gilt, R, girt, R, given gone graven, R, ground grown CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. Present. Hang Have Hear Heave Hew Hide Hit Hold Hurt Keep Kneel Knit Know Lade Lay Lead Leave Lend Let Lie, (to recline,") Light Load Lose Make Mean Meet Mow Pay Pen, (to enclose,) Put '^ Quit Read Rend Rid Ride Ring Rise Rive Run Saw Say See Seek Seeche Sell Send Set Sit Shake Shape 57 Past. hung had heard hove, R, hewed hid hit held hurt kept knelt, R, knit, R, knew laded laid led left lent let lay Ht, R, loaded lost made meant met mowed paid pent, R, put quit, R, read rent rid rode rang, rung, rose rived ran sawed said saw sought sod, R, sold sent set sat shook shaped Perfet Participle huncr had heard hoven, R, hewn hidden, hid, hit ^ held hurt kept knelt, R, knit, R, known laden laid led left lent let lain lit, R, laden, R, lost made meant met mown paid pent, R, put quit, R, read rent rid ridden rung risen riven run sawn, R, said seen soug'it sodden sold sent set sat shaken shapen, R, 58 YORK S ILLUSTRATIVE AND Present. Past. Perfect Participle, Shave shaved shaven Shear sheared shorn Shed shed shed Shine shone shone Shoe shod shod Shoot shot shot Show showed shown Shred shred shred Shrink shrank, shrunk, shrunk Shut shut shut Sing sang, sung, sung Sink sank, sunk, sunk Slay slew. slain Sleep slept slept Slide slid slidden, slid Sling slung slung Slink slunk slunk Slit slit slit, R, Smite smote smitten Sow, (to scatter,) sowed sown, R, Speak spoke spoken Speed sped sped Spell spelt, R, spelt, R, Spend spent spent Spill spilt, R, spilt, R, Spin spun spun Spit spit spit Spread spread. spread Spring sprang sprung, sprung Stand stood stood Steal stole stolen Stick stuck stuck String strung strung Stride strotie, Btrid, stridden Strike struck struck, strickeOy Strive strove striven Strow, or strew, strowed or strewed strown, or strewn Swear swore sworn Sweat sweat sweat Sweep swept swept Swell swelled swollen, R, Swim swam, swum, swum Swing swung swung Take took taken Teach taught taught Tell told told Think thought thought Thrive throve thriven Thrust thrust thrust Throw threw thrown CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR, o9 Present. Tread Wax Wear Weave Weep Wet Whet Win Wind Work Wring Write Past. Perfect Participlf. trod waxed trodden, trod, waxen, R, wore worn wove woven wept wet, R, whet, R, wept wet, R, whet, R, won wound wrou<^ht, R, won wound wrought, R, wrung wrote wrung written. MODEL. "Jesus wont unto tho Mount of OUves." Went is an Irregular Intransitive verb, of the Indica- tive Mode, Past tense, and of the thiid person, singular number, agreeing with its nominative Jesus, according to rule 6. Wbv is t-t'):* a verb/ Because it asserts or affirms. Why Irregular? Because it forms its Past Tense and Perfect Participle, hj varying the form of the root. Why Intriinsiitive? Because it has no power to affect an object. Whv in the Indicative Modt.? Because it affirms positively and without limitation* Wh.v in the Past Tense / B(>cause the period of time in which the event occurred, is wholly past, Wliy <»i the third person, singular.' Because its nominative Jesus is of the third person, singiilar. 60 YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND EXERCISES. The sun shines upon the floor. Joseph went w-ith his brother. Thomas has returned. James had lost his book before he left school. Those ladies will return soon. He will have completed his tas^k by the time appointed. If [lenry study, he will improve. If thou hadst been here, he would not have gone. He may go, if he will return to-morrow. I may have said it. The work might have been done better. He would not go. He went into the field, to seek treasure. He ought to have gone sooner. — Obey my precepts, if you wish to learn. Take heed to your ways. Walk not in the way of bad men. Keep your heart with all diligence. Tarry not at the wine. • He has no time to lose. Have they returned ? Can Mary attend the wedding ? It is I ; be not afraid. LESSON XX. OF PARTICIPLE. What Is a Participle f A participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes^ of the nature of a verb, and also, of an adjective, but de- pends upon a noun or pronoun in construction. How do Participles partake of the iiature of the verb? They, like verbs, express actio-n ; as, I see a man walh- ing. In what respect, do tbey partake of the nature of adjectives ? In limiting the noun or pronoun on which they depend. For instance, in tlie sentence, "I see a man walking," waJJcivg not only expi esses the action of man, but, also, limits man like an adjective. How many Participles have verbs? Three, viz : Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 61 How is the Imperfect Participle formed ? By annexing ing to the Root of the verb ; as, Love, lovi7}g. Rem. — When the verb ends in e, on receiving the suffix ing^ the e is dropped. (See Illustrative and Constructive Grammar, Rules for Spelling.) H'hy is the Participle ending in ing, called Imperfect? Because the action -which it expresses, is unfinished. How is the Perfect Participle formed? When derived from a regular verb, it is formed by an- nexing d or ed to the Root ; as, Love, loved ; but, when derived from an Irregular verb, it is formed by varying the form of the Root ; as. See, seen. Why is this Participle called Perfect? Because it denotes a finished state of the action or ver- bal denotement. How is the Pluperfect Participle formed ? By prefixing having to the Perfect Participle ; as, seen, having seen. Why is it called Pluperfect. Because it denotes more than the Perfect. Rem. — The Pluperfect Participle not only denotes finished state of the action or verbal denotemcn;;, but, also, as completed before the time indicated by the princi- pal verb of the sentence, \vith which it is associated ; as. He having 2oritten a letter, mailed it. (For a full display of the Participle, see llk'strativo and Constructive Gram- mar.) MODEL. The old fox heard the hunter's horn sounding. Sounding is an Imperfect Participle, derived from the verb to sound, and refers to horn, according to Rule 18. Wby is sounding a Participle? Because it is derived from a verb, and partakes of t\ nature of a verb and an adjective. 62 York's rLLUSTRATivE and Why is it Imperfect ? Because the action which it expresses, is unfinished, still going on. Why is it said to refer to horn 7 Because it depends upon it in construction. EXERCISES. I see an eagle flying. The hnnters heard the young dog barking. James has compl'^ted the task given him. The young ladies, having written the letter, dispatched it. The stranger saw the desert thistle bending there its lonely head. The General having completed the conquest, re- turned in triumph. Jesus seeing the multitude, went up into a mountain. The house, erected on yonder rising ground, drew me from the road. I see a man beating his horse. LESSON XXI. PRONOUNS OR SUBSTITUTES. What i? a l^n-n ud ? A Prononn is a word used instead of a noun, and gene- rally to avoid its repetition ; as, Henry is a good student, and /'ic learns very fast. Re . — You perceiv(^ ih it he, in this sentence, stands for the noun or name Ih'nrtj, and, also, avoids its repetition, thereby making langtia;'. more concise and elegant. How insy Pronouns be divjiioi? Into two classes, viz: Personal and Relative, or Con- nective. How are Poraonal pr -nou ^ <'i;' to Rule 12, and nominative case to studies, ac- cording to Rule 1. Whj U who a Pronoun? Because it is used instead of a noun. Whj a Relative ? Because it not only relates to an ancedent, but it has no form to show its Gender, Person, or Number. EXERCISES. The young lady who instructs me, labors faithfully. — This is the tree which produces no fruit. They that sow in tears, shall reap in joy. The boy whom I teach, learns well. The hat which Henry lost, has been found. MODEL 2. I heard what was said. What is a specifying adjective, and belongs to thing '^noeton" [understood]; or thus, what is a substitute for what thing, and in the objective case, governed by heard, according to Rule 19. Rem. — Which, in this and all similar constructions, is noeton [understood]. The sentence, rendered plenary, will read thus, [I heard what thing] (tvhich was said.) EXERCIEES. Henry took what he wanted. Mary took what Eliza left. I heard what was alleged on both sides. Whatever purifies the heart, also fortifies it. George may pursue whatever science suits his taste. Whatever is true in sci- ence, is useful in the arts. MODEL 3. Who art thou ? The minister. CONSTRUCTPirS GRAMMAR. 69 Wko is an Interrogative pronouny agreemg ia gender, person, and namber with its sabseqiieat mmisterT, aud is in tlie nominative case, j(tredi.cated of the subject tkou^ accord- ing to Rule 2. Rem. — If the subsequent is not expressed, or the an- swer to the question not given, the gender^ person, and numlber of the Interrogative cannot be detefrmined. £X£] RCISjb«S. Who hid John's hat ? With wh o m ii4 joia walk ? Who •wrote that ? Which ronte did he take T What book have you ? A Poem, What have I done ? What tMok ye of Christ? I.ESSON XXV, 01? THE AETECLB. Wiiaf is an Artlclo ' An Article is a word prefixed to nouns, to limit tho «x^ tent of their signifiearion ; as, Thon art the man. How manj Articles aro there ? Two, A or an and Tke* W&at ia Tke called ? It is called the Definite article, and belonigs to noiins of "botli nrnmbers. A or An. is called the Indefinite article, and belongs to j!iouns of the singular aamber. Whom shoaM arc be Qsed ? It should be used before words commencing with a mw€l soufidy and, also, before words commencing with k^ when the accent is on the second syllable ; as, Am acorn; ^15^ pea T^rit^ iiX!r:E:osELT w^L Ejm.- — ^It -i^mM. be fe©tl©r^ perlia,ps;j, t© ©al] tl^ose Ad- TiT^ irM^li 3aac.di% Adj.£>€;iaT€«, &^^mdoir^ or Mefym^ Ad- jm^w^^^ sme© tlj^j liiaits iioisBS ©F^pi'DB-dTaus m'Mxi'etl'f ths-im^ tli^ ifie&2a- i>f tk^ Adje<&fei¥fes wM©li t,lic«j limit Ixiit) 3:1^19 i£ksa:ij 'flla£s;£s:^ 3!&^j Aii'Vifisr^ last ^tI^^ ? TliD"ai^ A^t^t1)s ©spiTfjes a ^rtjssfe Tariet j ©f meaasing a^d c-lMled "iu fmM: ^glasses ^ ra : f^V^ flms?^ ^m&M^ s " '"^ To tl^© i^iiae^tioas ^.i^-^5, zifivsi.j' Ib^^j, J^i^ &fU^ ; as-^ TAen^ 'lli^j aB&'war ta tits ^■oie>stiQ>Q limir ; ^ IIkg;mnth^y faitTa- ot 53) a?' COHrSTEUCTITE GRAMMAR. TT la laaocJifymg the Eoeassssng of the verb ylides, what does it poiat out f It pmDts OBt tfee 'mann&r of its «c?«ots. To 'w^ta^ ir}s£37 i]ii»B, iSa«3 it Ibelosg ? It beloBgs to tlie class of Manner, EXERCISES. The jiirer £©W3 rapidly. The bird flies swiftly. He is tliert. Where is ThoBias ? Why do you delay ? ^ The lo"?f^erii>g clouds saoTe slowly. Wc? shall get the mail to- inorro?r. Wlien shall I hear from you? He is not at hoiae. The ireather is very coM, She writes excee^.i®gly well. Sarelj he 'wili retura soon. LESSOK XXX. WhaSi is a Pr*po3iti»a ? A J^re^d^ti&n is a word issed' to co-Dn-ect i^iorda, and show the rdatioa bet"we«a tliena^ as^ Hq went to New York. Bem. — To-^ m this se^itenee, conrreets went and Neiw York, amd i'^^ also^ siiows the rdation whic-b iV^(^'i^ JVr^ Ibears t& t^^Ti^. The eo5iE»ec^ive «|uality >?ill readily be per- eeiy<5di hj %m\l%mg the preposition ^ thus. Ho went New Tork. il^r© the- total want ©tf connection is- obyioiis- S5nc8 ??e7s>os:iti03is «jaa»ci worcSs, ao^showr tkft ralatioo batwaeu tbs.ia>, lo7» ma^iy terriiS mast everj Prepeeitioa havj ? Tuf tDv Tis. : Antevede'^if ar«d ^^s-^5'2i?e»f. Tbe .-4j)j? eallicd^ because it prvcei^es'tlir Pre-pseitiixffi Ba th-«- Jiatural order of cccatrujction. What la ih9 S^'H^sq^uenlf iexm ? Tlio 5? ifeb&e'^iie'iat ts-rm fclloivs the Frep'Cssition m the' natiji- aai Qrdiic of constructio;!.. • 6 youk'-s illustrative And What parts of speech may be used as the Antecedent term ? A noun or pronoun, verb, partieiple, adjective, andeVen •an adverb. What may be used as thf« Subsequent f A noHR, pronoun, iparticiple, or part of a sentence. REM.-^When a Participle is used as a Subsequent tem^ *of a Preposition, it partakes of the meaning of a noun^, and is frequently called by graifemarians a Participial 'noun ; as. He earns a livelihood by ioriting» In what case, is the Subsequent term of every Preposition ? It is in the 'objective case, and governed, by the Preposi- ■tion. In order to ascertain what words are connected by Pre- positions, you mu^^ make the sense your guide,— guided by this, you will generally be able to determine what words are Prepositions, aind what they connect, without the aid of a List of Prepositions. MODEL. Lot fled with his two daughters, from Sofem to thfe mountains. Prom is a PreptJsition, and conn-^cts fied and Sodom, and shows the relation between th^, according to Rule XXX. Re^i. — With attd to, in the abovfe example, are, also^ Prepositions, having the same Antecedent term^et^ ; hence it will be perceived that several Prepositions may have thfe same Antecedent term. Why iB/rom a Preposition? Because it connects words, and shows the relation be> 'tween 'them. -EXE^CI-S^. There was a marriage in Cana of ^(iafiee. The suti shines through the window upon the floor. Birds fly in the air. A green, narrow vale appeared before us ; its CONSTRUCtlVE GRAMMAR. 79 irmdmg stream murmured through the grove ; the dark hosts of Rothma,r stood on its banks, with their glittering spears. She sits at the window. Her ways are ways of plessiintness. LESSON XXXI. OF CONJUNCTIONS OR CONNECTfVES. What is a Conjunction, or Connective ? A Conjunction is a word, used to connect phrases anS clauses of sentences, and, also, words of the same con- struction, thereby enabling the speaker or writer to con* tinue discourse at pleasure ; as, Wheat grows in the field, and men reap it. Martha Und Mary were sisters. Are Conjunctions ever used after a full point, or period? They are sometimes ; thereby manifesting some relation tetween sentences in the general tenor of discotrS^. How are Coi^junctions generally dividM? They fets ^generally divided itto Copulative and Disjunc- tive. Is this division important ? , It is net-; but is, perhaps, worse than useless. (See Illustrative and Constructive Grammar; also, Dr. Web- ster's Improved Grammar.) Name the principal Conjunctions, used in connecting discourse? They are a?nUj hut, or, nor, yet, than, if, though, \est, un- less, &c. (For the classification of Connectives', see Elements of ^sentences, Vo^vi First.) MCB&L. KjroA 'created the heavens and the earth. And is a Conjunction, and connects ktavcns and earth, according to Rule 22. 80 tokk's illustrative and Rem. — In parsing Conjunctions which connect phrases and clauses^ no rule need h& applied. EXERCISES, Clay and Webster were distingiiished Senators. Time slept on flowers, and lent his glasses to hope. The wicked is driven away in his wickedness ; but the righteous hath hope in his death. Marj and Eliza play. James will im- prove, if he study. Obey my precepts, unless you wish to injure your:jeIves, Ignorance or negligeiice has caused this mistake. LESSOI^ XXXL OF INTERJECTIONS OR EXCLAMATIOI^S. TTBaa is an Exclamation [loterjeetion}'? An JExdamation is any sudden expression of joy, griefy disgust, calling, &c.; as, O' joyful sound ©f gospel grace!! Aim I I f*ear f«>r life 1 Turn from your eril ways^ house ©f Israeli &c. Rem. 1 — Considering the etymological import of the term! Interjection, it will, perhaps, be conceded by all that the Rame is inappropriate ^ since but comparatively few of the words called Interjections, are thrown betvjeen the parts* ®f a sentence ; the term Mxclamation is, therefore, to be^ preferred. This m recommtend'ed by Dr, Webster and cipher able philologists. Rem.. 2 — Siace ExdasE-ations- have no dependent con- struction, they can have ao government^ nor scarcely cai^ they be said to belong to written language* MODEL. Alas! and did my Saviour bleed? Ala% is aa Exclamation [Interjection]^; it is an expro^^ CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 81 sion of grief; it has no dependent construction in the sen- tence, according to Rule XXXL EXERCISES. Oh! what a fall was there. Lo ! from their seats, the mountains leap. Alas ! I fear for life. Ah ! whither shall I fly ? What ! take my money, and my life too ! Fie ! how angry he is. LESSON XXXIII. OP THE CASES INDEPENDENT, ABSOLUTE, AND APPOSITION. When is a noun or pronoun said t« be in the Nominative case Indt- pendent ? It is said to be in the Case Independent when directly addressed ; as, James ^ I desire you to study. When Is a noun or pronoun said to be in the Nominative Case Absolute ? When a noun or pronoun is placed before a participle, having no verb to agree with it, it is in the nominative case Absolute ; as, The sun having risen, we pursued our journey. When is a noun or pronoun said to be in AppoeitioQ ! When a noun or pronoun is appended to another noun or pronoun for explanation or emphasis, it is said to be in Apposition with it ; as, Paul, the great Apostle, was emi- nent for his Christian zeal, v.: \- Rem. — As the case in Apposition must always agree in case with the principal word, it must be construed in the same member ; as, [Daniel Webster, the distinguished Statesman and Orator, now reposes] (in the silent grave.) MODEL I. Boys, study your lessons. 82 YORK'S IiLLUSTRA53i)VE AND Boys is a common noun, masculine gender, second per* son, plural, and is in the. Nominative case Independent,, according to Hule 27. MOiDEL 2. /being in great haste, he consented. I is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular,, and in the nominative case Absolute, according to Rule 28». MODEL 3. John, the beloved Disoiphy T?;as. banished. Disciple is a Qommon noun^, of, the masculine gender,, third person, singular, and is ia the nominative case,, put by Apposition "vrith John, according to Rule 3. EXERCISES. Young man,, jon have ruined yourself, and injured your friend. Horace,, thou learnest niany lessons. Thp Giene- ral being slain, the army was routed, l^he moori, hayiftg. risen, we resumed our maj-ch,. The Bujbtierfly, child of the summer, fluttors in th^. snn. She descending, the ladder fell. Make nat my Esther's house, a house of merchan- dise. Ye fieljis of light,, celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair, proclaim, your Maker's wondrous power. PBOMISCUOUS EXERCISIS;. [Yon may now iaialyze, Construe, and Parse tho foUowiing sentences which contain ali the Parts of speech; you may, also, assign the reason fur tho punctuation, and quote the rules.] Eliza went with Mary to the well for water. The All wise Creator bestowed, the power of speech upon man for the best purpose. I^^jj^e Cynthia declining clips the hori- zon. Man beholds the twinkling stars adorning night's, blue arch. Rothmar sunk beneath my sword. Thou who. CONSTRUCTJiYE GRAMMABa. 8^3 hast been a witness of the fact, canst state.it>-. Thje^rain having ceased, the dark clouds rolled away. Beneath the pale beams of the moon, the Indian lovqr sat, and, in piteous tones, bewailed her sad condition. If youth be trifled away without improvement, manhoods will be con- temptible, and old age, miserable. The sun. shines- upon all men who will receive his rays which he sendg.from the heavens. John the Baptist cg.me, preaching in. the wilder- ness of JudiCa. Jesus departed, and went into th^ payts of QaUlee. There ^ shall bathe my woary sobI In seas of heavenly rest, And not a wave of trouble roll , Across my peaceful breast. We had heard; the news before the messenger arrived. The wofk might have been finished sooner. Susan, may visit her sister who liyes in the country ; but Lucinda must rt - mjttn at home with her mother. Go ye into all the world, and preach my Gospel to every creature. Alas ! the joys that fortune brings, Are trifling, and decay ; And those who mind the paltry things, More trifling still than they. The value of the Christian faith, may be estimated from the consolations which it affords. He leadeth me in the paths of righteousness, for his name's sake. The eyes of a fool are in the ends of the earth. The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language. True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and promotes the happiness of ali who are around him. Charles, you, by your diligence, have made easy work of the task which was given you by your preceptor. Bo- naparte being banished, peace was restored to Europe. Boys, study your lessons closely, if you "wish to succeed. Paul, the great Apostle of the Gentles, suffered martyr dom at Rome. Why seek ye the living among the dead ? Canst thou expect, thou betrayer of innoccQpe,. to escape th^ hand of vengeance ? She makes the heavy heart to sing, And cheers the wintry gloom, Floats on the ppicy galee of spring, Apd njiv^es all Nature blpoc^ 84 YOEK's tLLUSTRJLTIVE AND Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock with its head of heath ? The law was given by Moses ; but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ. John, the Apostle, was banished to the isle of Patmos. Your frienflls may die, and haste away To that blest world of rest ; But Mary's part, with you, will stay, . And ever make jrou blest. LESSON XXXIV. OF SYNTAX. Of what does Syntax treat ? It treats of the construction of sentences. Do yott remember what & sentence is ? A sentence is such an assemblage of words as asserts a fact. What elements are necessary to Assert a fact f The Subject and Predicate ; as, The sun shines. Upon what rrineiples, are most of the rules of Syntax feased ? They are mostly based upon three principles, viz : Gov- ernment, Agreement, or Concord, and Position. In what does Government consi£(? Government is that power which one word has m direct- ing the Mode, Tense, or Case of another word. What is Agreement or Concord ? Concord is the agreement of one word with another in ^4nder, persom, number, and case. What is Position ? Position is the place which a word occupies in a sen^ tence. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR, 85 LESSON XXXV, RULES OF SYNTAX. RULE I — The subject of the verb must be in the nomi- Rative case ; as, John writes, RULE II — A noun or pronoun, predicated of the sub- ject, must be in the nominative case; as, Thou a,rt he. — Law is a rule of action. RULE III — A noun or pronoun, used to identify another noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in the same case : as, Solomon, the son of David, wrote many proverbs. RULE IV — A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the word which it limits ; as, Johns book. His being mvay from home, was the cause of great disap- pointment. RULE V — The infinitive mode is governed by the word which it limits ; as, They ^ve7it TO see him. She is eager TO LEARN. I heard him say it. RULE VI — The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person ; as, Thou seest. He sees. 1 ^ee. We see, &c. RULE VII — Two or more nominatives in the singular, connected by and, must have verbs agreeing with them ia the plural ; as, Cato and Plato were wise. RULE Viri — Two or more nominatives in the singular, connected by or or nor, must have verbs agreeing with them in the singular ; as John or James was ill, RULE IX — When a verb agrees with the Infinitive mode or part of a sentence for its subject, it must be in tiie third person singular ; as, To die for one's country, ii glorious. To study is profitable. RULE X — A collective noun conveying idea of unify, generally has a verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular; as. The nation teas once powerful, but now it h feeble. RULE XL— A collective noun conveying idea of plu- 7 86 yokk's illustrative and rality, generally has a verb and pronoun in the plural ; as^ The committee tvere divided in their sentiments. KULE XII — Pronouns agree witli their antecedents in gender, number, and person ; as, John lost his knife. He who studies, will improve. RULE XTII — The indefinite article belongs to nouns in the singular number ; as, A man. An hour. RULE XIV.* — The definite article belongs to nouns of both numbers ; as, The man. The men. RULE XV — Adjectives belong to nouns and pronouns; a-s, A good man. She is handsome. RULE XVI — Adjectives sometimes belong to the infin- itive mode, part of a sentence, or a whole sentence; as, To see is pleasant. Agreeable to this, ive read of names being blotted out of God's book. Quality may be predicated of action ; hence RULE XVII — Adjectives are used to qualify the action of verbs, and to express the qualities of things in connec- tion with the action by which they are produced ; as. Open thine hand ivide. The eggs boil hard. The tree looks green. RULE XVIII — Participles refer to nouns and pro- nouns ; as, Mary having ivritten her letter, mailed it. I see him 2oaUci7ig. RULE XIX — The object of a transitive verb in the active voice, is put in the objective case ; as, I saw HIM lohom you met. RULE XX — The object of a transitive participle is put in the objective case; as, I saw a man beating his horse. RULE XXI — The object of a preposition is put in the objective case ; as, Henry went with me. RULE XXII — Conjunctions connect words of the same sort ; as, John and James. Good and bad, etc. * This 18 not important, since there is no possibility of violating it> CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 87 RULE XXIII — A Conjunction connects nouns and pro- nouns of the same case ; as, Ilenrj and William obey their teacher. RULE XXIV — Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like modes and tenses; as, Kingdoms rise and /a??. RULE XXV — Adverbs modify verbs, participles, ad- jectives, and other adverbs ; as, He writes hadly. RULE XXVI — Euphony requires that the sign to of the infinitive should be omitted when construed with the following verbs, viz ; hid^ dare^ feel, make, let, hear, help, see, need, and their participles ; as. He bid me come. We felt the earth tremble, I heard him speak, etc. RULE XXVII — When an address is made, the name of the person or thing addressed, is put in the nominative^' cme independent ; as, James, I desire you to study. RULE XXVIII — A noun or pronoun, placed before a participle, and having no verb to agree with it, nor word on which to depend, is put in the nominative case absolute ; as. The sun having risen, we pursued our journey. RULE XXIX — Some verbs in the imperative mode have no nominative specified ; as, *' God said, let there be light, and there was light. RULE XXX — Prepositions point out the relation be- tween their antecedent and subsequent terms ; as, Henry went to the citi/ of Neiv York, RULE XXX/.— Exclamations [Interjections] have no dependent construction. Rem. — The last three rules may be used in parsing, or they may be omitted — just as it may suit the taste of teachers. * It would be better, perhaps, to drop the word nominative, and eimiMy say " The case independent." SB YORK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND LESSON XXXVI. OF RULES OF SYNTAX TflTH NOTES ; AND SENTENCES TO BE CORRECTED. RULE I. — The subject of the verb must be in the nomi- native case; as, ^' John writes/' Note 1. — The infinitive mode^ or part of a sentence, or a whole sentence, may be the subject of a verb ; as, '' To see, is pleasant." — " To die/or one's country, is glorious." Note 2. — When a pronoun is the subject of a verb, it must take the subjective form ; as, "/, tlwu, he, she, we, they, etc. FALSE SYNTAX. " Them told it." Is this sentence correct T It is not. Why? Them is used as the subject of the verb, but has not the subjective form. It should be, " They told it,'' according to Rule 1. EXERCISES. [Correct the sentences under each rule, and parse the words corrected.] Him struck first. Her was not to blame. Them were in fault. Who said it ? Me said it. Him is in the field. Her is at home. LESSON XXXVII. RULES AND CORRECTIONS CONTINUED. RULE II— A noun or pronoun, predicated of the sub- ject, must be in the nominative case; as, '* Thou art he." FALSE SYNTAX. " John is Am." CONSTRUCTIVE GllAMMAR. 89 Is this eontence correct f It is not. Him is predicated of the subject John, but is not in the Tiominativ^ case, or has not the subjective form. It should be, "John is 7w?," according to rule 2. EXERCISES. Is it me ? I thought it was him. Mary was not her. That boy is him. She said it was them. It was her that told it. Is it him with whom ho^ long. The sound is thirty mile Wide, and three fathom deep. The Ohio is one thousand miles long. The room is ihivty foot long and twenty wide. ^.?Yr ^-7- double comparatives and superlatives should not be used ; as, ''il/orc better." "il/o^^ extremest." "The most Highest hath created us for His own glory." Sav The most High hath created, Scq. ^ j j, EXERCISES. I will show you a more better way. That is the most tallest man /ever saw. He is worser than he was. That IS the most weakest argument I have ever heard. cT.?'?^^'^'""^'^^" two objects are compared, the comparative degree should be us^ed ; and, when three or more, the superlative; as, Mary is taller than her sister. Th:U is the tallest tree in the forest 96 York's illustrative and James is the tallest of the two. Say, James is the taller of the two. EXERCISES. He is the iviser of the three. This is the best of the two ways. Henry is the strongest of the two. She is the better of her class. LESSON XLIII. RULE XVI— Adjectives sometimes belong to the infini- tive mode, part of a sentence, or a whole sentence; as, "- To see^ is pleasant^ '' Agreeable to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book." Quality may be predicated of action ; as, RULE XVII — Adjectives are used to qualify the ac- tion of verbs, and to express the qualities of things in connection with the action by which they are produced ; as, " Open thine hand ^vide." ''The trees look green." FALSE SYNTAX " Still water runs deeply.'" Is this sentence correct ' It is not. It should be, still water xxm^deep, according to Rule XVII. EXERCISES. The fields look freshly and gayly. She looks coldly. The clay burns whitely. The rose smells sweetly. Apples boil softly. RULE XVIII — Participles refer to nouns and pro- nouns ; as, "J see him walking." '■^ Mary having written the letter, mailed it." CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 97 LESSON XLIV. RULE XIX — The object of a transitive verb in the active voice, is put in the objective case; as, "I saw him whom you met." FALSE SYNTAX. " Who seest thou ? \i this sentence correct ? ' It is not. State the reason. Who is the object of the transitive verb seest in the active voice ; but has not the objective form ; it is, there- fore, incorrect, and should be, Whom seest thou ? EXERCISES. He and they we know. They who will not study, you must correct. He that is studious, you should encourage. She that is negligent, reprove sharply. Who does he revile. He declare I unto you. RULE XX — The object of a transitive participle, must be in the objective case ; as, " I saw a man heating his horse.'" RULE XXI — The object of a preposition is put in the objective case; as, " Henry went with me.''' FALSE SYNTAX. " Who did you walk with?" Is this sentence correct ? It is not. State the reafon, and correct it. Who is the object of the preposition ivith ; but has not the objective form. It should be, With tvhom did you walk ? according to rule XXI. 08 York's illustrative and EXERCISES. He gave the fruit to /. Between /and you, there is a trreat disparity of years. The teacher spoke to he and I. With who, does he trifle ? LESSON XLV. RULE XXII — Conjunctions connect words of the same sort; as, ^^ John ami James,'' Good 'dnd had." '^Grace- fully and rapidly.'' Rem. This rule should only be applied when conjunctions connect words. RULE XXIII — Conjunctions connect nouns and pro- nouns in the same case ; as, " Henry and William obey their teacher." "They assisted 1dm and me." ''David' s and Jonathan's friendship." FALSE SYNTAX. Eim and I went. Say, He and I went. EXERCISES. He and them have no dealings. He sent it to her and I. She and me are cousins. Him and they are brothers. He went with her and I. Who will go ? lie and me. RULE XXIV — Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like modes and tenses ; as, " Kingdoms rise and fall." LESSON XLVL RULE XXV — Adverbs modify verbs, participles, ad- jectives, and other adverbs ; as, " He writes well." CONSTKUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 99 rJnot;;I«.",-::"'"'' TuX-7''- " «<'-'/' ^houW be employed. EXERCISES FOR CORRECTION. Clouds are moving slow. That young lady sings sweet. The bell rings merry. Time flies rapid.*' Siie can'no ^0/; good. He writes bad. That boy walks awkward. l-„!l?™ w~^"'i'^''^^^.'"'y n<=g!'t'vcs should be iivoided- a.! X ,lo„'i FOR CORRECTION. He 7z.z..r says ^.f7,in^. He haint got no move. He don t do nothing. In our neighborhood, no body never take no newspapers. j c.t-i RULE XXyi--Euphony requires that the sicrn to ot* the infinitive should be omitted when construed with the ollowing verbs VIZ.- bid, dare, feel, help, make, let, hea;^ ..W and their participles; as, -He bid me come} We felt the earth tremble;' etc. Nora.— When these verbs are used in the Passive voice the si-n IS used; as, *'He was often heard to say^ ' ^ FALSE SYNTAX. Let him to go. Say, Let trim go. EXERCISES. Bid him to depart. I felt the earth to shake. I heard her to say Help him to work. He need not to attend. I saw the child to walk. He dare not to do it. Make the man to work. LESSON XLVII. RULE XXVII— When an address is made, the name 100 YORK S ILLUSTRATIVE AND of the person or thing addressed, is put in the nominative case independent; as, ^'- James, I desire you to study." RULE XXVIII — A noun or pronoun, placed before a participle, and having no verb to agree with it, is put in the nominative case absolute ; as " The sun having risen, we pursued our journey." FALSE SYNTAX. Me being in great haste, he consented. Say, I being in great haste, he consented. EXERCISES. Me?' descending, the ladder fell. It was said to me, him being in company. It was said of them, him being present. Her being in distress, the necessary aid was sent. RULE XXIX — Some verbs in the imperative mode, have no nominative specified ; as, " God said, let there be lifrht. and there was lifrht." RL^LE XXX — Prepositions point out the relations be- tween their antecedent and subsequent terms ; as, " He went to the city of Neio York.'' RULE XXXI — Interjections have no dependent con- struction. Rem. — The last three rules may be used in parsing, or they may be omitted— just as it may suit the taste of teachers. TO BE CORRECTED BY THE "DIAGRAM OF TIME." MODEL — " I finished my letter before the mail ar- rived." The verb finished is in the past tense, whereas it is used in the pior of two past events ; the verb, therefore, is in- correct ; it should be had finished in the pluperfect, accord- ing to Figure 4 of the "Diagram of Time." EXERCISES. We have studied our lessons yesterday. I never drank better water. We came here to-day. Philosophers have CK5NSTRUCTIVE CxRAMMAR. 101 made great discoveries last century. After I have quoted the text, you will see its application. After I visited Eu- rope, I returned to America. The thief escaped bcfoic the goods were missed. John will complete his task by the appointed time. The world will have been destroyed by fire. LESSON XLViri. ' False Syntax Promiscuously Arranged. 1 John writes beautiful. I shall never do so no more. This is him who I gave the book to. Eliza always appears amiably. That house is sixty foot long. Was j^ou present as the procession passed. He who they seek is in the house. Her mother and her were at the celebration. The master requested him and I to read our compositions more distinctly. 2 Those sort of books are beautiful. What does you think of him now ? Thou, Thomas, shall see those animals of which you speak. Who went with Mary to church ? Me. Let us to proceed. To love God with all thy heart are a divine command. Neither man nor woman were present. 3 High hopes and ambitious views is a great enemy to tranquility. Has you been well since I seen you last ? I has. A too great variety of studies weaken and dissipate the mind. He has went to town. He might have com- pleted the task sooner, but he could not do it better. LESSON XLIX. Of Colloquial Inaccuracies. As Colloquial Inaccuracies are too numerous and vancd to be comprehended by any syntactical rules, however 8 102 YORK S ILLUSTRATIVE AND copious, we have thrown together some of the maficuraeies, and arranged the correct and incorrect expressions in par- allel columns. Though these colloquial inaccuracies may vary not only in different States, but^ also, in different sections of the same Static, yet they may nearly all bo traced to three leading sources, viz : 1 Unwarrantable Contraetions. 2 Redundant words or Pleonastic exj)res- sions, and 3 Words hadly chosen to convey the sense m- tendeci CLASS L Unwarrantable Contractions. Though some contractions are admissible in familiar style, yet they s^sould he carefully avo-ided in all grave or solemn discourse. Incokuect. I aiWi well, I Jia'sWd been oaty We wer''nH there, She'd heard of it^ I iis^d to know it^ Ihe seen Vr, I hpose ^ttnll, Lay ^em on the- table^ Gini nie some bread, A good^cel too short, He haint none, You do'n^t know '?'w>, John^s got onougb, Can^t sh& g,o? CORUBCT. I am not wet?, I haye not been out. We were not there, She had hmird of it, I used to know, I have seen her, I suppose it will. Lay them on the table^ GJTe me some bread, Very much too short, He has none, You do not know hin>, John has enough, Can she not go f CLASS IL Keduxdant Wokds, or Pleokastic Expressions^ Incorrect. Correct. 1 could not ffet to gc>, The speaker rose 'up^ He fell dowtiy Up above, Vp over, Down under. He mentioned it over again, 2 will repeat it again^ I could not go. The speaker rose. He fell, Above, Over, Under, He mentioned it again, I will repeat it, CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 103 Incorrect. They both met, He c.innot tcllj'^o;- why, Retiii-n had- ininiediately, lie went, but will soon come hach again. Where shall I go to'> He was in here, AVe entered into the casp, 1 am a iJ:;<)in<:;, He is a walking. Can you go V To he sure. D'ye see that ihar man V I\'e done said it, But he's done done it, How do you do ? He has got enough, ^lary she went, John he said it, Susan her bonnet, George his book, Bring me them there quills, This hero book, That there book, Loohy there, Correct. They met. He cannot tell why. Return immediately. He went, but will soon return, Where shall I go ? He was here, AVo entered the cave, I am i-oing. He is walking, Can you go ? Surely, Do you sec that man ? I have said it. But he has done it, How are you ? He has enough, Mary went, John said it, Susan's bonnet, George's book. Bring me those quills. Thin book. That book. Look there. CLASS liL Words Badly Cho.sex. Incorrect. I am (//•//, Put out the candle, (jiive tne them books, I rechon it, will rnn, 1 guess it is cnonjjh. ] cnlfvlaJe to return, You rend right well. She cannot hear good. Jam monstrous jjlad to sec you. He iwis » hea/f (;f money, 1 want )i Inidhj, A great* territory. The Erricson is n big* ship, Webster's large* muid, Correct. T nm thirsty, Extinguish the lig'«t. Give uie those boukv, 1 think it will ram, I think it is enou^h, I intend (or pui pose) to return, You re-d veiy wei', She cannot hear well, I am iilad to see 3'OU, He h;is much money, 1 want it much, A l.aye tfrritiifv. I ne Krri'soii i^ a 1 rpc ship, Webster's great roind. * Great is npplirable to inentnl mcastirement, large to the measure- ment of solid bodies, and hig to some unnatural increase or swelling. 104 r-* TORK S rLLUSTRATIYE AND Incorrect. He is io the store, My mother learned me the let- ters, I want it rifflit bad^ It rains hard, A ?ia7'd battle, A little hit « sentence, I got up at 7 oclock, I'll do as well as I Mn, Yoii'ones ought to go^ Are yous all well ? You unzes can stay, I hioioUl it was Am, He is gwine home, I seen her, I hearn her, I taken it to be him, You had, letter go, They^f half an hour, I allowed he had come, He allowed to me, I admire at you, Me and you think alike, Ouch ! how it burns, The storm legun to subside, ^QfoteTied it, I sot out on my journey, Let us walk out, and take the fresh ar, They air at homo, Crockett was a great bar hun- ter, Thar he stands, He chaws his own tobacco, I can't mind it, I will take some of those mo- lasses,* I am sceared of robbers, I S6e him last Monday, Why did you not bring the plow ? Because she was not repaired, Let the Sicertery record the names. Correct. He is at the store. My n^olher taught mo the let- ters, I want it very much^ It rains fast, A fierce battle, A small sentence, I rose at T oclock, ril do as well as I can. You ought to go, Are you all well ? You can stay, I knew it was he, He is going home, I saw her, I heard her, I took it to be him, You would do better ^o go. They fought half an hour, I supposed he had come, He suggested (or said) to mo. I wonder at 3''ou, You and I think alike. Oh ! how it burns. The storm began to subside. He brought it, I set out on my journey. Let us walk out and take the fresh air, They are at home, Crockett was a great bear hun- ter, There he stands, He chews his own tobacco, I cannot recollect it, I will take some of the (or that) Molasses, I am afraid of robbers, I saw him last Monday, AVhy did you not bring the plow ? Because it was not repaired, Let the Secretary record the names. * Molasses is strictly singular, being the syrup which drains from Muscovado suy-ar while cooling. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR, 105 Incokhect. Correct. 1 am 2ncTty nigh frozen, 1 am nearly frozen, Pach the wheat off to mill, Tale (or send) the wheat to mill, Pack her off to church, Take (or conduct) her to church. LESSON L. PUNCTUATION OR GNOMONOLOGY. What is punctuation ? Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composi- tion into sentences, clauses, and phrases, in order to make the stops which the sense of the sentiment, its grammatical .construction, and an accurate pronunciation require. What aro the principal stops used to denote these pauses ? They are the comma [,], the semicolon [;], tlie colon [:], he period, or full full stop [.], the interrogation [?], the jxclamation [!], the parenthesis [()], and the dash [ — ]. Into how many classes, may these gnomons, idices, or points bo divided 1 They m.ay be divided into two classes, viz : such as sepa- rate parts of a sentence, and those which separate entire Sentences. The former are the comma, semicolon, colon, xlash, and parenthesis. The latter are the period, the in- terrogation, and exclamation points. As the characters, used in punctuation, commonly called ^tops, are mere grammatical, they are intended to point lout the sense of the construction, rather than to indicate Ihe length of time the reader or speaker should pause at each point. The Comma ( . ). The comma is used to indicate the shortest pause ; it is, ialso, used to denote the ellipsis of some words. The principal uses of the comma arc exhibited in the •following rules and remarks. 106 York's illustrativk and RULE I^When the construction of a simple sentence is interrupted by an adjunct, loosely thrown between its parts, it must be separated by a comma before and after it ; as, '• Law, in its most confined sense^ is a rule of human action." "Charity, like the sun, brightens exerj object around it." RULE II — "When the grammatical subject of a propo- sition is modified by a subordinate clause, or by an adjunct considerably extended, the logical subject should be sepa- rated from the predicate by a comma ; as, " The hail which fell last week, hsidlj mjured the standing crops." "The intermixture of evil in hitman society^ serves to excrcii:* some of the noblest virtues of the human soul." Rem. — If the modifying element is short, the cofoma may b^ omitted; as, "The end (?/ all tilings is at hand/' RULE III — When, by transposition, the suh or inferiov member occupies the place of its swper, it may be separa- ted by a comma ; as, " By doing good to others, we secure the approbation of our own conscience." ^^ From me, they flee." RULE ly — The nominative case independent, and sever- al of the interjections, arc separated by commas, sine*' they are not elements of a sentence, — consequently nc closely connected; as, '^ My son, give me thy heart." '* 1 you will assist me, James, I will accompany you." '^ Lo, from their seats, the mountains leap." Rem. 1. — When the case mdependent is modified by an adjunct, the comma should be placed after it ; as, John of liichm&nd, come forth. Rem. 2. — When a pronoun is joined with a noun in making an ad" dress, it should not be separated from the noun ; as, " Ye scenes dl' xinelyfair, proclaim your Maker's wondrous power." Rem. 8. — Those inteijections which express a very stiong emotion or feeling, are iienerully followed by an exclamation point; as, ''Ah! whither shall I lly ?" Rem. 4 — When a conjunction introduces an example^ or is separated by some intervening words or phrases, from the member to which, it belongs, it should be separated by a comma; as. Prepositions gov- ern the objective case; ««, "With him, I went," '' Foi\ for this cause, yay ye tribute also. • CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 107 'Kemt, 5. — An adverh, or perhaps any other word, thrown off from the member to which it belongs, shouid be separated by a comma; as, " Soon borco on Time's mos't rapii wing, Shnli Death command yoxi to hie bar." Rem, 0, — Words off ©thcrs repeated, but not as <\ notations, and also words and phrases repeated for emphasis, {■:houlsition, it should not be separated from it by a comuia ; as, '' Henry saw hats which he wanted," Rem. 1 — The relative may be scptiraled by a comma, when its ante- cedent is used in a j::;eneral sense ; as, " Man, irho is born of woman is of few days, and full of trouble." Rem. 2 — A comma shouW be placed before tlie relative when a word •or phrase intervenes between it and its antecedent; as, "He gave mc the p>iy^ bestows many char- ities." Rof. 5 — In such ei^araples as the last, the comma is frequently emitted before the relative, nor does the construction really demand that the relative should be separated from its antecedent in any case, except as noticed in Remark 2. RULE VII — When a conjunction is understood in con- necting words in the same construction, its place should be supplied bj a comma, and^ also, when the verb of a simple member is understood ; as^ " He is a flain^ lioneBt man/' From law, arises security ; from Meurity, curiosity; from curiosity^ knawledge/' etc. RULE VIII— -Three or more words oecurriag m the same construction, with their conjunction expressed or un- derstood, should all be separated by commas, except the last : aSj " I>aYid was a brave, wise, pious, and generou» man." Observation — The reason why the last word is not separated, is, because it is either in juxta-position with its super, or closes a sentence^ R.EM. I — If they arc nominatives, writers generally separate the last also •, as, The head, the Jieart, and the hands, should be eOHStantly employed in doing good," Rem. 3 — When words are connected in pairs, the pairs only should- be separated; aa, '■'Interest and ambition, honor a.Yid sha.7ne, friench i-hip and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transactions." Rem. o — Words or phases, placed antithetically, should be separated bv commas ; ay, " Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dulV Rem. 4 — When the conjunction or joiiis oa a ':^ord which expresses an alternative o-f words, and not of ideas, it should be separated by a comma ;, aa, " He saw a large hay, or gul/y Re31. 5— When }dirams are connected by conjunctions, they arc regulated by the same rules as single words. RULE IX— When any tense of the verb " To Be" is followed by a verb in the infinitive mode, which, by ti'ans- position, may be made ihe nominative case to it, the former CONSTKUCI -111 VJl GRAMMAR. Ill is generallj separated fron,^^^^^ j,^ ,^^^ sub-.ncmbcr, of whicli as, liie best preservative -y that of the super-member, the idea rnu • z' micolon should be used to separate Kem 1— Ihc infinitive mode al'^re ; so is a contentious man to the Khould be sepnrated from the rest '^ To correct the spirit of discontcu deserve." Rem. 2 — When the infinitive mode or a part of a sentence is used as the subject of the verb, it is generally separated from it by a corn- ea; as, " To dieforone^s country^ is glorious." Rem. 3 — When a verb in the infinitive mode, is separated from the word on which it depends in construction, a comma is generally placed before it ; as, 0, for a glance of heavenly day, To TAKE this stubborn heart away." RULE X — Modifying words and phrases, as, hoivever. nay, hence, therefore, besides, in short, finally, formerly, etc., are usually separated by commas ; as, " It is, however ^ the task of criticism to establish principles." RULE XI — The members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, should be separated by commas ; as, " The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the young ones." " Providence has, I thinks displayed a tenderness for mankind." Rem. 1 — Those modifying clauses which are joined on b}'' such subordinate connectives as do not limit the verb in the preceding clause, should be punctuated as co-ordinate clauses; as, " The hue- bandman is happy, if he Inoivs his advantages ^ Rem. 2 — In comparative sentences whose members arc .short, the comma should not be used ; as, " Wisdom is better than goldy RULE XII — The case in apposition with its adjunct, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by com- mas; as, "Paul, tlic great apostle of the Ocntilea, was eminent for his Christian zeal. ' Rem. — If the case in apposition is unaccompanied by any modifying word or phrase, no comma should be used; as, *' The patriarch Joseph wud !u; illustrious example of true piety." 108 York's illusti lATIVE AND transposition, the relatire may be scp CDmma; as, ''The \2k(\\'f iihost' ho'u^'ie ^^^^"•" " COLON-, Rem, 5 — In such e:taraplc3 as tV„ i^ *i ^i emitted before the relative, nor cV ^ ^^"S^^' P^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^0^^* ♦'"'f the relative sb-^v^^^ Vj seuaT--^ <^i^e to tAVO. The semicolon is placed between the clauses of a period which are less closely connected than such as are separa- ted by commas. IIULE I — When the first division completes a proposi- tion, so as to have no dependence on what follows, but the following clause lias a dependence on the preceding, the two parts are separated by a semicolon; as, "The one has all that perfection requires, and more, but the excess may be easily retrenched ; the other Avants the qualities requisit<} to excellence." Rem. — In general, then, the semicolon separates the divisions of a sentence, when the latter division has u dependence on the former, whether the former has a dependence on the latter or not. RULE II — When several mcnibers of a sentence have a dependence on each other, by moans of a substitute tor the same principal word, and the clauses, in other respects, constitute direct propositions, the semicolon may be used ; as, "Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars; she hath killed her beasts; c." " C. F. Deems, D. i>." ''Ron. David L. Swain, L.L. i>." THE DASH AND PARENTHESIS. The Dash ( — ) is used where there is a significant pause, an unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sen- tence is left unfinislied ; as, *' If thou art he — hut 0, how fallen!" • The Dash is now frequently used instead of the Paren- thesis ; as, " The Colonists — such is human nature — de- sired to burn the town in which they had been so wretched." The Parenthesis () is used to enclose a part of a sentence not necessary to the construction, but, in some way, ex- planatory of the meaning of the sentence; as, "Consider (and may the consideration sink deep in your hearts) the fatal consequences of a wicked life." INTERROGATION POINT. The Interrogation point (?) is used when a question is asked ; as, Do brutes reason ? Rem.— When two interrogative members are closely connected, the CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 113 comma is generally used iiftcr the first, and the inter rogation point at the close of the last member ; as, " When sball I reach that happy place, And be fofcver blest ?" EXCLAMATION POINT. The exclamation point (!) is used after an exclamativo sentence ; as, " How vain are all things here below I" It is also used after phrases expressive of emotion ; as, *' 0, happiness ! our being's end and aim !" BRACKETS. Brackets ( ] ) are used when a word or phrase is intro- duced for explanation ; as, '' He [the Professor] explained It). QUOTATION MARKS. Quotation Marks ( '* " ) are used to include a passage taken verbatim from some other author ; as, He said, " I relinquish my claim.'' THE CARET. The Caret ( A ) is used in writing to show that some let- lies ter, word, or phrase, has been omitted ; as, "The book upon. A THE HYPHEN. The Hyphen ( - ) is used to separate the parts of a com-, pound word ; as. Book -binder. AVhcn placed at the end 114 York's illustrative and of a line, it sliows that a word is divided, the remaining part beins: carried to next line. THE ELLIPSIS. The 'Ellipsis ( ) is used to denote the omission of certain letters or worda ; as, Y k, K g. THE INDEX. The Index (jl^^) points to some remarkable passage. ACCENT. The accent is a character used to point out the accented sylable of a word, whether long or short. Our ancestors borrowed throe of these characters from the Greek lan- guage, viz : the acute (r), the grave (\), and the circum- flex (a). The acute points out the rise of voice ; the grave, the fall ; and the circumflex unites both of these in one, and makes an undulation of the voice. The breve (^— ) is placed over an unaccented syllable in poetry ; and the dash ( — ) is used over the accented syllables ; as. " With rav The mon ishcd (.Tirs, arch hears." THE APOSTROPHE. The apostrophe (') is used as a sign of the possessive case, and also to mark the omission of a letter in the syncopa- tion of Avords ; as, "This is Jo 7/?i's book." " ^>?i now where Alpine solitudes ascend." CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 115 THE ASTERISK. Three asterisks (***) show that some indelicate expres- sion has been omitted, or that there is some defect in the manuscript. The asterisk (*), the obelisk (f), the double-dagger (J), and parallels (||), are only used as foot notes, or references to the margin. LESSON LI. OF CAPITALS. The following words should begin with capital letters ; 1 The first word of every distinct sentence. 2 Proper names and titles of office or honor ; as, *' Greorge Washington, General Lee, Judge Story, aS^^V Walter Scott, the Ohio, Main Streets 3 The name of an object personified, may be used as a proper name, and should then begin with a capital ; as, '^ Gentle Spring.'' 4 Adjectives derived from proper names; as, '^Ameri- can, English, Roman.'' 5 The appellations of the Deity ; as, " God, the Almighty." "The Supreme Being." 6 The first word of every line of poetry. 7 The first word of a direct quotation, when the quota- tion is a complete sentence of itself; as, " Christ says, ''My yoke is easy.' " 8 Every noun and principal word in the titles of books ; ^, " Popes Essay on Man." 9 The pronoun 1 and interjection are written in capi- tals. 10 Any word, when of particular importance, may be- gin with a capital. 116 yOEK'S ILLUSTRATIVE AND LESSON LII. OF VERSIFICATION. Poetry is metrical composition, or it is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination. Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables, according to particular rules, so as to produce melody. Meter, in English, consists in the regular return of the accent at regular intervals. Acc^t^ then, is essential to verse ; but Rhyme is not, since '-rnere may be a regular return of accent, or syllables simila'i^ affected, without the similarity of sound which produces rhyme. Two or more syllables, grouped together by accent, constitute Vifoot, or measwe. It is called a measiire^ be- cause, by its aid, the voice steps along, as it were, throftglr the verse in a measured pace. When two syllables are thus grouped together, it is called dissyllabic measure ; as, *^ With rav | ished ears, The mon | arch hears." But, when three syllables are thus grouped together, it is trissyllahic measure ; as, *' I am mon | arch of all [ I survey." Several measures, or feet, properly arranged, form a line, or verse. A verse, then, is a certain number of con- nected feet forming one line. A Stanza is a combination of several verses, varying in number, according to the poet's fancy, and constituting a regular division of a poem or song. When the first and third lines of a stanza contain four Iambic feet each, and the second and fourth lines, three feet each, it is Common Meter, When the first, second, and fourth lilies of a stanza con- tain three Iambic feet each, and the third line four, it is Short Metre. / ■Jkj-^:r aii ^EW publication: vs I- M BR A ^ so Nf , l^^R H A.R & T O.^ RALEIGH, N.' G. 1 ^♦K H^V VOKK^S ENGLISH G I.AM>,IAR. Third Edition just out. Illustrated by Several Diai^rMBS. Also rev sed and adapted to Southern Schools. This is enti.ely a S.-uLhern Grammar, and oue^ of '^j the best now in use. Price |T to ?ijp FIRST BOOK IN COMPOSITJON, is designed to precede Eaglish H ^ |l Grammar, and contains a number of pleasant writing exercises for the Ij 'D student It is a valuable text boidi. Price $1[0 r^ '"^■"W^ THlR, DIXIE PRIMER, t'jird'edition, (pictorial), is ,,. .uliarly adap ^•'^ ted to children. > ' Price iO cts. ^I i|Q ^TIE DIXIE SPEIitER, to -Ucvr the ■^rimer, will not be delcyed J^ ij much longer. THE FIRST DIXIE. READER, to follow the Primer and Speller, is entirely a Southern book. * Pri( 76 ets. i THE «.;E0GRAPHICAL reader, with maps, just publial^ed, is I* the only Ceography made ir the Conf';der?-cy. It is written by Mrs. VJ \^ H.'B. Mooro. author of C^ Dixie Ser os. P.ice $ 2 00 | |N MISXr^.iCAli SCRlPltJRS QU-JISTIO^^-BOOK, for Sa^bbath ; FeL 1 ■'0 and for 'he Camp. This bu^Tt ^ives a general knotyledge oF both ^il "iifi i>«iW Tosfcanients, and -io/ not denominational. ,, -- ' . ^ Price 50 cts. KlJLLi'S POE^J'^. Hie sec-.v. i edition, §uf t y,ubiished, is pronounced by Ik ^ the best judges to .J 'Mr-ie .e poetry." Price $1 50 ^lil iE«^ The usual d •' at mu'ic t;- tiio t adc. N. B. — Tho?e oru...riiig bot*ks, to be Sr ten cents extra »:n each dollar tu yuy po; must rem It cas'^-. ..n*^ -W BRAXSOX, FA UlAS & CC C Fa^cttevillo T.reet- i*-__ ^^B-^ m m^^'di m