AX i rip 'i'THlTirP I Vn riAVOTHI! , ILH \ GRAMMAR, OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, Accompanied by Several Original Diagrams, Exhibiting an Occular Illustration! of some of the Most Difficult Principles of the Science of Lan- guage; also, an Extensivo Glossary of the Deriva- I I tion of the Principal Scientific Terms | Used in this Work. i ' ! IN TWO PARTS, I FOR THh: USE OF EVFJIiY OXF WHO MAY W/slI TO ADOPT If r.Y REV. PROF. BRANTLY YORK. THIRD EDITION Mll/rUM IX I'AHVO. "That's vil(>. ; sluuiKl wo a parents fault adore, Aud eiT because our lather's erred before?" RALi:n;u : W. L. POM K HOY 1 S(V_». DUKE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Treasure "Room ...^ . AN g^nabtical, lllnstratibt, anb (JLonstrttctih GRi^MMA-R OF THE ENG,LISH LANGUAGE ACCOMPANIED BT SEVERAL ORIGINAL DIAGRAMS, EXHIBITING AN OCCU- LAR ILLUSTRATION OF SOME OF THE MOST DIFFICULT PRINCIPLES OP THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE ; ALSO, AN EXTENSIVE GLOS- SARY OP THE DERIVATION OP THE PRINCIPAL SCIEN- TIFIC TERMS USED IN THIS WOPvK, IN TWO PARTS, FOR THE USE OF EVERY ONE WHO MAY WISH TO ADOPT IT, BY REV. PROF. BRANTLEY YORK. THIRD EDITION. MULTUM IN PARVO. That's Tile ; should we a parent's fault adore, And err because our father's erred before f " RALEIGH : W L. POMEROY. PUBLISHER 1862. [Copy Right secured in the C. S. District Court of Pamlico.] A., al. GORMAN, PRi"STS«' Y 1 1-? TO ^[iDse tnlia [lauc hern itiiiirr mij 3ni5triutinn WITHIN THf: LAST TWENTY YEARS. eOME or WUOM ARE FlI.Ll.NG IMPORTANT STATIONS IN T H i: CHURC AND TUr VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF INSTRUCT'ON, This Work is Most Rc^pcclfulJy Ded cutcd BY THE AUTHOR. 33i»4-4.8 TESTIMONIALS. Frnm Pi's. Morris (^ Wood, The undersigned having been solicited by the Rev. B. York to Micni the examination of the pupils of his lecturing school, held at Midway Chapel, feel no hesitation ia saying, that the proficiency made by liis .stu- dents so far exceeded our most sanguine expectation that we are fully pre- • pared to testify, that th« progress made during the eleven days' course '"f lectures, particularly in English Granamar, was equal to what is gcneraliv made in a regular five months' session by the conimon mode of ttacliiii).. Ani as we are fully convinced that there is no other system of instructiuu in existence so well adapted to the vt'ants of the cotnnmnity generally, and which affords such facilities to all classes of people for the acquirement ol a scientific education : We, therefore, take great pleasure in nicommendu!!; its speedy adoption in every neighborhood and village ; and we, moreover, thmk it due to the Rev. B. York to recommend him to the patronage of all to whom he may offer his services. DANIEL V. M<>RRI>, Midway, Angust,\Ub. ROBERT WOOD. From several Gentlewvi who utiended the Lectures at Mnier's Ch7pd, Gailjord County f N. C., November 2, 1&46. Rev. B. York — DeakSiu: We had the pleasure of hearing your lectures on Eng'd.-h Grammar and the other sciences, which yon taught at this place; and w« are prepared to render our unqualiBed approbation of your system of iui- parting scientific instruction to youtk and adults. The engaging niar.ner in which you explained the elements of Grammar, asd accommodated thtm to the capacities of your students, is an ample illustration of the utility of \o\xv planof tca--hiiiij. Strict justice, therefore, constrains us to acknowl- edge that the rapid progress of those under ysur tuition has far surpa.>-sed our most sanguine hope. And though no science but (irafhmar wa« taught to any considerable extent, we are confident, that your plan of teaching by lecture and illustration on the black-board is more efficient in conveying knowledge of any of the sciences than any that has ever been dcveloind. We think that we cannot too strongly recommend your mode of teii< lung Elocution, to those who desire a correct knowledge of that important and interesting science, and th«sc who aspire to distinction in public declamn- tion. We believe your students who applied themselves attentively el)- tained a better knowledge of Grammar and Elocution, in the eleven <.\-*y)i that»you taught, than is obtained by the usual mode of teaching in t^lv« months. Considering the low prices of tuition and the facilities for learnini;, wo feel fully warranted in cheerfully recommending your plan of teaching to an intelligent public. ' Your obedient servants, W. E. EDWARDS, D. M. OSBDRNT. S. W. WESTBROOK, THOMAS M. WOODBURX, A. DILWORTH. 33i>4.4-3 Vi ^ lESTlMOSlALS. From the Palmetto Standard, Chester, S. C, September 19, 1852. GRAMMAR CLASS. We were, by inviUition, present on Wednesday last at the examination of a Grammar Class taught by the Rev. B. York, of N. C, at Armenia Church, in this District. We found that the pupils had been very thor- oughly instructed, having made a greater proficiency than we supposed could possibly be made in so short a time. The course of instruction com- prised but twenty lectures, and most of the students, as we learned, had given no previous attentitn to the study of English Grammar, yet they stood an examination w-hich was honorable to themselves, and highly so t» the zeal and competency of their instructor. We are satisfied that the pH- pils had acquired a more thorough knowledge of the English Grammar, in the twenty lessons, than is generally obtained in as many months on the older modes of instruction. Before parsing a sentence, Mr. York gives his pupils an understanding of the sentence to be parsed, by illustrations on the black-board, as we learned, principally of his own devising, showing the various relations, connections and dependencies of._the several parts of the sentences to each other. Though the process by which this was done is somewhat mechan- ical, yet it is most admirably adapted to the accomplishment of the end in From the TorJcville (S. C. ) Miscellanv. Incompliance with an invitation from Rev. B. York and his class, the undersigned were prosent last evening at the examination on English Grammar and Elocution, and feel themselves called upon, as a Committee, to express their views in reference to the same. With regard to Mr. Y 's system of instruction, we are not prepared to say a great deal, inasmuch as our acquaintance with it is predicated upon merely what we saw and heard last night. We cannot, however, hesitate to express our admiration of it, as one batter calculated to simplify the study of Grammar and afford in a short time a knowledge of the Philosophy of the Language than any other with which we are acquainted. Mr. York requires the student, before he enters upon the parsing of a sentence, to ascertain, by systematic analysis and synthesis, the true 7iieaning of it, so that he may have in his mind the leading ideas of the sentence, and be enabled more easily and accurately to parse it. Of this plan we cannot but approve, inasmuch as, opposing the old mechanical procedure in parsing, and eliciting at once the attention, it cannot but im- prove the understanding and cultivate the memory. Mr, Y.'s plan of ^ teaching by lecture and illustration is calculated to impart to his pupils a thorough understanding of the science of Grammar. In regard to the proficiency of the pupils who were examined^belore us, we would merely say, they had received twenty lectures in about fifty hours, and the most of them at night. In that length of time they could not so praiseworthily have acquitted themselves had not this mode of in- struction been superior to the old ones. Many of them, we learned, had never studied Grammar, who went through the exercises in parsing with considerable facility. Indeed, all who were examined acquitted themselves with credit, considering the short time in which they received instruction, and the irregularity of i heir attention to it. We were pleapf d with the exereises in Elocution, although Mr. York, in consequence of the lateness of the hour, did not explain tbe principles noon which he teaches the science. It -"»re, however, that his students TESTIMONIALS. VU are drilled in the use of voice and gesture, so that they may bo thorough- ly developed. This practical mode of teaching Elocution is the best, and ♦ the success attending its application of the principles has fully established its value. W. C. BEATTY, THOS. D. OORT, W. J. B()\VEN, JOHN G. ENLOK, Yorkville, S. C, December 1, 1852. KLIAS J. MEYNARDIE. From, the Yorhoille (S. C.) Remedy. NEW GRAMMAR. We are placed in possession of a small book entitled, " An Illustrative and Constructive Grammar," by the Rev. Brantley York, of York Collegi- ate Institute, Alexander County, N. C. It appears that Mr. Y. has had long experience in teaching Grammar, by diagrams tn a blackboard, giv- ing the itudent a correct knowledge of Grammar in twenty lessoris. This book is gotten up on the same jtlan, and as far as we have had time to ex- amine it, we are altogether pleased with it, ani have no «loubtthat it pos- sesses all the advantages claimed for it by the author. This is a study which is too mach neglected, notwithstanding its vast and paramount im- portance. We would recomme«d this work to the examination of teachers and parents generally, feeling confident that it will accomplish all its pur- poses. From the Carolina Watchman^ Salisbury, iV. C, PROF. YORK'S GRAMMAR. This new and valuable work is now nearly ready for tho market. It will be out in a few days. This work is the result «f some fifteen years of patient and laborious stud3% during m«st of which time the author has bean teaching and lectur- ing on Grammar, and improving the system. Tho iUristratlve f«ature is new, happily answering the purpose of the author in greatly facilitating the learner in the acquisition of a correct knowledge of language. A few new terms have bc«n introduced, which may at first strike the minds of those who are wedded to "old things" with little favor. But a more thorough examination into*thesc will serve to commend the work to their earnest attention. The Glonsary of terras, whidh alo«e is worth the price of the volume, comprehending as it does all that are used in works of this kind, will explain what is now and show their appropriateness, and remove many a difficulty in respect to those long in use. Those who have had an oppor- tunity of attending the lectures of P-of. Y^ork need no assurance that this is truly a scientific work. Wc have had many anxious inquiries from such when the book would be ready for circulation, and we suppose no batter evidence of the value of the system could at present be olfjrod. Wiierever it has been taught the results have astonished believers in other plans. From the Carolina InteUigencr.r^ Slielby^ K O. PROF. YORK'S GRAMMAR. We have been presented with a copy of Prof York's new editioi of the English Grammar. It is the best illustrative and constructive work of the kind we have seen. He has been engaged for many years teaching gram- mar; and wherever he ha^^ taught \\%^ given general satisfaction This work is taking tho place of all others wiierever it has circulated. This work ciu be purchased at the store of Roberts &. Fullenwider iu tbii place. till TESTIMONIALS. trom the Spirit of the Age, Raleigh, N. C. A REVIEW BY REV. A. W. MANGUM, A. B. Mr. Editor: I wish to call the attention of your readers, particularly those who are Teachers or Students, to a matter which will prove benefi- cial to tliein and to the cause of Education. I have, by invitation, recently attended Lectures on English Grammar by Rev. Prof. Brantley York, President of York Collegiate Institute, and have carefully perused the Grammar of which he is the author. The sys- tem of teaching which he has invented deserves the attention of all teach- ers. It enables those who diligently apply themselves to acquire a good knowledge of Grammar in four or fit.e weehs, while, as every one knows, the usual methods require at least four or five months. A leading excel- lence of his method consists in the fact that he uses the black-board, thus making the eye as well as the ear a medium of instruction. This is a de- cided superiority over the common methods; for, as the author says in his preface, "intellectual improvement must be in proportion to the senses ex- ercised." He has devised ingenious diagrams which, while they interest the eye, explain the science of Grammar and impress its principles deeply upon the mind. Many able scholars in both North and South Carolina have extolled his method, being convinced of its excellence by its fruits. But it is his Grammar which I wish especially to recommend. Those who are acquainted with the various Grammars of our language will readi- ly admit that all the pretended new ones, published for the last fifty years, have been little more than copies of the ideas of those before them, with a change in expression or words and arrangement. I can safely say that Prof. York's is a ntw Grammar. It contains originality, and that origia- ality is unquestionably im2}rovemen.t. All who have taught or studied English Grammar are aware that gener- ally the memory is the chief, and often the only faculty of the mind exer- cised by the learner; but Prof. York's requires especially the exercise of reason, and thus enables the student to incorporate its rules and principles into his habits of thinking, speaking and writing. Unlike others, he care- fully gives reasons for his rules and principles. He has made it a grand object to teach the language with the Grammar, thus again outstripping (jthers. He has given plain, pointed and comprehensive rules for punctuation. — Every one knows the difiBculty of learning to punctuate correctly, and also how inefldcient the rules of most authors on punctuation are. Prof. York's rules are easily understood and truly practical. A glossary of all the technical terms used is annexed to the volume ; a great advantage to the student, as he seldom knows anything about Latin or Greek, In fine, the author detects and exposes the imperfections of others; ex- plodes time-honored errors ; establishes new truths ; discovers new princi- ples ; and produces positive and valuable improvements in many respects. Several distinguished teachers in high schools in North Carolina have adopted his Grammar as a text book. If it be an improvement on other similar works, suiely •thers should be discarded and it adopted. The author is a North Carolinian, and if his b«ok possesses real merit, North Carolinians ought to encourage his talent and give him their pat- ronage. P KEF AGE As the senses are the channels through which knowledge is conTtyed to the mind, or the mediums through which the external world holds inter- course with the intellective principle, it must necessarily follow that the in* tellectual improTement must be in proportion to the number of senses ex- ercised. One who sees, feels, and hears an object, must, in the nature of things, have a clearer idea of it than he who sees or hears it only ; hence the importance, in the acquisition of any science or art, of addressing all the senses which are capable of being addressed. Nor is this all : the senses are not only the mediums through which knowledge is communica- ted to the mind, but they are also the channels through which the silvery streams of pleasure flow to the heart. Nor is the association of innocent pleasures a matter of so small impor- tance that it should be overlooked by Educators ; for our efforts at in- struction must, in a great measure, be fruitless so long as the pupils feel no pleasure in study. The truth is, we may as well attempt t» make two bodies occupy the same space at the same time, as to force instruction on unwilling or indifferent minds. The thirst must be incited before the re- freshing draught will be relished or gought. Guided by the light of this philosophy, the Author has, for several years, endeavored by appropriate and instructive diagrams, to interest the eye by seeing, as well as the ear by hearing. How far he has been successful in bis arduous efforts to com- municate a knowledge of the constructive principles of the English Lan^ guage, the hundreds of pupils to whom he has lectured during the last twelve years, will readily testify. No apology is offered for thfe publication of this work, but that the Au- thor believes it will be useful to his classes, and, perhaps, to all who think proper to study it. The originality claimed for this work is the plan of teaching. But the Author, however, acknowledges with pleasure, that he has received val- uable aid from Dr. "Webster's Improved Grammar, American Syntithology, by James Brown, Gicenc's Analysis of the English Language, Dr. Bullions, and others. Notwithstanding the many disadvantages under which the Author la- bored during the preparation of this little work, such as defective vision and the want of time, he asks not to be shielded from the ordeal of Vme criticism. With these few prefatory remarks, this little wogf is repectfully gub- mitted to an enlightened public. THF ATTHOR PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. In consequence of the delicate health of the Author, and the want of means, the publication of this edition has been delayed since the flisttwo editions were out But the constantly increasing sale of those editions, and the frequent and repeated calls for the work since they were exhaust- ed, have encouraged the author to attempt the publication of a revised and enlarged edition. No pains have been spared to clear this M'ork from error, and to make it not only a suitable text-book for schools and colleges, but also for private learners and family instruction. It combines all the advantages growing out of a thorough Analytical and Synthetical process. This is believed to be important; since no sentence can be correctly parsed unless it is first understood. A few terms have been introduced which hahrenotas yet found their way into our Dictionaries ; these are principally selected from the American S\ ntithology, by James Brown of Philadelphia. For their explanations, the reader is referred to the author's glossary of scientific terms. The ■eccssity of these terms arises from the peculiar mode of analyzing and construing, used in this work. * 3fonolo(fy, for instance, is a convenient and comprehensive term, used to designate that kind of analysis which separates the sentence into clauses and phrases, which constitutes the basis of a regular and thorough con- struction of sentences. As to the utility and importance of drilling pu- pils in the constructive principles of language, there is, perhaps, no differ- ence of opinion ; but much of this utility is frequently lost for the want of an appropriate Nomenclature. For such a Nomenclature, we are chiefly indebted to Mr. James Brown, already mentioned. The term mono, used by Mr. Brown to designate an elcnjent of a sentence, whether clause or phrase, is not absolutely necessary ; since the term memher will do as well; and, as ft is purely English, many, perhaps, would prefer it. The term noeton is used to point out any element of a sentence, per- eeircd by the mind only, and not by the senses, but which is necessary in order to its correct analysis and construction. Understood is the term in common use, but as it is ambiguous, the former is preferable. Those, how- ever, who prefer the latter, have our consent. IPJtlEJPACE, \\ Monodone is the namo given by J. Brown to such words as give mem- ^aers; hence member-givcr may be substituted, ia its stead by those who (prefer it. • Sulfirmathe is applied to such sentences as express a less degree of ver- 'oal force than afErmative ones, henco it is more comprehensive than ilypo-v thetical or Conditional. Dendrology is employed in an accommodated sense, somewhat diffejf-nt from its primary one ; and yet, in some measure analagoua to it. By the I>6:iidTology of a soHtence, is meant the various relations which the subor* dinate members bear to the leading clause, as illustrated by the frame work of a tree. As all the branches of a tree are connected with, and de- pend upon the trunk either directly or indirectly, so all the subordinate Kierabers arc connected with the leading clause, and depend upon it. The nearness or remoteness of this connection is pointed out by the rank of members. (See Dfendrology of Sentences.) jS'«& and jSaper arc not introduced as standing techmcalities, but are ■either joined to the word member -, as, «u5-member and .in^^cr-mcmbcr, to express their constructiverelation to eRch other, or as substitutes; ^ntv.he for eM^-members and stpen for «t<«?er-meiabcrs„ The almost unparalleled success which has crewr.ed the eE'orts oif alfi who have adopted* this mode of teaching, abyudantly proves its cffi.cf.e'.?.cy ; but, if any prefer the ordinary way cf teaching, they will Giid a complete "Grammar in the sacond part, with ample models ar>r? evr.rcV'-s Wt): r<>r {larsing and correcting. No changes have been made ir. the con^moR r.GnicK.cla.Curc o^ g'l't.tiiv.s.*!^- •cal terms, ey.cept in sech as dc net adiait cf eyplanatieii as s.{>pJ.icd tji graias.*- fiiar. We dt net supposa hevrever, that the acHE.e ef excelicn-ce feas feeem B"each'ed, or that more appropriate terms raight net be cciflioycd-; fcut, »s there is scarcely any probability that tke RQffi.ep.clatEirc cf tb© gratwitsars -<' ca- •nuvatiens wpcn oKr own. It has been eur uniieviatiRg aiua t© make tke dcErattens as(£ rtclf s ■^l (th« ■art, harmonize with the jiripxiples ef the Ecicrxc e€ f8.Rgs*g-6> fe: (J'T^ng "this, several uniiRpertaRt distiRGtieRS and useless tt-vwtt kar* ^- ores;'! city •been rtiiected.- such, for ip.staEcc, as ac^'ectire rrca(H!.rt^ fxccenrinsu'. sdjycfc"*?^ •compound relative proROUE, f'tidcEritc «.(^ectr>6 ;5«;rcr«c«tK, "it^" itnC/tivc ■.««■>. Junction, etc. The same word naar- be essed ictcTckattgCRfelf *£ aa ■s.dj'«o!i'?rb». 126 onlSolutionof Difficult Sentences, promis- ,,•[ I cuously arranged CHAPTER XXVI. JThc Grammatical Language of the Bible 13-3 CHAPTER XXVII. .§1. Syntax, 125 I 2. Govemme:it, Conccr.'t, and Agree- 5' meet, 185 Rules of Syntax, with Notes and Re- 1 marks, 186 96 »1 CHAPTFP. yxvm. ^<^'F»i«« Byutnx. 147 .ni.N'l J. M:-. XV CHAPTER XXIX. MiBcellaneons Hemarki. CHAPTER XXX, ExoMlses in False Syntax, CHAPTER XXXr. Colloquial Inaccuracies, CHAPTEK XXXTI. PJiiih i 1. 14. 15. 16. 17. 1«. IH. irvr 2(1. 154 §1. Punctuation, "3. Th# Principal Stops, 3. Two Classes, 4. The Comma— Rales and Remarks of same, 0. Semicolon— Rules and Remarks of same, C. Colon— Rules and Remarks of same, 7. Period, 8. The Dash, ;i. The Parenthesis, 10. Intorrorration I'oint, 11. Exclaniatiou Point, 12. Brackets, 13. Quotation Marks, 14. The Ciiret, 1,1. The Hyphen. 16. The Kflipsis. 17. The Iiule.N., 18. The Paratjrapb, 19. The Section, 20. DiarcsiSj 21. Accent, 22. The Apostrophe, 2«. Brace. 34. Afterisks, 25. Foot Notes, CHAPTER XXXIII. False Panctuafion, Use of Capital Letters, :; 2(i. CHAPTER XXXIV f 1. ProiodT. 5. Two Parts, CHAPTER XXXV § 1. Poetry, i. Versilicatiou, 8. A Verse. 4. A Hemistich, 5. A Couplet, 6. Stanza, 7. Common Metre, 8. short >fetrc, 9. Lou^ .Metre, 10. Blank Verse. 29. 170 30. 171 i"^ • 172 '•5'- 179 ir2!:jj- 172 •''■ i7;ij 178i l''I?l. iPi] Itlivuie. 180 .'Vnalvsis of Rhyming Syllablon, 180 Sin' )e Rhyme, 181 Double Rhvuie, 181 Treble Rhym«, 181 Scanniuc, 181 Eight kinds of Feet. 1J<1 Iambic Verse, 183 Alexandrine, 18a The Elegiac Stanza, 183 The Spenserian Stanza. 18S Additional :^norl Syllable, 183 Trochaic Verse, 184 The Accent, 184 The Long Syllable. 184 Anapirstic Verse, 184 liactylic Verse, 185 Tlu- Iambic, 186 Trochee, 188 Spondee, IStt Pyrrhic, 186 Amphibrach. 1S7 Tribrach, 187 The Dactyl, 187 Anaprest, 187 Rules for Reading Verse, 187 Contractions and Additions, 188 CHAPTER XXXVI. Rhetoric, 196 K.xnrdium, 196 Narration. 196 lonrirmation. 196 The Refutation, 196 " i ' Peroration, 196 17,5 177 CHAPTER XXXVII. ;ures of Speech, CHAPTER XXXVIII. Composition, Vol Subjects for Composition, CHAPTER X' English, Latin, and Greek 1'. Glossary, APPENDIX. 17!) IT.) ISO ISO J 80 ISO ISO 180 180 180 197 Figures of Syntax, l!H CHAPTER XXXIX. 200 209 204 Nouns, 207 Explanation of French Words, 213 I Explanation of Latin Words and Phra- j ses, S15 Abbreviations. 818 AN ANALYTICAL, ILliuSTJlATlVE AND CONSTRUCTIVE PART I. CHAPTER I. SENTENCES. § 1. Sentence, from the Latin senteyitia, .is a number of tvords arranged in due order, forming a complete proposition, or such an arrangement of words as asserts a fact. § 2. Sentences, classified according to the elements of Avhich they are composed, are of three kinds ; viz., Simple, Compound, and Complex. § 3. A Sentence is simple when it contains but a single subject and predicate ; as, " God is omnipotent.'' Kemark 1. — A Sentence, however, may be regarded as simple when its principal parts nre modified by elemonts of the firi-t kind or single words, used as constit' uent parts of a sentonce^ as, " A very good pen writes extremely icell." § 4. A Sentence is compound when it consists of two or more simple sentences, united by a coordinate connective, each member asserting an independent fact; as, " Wheat grows in^ the field, and men reap it." Rem. 1.— a Sentence is partially compound when its subject, predicate, or ob- ject is compound ; as, " Moses and Aran stood before Pharaoh." Kingdoms vise and fall." " God created the heavens and the earth." § 5.- A Sentence is complex when its leading member or some word in that member, is modified by a subordinate clause; as,. "A man who is industrious, will acquire a competency." Rem. 1. — There is a marked difference !)■ twcon compnund and cowp/cx sentences, and, of this difference, the learner should have a clear cuncepti u. A compound 22 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND sentence, from con=together, and pono=to place, is composed of two or mor^sim- ple sentences, not to express any modification of the fact, asserted in the leading member.; but to join on members which assert additional facts — which facts though they have a relation to each other in current discourse, may be expressed by inde- pendent propositions ;.as, " Wheat grows in the field, men reap it, mills grind it, bakers bake it, and eaters oat it." Each member of the above sentence, expresses a,Q additional fact ; these members being connected by a co-ordinate connective, either expressed or understood, constitute properly a compound sentence which may be continued at the writer's pleasure, or till the subject is exhausted. ■Rem. 2. — In a complex sentence, from con=together, &nAplecto^=to weave, fha members are subordinate in rank ; hence they do not express new facts ; but are used to modify the leading nsember, or some subordinate one ; as, "The man wh) seeks his happiness from terrestrial sources, will quit the world With great reluc- tance." The man will quit the werld with great reluctante. What man ? Cer- tainly not any man ;— but " the man who sbbks his happinkss from terres- trial sotTRCES," then "who sbeks his hippiness 'from terrestrial sources," modifies " man," the subject of the leading clause, by showing what man he is that " will quit the world tot/A great reluctance." " Who seeks his happiness " mociifies the subject of the leading clause,— "/»o»« terrestrial sources" modifiws it indirectly through the medium of •' ToSo sccis his happiness ;" hence you perceive that the members or elements of a complex sentence are not simply placed together as in a compound sentence ; but are woven or twisted, as it were, together by modi- fying the leading members or each other. Rem. 3. — Members joined on by conjunctive adverbs, are complex— aot being used to affirm new facts, but to modify those expressed in the principal members ; and the conjunctive adverb, as an adverb, considered apart from the rest of the element, generally modifies the verb in the leading member, itself being modified by a clause; as, " We go.to church when tAc "c/oci strikes ten." The idea the wri- ter wifhes to convey by this sentence, is the time we go to church ; ichen being in- definite in time, is incompetent to point out the precise time we go to church ;hencB the writer subjoins " the clock strikes ten" Now it is obvious that the writer does not intend to convey the idea simply that the clock strikes or how often it strikes ; but he uses the phrase, to make the time indicated by " when " more definite ; then, if " the clock strikes ten "enables "when " to do what before it was incompetent to do, t- e., to t 11 the precise time "we goto cAwrc A," it is obvious that " the clock strikes ten," modifies " when," and not that " when " modifies "strikes," a? is tre- quently but erroneously supposed ; but the entire subordinate clause, " when the clock strikes ten" as an adverbial element of the third class, modifies the verb " go" by pointing out the time when of the action. See Elements of Sentences. Rem. 4. — When a sentence is composed •f compound and complex elements, it is e&\d to he mixed ; a,s, "The man and boy who were droioned, ha.\e, a,t length, been found." Rem. 5. — As to the elements necessary to constitate a compound sentence, it may be observed that authors are not fully agreed. The most common solution given of the compound sentence, is that given above, in which the members or clauses are united by a co-ordinate connective; consequently of equal rank in construction ; but some contend that a sentence is compound when either the subject or predicate is compound, or even the object; as, "Henry and William study their lesson;" " Kingdoms rise and fall ;" " God created the heavens and the earth ;" because such sentence? may be resolved into two or more simple sentences, or the same idea may be expressed by idfcking a separate afiBrmation concerning each element of which ' the compound subject is composed, or by attaching the same lubject to each of the elements of the compound predicate, or by repeating the same subject and predi- cate before each element in the compound object; thus,' "Henry studies his lesson, and William studies his lesson." " Kingdoms rise, and kingdoms fall." " God created the heavens, and He created the . earth." The authors referred to hare come to the conclusion that they are compound. That such sentences are partially compound, is readily admitted; but, as the admission of such a definition would interfere with some of the rules of Syntax as well as thoseof PuuctUiition, and, as some sentences Laving a ccaipound subject, can not be resolved into simple members ; 'as, e. g., "Oxygen and Hydrogen form water," we think it best to adhere to the solution already given of the compound sentence. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 23 Exercises. Model 1st. "Gold is yellow." This is a sentence, because it contains such an arrangement of words, as asserts a fact. It is a sim.ple sentence, because it contains but one subject" and predicate. Gold is the subject, and is yellow the predicate. Is, taken by itself, is ih%- verh or copula. Model 2d. "The day was calm, and the scene was delightful." This is a ct)m;j()?«j(Z sentence, because it contains two clauses, united by a coordinate connective, each of which asserts an independent fact. Modeled. "They who sow in tears, shall reap in joy." This is a com- plex sentence, because it contains a leading and a subordinate or modifying clause. They shall reap in joy, is the leading clause ; and who sow i?i tears the subordinate or modifying clause. It is called the subordinate or modi- fying clause, because it modifies they, the subject of the leading clause. Examples for Practice. ■ "Water flows. The sun shinas. Time slept on flow.crs, and lent his glasses to hope. The lady that is wise and prudent, never complains of adversity. A vei^ good pen writes extremely well. He who studies his lesson, will improve. The law of the Lord is perfect. The sun shines by day ; and the moon gives light by night. The partridge fiies swiftly. Tliose little birds sing sweetly. In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. Adams and Jefferson died on the 4th of July. The sun shines upon all men who will receive his rays. The day was hot. The rain v^hich fell on last August, caused a great freshet. The law was given by Moses ; but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ. Paul wrote many epistles which he sent to the different churches. Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge. Bona- parte was defeated at Waterloo, and died at St. Helena. God is omnipo- tent. They who live in glass houses should not throw stones. Day was descending in the west when I brought his arms to Crothar. The sun- beams rest on the grave where her beauty sleeps. We had heard the news before the messenger arrived. The Greeks defeated the Turks. A green, narrow vale appeared before us. "Your friends may die, and haste away To that blest world of rest ; But Mary's part, with you, will stay. And ever make you blest." CHAPTER II. SENTENCES CONTINUED. § 1. Sentences, classified according to the degree of verbal force with which the affirmation is made, are of six kinds, viz : Affirmative, Subfikmative, Exclamative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Petitionary. § 2. An Affirmative sentence expresses the highest degree of verbal force ; as, " Job Avas patient." 24 Analytical, illustrative akt> Rem. a Negative sentence is not intended to J)e distinguished from the affirmative in this classification, ant ihe predicnto of a Petitionary sentence maybe in the Im- perative or Potential mooii ; as '' Do attend to my instructions. May the Lord prosper your way." Kem. 2. — Petitionary sentences arc of two k'mds—Birfict and Indirect. A Peti- tionary sentence is direct when the subject is of the ftecond person, and the verb in the Imperative mode ; as, '• Lead us notinto temptation," i. e., Lead thou, e infinitive mode, while it retains fomeof its verbal char- acter under all circumstances, partakes at the same time of the nature of other ele- ments. When it is used a? the subject of the verb or tbe object of a verb, it per- forms the office of a substantive element, aod maybe regarded as a substantive element; as, " To steal is base." " I love to hear an eloquent spoaker." In the first example to steal is the .subject of the propcsition, and, of course, is .-ii stan- tive. To hear, in the second example, has an objective relation, but, as it oxpre.'is- •s action as another verb, and governs an objective case, it may be thus analyzed : To hear is a verbal element, and limits the verb love as a substantive elemmt, by pointing out the object of its action. Rem. 4.— When the infinitive depends upon a substantive element in construc- tion, it partakes of the nature of an adjective element; as, " He has received a PROPOSAL to return." • He saw the meteor fall." But, when it depends upon some verbal element or an aiijtctive element as its complement, it partakes of the nature of an adverbial element; as, " She is eagkr to learn." " They ran to meet him." Rem. 5.— Jn .analyzing the verb in the infinitive mode, it may in all cases, except when u.sed as the subjevt of the verb, be regarded as the verbal element. Care should, however, be taken lo point out the change of meaning produced by its modifying inlluence up' • t ,o loments which it liuiits. § 4i. Adjective elements embrace all qualifying and specify- ing adjectives, articles, participles, and all phrasea and clauses used adjectively. 28 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND Rem. 1. Adjective e]erDexitB may be joined to subntantire elements either with or without a connective ; as, (1) " Tall treee." (2) " Beautiful streams." (3) " The eun is bright." (4) " The day -n-as rold." (5) " A man of iiuhstri/." (fi) " A ]tLdy tn/iois prvdrvt." In the first two examples, tall &nd beautiful atq 8A\i to ho assumed of trees and streams respectively. In the third and fourth, the attributes brii;ht and cold are affirmed of the subjects of their respective sentences. Rem. 2. — The difference between assuming and affirming nn attribute, should bo carefully noted, and clearly understood by the learner. In Nos. 5 and fi, the adjec^ tive elements are joined on by connectives, but their adjective character is as obvious as if no connectives bad been used. "A vmn nf industry" is. equivalent to " An industrious 7nan ;" &n<\ "A lady who is prudent," equivalent to 'Vl prudent Inly." § 5. Adverbial elements embrace all adverbs, words, phrases and clauses used adverbially ; as, (l)"Shc walks fjracrfully.'" (2) " CJho.sts troop Jwrne." (3) " They went into the country.'' (4) " Wc po to church ?/•/« n the clod- strikes ten.^* Gracefully, in the lirst example, limits the prcilicatc waUs, by pointing out the Mm/iHfr of its action. Home, in the second example, is used ad- vcrbiallj', and modifies the predicate by pointing out the frcne of its ac- tion. In the third example, into the country is a j)hra.se used adverbially, and limits the predicate by pointing out the scene of its actions. When th« clock at rike» ten, \n the fourth example, is a clause used adverbially, and modifies the predicate ;/o by pointing out the time tchcn of its action. § 6. Connective elements embrace all conjunctions, preposi- tions, relative pronotins, conjunctive adverbs, and attributive verbs. Connective elements are divided into two classes — co-ordinate and subor. dinate. ' <.;,!• The co-ordinate unite words or clauses of equal rank or order in con- truction. , . , . , , The subordinate unite words, phrases or ckuses of inferior rank or order in construction. Ppy I To the former, most of the conjunctions belong. Relative pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions belong to the latter. Kem. 2. Conneqtive elements, as they are not the signs of ideas, but the relation of ideas, can-not be said philosophically to belong to the olements of a sentence. Rkm. 3. T^e elements ot a. sentence piay consist of single irortZs, phrases, or CL.VUSES. ■ .-,,■, When a .^/n"/' ic«rrf is used as a constituent part ofa sontenqe, it is called an element" of the;?r«/ class ; a phrase used as an element is of the second cIjss ; and a clause used as an element is of the third class. gf.j,_ 4 h phrase consists of two or more words united in one element, contain- ing no affirmation; as, " Jn those days" a clause contains an affirmation ; as. " When he comcs." The following sentence contains the three classe.- of elements : «' That nolle tJeneral, who had gai.ed so many victories, died in prison." That, noble, &t\d General are each elements of the frst class, bcr-iiise e>vch. though a sii.ple word, i? used a* a constituent part of the sentence. Who had gained so many ric- toric's, is an adjectivj element of the third class, because it is a clause cont.tining a. auhiect and predicate ; it limit? the su-ject, General, by poiotins out xcknt General is icant. Died is the predicate, and is also an element of theirs/ class. //, prison is an adverbial element of the second class. because it is a phase. It limits the pnd- icate bv pointing out the scene of its action. » , .u Rfm'. i>.— It should be ot.strrved that each wcrd^contained in an element ot the «econt/ '.r r/iirt/ elass, bns a construction of its own. -hich construction i-hr.uld he pointed out in parsing, though all the words comkined roike but on? clem r t ; this will appear obvious t. the attentive student from the fact thi; these clemenU are susceptible of being reduced to an element of the first clabs, or tingle word, without affecting the modification in the least. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 29 • RE^r. 6. — It win readily he perceived that in each of bucIi elenipnts there is some laa(lin,;ard them as secondary adjcctirts ; but, if these and similar words send their modifying influence to the 7;ic(Z/faie, through the medium of some other element which has a grammaticlfl aflinity for the /;rc(/ica/ a sit'gle ico/^ used as an element of the sentence. V/hat does it point out ? It ]H ints out gentleman dtjinitely. What gentleman ? The gentleman who visited me. Wl. at kind of an element, then, is who visited me ? It is an adjective element of the third class. Why an adjeetivive clement? Because it limits a substantive element. What does it point out ? What gentlemari, is meant. Why of the third cla>s ? Because it if a clause. What is necessary to constitute a clause ? A sith- ject and predicate. The gcntlemas has gone — where? Into Uf^ covntiy. What kin 1 of an element, tben, is into the country ? Adveibial. Why? Because it modi- CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAU. 3 1 ties ihc predicate- What does it point' oijj;? The scfne of \ts action. — has gone into the country. Of wha,t class ? The second. Why? Bocause it is & phrase What is necessary to •constitute a p/jrns^ ? Two or tnore \y)rds united In one o'ement containing no aflSrmation. ' 3[odel 1st. "Those beautiful birds sing vcy sweetly." This is a S8??7;)?c sentence, because it contains but one siihject and predicate, modified by elements of the. first class. Those is an adjective element ofthe^/irst class, and limits Inrd^ by pointing it out in the most definite manner. Beaut l/ul is an adjective element of the ^/f7'S^ class, and limits the subject birds by pointing out its quality. Birds is the stthject, because something i^snid OT a tf I rmed of it. Sings is the predicate, hacAase affirmed of the subject, actior, being predicated. Very sioeeily is a complex adverbial element, and modifies the predicate by pointing out the manner of its action. ■ Model 2d. "Joseph fled with the young child into the land of Egypt." This sentence is partially complex ; since the predicate is modified by a complex element ; but, as it contains but one subject and predicate, such sentences arc generally considered simple. JnHeph is the subject of this sentence, because something is said or affirmed of it. J^led rs \.\w jjredicate, because afTirmed of the subject, acth, " The sun having risen, we pursued our journey." The case absolute with Words depen1kai !\ r. ..no ural order of ccnstruction, is construed after tl'f verbal element which it limits ; as, "I met him in the street." But this nrder is frequently in- Terted; as '■'■ Ilim that is weak in the faith, receive ye." Rkm. 1. — A a English nouns havo no hiflection fn diftiiiguish the nommative from the objecti-ve. care inust^be lakm to jireverit, .'iin^iuuitj in Ihbir coDStruition. The following senti'ni-.oe are auibiguous. " l'jrrbi)s the Kom:i7i8 shall conquer." " A second deluge learning thus o'erran." In the first scri'ence it is not certain wheth- er Pynhus shall conquer the Romans, or tuo Uoujiti.? l*yrrbu»j. The ainbigaity in such sentences iu«y easily be prevented > y consttuinjf the objectt-vc elctoout after the word which it limiis. Ihuo, " A eecoud deluge thus o'erri^n learning." § 2. Adjective elements of any kind are construed with sub- stantive elements. Specifying adjectives, including drticles, are generally construed l)cf©re substuntive elements ; as, " The man. That man." This rule> however, is not invariable ; as, " Miserable comforters are you a//" "When a .^specifying cand a qualifying adjective are both used, the specify- ing adjective is generally placed first in the oidcr of construction ; as, " Those tall treeg." Rkm. 1. — When EUfh spocifyinp adjcrtivc,^ jis tin- d.rind from i)roper names ar» coMstruod with qualifying ndjectiros, the qualifying iidjociive is placed fir^tin the order of conijtruction; as, " llenry Claj, the great Aincrican orator, is numbered with the dead." Rkm. 2 — When the elements all and the are construed with the same subgtantiv© clement, all is placed first; as, " All the men w»ro there.** I When an adjective elerncnt of the first class is' a.ssumed o( the subject, . ■ some other substantive* element, it is penerally construed before it; as, A havdisomc lady ;" but when it is predicated of the subject, it is general- ly construed aiter'it; as, "That lady is hmKhomeV If, however, the ad- jective is emphatic, it is construed before the subject; as, " Good and «p- /•/'//(Hs the Lord." Participles, used as adjective elements, are construed after the substan- tive elements to which they refer ; a.^ " I see a man laborimj.'" Adjective elemonls of the isect)iid and ihird classes are almost invariably construed after the elements which they li^iii ; as, "The fear of the Lord.'^ " The man iclio is indastrio^isy j^fjj. ). In order to jyevcnt ambiguity, the rolative claupe .«bould be^corstrued as near to the word which it limits as potsible. When the relative is the subject of its own clause, it is placed first in the order of construction ; as, " The boy who learns his lesson." When lb* relative is thd wotjeit of the verb, it is also placed first and the tubject of the clause is construed between it and the verb ; as, " The hoy' whom I instructed learns well." liut, if the relaiive is governed by a preposi- tion, it is more elegant to construe the prepcsitiou before it ; a*, " I saw the lady icrt/t ic/io)7J jou walked." The relative that, however, does not admit of such a construction ; hence, we must say, " I saw the lady that you walked with.'.' Hem. 2. — Specifying adjective* limit nouns, but do n.t express quality; as, " That tree." Qualiiying adjectives both limit nouns and f xpress some ^aa/t/y belonging to tbem : r.s, ""That tree is tall." Tali not ooly exprrssej the quality of tree, but it also so limits it fl at the tree can nut belong to any clai.s of trees that aie low. (See Adject! res.) § ;'. Adverbial elements are .constriK \erbnl elements eiiuor dirccrly or indirectly. Pirectly ; a . ' • !e hibvrs faith- fully.'' Ii^irectly ; as, "He labors very faithfully.'' Very C ON-STRCCTIVE GRAMMAR. 35 modifies tke predicate labors indirectly through the medium of the element fa it hfuU I)' . No precise rules can be given for the construction of adverbial elements of the first kincl. The best rule that crin be given is, to so construe. them as will best jiroraote the euphony and perspicuity of the sentence. AdVorbial elements of the second and third kinds aregeneraHy construed after the predicate, or bet ween its parts, when it consists of two words ; as, "Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, placed in Ills oion hanJsy " We had heard the news he/ore the messenger arrived.'''' P. KM. 1 — This order is frequently inverted ; as, '• In tho days of Jorara, kiug of Israel, iloarished Elisha the prophet." ABRIDGEMENT OF ELEMENTS. § 4. Tho abridgement of elements consists in reducing a com- plex element to a simple one, or the changing of an element of the second kind to one of the first kind, and a changin:; of an element of the third kind, to one of the first or second kind ; as, " A gentleman of J^nijlaiid " — (changed) an EnglUh gentle- map. " A la^y of ^7yicric?a " — an American lady, " A man who is hanest Svill be relied upon, trusted and esteemed " — (changed to an element of the second kind) A man of lionesty .will be relied upon, etc. An honest man. j'xAJirLEs Koit Practice. A horse ot Arabia. A man of industry. The house of my friend — <(my friend's house.) A lady who is prudent will be vespcnted. The man who i.s industrious will gain a competency. He who studies will iTijj-.rove. He is a jnan of wealth. The law ol the Lord is perfect. Tlic way of transgressors is hard. He is in a me;;sure recovered. The young b.dies whom I instructed. Ho found the kiiife which was lost. The day oi" bat- tle is at hand — (abridged) The bat'leday is near. Tiic ■■i-c" <••' ♦i- t -i •came down. The end of alllhings is at hand. Rem. 1. — When' the relative c)au.se rontjiins an adji^etive, it can bo chanji^en in an element of the second el.-i-s.s by the use of a nnun of kindred weaning ami jinipoFi- tion, and to one of the_^rsS elnss by ns.'^uniinjr tho .'idjectivc of the elenieni, v. h • !i the clau.se limits; as, •• K\n.<\y wlio is 'prudent " — (changed) A lady of pmidairc- •» prudent lady. When the robUive clause contains no adjective, and the refativf -i a .subject ot its own ol.iuse, it is abrids^ei by usinj^ the iinporfnct paMi-iplo in i '< stead; as, " The boy who studies- will karn" — (changed) Tho boy studying, wi'l learn. But, if the relative ii< the object of tho verb of its own clause, it is abri ' ; by tho u.oe of the perfect participle; a.«, " The boy tvham I instruchd, improve^ ' - (abridj;;od) The boy instrudrd by me, iiQf)rovo?. Rem. 2. — As thepovvor to a^jfidL") eleinenrs is of ffrcai practical imp'Ttanco to all "who aspire to high lingual aitgimncnts. tluse exercises should not \)<- patsod over slightly, but closdy studied till mastered. Tho teacher' can easily stipply other e samples. 36 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND CHAPTER yiT. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES INTO CL A.tTS.ESAND PHR AS E S . § 1. Clauses of Sentences may be divided into throe kindsy viz., the leaditig, the co-ordinate, and the subordinate, or mod- ifying clause. Tiie leading clause contains the principal subject and predi- cate, and in the natural order of English construction, stands first in the sentence. This order is however frequently trans- posed — the modifying clause occupying the iirst place. The co-ordiuate claiuse asserts an additional fact which may be expressed by an independent sentence. The subordinate or modifying clause modifies some other element of the sentence and is generally an adverbial or ad- jective element. A phrase is distinguished from a clause by its having neither subject nor predicate ; consequently containing no affirmation. f^Y.M. 1. Tho term member, in this work, is indiscriminately applied both to claufes and phrases. 11i;m. 2. — Mr- James Brown calls this kind of analysis Monology. (See Ameri- can Syntitbolojry by Jas. Brown.) j^K^j. 3. This kind of analysis is important, since it constitutes the basis of a rcular and thorough construction of sentences. § 2. The words which give new members may be called con- nectives or memh^r-givers. These member-givers or connectives may be divided into two classe", viz., coordinate and subordinate. The co-ordinate unite members of equal rank in construction. They areawci, hut^ or, nor, yet, and though, used in the sense of but or vet'. The subordinates are such as join members or elements of subordinate rank in construction ; they are too nu- merous to give a full list ; the following are a few, viz., as, be- cause, if, ^«*^ since, when, who, which, in, into, under, over^ above, beneath, &c. • Model. 1 [True cheerfulness makes a man happy] (in himself,) (and promotes the 12 3 happiness) (of all) (who are) (around him.) It will be perceived that the words contained in each member of the above sentence have an inseparable constructive relation to each other, and^. in parsing, must be disposed of in their own membera respectively. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 37 CHAPTER VIII. CON3TKUCTION OF SENTENCES. r Rbh. — Because of the striking resemblance between the Construction of the several parts of a sentence and the frame-work of a tree, Mr. James Brown denomi- nates such construction Dendrology. § 1. In order to realise all the advantages arising from the Construction of sentences as illustrated by the frame-work of a tree, we should have respect to the order, notation, integritj/y rank, B,nA position of elements of the second and third kinds. § 2. There are two orders — Trunk and Branch. A member of the Trunk •rder must contain the subject and predicate and all elements of the jirst kind which modify them or that member of the sentence which can stand alone or make sense independent of the other parts. A member of the branch order depends upon the trunk member in con- struction, or upon some other branch member, with which it has an insep< arable, constructive relation. § 3. Notation, from the Latin notatio, a mark, respects the actual expression of all or only a part of the words of a member. There are two Notations — Plenary and Implenary. A member is of the plenary notation, when all the words belonging to it are written. A member is of the implenary notation, when some of the words which belong to it are not written. § 4. Integrity, from the Latin integritas, an unbroken state of members, respects itsentireness or unbroken state. There are two Integrities — Perfect and Imperfect. » The Perfect Integrity is the entireness produced by the juxta-position of all its words ; as, "[He gave an apple] (to me.)" A member is of the Imperfect Integrity when it is broken by the inter- vention of some other member; as, [He gave (to me) an apple.] § 6. Rank of members is the frame>-work grade which the subs derive from their supers. The number of Ranks may be said to be indefinite — some sentences having more and some less. A member is of the first rank when it is construed with the trunk for its super, of the second rank when it reads with a member of the first rank, of the third, when with one of the second, and of the fourth when with one of the third, and so on. § 6. The position of a member respects the place which it occupies in relation to its super or supers. The positions are juxta, disjuxta, and binal. 38 ANALYTICAL, CONSTRUCTIVE AND A member is of the juxta position when it is placed -next to its super in the order of construction. A member is of the disjuxta position when it is separated from its super. The binal position includes both the juxta and disjuxta positions. 1 1 Rem. 1. — " [^heat grows] (in the field,) (and men reap it.)" In this sentence, in the. field ia of tho,;wa:, and reads wijh them— went to shii^. Line 5 shows «o governs .s^/jy, and reads with it— went to ship. Line & shows that the belongs to .s7(?>, and reads with it— the ship. The object of this exercise is not only to give an ocular illustration of the varioiis grammatical connections and relations which words bear to each other in a sentence, but also to show that words which are grammatically related to each other make sense when read together. Rem. 1.— When any word has a gTainmatical connection with but one o'ft-^r word m a sentence, it may be called ^mi idio&i i>eculiar to one ; as, Henry and the in the above example. But, when a word is grammatically related to more words than one, it is plus idios, peculiar to more than one ; as with, to, Ac. Rem. 2.— As pupils are generally prone to fall into a mere mechanical mode "f parsing irrespective of the sense, exercises in Alligation shoulJ bo continued tiil the h.abit is formed of testing every word by its grammatical relation or relations to other words in the sentence. For this purpose, such sentences .should be writt< n upon the blackboard or slate as can be written iu one line. Then let th* pupi« 40 AI^ALYTICAL ILLUSTRATIVE AND conn&ct the words as exhibited in the above example, and read them in their res- pective relutioDE, before parsing the sentence. Examples f#r Practice. The hours of the day glide swiftly away. The old fox heard thelianter'a horn sounding. They rode into the country. John has gone with his sister to town. The Roman women ence bestowed their precious jewels to save the city. I see a man walking through the fields. The sun shines upon all men. Pharaoh pursued the children of Israel. The earth re- volves on its own axis. Flowers bloom in the spring. Jesus went into Galilee. Birds fly into the air. Fishes swim in the sea. CHAPTER X. SYSTEMATIC ORDEK OF PARSING. § 1 . As parsing is intended to accompany Construction and ' Alligation, before giving the regular models of Construction, the following examples are presented as models for parsing : " [The man {who instructs you,) labors faithfully^' The is a definite arficlc, and belongs to the noun man, according to Rule 14. Man is a common noun, masculine gender, third person, singular number, and in the nominative case to the verb labors, according to Rule 1. Who is a relative pronoun, masculine gender, third person, singular num- ber, and agrees with man for its antecedent, according to Rule 12, and in the nominative case to the verb instructs, according to Rule 1. Instructs is a regular transitive verb, active voice,* indicative mode, present tense, and of the third person, singular, because its nominative tcho is, according to Rule 6. You is a personal pronoun, second person, plural number, and in the objectiyo case, and governed by the verb instructs, according to Rule 1 9. Labors is a regular, intransitive verb, indicative mode, present tense, third person, singular, because its nominative man is, according to Rule 6. Faithfully is an adverb and modifies labors, according to Rule 25. " iTarnes took what he wanted.'^ What,'m such constructions as the above, is generally parsed as a com- pound relative pronoun — equivalent to that which or the thing which ; but whether resolving it into two other words and excluding what from the sentence is really parsing what, is a question for grammarians to decide. By rendering the sentence plenary, it will be clearly seen that what is sim- ply a specifying adjective ; thus, Janoes took what thing it was which he wanted. " / saw a man leading his horse over the yiew bridged Leading is an imperfect participle, derived from the verb to had, and refers to the noun man, according to rule 18. Over is a preposition, and connects leading and bridge, and shows the relation between them. New is a qualifying adjective, in the positive degree, and belongs to bridge, ac- cording to Rule 15. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 41 " James, I desire yon. to study T James is a proper noun, IlK^^culine gender, second person, singular, and in the nominative case indufietident, according to Rule 27. To study is a regular, transitire verb, active voice, infinitive mode, present tense, and is governed by you, according to Rule 5. " / heinr/ in great haste, he consented.'''' /is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, and in the nomi- natir* case absolute, according to Rule 28. CHAPTER XI DIRECTIONS FOR RENDERING SENTENCES PLENARY. § 1. Men, in their intercoursQ with each other, and more es- pecially in the business transactions of life, are wont to utter their sentiments, both in speaking :ind writing, as concisely as possible; hence many words are omitted or not expressed, which must be supplied in construction and parsing in order to un- derstand the full import of the sentence, and to enable the learner to parse correctly those words which are expressed. The leading clause of a sentence is generally plenary or full, imperative and petitionative sentences generJiUy excepted; the subordinate cl.mse is also generally plenary, so far as it respects its subject and predicate ; since it must have a subject and predicate of its own ; but a co-ordinate clause is frequently implenary ; since the same subject or predicate, used in tho leading clause, may be continued in a co-orninate clause. If a new gubject or predicate is to be introduced in a co-ordidinate clause, the writer or speaker is bound to express it ;" for such new subject or predicate can not be ascertained by any law of construction whatever. Then, if either the subject or predicate, or both, be omitted in a co-ordinate or subsequent clause, they miiat be supplied from the leading clause, with no alteration, except a pronoW should be used instead of a noun. In the following sen- tences, the svl)jcct is understood in the first, the predicate in the second, and both predicate and siilject in the third. (1). " A certain man planted a vineyard, and set a hedge'ahout it "—(rendered plenary. A certain man planted a vineyard, and he set a hedge nbout it. (2). "These shall go away into everlasting punishment; but tiie righteous into life eternal "—(ren- dered plenary) but the righteous tu Icnowest not now what thing it is iphich I do," etc. ; hut. as it lends no aid in parsing, it may bo omitted in construction. Rem. 2. — JVhat, in such con.strnolicins, may be parsed as a spocifying adjective, belonging to thing or things understood, or as a substitute for tohat tKing or things, as the sense of the construction demands. Rem. .3. — Mr. Butler, an eminent grammarian, considers what, in such construc- tions as the above, a relative pronoun, referring to thitiji u.derstood for its antece» dent, thus — " Thou knowest not now the thing what I do," etc. This, we think, is decidedly better than the common way of disposing of it by calling it a compound relative pronoun. Rem. •!. — As whatever and whichever have a similar construction to what, they need no separate model. Exercises. 1 2 [I know what,] ( , he .said) (to me.) [The monks finished what,] ( , the 1 - 1 Goths had begun.) [Eliza may take whichever pattern] ( , pleases her best.) 12 1 [Whatever, ( , is true) (in science), is useful] (in the arts.) [I have heard 12 3 what,] ( , was alleged) (on both sides) (of the question.) [Eat, what] ( is 12 t. 1 set) (before you.) [We should carefully cultivate whatever,] ( , is lovely.) [Whatever, ( , is,) , is right] [Thou knowest not what,] (, a day may bring forth.) [What, (, I forfeit) (for myself ), is a trifle] ; (but that my 1 2 indiscretions should reach my posterity, wounds me) (to the heart.) Rem 1. — That mij indiscretions should reach tiiy posterity, is the subject of the verb wounds, acco.-ding to rule. 1 2 Model Gth. '" (Whoever will l^e a friend) (of the world), [ , is the enemy] (of God ) He /* the enemy is a member of the trunk order, implenary notation, perfect integrity', and of the aflSrmative kind, etc. Bem 1. — As the antrcelent, in similar cnnstruotioni:, is very indefinite, conse- quently easily supplied, it is genenil'y ellipticAl, »nd is gener.-tlly thesul or trunk meraoor. The person ^it any person, or pimply he, is gene- rally the antpeeJent in fuch cdn.otniotii.iig. Kem. 2. — Whoso and whosoever are nearly obsolete; whoever being nend in their stead. , ** Rem. .3. — Whosoever, whoever, otc, are generally parsed as compound rela.tive pronouns: this, however, is unnecessary; the antfcedcut being supplied, they may be parsed simply as relative pronouns. E.TERCisrs. 1 1 (Whoever takes Uic oath) [ , is "bound] (by the law.) (Whoever lives to see this republic forsake her morn] and literary in'-titution«) [ , will behold 1 her lil.'.'rtle.-- prosti:*'.. •] ] OV!u.evi-r i.jJ.Idiallv violates any lau » (of his 2 , * 1 physical nature) [ , may expect to suffer its penalties.] (Whosoever will), 46 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVfi AND 1 [let , him, take the water (of life), freely.] (Whoever seeks the happiness) (of others), [ , will generally find happiness] (for himself.) (Whoever 1 2 studies the works (of nature) attentively), [ , will be convinced] (of their divine origin.) 1 1 — ' Model 7th. " [Qo ye] (into all the world), (and preach , my gospel) (unto every cretture.)" Oo ye is a member of the trunk order, plenary notation, perfect integrity, and of the imperative kind, because it contains a command. The other members are construed as in models already given, Rhjc. 1. — As petitionary sentences direct have the same construction as the impe- ralirt, one model will be sufficient for both. Exercises. 1 . 9 ^ 3 (Go,] (»nd sin, no more), (lest a worse thing, come) (unto thee.) [Give, 1 1 ^ , us) ( , this dav) our daily bread.] [Obey , them] (that have the rule) 9 ind. 1 (over you.) (Boys), (^key, ray precepts], [unless you wish to injure your- • 1 1 2 selvM.) [Seek, the Lord], (and live.) (Into any city) (of the Gentiles), [tnter ye not.] [Escape ,] (for your life.) [Remember now thy Creator] (in the days) (of thy youth), (while the evil days come not.) [Remember , thy Creator now] ; 2 1 (For him), (thy powers employ) ; 2 3 ' (Make ( , him) thy fear, thy love, thy hope. Thy confidence, and joy.) Rbk. 1. — The pconoun him, being the material of which the nouns /ear, love, hope, etc-i are made, is governed by of understood. (See Peculiar Congtructions.) Some gramnnarians, however, consider Awra in the objective, governed by make, and the foUoiring «ouns in the objective case after to he understood. Rbh. 2. — When conjunctions connect words only, they do not give new members. 1 4 Model Bth. [Let us, make man] (in our own image.) Let us mal-e man, though it has the form of a direct petition, yet no per- son seems to be directly addressed ; hence, Dr. Webster, and several other eminent philologists, say that the verb let, in such constructions, is in the imperative mode without a nominative specified ; hence, in such construc- tions, no nominative need be supplied ; and the verb may be thus parsed: Let is an irregular transitive verb, in the imperative mode without a nomi- native specified ; — if any, however, should prefer supplying a nominative, there are authorities to sustain him. Rem. I. — It should be observed, however, that, though this idiom is very exten- Biv* and of great convenience, yet, in some sentences, it has an imperative force; M, " Let no one leave of it till morning." constructive grammar. 47 Exercises. 1 [Let the wicked, forsake his way], (and, the unrighteous man ,, his 1 Bi. po8. ' 2 1 thoughts) ; (and let them return) (unto our God) ; (for he will abundantly 1 1 pardon.) [Let mc , die the death] (of the righteous), (and let my last end 3 1 be) (like his.) [Let him (that stole), steal no more.] [Let highborn seraphs tune the lyre.] [Let every mortal ear attend,] (And every heart rejoice:) 1 S (The trumpet (of the gospel) sounds) a (With an inviting voice.) 1 [The death (of the rigjjteous) let me die,] 9 1 (Like his) , (my last end be) ; ' 1 a (Then, (far beyond this changing sky,) Let me his glory see.) Rkm. 1. — An adverb sometimes modifies a phrase. In such cases the adverb must be incUided in the member which it modifies ; for every word must be dispoied of in it; own member. Far, in the above example, modifies the phrase beyond ihit changing sky ; henco it is included in it. Model 9th. [How cold and feeble is my love] ! 1 (How negligent my fear) I 2 3 4 (How low fny hopes) (of joys) ( , , abovg) ! 8 (How few affections, there) ! How cold and feeble is my love, is a member of the trunk order, plenary notation, perfect integrity, and of the exclamativekind, because it expreasea an emotion. Exercises. [How tedious and tasteless the hours] (When Jesus no longer I see) ! 1 (Sweet prospects, sweet birds, and sweet flowers, s Have all lost their sweetness) (to me) 1 [IIow beauteous are their feet,] 1 2 (Who stand) (on Zion's hill I) 2 3 (Who bring salvation) (on their tongues,) 3-1 (And words (of peace) reveal) I 48 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND 1 2 [How fast we are travelling] ('to the grave, the home) (of the dead !) 2 3 ^e^ellOth.' [^fi ye, therefore, ready] 5 (/or, (in «,uch ari^hour) (a.s , , . > "■ ■ 4 u - 1 • U - - ■■ '^V'-' ' S (ye think not), the Son (of man) conieth.) Be ye, there/ore, ready, is a member of the trunk order, plenary notation, perfect integrity, and of the imperative kind, because it contains a com- mand. The SontometJt, is a member of the branch order, plenary notation, im- perfect integrity, first rank, juxta position, and reads with the trunk for its supei- — Be ye, therefore, ready : for the Son cometh. Of man, is a member of the branch order, plenary notation, perfect in- tegrity, second rank, and juxta position, and reads with the branch of the first rank — For the Son of man cometh. In such an hour, is a member of the branch order, etc., and second rank, juxta position, and reads with the first rank for its super — For the Son cometh in such an hour. As that hour is, is a member of the branch order, implenary notation, perfect integrity, third rank, and reads with a branch of the second rank for its super — In snch an hour as that h0ur is. Which ye think not^ is a member of the branch order, implenarj-^ notation, perfect integrity, fourth rank, juxta position, and reads with a branch of the third rank for its super — As that hour is which ye thinh not. Rem. 1. — As, in constructions like the above, is generally regarded bj authors as a relative pronoun. To this, however, fooae of our ablest critics object^ contending that it i? a conjunction. That the latser view is correct will appear obvious by ren- derin^j the senteiice plenar;, , in which cafe as is obviously a conjunction ; but the former view is, however, wi-11 supported. The intelligent student may choose for himself. Exercises. 12 1 [I like such persons] (as , , ) ( , have a refined taste.) [Let , such (as , , ) 2 11 ( , presume to advise others) lo(fk well] (to themselves.) [Let such (as, , ) 2 11 ( , have no fault), condemn those ,] (who have). [We* are fond] (of the 2 '3 4 5 company) (of such persons) (as , , ) ( , have views similar) (to our own.) 12 1 [Such things (as , , ) ( , I have) , give 1] (unto you.) [You must take such , ] 12 12 (as , , ) ( , you can get.) [Let such (as, , ) ( , are faint-hearted), return] 1 12 ( , home.) [Thou shalt take able bodied men such] (as , , ) ( , can do the work) (of the tabernacle.) Rem. 1. — There are but few ^©rds in the English language more perplexing than the word as. The ofSce which it performs in a sentence, irrespective of its form, can only lead to a correct understanding of its construction. >\ben it follows such in construction, it is regarded by some, as has already been noticed, aj a relative pronoun ; but, perhaps, it is more properly a conjunction. It is a conjunction when it joins on a member expressing equality; and it is a preposition when used in the sense of like, for and in the character of. It is frequently an adverb, as will be per- ceived by its modifying adjective and adverbial elements. Its principal uses will be illustrated in the following exercists. 1 1 2 Model llth. [Be ye wise] (as serpents , , ), (and , , harmless) (as doves , , ). CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 49 Be ye wise., is a member of the trunk order, etc. As serpents are v'!itJi. " [Gen. Taylor was more eminent] (as a soldier), (than) (as 2 a statesman.)" Gen Taylor was more eminent, is a member of the trunk order, etc. As a soldier, is a member of the branch order, etc. Than he teas eminent, is a member of the branch order, implenary notation, etc. Asa statesman, is a member of the branch order, etc. "Gen. Taylor was more eminent as a soldier, than he was eminent as a statesman." Rem. 1 — As, in this sentence, is equivalent to in the character oj ; but as the at- tentive student can rr adil}' discriminate Avhen as is used in^the sense just giren, when in the sense oi jor, and when in the sense of lilit, no other models need be given for tht construction of as used as a preposition. Exercises. 1 [He introduced himself] (as a joijrneyman.) [I employed him] (as a 1 1 Bi. po8. physician), (though he proved to be a miserable quack.) [The tutrea* CONBTUUCTIVB GRAMMAR. 5l 1 ' 1 (who instructs those young ladies), is eminent] (as a scholar.) [We, thcre- 1 2 fore, resolve to organize] (under the following articles) (as a constitution.) 1 1 2 (As a gentleman,) [I respect him], (but I do not admire him) (as a teacher.) 1 1 2 [He thought] (as a sage), (though he felt) (as a man.) [Man's days are] (as 1 IBi. po. 8 3 grass), (and (as the flowers) (of {he field), he fadeth away.) [I treated him] (as my friend.) 1 3 Model 14cth. " [Jesus stooped down], (and, (with his finger."?,) wrote) (on 3 2 3 the ground\ (as,) (though he heard them not,)'" Rbm. 1. — yl.». in thi.s inoilcl. givos an iraplon.ary raorabor, and should bo rendered as follows : " He. icrolr legal learning] (than any attorney,) (who appeared) (at the bar.) (Whoso- ever loveth father or mother more) , (than , , me), [ , is not worthy] (of me). 3 [It is more blessed to give], (than , , to receive). [I have known him] 1 2 [ , more,) (than forty years.)— I have known him /or more years than forty years are. ■ Model 17 th. [What , , , , ] (though destruction sweep these lovely plains?) CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 53 What reason have we to defipair, is a member of the trunk order, iin ple- nary notation, perfect integrity, and of the interrogative kind, etc. Though destruction should sicecp these lorely p7ains\ is a member of the branch order, etc., and reads with the trunk for its sup?r — What reason have we to despair, though destruction should sweep these lovely plains. Rem. 1. — When what is followed by though, it invariaUl^y belongs to an implenary member which should be rendered plcnnry in construction by supplying CKCh wordg as the sense demands ; for instance, " What docs it viatler ?" " What have you to fear ?" " What reason have v>e to despair ?" Exercises. 1 [What , , , ] (though the swelling surge thou see ?) 1 (■What , , , ] (though the foot, ordained the dust to tread, Should aspire to be the head ?) 1 2 [What , , , ] though ( , in solemn silence,) all 2 Move) (round this dark terrestrial ball ?) CHAPTER XII. GENERAL RE j« ARK 8- Rem. — If the element which the preposiHon sivesis adverbial, its canteoedont term must bo the predicate or some other verbial element ; but, if the elementis adjectiTc. its antecedent term must be n substantive element, ; ns, "Joshua led the chi^ren of Israel into the promised Innd." Of Israel is an adjective element; hence its antece- dent term children is a substantive eloment; but, as i/ito the promised land is an ad- verbial eleu.ent, its antecedent term led is avfrbal elcini>nt. Rkh. 2. — The trunk member must be the leading clause of a sentence, though it Is sometimes wholly implenary, .and not anfr quontly but a sinfjis word is expressed, yet, by studying the sentence attentively, its trunk character will bo obvious; as, 1 3 [ , , ] (for a closer walk) (with God !) [ , , Happy], (if (with my latest breath), 1 may but gasp bis name !) In the former sentence, the trunk member is wholly im]ilcnary, viz., / wish. (See Peculiar Constructions.)' In the hitter sentonoe only one word is expressed viz., happy (rendered plenary). I shall be happy. Rem. .'?. — When a relative pmnoun is governed by a preposition, the preposition is generally construed before it; iu such cases, the sub is almost invariably con- strued before its super ; as, 2 1 " [Let him (to whom)- (wo now belong), His sovereign right assert.]" REsr. 4. — When that is a substitute for the following clause, and the object of tho preceding verb, either member may be the trunk ; but the one which follows it i3 1 generally preferred ; as," (I have henrd that) [tho Grcoks defeated the Turk.^.]"* " Tho Greeks defeated the Turks, I h?.vo heard that." For the construction of tknt, see Peculiar Constructions. * When the latter clausoi^ the object of tho verb in tin- prvcediii!? one, it would ho bet- ter, perhapu, to inchide both in one member. 64 AKALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND CHAPTER XIII. • PROMISCUOUS lEXEECISBS. LESSON I. Moses smote the rock with his rod. Jesus went unto the Mount of Olives. Joshua led the children of Israel, over Jordan, into the land of Canaan. Lot fled with his two daughters, from Sodom, to the mountains. Pale Cynthia declining clips the horizon. I love flagrant flowers. She loves to walk in the garden among sweet flowers. The slumbering seas calmed the grave, old hermit's mind. A beam of tranquility often plays around the heart of the truly pious man. Mary studies her lessons atten- tively, and she learns very fast. Martha was troubled about many things. Mary hath chosen that good part which shall not be taken away from her. Those young ladies wrote a beautiful letter, but they did not dispatch it. A certain man planted a vineyard, and set a hedge about it, and digged a place for the wine vat. Jacob worshipped the Lord, leaning on his stafi". The law can make no man perfect. The glory of the Lord came down upon the tabernacle. The moon arose in clouded majesty, and threw her silver mantle over the slumbering waters. LESSEN IL Jane wrote that letter with a pen by moonlight. Law, in its most limited sense, is a, rule of human action. The All-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man for the best of purposes. A winding stream murmured through the spicy groves. The way of the transgressor is hard. The hail which fell last week, badly injured the standing crops. Socrates was the most learned philosopher of ancient Greece. Homer is styled the prince of poets, ^he law of nations is that collection of principles, which regulates the intercourse among national communities. Whosoever will save his life, shall lose it. The law of the Lord is perfect, converting the soul. Sow to yourselves in righteousness; reap in mercy; break up your fallow ground; for it is time to seek the Lord till he come and rain righteousness upon you. Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over nature's soft repose. Modesty always appears graceful in youth : it doubles the lustre of every virtue which it seems to hide. True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and pro- motes the happiness of all around him. On the wings of the wind, he rode, and the clouds were his chariot. The work might have been completed sooner, but it could not have been done better. Surely goodness and mercy will follow me all the days of my life ; and*I shall dwellin the house of the Lord forever. Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour, There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower ; The world was sad, the garden was a wild ; And man, the hermit, sighed till woman smiled. LESSON III. With an insatiable thirst for knowledge, I trifled away the years of im« provemtnt. He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, and follows out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him through the labyrinth of the most busy life. Alas ! within the last quarter of a century, our Eepublic has been called to mourn the destructicn of many of her best citizens upon that fatal field of honor. An aged beggar, who, CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 65 with trembling knees, stood at the gate of a portico, from which he had been thrust by the insolent domestic, who ^rnarded it, struck the prisoner's attention. A certain Emperor of China, on his accession to the throne of his ancestors, commanded a general release of all those who had been im- prigoned for debt. The value of the Christian faith may be estimated by the consolations which it affords. The eyes of a fool are in the ends of tho earth. What I shall do I lve not the world, nor the things which are in the world. She is as fair as her sister, but she is not so intelligent. Get thee behind me, Satan ; for thou savorest not the things that baof God but the things that be of men. Now came still evening on, and twi>Iight gray Had, in her sober livery all things clad. When, for eternal worlds, 1 steer. When seas are calm, and skies are clear,. The soul, for joy, then claps her wings, And loud her lovely sonnet sings, "Vain world, adieu!" Hem. I. — The prcfceding exercises should be analyied, construed or syntbetiBetJ, CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 57 CHAPTER XIV. IDEA, THOUGHT, AND n?OPOSTTION. § 1. An Idea is a mental picture. The external object of an idea is called its archetype or pattern. An idea tuay be said to be true when it agrees with its archetype in all its particu- lars ; it may be said to be false when it disagrees with its archetype, and it may be saii to be partially false, when it agrees in some, and disagrees in other particulars. Several ideas united in the mind form a thought. A thought expressed or clothed in words, forms a sentence or Proposition. Ideas then arc the elements of thought, and as words arc the signs of ideas, they are conse- quently the elements of a proposition. § 2. A Proposition is a portion of discourse, in which a predicate is affirmed or denied of a subject. A Proposition, in a logical sense, consists of three parts — the Subject, the Predicalc, and the Copula, § 3. The predicate is the name, denoting that which is af- firmed Or denied. § 4. The Copula is the sign denoting that there is an affirma- tion or denial, and thereby enabling the hearer or reader to distinguish a proposition from any other kind of discourse. § 5, The subject is the name denoting the person or thing, of which something is affirmed or denied. § G. Categorical propositions are of four kinds, namely. Uni- versal Affirmatives; as. All B is C, Universal Negatives: as, ."NoBisC," Particular Affirmatives; as, "Some B is C," and Particular Negatives ; as, some B is not C, § 7. Propositions are divided according to their quality in Affirmative and Negative, An affirmative proposition is that in which the predicate is affirmed of the subject; as, "Calhoun is dead." A Negative proposition is that in which the Predicate is denied of tho Eubjecl ; as, " Calhoun is not dead. §8. Propositions a»c divided according to their quantity into Universal and Particular. A Proposition is vnivierml, when the subject is a general name embracinf a whole species of class, and the predicate affirms concerning all or each of the things denoted by the s jbjcct; thus, "All men are mortal," because the predicate atDrms of all the individuals, denoted by the subject; and •• Krrry man is mortal," is also a universal proposition, because what is nflirmed of one individual, the mind, inetantancou.'-ly, if not instinctively transfers to the whole. ^ 68 ANALYTICAL, CONSTRUCTIVE AND A Proposition is particular, when the subject is limited by some limiting word, which shows the predicate affirms concerning a^>ar^ of the whole; as, "Some men are religious." Resi. I. — ThoFe propositions which are called indefinite, are either Universal or Particular according to the sense ; as, " Man is mortal." Rem. 2. — Singular propositions are generally regarded a^ Universal; since the ■whole of the predicate is affirmed of the whole subject ; as, " Brutus was a RiOiaan." TERMS OF A PROPOSITION. § 9. Every proposition has two terms, viz., the subject and predicate. When any word can be a term of itself, it is said to be Categorematic ; but, when any word is incapable of con- stituting a term of itself, it is called Syncategorematic ; as, ad- verbs, prepositions, etc. Rem. 1. — A term is said to be distributed when it has a universal sign prefixed to it, such as all, every, no, etc. Kkm, 2. — The signs of universality and particularity, are sometimes understood or omitted t Rem. 3.— The Universal AflBrmative distributes the subject, the Universal Nega- tive both the suhject and tha predicate; the Particular Negative distributes the predicate, and the Particular Affirmative neither the subject nor the predicate. CONVERSION OF PROPOSITIONS. § 10. A proposition is converted when the predicate is made the subject, and the subject the predicate ; as, "No B is ; therefore, no C is B," A proposition can be converted simply when both terms are distributed, or neither term, or wlaen both terms, in their meaning, are coextensive ; as, "All men are rational animals ; therefore, all rational animals are men." All negroes are human beings, but we cannot say all human beings are ne- groes ; because the terra human beings is more extensive in its meaning than the term negroes. In such cases, wq say we admit the proposition, but deny its converse, that is, its apparent converse ; for the truth of the real or logical converse, always follows from the truth of its exposita. As the Universal Negative distributes both terms, and the Particular AfQrmative neither, they can be converted simply ; as, " No B is C ; then no C is B. Some B is C ; then some is B." The Universal Affirmative is converted by limitation, or, as it is generally called, per uecidens; as, "All B is C ; then some C is B." A proposition is said to be illatively converted when no term is distribu- ted in the converse, which was undistributed in the exposita. OPPOSITION OF PB,OPOSITIONS. § 11. Categorical propositions are opposed in four ways, viz., 1, Contraries, 2, Subcontraries, -3, Subalterns, and 4, Contra- dictories. Constructive grammar. 59 When universal propositions disagree in quality, they are called Contra- ries ; as, " All B is 0. -No B is C." When particulars disagreoin quality, they arc called Subcontraries: as, "Some B i.s C. Some B is not C." Propositions are called Subalterns when they disagree in quantity on\y \ OvS, '■'■All B is C, some B is C, and no B is C. I'iomc B is not C." When propositions disacree hoik in quantity and quality, they are called Contra- dictories ; as, All B is C. Some B is not C. No B is C. Some B is C." Rem. 1. — A proposition and its contradictory can never both be true, nor both false. Rem. 2.— Those teachers who are not acquainted with Logic, can, if they choose, pass over this and the following chapter. CHAPTER Xy. REASONING. § Reasoning is that art or process of the viind, hyivhich new or unknoivn truths are deduced from propositions known and evident, or admitted or supposed for the sake of arguments There are' two kinds of reasoning — Deductive and Inductive. Deductive is reasoning from the cause to the eff'ect, or from the whole to tls parts. /;if?Mcfipe is reasoning from the ejfect to the caw.s^, or from the parts to the icliole; Thus, when the subject is given and the predicate required, the reasoning is Deductive \ and when the predicate is given and the sub- ject required, the process is called Inductive reasoning. § 2. Syllogistic reasoning is deductive. A true Syllogism consists of three propositions, viz., the major, minor, and conclusion, and three terms — and three only, viz., the major, minor, and middle terms ; as, "AUBisC (the major); some A is B (minor); therefore, some A is C (conclusion)." Rem. 1. — The predicate of the conclusion is always the major term, and the euh- jtct of the conclusion, is iho minor term ; hence, by subtracting those terms from the terms of the premises, tie remainder will be the mi\tdh term, which, in the foregoing syllogism is B. By inspection the learner will perceive that the middle term is the subject of th* major proposition, and the predicate of the miivr propo- sition. Hence, to prove the conclusion of an affirmative syllogism, we have the following Rule. If any two terms nnrree with onp and the same middle term, tbey must agree with each other. Kow I find by inspection that the major term C agrees with the middle term B as the predicate, and the^iinor term A agrees with the same middle 60 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND term B as its subject ; now, as these two terms agree with one and the same middle term, they must agree Avith each other ; therefore " Some A is C" For proving a Negative conclusion we have the following Rule. If one of two terras agrees, and the other disagrees ^ith one and the same third or middle, they must disagree with each other. No B is C ; All A is B ; Therefore no A is C. By inspection, I find that the major term' 0, in this syllogism, disagrees with the middle term B as its predicate ; and the minor term A agrees with the same middle B as its subject. Now, as one of these terms agrees, and the other disagrees with the same middle term B, they must disagree with each other; therefore, "No A is C." Rem. 1. — By inspecting ths construction of the two syllogisms already giTCP, the learner will perceive that the predicate of the conclusion agrees with the predicate of the major, the subject of the conclusion agrees with the subject of the minor, and that the predicate of the minor agrees with the subject of the major. This is invariably the case in all syllogisms of the first figure. *: Proof of the Minob. All good men are patriots ; General Washington was good ; Therefore General Washington was a patriot. The truth of the major being granted, the minor is proved as follows: In this syllogism the same thing is 2^'>'edicated of the subject of the minor, which is assumed of the subject of the major, or, in other words, the predi- cate of the minor agrees with the subject of the major ; then the subject of the minor is a part of the whole class, included in the subject of the major. Now whatever can be predicated of the whole (logically speaking can be predicated of any of its parts; but 1 have proved ih2.i General Washington WiQ m\noY, is a part oiihe tchole; therefore I can predicate patriot of General Washmgton, because it is predicated of the whole class of which he is a part. Figures of Syllogissis. There are four figures distinguished from each other by the position of the middle term. In the first figure, which is by far the most perfect of all, and to which all others may be reduced, the middle term is the suhjeci of the major proposition, and the predicate of the minor ; as, B\sC; AisB; Therefore A is C. The middle term in the second figure, isthe 2yredicate of loth premises ; as, C\sB- AisB; Therefore A is C. • CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 61 In the third figure, the middle term is the subject of both premi- ses ; as, « 7?isO; ^ is A ; Therefore A is C. The middle term is the predicate of the major and subject of the minor in the fourth figure ; as, C is J?; J5 is A ; Therefore A is C. Rem. 1. — By close Inspection of the Syllogisms of the different figures given above, the learner will readily perceive that the middle term can never bo used in the conclusion; as it is that with which the other two are compared, and by whose aid a correct conclusion can be drawn. Hence, it has been called by the older Lo- gicians argument Kin. Modes. Each figure is subdivided into Modes according to what are called the quantity and qunVity of the premises, that is, according as they are Uni- versal or Particular, Affirmative or Negative. The following are examples of all the legitimate modes, that is, all in which the conclusion correctly follows from the premises. A is the minor term, C the major, and B the middle. FiKST Figure. All B is C ; All AisH; Therefore All A is C. No C is n ; All A isB; Therefore No A is C. NoBisC; All A isB; Therefore No A is C; All B is C ; Some A is B; Therefore Some A is C ; Second Figure. AllCisB; No A is B; Therefore No A is C. No C is B ; Some A is B ; Therefore Some A is not C. No B is C J Some A is B i Therefore Some A is not C. AllBisC; Some A is not B; Therefore Some A is not C. Third Figure. All B is C ; All Bis A; Therefore Some A is C. NoBisC; (Some B is C; All Bis A; All Bis A; Therefore Therefore Some AisnotC.ISome A isC. All BisC: SonieB iV A ; Therefore Some A is C. Some Bis note- No C is B; All B is A ; Some B is A ; Therefore Therefore Some A is nbtC. I Some A is not C. Fourth Figure. AllCisB; All B isA; Therefore Some A is C. All C is B : No B is A ; Therefore No A isC. Some C is B ; i No C is B ; A 1 Bis A; All B is A ; Therefore Therefore Some A is C. ISomc A is not C, No C is B ; Some B is A ; Therefore Some A is not C. ' The following are some of the principal Rules to be observed in drawing a correct conclusion. Rule I. One of the premises must be a Universal proposition. Rule II. Both premises must not be negative. 62 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND Rule III. If one of the premises is Ne2;ative, the conclusion must be Negative. Rule IV. The Middle term must be distributed once, and once is suffi- cient. Rule V. The Middle term muat not be ambiguous, i, e., it must be used in the same sense in both premises. Rule VI. No term must be distributed in the conclusion, -which is un- distributed in the premises. Rem. 1. — From Universal premises, we may generally draw a Universal concla- ■i»D, but not always, as will b« seen by osamintng the following syllogism : All gold is prtcioas; All gold is metal ; Therefore all metal is prtcious. This coTJchision is incorrect, though the premi|es are Unifersal propositions. The reason of this is, bpcause metal has a more extensive meaning thaa Gold. The true conclusion is, So?ne metal is precious. All birds are animals; Horses are achnals ; Therefore horsos are birds. The fallacy of this ^-onclusion, arises from the Middle term not being distrihvied. No Affirmative coni^lwsion can be proved in the ifecond figure; since the Mid. He term is the predicate of both propositicns, and the predicate of no Affirmative pro- position is or can be distribated. When the conclu«ion or proposition to be proved, is stated first, it is called the question ; and the premises, which follow, are said to assign the reason or cause ; as, " Thou art a teacher come from God; for no man can do the miracles ..that thou doest, except God be with him." But, when the premises are stated first, the propo* sition to be proved is called the eonclnsion or inference ; as, " Cassar was a tyrant; therefore he deserved death." Rem. 2. Tbo.-e conjunctions which join on premises, are called causal— such ai because, for, since, etc. ; but conjanctioBs wuich join on the conclusion, are called illative — as therefore, then> hence, etc. Rem. 8. — The major premise, in curreut discourse, is generally suppressed. § 3. When the predicate of each preceding proposition .be- comes the subject of each succeeding proposition, and so on till the last predicate agrees with the first subject, the process is called a sorzYes, as illustrated in the following example: "A miser covets much ; he that covets much, wants much ; he that wants much is miserable ; therefore the miser is miserable." A Regular Syllogism may be constructed upon any of the rules of Syntax, or the principles upon which those rules are COXSTRUCTIVK GRAMMAR. 63 based, by making the rule itself, or the principle upon which it is based, the major proposition, as illustrated in the following syllogisms : The subject of the vcr'i must be in the nominative case. He is the sulyect of a verb ; Then he must be in the nominative case. The object of a transitive verb, in the active voice, must be in the objec- tive case. John is the object of a transitive verb in the active voice ; Then John must be in the objective case. Adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns. Wise is an adjective ; Therefore icise belongs to a noun or pronoun. Rem. 1- — Students may be pnilitubly cxoroisod in forraiag 8yUogt.;>u,'? on|||!he rules of Syntax, nr the principles on which ihey are based, and applying tUeui lu correct- ing fulso Syntax. ItESf. 2.— As a scientific oxerciso of the reasoning faculty,2is iii'iispen^ably neces- s*ry in making a rapid progress in the a3(^ui8iiion of Sv^i«nt!fic and^lingnal knowl- edge, the author ha.-i baon lei t)coniH'i"t. as far a» puasiblo, Lotfii.il reasoning with the study of i;raniinar. Indeed there is a very intimate conntotion between the twt^ sciences; siacd Graruimr is conversant about language unirersilly, and Lofio is convorsaiu about lingunj^o in a p.irtiouUr way. Long cxocn.'ncu in teaching has fuIiy convinced him taat without coust.icr exercise of the reasoning faculty, not only a slow progress will be ui.tde, but that little or no interest will be felt in the pursuit of .scientific knowledge. Aujpie sxercisos will be found in ths symbolical syllogisms given above. PART II, CHAPTER I, OF LAN GU AGE. 1 1. Language, from the Latin lingua— a, tongue, is the me- dium through which mind travels to mind, or the instrument or means by which the ideas and affections of mind and body are communicated from one animal to another. Therefore brutes, in a limited sense, possess the power of language ; for, by va- rious inarticulate sounds, they make known their wants, desires and sufferings. Lano-uage is of two kinds— ,'?f>o;?:. But as sounds are fleeting, and incapable of being conamunicated to a creat distance, if men had no other means of communicating their thoughts, their intercourse would be limited to a small compass, and their ideas would be intrusted to memory and tradition only ; by which they would soon be obscured, perverted or forgotten. Hence the necessity of the invention of characters to represent sounds, exhibit them to the eye, and render them durable. This was the origin of written language. The elements of this lan-ruage are letters or characters, which, by consent of men and common usage, are combined into words made to represent the sounds uttered by the voice. It follows, therefore, that this medium through which thought is transmitted from one mind to another, should be clearly understood by aH who use it for the communication of their thoughts. Hence arises the necessity of studying thoroughly the Grammar of the language, which we employ for such a medium of communication or thought. Rem. 1.— Gesticulation is a kind of universal langusge ; for, by means of certain cestures, those who are barbarians to each other, are enabled, to a limited extent, to communicate their thoughts, feelings and desires to each other. It is the language in which the deaf and dumb converse ; and, when properly used, it is a powerful auxiliary to vocal delivery. CHAPTER II. GRAMMAR. §1. Ghammar, from the Greek gramma— a letter, may be defined the science of letters, or the science of signs. Letters are lingual sigm^ or the representatives of elementary sounds* ee ANALYTICAL^ ILLl.STRATIVE AND Hence in a perfect language there would be as many signs as there are sounds, or, in other words, as many letters as there are elementary sounds ; then each sound would be represented by its own appropriate character, and none other. But this ia very far from being the case in the English language — there being thirty-eight simple sounds, and but twenty-six characters or letters to represent them. The necessary consequence is that one letter must represent more sounds than one. Hence arise much obscurity and many provincialisms. Grammarians generally divide the twenty rix letters of the English lan- guage into voirels and consonnrifs; and the consonants the}' subdivide into mutes and semi voic els. This divisioxi is not founded in philosophic truih, at least, some of tlie names are badly chosen. The n ord consmumfy from con, together, and noito, to sound, sii^ndies a Ictler or a sound, that cannot pound only together with some other sound, ytl they are said to have an imperfect sound of themselves. The mutes, it is said, cannot be sounded at all without the aid of a vowel ; as, b, p, t, d, k, etc. Now, this is palpa- bly erroneous, for every sound in the language is susceptible of being ut- tered in its own individual, elementary character. This has been clearly demonstrated by Dr. Coinsiock, of Philadelphia. A mo)c f.'hiiosophic, and constqnently a more truthful division of the letters of the alphabet, is into three classes, vi/>, : tonics oc v<*wels, sub- tonics' or sub-vowels, lind atonies or a-spiratcs. The tonics, from the Greek tonos, 3^ tdne or sovnd^hixxe A\\t purest vocility ; tae sub-tonics, as their name indicates, are inferior in vocaliiy ; and the atonies, as tlitir name in- dicates, are wholly destitute of vocaliiy, and are only heard in the whisper- ing voice. In the following table, the thirty-eight elementary sounds and the manner of representing theuj, are presented : 15 ToHics. a in States a " are a *' all i " that e " we " met i " pine i " pit o " more '6 " move G " on fl " tube n " up 11 " full ou " our 14 Si jB Tonics. b in bow d u day g 1 (( a gay love m ii man n ii no ng r ii ii song roll th ii thou V ii vow w ii wo y (( yoke 7. u zone Z (( azure 9 Atonics V t eh k in pin " tin " shade " kite 8 f th h wh '•' sin •' fume " thin " hat '* what Hem. ].— The reader will ob-'erre that C, ch, J, Q and A^ are not found in the above table, ihe reasou of this if, iLtte letters rej resent no sounds which aie not CONSTRUCTIVE OHAMMAR. 67 represented hj other chsrwcters. C tnkes fhe sound of k beforcs tbc totiics a, o and u ; as cflt, cot, e»/t ; but before tbv totiicK <>, ». and y, it takes the sound of s; as rent, city, e'c. ; and, in orean, it has the sound of sh. Ch represents the oomlnnwd 6n'jn'!s of t and sh ; a« in church, cAin, etc. J, the combined sounds of d in (/aj. aiid z in azure ; tK- in Job, John. Q has the 8ouod of k; as in ooo^uer; and x haa tie sound of ks , ss in i rariise, writ, etc., uf g-z ia exatnpU, »nd of ^■sA in anxious. SECTION I. TONICSORVOWELS. § 2. These are divided into Monothongs, Diphthotiffs, and Triphthongs, In a Monothong, but one kind of sound is heard throughout its concroto movement, the orgajie remaining in the same position throughout its prolongation ; or, in other words, its radical and vanish are the sauK). They arc the following : a a tt e S I 8 u u The Diphthongs consist of two kinHs of sound, which coalesce so inti- mately that they appt-ar like one uniform sound. A I)i[>hthong- in form is the union of two v.i*«ls, which are uttered so rapid!}- in succession, as to be considered as foiuiinj; but one syilable; as ot in r*jV?F.M. 1. — The learner will obgorre that some of these Diphthong', when carried tbroujfb a wide ranjto of pitch, as interrogations with surprise, become Triphthonfs. (Pee Analysis of TripbthongH.) . Triphthongs, in sound, consist of the union of three Towels in one sylla- ble ; as ifw in rieir. Triphthonrrs, in form, consist of three kinds of sound, which coale^icc so intimately that thoy appc.tr like one uniform sound.' They are as follows : O OU The first* constituent of o, as well as ou, is a sound charac- teristic of this element ; and the diphthong o constitutes the second and third constituents of this triphthong. (See Com- stock's System of Elocution. §3. ANALYSIS OF DIPHTHONGS. DIPHTnONGS. RADICALS. VANISH. a a 1 i I i <5 ii w u u w 01 '1 i The radical or vanish are called constituents. $B ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE ANI? § 4, ANALYSIS OF TRIPHTHONGS. TRIPHTHONGS. RADICALS. MEDIAN, VANISH. a a I e i 1 i g S \f ow ow b w «y or ai a I e oy or oi a I e uoy I e SECTION II. SUB-TONICS. § 5. B \s a, compound of vocality and aspiration ; tlie first constituent, which is vocal, is formed with the lips closed ; the second, by aspirating or whispering u^ at the moment of their separation. D coTisists of a vocal and aspirate sotmd. The first constituent is formed with the tip of the tongue pressed against the gums of the upper incisory teeth ; the second, by aspirating the vowe! u2 at the mcment of its re- moval. G^ is a compound of vocality and aspiration. The first constituent is formed with the root of the tongue pressed against the curtain or vail of the palate ; the second by aspirating the vowel u2 at the moment of its re- moval. RxH. 1. — Spffcial care should be taken not to render tSe second constituents of b, d, and g vocal. L is a pure vocal sound made with the tip of the tongue pressed against the gums of the upper incisory teeth, and propelling the breath through the mouth. Jf is a nasal sound made with the lips closed and propeHing the breath through the nose. ^is a nasal sound formed with the tip of the tongue pressed against the gums of the upper incisory teeth, and propelling the breath through the nose. NG, as in song, is a nasal sound, formed with the root of the tongue pressed gently against the vail of the palate, so as to propel the breath di- rectly through the nose. i^ is a vocal sound of which there are two varieties. The first is called the smooth i?, and is made with the tip of the tongue elevated towards the center of the roof of the mouth,- and propelling the breath through the mouth. The second is called the trilled R, and is formed by causing the tongue to vibrate against the gums of the upper incisory teeth while the breath is propelled through the mouth. The R should be trilled when it precedes a vowel ; as in roll, crush, etc., but should invariably be rendered smooth when it follows a vowel ; as in air, etc. T^ is a compound of vocality and aspn-ation, formed with the tip of the tongue restiag against the inner surface of the upper incisory teeth. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 69 Fis also a compound of vocaliry and aspiration. It is formed with the under lip pressed a{r;iinst the edge of t:ie upper incisory tooth. TFisavocal sound, formed with the lips contracted as in the act of whistling, and forcing out the hreath. Fis a vocal sound, formed with the lips and tcelh a little separated. Rkm — Caro must be ta'ren in forming this soun'l, to ooufino th« tip of the tongue to the inner surCnco of tho under incisory teeth ; for, if it is permitted to riso lo thn gums of the upper incisory teeth, tho sound of Z will pfa'oably be made instead of Y> ^, in zoncy is a buzzing sound, a compounH of vocality and aspiration. It is made hy pressini; the tip of the tongue gently against the gums of the upper incisors, and forcing Out tlie breath. Z. as in azure, is formed with the tip of the tongue nearly in the same position as Z in zone, though drawn a little farther back, and somewhat widened, so as to enlarge the aperture formed by its upper surface atid the roof of the mouth, through which tho breath is forced. SECTION III. ATONICS. § 6. The Atonies or aspirates, beihg destitute of that quality of voice which is called vocality, ar%only heard in the whisper- ing voice. F, like V, is formed with the under lip pressed against the upper incisory teeth. n is the inceptive part of a vocal sound, aspirated in a particular way. JImixj be uttered in as many varieties of ways ?s there are vowels in the language, each requiring the same posture of the mouth, which tho vowel itself requires. As ^merely represents a breathing as heard in the sigh, in spelling phonetically or by sound, the pupils may call it Ac — the name assigned it in the Hebrew alphabet. ^is formed by pressing the root of the tongue against the vail of the palate, and aspirating the vowel u^. P is formed by closing the lips, and then asperating the rowel tCi. xS is a hissing hOund, and like s in zone, is formed with the tip of the tongue pressed gently against the gums of the upper incisory teeth. It is nearly the same as z in zone, usi)irated. Sh is formed with the tongue in the same position as z in azure. Sh is nearly the same sound as z in azure, aspirated. 7" is formed by prci^sing the tip of the tongue against the gums of the upper incisory teeth, and then aspirating ihe vowel u\ Th, as i|0 thin, like /// in then, is ftjnned with the tip of the tongue pressed against the upper incisory teeth. It is nearly the same sound as the siibvowel th, aspirated. Wh is tho inceptive purt of the vowel u^, aspirated in a particular way. The sound which is produced in tho lormation nf this element is nearly the same as lni\ whi.^pered. Wh requires the same position of the mouth that the vowel W3 requires. It is not intended that the table of ehmentary sounds should be commit- ted to memory by tho pupils ; but th.it the Teacher should utter the. rounds accurately in their elementary character — the pupils uttering them after him. yo analytical, illustrative and Exercises. In the following exercises, each word should be distinctly and slowly uttered ; the pupils carefully observing the postures which the organs as- sume in the utterance of each element. They should then point out the Tonics, Subtonics, or Atonies, that may be found in each word, as exhibit- ed in the following Model. "An old man stood at the gate." An, — this word consists of two elementary sounds — tonic and- subtonic. A^ is tonic, because it has the purest vocality ; it is a m ^nothong, because its radical and vanish are the same. iVis subtonic, because it is inferior to the tonics, in vocality. It is formed by pressing the tip of the tongue against the gums of the upper incisory teeth, and propelling the breath through the nose ; and is, there- fore, nasal. Old consists of three elementary sounds. is tonic, having the purest vocality, it is a triphthong, because it consists of three constituents — (A^ O'i, ic. L is subtonic, and is formed by pressing the tip of the tongue ag ainst the gums of the upper incisory teeth, an^ propelling the breath through the mouth. D is also subtonic, and is formed by placing the tongue in the same position as in forming the sound of i, and aspirating the vowel «3 at the moment of its removal. Man consists of three elementary sounds. M is subtonic, and is formed by closing the lips, and prop^hng tlie breath through the nose, and is, therefore, nasal. J.4 is tonic. N is subtonic.ljand is formed as described above. Stood consists of four elementary sounds. 8 is atonic, because it is des- titute of vocality, and is formed by gently pressing the tip of the tongue against the gums of the upper incisory teeth. T is also atonic, and is formed by pressing the tip of the tongue' against the gums of the upper incisory teeth, and aspirating the vowel u'i at the moment of its removal. 00 represents the sound of «3, and is a monothong tonic. D is subtonic, and is formed as already described. The consists of two elementary sounds. Th is subtonic, and is formed by pressing the tip of the tongue against the edge of the upper incisory teeth. ^2, second sound, is a monothong tonic. Gate consists of three elementary sounds. G is subtonic, and is formed by pressing the root of the tongue against the vail of the palate, and aspi- rating the vowel u\ A\ is tonic, and is a diphthong in sound. T is atonic, and is formed as already described. Rbk. — Sach questions as the following, may be used to advantage. Why is J.4 tonic? "Why & 7nonotho7ig P What is meant by a radical, and what by vanish sound ? Why is JV subtonic ? How is it formed ? "Why is it nasal ? Examples for Practice. • As for man his days are as grass. Three pines bend from its face. False "sounds often fall near him. The sun shines on the smooth lake. The storm of war is past. From your fair cheek the rose may fade. Life is short; but art is long. God set the bow in the clouds. Saul died by his own hands. He twists the texts to suit the sects. When he comes, we shall hear the news. OON8TRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 71 SECTION IV. SYNTHETICAL PROCJSSS OF LANGUAGE. § 7. Letters united form syllables, syllables form words, words properly arranged, form sentences, and sentences form a discourse or oration. Analysis of Words. The analysis of a word consists, first, into resolving it into its component syllables, and, second, each syllable into the elementary sounds of which it is composed. A syllable is a single vocal impulse, or it is that part of a word which is bounded by a single radical and vanisli movement of the voice. It may consist of one elementary sound; as, t?, e, etc., or as many assciY?tof these elementary sounds, without destroying the singleness cf the vocal impulse; as, in the word strange^ strandzh. A monosyllabic word is a word of one syllable; as, Man. A dissyllabic word is a word of iioo syllables ; as, Manly. A trissyllabic word is a word of three syllables ; as, Manliness. A polysyllabic word is a word of nmny syllables ; as, Ambiguity. ifodellst. ^'^ Nightly.'''' This is a dissyllabic word, because it consists of two syllables. Night is a syllable, because bounded by a single radical and vanish movement; it consists of three elementary sounds, represented by «., i, g, h, and t. Nis a subtonic, because it is inferior in vocality to the tonics. It is formed by pressing the tip of the tongue against the gums of the upper incisory teeth, and propelling the breath through the nose ; it is, therefore, nasal. /I, first sound, is tonic, because it has the purest vo- cality, — it is a diphthong in sound, because it has o?ie sound characteristic of its radical, and another for its vanish. T is atonic, because destitute of vocality. It is formed by pressing the tip of the tongue against the gums of the upper incisory teetli, and aspirating the vowel ?i3 at the moment of its removal. Lp is a syllable, because bounded by a single radical and vanish movement of the voice, — it consists of two elementary sounds, rep- resented by Zand y. iT is subtonic, because inferior in vocality — it is formed by pressing the tip of the tongue against the gums of the upper incisory teeth, and forcing the breath through the mouth. F represents the second sound of i, and Is tome, because it has the purest vocality, — it is a monothong, because its radical and vanish are the same. A word having been analyzed, should be phonetically spelled without mentioning the name of any letter ; a.s, Nit-li. The learner will observe that g and h have been lost in analysis, since they represent no elementary sound. After the pupil shall have been sufficiently drilled in a full description of the vocal phenouicna in the analysis of words, as exhibited in the first ex- ample, the exercises may be contracted as in Model 2d. Model 2d. '* J fan.''' is a monosyllabic word, and consists of three ele- mentary sounds, represented by m, ting his twist he three twines doth intwist ; But, if one of the twines, of the twist doth untwist, " * The twine that untwisteth, untwisteth the ttoist. Rem. — Each word in the above exerclEes, tbould be first analyzed and synthetiiffed, or spelled phonetically ; eanh senten,c6 should then be read slowly and distinctly, with special attention to words and elements marked iu italics. CHAPTER III. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. t § 1. English Grammar is the science of the English lan- guage. It comprises both a Science and an Art ; as an Art, it teaches how the Engl sh language should be written and spoken ; as a Science, it teaches why one form of speech should be used rather than another. Art tells hoiv — /Science tells why. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. ' * 13 The English Grammar well understood both as a Science and an Art, will enable any one to speak and write the language correctly. § 2. Grammar is divided into four parts, viz. : OethoqraphY, Etymology, Syntax and Pkosody. Orthography teaches the art of spelling correctly. This must be clTiefly learned from the Spelling-book and Dictionary. Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, their va- rious inflections, and the derivation of words. • Syntax teaches the correct construction and arrangement of sentences. ^ Prosody teaches the '^\i%t pronunciation of sentences, and the rules of versification. CHAPTER IV. ORTUOGRAPHT. §1. ORTHoGRAniY treats of the nature and properties of letters, and of the art of spelling words correctly. Letters are the elements of written language, and the representatives of vocal sounds. Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its j)roper letters. Rules foji Spelling. Such is the irregularity of the English orthography and the diversified ways of spelling words, that a great deal cannot be done in acquiring the art of spelling by means of rules; yet, as some letters arc changed, some rejected, and others added in foiniing derivative words, by means of pre- fixes and suffixes to their respective ladicals, it is believed the following rules will be useful : i Eadicfd words are roots from which others are formed or derived. They arc couiparativcly few. Derivative words arc such as are formed from rad- ical words. They are ver}' numerous ; many are frequently derived from the same root ; as, from man, come manli/^ manliness, manful, vianfully, etc. Rule I. M'^nosyllabic radicals, ending in/, Z, or 8, generally double the final oon- soniint when it is preceded by a single vowel ; as hill, staff, pass. E.\C*<-'''nii!« — nf, if\ in .T!, /;/•* ^rns, y,:s, his, ""'• '" ""'^ '/•"«. Rule li. Those mono«yI"nMc rndicals which end in any consonant except/ /, or«, preceded by a ^i^ ■' ■ -r i ' •■* • i - . ■ .'.):, .i , ^, . i ,..,.. .-..,,. .,g^ man, hat, sit, ei . ExceptionB— A«/r, adJ, Out/, egg, odd, err, inn, Lunn, purr, buzz. V4 ♦ AWAtrVtOAt, llLtTSTRATITB AND Rule III. The fincal « of a radical word, is usually rejected when the suflSx com- mences with a vowel ; as, 7nove, mov-ing, aale, sal-able, please, pleas-ure. Exceptions — dyeing, to color, singeing, to scorch, retain the « to distinguish them from dying, to expire, and singing. Rule IV. The final « of a radical word, is generally retained when the suflBx com- mences with a consonant ; as, hope — hope-les»\ move — move-ment. Rule V. Words ending in Me, drop te before the suflBx cy ; as, private — priv-acp. Rule VI. Words ending in ant or ent, lose the t upon receiving the suflBx ce or ct/; »s frequent, frequency ; eminent, eminence ; arrogant, arrogan-ey. Rule VII. When words ending in y, preceded by a comonant, take the suflBxes, ea, est, ed, ness, and merit, the y is changed into i ; &s,Jiy, flies ; happy, hap- pier, happiiest, happiness; carry, carried y accompaiiy , accompaniment \ but, if the y is preceded by a voioel, it is retained ; as, luy, huy-er ; valley^ valleys. Rule VIII. When words ending in y, take the suffix ing, the y is retained ; fly, fly- ing ; try, try-ing. Rule IX. The final consonant of a monosyllable, if preceded by a single vowel, is doubled before a suflBx beginning with a vowel ; as, iag, lag-gage ; spot, tpot-ted. Rule X. When radicals which end in e, take the suffix ish or ing, the e is drop- ped; as, White, whi-tish ; Blue, ihie-ish ; Place, plac-ing. Rule XI. The final consonant of any word accented on the last syllable, if preceded by a single vowel, is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, Delar, debar-red; Occur, occur -rence. Rule XII. The final consonant, when not preceded by a single vowel, or when the word is not accented on the last syllable, remains single upon the addition of a suffix ; as, Spoil, spoil-ing ; Suffer, suffer-ed. RtJiE XIII. The final i of a radical word is omitted when the silffix begins with i ; as, Alkali, alkalise ; Dei, De-ifin. CONSTRUCTIVE ORAMMIR. RlLi; XIV The final 7/ of a radical word, when precede*! b}' the letter C, is general- ly rejected before a suffix beginning with a or o ; as, Purity^ j)urit-an; lelicity, /elieit-ous. Rule XV. Words ending in/or fe commonly change /"into v, when a suffix is ad- ded, beginning with a vowel ; as, Mischief, mischie-vous ; Wife, wines. Rule XVI, "Words ending in er or jective case indicates the object of an, action or a relation ; as, " Charles struck John on the head." Rem. 1. — NouDB may be divided into Material and Immaterial, Abstract and Sub- stantial. Rem. 2. — A Material noun is composed of matter; as, wood, atone, iron, water, etc. Rum. 3 — An Immaterial noun is not composed of matter; as, spirit, vanity pride. Ri-M. 4. — Abstract nouns are the names of qualities, abstracted or considered apart from the objects to which they belong; as, whiteness, coldness, roundness, honesty, etc. Rem. 5. — Substantial nouns are such as denote real existence, whether ^material or imrnuterial, as opposed to the mere creatures of the imagination or s\ich as denote the absence or non-existence of any thing; as, body, spirit, etc. Model. " Raleigh is the capital of North- Carolina." Raleigh is a Proper noun, of the Neuter gender, Third person, Singular, and in the Nomina^ tive case to is, according to Rule 1. /* is an Irregular, Intransitive verb, Indicative mode, Present tense, and is of the third person, Singular num- ber, agreeing with its Nominative Raleigh, according to Rule 6. Capital is a common noun of the Neuter gender, Third person, Singular number, and of the Nominative case, predicated of Raleigh, according to Rale 2. Of is a preposition, and connects capital and Jforth Carolina, and shows the relation between them. North Carolina is a Proper noun of the Neu- ter gender. Third person. Singular number, in the Oljecti'oe case, and governed by of, according to Rule 21. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. .79 Rem. — Parsing consists, first, in naming the part «f speech or class of words to which the word belongs; secondlj, in naming tho propertioc! or accidents belonging to it; and, thirdly, in pointing out the relations which it sustains to other words in a sentence — such as government, agreement, modifii'ation, etc. Exercises. Thomas is a boy. George went to Cincinnati in a Steamboat. The cat scratched the dog. The sun gives light. Fishes swim in the sea. The snail does not move quite so fast as the eagle or hawk. The Ohio is a beautiful river. I, John, saw the Holy City. James, where is John ? James' book lies on the table. New York is a large city. The Neuse is a navigable river. Adam named all creatures. The fire burns wood. I, Paul, am an apostle of Jesus Christ. The moon shines by night. Honesty is the best policy. Whiteness is the name of a quality. That law is a nul- lity. The army has encamped. Children play on the green grass. The nation mourns. Jesus fed the multitude. CHAPTER VIII VERBS. § 1, A Verb is a Avord which* asserts or affirms ; as, " The river floivs." Verbs are divided into Tfansitive and Intranslthe, Regular and Irregu- lar^ Auxiliary and Defective. A Transitive Verb has the power to affect an object ; as, " Jane writes letters." Transitive Verhs are distinguished by voice.] A Transitive Verb is in the active voice, when its nominative performs the action; as, '^Brutus slew Ciesar." A Transitive verb is in the passive voice when its nominative receives the action which it asserts ; as, " Ocu.vzr teas slain by ^rutus." A verb is Intransitive when it has no power to affect an object; as, "The hirdjlcs." A verb is Regular when its past tense and perfect .participle can be formed by annexing ed or d to the present tense ; as, walk.; walked ; love, loved. A verb is Irregular when' its past tense and perfect participle are formed by changing the form of the primitive word ; as, see, saw, seen. Av.riliary verbs help other verbs to form ]\L)des and Tenses ; as, do, be, will, have, ma3% can, must, might, could, would, shall, and should. A Defective verb can not be conjugated through all the Modes and Tenses ; as, ought. Verbs have Mode, Tense, Person and Number. * The verb ia .ilso used in tsking questions, coumauding, etc. ; but still it it? regarded as expressing something of the nature of an affirmation. t By voice is meant the iuncction or form of the verb, which akows the relation of the subject to the action expressed by it. 80 ANALYTICAL ILLUSTRATIV'S AN& SECTION I. MODES, § 2. Mode, from tlie Latin modus — manner, is the manner of representing affirmation. Verbs have five modes — the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Potential, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. The Indicative Mode affirmr, [lOHitively and without limitation ; as, ''She loves." The Suhjtinetive Mode afSrms a thing .«5uhject *o some condition or limir tatityi ; as, "If Eliza Ktudy, she will improve." The Potential Mrnfe expresses possibility, lihertj', power, -will, or obliga- tion ; as, " It may rain," etc. The Imperative IioJe is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting ; as, " Obey my precepts," etc. The Ivfivitite Moiie does not limit the affirmation to any particular sub- ject; ap, "Tow.alk," The Mode of the verb nripc; from the various tvaj^s in vrhich affirmation is made concerning the subject. The pupil's perception of Mode may be aided by an ocular illustration. This is done in Biaijram No. 3. 3" -Subjuncl LLtfc>jii.Jb:"'ik*£iii"J'Jil-'~>- The perpendicular o./.i ...r; represents th'e s»uV)joct of aiSrmation. Figure 1 represents what is affirmed indicatively ; as the figure is in juxta position with the subject, it shows that whatever i^ indicatively pre- dicated, belongs absolutely to the subject; as, "The bird flies.''' "Job was patient." Figure 2 illustrates the Subjunctive Mood, or what is predicated with some limitation ; as but one of the parailei lines* of which the figure is composed, is in juxta position with the subject, it shows that what is af- firmed of the subject, may or may not btlong to it; as, "If Job was pa- tient." "If the bird llv." CONSTRUCTIVB ORAMMAR. 81 Figure 3 illustrates the Potential Mode, or what is affirmed potentially ; as the fifjure is not in juxta position ^vitl^ the subject, it shows that what- ever is atFirined potentially, docs not belong absolutely to the subject, but only the probability, power, lit)erty, necessity, etc., of action or quality is predicated; as, "The bird can tly." "John may be good." Figure 4 illustrates the Imperative Mode, or what is affirmed imperatively. In this Mode, the subject is commanded to actor to possess a quality ; it is clear that at the time of command, the action or quality required does not exist in the subject, but, as it is presumed that the speaker has power to enforce obedience, there is a very strong probability that what is command- ed will be performed. The figure, therefore, though not in juxta position with the subject, is made to approach very near it; as, " Obey my pre- cepts." Figure 5 illustrates the Infinitive Mode ; as the figure is not connected with the subject, biit with the part of the diagram which represents the pie'licate, it shows that the Infinitive never makes a direct affirmation con- cerning the subject, but depends upon some other element in construction ; as, " lie went to join the army." In this example it is clear to join has no constructive relation with' the subject he; as, he to join would make bad soynse. SECTION II. TENSE . §3. Tknse, from the Latin fcj^^jtfs, means time. Tense, tlien, is the distinction of time. V.rhs hov(! six tenses — the Piiesknt, tiie Pas"^, the Puufkct, the Pluper- fect, the FcTUiiE, nnd tho FuTruu-PEKKKCT. ' Tlie Present tense denotes present time; as, ''I write." 'J'he Pii-st tunse denotes simply past tiniv ; as, " I wrote." The Perfect tense denotes what is past and finished, but is also connected with the present time; a.s, "I have written." The Pluperfect tense denotes time which is not simply past, hut prior to *some otlier time which is also [last ; at^, " I had wntcen the letter before the mail arrived." The Future tense denotes simply future time ; as, " I shall write." The Future- Perfect ten.se denotes an action that will be ])ast at or hefore A future time specified; as, " 1 shall have liuislied the work by the appoint- ed time." The pupi"s perception of the divi.sion of time, as indicated by the tenses of the Veil), may be greatly ait^ed by Diagram No. 4, which should be drnwn upon the Ulackboard, and fully explained. If there is sufficient rcom on the board, the Diagram should remain on it, that the pupil may compare the time indicated by the verb, which he may be paising, with that niarkcd upon the boaid. This will not only give the pupil a cleiirer idea of time, but it will also make a much more lasting impression on the memory. The space included by the vertical lines (1) represents present time. The f-p ice, on the lelt of the vertical lines, represents past time, and that on the riglit of the vertical lines, represents future time. 82 ANALYTIOAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND Figure 2, which consists of but one line, having no connection with the Present, illustrates the Past tense of the verb. This tense is properly used in speaking and writing, when both the event and the period of time in which it occurred are past ; as, "Philosophers made great discoveries last century." p,.& ■ e 5 \ . 6 • \ or end. , - ; ■ .. ..,_._.. ...- '. Figure 3, v»'hich consists of two parallel lines, illustrates the Perfect tense. This tense embraces a period of time which is not only connected with the present, but frequently extends into the future, as shown by the first line in the figure. This period, as a whole, consists of three compo- nent parts;— .the Event part, marked E, w'hich is past, the Speaking part, marked S, v^•hich is present, is the time occupied in uttering the sentence, and the Post-speaking part, marked P, which is future, denotes that portion of the period of time, subsequent to the uttering of the sentence. But the period embraced by this tense of the verb, sometimes only approaches the Present, as shown'by the second parallel line; this is the case when the, speaker refers to all the past part of his lift; ; as, " / ham never seen trees ^ so tall." This tense is correctly used in speaking aiui writing, when the period of time in which the event occurred, is connected with the Present; as, "I hare studied hard th\stoeeh" Fif'Ajrc 4, which consists of two lines connected, illustrates, the Pluper- fect tense. When two past events arc connected in sense, the Pluperfect is correctly employed in the prior past of the two events ; as, " The thief had escaped before" the goods were missed." That these two ai'e connected in sense, is obvious; for when the former is uttered, the piind is so much under the influence of the expectation of the latter, that it is disappointed if it is withheld. "The thief had esoaped"!— and wh;a else? before the goods were missed. Figure 5, which consists of a single line, illustrates the Future tense. This shows that this tense of the Verb denotes future time siipply, hav- ing no connection with any event or time. This tense is correctly used when future time is simply indic."ited. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 83 Figure 6, which consists of two lines connected, iUustrates the Future- Perfect tense. When two future events are connected in construction, thi'? tense is cor- recti}' used in the prior future of these two events; as, "John icill have completed his task by the nppointed time. This tense is called Future-Perfect, because the action or event will bo completed at or Icforc the post future event with which it is connected. SECTION III. PERSON AND NUMBER. » § 4. Person and Number are not mdejjenderU pj'opcrties of the Verb, for the verb depends upon its nominative for these pro- perties. Hence, in ol*der to know the person and number of the verb, you must look to its nominative. The variations which the verb undergoes, takes place principally in the Present tense, and are called pei'soual terminations. A nominative of the second person singular, solemn style, requires the verb to end in t, st, or est; but the same nominiitive, in familiar style, does not require the verb to assume these terminations ; bnt the verb generally takes the plural form. Some good writers, hoivever, associate a verbof the singular form with such a nominative, in the past tonse ; as, *' Withers, Where was you standing during the transaction ?"' A nominative of the third per.son, singular, familiar style, requires the verb to assume s or es for its personal terminations, and, in the solemn style, tJi or eth. The plural nominative of any person clears the verb of these tt^mina- ■ tions, and generally a nominative of the first person singular has the same effect. Rev. I. — Tho gecond ppr.-on singul.ar, solemn style, requires the variation of the verb in the past tense, ns vrell as in the present; '• Thou knewesf that I was an aus- tere njsn." " Thou m'(7/A-(y/.9< abroad before thou icasZ able." Tho diffi(^ulty of ut- tering such torrainations, especially in in e past tense of regular verb.'f, is no doubt one of the leading causes which has led to their disoontitiuance in familiar style. Even the society of Friends, who conscientiously adhere to the solemn style, has, in a great measure, rejected those terminations in f.imili.-ir intercourse; as, "Thou did put thy trust." " When thon was here.," etc. Those of them who have less gram- inatic.-d attainments, frequently substitute the objeotivo case thee for the nominative thou, and associate Vvitli it a ve b of the third person singular of tha present, a,a well as the past tense : a<>, " Is thee well ?" •' Did thef go to church ?" Rkm. 2. — When anxiliarios are employed, thoy always undergu the variations in- stead of the principal verb; as, '• Thou who hast been a witneKs of the fact,* caws^ state it." When the verb do is used as the principal verb, it takes tho termination est; as, "When thi;u doest alms," etc.; but, when it is used us an auxiliary, it takes the termination al; as, " Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock with its head of heath." Rem 3. — Those auxiliaries, used to form the potential mode, do not vary to agree with any noijiinjiiivp. exccnt n ndininativo of the second )>('rson singtdar, soUinn style; hnt mns I ; as, '|Thou must gu" S^ shonlJ be u^id, and not fsf. a • Thuu mightst, couldst, wiildst, or slwuldst Kkm. 4. — Tbo -i>lemn style is used in lb i Holy Scriptures in addresses t-^ the Deitv, and is penerBJIy prolerred in poetry. It is aluo^sed, nc has already been in. tim'itod, by Iho society of Friends, or Quakers, fr'iin cuuseientious scruples, nor should they be censured for this, bat, on the contrary, rather praised. 84 A>JXLTTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVB AND SECTION IV. CLASSIFICATION OF THE VERB. Authors differ very much with respect to the classification of the Tcrb. That given' by Mr. Murray is the most common. It divides verbs into three classes, viz., Active, Passive, and Neuter. The Neuter verb in this classification embraces all verbs, the passive excepted, which have no power to effect an object. But many of these verba possess the highest degree of action, ana flatly contradict Mr. M.'s definition of a neuter verb, viz., ''A verb neuter erpr«s«es neither action nor passion, but being, or a state of being." " The horse rz/zis." " The bird _^i<-s." Tell the pupil that runs and flies are neuter verbs, and, as sach, express no actven, and you will contradict the plainest Svidence of his senses, and introduce darkness and confusion into all his ideas of action. Rem. 2.— Others have divided the verb into four classes, viz.. Active Tnnsitive, Active Intranfitive, Passive and Neuter. This classification is preferable to the former; but by no means free from objections. It is no easy task, even by those skilled in language, to draw ihe lino of demarcation between tho intransitive and neuter verbs. " The child wept itself sick ; but it slept a short nap, and slept itself well again ;" and yet slept is called a neuter verb. Rem. 3. — Some, perceiving the dilSculties with which these theories are encum- bered, have, with one fell stroke, swept away all division, and clothed all verbs, without exception, with a transitive power. It is natural for man to run from one extreme to another; hence the difficulty in efi'ecting any reformation, of keeping within its proper limits. Rem. 4. — The classification which we have adopted, and which recognizes but two classes of the verb, viz.. Transitive and Intransitive, if not wholly free from objec- tions, appears to us ta be decidedly the best, inasmuch as it is the most simple, and EufiBcientiy comprehensive. Re:m. 6. — Nothing can be more obvious than the fact that every verb must either be transitive or intransitive , it either has the power to eflfect an object, or it has not. Where^ then, is the necessity for Neuter and Passive verbs. Thera \i nothing in nature which is perfectly quiescent — not a sinjrle particle of matter that is not acted upon by principles which necessarily produce motion • then we need no class of verbs to affirm what does not e.xist, or what is not the fact. " But they seem to be at rest." Why should we cavil about what seems to be, when we know what it. t- As to the paflsive verb, it is substantially transitive, according to Mr. Murray's own definition. "A verb passive," says he, " espresses a passion, or a sufl'erin j, or the recsiving of an action ; and necessarily implies an object acted upon, and an agent bj' which it is acted upon." Now, if a verb necessarily implies an agent ■which performs the action, atid an object which receives the action, what more is wanting to establish the transitive character of such a verb? But the passive does all this; then the passive verb is inevitably transitive. It not only has the power to afi'ect an object, but it absolutely does it; since the nominative is the object affected by sush a verb, Dr. Webster, speaking of the classification of verbs, says, " FrOm the various uses and significations of verbs, have originated several divisions or classes. The only one in°Eno'lish which seems to be correct, and sufliciently comprehensive, is into transitive and intransitive." #Rem. 6. — Voice is the only distinction necessary to be made in transitive verbs; this has already been explained. It may, hovrever, be proper to remark that the passive voice may sometimes be used to better advantage than the active. This is the cas», first, when wc wish to conceal the agent; as, "My knife is stolen ;" secondly, when the nominative of the passive verb is rhe principal subject of dis- course ; for instance, if one were writing ihelife of Csesar, in narrating the circum- stances of his assassination, it would be better to say that " Cajsar was assassinated by Brutus." than "Brutus a.'-sassiuated ( aesar;" and, thirdly, in order t'l prevent monotony when we wish to repeat a sentiment which has been expres'sed in the ac- tive voice. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 85 SECTION V. REMARKSONMODBS. , Astothenttme and number of Modes, it may bo observed that authors differ widely. W'e have, however, adopted both without fully approving of either. As a verb in the indicative mode affirms absolutely, without limitation, whether nffirmatively or negatively, if it extended no further, no objection eould bo urged against the name. But the indicative, as well as the potential, embraces interroga- tory expressions. Though there is something of the nature of an affirmation in every question, yet Ihero is a marked difTerence between a positive affirmation and 51 question ; hence Dr. Webster came to the conclusion that it would bo better to adopt a negative and an interrogative mode, were it not for the inconvenience of having modes of modes. Asthe diffarence between a negative and a positive affirma* tion, consists in the modifying influence exerted upon tho verb by the adverb not, and as the verb, considered apart from the adverb, expresses a positive affirmation, there is perhaps no real necessity for a negative mode ; but it se'ems to us, that an interrogative mode is desira.ble ; as it would prevent the extension of the indicativo and potential modes, to expressions evidently beyond their legitimate limits. As the term subjunctive implies something subjoined or added to the end, irrespec- tive of the nature of the affirmation, the name is objectionablo. It would bo much more appropriate, as Dr. Webstei* suggests, to call it the conditional mode. The subjunctive mode, as its name imports, is limited to a, gubjnined member, though this clause, by inversion, is some times placed first ; as, " If Eliza study, she will im*. prove." Mr. Murray says, " Tho subjunctive mode represents a thing under a con- dition, motive, wish, supposition, tto. ; as,'' I will respect him, though he chide me.' ' Were he good, he woulii be happy.' " We may infer from Mr. Murray's dehnition that no verb is in tho subjunctive mode, unless preceded by some conjunction, ex- pressed or understood ; this, however, is not the fact; for any word, whether verb or urlverb, that limits th? affirmation so as to bring it within the limits of the defini- tion, may cause the following verb to bo in the subjunctive mode ; xs," Suppose we go.^' "Beforr the cock croiD, thou sUalt deny me thrice." The verb in the present tense of this mode has two forms, called tho conjunctive and tho indicative. 1 ho conjunctive exprcs,'?e3 ^it^«/"e contingencfi. &od should be iimited in its use to what is called tho snbjunctive present; as, "He will not bo pardoned unless he repent." This form of expression, says Mr. Butler, will be per- fectly intelligible, if we suppose an ellipsis of an auxiliary ; thus, "Ho will not he pardoned, unless he^hall irpenf." The eorjunctivej or limiting word, in such con- structions, expresses the contingency, and the verb, the futurity. Those words which express contingency, not only change the indicativo to the subjunctive, but also the potential ; as, " If he should g-o.'' Some authors, however, in such expres- sions, call the verb potential. The indicative form expresses a present nnccrtainty ; as, "If he is at home, ho will attend to the business." Some authors of high standing think the Potential should be embraced in the Indicative; since, in such expressions, as '• I can walk," the nbilitff to walk is posi- tively affirmed. It must be borne in mind, however, that these authors regard the uuxiliiiru'R, wnt/, can, mn.cen. 2. You have been, 3. They have been, PLUPBUiFECT TENSE. 1. We had been. 2. You had been. 3. They had been. FUTURE TENSE. 1. We shall or will be. 2. You shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 1. I shall or will have been. 2. Thou shalt or wilt mive been. 3. He shall or will have been. FUTURE -PERFECT TENSE. 1. We shall or will have been. 2. You shall or will have been. 3. They shall or will have been. Rem. 1. — The form of tlio present indicative, as exhibited in the foregoinj;, is tho form DOW used bj onr best writers and y^.CHkers ; but a different form formerly prevailed, and is generally found in o^ur translation ot the Biliie; as, "There 6f some standing here," etc. This form consists in trie use of be without any var^- tion, except when it agrees with a nominative of the second perbon, siigular, sol- elmn style; as, Singular. Plural. 1. I be. I. We be. 2. Thou beest. 2. Ye or you be. 3. He be. 3. They be. Rem. 2.— The subjunctive mode has two foriu^ in the present and two in the past. The first form in the present is similar to the corresponding tenses of the indicative, and expresses a ;?reae«< wnceriain/y ; as, "If I mn." The second form expresses a future contingency ; ps, •' If I be," i. e , "If i shall be." This form is sometimes called the elliptical future, or conjunctive form ; because the auxiliary is not expressed. The first form of the ^as< tense corresponds in form wi'.h the same tense in the indicative, and implies past vncerlainty. If I was, implies doubt whether 7 Mjfls or «ot This may be called the common form. Tte second form is called the hypothetical, and contaius a suppo.-ition ; as, •' // / jcere,"— this suppo es / (lOT ;iof. (See Remarks on Tenses.) A lull display of these forms i» exhibited in the following : SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singvlar. 1. 7/1 am. 2. //■ thou art or 3'ou are. 3. If he is. Plurc^l. 1. If we are. 2. ff ye or you are. 3. If they are. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 09 ELLIPTICAL FUTURE. Singular. Plural. l.Ifl be. 1. // we be. 2. If thou be. 2. If ye or you be. 3. If he be. 3. If they be. PAST TENSE OR CeMMON FORM. \. If I was. 1. If we were, 2. If thou wast. 2. //' you were. 3. If he was. 3. ^f they were. HTPOTHETICAL FORM. 1. Were I, or if I were. l.,Were we, or if we were. 2. Wert thou, or if thou wert. 2. .Were you, or */* you were. 3. Were he, or if he were. 3. Were they, or if they were. PERFECT TENSE. 1. //" I have been. 1. If yve have been. 2. If thou hast been. 2. i/' you have been. 3.. Jf he has been. 3. If they Jiave been. • PLUPERFECT TENSE. 1. If I had been. 1. If \\e had been. 2. //" thou hadst been. 2. 7/" you had been. 3. If he had been. 3. If they had been. FUTURE TENSE. 1. If I shall or will be. .1. Xf we shall or will be. 2. //' thou shalt or will be. 2. J/" you shall or will be. 3. If he shall or will be. 3. If they shall or will be. FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 1. //■ I shall or will have been. 1. If we shall or will have been. 2. //■ thou shalt or wilt have been. 2. //' you shall or will have been. 3. If he shall or will have been. 3. If they shall or will have been. POTENTIAL i^ODE. * PRESENT TENSE. Singular. ,' Plural. 1. T may,' can, or must be. 1. We may, can, or must be. 2. Thou niayst, canst or must be. 2. You may, can, or must be. 3. He may, can, or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be. PAST TENSE. 1. Might, could, would, or should 1. Might, could, would, or should be. be. 2. Mi^htst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. Might, could, would, or should shouldst bo. be. 3. Might, could, would, or should bo. 3. Might, could, would or should be. 90 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND PERFECT TENSE. Singutir. 1. May or must have been. 2. Mayest or must have been. 3. May or must have been. Plural. • 1. May or must have been. 2. May or must have been. 3. May or must have been. PLUPERFECT TENSE. % 1. Might, could, would, or should 1. Might, could, would, or should have been. have been. 2. Mightst, couklst, wouldst, or 2. Might, could, would, or should shouldst have been. have been. 3. Might, could, would, or should ?>. Might, could, would, or should have been. have been. IMPERATIVE MODE. Singular. riural. 2. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be yo or you. INFINITIVE MODE. PRESENT. Perfect. To be. To have been. PARTICIPLES. IMPERFECT. PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. Being. Been. Having been, REGULAR VERBS. § 2. A verb is regular when the Past Tense and Perfect Far- ticiple are formed by annexing d or ed to the root of the verb ; if the root ends in e, d only is annexed ; as, Love, loved. AVhen the root ends in any other letter except e, and forms its Past Tense and Perfect Participle by annexing d only, the verb is irregular ; as, Hear, heard, heard. CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB TO LOVE, IN THE • ACTIVE VOICE. Present Infinitive. Lore. I love, Thou lovest, He loves. Principal Parts. Past Indicative. Loved. INDICATIVE MODE. Perfect Participle. Loved. pluperfect. I had loved. Thou badst loved, He had loved. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 91 PAST. I loved, Thou lovedst, He loved. PERFECT. I have loved, Thou hast loved, He has loved. FUTURE. I shall or will love, Thou shalt or wilt love, He shall or will love. FUTURE PFUFECT. I shall have loved, Thou wilt have loved, He will have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. If I love, Tf thou love or lovcst, I he love or loves. Tf I loved, If thou lovedst. If he loved. PERFECT. If I have loved. If thou hast loved, If he has loved. PLUPERFECT. If I had loved, If thou hadst loved, If he had loved. FUTURE. If I shall or will lore, If thou shalt or wilt love, If he shall or will love, FCTUKE-PERFBCT. If I shall have loved. If thou ahalt have loved, If he shall have loved. POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT. I may, can, or must love, Thou mayst, canst, or must love, He may, can, or mast love. PAST. T could love. Thou couldst love. He could love. PERFECT. I can have loved. Thou canst have loved, He can have loved. PLUPEKFECT. I could have loved. Thou couldst have lov«d, He could have loved. PRESENT. To love. IMPERFECT. Loving. IMPERATIVE MODE. ^^-'Ove. Love thou. INFINITIVE MODE. PERFECT. To have loved. PARTICIPLES. PERFECT. Loved. PLUPERIKCT. Having loved. THE PASSIVE VOICE. § 3. The Passive voice is formed by prefixing the variations of the verb to he to the Perfect Participle of a Transitive verb. 92 ANALYTICAL, CONSTRUCTIVE AND throughout all the modes and tenses. No Intransitive verbs can have voice ; since they can have no object. They gene- rally have the Active form, though a few of them admit of the Passive ; as, " He is gone," etc. As a verb in the plural num- ber undergoes no variation, whatever may be the person of its nominative, it is admitted both in this and the next preceding. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO LOVE, IN THE PASSIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT. I am loved, Thou art 1 You are loved. ( Thou art loved, 8. He is loved. 1. I was loved, f, 5 Thou wast loved, \ You were loved, 8. He was loved. 1. I have been loved, f. rrhou hast been loved, ■ ( You have been loved, 8. He has been loved* PLUPERFECT, 1. I had been loved, q j Thou hadst been loved, f You had been loved, 3. He had been loved. FUTURE. 1. I shall or will be loved, 2 S Thou shalt or wilt be loved, \ You shall or will be loved, 8. He shall or will be loved. FUTtTRE-PEBFECT. 1. I shall or will have been loved, 2 S Thou shalt or wilt have been loved, ' (You shall or will have been loved, 8. He shall or will have been loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. If I am loved, \ If thou art loved, ] If you are loved, •If he is loved. Or thus. If I be loved, j If thou be loved, ) If you be loved, If he be loved. PERFECT. 1. If { have been loved, 2 3 If thou hast been loved, \ If you have been loved, 3. If he has or hath been loved. PLUPERFECT. ^ 1. If I had been loved, „ j If thou hadst been loved, If you had been loved. If he had been loved. 1. If I was loved, ^ \ If thou wast loved, *"■ ) If you was or were loved, 3. If he was loved. If I shall or will be loved, j If thou shalt or wilt be loved, (If you shall or will be loved. If he shall or will be loved. CONSTRUCTIVJt OKAMMAR. O'i Or thus. FITIRE-PERFECT. 1. If I were loved, 1. If I shall have been loved, 2 ( If thou wert loved, o Hf thou shalt or wilt have been loved, ) If you were loved, *" \ If you shall have been loved, 8. If he were loved. 8. If ho shall have been loved. ^ POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT. 1. I may, can, or must bo loved, o \ Thou inayst, canst, or must be loved, /You may, can, or must be loved, 3. He may, can, or must be loved. PAST. 1. T might, could, would, or sb«uld be loved, _ J Thou uiightRt, couldst, wouldst, or should I You might, could, would, or should be lov 3. He might, could, would, or should be loved 1. I may, can, or must have been loved, cy jThou mayst, canst, or must have been loved, / You may, can, or must have been loved, 8. Ho may, can, or must have been loved. PLUPEKFECT. 1. T might, could, would, or should have been loved, 2 f Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been loved, I You might, could, would, or sitould have been loved, 3. He might, could, would, or should have been loved, IMPERATIVE MODE. Be loved, or Be thou lov©d, or Do thou be loved. INFINITIVE MODE. PRESENT. PERFECT, To bo loved. To have been loved, PARTICIPLES. IMPERFECT. PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. Being loved. Loved, Having been loved. 10 94 ANALYTICAL, CONSTRUCTIVE AND INTERROGATIVE CONJUGATION. Rem. — It has already been remarked that both the Indicative and Potential modes are employed in asking questions. PRESENT. Singular, Plnral. 1. Love I ? 1. Love we ? o ] Lovest thou ? 2. Love ye or you ? ■ J Love you ? 3. Love they ? 3. Loveth or loves he ? The foregoing form is but little used. The following is the usual mode of asking questions : PRESENT. Smgnlar. Plural. 1. Do I love ? 1. Do we love ? „ f Dost thou love ? o jDoye love? ■• I Do you love ? ' /Do you love? 8. Does he love ? 3. Do they love ? 1. Did I love ? 1. Did we love ? Q S Didst thou love ? c, S Did ye love ? / Did you love ? "" ) Did you love ? 8. Did he love ? 3. Did they love ? 1. Have I loved ? 1. Have we loved ? jj \ Hast thou loved ? * ^ S Have ye loved ? ""' / Have you loved ? ' { Have you loved ? 3. Has or hath he loved ? 3. Have they loTed ? • PLUPERFECT. 1. Had T loved ? . 1. Had we loved ? \ Hadst thou loved ? „ < Had ye loved ? jH£ ad you loved ? ' } Had you loved ? 3. Had he loved ? 8. Had they loved ? 1. Shall I love ? 1. Shall we love ? „ S Shalt or wilt thou love ? „ j Shall or will ye love ? ■ \ Shall or will you love ? ' / Shall or will you love ? 3. Shall or will he love ? 3. Shall or will they love ? FUTUEEPEKFECT. 1. Shall I have loved ? 1. Shall we have loved ? 2 j Shalt 07- wilt thou have loved? o j Shall or will ye have loved ? ] Sliall <)?■ will you have loved ? ' ^ Shall or will you have loved ? 8. Shall or will he have loved ? 3. Shall or will they have bved ? f 00N8TRUCT1VB ORAyMAK. 95 POTENTIAL MODE. PKESENT TEN8E. Singular. Plural 1. Can I love ? 1. Can we love ? 2, Canst thou love ? . 2. Can ye love J 8. Can he love ? 3. Can they love ? All the other tenses of the Potential Mode, can be employed in asking questions. Rem. — A negative question is generally equivalent in 'v«rbal force to a^positive agsertion ; as, "Can I not love ?"=r can lovo. "Shall not tho Judge of all the oarth do right ?"=The Judge of all the earth shall do right. CHAPTER X. AUXILIARY VERB3. Auxiliary verbs are monosyllabic words joined to other verbs, by whose aid the principal verb is chiefly conjugated. They were once used as principal verbs, and a few of thcui still retain that character; hence they may be •divided into two classes, viz., such as are substantially auxiliary, and such as are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes used as principal verbs. Those which are substantially auxiliary, are may, can, munt, shall, might, could, would, and should ; and those which are sometimes used as principal verbs, are do, be, have, and will. Might, could, would, and should are gen- erally regarded as the past tense of mat/, can, will, and shall. But as the time, indicated bj'- these auxiliaries, is exceedingly indefinite, learners are frequently misled by supposmg that those which are said to be in the pre- sent tense, always point out present time, and those which are said to be in the past tense, point ont piist lime. This, however, is far from being the case ; for those in the present tense, as frequently point future time as pre- sent, and those of the past tense point out present and future, as well as p>ast time. Thoujih these auxiliaries have lost Auch of their original import, yet tbey all impart a sha3c of meaning to the verbal expression which demands explanation. }Iay implies liberty or possibility ; as, " Yc 7nay have life." • *' It way rain." ^l/u5« implies necemty ; as, '■'Vftmust cat and drink." The original import of shall is that oi obligation or to be obliged; as, " Thou shall not steal." Though shall has lost its original meaning in the first person, it generally retains it in the second and third. In the first per- son it i>\mp\y foretelli or predicts ; as, "I shall visit New York next sum- mer; but, in the sfco/ir^ and third persons, it generally threatens ov com- mands, and implies power in the speaker to compel obedience. Hence we may perceive the ini|)ropricty of using shall in addressing the Supreme Being, or in speaking of tilings or events over which the speaker has no control ; as, "Thou shalt not suffer thy holy One to see corruption." "The Lord shall fight for us." " Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life." 96 ANALYTICAL, ILLU^'RATIVE AND , • Dr. Webster justly remarks that no human being has a right to use words respecting God vfhich implj- authority or command. In the example cited, 'icill is the proper auxiliary', expressing prediction. This meaning of shall., however, must be understood with some limita- tion ; for, when shall is not utter«<] emph;\tically, or when preceded by such words as when., while., whoei^er, if] jn-ovided, etc., it has nothing of the meaning of command or threatening ; as, " \V!ien you shall ha. ;ination, which is, perhajs, to be com- pleted m future time. Hence it involves the idea both of present and fu- ture time ; and as the present resolution to carry out, and complete some event in the future, may be predicated upon the existence of the same thing in lime prior to the uttering if the resolution, it niav, by an associa- tion of ideas, hIso involve the id^a of time past; as. " IVe %cill serve the Lord," i. (?., "We have served the Lord, we are now serving the Lord, and we will continue to serve the Lord. ' The principal uses. of do as an auxiliary, are to impart emphasis to decla- rations, and to ash questions ; as, " I do say it." " lie did go." "Do you mean what you sny ?" "Did he visit Rome ?" It is sometimes used as a suVjstitute for some other verb, used in a pre- ceding sentence ; as, " Henry loves his bock ; but John dbes not." iJo, as a principal verb, is transitive, and signifies to act or to malce. Hate is also a transitive verb, and signifies to possess. It is extensivejy used as an auxiliary, and is frequently used to prevent the repetition of the principal verb ; as, "Mar}' has not seen New York; but her sister has," i. c , has seen New York, Be is very extensively used, and, as it signifies existence, is called the uhstantive verb. CONSTRUOTIVE OaAMMAR. 97 Cmi implies power dV ability ; Ss, "He can go," i. e., He has the power or ahility to go. Eem. — No ausiliary verb has more than two tenses, viz., tlw Present and Past; and they are briefly represented as follows : PKESE.NT. PAST. PRESBNT. PAST. PRESEXT. PAST. PRESBSr. PAST May, Might; Can, coul. lie has or hath had 3. The}' have had. PLCPEKFECT TENSE. 1. I liad had. 1. We had had. ^ ( Thou hadst had. <, (Ye had had. I You had had. "'' ] You had had. S. He had had. S. They had had. FLTUUE TENSE. 1. T shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have. f> i Thou shalt or will have. f, | Ye shall or will have. ■"■ { You shall or will have. "' j You shall or will have. 3. lie .shall or wiJl have. .3. They shall or will have. 98' ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND FUTURE-PERFECT. • Singxilar. Plural. 1. I shall have had. 1, We shall have had. 2 f Thou shalt ar wilt have had, 9 . ( Ye shall or will have had. \ You shall cr will have had. *'■ \ You shall or will have had. 3. He shiall ov will have hai, 3. Thev shall or will have had. g CIIAPTEE, XI. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. § 1. The Present tense of the Infinitive is the root or sim- plest form of the verb. The Past tense of the Indicative and Subjunctive modes of regular verbs is formed by anncaing d or ed to the root^ or by prefixing did, to the root ; as, Love, loved, Walk, walked, or did walk; and of irregular verbs by va- rying the root, or prelixiug did to it-, as, 1 nee, I naw, (ir did see. Tht Perfect teniae is formed by prefixing liacc or its variations to i\\Q Perfect Participle; as, "I have loved." The Pluperfect is formed by pre'ixing had to the Perfect Participle ; as, " I had loved." The Future is formed by prefixing shall or will to the root of the verb ; ts, ""I shall or will love." The Future-Perfect is formed by prefixing shall or will have to the Per- fect Participle ; as, " I shall have loved." The Present tense of the Potential mode, as it is commonly called, is formed bj prefixing may^ can, or must to the root of the verb ; as, "I may, can, or must love." The Past is formed by prefixing might, could, would, or ghould to the roftt ; as, "I might, could, would, or should love." The Perfect tense is foruied by prefixing may, can, or must have to the Perfect Participle \ as, " I maj' have loved." The Pluperfect is formed by prefixing might, could, imii,ld, or should have to the Perfect Participle; as, "I might have loved." The Present tense of the lufinilive is formed by prefixing to to the root of the verb; as, *'To love." The Perfect is formed by prefixing to hate to the Perfect Participle ; as, " To have loved." Kem. 1 —The time indicated by the tenses of the Potential mode is much moro indefinite ihan that of the Indicative mode, or even the Subjunctive mode. That called the Present tense is applicable to future as well as present time ; and what is called the Past tense is applicable to present time as well as past. Some authors, ihercfore, call these tenses Indefinite ; to this opinion the author roadilv subscribes. In this sentence, "John may go to morrow." to reijuire the lean er to parse the verb may go in the Present tense, would contradict the eviiicnce of his senses, and confuse his ideas of time as indicated hy the tenses of the verb. It would, therefore, be much better to call both thes« tsc-es iNrEFiNiTJB. CONSTRUCTIVE OUAMMAR, 99 Rem. 2. — Ths Indicative and Subjunctive modes have six tenses each ; the Po- tential has four, or more properly speiikinfj, three, viz.: the Indefinite (Present aad Past)' the Perfect and Pluperfect; the Imperative, one, viz: the Present; and the Infinitive, tieo, viz. : Present ami Perfect. Rem. '^. — Defeciive verbs generally have no modification of form to show their tense ; some of them undei^o no variation to agree with nominatives of different numbers and persons — such as Quoth. This verb is only used in the Present and Past tenses, and only with nominatives of theirs/ and third persons, before which it is .always construed ; as, '" Quoth I, quoth he," etc.* Rem. 4.— Though ought was once used as the Past tense of owe, it is not so em- ployed now. As it has no variation to e.xpress tense, its tense ean only be inferred from ihe tense of the Infinitive with which it is invariably construed. If ought is followed by the Present Infinitive, it is generally gaid to be in me Present tense ; as, "These things ought not so to be." But, if it is connected with the Perfect In- finitive, it is said to be in the Past tense; as, "This ought yo to have done." CHAPTER XII. IRREGULAR VERBIS. § 1. Irregular verbs may be divided into four classes : 1st, Such as have a different form in each of their parts ; as, go, went, gone ; write, wroto, written. 2(1. Such verbs as have the Past tense and Perfect Participle alike, but both differ from the root ; as, teach, taught, taught; fight, fought, fought. 3d. Are such verbs as have the Present tense and Perfect Participle alike, but both have a form diil'erent from the Past tense ; as, run, ran, run. 4th. Are monotonous, having the same form in all their parts; as, let,, let, lut ; set, set, set. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. TRESENT. PAST. Abide aJjodo Am was Awake awoke, Rf Arise arose Bear (to bring forth) bore Bear (to carry) bore Beat" beat Become became Begin began Bend bent, R Bereave bereft, R Beseech besought Bid , bid, bado Bind bound Bite bit PERFECr-PAETICPLE. abode been awaked arisen born borne beaten, beat become begun bent bereft, R besought bidden, bid bound bitten, bit •It is only need in ludicrous ptylc. +Tho8o verbs who»e Past tense and Perfect Participle are followed by R, ha\x» al^o a r^-g- jxlar farm ; ae, Awa;kb or awajw. 100 PRESEVi: Bleed Blow Break Breed Bring. Build Burn- Burst Buy Cast Catch' Chide Chooge Cleave (tO' adhere) Cleave (to split) Cling Clothe- Come Cost Creep Crow- Cut Dare Deal Dig Do Draw Dreans Drink Drive Dwell Eat Engrave Fall Feed Feel Fight Find Flee Fling Fly Forsake Freeze Freight Get Gild Gird Give Go Grave Grind Grow .ilNALmCAL, ItLUSTRAXrVI AXD PERFECT-PA KTICIPLE. bled bled blew blown broke brpken ' bred bred brought brought built, R built burnt, R burnt, R burst burst bought bought, cast cast caught, E caught, R chid chidden, chid chose chosen cleaved cleaved clove, cl'efl cloven clung clung clud, R clad, R came come cost cost crept crept crew, R crowed cut cut durst dared dealt, R dealt, R dug, R dug, R did done drew drawn dreamt, R dreamt, R drank drunk, drank drove driven dwelt dwelt ate, eat eaten, eat* engraved engraven, engraved foil fallen fed fed felt felt fought fought found found fled fled flung flung flew flown forsook forsaken froze frozen freighted fraught, R got got, gotten gilt, R .gilt, R girt, R girt, R gave given went gone graved graven, R ground ground grew grown *Eat, in the patt SiBifta sara perfect participle, sliotild' be pronouncsd et. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. lUl PRESENT. Hang* Have Hear Heave How Hide Hit Hold Hurt Keep Kneel Knit Know Latle Lay Lead Leave Lend Let Lie (to recline) Light Load Lose Make Mean Meet Mow Pay Pen (to enclose) Put Quit Read Rend Rid Ride Ring Rise Rive Run Saw Say See Seek Seethe Sell Send Set Sit Shake Shape Shave .Shear PAST. PIRFECT PARTICIPLE. hung hung had had. heard heard hove, R hovcn, R hewed hewn hid hidden, hid hit hit held held hurt hurt kept kept knelt, R knelt, R knit, R knit, R knew Icnowa laded laden laid laid led led left Jeit lent lent let let lay lain lit, R lit, R loaded laden, R lost lost made made meant meant met met mowed mown paid paid pent, R pent, R put put quit, R quit. R read , read rent rent rid rid rode riddoQ rang, rung rung rosej risen rived riven ran run sawed sawn, R said said saw seen sought, soug,ht sod, R sodden sold sold sent sent set set sat sat shook shaken shaped shapen, R shaved shaven, R sheared shorn, R * Hang, n the sense of to execute, is regular. 11 102 ANALYTICAL ILLUSTRATIVE AND PRESENT. Shed Shine Shoe Shoot Show- Shred Shrink Shut Sing Sink Slay Sleep Slide Sling Slink Slit Smite Sow (to scatter) Speak Speed Spell Spend Spill Spin Spit Spread Spring Stand Steal Stick String Stink Stride Strike Strive Strew or strew, Swear Sweat Sweep Swell I Swim Swing Take Teach Tear Tell Think Thrive Thrust Tread Wax Wear Weave Weep PERFECT PARTICIPLE. shed shed shone shone shod shod shot shot showed shone shred shred * shrank, shrunk shrunk shut shut iSang, sung sank, sunk sung sunk ■lew- slain slept slid slept f-liilden, slid slung slunk slung slunk slit slit, R smot^ smitten sowed sown, R spoke sped spelt, R spoken sped spelt, R spent spilt, R ' spent spilt, R spun spun spit spr«ad spit spread sprang, sprung stood sprung stood stole stolen stuck stuck strung strung stunk stunk strode, strid stridden struck struck, stricken strove striven strowed or strewed, strown or strewn swore sworn swe«t sweat swept swelled swept swollen, R swam, swum swum swung swung took taken taught taught tore torn told told thought thought throve thriven thrust thrust trod trodden, trod waxed waxen, R wore worn wove woven wept wept CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 1 '^•'^ TRKSENT. TAST. PEKFBCT PARTICiriE. Wet ^^ et, R \vct, R ^ Whet whet, R '"het, R Win won won Wind wound wound Work wrought, R wrought, R Wring wruns wrung I Write wrote written Rex. 2— As the reader of the BiMe %vill frequently meet with forms of the yvrb which are now obsolete, consequently they do not :ipi>ear in the List, a few of th.se are given in the following : PRESENT. PASX. rEUFKCT PAUTICII'LE. Bear (to carry) hare ' J^'Tno Bear (to bring forth) bar>i born Xrivo drave driven Oot P"* gotten Skew «/"-"'^'^ *^^f" Bpea-k f^pake spoken Bem.3.— Those imrAed ia italics are oboolete. CHATTER XIII. GENERAL KE 51 ARKS ON THE VERB. As some verbs which have the same form have a different siguiacation, care must he taken not to confound them together. When ret'irn moans to come back, it is iDtrnnfitivo. but, when it means to rcjilare. it is Transitive ; as, " When cm jou res hliisk deeper swoeta." '■ lie sleeps tho d' ep of death."'' '• Let me die the death of the righteous. The learner should bear in mind that ho may learn to know the tense of t.ia verb by the sign and formation of the tenses, without knowing how to .apply tlie tense properly in speaking and writing : hence the necessity of studying thorough- ly the philosophy of the tenses, as exhibited ia tha Diagram of Time and it^/'X- planation. The following exercises contain a complete variety of the Voice--, Modes, and Tensas. Each verb should be carefully parsed, and comparod with lUu diagrams of modes and tenses, as exhibited in the following model : 3{od,i. " C;«sar was .<;lain by Brutus." Wds slain is ati irreg;iil;iv, transitiye verb, passive voice, indicative mode, past tcn.se, and is of thf^thir,/. person, singular number, agreeing with its nominative C;osiir, according to Rule 6. Question.'^.— Why i.s was slain nomuiaiive receives the action. Who performed it? Brutus. NVhy in the indicstivetnode? Because it affirms without limitation. What figuro in the diagram illustrate^ it? Figure 1. How docs it illustrate it ? .\,s the iigure is in juxta position with that part of the diag»:im which represents the subject, it showb that wh.itever is indicdtively afiarmed, belongai 104 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATITE AND absolutely to the subject. Why in the past tense? Because the period of time in which the event occurred, is wholly past. What figure in the diagram illustrates it? Figure 2. How ? As the figure has no connection with that part of the diagram which ropresents present tirae, it shows that the period of time in which the event occurred is wholly past. Why of the third person, singular ? B«cause its nominative is. Exercises. John will go, if Henry will go with him. The sun shines to-day, though it may be cloudy tomorrow. Dawn on our darkness, and lend us thine aid. The gospel ini^it be preached among all nations. The work can be done. The sun has set behind tho western hills. When will day dawn on iLi ui'^ht of the grave? The evil that men do, lives after them ; but the gcod is oft interred with their bones. I may have been mistaken. Thou h'/'^i betrayed thy friend, and ruined thyself This ought ye to have done, and not to leave the other undone. He will have visited me three times, if h.' come next week. If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died. He had written his letter before the mail arrived. Let us go hence. Take heed how ye hear. He might have returned sooner. He could do the work better. Hear; for I will speak of excellent things. Lord, thou wilt hear me when I pray . I am forever thine ; I fear before thee all the day, Nor would I dare to sin. From your fair cheek, the rose may fade By sickness in a day ; Your beauty, in the dust, be laid, Yet Marjr's part will stay. CHAPTER XIV. PARTICIPLES. Participles from the Latin particijpium^ a partaker, is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of the verh^ and also of the adjective ; but depends upon a noun or pronoun in construction. Verbs have three Participles— the Imperfect^ the Perfect, and the Plw perfect. The Imperfect participle is formed by annexing ing to the first form or root of the verb ; rs, Talk, talking. This participle is called Imp«rfect, because it denotes an unfinished state t)f the action or verbal denotement. The Perfect participle is formed by annexing d or ed to the Present tene;* of regular verbs ; as, Smile, smiled. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 106 It is; called Perfect hecAxiae it denotes the finished state of the action or verbal denotement . The Pluper/est participle is formed by prefixmg havi7i(7 to the perfect participle ; as, " Raving written the letter, he mailed it." _ It is called PZuperfeci because it implies more than tlio Pcrloct. Tins parlicipl* mot only denotes the finished state of the action, !)ut also as having; been completed before the time indicated by the principal verb of the sentence with which it is associated. AuUiors are not agreed with regard to the names assigned to these parti- ciples. They have been named as follows:— The Present or Imucrlcct, the Perfect, and Compound.— JTirA'/iaw. The Present, Perfct, and ^mpound- VQricct.—Ingersoll, Bullions, and others. The Present, Past, and Perfect— Greene. The Imperfect Perfect and Pluperfect— G^oo/'*^ JJroicn. We have adopted the last mentioned, for the following reason :— Partici- ples do n»t, in our judgment, derive their names from tlie time which they indicate, but from the state of the action which they express. Then, when a Participle denotes the unfinished state of the action or ver- bal denotement it may, with propriety, be called Lnper/ect; it may be called Perfect yfhen it expresses the finished state of the verbal denotctnent ; and, with equal propriety, it may be denominated Pluperfect, when it im- plies action completed previous to the time indicated by the verb with which it is associated. . . .« . Participles, like verbs, have an actke »nd pastvoe signification ; as, Hav- in: Webster's Improved Grammar of the English Language. Rbk. 2. — Self is not unfrequently annexed to the personal pronouns to render them emphatic, and to point out the speaker as the real agent of the act, in contra- distinction to its having been done by proxy ; as, "The sun himself must die." " I did it myself." In such-eases they are generally called compound personal pronouns, and are used in the nominative and objective cases ; but never in the possessive j but they may be parsed simply as personal pronouns. Rem. 3. — It is frequently used without any definite antecedent, standing merely for a state of things ; as, " It is cold," " It rains, " It freezes," etc. " It, also ad- mits of the predication of a noun or pronoun of any gender, person, or number ; as, " It is the Lord," " It is she," " It is they," " It is he," " It is I," " It is thou." Model 1st. John studies, and he will improve. Re is a personal pronoun, masculine gender, third person, singular number, agreeing with its ante- cedent John, according to Rule 12, and nominative case to the verb tcill imjjrovc, according to Rule 1. QucstioTis. — Why is Re a pronoun? Because it represents or stands for a noun. Why personal? Because it has a form to show its own person. Why of the masculine gender, third person, singular ? Because its antece- dent t/bAn. is. Wky nominative case? Because it is the subject of the verb in its own clause. EXBKCISES. I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge. We improve ourselves by close application. Young ladies, you study your lessons care- fully. If I go away, I will come again, and receive you to myself. If any man serve me, him will my Father honor. Horace, thou learnest many lessons. John lost his knife, and Henry found it. He did it him- self. It is very warm. It snows very fast. It is I; be not afraid. It was the women who first visited the sepulchre. It was Peter who first preached the gospel to the Gentiles. Day was descending in the west when I brought his arms to Crothar ; the aged hero felt them with his bands ; joy brightened his thoughts. Model 2d. " Yours of the fifth instant has come to hand." Yours is a substitute for your letter, and in the nominative case to ?ias come, accord- ing to Rule 1. AHALTTICAL, ILLUSTItATIVli AND 109 Exercises. Julia injured her book, and soiled mine ; hers is better than mine. We leave your forests of besists for ours of men. Tho Lord knows them that are his. Your letter of the 20Ui of this month, like the rest of yours, tells me with so much more wit, sense, and kindness, than mine can express. There everlastinfi; spring abides, And never-with'ring flowers ; Death, like a narrow sea, divides This Heavenly land from ours. CHAPTER XVI. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. § 1. Relative Pronouns are such as relate to some word or phrase going before, called the antecedent. They arc irho^ which and that, and their compounds, such as whichever, whoever, whatever, etc. Who and its compounds are ajjplied to persons only^ lohich to brutes and things, and that to both persons and things. W ho and its compounds are declinable; as, Noni. Who, Poss. Whose, Ohj. Whom. Which and that are indeclinable. When the antecedent is qualified by an adjective in th« auperhitife de- gree, or the specifying adjective same, euphony requires that that should be used in preference to who or lohich ; as, "' Ject : ypt vre soe no tjooi reason why such expressions as a r^ozon, a hundred, a thousand, etc., should ;K/f in most cases be parsed -is complex ■idjeriircs or us a is a contraction of an, tUo AD'j,lo-Saxon ant- one, it may be yarstjii |js a stcondary adjective. Hbm. Z.—A is fcomotimes used ju a priipositioaal sense, and with the meaning of by . at, to, on, etc. ; '• a*, *' He gets twenty dollars a month," thatjis, by the month. '* Wo go a fishing," that is, at or to fishirfg. " He went ashore," that is, at or on shore*^" The'ajticle is perhaps too simple as an article to need a Modal; but we will pro- aent one uied in a more complex sense. Model. "I like this the least of all." The least is a complex adverb, and modifies like, according to Rule 25. JSXERCISES. A great man is fallen in Israel. Alexander the Great, who conquered the world, was conquered by his own passions. A good man is a great man. A hundred loaves are not sufficient. A thousand stars can be seen by the naked e3'e. The winds drove the vessel ashore. They gave him five hundred dollars a year. Simon Peter said, we go a fishing. The pas- sions should be governed. Eparainondas was the greatest of the Theban generals. ' CHAPTER XVIII. ADJECTIVES OR ATTRIBUTES. § 1. Adjective, from the Latin adjeetivus — from ad, to, and jaeio, to ^ow, is a word joined to a noun or pronoun to ex- press its quality or limit its meaning; as, "A good man." ''That man." Adjectives may be divided into two classes, viz. — Qualifying and Speci- fying. Qtialifying adjectives or attributes express some quality of the noun or pronoun to which they belong. As quality may be possessed in different degrees, qualifying adjectives are varied to express the degrees of quality, either possessed by the same object at different times, or by different objects, at the same time, possessing different degrees of the same quality ; as, '"John is talld^ than he was last year." " Henry is wiser than James." Most adjectives admit of three degrees of comparison — the Positive, Com- paratire, and the Superlative. The Posit ire degree expresses an imlirect comparison, as when we say that '• Thomas is tall," we can only determine or know that Thomas is tall by comparing him with the general height of men, and finding that he ext'sos that standard. The Comjjarative degree expresses a direct comparison between two ob- jects; as, " EJiza is the taller of the two." T ;e Superlative degree expresses a direct comparison of several objects ; as, "That is the ("^/^^esi tree in the f^jrest." COlfSTRUOTITfi aRik.MMA.R. 113 Adjectives expressive of color or t^ute, generally hare four degrees of comparison, viz. — tiie Imperfect, the Pofiitioe, the Gomparative, and the Superlative ; us, Brownish, irown, browner, brownest. Sweetish, sweet, sweet- er, Hwectt'st. The Imperfect degree expresses a slij;ht dep;ree of quality inferior to tho Positive, it is formed by anneKing Ish tO the Positive ; a,^, Black, bluckisk ; hut whftn the Positive ends in tf it is dropped; as, White, whitish. Set Dr. Wehstrr''s Improoed Grammar of the English Language. Monosyllahic adjectives are compared by annexing r or er to the Posi- tive to form the Comparative, and .s.' or est to the Positive to form tlie Su- perlative ; as. Mill, milder, tiiillesL. When a Disf>ylj;ectives of more than two syllables, seldom or never ad- mit of these terminations, but are compared by prefixing more and most^ less and least. Some adjectives admit of most as a sufBi ; as, Nether, nethernwst. Some adjectives are said to be secondary, and qualify other adjectives ; as. Pale red lining. Bark brown cloth. Tho Degrees of Comparison arc illustrated by the following Diagram : Figure 1 illustrates the increase of the Positive, or Comparison ascend, ing ; us, Positive, Wise ; Comp&r!\l\vc, wiser ; Superlative, w«cs/. Figure 2 illustrates dimunition of the Positive, or Comparison descciuling; as, P. Wise ; C. less wise; S. least wm. Figure 3 illustrates the comparison of such adjectives as have, four de- grees; as Imperfect, Greenish; P. green ; C. greener; S. greenest. Tt will be perceived by inspecting the Diagram, that the Snperlativi' <>^- pres.scs the highest or lowest degree of quality ; the lines S**** S, in Fi;;- uros 1 and 2, make these extremes. AVhen an attribute is merely named, it may be said to express an ab.-tiMct quality ; as, Cold, hot, good, bad. In the former words called cold and Jiot, we merely get the abstract idea of pihysical quality ; in the latter, that of moral quality ; but when we say, a roll day, a hot day, a good man, a bad man, the adjectives may be said to be assumtd of their supers respec- tively ; again, when we say, this day is cold, that day teas hot, this man is good, that man was bad, these attributes may be said to be predicated of the subjects of their respective sentences. See Construction of Elements. Hem. 1. — Some adjectives are •rrrgular in comparison ; as, Good, letter, beat. Little, less, i III f^t. f'ore, forinrr.Ji'.tt. Kkm. "i — Soino adjcctiTcs nro defcrtivf, being wanting in gome one of tho dcgrcofl ; as, 7iethn; n.th'rmunt. In tliis adjoctivo, the positive is wanting JJ4 ANALYXIGAB, IliLITSTRATITE ANa Rem. 3; — Some adjeciives express quality absolutely^ aiaJ do not logically admifr ©f comparison J a,B, Round, square, parallel. To these may be added such as havfr a positive form, but a superlative signification ; as, Perfect, chief, supreme, extreme, etc. Our best writers and speakers, however, frequently compare such adjectives as 4he last mentioned ; as, "Our sight is the jnost perfect of all our senses." — Addison- This is done as a matter of convsnience, not that any one supposes that any thing can bo absolutely pcr/ec<, and another thing more perfect or most perfect;— the ex- preasioD, too, is generally more concise and elegant than to express the same idea by circuiiilocution. It would be more elegant to say our sight is the most perfect',- Ihan to say our sight ax>pro(iches nearest to perfection. Such adjectives, however, should not be needlessly compared ; as, " The Svpremeat Being." " The cJiiefesii good," etc. llKu. 4. When adjectives are comp.ared by the adverbs more and most, less and'^ least, some authors advise not to parse the adverb with the adjective, but separate from it. We do not, however, see the importance of this ; as more wise means pre- cisely the same thing as wiser. Adverbs thus used do nothing more than to assist the adjective in performing the degrees of comparison, as the auxiliary verbs do the principal verbs in forming their modes and tenses. We regard either w»y as cor- leut. Rhm. 5. Qualifying adjectives not only express the quality of the nouns of which they are assumed or predicated, but they also limit the extent of their mean- ing; as, when we say a red roeo, the adjective red limits the noun rosf to a less number; as there are fewer red roses, than roses. And, as other qualities are added, the extension of the meaning will be still more circumscribed ; as, "A good, wise, and prudsni prince." Ilonce it is said in such cases, that the extension is diminish- ed, and the comprehension increased ;. since the aoun comprehends a greater number of qualities, but extends to a fewer number of things. Model. " David was » ptosis prince." Fious is a qualifying adjective, in^ the positive degree — (compared) — pious, more pious, most pious, and be- longs to prince, according to Rule 15. Questions. — Why is pious an adjective? Because it limits a noun. Why a qualifying adjective ? Because it expresses a quality of the noun prince,, as well as limits it. Why in the positive degree ? Because it expresses an kidirect comparison. EXEKCISKS, Man is a great einner ; Christ is a great Saviour. Some roses are red, and others are white. These are parallel lines. Parallel lines can never meet, and form an angle. We should worship the Supreme Being ; he is worthy of our highest praises. The law is holy, just and good. His heart is as hard as the nether mill stone. A good man enjoys comfort in the- darkest hour of adversity. I purchased a piece of dark b?own eloth. The- aurora borealie imparts a reddish hue to the sky. The cold, bleak winds may on yoa blow, And darkness gather round ; Yet this blest thing, full well I know, Will ever bright be found. CHAPTER XIX. SPECIFYING OR LIMITING ADJECTIVES. § 1. Specifying adjectives point out their guhjects or supers by some distinct specificcations ; but do not express any quality. eONSTRUOTIVK ORAMHAK. 115 As specifying adjectives express various shades and colorings of thouf^ht, <;hey may, with propriety, be classified under the following heads, viz. — Distri/nitive, IfcmonMrativc, Indefinite^ Interrogative, Kumeral, Ordinal, and (-ire um^ ta ti tia I. The Distributive adjectives denote iha person or things which make up a roTi07i.ns. That these words limit nouns by denoting possession, is readily con- ceded, but the same may be predicated of all nouns in the possessive ca.-o ; and ae these represent nouns in the possessive case, we see no good reason why they should not be parsed simply as pronorms. Rkm. 2.— Though wo have arranged the specifying adjectives under the preceding heads, all the distinction that is required to be made in parsing the adjective, is that of quaiijyitig and specifying. Rem. i. — Specifying adjectives sometimes belong to pronouns, though not fre- quently ; as, " A good understanding have
, liave gone astray. Every heart knows its own sorrows. Yon- 7-- they arc good." In this example, the r«J^?r iras^Uned hut !n /hr n*'^-'-' '""^''■''^^,'^ the rmsoA is assigned • " It h.« 1-111^8^ h!!.?/ .1 ' \ • ^' folo>.ing example, . JSrgo" ;'i'.r:"' '°^'' ■"■ ' ""*"°° ^ -■ ■■ "■'■•^"» ■• 'SrsJip,, .^i^ , 120 ANALTTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND tioDs; ftfl, Either or, Neither nor, Though yet, Both and, Not only hut, etc. (See Part I., Model.) Rem. 4. — Though w» have given several divisions of the conjuction — to which more, perhftps, might be added, yet we recommend no division whatever in parsing; it is enough to say it is a conjunction, and tell what it connects. Model " Wheat grows in fields, and men reap; it" And is a con- sanction, and connects the two clauses of the sentence. Exercises. He came with her, but he went away without her. He can succeed, if be will try. Joseph and his brother reside in New York. Both Adams and JefiFerson died on the foarth of July. Job was wiser than his friends. Mary lored Jesus more than the things of the world. Charity suftereth l©ng, and is kind. Daniel Webster was not only a distinguished statesman, bat he was also an eminent orator. Those trees arc flourishing, because th« ground is rich. ^ The -way of the transgressor is hard ; S is a transgressor ; Therefore the way of S is hard. Ye are neither cold nor hot. Either Henry or James is in fault. *' There generous fruits that never fail, On trees immortal grow ; There rocke, and hills, and brooks, and vales, With milk and henev flow." CHAPTER XXIII. INTERJECTIONS OR EXCLAMATIONS. § 1. Interjection, fcom the Latin inter, between, and jec- (ttm, thrown, is a word generally thrown between words or sentences, to express some strong emotion or feeling of the speaker. As interjections have no grammatical construction in a sentence, they can hardly be said to belong to written language. Interiections express •vsirxon^ passions, feelingSy or emotions of the mind; as, Oh 1 alas, X)i*h, pshaw, hail, welcome, hleas me, etc. • Rem. — When a noun or pronoun of the second or third person, without any in- tervening prepositions, follows the interjection, it is said to bo in the riominative case ; but, when a pronoun of the,A'«< persan follows, it is put in the objective case ; as, " thou 1" "0 my country !" ''A*, mc- !" Hence seme grammarians have come to the conclusion that interjections govern these cases respectively. See Kirk- ham's Grammar, page 164. But, as interjections have no dependent construction in 8 sentence, they certainly can have do government; consequently the words which follow them must be disposed of in some other way. If the noun or pronoun is CONSTBUOTITB GRAMMAR. 121 ■-' . <>m ■iirecrtly aidresserl, it Is in tho nominative case independent, as it is called ; as, " Lord !" But, if no address is made ; as, " Oh ! my country !" it is in the case inde- pendent by exclamation, or it may be, in some instances, in the objective case, be- ing governed by some verb or preposition understood ; as, " Oh ! piUj my coantry," or " /ie//> my country." In such expressions as "Ah mo! miserable !" that mc is governed by a verb or preposition underotood, is obvious ; ae, " Ah ! pity me who am miserable." ,(Soe Peculiar Constructions, also Goold Brown's Grammar, paga 175. CHAPTER XXIV. PBCULIAR CONSTRUCTIONS, IDIOMS, AND INTRICACIES. Rem. 1. — Some verbs, such as giving, asking, sending, etc., are followed by two ©■bjective cases — one denoting a personal, the other a verbal object. The one whick its directly effected by the verb's action, is called tho direct object, the other the in- "direct; as, "John gave me the fruit." In this sentence fruit is the direct object, »nd me the indirect object. The indirect object of all such constractions is gov erned by some preposition nnderstqpd. This will be seen by the transp'ositions of the objectives ; as, " John gave the fruit to me." In analyzing* such sentences, the learner will observe that the indirect object constitutes an implenary member ; las, " [John gave ( , me)* the fruit.] " [The merchant sent ( , me) the book] (by mail.)" In all such constructions the sense alone must determine what proposition should 4)0 supplied. " My father bought me a horse." " John's teacher asked him a ques- tion," In the first of these examples /or shonld be supplied ; and in the second, of sTiould be used — asked being nearly synonymous with demanded. Thus, " My father bought a horse /oj- mo." " John's teacher asked a question of him." Kf.m. 2. — When a verb is followed by two objectives — one denoting the material out of which the other is made ; tho one which denotes tho matsrial is governed by of understood ; as, " [.John's teachers niade ( , him) a good scholar.]" The truth of this remark will be seen by the transposition of the two objectives ; thus, " John's teachers made a good scholar of Mm." John's teachers evidently made ■the scholar and not him. This construction harmonizes with the Latin language, viz., the noun denoting the material out of which another is made, is put in the ablative case, and transla- ted with of before it. Some authors govern iho first objective by the verb, and put the second after to hc^ understood ; as, " Jahn's teacher made hivt to be a good mcliolfir." Rem. ?,. — When a sub-member, which breaks its super, is introduced to measure the exact overplus or deficiency of what is afiirmed in its super, by is understood; as, " [He gave ( , twenty dollars) too much] (for the horse.)" " [Tho tea is (, six pound.s) too heavy.]" But when the super is not broken by its sub, by must be expressed; as, " [T'qo tea was too heavy] (by six pounds.) KE>f. 4. — When tho verb t^> viake, in tho passive voice, is used in t^e sense of to change, the noun or pronoun which follows it in construction, is governed by into understood; ns, "Coirmand that those stones bo made bread"--!, e.., [These stonei can bo made] (into broad,) (command th«t.) RE>f. 5.— Wljen the verb/?//, in tho passive voice, moans to inform, the noun or pronoun which follows it in construction, is governed by of understood; is. " [That iunfortunato man was told] ( , the truth,)'' i. e , he was informed of the truth. The same may be predicated of forgive, used in the sense of relieve ; as, "Forgivo us •our debt"!?'' — i c., relieve us of our debts. Rem. 6. — When tho verb teach in tho passive voice, i^ used in the sense of instruct, *Thatia, separating a eeiitwice Into claiises and phrases. 123 ANALYTICAL, CONSTRUCTIVE AND the noun which follows it in construction, is governed by in underetood ; as, " Thosa young ladies were taught granomar at college" — i. e., tbey were instructed in grammar. In constructions like the foregoing, some authors of high standing contend that verbs in the passive Toioe govern the objective case. With all due deference to their opinisn, we must nevertheless dissent from it It is admitted by all that the nomi- native case of y verb in the passive voice receives or endures, the action, which action is performed by some agent expressed or understood. Now, as the novilna- tive is the object of the verb's action, we can not see how something else, which is entirely distinct from the nominative, can at the same time, be the object of the same action. Rem. 7. — When become is used in the sense of g7'ow or increase, into is under- Btood ; as, " The tcion becomes a tree." '• A calf becoincs an ox." In the above examples ox and tree can not, nor, are not, predicated of scinn and calf ; for n- scion is not a fee, nor is a calf an ox ; 1 ut a scion grows into a tree, and a calf increases into an ox. There are some cases, however, in which the noan or pronoun which follows become may bo regarded as predicated of the subject, as, " John has becomo a schol- ar." This expression is equivalent to /ic is now a scholar. When become is used in the sense of befit, it is transitive, and governs the objective case; as, " Eternal Power, whoso high abode Becomes the grandeur of a God." Rkm. 8. — The noun or pronoun which follows like or unlike in construction, ie governed by to or unto understood ; as, " [Cbarit^', (like , the sun,) brightens every object] (around it.)" Like, in such constructions, is now generally regarded as a preposition ; and, as its construction as a preposition is more simple, concise, and equally perspicuous, it is . to be preferred. Rem. 9. — Nouns which denote time, dimension,, value and some others of similar import, nro generally governed by a proposition understood ; as, " [He visited me].( , last week)" " [Whoever shall compel thee to goj ( , a mile,) [go ,] rwith him) ( , twain.)" That is, He visited me last week. (Jo through a mile, or through the space of a mile. Some eminent authors, however, say that the nouns denoting time, dimension, etc., are in the objective case without & governing word. That the actual expression of the understood elliptical words would mar Iho euphony of the sentence, is read- ily admitted; but may not the same, in a greater or less degree, be predicated of the expression of all elliptical words ? Those, however, who prefer using the latter mode of construction, are sustained by authority of the highest grade. In such constructions the preposition, if not expressed, must be understood, or there is none ; if und«rslood, the remark is correct. If there is none, we cannot sea how anything can bo in the objective case, and yet be the object of nothing. The truth is, such words, whether used with or without prepositions, are used* adverbially. Rem. 10. — Euphony requires the omission of governing prepositions before the noun koine, when construed after intransitive verbs of motion; as, *' [He went} ( , home,)" — /. e.. He went to home. Rem. 11. — Worth, the imperative of the Saxon weorthan, was formerly used as a verb, in the English language. Some such constructions still remain in the old English authors ; as, " Wo worth the chase." " Wo worth the day." In such con-i structions, the noun or pronoun which follows isorth is governed by to or mt-to un- derstood ; as, " Wo worth the day," — i. e., Wo be to the day. Worth, according to Dr. Webster, when it means equal in value, is an adjective, and invariably follows the noun or pronoun, in construction, which it qualifies; as, "The book is worth a doilar." Worth is also followed by a name denoting price or value, which name, according to some, is governing by of understood; but, by others, it is supposed to be in the objective case"wJthout a governing word. In constructions like the above, Mr. James Brown contends that worth is a noun governed by of under- stood ; as, *' The book is worth a dollar"— i. c, the book, is o/the worth of a dollar. *If such adverbial elements liruil a substantive element, through the medium of some adjective element, they may be called secondary or helping adjectives ; but if they modify a verb or participle indirectly, i. e., through the medium of some other element, they may be called secondary or helping adverbs. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 123 Mr. Cardell entertains similar views. Messrs. Goold Brown, Pardon Davis, and some others, consider, consider worth in such constructions & prf'posi'ion. To this we lijivo no objection. WYn-n moral worth is tho leading idea, worthy should be used ,• as, " He is not worthy of my notice." KhM. 12. — A writer's signature is in the oVjectivo case, governed by 6?/ under- stood : as, " Dear sir, I write for your pleaiwre — " Peter Paelky." (See Frazee's Grammar.) Some suppose that the writer's signature is in apposition with I or we, as the case may be. Rem. 13. — When the preposition for follows the interjection O in construction, its antecedent term is found in an implenary member, which is tho trunii member of tho sentence ; as, " for a glance of heavenly day." Construed, "[0 I wisK\ 1 2 {for a glance) (of heavenly day.)" " for them,"— i. c, I sigh fur them. Rem. 14. — When two prepositions come together in construction, tho former gives an implenary member, to which it belongs; as, " Drive the dog from under the table " — t. e , Drive the dog from thephcc. ichich is under the table. In such constructions, some grammarians call the two propositions a compound preposition ; but others reg.ird the former as an adverb. " To save himself nnd household //om amidst a world devote to universal wreck." Speaking of this sentence, Mr. Bailey says that from, as a preposition, governs the phrase amidst a world, and that amidst governs icorld. According to tho views given above, the sentence may be rendered thus: " 'Tg save bimsdf and household from ihi destruction, of raiu ichich is amidst a world devote to miiversal wreck." "He looked from below tho precipice "—«'. e., from the place which is below the precipice. " Ida stands over a.7' know ihat. Whatever may be said of that, as a connective, it must, nevertheless, be obvious to every reflecting mind, that it is a substitute for the member which follows it, in tho objective case, and governed by know. When <^a< is followed by a member denoting tho objector purpose, for which €omething is done, that, as a substitute, is governed by for understood ; as, " James went to school i/it/^ he might learn philosophy." James went to school.. Tor what did James go to school 7— u with ye, and another's is in the possessive case, governed hy joy. If they should be separated, still, in construction, we would rather suggest that o«« is the nominative case to a verb uuderstood : a.«, 'Ye «r3 joy— one is another's joy." But let us consirue the sentence, as we have a r.ght to do, as follows: " Ye are the joy of one mwtkcr." Nrtw both words fall und.jr the same construction ; and, in whatever ca-e one is, another is in the same. Then one, in the first construction, may be regard -d »« being in the jto.mmsj'cc case v.ithuut the sign. These words ate, however, sometimes separated in construciinn, a prepo- sition being construed between them; as " Then they that feared the Lord, spake often one to another-" One may be parsed in apposition with they, or in the nomi- native case to spitke understood. Rem . 22.— " 3fe r." Example 5. — " He was eminent as a soldier." As. in this example, is used in the sense of in-the-character-oj ; it is, therefore, a preposition. Example 6.—" He was'ra^garded as accountable for all the consequtnces." This sentence rendered plenary will read thus : He wasrpgarded as he would be regarded, if hf were accountable for all the consequences. As, then, is a conjunctive adverb. Example 7. — " I appreciate your recommendation a» having contributed greatly to my success." Mr. Bailey explains this sentence as the one immediately prece- ding. This may do ; yet it seems tons that as is used in the sense of the preposi- tion for : as, I appreciate your recommendation fff>- having contributed to my suc- cess. If thii- view is cnrrVi^t. as i? a rrepo.=itioni gnverriing the phrase thitt follows it ; cr if try one shouM prpf.-r it. it may be regarded as governing havivg contrib uttd, considered as a participial noun. Example 8. — " He suffered and died to rederm Buch a rebel fl»me." Someconiid- CONSTRUCTIVK ORAMMAR. 127 or OS, in this example, a proposition ; but this usage is not in harmonv with tha prac^^.co of the best speakers and writers of the prefent age nJr canTi bl ubs« tuted for OS unless we expunge suc/i; for it certainly would be harsh to sav He «lf' fared and died to redeem ,such a rebi4 like me The tmfh f= T /' • • inad^issable except by p'oetio licensr/whicT- as'' Mr^ailey' ver^ JuTtly r^mlrk: leSe^n^^l^rnSLSir" ^ --^-^^ ^^-'^ be u^.ed ?nsCa?ora7S wondrous love, to bleed and die, To bear the cross and shame. That guilty sinners such as I Might plead his gracious name I jf^'n s;^"^;;tc:it;:- ^^ritis.-^ "s^^^:;!^::^ It points out th^idennty of a general fact, thing, or circumst.ncef n compar son with a connected fact or proposition. To gire its extensive etymology would be a show of learning eanly made ; but to no useful purpose. In grammatiarZracter his word. ,n its modern use. is an adjective, referring to the nouns fS£>^gway' kind, degree, reason or othoT equivalent words; but. having a second re "rent To a proposition for which the single word is the summary naml As signifies Ts a de- ir""'(SerCar7;ut"Grf'' '''''' ''%f.r i': '''"'' ^"^ ''^ nouV Sers^ood aft •f »!, (^e« harden s Grammar, page 155). The view of Mr. Cardell is curious and If the reader can adopt it, ho would cut a long work short curious, ana, Example 9.—" A great many horses wer* seen feeding on the prairies" *• A riTt'fS^hnr''°r'"'r'-'' ^"°^ phrases is a great many, a good hv L. ;.l/^^ . ^''^ frequent occurrence in colloquial language, and adopted llZZl r^t "''^'"''J/ nevertheless, faulty, and should be Avoided. It would etc The latter e,r' ^''^ "^"""'j "' " """^ ^""■'^ '^"'"^^f' «*"■' '^ Worses we e seen, ? w Ji/r "Pression, a good many, ,s, perhaps. m§re faulty than the former. B .rra^iuL'^^i:' """T^ "°^ "'"^""^ '^ ^^y- y^rimany persons we e in attendance But, admitting the construction.-tiow shall we di.p ,seof the words a.greatllTS^ ItTZr^,^. '/ "°.' " ^71' ^"'"''' °'" " '^""'^ P"-''"'- Nothing can be mo?e^dear than that great and good have no constructive relation with the nouns persms^nl horses, nor has a any grammatical affioity for them. But great evidentlv modifies ZTv r' w '7;« r-' v"'^*^/'-' i« a secondary adjectivTumitS/Se'^a^ttiv: ma^.y, nor would ,t be am.ss, if any prefer it. to call it an adverb -and as a also mTnneraS;.'!""^ "^^ '' '^'' "^^ ''- ^^^ -"^^ ^e disposed ' 0??^ th^sat: Some suppose an ellipsis of a preposition in such constructions ; as A creatmanv 0/ burses; then, according to this, 7nany assumes the character if a noun anTas Zal-tT" "' ''' "'"'' ' "' *° ''''''^''- "•^'*' '^ «°-« instances". U useS'witJort " For yet a many of your horsemen 'pear. And gallop o'er the field." Example 10. " When the merry bells ring round, f And the jocund rebecks sound To many a youth and many a maid Dancing in the checkered shade." The peculiarity of this construction consists of the construction *of the ind«finW. article between the adjective many and the noun to whicjl it belongs and "^^^ agreement of many with a noun of the singular number. ^ Is here suodo^^/k some to be used in a prepositional sense ; fs, Many of youth J^ 1^7 ma\d llorne Tooke considers a, in such insUnces. to be a corruption of of. ThLL^lt vunds, by corrupting the sound of of, as is frequently done, would become mZ/:; Teluig^ala;.'^ '"°^ "•"''''° '"^ '''' "•'^^«- ^^^ "-"^ would'a^tSlwrL'SeTut'ia equivalent to one dozen, o«e h«,.rfr.J^ eto KLe both ioL mav'h?'''''"?' '*'" 8pecifying adjective. See Chap, xvii., Remark 2 '"'''^ '"''^' may be parsed as a 128 A.NALYJiCAl.j CO>STKl. C'llVK A.NU Exy»MPi,F, 12. — ■' The house is buildirp."' " Tho house is being built." As things may he in a progrosfive unfinished state, v e evidentlj' need a firm of words to es- pies it. iiijJ, for the loif t piirt, what is o; !lerl the progressive form ol thu v*rb, ■wt i > ;> a eou]l>in!iti(,n if the vecb io : '.' ;iril imporftct jnrtii'iple [prcot (]. does thii" ;■!'•. lirHblv well; as, '■ he is wall;ifi{/-" " Trees are (/rowirKj," etc. But theie are i" i:.« cnnttrui'tii'ns of this kind, whiih do nut express the sense so well; ns, " Tb. i •n.'-p IS I'liildipc/," eip. The oVjectiori urged :,gninft this forra of expression, is tli:i IS iuildin'j exj-restes aotinn, but the tubjeet /to(/«' dues not jeiforiu the ac- tion, IS ni't the agent. liut regarding is ns the ci pula and building as the predicate, then v« jridieate of house a progresfive stutc, which is all that is really deiiianded: nor is tl if «n isolated rase in wbich an active fvrn) is used in a pos.-ive fense ; for we fi'v. • '1 he discourse rends wfll." "The Ti>sewo(,d poHshen fnely.'' " Corn se//."f high." t te. These are couven-fiit forms of expression, and are well autbentieated by the p't'Ctice of the best writers and speaker". The latter form of expressior, viz : *' The house is teiiiy built,'' is of recent origin. It Di.iGi- i f first Hp{)eaiaDce sonio forty years since iu fouie of the newspaptr jour- nals of ft I- day, and has sinie won fiT itxll much iuvor. ndtwithstendinc the re- moriJirii) <•■ .- of gr.arainnriuiis gcierally. It must be admitted, nevertheless, that the fiin. • f i-xpression is objectionable ; atd, in or'ier to S(e the full force of the ohjictii'n, let us subject it to n s'riit an!il.\sis, and exsmine the 'iieaning of each element pepfrately. Is Irivg hudt, as a C' mpoyi.d, cnnsfsts of three elements, viz : t«, be.ih'j. ni;d luHt. Is (xpresse.v merely a stale of Uiiig, as existing now ; leivp expie.'-ses an ui finished state of tho Vnbal denotement — that which is in projiresa; 7i\m\ Imilt, ns H perfect participle, expretses a finished state of the verba, oei.i.tement. Jlenci we si*'- 'hat there if a vani of hainiony in the ii'eanirg of the elements of iibieh this t xpiessiou is composed. Butalctus examine it in a logical point of view. Ni w rt-garding is as the cupula and bci/'g built as the predicate, it is obvious that a firi-htjd .Ma!e of the bouse is irnlicaied; since all would understand in such exprcs-ioi s as " the house being built," that the woik i.« really finished. Nfilhet form of exprcs'sion is entirely lieo from oljectii ns : but i otb aie now in ui-e, ano :.re 'ike!.> tu continue so ; Act »e /.ivetiur pieference lo ibe foiuitr. ExAMi'i.K IM.^" The k'liir gave me a gtnerous reward for eommiiting that bar- baniis nei." O-inmittitnj lUit baibattus act inav be regarded as a substantive pbriup. povern' d l>y ibe pre] o.'ititn /'or ; or. if a more ciiiieal aijaly.sis is desired, coiiiwitli/",/ mav I'C regarded as a ] articpijil ii< uii, }:o^ern(d by the j re|.osiiion /w, but, stiil iitaining its iifrimeu as a p.-^rfi' ip,e, ir ;;. v rns act in the objective case. We prefer, hi wt ver, the former mode of u'spo^ilig of it, as it is more simple, and the sense equal iy c'car. V lien, In f i • h ctu^struciions, the participial noun is liinii- td by ihc o< finite article, the jrejosiiioB rf niusi be eonstrueci alter it; as, "The king t ave me a generous rcwanf (o'r the eommitiing of that tarbarcus act." Both forii 8 of expre^sioI i-re wi IJ authentieaied. Ex A)iPi K t4.— " J liH niiiht r"^ beii g unknown, limited the sale of tho book." Ti'ie author's leing m kiioii:it is a subsianti\e pLrase, and is the subject of the verb Liintrd- "* b< ugl^ autlwr s is in the posse§sive ease, atd governed by being v»knowu, und teiig uiikiiowti li.fcin ty itfell. is a participle, yet they sixfold nit be separated inpar.-iij; In sui h ct nsiruct'ons thecoun is m metio'ee writu n without the pos- sessixesi^i ; ns '■ The nutAo/' b. ing unknov»D," etc. Ihisprattiee suould, bcwevcr, be ci'Tciiji'y avo'dt" "' Exj»mpik la — ■• I have some recerection of his fafber'f being judge " Authorg diflcr \»?_\ wide'v with r; sj eci io the ninrner ■ f disusing of tie wotd jrtdi'e in thie SI rti n-*". Mr <■• (>i'ri Briv i ooLtiriids il ai jt/(fge is in ihe possessive iaM,[ut ly aviM'Siti- n wi.h /////irr**. Dr Bullions says u ii: in the objeciive case; and A.r. T UI li'f 1 1 ii'enct.s 'hilt 11 s a prt.ciiia'e i.ou ioative. Now. vhc is to dicide when Doetii'-i d tajrrie? Ai all t\"nts. I bfve some re-oili eiii n of -omeibJUf; — wbat )8 tt ut S' II el* ing ? It i-^'oi a rvclkeii' u of a jvd(.'f siui| ly. ror of aty sn'gle word in ii>- J bi; sr. Then w ■ at is ii ? Ji eviderty is, i//4-yi/i//r. LuiIh ns is, 'hat the 1 r> noun shoulii a^ suiue 'be ol jcoi\ e loi ii ; I u' Mr Butler lontt ids for its I'tii'g a ji Lviii ate nou ioativ k,. lieie w-e aie-egain in a diieiLma, aLd our pen i^ sus- ^-"ONbnCv. CllVK OUAMilAK. ]-_'0 peTidod over ffar Taper in tremulous suspenpe, Tiotknowt»g where to light. 0, hap^ py thouubt! wc will split th«> difference, and say when such a phrase is the subject of the verb, the pronoun should a$?nnie the subjective form ; but, when it is the 06- ^ect of a transitive verb or prcpogitior, it should assume the objective forto ; as, "lie w^s not euro of its being meP' '"Its being /, needs make no difference in your detcrtiiination." In asKuming this position, we may be wrong once, but there IS a chance for the euineut authors whom we have ^ust mciiiioned to be wrong iwice. Example 17. — " To affect to be 11 Lord in one's closet, would bo a, romantic mad- n«88." In this exair.plt Mr. (roold Brown supposes I/trd to bo in the objective case after /o fee, and that wj';(/;)css is in the rinmimvtivc after trould hi- H'itCi respect to the premi.-^es from' which Mr. Brown has drawn this conclusion that Zjjrd is in the ob- jeciive case, we aro not fuily informed. We can not, however, astree with him in this partii'ular. What would be a romantic madness.^ To affect to be a Lord hi one's clnset. Then this entire phrase is the subject of the verb would be, and inad- t'.esn is ill the r.€ininativc case, predicated of it. ExAMi'LB IS. — " She extolled the farmer's, as she called him, excellent under- standiDk;." The construction of tbis sputence is laulty. It is a funeJameiital law of oon^truetion, that all the part.s of a scn'enoe, should be made to harmorri/.e together. The senteiici" siiou'd be construed thus: "She extolled the excellent understanding of the tiirinor. as she called him.'' Example 19 —•'They took possession of the city." ** The city was taken posses- fie>>i (•/ by thoiu.' *' lie was laughed at." Such expressions as " Tie eit.v wns ta- ken po.-sossion of," " He was laugheif at." etc., are id.uuiatic. But as they give .^ome varieiy and copiousness to language, they are deemed admissable. The peculiarity consists io inaKiRg ttie obj«ct of a modifying element the subject of the verb in the passive voice, au 1 the object of the transitive verb and the preposition are T^laced i 1 pre.lication. [n such nxuree^fivvf us " Ife was Imigked at," " Tfi'<- husiiirssis to be loeked to," etc., the verbs aro regarded as intransitive, though tbey have the form of tlie pas>ive voice. When ttie preposition is thus thrown in predication, some call it aiiadvero, but it would be better, perhaps, to parse tlie v;hjle as a com- jmuni- verb. KiAMi'i.K '2ii. — " I bad rather go " " I had as lief stay." " He had ou;L,ht to go." The.-e and similar txpressi(ni8 are palpably erroneous, and should not be imii;;ted by any who niiy wi,«h to speak and write the l^nglish language correctly, notwith- standing they miiv have been use! by aiihors of soma celebrity s-e writers. What kind of ft teiise is /m'/g^oaud /iads'ay? The pluperfect texse is formed by prelix- ing fied to the pcifect participle; nor has Imve ir any of its variations aty gram- maticil affinity lor .'iny part of the verb, e-xcept the perfect participle. The correct graiumatical fo'-m of exiire.'-sion is .equally concise, ami more euphonious. Where, then, is th« interinr to the time of the tenses of tho verbs wiifi which th jy nre a^S'1Ciateli ; tieneo they should be in the Fote/itial ii.xi- perfect, in'^lead of the i'id'cative pluperfect; as the Fotcniiiil pluperfect is the ^amo in point of time as the ludicdtive. fast. Better thus: '• If thou hudsi been her*-, loy brother tpovld i\«t Juive dud.' etc. • This u^e of the Indicative pluperfect lor the Potenti^ii poiperfect, IS a, *' To cure the spirit of disconlent, let us coti^iricr hi w iilile v.e Oc-erv • ,'' i. e " L- I «i8 em-uler bow litije we ut^^erve in order to cure the tpiiit of oitconten:." in eoiue ca.xoB the plimso t/i (»/•«;?/• need not be tuppued; a.< ibj if-tiniiive will find a governiiig word in the ei«uK( which succeeds 11, r.or is it ab^ol^Itl!y i;ecossary in the ■fc.ximpl'j Ju^t eneJ. There aio other <-oiiftMicticpn« in which tn.-re is an obvious 180 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND ellipsis, which, when sappliod, will furnish a governing word for the infinitivft ; guch as the following : " // you will allow vie to confess the truth," etc. The characteristic difference between a verb in the infinitive mode and a verb in any other mode, is that Iho infinitive can not limit the affirmation to any particular subject ; but, in all other respects, the infinitive is similar to all other verbs ; and, should it be regarded as absolute, still it has the same governing power ov^ other words that follow it, as if the word on which it depends were obvious. Example 23. — " What if I do not go ?" In this example and similar coastruc- tions, lohat belongs to an implenary member which may readily be inferred from the sense of the construction ; as, What will be the cansequence if I go. (For con- struction of what though, see Model 17, Part First.) Example 24. — "Israel burned none sace Haiar." " I would to God that not only thou, but also all that hear me this day, were both almost and altogether such as I am, except these bonds." " Let high-born seraphs tune the lyre." Stvse and except, in constructions like the above, are generally part^ed as prepositions, though Dr. Webster says that they, as well as let, according to an idiom of our language, are verbs in the imperative mode withoat a specified Tiommative. He also regards but, when used in the sense of except, iis a verb in the imperative mode without a specified nominative. That these wards weje e^ce used as verbs, is generally con- ceded ; hence, if any should prefer parsing them as verbs, they have unquestion- ably the right to do so. [See Models for Construction, Part I.] Example 25. — "To the which ye are called." When tc/ae/t is limited by the definite article, it is generally parsed as a noun. This construction is now obsolete. ExAM\-LE 20.—" I can not but believe it." This sentence is incorrect, and must be, as Mr. Bailey justly remarks, remodeled before it is paised. It may be ren- dered thus : I can not do otherwise than believe it. Example 27. — " The council met at half past four o'clock." Past, in this sen- tence, is a preposition ; four may be parsed as a substitute for the fourth hour, and in the objective case, governed hy past ; o' is a contraction of o« or of, and is a preposition cennecting /o«'' and c/ocA. Example '28. — " We." instead of ./. — By an idiom of our language, we is some- times used instead of /. This may be done when the speaker or writer represents in some sort a party or class. The monarch represents a nation or collection of na- tions ; hence he says, " We charge you on allegiance to ourself." The preacher rep- resents a certain denomination of Christians or a class of ministers who believe the same doctrines; and hence he says, " We preach Christ and him crucified." The editor generally represents a certain party, or he may have an associate editor ; hence he says, " We admit the writer to onr columns, but do not hold ourself res- ponsitde for his opinions." The author represents frequently, though somewhat in- definitely, a very large class, not only embracing authors wiio write on similar sub- jects, but also men in general; hence he says, " Vice seen so oft, familiar with her face. We first endure, then pity, then embrace," We, thus used, is a kind of mixture of plurality and unity ; hence self, in stead ef selves, is annexed to the pronoun our; as, ourself, not ourselves. By the us© of we instead of /, in instances l:ke the fiTegoing, the speaker or writer may avoid egotism, which is generally offensive. Example 29.—" The very chiefest apo.=tle."— Fery, as a modifier, generally lim- its adjectives in iho positive degree; as. Very great; in which case, it expresses a very high degree, but not the highest. But according to an idiom of the Greek language, which admits of double superlatives, very sometime* limits adjectives in the superlative degree, which is an advance on the superlative. Such e.xpre.'sions Bts the most straitest sect, very chiefest, etc., ure not admissable, according to the' rules of English syntax. Very, used as an adjective, admits of the superlative degree, but never, perhaps, of the comparative : as, " He is the veriest fool who ii-ites himself to spile his neighbor." Example .^0.—" The public are notified." Notijy means to malie known : but the public are not made known ; but sometliing is made known to the public ; hence this form of expression has been condemued by some eminent philologists. Guided by the etyn-ologic»l import of the word, we too would decide against this use of it; yet it is sanctioned by reputable usage in the United States. Most writers and peakers associate with the noun public a plural verb j doubtless beoauee it is a noun ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND 181 ef maltitude ; but does it not convey idea of unity ? It UDquesfloRably does; then a singular verb is preferable, According to the principles of grammar, and is cer- tainly more euphonious. " Th%public is more disposed to censure than to praise." Addison. EiABiPLB 31. — " What went ye out for to see? A man clothed in soft raimentT' At the time of the translation of our verson of the Scriptures into tho English language, the preposition for was frequently construed before the infinitive to ox- presij a purpose or design. The Sttbstantive character of the infititive readily ad- mits of this construction, though it is now obsolete, and only occasionally met with in poetry ; as, " Although yen flotMrish like the rose. While in its branches green; Your sparkling eyes in death muit close, No mere fer to be seen." The learner may be desirous to know what to do with /or in such ■constractions. Son>e consider it a censtituent part of tho infinitive, others r»Rard it as an adverb, and some, not without reason, would expunge it; but, if retained at all, it would be better to parse it as a preposition, having the infinitive for its object. Example 32. — " Oot/- tho signature of Fanny Fern." It is true that all writin,? is over the signature ; but as the terra, in law, implies authority or indorsement, it is generally said, " Given under my hand and seal." The use of tender, instead of over, is generally adhered to by tho best writers, both of Europe and America. Example 33. — " Ho preached the /arteraZ of bis friend." It would be better to say. " He preached fhe fu/ieral eerinonof his friend." E-V.AMi'LK 34; — " I care not w)/ic;• booti" But regarding to boot- as a noun, as it means the sam« thing as ten dollars, it is in the objective case, put by apposition with dollars; as, " I will give my horse for yours, and I will give you ten dollars to boot.'' To boot is supposed by some te be an adverb, used in the sense of over, moreover, or besid-es; and it must be admitted that it has something of an adverbial meaning ;. nor is it an unusual thing for nouns to be used adverbially, 8.ich as denote time, dir^ension, valuation, etc. Ijg^REM. — As an idiom lea mode of speech peculiar to a languag"!, poets may be said to have their idioms, or peculiarity of expression ; since they are rllowed, by poetic liceute, to use modes of expression peculiar to poetic composition ; a", " To save himself an^ household from amidst A world devote to uaivcrsal wreck." Devote is hero used for devoted, and manjr similar ca9«3 are met with in po- etic composition. CHAPTEIi XXVI. THE GRAMMATICAL LANGUAGE OP. THE. BIBLE. OuB translation of the Bible was made more than two hundred years- »go, with great care, by scholars eminent as linguists, and as the transla- tion was made under the authority of King James I., it is sometimes called King James' Bible. It is not only &fait7tful and generally correcMransla- tion from the original Hebrew and Greek languages, but, at the time it was made, it was almost entirely free from grammatical errors. But, as the lan- guage has been gradually improving for more than two hundred years, it has, of course, undergone many changes , hence the Bible reader need not be suprised to find grammatical rules, as they now exist, ocasionally viola- ted ; as scarcely any change has been made in the grammatical language of the Bible since its translation. A few of the changes which have taken place win be briefly noticed in their appropriate classes. 1. Be is used in the Bible^ in the indicative present, for are ; as, "There le some standing here," that is, there are 8ome standing here. " Get thee behina me, Satan ; for thou s*¥orest not of the things that he of God," i. «., the thintrs that nrr. of God. 2. Those verbs that agree with the third person singular, formerly as- sumed the termination th and eth instead of « or «s ; as, He seeth, for He tees ; walketh for walks, readeth for reads, loveth for loves, etc. 3. Sereral verbs in the past tense have changed their form ; as, Bare for hore, drave for drove, etc. (See List of Irregular Verbs.) 4. The verb vrist to think or imagine, and wot, to know, are now entire* ly obsolete. Wit is also obsolete, except ir> the infinitive, to introduce an explanation, or enumeration of particulars ; as, " There are seven persons, to t/rit, four men and throe women." In this sense, it means to say or to name ; hence comes 7iaweZy ; as, "viz., four men and three women." 7b «*i occurs several times in the Scriptures ; as, " And the man wondering at her, .held his peace, to toit, whether the Lord had made his journey prosperous, or not," *. «., to Jcnow whether the Lord had made his journey prosperous or not- TFtf, wo<, Mwand wist, seem to have one common origin, viz. the Anglo- Saxon witan, which signifies to know, to imagint, to think, etc. Wit ap- pears to be ihQ present and w»t the past tense, though wot was formerly used in the present. Wit is the past tense of wis. 5. The preposition for was formerly used before the infinitive mode to express a purpose or design ; as, " What went ye ont for t» see f A proph- et?" (See Peculiar Constructions, Example 31.) 6. The pronouns his and her formerly represented nouns ef the neuter gender instead of its ; as, " If the salt b^ve lost his savor." " On either side of the river, was there the tree of life, which bare twelve manner of fruits, and yielded her fruits every month." (Rev. xxii, 2.) The pronoun his stands for salt, and should be its ; and h^r, in the last example, aftands for tree ; and should be its. 7. The conjunctive form of the subjunctive mode was formerly used in the perfect tense, which use is now discontinued ; as, " If the salt have lost his savor," i. e-, if the salt has lost, etc. 8. The relative which is generally used in the Bible instead of who ; as, ^ Our father which art in heaven." This use of which was grammatical at the time the Bible was translated. 9. Whoever is used instead of whoso and whosoever. Whichever h'as also superseded whichsoever. Whichsoever is sometimes separated by an inter- ▼ening noun ; as, " On which side soever the king turned his eyee." Which- ever should be parsed as a specifying adjective, notwithstanding it is divi- ded ; as, " Whichsoever side," eto: 10. Pleonasms are frequently met with in- the Bible, which are seldom or never used now ; as, " The sout that sinneth^ it shall die." " He that en- tereth not by the door into the sheepfold,. but climbeth up by some other way, the same is a fchief and Sk robber." " ffe that hath ears to hear, let him hear what the spirit saith to the churches." In the first and second examples, two nominatives are found in one clause, viz., the soul it shall die. Me, the same is a thief and robber.. In the last example, some sup' pose Tie to be in the nominative to a verb understood, and construe the sen- tence thus : " He that hath ears, hath ears to hear, let him hoar." But itr. appears clear to us that he should be him in the objective case, put by ap- position with him in the latter end of the clause ; as, "Let him hear, him that hath ears." Such expressions as the which, like unto, how that, etc., are also pleon- astic. The is now obsolete before which ; to or unto, after Hke, and hour before that. 11; 00't4. •' G'd-fo now, ye rich men, weep and howl for your miseries 16> 184 ANALYTIOAX, ILLUSTRATIVE AND that shall cotne upon you," The phrase go to now, which occurs frequeti't- ly in the Bible, is obscure, and of difficult solution. The original, if liter- ally translated, would be come now \ then to is excluded, and the sense be- comes clear. Oo to, however, seems to have been used in the English lan- guage formerly in exhortation and especially in scornful exhortation. 12. irom whence. "Remember, therefore, /rom w^enc« thou art fallen, and repent." As the adverb whence is a kind of substitute {or from what place or state, the use tifrom, before it, is unnecessary ; hence pleonastic. jFrom, however, is still used before the adverbs hence and whence, and will probably continue to be so used ; for remonstrance has almost ceased. In parsing, the preposition /rom may be expunged, or parsed with the adverb, as an adverbial phrase. From, is also sometimes used before far ; as, " He came/r^ni/ar." In this case, an ellipsis may be supplied; as, He came from afar country ; or from far may be parsed adverbially. 13. The article an was formerly construed before all words commencing "with h ; as. An house. An hundred sheep. This use of an is now obso- lete, except when h is silent, or the word to which it belongs is accented on the second syllable. In reading the Bible, we frequently meet such ex- pfessions as an hungered; as, "At that time Jesus went on the Sabbath day through the corn ; and his disciples vi^tq an hungered," etc., Matt, xii., 1. This form of expression is now obsolete ; the proper expression is, His dis- ciples w«re hungry. Exercises. The Lerd knoweth the way of the righteous ; but the way of the ungodly shall perish. Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and unto God the things that be God's. Thy rod and thy staflF they shall comfort me. When the unclean spirit has gone out of a man, he walketh through dry places, seeking rest. Let us go to now, and build us a city. Let him that thinketh he standetb, take heed lest he fall. And, if ye will receive it, this is Elias which was for to come. Then shall the kingdom of heaven be likened unto ten virgins, which took their lamps; and went forth to meet the bridegroom. For he wist* not. what to say ; for they were sore afraid. And Abimelecfe said, I woj not who has done this thing. Genesis, xxi., 26. And he said unto them, Draw out now and bear unto the governor of the feast, and they bare it. John ii., 8. And they, fearing lest they should fall into the quicksandSyi strake sail, and so were driven, Acts, xxvii., lY. And Uzzah and Ahio, the sons of Abinadab, drav.e the new cart. 2 Samuel, vi., 3. For all flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth. Genesis vi., 12. From that time forth began Jesus to show unto his disciples how that he must go unto Jerusalem. Matthew xvi,, 21. By the which will, we are sanctified through the ofiering of the body of Jesus Christ once for all. Hebrews x., 10. And his sister stood afar off, to wit what would be done with him, Exodus, xxi., 4. •WiBt not,— Kjww kot. OONST&m^XIVB QRAMMAB. 19t> CHAPTER XXVII. SYNTAX. § 1. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. A sentence is such an assemblage of words as affirms a fact. No sentence or proposition can exist without an affirmation ; no affirmation can be made without a subject and predicate ; hence the subject and predicate are essential to the existence of a sentence or proposition ; as, " God is eternal," When the verb of a sentence is transitive, it has an object, either expressed or obviously understood ; as', " Oassius loved Bru^ tus." (See Part I., Chapter 1.) § 2. The rules of Syntax are based upon three leading prin- ciples, viz : Government, Concord or Agreement, and Po- sition : » Gmernment is that power which one word has in directing the Mode, Tense or Case»of another word. Comonl is the agreement of one word with another in gender, person^ number and case. Position means the place which a word occupies in a sentence. In the English language, which has but few inflections, the meaning of a sentence depends much on the position of the words which it contains. RULES OF SYJ^TAX WITH NOTES AND REMARKS. RULE I. The subject of the verb' must be in the nominative case ; as, " John writes." Note 1. — The infinitive mode, or part of a sentence, or a whole sentenoe, may be the subject of a verb ; as, To see, is pleasant." " To die for one's country, is glo- rious." *' That hot cUmatea shorten hurrxm, life, is reasonable to suppose." Note 2. — When & pronoun is the subject of a verb, it must take the subjeotiva form ; ns, /, thou, he, sh<'-, we, they, etc. Rem. — It is the subject of the ^ntie verb, which must be in the nominative case ; f»r the subject of the infinitive may be in the objective; as, <• When the noble Caasar saw Am stab," that is, t» stab. RULE IL A noun or pronoun predicated of the subject, must be in the nominative case; as, " Law is a rule of action." " Thou art he." " It is J." Rem. 1.— The reason of this rule is obvious : for the predicate nominative must b« the snvie person or thin;^ as the Rubject— the nature of the construction precluding • the poi^sibility of its being the object of a verb or preposition ; hence the necessity of its being in the nominative case., Rem. 2.— There is no error more coramoo among the populace than that of pro4- Icating an objective case of the subject ; such as, " I thought it was hitH, but it wal 136 • ANALTTBCiLL, ILLUiTRATlTB AlfD not him.^' Some authors have been so far carried away by this erroneous practice, that they have admitted it into their systems as a principle of grammar. ThiS) however, should not bo referred to with any favoring notice. RULE III. A noun or pronoun used to identify another noun or pronoun, is put bj apposition in the same case ; as, " Cicero, the orator.'* " Solomon^ the son of David, wrote many proverbs," BxM. — Explanation and emphasis constitute the proper limits of apposition — be- yond these, the annexed nouns or pronouas become pleonasms which should not be tolerated. In the example alrlady given, the identifying nouns are used for expla- nation; but in the following th« noun is merely repeated for emphasis f as, " Can man, weak man, thy power defeat." (See Apendix, Art. Appo.) RULE IV. « The possessive case, is governed by the word which it limits J as, " John's book." " His being away from home, was a^great disappointment." ' Rem. 1. — The possessive case is not unfrequently governed by a phrase, as in Example 2. (For the formation of the possessive case, see Appendix, Art. Case.) Rem. 2. — Nothing except some n#cessary modifying words, should ever be con- Btmed between the possessive case and the word or phrase which it limits ; as, " She extolled the /t/rmer's, as she called him, cxce/Ze«t understanding." Rbm. 3.— No pronoun should tver have the possessive sign, but one, another and ether, being used in the sense of nouns ; consequently adm^ of the sign. RULE V. The infinitive mode is governed by the word which it limits ; as, "They wenf to «ee him." "She is eager to learn." "I heard him my it. " He is learning to read.'' Rem. — The infinitive mode is sometimes saidto be absolute; as, " To confess the truth, I was ia fault." (See Peculiar Constructions, Example 22.) |BULE VL The verb niust agree with its nominative in number and per- son ; as, "Thou seest" "He sees." "I see:' "We see." " Thou madest him a little lower than the angels, and crownedst him with glory and honor." Note 1. — Such nouns as have a singular form, but are obviously plural in sense, take a plural verb ; as, " A hundred head of cattle were grizing on the side of the mountain." Note 2. — When a verb is construed between two nominatives of diflFerent num- bers, it should agree with that which is more naturally the subject of the affirma- tion ; as, " His vieat was locusts and wild honey." Rem. — For the personal terminations* which the verb must assume in different atyles, and to agree with nominatives of different persoDB and numbers, see Num- ber and Person of the v^I». CONSTRCCTIVS QRAMMAK.. 137 RULE VII. Two or more nominatives in the singular, connected by and, must have verbs agreeing with them in the plural ; as, " Cato and Plato were wise." Note 1. — When tho constrnction ie such as to prevent the verb from affirming CODJoiptly of the nominatives, it takes tho singular form ; as, " Truth, and not false- hood, is destined to prevail." In this example, falsehood is nominative to a verb understood. Note 2. — When the nominativps, connected by and, denote the same person or thing, tho verb should be singular ; &s, "The saint, the husband, and the father pray^" " Why i» dust and ashes proud? As these nominatives denote but one person, \here can be but one act performed at the same time'; hence the reason of the note. Tho last example is supposed to be equivalent to, " Why is a human being ■proud?" That is, a being made of dust and ashes. Note 3. — The adjunct which may limit tho nominative, should have no effect upon the verb; as. " The side A, toith the side B and C, composes the triangle." "The ship with all the crew, wi-s lost." Rkm. — Some writers use aplural verb in such constructions. This practice, how- ever, in our judgment, should not be imitated ; since it is neither supported by an- ^ogy nor good usage gener.-illy. Note 4. — When nominates of (fj^ez-enf numbers are connected hy and, it would be better to plaoo the plural next to the verb ; as, " The sun, moon, and stars admon- ish UR of a superior and superintending power. » Kkm. — AVhen and connects nominatives of different persons, cotirtesy generally requires that thofrst person should be placed last in construction ; as, " You and / did that work." The verb is said, in such Cfisos, to agree with the^rs?person rather than the second, and with the second rather thuu tho third, Note 5. — When nominatives, connected by apd, are limited by such specifying ad- jectives as each, every, tho verb takes the singular form; as, " Every man, woman, and child, was numbered." RULE VIL Two or more nominatives in the singular, connected by or or nor, must have verbs agreeing with them in the singular; as, " John or James was ill." Rem. 1. — In this example, John and James are taken separately, and while tho predicate teas ill may be affirmed of either, it can not be athrmod of both conjoint- ly; hence tho reason of the rule. Hem. 2. — Some suppose that in some instances when the affirmation is negative, the verb may bo plural; as, " Neither Moses, Lycurgus, nor Solon, were eminent as orators." Note 1. — When nominatives of different numbers aro connected by or or nor the plural nominative should bo construed next to tho verb, with which the verb should agree ; as, " Neither moon nor stiirs appear." Note 2. — When or or nor connects nominatives of different persons, the verb , should agree with tae one placed next to it ; as, " Thou or I am to blame." Kem. — As each nominative, in such constructions, belongs to a verb, it is thought to be better to use some other form of construction ; as. Either thou art to blame, or I am ; or thus. Blame rests upon mo or ihec. RULE IX. When a verb agrees with the infinitive mode or part of a sentence for its subject, it must be in the third person, singu- lar ; as, " To die for one's country, is glorious." " To seek God is wisdom." 138 AITALTriOAl, liXUOTRATITB AifD Rem — It is obvious that the infinitive mode or part of a sentence, used as th» subject of afBrniation, can not represent the speaker, nor can it be the subject of address ; honce it is nccessarilj- limited to the third person; again, as such a phrase or part of a sentence can represent but a sinyle idea, phirality is excluded, and the verb agreeing with such a phrase must be in the singular j hence the reason of the rule. V Note. — If two guch phrases are connected by and, each representing a different idea, the verb must be plural; as, " To eat and to play coastitute the chief employ- ment of some." RULE X. A collective noun conveying idea of unity, generally has a verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular ; as, " That nation was once powerful ; but low it is feeble." Rem. — A collective noun conveys idea of unity when th« individuals of which it is criiuposed are represented as acting in one way, so that whatt^ver is affirmed of the ■whole may, with equal propriety, be aCrmed of each individual; as, " The commit- tee was unanimous in its sentiments." Here perfect harmony of sentiment prevails, and the mind contemplates committee as one entire whole ; but, if we say, The com- ' mittee were divided in their sentiments, this harmony of action ceases, and the mind no longer contemplates committee as a unity, but ns a plurality ; since the in- dividuals are represented as being divided, and acting in different ways. This idea of plurality constitutes the basis of Rule XI. RULE XI. A collective noun conveying idea of plurality, generally has a verb and pronoun in the plural ; as, " The committee wei'© divided in their sentiments." Rev. — The practice of writers, with regard to theie rales, is not uniform. RULE xn. Pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender, number, and person ; as, " John lost his knife," " He who studies, will improve." Note 1. — When the relative relates to antecedents of different persons, it may agreeo with either; but when the agreement has been dc-tprmined, it must be con- tinued throughout the sentence; as, "Thou art the Lord, loAo c/it/st choose Abraham, and didst bring him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees." Note 2. — When a pronoun relates to two or more antecedents in the singular, connected by and, it must be in the plural; but, if its antecedents are connected by or or nor, it must be in the singular. Hem. i. — In most cases when a relative is preceded by two antecedents of differ- ent persons, the construction may be advantageously altere«l ; as, '' I am the man who commands you " — better thus, I who command you, am the man. [For con^ Btruetion of the relative, see Construction of Elements.) Rem. 2. — When the relative refers to antecedents of different persons connected ' by a conjunction, it must agree in person with \h& first rather than the second, and with the secowl rather than the third. Rem. 3. — Pronouns which are applicable to persons may be applied to lower ant' mats, and even to inanimate objects, when the SittTihuXes of rational creatures are at- tributed to them ; as, " The lion said to the ass who had been hunting with /m;j." " Night, sablo goddess, from her ebon throne descends." Rem. 4. — The relative tcAicA should be used instead of who, after the names of persons, when the e/iaraeter, and not the person, la referred to ; as, " Herod, which c05fr6TRacnTB (jrammab. 139 '[word] is Ruothot name for cruelty." "S.d h a £ood writer, which is uU he pro- lessM to be. RULE XIII. The indefinite article belongs to nouns in the singular num- ber; as, " A man. An hour." RULE XIV. The definite article belongs to nouns of both* numbers ; as, ■^' The mun. The men." Rem. — Though (he is called the definite article, it is not always competent of it- self to point out tbo noun to which it belongs definitely. If I siiy, " The man has tjo rae," man is not pointed out as a definite object to the luind of the hearer, unless he had been the subject of a previous discourse. " TAe .5Zar appctrs." What si'ar? The particular star about which wo have been discoursing. As this article does not limit nouns in respect to number, and is incapable of pointin,;; out a Koun definitely of itself, Mr. Cardoll has come to the conclusion that it is the most indefinite of all the defining adjectives. Note 1. — When several nouns aro connected in A regular construction, it is not Rlways necessary to repeat the articla before oaoh; as, " The men, wo.nea, and chil- dren suffered extremely." Note 2. — But when nouns are joined in construction, without a close connectiou, and common dependence, the article must bo repeated. The following sentence is inaccurate : " She never considered the quality but merit of her visitors." Note 3. — When two or more adjectives are assumed of the soma noun, tho article should not be repeated ; as, " I saw a white and black calf." But, if the ndjectivos are assumed of dif event nouns, the article should be repeated; as, " I saw a white ■nd-r. black calf." In tbo last example, I obviously saw two calves, the one ichite, and the other black- But, in the first example, I saw but one calf, baving'Jwo col- crs, white and black. (See OonstVuction of Article and Constructioa of Elements.) RUXE XV. Adjectives belong to neuns and pronouns;; ae, "A good man/' *' She is handsome." ' Note I. — Su^h i-pecifying adjectives as are varied to express number, most agree in number with tho roims to which they belo g ; &r This. that, these ■'•ni those. Note 2. — This anii thiit, these and tho<^e are antithetical in their mea ing and ap- plicarion ; better. He ain't got no more. In our neighborhood, nobody never takes no newspapers. By Rulb XXVI. Model "He maketh me to lie down in green pastures." To lie, in this sentence, is construed with the verb iii'iketh ; but the sign of the infinitive is expressed ; the sentence is, therefore, incorrect; it should be, JfaiefA Tne lie doten^ etc., according to Rule XXVI. Bid him to go. Make tiie man to work. See the student tc read. Hear him to recite. Feel the chair to move. lie only maketh me to dwell in safety. Bt Ruli XXVIII. Model " Him having arrived, the army commenced its march." Ilim Is placed before a participle, having no verb to agree with it ; but has the objective form ; it- is, therefore incorrect ; it should be he in the norrdnative absolute, according to Rule XXVIII. ' It was declared to me, him being being present. It was said of him them being in the company. Her descending the ladder fell. To BE CORRECTID BT THB "DiAORAM Oy TiMB." " M^del " I finiihed my letter before the maid arrived." The verb^n- ished is in the past tense ; whereas it is used in the prior of two pott events; therefore the verb is incorrect; it should be had finished, in the pluperfect, according to Figure 4 of the " Diagram of Time." We hate studied our lessons yesterday. I never drank better water. We came here to-day. Philosophers have made great discoveries last cen- tury. I have endeavored during the last summer, to make myself thor- oughly acquainted as possible with our systenj of common schools. After I have quoted the text, you will see the application. After I visited Europe I returned to America. The thief escaped before the goods were missed. The world will have been destroyed by fire. John will complete his task by the time appointed. The Houses of Congress will finish their business by the 5th of May. OONeTnUOTITS Gt&AiAtiJ^IU 163 CHAPTER XXIX. MIBCSLLANBOnS REMARKS. Rem. 1 — Verbs which in point of time relate to each other, should "ugroe in tenee ; as, " Caesar leaves Gaul, erottct the Rubicon, and enters Italy with five thousand men ; or we may say, Cscsar left Gaul, crossed the Rubicon, and entered Italy with five thousand men. Now, as these verbs all relate to the same point of time, they properly agree in tense, whether used in the present for greater vivacity of narra- tive, or in the past tense to point out a period of time, which is entirely past. It would, however, be incorrect to say, Caosar Left Gaul, erosies the Rubicon, and en- tered Italy, etc., for they do not now agree in tense, though they refer to the same period of time. Rem. 2. — Verbs which do not refer to the same period of time, should be in differ- ent tenses ;* hence the following sentence is incorrect, vis. : " The Lord fiath given, and the Lord hath taken arpa%.^' It is obvious that these two verbs refer to different periods of time ; since the act of giving was prior to that of taking away ; hence these verbs should be in different tenses ; thus, the Lord yaoc, an d he hath taken *^^y- fip^"" "" " Had he loved Spain more, and England less, he had never died on the scaf- fold."— Hawkos' History of North Carolina, vol. I., page 67. This uso of the tenses, though sanctioned by authority of the highest grade, is not philosophically aconrate ; for, while had loved and had died are in the same tense, they do not re- fer to the same period of time ; since the period of time pointed out by had loved is necessarily prior to that pointed out by hud died ; then it would be more consis- tent with the analogy of the language, if not quite so poetic, to vary the form of expression a little; thus, Had he loved Spain more and England less, he would never have died on the soafTold. Rbm. 3.— As other words and phrases point out the relation of timo, % due regard to these relations should be observed. " On tho morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paul was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." The phrase on the morrow points out future time, and the verb would have known, as indicated by the tense, refers to past time, but the time which the verb is intended to point is not really past, but harmonizes with that indicated by on the morrow ; hence tho verb is put in the wrong tense; it should be, On the mor- row, because he would know, etc. Rem. 4. — When\the infinitive is construed with such verbs as express desire, in- tention, hope, or command, it should be put in tho pr€f:ent tense ; as, •' I intended to vorite last week. Rem. 6. — Future time may be pointed out by construing the Infinitive present with the present tense of the verb to be; as, " Harrison is to be the next President." " They are to be married to-morrow." Rbm. 8. — When a comparison is instituted between a co-ordinato and a subordi- nate clause, the two clauses should not be separated from each other by the Inter- position of some other clause or phrase ; hence the following sentenee is not cor- rectly construed ; as, " He was more beloved, but not so much admired, as Cynthio. It should be, " He wan more beloved than Cynthio, but not so much admired." Rem. 7. — When a sentence is commenced with either style, it should be eontinued throughout the sentence. The following sentence, in this respect, is incorrect: " You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, Till nobly rises emulous thy own." Rem. 8. — The preposition at is generally construed before the names of villages or small towns, and also before foreign cities, but in is generally construed before large towns or cities of our own country ; as, " He resides at High Point." They live in ifeto York." » ♦It should not be forgotten that the potential pluperfect, with respect to time, is the esme as the indicative past. 154 ANALrnOAL, ILLCeritAVIVB AND Rem. 9. — Betwetn, Among. Betiaeen should be used to show tho relation between two persons or thinfl;8, or between two cla»aea of pqrsona or things, and among when more than two; as, " Between you and me, there is a groat disparity •f years." " l*h«y w»Iked among the trees of the garden." CHAPTER XXX. EXERCISES IN FAL8K SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED. Bbm.— In correcting tho following sentence?, tho learner must not limit himself to the Rules, Notes, and Remarks of Syntax, but he must refer to tho Diagram o» TiMB, to the Misoellanaous and General Remarks, to tho Peculiar Constructions and Colloquial Inaccuracies. Tho laws of Draco is said to have been written xvith human blood. His bting at enmity with Caesar and Antony, were the cause of discord. The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were wlioUy con- sumed. Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, Y»laced in his own hands. The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean, afifects the mind with sensations of astonishment I, Napoleon B«- naparte, Consul of France, and Commander of the French forces at Tou- logue, offers a reward of flva hundred francs for information concerning con- spiracies against me. Me being in great haste, he consented. To love God with all thy heart, are a divine command. Them that instruct others should look well to themselves. Let ub to proceed. Who went with Jane to church? Me. Still water runs deeply. Sing the two first stanzas. Augustus, the Roman emperor, him, who succeeded Julius Ciesar, is various- ly described by historians. Oh ! Thou my voice inspire, Who touched Jgaiah's hallowed lips with fire. Sow rarely reasoii guides the stubborn choice I Rule the bold hand, or prompt the suppliant voice. I remember the family more than twenty years ago. I have been at Wash- ington last June, where I saw General Andrew Jackson, he who is now President. It was one cold evening in February, the snow had not yet began to melt, when a man came reeling forth out of the village. Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July, 1826, were both sign- ers and the firm supporters of the Declaration of Independence. Yet so long as intemperance reigns, and you, my friend, refrain from lend- ing your aid in opposition to it, just so long will the tears of women and the moans of the orphan, continue; juFt so long will intemperance hang bis blick escutcheon o'er the grave of talent and greatness, whiW the min- ions ol Satan rejoioeth. Not one in fifty of those who call themselves Deists, undarstand the na- ture of the religion which they reject, lied he been instructed in the prin- ciples of Christianity, he had been a betier man and a wiser legislator. There is a spirit in man, and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth them under.«tanding. In the conduct of Parnunio, a mixture of wisdom and fol- Iv were conspicuous. Henry and ^Villiaiii, who obey tlieir teacher, improves CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 155 fast. Tf T was Alexander, I would accept the terms ; so would T, if I was Parmenio. After he visited Egypt, he went to Palestine. Th«ra students •re very careless, nor is it probable that they will learn much. This here book has been badly injured. Every town, every village, afid every house wei^ burned. Either 1 or thou are in the wrong. The blenting sheep with my complaints agree, Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee. So great Eneas rushes to the fight. Sprung from a god, and more than mortal bold, Him fresh in youth, and me in arms grow old. High hopes and ambitious views is a great enemy to tranquility. A too great variety of studies dissipate and weaken the mind. There was much spoke and wrote on the subject, but I have chose to suspend my decision. Religion raises m«n above themselves ; irreligion sinks them beneath brutes ; that binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of earth ; this opens for them a prospect to the skies. Temperance and exercise, howsoever little they may be regarded, they are the bes^jneans of preserving health. Each must answer for themselves. To despise others on account ol their poverty, or to value ourselves on account of our wealth, are dispoBitions hiRhly culpable. When Parick appeared, Peter was for some time in doubt whether it could be him or not. Socrates' wisdom have been the subject of many a conversation. Is it him ? Which of the two masters, says Seneca, shall we most esteem?— he who strives to correct his scholars by prudent advice and motives of honor, or ho who will lash them ieverely for not repeating their lessons as they ought? He had no master to instruct him ; he had read nothing but the writings of Moses and the prophets, and had received no lessons from the Socrates',* Plato's, and Confuscius's of the age. Here rages force, bore tremble flight and fear. Here stormed contention, and here fury frowned ; The Cretan javelin reached him from afar, And pierced his shoulder as he mounts his car. Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, tbey will go out of themselves. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lies in three words — health, peace and competence. The polite, accomplished libertine is but miserable amidst all his pleas- ures ; the rude Laplander is happier than him. They that honor me, them will I honor. He would not believe that hon- esty was the best policy. A great mass of rocks thrown together with wildness and eonfusion, strike the mind with more grandeur than if they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry. Take hand- fuls of ashes and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust. ♦The pospesiivf c«ne muet not. be uped for the pinral number. In this quotation from the letter* of Baron Haller to his daughter, the proper names should be plnralized like the common nouns ; thus, " From the Socrates, Platos and Confuciuses ' 166 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man ; this tends to excite pride ; that disappointment. The king and tyrant are very different charac- ters ; that rules bis people by his absolute will and power ; this by laws to which they consent. Of whom wer» the articles bought ? of a grocer ; he who resides near the Mansion House. A second deluge learning thus o'errun, And th« Monks finished what the Goths begun. You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, Till nobly rises emulous thy own. Thou, goddess-mother, with our sire comply, If you submit, the thunderer stands appeased. Self-love, the spring of action, moves the soul, Reason's comparing balance rules the whole ; Man, but for this, no action could attend, Man, but for that, were active to no end. Him with viny crown advancing, Tirst to the lively pipe his hand addressed. Thee sung, sweet bride, with unreposing lay, Thou first at mom deplored, thou last at close of day. He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do it better. The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when they have looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid ascribing their origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt a propensity to adore their Creator. You thought it was her, but it was not her ; for I knew it to be him. Whom do men say that I, the son of man, am. The Lord whom I serve, is eternal. Though thou wast as huge as Atlas, thy efforts would be vain. Take heed that thou speakest not to Jacob. I shall walk out, unless it rains. I will drown ; for no man shall help me. I will meet thee there, if thee please. Thou shouldst not take the matter in your own hands. Who did thou walk with ? She. Who dares apologize for Pizarro — who is but another name for rapacity ? The sincere is always esteemed. Joshua was chose to be the leader of Israel in the room of Moses, who was not permitted to pass over Jordan ; because he had, on one occasion, spoke unadvisedly. Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your attention. Nobody don't know nothing about it. This was the most unkindest cut of alL He enters the territory of the peaceable inhabitants, lays waste their coun- try, and depopulated the most flourishing towns and cities. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days cf my life, and I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever. Acquaint thyself with God, if you would taste his works. Admitted once to his embrace. Thou shalt perceive that thou wert blind before ; Thine eyes shall be instructed and thine heart. Made pure, shall relish with divine delight, Till then unfelt, what hands divine has wrought. cp^f«TRUCTl^^: grammar. 157 CHAPTiER XXXI. COLLOQUIAL I N A C CU R A. C I K 9 . §1. As colloquial inaccuracies are too numerous and varied to be comprehended by any syntactical rules, however copious, we have thrown together some of these inaccuracies, and ar- ranged the correct and the incorrect expressions in parallel columns. Though these colloquial inaccuracies may vary, not only in different States, but also in different sections of the same State, yet they may nearly all be traced to three leading sources,, via., 1. Unwarrantable contractions, 2. Redundant words or Pleonastic expressions, and 8. Words badly chosen to convey the tense intended. §3. CLASS I. UNWARRANTABLE CONTRACTIONS. Though some contractions are admissible in familiar style,- yet they should be carefully avoided in all grave or solemn dis course. §5. INCORRECT. I, ai'nt well, I havnt been out, He isnt at home, We werii't there, I didnt do it, I hadn't heart of it, They've come, ,» We're ready, It's been warm, She'd heard of it. Til assist you, I us'd to know it, We're sisters. The door tvatn't shut, ffe's rich, You'll see 'im, ' I've seeif' er, I 'spos* 'tioill. Lay 'em on the table, I b'lieve it, Gim me some broad, CORRECT. « I am not well. I have not been out. He is not at home. We were not there.. I did not do it, I had not heard of it. They have come. We are ready. It has been warm. She had heard of it. I will assist you. I used to know it. We are sisters. The door was not shut. He is rich. . You will see him. I have seen her. I suppose it will. Lay them on the table. I believe it. Give me some Sread. 18 168 AVAATTIOAL, IbLUST&AMTI X¥9 INOOBRBOT. It's a'mott too late, A greadeal too large, A good' eel to short, He haint none, ' Taint his, You don't know '«7n, (7aw'it he go ? May n't she stay ? You musnt do so, John's got enough, <;ORBBC». It is almost too late. A great deal (or much) too large. Very much too short'. He has none. It is not his. You do not know him. Can he not go ? May she not stay ? You must not do so. John has enough. • CLASS II. § 4. EEDUNDANT WORDS OR PLIOHASTIO EXPRESSIONS: INCORRECT. I could not get to go, The speaker rose wp. He fell down, Up above, Up over, Down under, • He mentioned it over again, I will replace it again. They both met, He cannot tell /or why. Return back immediately, He went, but soon came bAcJe again, Where shall I go to ? You sheuld be ever constant to the truth, I saw no one ehe but him. He was in here when I saw him We entered into the cave, I am a going. He is a walking, Can you go ? To he ture, Whos' book is this here ? D'ye see that thar nmn ? We've done eat, I've done said it, But he's dons done it, COBRBCT. I could not go. The speaker rose. He fell. Above. Over. Under. He mentioned it again. I will replace it. They met. He cannot tell why. Return immediately. He went, but soon returned. * Where shall I go ? _^ You should be constant to the truth. •I saw no one but him. , He was here when I saw him. We entered the cave. I am going. He is walking. Can you go ? Surely. Whose book is this ? Do you see that man ? W^e have eaten. I have said it. But he has done it. OONSTRUCTIVa QRAMMAft. 159 IWOORRICT. How do you do t He has got enough, John he said it, Mary she went, I saw her the Queen, Them met 'z'm the preacher, John his hand and pen, Mary her bonnet, l^ow go now, The bees they have swarmed. Bring me them there books, CORRBOT. How are you ? He has enough. John said it. Mary went. I saw the Queen. They met the preacher. John's hand and pen. Mary's bonnet. Now go. The bees have swarmed. Bring me those books. CLASS III §6. WORPS BADLY CHOSEN. INOOBRBCT. I am dry, Put out the candle, Give me them books, I reckon it will rain, I guess it is enough, I calculate to return. You read right well, I am monstrous glad to see you, He has a heap of nfoney, I want it badly, A great territory,* The Erricson is a big ship,* Webster's large mind,* Pour it in the glass, Place it on the shelf. It lies upon the desk, He is to the store. My mother learned me the letters, I want it right bad, It rains hard, A hard battle, A little bit a sentence, CORRBCT. I am thirsty. Extinguish the light. Give me those books. I think it will rain. I think it is enough. I intend (or purpose) to return. Yo-u read very well. I am very glad to see you. He has much money. I want it much. A large territory. The Erricson is a large ship. Webster's great mind. Pour it into the glass. Place it upon the shelf. It lies on the desk. He is at the store. My mother taught me the letters. I want it very much. It rains fast. A fierce battle, A small sentence. *Ghbat Is arppUcnble to ment*l measuroment ; larox to tire nrtfWJurement ef Bolifl. bbOlet), and biq 16 abm* vlnnfttural Increase or •walling. 160 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND INCORKEOT. COH«EC». My mother is very well. I rose at T o'clock. I'll do as well as I can. You ought to go. Are you all well ? He is gone after the cows. He came after his hat. My mother is right well, I got up at 7 o'clock, I'll do as well as I kin, You ones ought to go, Are yous all well ? He is gone atter his cows, He came artcr his hat, He is givine home, He is going home. This is hisn and that is yottr'w, This is his and that is yours. She took my.bcfok, and left She took mj book, and left hers. hern, I knoivd it was Am, She" telVd me of it, I seen her, I hearn her, I taken it to him, You had better go. I knew it was he. She told me of it. I saw her. I heard her. I took it to him. You would do better to go. They have got four sons, and They have four sons, and three three datters, They had a hard fit, Thej fit a half an hour, I feel mighty bad, I feel sorter sick, He alloived to me, and I allowed to him. He allowed to go last week,. He lowed it would be better for both, I admired at you, daughters. They had a severe fight. They fought half an hour. I feel very unwell. I feel a little sick. He suggested (or said) to me, and I said (or suggested) to him. He intended«to go last week. He supposed it would be better for both. I wonder at you. He was made much on at town. He was made much of at town. Walk in, to the fire. He walked backward and for- ward. You and I think alike. Oh ! how it burns. The storm began to subside^. He brought it. I set out on my journey. ' He set his hat upon the table. He is f^one up stars to look at He has gone up stairs to look at the stairs, the stars. Let us walk out, and take the Let us walk out and take the fresh ar^ ' fresh air. Walk into the five. He walked hack and forth, Me and you think alike, Ouch ! how it burns, The storm begun to subside, ,}lefotched it, I sot out on my journey. He sot his hat upon the table COKSTaOOTCVE CniAirftiAR. 161 IN'COKRBCT. Thoy air at home, Ke came through the draw hairs, Crocketfwas a great bar hunter, Thar he stands, IFho'll carry the girls to church ? Carry the horse to water, He chau'8 his own tobacco, I am tolerable well, ,\got sot back two years, I can't mind it, I will take some of thote mo- lasses,* He got hie hroughten up in this here town, She cant hear good, I am a iceared of robbers, The business would sut any one who enjoys bad health, I am very fond o^ tparrowgrusSy I gee him last Monday, No extras or vacations, Why did you not bring the plow? Because «/itf was not repaired. She dresses very neat, We have no corporeal punish- islmient here. He rail againtt a snag, As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. They are at heme. He came through the draw bars. Crockett was a great bear hunter. There he stands. Who will accompany the girls to church ? Lead or ride the horse to water. He chews his own tobacco. I am tolerably wdl. I was set back two y«arB. I can not recollect it. I will take some of the (or that) molasses. He was raised in this town. She cannot hear well. I am afraid of robbers. The business would suit any one who is in delicate health. I am very fond of asparagus. I saw him last Monday. Neither extras nor vacations. Why did you not bring the plow ? Because it was not repaired. She dresses very neatly. We have no corporal punish- ment. He got into a difficulty. So far as 1 am able to judge, the book is well written. NEW ENfiLAND. INCOkRBCT. am He is gwine home, and I am He is going home, and I givine atter him, going after him. Where s your daddy ? Where is your father ? • Izzcnt that are line writ well ? Is not that line well written? Where shall I dump my cart ? Where shall I unload my cart ? ^Molasses is strictly eingular, being the eyrup which drains from Mnscarado SHgar whllo cooling. DUTCH. aCOHRICT. CORBECT. Have you any winegar for saU? Have you any vinegar for sale ? He saw a warment run up a He saw a vermin run up a grape grape wine in a wally, vine in the valley. He sailed in a new wessel to He sailed in a new vessel to thd the Vest Indies, West Indies. He has been hard %t vorky He has been hard at work. Give me de bitcher, Give me the pitcher. Did you hear dat tundtr f Did you bear that thunder ? J)i% is mine vife^ This is my wife. He said he would grind it till He said ho would grind it by Saturday night, Saturday evening. He will finish it unttlnQxi week, He will finish it next week, xsiss. urcoKRBor. corrbct. Not here the day ; gone till He is not here to-day ; he went Pittsbufg, to Pittsburg. Let u8 he after pairsing a wee Let us parse a little. bity Where did you loss it ? Where did you lose it ? Don't heer ; can't sheer me, I disregard them; they cannot scare me, I am not slceern, I am not afraid. Tote the wood to the river, Carry the wood to the river. Is that jonr plunder, stranger ? Is that your baggage, sir ? Whar you gwine ? Where are you going ? Sese in cohoot with me. He is in partnership with mo. Who hoped you to sell it ? Who helped you to sell it? X'de rather have my hat as I had rather have my hat than yourn, yours. She is better as she was, She is better than she wag. Rem.— If parents would take the paini to call ov«r the foregoing Colloquial In- accuracie*, some once «r twice a week, and let their children correct them, it would contribute •much towards forming aa elegant and perspicuous style. Teacheri should not'fail to exereise their pupils regularly in correoting these and other in- aoouracies. mowntvown ski^wmak. 163 CHAPTER XXXII. PUNCTUATION OB QNOMONOLOOT. I 1. Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composi- tion into sentences and phrases, in order to make the stops which the sense of the sentiment, its grammatical construction, and an accurate prohunciation require. S 2. The principal stopa used to denote these pauses aro, [] Comma > Asterisks Semicolen > Quotation Colon : Brackets Dash — Index Parenth^ia Ellipsis Period Asterisk Interrogation .? Obelisk Ex,c!amation J Double-dagger Hyphen ' - Paragraph Caret A Section Parallel 11 Brace t t t § } Punctuation is. a modern art. The ancients not only wrott without dis- tinction of phrases, clauses, or ptriods, but also without distinction of words. When this practice had ceased, thej? used cert«in points after each word, which practice continued for a long time. The time when the preient system of punctuation waa inrented, is not definitely known ; but it is believed, as nothing is seen of the points now used, in manuscripts and monumental inscriptions prerious to th« art of printing, that it commenced with that art, or soon afttr. A.11 the gnomons, or points, did not appear at once; but, a^ rcfihemeRt snd learning ad- Tanctd, they gradually increased into the number now used. The precise quantity assigned to each of th« points, or ^lonrons, can not absolutely b« detertsined; for it must continually rary with tho sense of the composition. But the relative quantity should be csrefully observed. Regarding the quantity of the comma as one; the relative quantity of the semicolon would be t7Co ; the co\on four ; and the period six or eight, Tha art of applying these gnomons, or points, correctly, can only bert^quired hj understanding the construction of a sentence scitntifically. The nearness ' •r remoteness of tho grammatical relations of its several parts must be clearly apprehended, as well ae ths various positions which the elements of the sentence may assume in its construction. Now, as this knowledge of th« construction of a sentence is scientific, an4 as the proper application of these points is based upon this knowledge, punctuation is a eciKNCB a» V)4ll at an art. Sinca ther« is a striking resemblance between the scienco of dialing and that of punctuation, Mr. James Brown has properly denominated the science which treats of tho characters used in punctuation, gnouvonoh'jy, ABd th» characters themselvefthe calls fnom&m, or t/K/iblc, and the religionof Ma- homet, are very different things." The reason of this is, and docs not 'con- nect the words placed next to it as words ; but the connection is between religion and religion, modified by their respective adjective elements. 19 166 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE, AND 6. When, in the natural order of construction, a subordinate clause is united to the leading clause by a connectiye, which, when taken alon*, lim- its the predicate of the leading clause, no gnomon is admissible ; as, " We shall hear the news token the mail arrive*" "The thief had escaped be- fore the goods were missed." But, if the connective which joins on the subordinate clause, can not of itself limit the predicate of the leading clause, not only a comma may be used, but in gome cases even a semicolon ; as, "Eliza will improve, if she study." " I submitted ; for it was vain to re- sist." But, in every case in which the subordinate clause usurps the place of its super, or is construed between the parts of its super, it should be separated by a comma, or commas, as the case may be ; as, " When he comes, we shall hear the news," or. We ehall, when he comes, hear the news. 7. When a clause is used as the object of the verb in the leading clause, they should not be separated by any gnomon whatever ; as, " Revelation tells us hoio xne may become reconciled to God." " I fear / Jiave caught the consumption." Semicolon. 8. Since the semicolon connects the members of a compound sentence as well as the comma, the learner will often find it difficult to determine when to use the one or the other, notwithstanding the rules. He may be told that he must use the semicolon when a longer pause than the comma is necessary; but that throws but little light upon the subject ; for he may still ask, why is a lon2;er pause necessary ? This question can only be scientifically answered by telling him that a longer pause is necessary when the members are used in such a manner as to render them emphatic. Members are emphatic when used antithetically, or when they sustain a re- lation to each other, &b premise and conclusion. (See Rule 3 and 4.) Rem. — It will readily be pero«ived that most of the rules and remarks which fol- low are based upon the principlM here premised ; and, that by studying both atten- tively, a complete knowledge of the science and art of punctuation may be obtaiaed. § 3. These gnomons, indices, or points, may be divided into two classes, viz. : such as separate parts of a sentence, and those which separate entire sentences. The former are the Comma, colon, semicolon, dash, and parenthesis. The latter are the period, the interrogation, and the exclamation points. THE COMMA. § 4. The comma is used to indicate the shortest pause — it is also used to denote the ellipsis of some words. The principal uses of the Comma are exhibited in the follow- lowing rules and remarks : RULE I. When the construction of a simple sentence is interrupted by an adjunct, loosely thrown between its parts, it must be separated by a comma before and after it ; as, "^Law, iWtYs most confined sense, is a rule of human action."* *It would, perhaps, be better to exprees th« rul« thus, When a sub Is coiiitrued be- tween the parts of its super, it should generally be separated by a comma befort and after it. OONSTRDCTIVB GRAMMAR. 16T Rkk. — When a simple sentence is compact, and iti elements arranged in the nat- ural order of, construction, no point is needed; as, "Hope is necessary in every condition of life." RULE II. When the grammatical subject of a proposition is modified by a subordinate clause, or by an adjunct considerably extend- ed, the logical subject should be separated from the predicate by a comma ; as, " He that acts wisely^ deserves praise," " The intermixture of evil in human society, serves to exercise some of the noblest virtues of the human soul." Rkm. — If the modifying element is short, the comma may be omitted; as, " The end of all things is at hand." RULE in. When, by transposition, the sub or inferior member occupies the place of its super, it may be separated by a comma ; as, *' By doing good to others j we secure the approbation of our own conscience." RULE IV. The nominative case independent, and several of the interjec- tions, are separated by commas, since they are not elements of a sentence — consequently not closely connected ; as, " 3Iy son, give me thy heart." "Xo, from their seats, the mountains leap." Rbm. 1. — When the case independent is modified by an adjunct, the comma should be placed after it; as, " John of Richmond, come forth." Rkm- 2. — When a pronoun is joined with a noun i« making an address, it should not be separated from the noun ; as, " Ye scenes dimnely fair, proclaim your Ma- ker's wondrou5 pownr." Rbm. 3. — Those interjections which express a very strong emotion or feeling, ar« generally followed by an exclamation point; as, " Ah ! whither ehail I fly .'" Rru. 4. — When a conjunction introduces an example, or is separated by some in- tervening words or phrases, from the member to which it belongs, it should bo sepa- rated by a comma ; at, "Propositions govern the objective case; at, I went to church." '■■ For, for this cause, pay ye tribute also." Rbm. b. — An adverb or perhaps any other word, thrown oflf from the member to Trhieh it belongs, should be separated by a comma; as, " Soon, borne on Time's most rapid wing, Shall death command you to his bar." Rem, 6. — Words of others repeated, but not as qaotations, and also words and phrases repeated for emphasis, should be separated by a oommii : ns, " Thus sbalt thou iay to the children of Israel) / AM hath sent me unto you." " Uappy, happy happy, pair." • RULE V. The case absolute with the words depending on it, participles, and adjectives with words depending on them, should be sepa- rated from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, *' Bonaparte 168 AlffALTTICAL, ILLUSTRATITE AND being banished, peace was restored to Europe." '^His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail to render him con- spicuous."* " Jesus, let all thy lovers shine, Illustrious as the sun ; And, Iright with 'borrow' d rays divine, Their glorious circuit run." Rem. 1. — When a participle immediately follows the word on which it depends, taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should be omitted before the participle ; as, " He being ridiculed, left the institution." Rem. 2. — M' hen a participle without an adjunct, is separated from the word on which it depends in construction, a comma is generally inserted before and after it; as, " And when he was come near, he beheld the city, and wept over it, saying, if thou had£t known," etc. RULE VI. When the relative is so closely connected with its antecedent, that it will not admit of transposition, it should not be separa- ted from it by a comma ; as, " Henry saw hats which he wanted." The relative may be separated from its antecedent by a comma, 1. When its antecedent is used in a general sense ; as, " Man, who is born of Avoman, is of few days, and full of trouble," 2. When a word or phrase intervenes between it and its ante- cedent ; as, " He gave me i\\e piece of an apple, which he found."" 3. When the relative clause is broken by the introduction of a sub-member ; as, " An old clock, which, for fifty years, had stood in a farmer's kitchen, suddenly stopped." 4. When the relative clause is involved, and readily admits of transposition ; as, " The lady, whose house we occupy, bes- tows many charities." Rem. — In such examples as the last, the comma is frequently omitted before the relative. Observation. — Mr. Murray says " as the relative is a connective, it generally admits of a comma before it;" but it should be borne in mind that the relative be- longs to an adjective clause which limits the antecedent; then it is obvious it should not be separated, except in such constructions as are mentioned under Rule VI. RULE VII. When a conjunction is understood in connecting words in the same construction, its place should be supplied by a comma, and also when the verb of a simple member is understood ; as, " He is a pfot w, Ao?? £?sf man." "From law, arises security; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge," etc. *Asthisrnle consists of three dlgtinft parte, the learner may quote that part which applies directly to the case in question. COKffiTRUOTIVB GRAMMAR. lOt RULE VIII. Three or more words occurring in the same construction, with their conjunctions expressed or understood, should all be sepa- rated by commas except the last ; as, " David was a brave, wise, pious, and generous man." Obsertation.— The reason why the last word is not separated, is becaust it is either in juxta position with its super, or closes a sentence. Rem. 1.'— If they are nominatives, writers generally separate tli» last also ; m, " Ah ! what avails • « ♦ • All that art, fortune, enterpriie, can bring, If envs, scorn, remorse ot pricU, the bosom wring?" Rem. 2.— When words are connected in pairs, the pairs only should bo separated } ns, " Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and reve}ige, are the prime movers in public tiansactions.'' Rem. 3.— Words or phrases placed antithetically, should be separated by com- mas ; as, " Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dulU" Rem. 4. — When the conjunction or joins on a word which expresses an altemativo of words, and not of ideas, it should be separated by a comma; as, " He saw ft largo hctij, or g%ilf." \ Rem. i).— When /jArff«c« are connected by conjunctions, they are regulated by the same rules as single words. RULE IX. When any tense of the verb To Be is followed by a verb in the infinitive mode, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative case to it, the former is generally separated from the latter verb by a comma; as, ''The best preservative of health is, to he temperate," Rem. 1. — The inf nitive mode absolute with the words depending on it, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; as, ** To correct the spirit of discontent, let us consider how little wo deserve." Rem. 2. — When the infinitive mode or a part of a sentence is used as tho subject of the verb, it is generally separated from it by a comma ; as, " To die for omft country, is glorious." Rem. 3.— When a verb in the infinitive mode is separated from the word on whieh it depends in construction, a comma is generally placed before it ; as, " Oh ! for a glance of heavenly day. To take thie stubborn heart away." RULE X. Modifying words and phrases, as, Iwwever, nay, hence, he- sides, in sliort, finally, formerly, etc., are usually separated by a comma ; as, " It is, however, the task of criticism to estab- lish principles." 1*70 ANALTTIOAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND RULE XL The members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, should be separated by commas ; as, " The boy wound- ed the old bird, and stole the young ones." " Providence has, I think, displayed a tenderness for mankind." Rek. 1. — When the members are connsoted by conjunctive adverbs, the comma Is generally omitted ; as, " We heard the news before the messenger arrived." Rem. 2. — In comparative sentences whose members are short, the comma should not bs used; as, " Wisdom is better than gold." RULE XIL The case in apposition with its adjunct, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, "Paul, the great apostle of the Grentiles, was eminent for his Christian zeal." Rkic. — If the case in apposition is unaccompanied by any modifying word or phrase, no comma should be used; as, " The patriarch Joseph was an illustrious ex- ample of true piety." SEMICOLON. § 6. The semicolon (;) requires a longer pause than the com- ma ; the proportion being as one to two. The semicolon is placed between the clauses of a period which are less closely connected than such as are separated by commas. RULE L When the first division completes a proposition, so as to have no dependence on what follows, but the following clause has a dependence on the preceding, the two parts are separated by a semicolon ; as, " The one has all that perfection requires, and more, but the excess may be easily retrenched ; the other wants the qualities requisite to excellence." Rem. — In general then, the semicolon separates the divisions of a sentence, when the latter division has a dependence on the former, whether the former has a de- pendence on the latter or not. RULE II. When several members of a sentence have a dependence on each other, by means of a substitute for the same principal word, and tho clauses, in other respects, constitute direct pro- positions, the semicolon may be used ; as, " Wisdom hath build- ed her house ; she hath hewn out her seven pillars ; she hath killed her beasts ; she hath mingled her wine ; she hath also furnished her table." — Proverbs ix. CONSTRUCTIVE OBAMMAR. 171 RULE III. A semicolon is generally used to separate premises and con- clusions ; as, " Man is mortal ; therefore he must die." " Ccesar deserved death ; for he was a tyrant." RULE IV. The semicolon is generally used to separate an example, in troduced to illustrate a rule or proposition ; as, " The subject of a proposition must be in the nominative case ; as, Washing^ ton was President. Rkm — The above, with some variation, are the rules generally given by punota- isU, to direct the learner to a proper use of the semicolon. It will be seen, however, that the principles on which the proper application of this point is based, are found in the perception of a resemblance and con'raat. When a new subject is introduced in the sub -member, of which something limilar is predicated, to that of the super member, the idea is that of resemblance; and the eemicolen should be used to separate the members; as, " As wood is to fire ; to ig a contentious man to the production of strife," But, when a now subject is introduced in (he sub-member, and of which some- thing antithetical is affirmed, to what is aflBrmed in the super-roember, the idea is that of antithesis or contrast; consequently the members of the sentence should be separated by a semicolon ; as, " The wisn shall inherit glory; hut shame shall be the proTnotion of fools." Hence the following rule will, in most cases, be sufficient to direct the learner to a proper application of this gnomon, or point. RULE V. "When resemblanee or contrast is affirmed in the sub-member, the members should be separated by a semicolon ; as, " Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship ; but hell of fierceness and animosity." " The wicked flee when no man pursueth ; hut the righteous Qxe as bold as alien." '■^ Eliza h beautiful; and so is Mary.'' COLON. § 6. The time generally given to this point (:) is double that of the semicolon. RULE I. When the things affirmed in the latter or »ub-member, are adapted to the condition of the things mentioned in the former, or super-member, the colon may be used to separate the mem- bers ; as, " Man is a great sinner : Christ is a great Saviour." RULE IL When that -which is affirmed in the latter, or sub-member, is illustrative or confirmatory of what is affirmed in the former, 179 AWALYWOAL, ItLUSTBATIVB AND or super-member, the colon may be used ; as, " Man can not ar- rive at a point here, which he cannot pass : he is to advarice in the next world." " Mr. Gray vras followed by Mr. Erskine, who spake thus : I rise to second the motion of my honorable friend." Rbm. 1. — When the eolon is used, the comneotive is generally omitted. RxM. 2. — Our best writers bave frequently confounded the colon and semicolon. The truth is, the colon is nearly obso lete ; consequeDtly but sparingly used by tit best writers of the present age. (See Dr. Webster's Improved Grammar, page 164.) RxH. 3. — The practice of writers is far from being uniform with regard to ihe point to be nsed in introducing direct quotations. Some use the colon, some the aemicolon, and others the comma. PERIOD. § 7. The period, or full point (.), marks a completion of the sense, a cadence of the voice, and the longest pause used be- tween sentences. It closes a discourse, also, or marks the com- pletion of a subject, or section. Bzx. 1. — And it is also used in abbreyiating words, and is placed after initialg when used alone; as, " £ev. Prest. Crayen, j).I)." " C- F. Deema, J).I)." "Hon David L. Swain, LL.D." THE DASH AND PARENTHESIS. § 8. The dash ( — ) is used where there is a significant pause, an unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sentence is ' left unfinished ; as, "If thou art he — but 0, how fallen! The dash is now frequently used instead of the parenthesis j as, " The colonists — such is human nature — desired to burn the town in which they had been so wretched." RVk. — When the dash is used in conneotioD with another gnomon, or point,! in- And in autumn no fruit. } There generous fruits that never fail On trees imuortal gt-ow There i-ocks and hills and brooks and vales With milk and honey flow. Your cofamittee would suggest some improvement in the seats as they have been informed that some seats were occupied by boys without backs.* We have been informed that Mr, A' of has committed suicide by Mr. B hanging himself. There is a lady in our land Hath tvrenty nails upon each hand Five and twenty on hands and feet This is true and no deceit. I saw a per^xock with a long fiery tail I saw a blazing comet pour down hail I saw a black cloud with, ivy compassed round I saw a shrubby oak crawl upon the ground I saw a little pismire swallow up a whale 1 saw the brackish sea Brim full of ale 'Attentioa muBt br paid to conetrnctlen as w«ll ai poactoatlon. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 177 I saw a Venice glass Full fifteen feet deep I saw a well full of man'a tears that weep I saw a man's eyes All on a flame of fire I saw a house As big as the moon and higher I saw the sun At midnight I saw the man that saw this dreadful sight. THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. The following words should begin with capital letters; 1. The first word of every distinct sentence. 2. Proper names, and titles of office or honor ; as, George Washington, General Lee, Judge Story, Sir Walter Scott, the Ohio, Main Street. Rem. — The name of an object personified, may bo used as a proper name, and should then begin with a capital ; as, '* Gentle Spring." 3. Adjectives derived from proper nouns ; as, Amerioan, English, Roman. 4. The appellations of the Deity ; as, " God, the Almighty.''^ " The Su- fveme Being." " The Most Uigh.^'' ^ 5. The first word of every line of poetry. 6. The first word of a (^rect quotation, when the quotation would ferm a complete sentence of itself; as, " Christ says, ' My yoke is easy.' " 7. Every noun and principal word in the titles oi books; as, "Pope's Essay on Man." 8. The pronoun I and the interjection 0, are written in capitals. Note.— Other words, when they are of parJicular importance, may begin with capitals. Exercises. Where should capitals he used in the following exercises? thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not steal, honesty is the best policy. the soldiers of general Washington loved him as a father, socrates, plato, aristotle, and pythagoras are the names of distinguished greciau philoso- phers. the first female said my name is pleasure. he has read a great many german and french works. spencer, shakspeare, and milton are the names of the greatest english poets. remember thy creator in the days of thy youth. up to the throne of god, is borne the voice of praise at car. 3- morn, and he accepts the punctual hymn, sung as the light of day- grows dim. remember the ancient maxim, know thyself, solomon says, a wise man feareth and dcparteth from evil, he has read milton's paradise lost, and paradise regained, ho consulted Johnson's dictionary of the english lan- guage, and bosworth's anglo-saxon dictionar}'. if i can find the work, i will send it to you. hear, maa ! excellent Scipio 1" — Butler't Grammar. [Note. — To exercise the pupil further in punctuation, and the use of capitals, the teacher may select sentences and extracts from some of the standard aathors.] 176 AUALTTICAL, ILLUBTEATIVE AND CHAPTER XXXIV. PEOSODT. § 1. Prosody treats of the true pronunciation of words, and the modulation of the voice in the utterance of sentences ; hence, in its most extensive sense, it embraces all the laws of elocution. But, as elocution has become a separate and dis- tinct science, but little will be said with regard to the utterance of sentences. § 2. Prosody may be divided into two parts. 1. It treats of the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, quan- tity, emphasis, pause, and tone. 2. The laws of versificatioa. Accent is the elevation of the voice on some particular syllable, so as to distinguish it from all syllables in the werd. Every word of more than ona syllable, must h'Sive one of its syllables accsnted, "Words of many syllables frequently have, besides the primary, a w«ak accent called the secondary. No special rule can be given for the placing of the accent, that will be available, — the best one that can be given is this very general one : In pronouncing the w^ord, place the accent on that syllable which makes it most easy for the organs to utter ; for that which is most easily uttered is generally most agreeable to the ear. It may be observed, however, that words ending in tion and sion generally, have the last syllable but one ac- cented ; as, relation and confusion ; and that words ending in ity have the last syllable but two accented ; as, duraljility. ' Quantity is the duration of the voice on a syllable, or the time occupied in uttering it. Syllables are generally regarded as long or short A syllable is said to be long, when the accent falls upon a vowel, and short when it falls upon a consonant ; as, halcer, banter. It should, how- ever be distinctly borne in mind that the vowel of a syllable is frequently long when not under the accent. The time occupied in uttering a long syllable, is generally supposed to be double that of a short one. Vowels are generally divided into long and short ; but it should be ob- served that the quantity of the vowel is not the only element of distinction ; for those vowels called short, differ in quality as well as quantity. It should be further remarked that those syllables called long in poetry, do not depend upon the length of the vowel, but, upon the accentual force with which they are uttered ; for syllables frequently, containing the short- est vowels in the language, are called long in poetic construction. By Emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of the voice, by which we distinguish some word, or words on which we wish to lay particular stress, and to show how they aifect the rest of the sentence. In uttering an emphatic word, a greater stress of voice must, necessarily, be laid upon some one syllable than the others. This force generally coin- cides with accent, though sometimes it differs from it, and when this is the case, accent must yield to emphasis; as, "He must increase ; but I must (decrease." OONSTBUCTIVE ORAMMAB. 179 There are two kinds of emphasis, — ihc Jirst or natural, — the last or ac- cidental. The.7?rsi or natural emphasis belongs to all nouns, verbs, participles, and adjectives, and it requires but a very slight elevation of the voice. The last or accidental emphasis, is laid on a word when it has some particular meaning, and when the force of the sentence depends upon it; this, therefore, requires a considerable elevation of the voice. Pause-s, or liests, in speaking or reading, are a total cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time. Besides those pauses, cnWcd sentential, indicated by the comma, colon, etc., which have been already noticed — a considerable pause is required in speaking, called the oratorical pause ; as, *' There was a time when War- wick more desired, and more deserved it." More in the latter member of the sentence, although followed by no sentential pause, requires a pause of considerable length in speaking. By 2'ones is meant the modulation of the voice or the variation'of the notes of speech to express sentiments of a different nature ; for instance, grate or solemn subjects should be uttered in a low tone and slow time. \Yhile, on the contrary, ga}'- and didatic ones should be spoken in elevated tones and quick time. CHAPTER XXXV. VERSIFICATION. § 1. Poetry is metrical composition, or it is the language of passion, or of enlived imagination. § 2. Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables, according to particuiar rules, so as to produce melody. 3fetrc, in English, consists in the regular return of the ac- cent at regular intervals. Accent, then, is essential to verse ; but Rhyme is not, since there may be a regular return of ac- cent, or syllables similarly affected, without the similarity of sound which produces rhyme. Two or more syllables grouped together by accent, constitute afoot or measure. It is called a measure because, by its aid, the voice steps along, as it were, through the verse in a meas- ured pace. When two syllables are thus grouped together, it is called dissyllabic measure ; as, With rdv I ished Sars, The mon | 5,rch hears. But, when three syllables are thus grouped together, it ia called tryssyllahic measure ; as, fftm man | firch 6f all | fsiirvey. 180 ANAlTTiCAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND § 3. Several measures, or feet, properly arranged, form a line or verse. -A verse, then, is a certain number of connected feet forming one line. § 4. A Semistieh is half a verse. § 5. A Couplet or Distich consists of two verses ; a Triplet of three. When the measure of the verse is complete, the verse is called AcataUctic, When it is deficient or wants a syllable, it is called Gatalectic. When it contains a redundant syllable or a syllable too much, it is called Eypermeter, or Hypercatalectic. § 6. A Stanza is a combination of several verses, varying in number, according to the poet's fancy, and constituting a reg- ular division of a poem, or song. § 7. When the first and third lines of a stanza contain four Iambic feet each, and the second and fourth lines three feet each, it is Oommon Metre. § 8. When the first, second, and fourth lines of a stanza contain three Iambic feet each, and the third line four, it is Short Metre. § 9. When all the lines of a stanza contain four Iambic feet each, the metre is Long. § 10. Blank verse is metrical composition without rhyme as, " Now came still evening on, and twilight gray Had, in 'her sober livery, all things cZa^." § 11. Rhyme is a similarity of sound between the last syl- lables of different lines, as in the following lines : " How do thy mercies close me round ! For ever be thy name adored ; I blush Ib all things to abound ; The servant is above his lord." Rhyme is €\'TIVB, AND A Spondee, — — ' A Tribrach, ^^ ^^ >^ ^ Phyrric, '— ' ^— ' An Anapaest, v^ vw — The Iambus, Trochee, afid Anapaest may be denominated principal feet * &s pieces of poetry are chiefly, and may be wholly, formed of them. The others may be termed secondary f«et^ because their object is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. IAMBIC VERSE. In Iambic verse the second syllable of every foot is accented, and the first unaccented. 1. Iambic of 9ne foot, or Monometeri Fr5m m5 They flee. 2. Iambic of two feet, or Dirmter ; T5 mS I the rCse, No longer glows. 3. Iambic of three feet, or Trimeter ; In pis, I ces far | 8r near, Or famous, or obscure. 4. Iambic of four feet, or Tetrameter ; H5w sleep | thS brave | wh(5 sink | tS rest, With all their country's honors blest. b. Iambic cf five feet, or Pentameter; On rif j t^d r5cks, | thS drag ) Sn's late ( SbSdes, The green reed trembles, and tjbe bulrush nods. 6. Iambic of six feet, or Hexameter; F5r thou I S,rt but j 5f diist ; | bS hum | ble and | bS wise. Note — The lambio Pentameter is called the Heroic. The Iambic Hexameter is call.ed the Alexandrine. The Alexandrine is sometimes admitted into Heroic rhyme, and when used sparingly and with judgment, occasions an agreeable variety : ThS seas { sh^ll waste, | thS skies | in smoke | dgeSy, Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away ; But fixed his word, his saving power remains ; Thy realms | fQrev | er lasts, | thy own | MgssI ) ^h reigns. *Tho Daotyuo is, by some writere, cUaeed among the pbinoital fkit. CONSTRUCTIVB GRAMMAR. * 183 7. Iambic of seven feet, or Heptameter : *ThHlof I tYhtU I thEhttm | blE lawn | withc^unt | Iees beau ) Ues shine; The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim thy power divine. It is commonly divided into two lines ; thus. The lofty hill, the humble lawn. With countless beauties shine ; The silent grove, the solemn shade, Proclaim thy power divine. § 19. The Elegiac stanza consists of four Pentameter lines rhyming alternately ; as, The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ; The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ; The plowman homewards plods his weary xjoay ; And leaves the world to darkness and to me. § 20. The Spenserian stanza is a stanza consisting of nine lines ; the first eight are Heroics, and the last is an Alexan- drine ; as, It hath been, through all ages, ever seen. That with the prize of arms and chivalrie The prize of beauty still hath joined been, And that for reason's special privatie ; For either doth on other much rely. For he meseems most fit the fair to serve That can her best defend from villanie, And she most fit his service doth deserve. The fairest is, and, from her faith, will never swerve. Spenser. § 21. All the varieties of the Iambic, from the Monometerto the Heptameter, admit of an additional short syllable ; as, 1. Disdain | ing. 2. Upon I a moun | tain. 8. When on — her Mak I er's bos | om. 4. But hail, | thou god | dees sage I and ho | It. 6. What slen | der youth | bedtwed | with liq | uid o | dor. 6. Whose front | can brave | the storm, | but will I not rear | the flow ( ir. 7. To scat I ter o'er | his path | of flame | bright hues | of gem | like show I Ers. Rem. — Though tho Iambic Pentameter is called Ileroio, it is not oonfinedto this measure ; for it sometimoa extends to eight feet, and, in soma instances, even to nine. (See Dr. Webster's Improved Grammar, page 158,) *Our supply of accented (type) letters being exhausted aCthii point, we are com- pelled to omit their ubo, and substitute shall capital Tetters for the breve letter*, or vBteaented syllable*, tnd italie letters for t.he aoo«nt«d ones, Friktbr. 184 ANALVTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND §22. TROCHAIC VERSE. 1, Trochaic Monometer '. 2. Trochaic Dimeter \ 3. Trochaic Trimeter: Changing, Ranging, FancY I viewing, Joys ensuing. Go whEre ] glorv [ waits thcE, But where fame elates thee. 4. Trochaic Tetrameter'. Round A I \\o\y I calm dif | fusing, Love of peace and holy musing. 5. Trochaic Pentameter : AW thAt I walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots, All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 6. Trochaic Hexameter'. On A I mountAin | stretched bs | neatb a | hoary | willow, Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. § 23. In Trochaic verse the accent is placed upon the odd syllable ; in Iambic verse, upon the even. § 24, The Trochaic admits of an additional long syllable : Where the | wood is | waving | green and | high, Fawns and | Dryads | watch the j starry | sky. Remark that every species of Trochaic verse, admits of an additional long syllable ; as, Lord WE I come bE | fore theE | now, At thr I feet we | httmbly | bow, §25. ANAPiESTIC VERSE. 1. Anapcestic Motwrneter : On thB land. Now I stand ; From the sea, Now I'm free. 2. Anapcestic Dimeter : On A plain, | as hE strode. By the hermit's abode. CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 185 3. Anapcestic Trimeter : Oh yB woods, | sprsad your branch | es Apace ; To your inmost recesses I fly ; I would hide with the beast of the chase ; I would vanish from every eye. 4. Anapcestic Tetrameter : At thE close I of thE day | whEn thE ham | kt is still ; And mortals the sweets of forgetfulncss prove. In Anapaestic verso, the accent falls on every third syllable. Tho first foot of Anapaestic verse may be an Iambus : And mor | tAls the sweets | of ferget | folnEss prove. The AnapjTStic Dimetor and Tetrameter sometimes admit of an additional short syllable, which gives a pleasing variety to the verso ; as, On thE road | by the vol | Isy, As he wan | dered lamen | ting ; To the green I of the for | Est, lie returned | him repen | ting. Tho Tetrameter : On thE warm | chEEk of youth | smiles And ro | ses Are blen | ding. §26. DACTYLIC VERSE. 1. Dactylic Mcnometer : Ohwrfullv, Tearfully. 5. Dactylic Bimeter : ^ Free from Am | lEtv, Care and sat | iety. i. Dactylic Trimeter : Wearing a | WAy ra his | youthfulDESS, Loveliness, beautr^, and truthfulness. 4. Dactylic Tetrameter : Boys will An | ticipate | lavish And [ dissipAte, All that your busy pate hoarded with care. Though the Dactylic seldom extends beyond four feet to the verso, yet the following is an example of Dactylic Hexameter : OvET thE I vrtllEy, with ) speed like thE | wind, aU ths | steeds WEre a | galloping, f It should bo further remarked that Dactylic verse does not generally ter- »«inate with a Dactyl ; but generally takes a long syllable. 18tf ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE, AND 1. Dactylic Dimeter with an additional long syllable : CoverEd with | snow was thE | vale ; Loud was the | shriek of the | gale. 2. Dactylic Trimeter: " Ttme it hAS | post And thE | ladr is pale, Pale AS thE I lilv thAt | lolls on thE | gale. 8. Daeti^c Tetrameter : Glad WAS our | meeting : thy [ gltttEnng | bosom I | hEard, Beating on | mine like thE | heart of a timorous | bird. Re^.— When the Dactylic extends beyond four feet to the lino, it still admits of an additional long syllable. (See Hart's (irammar, page 190.) Dactylic verso sometimes terminates alternately with a Trochee and aa additional long syllable : Brightist And | host of thE | sons of thE | morning. Dawn on our | darknESS And | lend us thme | aid. MIXED VERSES. § 27. The Iambic is admissible in any place of the line ; as^ I am monarch of all I survey, My right there is none to dispute. § 28. The Trochee is graceful in the third and fourth places of a line, when it creates a correspondence between the sound and sense. It is sometimes found in the first place of the line. Eve, rightly call'd mothEr of all mankind. Envy commands a secret band, § 29. The Spondee consists of two syllables, both accented, and is admissible in any place of the line, but it is more graceful after a Trochee. Load the ta^ll ba.rJi, and launch into the main. § 80. The Pyrrhic is a foot of two short syllables ; it is graceful in the first and fourth, and is admissible in the second and third places : Nor m the helpless orphan dread a foe. But this foot is most graceful in the fourth place : To farthest shores, the ambrosial spirit flies, Sweet to the world, and grat^? to the Rkies. ' CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 187 § 81. The Amphibrach is a foot of three syllables, the first and third short, and the second long. It is used in Heroic verse, only when we take the liberty to add a short syllable to a line. The piece you say is incorrect, wAy Hlce \t, I'm all submission, what you'd have it maJce it. § 32. The Tribrach is a foot of three syllables, all sRrt ; and it may be used in the third and fourth places. And thunders down impetuous to the plain. § 33. The Dactyl is used principally in the first place in the line. J^uriou* he spoke ; the angry chief replied, § 34, The Amapoest is admissible in any place of the line. Bfifore I All iexn \ pins tho up \ right heart 1 And pure. The Dactyl and the Spondee are sometimes used alternately, as, Green m' th'fi | wild-wood \ proudly ths J tall troo | looks on ths | brown pUin. In the following stanza, the Anapaest and Iambic are beautifully blended I come, I I come 1 | yE hAvc called | mE long ; I come I o'or the moun | t8,ins with light | and song! Ye may trace my steps o'er the wakening earth ; By the winds that tells of the violet's birth, By the primrose stars of the shadowy grass, By the green leaves opening as I pass. Rem.— In short pieces, tho Amphibrach is occasionally iotrodKoed rs tha prinol pal foot ,- as, But vainlv | thou warrEst ; For this is | Alone in Thy power to declare. That in the dim forest Thou heard'st a low moaning, And saw'st a bright lady surpassingly fair. This foot is not frequently employed in grave or solemn subjects. RULES FOR READING VERSE. § 35. With respect to reading verse, we can give but a few simple rules ; but, perhaps, if these are well understood, they may be useful. 1. Verse, like prose, to l^e read well, must be thoroughly understood. 188 ANALYTTOAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AKt) 2. Words should be prctiounced as in prose and conversation ; for rmdl- ing is but rehearsing another's conversation. 3. The emphasis and cadence should be observed as in prose. The voice- should bound from accent to accent, and no stress should be laid on little- unimportant wor(Js, nor on weak syllables. 4. The sentential pauses should be observed as in prose ; these are noc affected by the kind of -writing, being entirely regulated by the sense. But, as the cesural and final are designed to increase the melody of the verse, tliPstrictest attention must be paid to them in readin g. They mark a suspension of the voice without rising or falling. Rem. 1. — There are two musical pauses — Cesural aad Final. Reu. 2. — The Cesural pause is not essential to vorse, for the shorter kinds of measure are without it ; but, when used, it divides the verse into two parts. The Cesural pause may be placed in any part of the verse ; but has the finest effect upon the melody when placed after the second or third foot, or inthe middle of the third : say what stranger cause, yet unexplored, Could make a gentle belle, reject a lord ? Rem. 3. — The I'inal pause marks the close of a line or verse, whether there i as cause in the sense or not. CONTRACTIONS AND ADDITIONS. § 36. When a word is contracted in its first letters, the fig- ure is called Aphoeresis ; as, 'gai/isty 'garhy 'neath, etc., for against, began, beneath, etc. When a word is contracted in its middle letters, it is called Syncope ; as, MurmWing, for murmuring. When a word is contracted in its final letters, it is called Apocope ; as, Tho\ th\ for though, the. When an expletive syllable is prefixed to a word, it is called Prosthesis ; as, Adoivn for down. When an expletive syllable is annexed to a word, it is called Paragoge ; as, Withoutew for ivithout, dear?/ for dear. Rem. 1. — Oar best and most tasty speakers pronounce the " ed " in most adjec- tives as a distinct syllable; as, " A leara-eti divine." " The belov-ed disciple." " A wick-ei action." But the " frf " in verbs is almost invariably contracted in utter- ancej hence the use of the apostrophe in contracting such verbs, is not really neces- sary ; for the speaker who would venture to pronounce as in the following, " Ho -walk'-ed to the church," " John learn-cd his lessoa," would run the risk of beiag laid upon the shelf as obsolete. Rem. 2.— When a verb in the prese'nt tense end-s in t or d, the ed is pronouaced as a separate syllable, because ed will not coalesce in sound with these letters; as, " He contended for victory." " Th ey were delightad with the exhibition." Rem. 3. — When a regular verb in the present tense terminates in an atonic which will not coalesce in sound with ed, the ed is generally contracted^ into t, in utter- ance ; as Talk, talked— contracted talkt. Some writers contract learned into leavni; this, howev«r, is evidently erroneous, for the aub-tonics n and d readily coalesce in sound. Rem. 4. — When the tonic e occurs between the sub-tonics v and n, it is generally dropped in utterance, as the sub-tonic n readily unjtes in sound with ti;as, Heaven, OOSS-mVCTLVK OKAMMAn. 189 elovcn, rlvon, clovoB, etc. Honce, as tho »• is droppod iu utterance, and p. di:-syl- lablo becomes a monosyllable, tho use of tho apostrophe in cutting off e from the sy''vble to which it belongs, is unnecessary. The same may bo prodiciitcd of tho syllable rn or on, following the atonica k and t ; as, Forsaken, overtaken, reckon, etc., pronounood forsak'n, oyortak'n, reck'n, oto.; forgotten, rotten, cotton, pronounced for^ott'n, rott'n, eott'n. ANALYSIS 0¥ VERSE. § 37. Tho verse should not only be resolved into its compo- nent feet, and tho accent properly placed; but tho rhymino- syl- lables should, also, be critically analyzed; and, if defective, let the defect be pointed out. Since a Model has been already given for tlie analysis of rhyming syllables, none need be given here. EXAMPLES FOR ANALYZING AND KEADING. Iloro I'll raise mine Ebcnczer, Hither, by thy hclj), IVc come ; And I hope, by thy good pleasure, Safely to arrive at home. Jesus sought nie when a stranger, Wand'ring from tho fold of God ; IIo, to rescue me from danger, Interposed his precious blood. All worldly shapes .sliall melt in gloom, The sun himself must die Before tho mortal shall assume Its immortality. I saw a vision in my sleep. That gave my spirit strength to sweep Adown the gulf of time ; I saw the last of human mold, That .shall creation's death behold, As Adam saw her prime. The sun's eye had a s]tk\y glare ; Tho earth with ago was wan ; Tho skeletons of nations wore Around that lonely n\an. Some had expired in fight ; the brands Still rusted in their bony hands ; In plague and famine, some ; Eartli's cities had no sound nor troad. And ships were drifting with tho dead, To shores where all were dumb. Can a bosom so gentle remain Unmoved when her Corj'don sighs ^ I Will a nymph that is fond nf tho plains, These [)lains and tiu ' dG.spise? 190 ASALYllOAL, ILLUSTRATIVE A3SD Dear regions of silence and shade, Soft scenes of cententment aad ease, Where I could have pleasantly stay'd, If aught in her absence could please. Look not on wine when it ia red, Or, into danger, you'll be led ; For, when it moves itself aright, Then, like a serpent, it doth bite. Tho' it may make you dance and sing. Yet, like an adder it will sting ; Its poison, through your veins, will roll, And darkness overwhelm your soul. Bright were thine eyes as the stars, and their glances were radiant as gleams, Falling from the eyes of the angels, when singing by Eden's purpurea! streams ; Happy, as seraphs, were we ; for we wandered alone, Trembling With passionate thrills where the twilight had flown. The melancholy days hav6 come, the saddest of the year, Of wailing winds and naked woods, and meadows brown and sere ; The robin and the wren have flown, and, from the shrub, the jay ; And, from the wood top, caws the crow through all the gloomy day " I am ready to go," cried the plump young wren, " From the hateful homes of these northern men ; For my throat is sore, and my feet are blue ; I fear I have caught the consumption, too." Envy commands a secret band, With sword and poison in her hand ; Around her haggard eye-balls roll, A thousand fiends possess her souL Her troops advance with silent tread, And stab the hero in his bed ; Or shoot with wild, malignant lio, And female honors fade or die. Since conjugal passion Has come into fashion, And marriage so blest on the throne is, Like Venus, I'll shine. Be fond and be fine, And Sir Trusty shall be my Adonis. She went from the opera, park, assembly, play, To morning walks and prayers, three times a day, CON8TRIKJTIVR GRAMMAR. XOJ. To pass her time 'twiit reading and bolwia, To muso and spill her solitary tea ; Or, o'er cold coffee, trifle with the spoon, Count the slow clock, and dine exact at noon, Divert her mind with pictures in the fire. Hum half a tune, tell stories to the squire, Up to the godly garret after seven. There starve and pray ; for that's the way to heaven. One fatal remembrance — one sorrow that throws Its bleak shade alike e'er our joys and our woes — To which life nothing darker nor brighter can bring, For which joy has no balm, and affection no sting. No breath of air to break the wave That rolls below the Athenian's grave, That tomb, which gleaming o'er the cliff, First greets the homeward veering skiff, High o'er the land he saved in vain ; When shall such a hero live again ? For see, ah I see, while yet her ways With doubtful step I tread, A hostile world its terrors raise, Its snares delusive spread. 0, how shall I, with heart prepared. Those terrors learn t» meet ? How, from the thousand snares, to guard My inexperienced feet ? Time it haa past, and the lady is palo, — Pale as the lilly that lolls on the gale ; Weary and worn she> has watched for years. Keeping her grief ever green with her tears ; Years will she tarry, for cold is the clay, Fett'ring the form of her Everard Gray. Cold on his cradle, the dew-drops are shining ; Low lies his head with the beasts of the stall ; Angels adore him in slumber reclining, Maker, and Monarch, and Saviour of all. How happy are they Who their Saviour obey, And have laid up their treasures above I Tongue cannot express The sweet comforts and peace Of a soul in its earliest love." 192 AKALYTiOAl., i-LLllSX&Al'IVE AND How happy ft the pUf rim's lot ; How free iVom erery ansioug thought, From worldly hope and fear ! Confined to neither court nor cell, His Boul disdains on earth to dwell, Ha only sojourns here. Hold my right hand, Almijjhty ! and me teach To strike the lyr«, but seldom struck, to notes Harmonious with the morning stars, and pare As those by sainted bards and angels sung, Which wake the echoes of eternity — That fools may hear and tremble, and the wise Instructed listen, of ages yet to come. See truth, love, and mercy, in triumph descending, And nature all glowing in Eden's Urst bloom. On the cold cheek of death, smiles and roses are blending. And beauty immortal awakes from the tomb. Life let us cherish While yet the taper glows, And the fres^h flow'ret, Pluck ere it close. Here's the bow'r she loved so mucli. And here's the tree she planted ; Here's the harp she used to touch. Oh ! how that touch enchanted ! Roses now unheeded sigh, Where's the hand to wreathe them * Songs around neglected lie, Where's the lips to breathe them ? My bark is upon the deep, Iotc, My comrades impatient call. Awake, while the fairies sleep, love, Awako thee ! more bright than all. Woodman, spate that tree ! Touch not a single bough, In youth it sheltered me, And I'll protect it now ; 'Twas my fathers hand That placed it near his cot ; There, woodman, let it stand, Thy hand shall harm it not. CONtiTRUCTIVK GKAMMAR. 1^3 Toll not the bell of death for mc, When I am dead ; Strew iiottho flow'ry wreath o'er me, On my cold bed. Since thou wast man and mortal, And art by death laid low, 'Tis well that thou hast fallen On yon lofty Mountain's brow. That mount will love to praise thee As its greatest, truest friend, And will proudly speak thy glory Till time itself shall end. With its high, careering summit. Making lofty seem but low, 'Tis an emblem of that greatness That thy deeds around thco throw. The green and fadeless ivy That wove thy shroud of shade, Is a token that thy memory Shall never — never fade. Those bright and stainless waters In which thy body lay, Are an emblem of the tribute That unnumbered hearts shall pay. And the hoarse and jarring thunder AVhich around the mountain brayed, Seemed the wild alarm of nature, Telling all her son was dead. Thou didst grasp a sprig of laurel And held it e'en in death — An emblem that no fortune Shall rob thee of that wreath. That wreath which is immortal Like thine own stupendous mind — A wreath of love and honor That thy countlcf^a friends have twined. Softly sweet in Lydian measures. Soon ho soothed his soul to pleasures ; War, he sung, is toil and trouble ; Honor, but an empty bubble ; Never ending, still bcginnhig, Fighting gtill, and still destroying. ig]| AJffALTTICAI., ILLUSTBATIVB A.NfD 0, may thy powerful word Inspire a feeble worm, To rush into thy kingdom, L«rd, And taks it as by storm ? O may we all improve The grace already given, To seize the crown of perfect love, And scale the mount of heaven ! Loving Jesus, gentle Lamb, In thy gracious hands I am ; Make me, Saviour, what thou art^ Live thyself within my heart. I thall then show forth thy praise, Serve thee all my happy days, Then the world shall always see Christ, the holy child, in me. I have found out a gift for my fair, I have found where the wood pigeons breed ; Yet let me that plunder forbear ; She will say 'twas a barbarous deed, For, he ne'er could prove true, she averr'd, Who could rob a poor bird of her young ; And I lov'd her the more when I heard Such tenderness fall from her tongue. Heaven, from all creatures, hides the book of fate, All but the page prescribed, their present state ; From brutes what men, from men what spirits know, Or who could suffer being here below ? The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, Had he thy reason, would skip and play ? Pleas'd to the last, he crops the flowr'y food, And licks the hand juit rais'd to shed his blood. Like mountains, the billows tremendously swell. In vain the lost wretch calls on Mary to save. Unseen hands of spirits are ringing his knell, And the death-angel flaps his broad wing o'er the wave. Perhaps, in this neglected spot, is laid Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire ; Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed, Or waked to ecstasy the living lyre. OONdTBUCnVE (HtAltMi.a. , 1V5 Then peace shall dis»rm war's dark brow of its frown, And roses shall bloom on the soldier's rude grave, Then honor shall weave of the laurel a crown That beauty shall bind on the brow of the bravs. Ye may trace my steps o'er the wakening eartfc, By the winds which toll of the violet's birth, By the primrose stars of the shadow grass, By the green leaves opening as I pass. For who, to dumb forgetfulness a pray, This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned. Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind ? Eternal Power, whose high abode Becomes the grandeur of a God ; Infinite lengths, beyond the bounds Where the stars revolve their little roundi. Thee, while the first archangel sings. He hides his face behind his wings ; And ranks of shining thrones around. Fall worshipping, and spread the ground. THE BETTER LAND. There is aland where sorrows cease, And pleasures always flow, — A land of life, and joy, and peace, And thither would I go. There is a land as bright as day, ^0 clouds obscure the sky ; And theje all tears are wiped away ; For people never die. There is a land of friendship sweet, No friends unfaithful prove ; There spicy gales the senses greet ; For all that land is love. There is a land of endless day, Succeeded by no night; There is a gem of purest ray. And ecencs divinely bright. 196 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND There is a land where Christians dwell,. Enthroned in purest bliss, And where they never say farewell ; There is no land like this. There is a land where Jesus reigns Through one eternal day. And angels sing in sweetest strains ; There would I over stay. CHAPTER XXXVI. EHETORIC OR ORATORY. § 1. Rhetoric or Oratory is the art of speaking or wri- ting justly, methodically, and elegantly upon any subject, so as to instruct, persuade, and please. The speech made accord- ing to the rules of this art is called an Oration, and the speak- er an Orator. The -word is from a Greek word — Khctorike — of the same signification. A good orator must be eminent for invention, disposition, memory, gesture, and elocution. A reg- ulaT oration consists of five parts, — the Exordium, Narration, Confirmation, Refutation, and Peroration. §2. The Exordium or Preamble is the beginning of the dis- course, serving to gain the good opinion of his hearers, to se- cure their attention, and to give them a general idea of the subject. It ought to be clear, modest, and not too prolix. § 3. The Narration ov lUstory is the recital of the facts as they happened, or as they are supposed to have happened. It ought to be perspicuous, probable, concise, and, on most sub- jects, entertaining. § 4. The Confirmation is proving, by argument, example, or authority, the truths of the proposition advanced in the Nar- ration. § 5. The Refutation or Confutation is the destroying of the arguments of our antagonist, by denying what is apparently false, detecting some flaw in the reasoning, or showing the in- validity of the proof. It should be sharp and lively. § 6. The Peroration or Conclusion is the recapitulation of the principal arguments, concisely summed up, with new force and weight, in order to exoite feelings of hatred or pity. C0JR8TRUGT1VE GRAMMAR. 19: CHAPTER XXXVII. FIGURES OF SPEECH. § 1 Figurative Language consists in some departure from simplicity of expression. When we say " A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity," the language is simple ; but, when we say, " To the upright there ariseth light m darkness, the lancruage is figurative. Figures, when well, chosen and sparingly used, not only give a pleasing variety, but they greatly enrich and vivify language. The following are the principal figures : Personification, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Simile, Metaphor, Ikony, Metony- my, Climax, Synecdoche, Interrogation, and Exclamation. § 2. F ersonifcation.— Tho application of the properties of living creatures to inanimate ones, is the basis of this figure ; as, '' The earth thirsts for rain." " The wilderness shall re- joice." •* Cheered with the grateful smell, old Ocean smiles." § 3. Apostrophe is nearly allied to Personification. It con- sists in bestowing an ideal presence upon the real, either dead or absent. We address them as if they stood before us listen- ing^ to the overfiow of our passions ; as, " Retire, my love, for it?s night, and the dark winds sigh in your hair. Retire t© the hall of my feast, and think of the times that are past ; for I will not return till the storm of war is gone." — Ossian. "Weep on the rocks of the roaring winds, maid of Inis- tore, bend tliy fair head over the Avaves, thou fairer than tho Ghost of the hills when it moves in a 'sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morven, Ho is fallen ; thy youth is low : pale beneath the sword of Cuchellcn." — Ossian. § 4. Hyperbole consists in magnifying or diminishing an ob- ject beyond reality. " ITyperbole soars high, or creeps too slow, Exceeds the truth, things womderful to show." " He bowed tho skies." " A snail don't crawl so f^low." This figure should be sparingly used, especially in grave dis- course. , § 5. A Simile is a comparison by which anything is illustra- ted. This figure, equally familiar and beautiful, discovers re- semblances, real or imaginary, between actions which, iu their general nature, are dissimilar ; as, St 198 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND " The music of Caryl -was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." — Ossian. § 6. A Metaphor is the putting of the name of one thing for that of another, so as to comprise a Simile in one word ; or, it is the application of a word.to a use to which, in its original import, it cannot be put ; as, " Wallace was a thunder-bolt of war, Firigal the gale of spring." " Like a-mighty pillar doth this one man uphold the State," — this is a simile. " He is the sole pillar of this ponderous State " — this a Metaphor. § 7. An Allegory is a continued Metaphor ; or it is the rep- resentative of one thing by another that resembles it, and that is made to stand for it. "Venus grows cold without Ceres and Bacchus," — i. e., love grows cold without bread and wine. There cannot be a more beautiful and correct Allegory than that which is found in the 80th Psalm. " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out the heathen and plant- ed ; thou preparedst room for it ; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land," etc. § 8. Irony is a mode of speech in which the meaning is con- trary to the words ; as, " Cry aloud, for he is a god ; either he is talking or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey ; or perad- v.enture he sleepeth, and must be awaked," 1 Kings, xviii., 27. § 9. A Climax is a figure by which the sentence gradually rises. "A Climax, 'tis said, by gradation ascends, They were my countrymen, my neighbors, my friends." § 10. Metonymy puts the cause for the eifect ; thejeffect for the cause ; the container for the contained ; or the sign for the thing signified : as, "We are reading Virgil" — Virgil's work. "Gray hairs — old age — should be respected." "The kettle boils" — the water boils, "He addressed the chair" — the person in the chair. " She assumed the sceptre " — the royal authority. § 11. A Synecdoche puts a part for the whole, or the whole for a part ; as, " While o'er the rooi— home — loud thunders break." • § 12. Interrogation. — The natural use of interrogations is to ask questions. But, when the passions are moved by some exciting cause, men frequently throw into the form of ques- COSSTRUCTIVB ORAMMAR. 199 tions what they would affirm most positively ; as, " Shall not the judge of all the earth do right ? Hath he not said it ? And shall he not do ? Hath he spoken it ? And shall he not make it good ? — Bible. § 13. Exclamation. — This figure consists in short passionate forms of expression, in which the speaker would pour forth the intensity of his emotions or feelings, in order to excite similar emotions in the minds of his hearers ; as, " Oh ! the horrors of cold-blooded murder !" " How vain are all things here below !" Judgment and taste must be exercised in the use of this figure ; for, if used too frequently and on unsuitable occasions, it pro- duces a contrary effect to that intended by the speaker or writer. Pupils may be profitably exorcised in converting figurative l.iHguago into plain, and vice versa ; as, " The sun looked out upon the ijlad waters, Ihoy expanded their wiuRS, and soared into the atmosphere." Changed—" The sun shone upon the pla- cid waters, thoy became vapor and rose into the air." " Give, mo a cup half full." Chmigcd—" Orivo mo half a cup." "The pot boils" — ''The liquor in the pot boils." CHAPTER XXXVIII. FIGURES OP SYNTAX. § 1. A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from the ordinary construction of words. § 2. The figures of syntax are five, viz. : Ellipsis, Pleon- asm, Syllbpsls, Enallaqe, and Hyperbaton. § B. The Ellipsis is the intentional omission of some word, phrase, or clause, which is necessary to the construction, but unnecessary to the sense. In such cases, the omitted element is said to be understood ; because it is perceived by the wmi, and not by the senses ; as, " She is fairer than her sister," i. e., than her sister is fair. Is Q.nd fair arc not seen nor heard ; but they are perceived by the mind. § 4. Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words, or words which are unnecessary to the construction or sense ; con- sequently only admissible for the sake of emphasis ; as, " Jlim that hath ears to hear, let him hear." § 5. Syllepsis is the agreement formed according to the figurative sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thinors spoken of, and not according to the literal or common sdusa of the term ; it is, therefore, in general, connected with 200 Alf A*¥!KCAL, H/LUSTRA^ITB, !.??© some figure of rhetoric ; as, " The Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us ; and we beheld his glory." § 6. Enallage is the use of one part of speech or of one modification, for another, or one tense for another. But, as the practice leads to solecism, and, if, indulged in, would su- persede all rules of grammar whatever, it can only be admitted to a very limited extent ; as, " They fall successive, and suc- cessive rise." " Than whom none higher sat," t. «., Than he, etc. I 7. Htperbaton is the tranposition of words ; as, " Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." " He wanders earth around." This figure is extensively used in poetry, and, when judiciously employed, it confers variety, strength, and vivacity to prose composition, .Ambiguity must, however, be guarded against. CHAPTER XXXIX. COMPOSITION. A FEW SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS. You bave now, it is presumed, my young friends, acquired considerable knowledge of the analysis and construction of sentences, and of the science of language generally; but you must not suppose that your task is done. Here a new and fertile field opens before you, and invites you to cultivate it. Here you may bring into practical operation all the knowledge whicii you m»y have acquired, and concentrate it upon a single subject. Here you have full scope for the exercise of all your skill in arranging the elements of a sentence, and in making each sentence take its proper position in the regular thread of discourse or composition. In your first attempts at composition, you need not be surprised, if you should feel the want of ideas ; and also, if you should find some diffiulty in selecting appropriate words to express the ideas which you may already possess ; but be not discouraged ; for [indtlstry and untiring ptrsevtranee will sooner or later crown your eftbrts with success. The first step to be taken in writing composition is, to obtain ideas ; the second, is the proper expression of the ideas when obtained. To acquire ideas, it is necessary to cultivate habits of observation; to use the eyes not only in noticing entire objects, but also their different jjarts ; to consider their qualities, uses, operations, and effects ; together with their relation to other things. The mind employed in such exercises acquires materials for its own ope- rations, and thoughts and ideas arise, as it wer«, sp»nteReously. ^eePai^ ker's Aid to coiBpositionf. Q»««T»UCTIVB CHIAMMAR. 20l In the selection of words to express Ideas, care must be taken to eelect «uch words as will express them clearly, forcibly, and elegantly. To do this, standard works ol the best authors should be carefully studied, and the best dictionaries consulted. The limits of this work will not allow us to enter into the inTestigation of the qualities of style, A few plain directions only can be giren. 1. Acquire as thorough knowledge as possible of your subject, before at- tempting to write upon it. 2. Do not use any one's language, but your own, except you wish to make a quotation. 3. Do not mingle plain and rhetorical language in the same sentence. 4. Do not attempt to write after the subject is exhausted. 5. Do not ba anxious to select subjects of a general nature ; for they are generally tho most barren, especially to beginner.':. 6. Study to express yourselves grannnaticallj^ and clearly. 7. Do not forget to punctuate your compositions accuratelv. 8. Let one leading idea predominate throughout the periocf. ■9. Guard against the use of foreign or inappropriate words, also against low and vulgar expressions. 10. Let your words be pure, that is, such afl belong exclusively to th« English language. ar9 regard- RiH. — Those words of foreign origin which havo becotno Angliciied, ed as beloDging to tbo language. 11. Construe those elements which are closely allied, as near to each other as possibia Rbm. — Any inattention to this rule will hardly fail to lead to ambijuity, or to a total perversion of the meaning intended. Not long since, a temperance leccurer said, *' I remember having read of an old lady who died in tho newspaper, because her husband lay drunk at a neighboring still-house." Now he did not intend to convey the idea that tho hereine of his story really died in a newspaper ; yet the language clearly expresses It. This mistake might have been prevented by a dif- ferent collocation of the elements. Thus : "I remember having read in a newspa- per of an old lady who died," etc. DIFFERENT KINDS OP COMPOSITION. All compositions, whether spoken or written, are cither prose or poetry. Prose compositions are those in Khich the thoughts and sentiments are expressed in common and ordinary language. Poetic composition is expressed in regular numbers, and so arranged as to please the car and captivate the imagination. The different kinds into which prose compositions may be divided, are, Narratives, Letters, Memovs, History, Bi»graghy^ Mtsays, Philosophy, Sermons, Novels and Speeches, or Orations. The different kinds of poetic composition, arc, the Epigram, EpiUifl, Sonn«t, Pastoral, Didactic, Saiirux, Descriptive, Elegiac, Lyric, Dramatic, and Epic, or Heroic. 202 ANALYTrCAL, TLLUSTRATIVE AND SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITION, 1. The setting sun. 2. The fading flower. 3. Christ weeping over Jerasalem. 4. The Marys of the Scripturas. 5. The wise men led by the star. 6. Education a preventative of crime. 7. Education the road to eibinence and distinction. 8. The morning of life. 9. The close of life, 10. The noon of life. 11. The teidoncy of the age. 12. The path of duty, the path of safety. 13. Courage. 14. Hope. 15. Eeligion the brightest orsament of youth. 16. Freedom. 17. All things bright must fade. 18. Stability of character. 19. The lilly. 20. Power of habit. tl. Criticism. 22. Government of temper. 23. Karly attachments. 24. Poetical taste. 25. The grave of the young. 26. Manners. 27. Parental indulgence. 28. Ruth's afiection for Naomi. 29. Our country. SO. Justice. 81. Linville Falls. 32. Beauty. 83. My Bible. 34. Try again. 85. Time flies. 36. Friends in adversity. S7. Nature's God. 88, Public opinion. 89. The mountains of North Carolina 40. Politeness. 41. Anger. 42. Envy. 43. Suspicion. 44. Intemperance the way to shame and death. 45. Ignorance. 46. The battle of the Cowpens. 47. We must all die. 48. North Carolina. 49. Virginia. iO, South Carolina. 61. Learning. 52. Meditations among the tombs. 63. English Grammar, 54. The world as it ii. 55. Keligion. 56. Let me think. 57. Is there not & cause / 58. The waning mooB, 99. Prid^. SO. Wisdom. 61. Astronomj. 62. The law. 63. Tho valley o[ dry bones. 64. Art. 65. Science. 66. Curiosiky. 67. Misery is wed to guilt. 68. The loarned professions. 69. Language. 70. Weeping. 71. Love. 72. Astrology. 73. All pleasure is vain. 74. Omnipotence. 75. Good society. 76. Writing. 77. Bonaparte's banishment to St.Helena. 78. The polar star, 79. George Washington. 80. Noah entering the ark; 31. The Flood. 82. Rome, 83. The beauties of nature. 84. The pleasure of doing good. 85. Time, how short ! Ichabod. 87. Tho beauties ef the Latin language. 88. Eloquence of Demosthenes. 89. Success the reward of industry and perseverance. 90. Eloquence of Cicero. 91. Bene'lict Arnold. 92. The structure of the ancient and mod- ern languages compared. 93. The race is not to the swift. 94. Hope, excited by brilliant talent, is sometimes disappointed. 95. Improvement. 96. Fashionable education. 97. The influence and folly of fashien. 98. Woman, 99. Youth is the time for improvement. 100. A few things well learned, is better than a superficial knowledge of many. 101. (Christianity. 102. Heroism. 103. Conjugal affection. 104. History. 105. Fortitude. 106. Art of pleasing. 107. Natural laws. 108. Study. 109. Man. no. Death. 111. Kteraity. 112. The Scriptures. 113. Gratitude, 114. Knowledge is power. 115. Forgiveness. !ll6. SioKne«s. CON'STRUCTIVK GRAMMAR. 203 1 17. Mt. Mitch el. lis. Liberty. 119. Literary genius. 120. Independonoe. 121. Government. 122. Trust in God. 123. The pulpit. 124. Sources of knowledge. 125. The gambler. 12«. The liar. 127. Intemperance. 128. Use of tobacco. 129. TJso of ardent spirits. l.'^O. The rose. 131. Compasjion. 132. The press. 133. The voice. 134. Masic. 185. The choice of a profegsion. 136. Contemplation. 137. On forming connections. 138. Traveling. 139. Emulation. 140. Sloth. CHAPTER XL. ENGLISH, LATIN AND GREEK PRBPIXB3. ENOLISn PREFIXBS. A signi6es on or in; a?, A-foot; a-bed. After — posterior in time ; as, After-noon. Be — about; as, To be-sprinkle; also by or nigh; as, Be-side. Ftr — negation ; as, To for-bid ; for-sake. Fore — beforehand; as, To fore-sec ; fore-telL Miss — defect or error ; as, Mis-behave. Over — cininency or superiority ; as, To ovcr-come ; also excess; as, To over-drive. Out — excess, excellency or superiority; as. To out-number; out-shine. Un — negation ; as, Unable ; unwilling- Wndtr — inferiority in ranks; as, Undcr-clerk; also diminution in value; as. To under-rate. Up — above; upwards; as, To up-lift ; up-land. Wit7i — against ; as, To with-stand ; also from or back ; a.s, To with-hold. LATIN PREFIXES. Ab or ahs signifies from ; as, Abstain ; absolve. Ad — to or at; as, Adjoin ; adjacent Ante — before ; as, Ante-date. Gircum — about or around ; as, Circum-volve ; circum-navigate. Con — with or together ; as, Con-dole. Contra — against ; as, Contradict Connter — against; as, Countcr-niand. De — motion from or down ; as, De-part ; de-grade ; de-ject. Di — asunder ; also extension ; as, l)i-lacerate ; di-late. Dis — negation ; as, Dis-approve ; dis-agreo. E or ex — out or off; as M^ject ; ex-clude. Extra — beyond ; as. Ex travagant ; ex-traordinary. In — negation ; as, In-active ; in-decorous. Inter — between ; as, Inter-vene ; inter-rupt. Intro — within ; as, Intro-duce ; intro-vert. 6>ft— against ; a.s, Ob-jcct ; ob-struct ; also out ; as, Ob-literate. Ptr — through ; as, Per-vade. 204 ANAIi¥ from the Greek eironea, a disnerabler. Irregular is from the Latin ir, not, and regular — not regular, \ Masculine is from the Latin otim, a male. Metre is froai the Greek mttron, a m jasure. Moda is from the Latin modus, manner. Monotogy is from the (jreck monos, alone, and logos, a doctrine. Neuter is from the Latin muter, neither. Negative is from the Tjitin nj;go, to deny. Notation is from the Latin notatio, a mark. Noeton is from the Greek noetos, perceived by the mind. Nominative ig from the Latin nomiiio, to name. Nou?i ia from the Latin nonien, a namt. Order is from the Iia,tin or(^Zr>, a met lodicil arrangement. Objective iif from the ijitm obje^tivus, from 06, against, and/^cw, ti thro^r, — thrown to or against. • Orthography is from th3 Greek orthographic, from orthos, true, an I graphfi, writing, — v riting words correctly, Partf/t'A^-«/« is from tho ii reek ;»irf/*'A^#/v, frvn pira, and entitkemi, t) insert. PartieipU is from the Litin par6iji/>/!T;rt, froia ^'ir*, a part, and capio, it take. 206 AKALYTICAL, ILI,U6tRATIVE AKD Passive (voice) is from the Latin passivus, from paticr, to suffer, — suf- fering. Perfect is from the Latin perfectum, completed. Period is trom the Greek periodos, (rom peri, around, and odos, a way — a circuit. Personification is from the Latin persona, a person, and facio, to make, — making persons. Petitionative is from the Latin 2^eto, to seek or implore — asking. Polysyllable is from the Greek 2^olus, many, and sullahe, a syllable — many syllables. • Position, is from the Latin pos« >« ic'.e col- lectively, uBity; — hence singular. Mo/a*ses (more striciU meUseca) t'>r vxi Spui- ish melaza, is strictly singular, being tlie syrup vphi^h drains from Mut>covf'Tj.-' This is not English. "When we say, " The king of England's throne," tho fhroo words, king of England, are f ne name in eft'ect, and can have bu' one sign of tho possessive. But, when two or three dis- tinct names are used, the article posf^esped is described as belonging to each ; '• I' »Tas my faiher'.s advice, my mother's advieo, and ii.y uncle's advice." Wo can omi» id- vice alter the two first, but by no means tho sign of the pofl8^•s^ive. It, howevnr, sh')uld be observed, that when two nouns mutually possess tho same object, and a)e closely connected by a conjunction, that good writers frequently omit the »ign yf the first; as, " David and Jonathan's frioadsWip." " Adam and Eve's morning hymn." ♦Wages, orifinally waois, Isrtally elngular. 210 ANALTTICAL, ILLUSIRATITK ASO Rem. 3. — When n^' ins in apposition follow each other in clof- pn.'-cesslon, writers generally omit the ji/seessive sign to all but the last; as, " For D.ivid. my servant's 8ake. But, when tb '3 governing noun is either expressed or o\)vint!.^ly understood before the first possessive, the possessive sign should be annexed to t,he first and omitted at the rest; ns, " Herod laid hold on John, and bound h m, and put him in prison for Hcrodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife." '■ The silk whs purchased at Erowu's, the mercer r.rd haHerdasher." The c instruction of the U.-t, iwo ftxaaiples isfaulty. It would l>o better to coustrue thein thus: -'Herod liid held on John, and bound him, and cast him into prison f'^r t'le ^mIcu of Herofliiis, the wil'o of hia brother Phillip." A-< ."^ome possessives are difficult t-' utter, and yonsequsntly hurt- ful to the euphony of the sentence, the same idea mav be more el ■•;^ mily expressed by the preposition of ; thus, " Give me here John ilaptist's head in a charger" — better, "Give me here the bead of .John Baptistin a charger." It is inelegant to construe several nouns in the possessive oaso in juxf-i, position with e.Tch other; fs, "Peter's tmfe's mother lay sick of a fover." Better thus : " Tlie mother of Peter's wife lay sick of a fever." APPOSITION. When other nouns are artpended to the principal name to identify or ex- plain it, they are in apposit on with it; as, " Dar.iel Webster, the distin- guished statesman and orator, now reposes in the noisi'less grave." In this example, statesman and orator identify Daniel Webster, by showing what kind of a man he was. ?lE5i. 1,— Words in apposition must be construed in the same member of the sen- tence ; that is, both with the subject or both with the predicate. Rem. 2. — Words are not unfrequently pvt \a apposition with a whole sentence or part of a sentence; as, " Whereby if a mm had a poci'ive idea of infinite, either space or duration, he could add two infinites together; nay, make one infinite infinite- ly bigger than another ; absurdities too gross to be confi'.ted." Here ubsurditins are put bT apposition with all the preceding propositions. "You arc luo humane and considerate ; things few people can be chargad with." Here things are in apposi- tion to humane and considerate. Rem. 3. — -V complex name, consisting of several names, or even a title and a nr.me, m;s> b-) narsed as a siugle name ; as, "Dr. Benjamin Franklin invented the lishtnuig-iod." Parsed— !>;•. Benjamin Franklin, is a proper noun, masculine gen- der, third person, singular, and in the nominative case to the verb invented, accord- ing to rule — The subject of the verb must 1 h in the nominative case. When a defi- nite article and a numeral adjective arc used in oonrection with the title and a name, the name only should be pluralized : a^, " The two Miss Turner.'?." •' The three Miss Browns." " The two Dr, Longs." But. when used -yitaout the numeral, the title only is pluralized: as, " Tiie Missed Smith." But, of married ladies, the name only isplur-alizad; as, Mrs. Lowes." In conversation, the teim Misses is now generally apiilied to a married lady ; as, " Alisses Hamby." When two or more names, con- nected by ff/ith his chiU dren ; so the Lord pitieth t'lem that fo ir him." Tliis sentence would l-ise nothins; of its f.iroe and perspicuity by the omission of like. Tbus, " As a fith : pitioth his children ; so the Lord pitieth them that fear him." BOTH. Author.'^ generally regard both as a conjunction when it is followed by and ; as, " \W' as?i-ted him both for his sake and our own." {Smith's G fu/.i ir, page 109.) The coniK'Ctive quality of 6(7i!A in such constructions is very a jubti :'. ; it is certain it forms i;o connection of itself, and should, if regarded as a c .^ju;ict'on at all, be parsed with and, as they form but one connection. Both and, in such constructions, are nearly synonymous with /io< onZy but ; a,s, "We assisted h'in,/iot only fO|. his sake, but also for our sake." Not only but in similar construct, ins, ra 'y ba regard- ed as a correlative conjunction, as they form but one connection, and have a recip- rocal relation to each other. B )th is frequently used as a specifying adjective ; as, "Both men were badly in- jured liy the fall." Bn'his also not uafrequently use! a? a siibii'.itute f,5r two nouns used in the preceding clause ; as, •■ .V.i)raham took sheep and o'can, and gavo ihem to .A.bimelech; both of them were made a covenant." Boti is som^-times used as a substitute for two membars of a t^oni'nica ; as, • do wiU nor, bear ike 'os^ of his rank , because he can bear the loss of hif est its; b-u he will bear both be luse he is pr!- X>>rad for both. In the I'.iilowuu' seutence. bjlh is a substitute for two adjivtives : " Some are beautiful and otier-: pre young; bat .Mary is both" Uera both is evi- dently a substitute for beautiful and young. B UT. But is used for three parts of speech. It is a conjunction when it connects the members of a sentence; as, " He wrote tb". deed, but he will write no more." It is an adverb when used in the sense of only; as, "Our light afflictions are but f.ir a moment " It is regarded generally by authors as a preposition when it means (x<'ept or excepting ; as, " They were all well but the stranger," that is. they were all well «xcep: the jt-anger. In examules like the last, Dr. Webster contends that but is a participle, and it must be coulessed that the etj-mology of the word favors his opinion. AFTER AND BEFORE. After is an adverb when it means time ; a/, " After I had visited Europe, I re- turned to America." .^/^c' is frequently used in an implenary member ; as, " Af- ter these things. Jesus drpnrted and went into Galilee." In such ropstructions, af- ir.r \i generallv ) ,irsed a.s a preposition, but errnr.pously, as tvo tliink, as will be feou by rendoryig the tentence plenary, »nd construing it in the natural orJ*r ; as, '' Jesus departed alter these things bad occurred, and went into (i.ililee." After is .1 preposition when it shows the relation of position ; as, "My soul foilowoth hard after thee.'' Before is an adverb when it means time; as, " He had visited mo before." It sh 'lid be observed that when before is thus used, it is generally a conjunctive ad- verb, a member of a -sentence being understood. Before is a prepo.«ition when it shows the relation of position or preference; as, "He stood before uie." "He was preferred before ine." Rem. — After .\nd before are frequently used by eood wri'ers for proposition.s, >yhere they arn really adverbs- a.<, " Ho that c9meto after me is pr^'ferred before me, {^t mem- ber, denote time, aiii are, therct'ore, pr^periy Mtlverbs ; thus, •• Hl h... cuiiieth alter I came, is preferrcj beforome ; '•>r i' > was before I was." Ttie .luthor doos not recommou'' his reau^ra to rrite and speak contrary to this oaittom, but they should know whet is Englith and what is ou: THAT. Taat is a relative when it can be changed to lirho or which without injuring tB» sense; ss, "Him that is negligent reprove sharply " — changed, " Him icrho is negli- gent reprove sharply.'' TTiat is frequently usod as a substitute for a clause which fellows it in construction ; as, " I have heard that the Greeks djefeated the Turks ;" here that is a substitute for " the Greeks defeated the Turks j" " the Greeks d«feat- ed the Turks — I have heard that." That is sometimes used as a substitute for a noun usad in a preceding clause; as, " For, by f^rnoe, ye are saved, through faith , ard that not of yourselves; for it is the gift of God;" — here thai is a substitute for grace ; as, " By grace ye are saved, through faith, and that grace not of yourselves," etc. That is frequently used as a specifying adjective ; as, " TTiat thing that thai m:>n said, should not be sepeated." TAat, in the following sentence, is used as a notin, b,3 sl siibstitutc (or conjuao- tion), as a relaiive pronoian, and as a specifying adjective. " The tutor speaking of that, said that that that that that gentleman parsed, was not thaLthat that that lady requested him to analyze." MANY AND FEW. Thongh mafii/ and fem are generally used as adjectives, they are not unfrequent- ly empk'jed as substitutes; as, "Many are called; l>ut few are chosen." In this sentence, 7»awi/ and /eu> are used as substitutes for many a,nd few persons. Th© same may be predicated of many of the specifying adjectives of the numeral kind; as, " Tlie soldiers marched two by two." This sentence, rendered plenary, will read thus — " The soldiers marched in the order of two soldiers by two soldiers." The truth is, almost any of the specifying adjectives may bo used as substitutes ; as, "Some men labor, others labor not. The former increase in wealth ; the latter de- crease." iVb«« is a contraction of no one; cctacquently its onginal and proper meattingis singular: but custom has assigns! it a plico in both numbers ;,as,iYo«e- performs his duty too well." " None of these poor wretehesj^complain of their auserabla lot." In the first example, mne is singular, in the last, plural. OWN. '' He owns, and shall forever o'-vn. Wisdom and heaven and Christ are one." "We assisted him for his own sake." " He came unto his own and his awn re- ceived him not" In the first of these examples, owns is a verb; in the second, a specifying adjective ; and in the third, a suostituto for ou>« people ; aj, " He cam©- iinto his own (people), but his own. (people) received him not." ELSE. Else, when used in the cense frf other things c?- other- persons, is a substitute or pronoun ; as, " what ci^e could he have done ?" Yf hoa used in the sense of other- ■Kfise^, it is an adverb; as, " Else whence this longing after immortality .^"—iAai is, if it be otherwise (if the soul be not imcaortal), whence this longing after immortality ? Else is sometimes used as connective, though it still retains its adverbial oharac- t«r; as, "Thou desirest not sacrifice, else would I giv&it." MUCH. ;yit"t is- used as throe parts of speech. Much, in the first of the following ex- ft.aple ) An adverb ; in the seeond, a.n adjective ; and, in the last e:j;ample, is » »>i,un. V""ii ha»e your mother 7nuck offended." "I have taken TreucA pai.iS." " V/hero -ttwA is given, 7/iucA is required." NOTWITHSTANDING. N TWi^TrsTANDiNG is .xsed as a prepositi'm. and also as a conjunction. In the first of the following ex j.u!i/.es, it is a propo.sition, and in the second, a conjunction. "He is n.glectedjw?tof£A«an(ii»^lii8 merii." " Be ia tespaoted, nctwith^tainddirg he U poor." COKSTRUCnVE GRAMMAR. 1 I ■-> SINCE. Since, in tbo first of iho following examples, is a conjunction; in the Focond, n preposition ; and in the third, an adverb. " 1 will go, since you dtsiro it." " lie has been employed since that time." " Our friendship commenced long xincr." WHAT. What isu.'P'lns a substitute (relative) ; as. "Tie knows what ho eald." As .n specifying adjective ; as, " What man is that ?" It is used as an adverb; as, " What (partly) by entreaty, and what by threatening, he succeeded. In the following sui tence, it is used as an interjection : "What! could ye not watch one hour ?" (Soo Construction of What. Part I.) EXPLANATION OF FRENCH WORDS AND PHRASES OF FREQUENT OCCURRENCE. " The followin::; French words and phrases are oft6T\ rnet with in English -wTitcrs. They are here explained for the bene- fit of those unacquainted with the French language. Inthe following representation of French sounds, i h;t3 the sound of a in hat ; a of a \\\*lade ; a of a m falls e of e in her ; e of « in bed ; i of z in sit ; 8 of o in hot; o of o in lone ; u of w in cure; oo of oo in coo. The French u, and eu, and oeu, have no corresponding sounds in the English language, nor can thej. he represented by letters ; the first is intermediate between o and u, and is pronounced with the lips nearly closed (the up- per projecting), leaving only a small hole in the middle, as if to blow a flute ; this sound is here represented by u ; eu and oeu are more full and open than u ; they are here represented by u ; r is sounded hard lilvorr. The nasal vowels an, in, on, U7i, can- not be represented by letters. The articulation of the w must end when the tip of the tongue is at the root of the lower teeth, without any motion towards the roof of the mouth. The English syllables a7iy, aing, ong, ung, though not correct, arc still the nearest representation of the sound that can be made to the eye. Indeed, it is impossible by means of letters to rep- resent the correct pronunciation of most French words. This can be done only to the ear." The following, therefore, is to be regarded only as the nearest that can be given. — {See Bullion's Grammar.) Aide-de-camp (aid-de-kang), an assistant to a general. A la bonne heure (ri 13, bonn urr), at an early hour ; in the nick of time. Affaire de coeur, (alfair dYTIOAL IXLUSTRATITE AND Alihi, elsewhere. Ahria maiei\ university benign ras- tlu-r. Aiif/llce, in English. ^Inuo do/nml, in the year oiour Lord A. D. A/1710 viimdi, in the year of tlie woiKl A. M. ^1 pofteriorl, from the latter. A priori, from the former, from before, or from the cause. Arcanum, a secret. Arcana imperii, state secrets. Arijtinientum ad Jwminem, au ap- peal to the practices of the ad- versary. Durante piliacid, during pleasure. Ergo, therefore. Errata, errors — Erratum, an error. Esto 2)ef2>etua, let it be perpetual. Ex cathedra,, from the chair with au- thority. Excerjyia, extracts. Efcmpli gratia, as for exaoiple, con- tracted c. fj. Ex otfiaio ofQcially, by virtue of office. Ex parte, on one side. Ex tempore, without prerneditation. Fac simile, exact copy or resem- blance. Fiat, let it be done or made. Flagrante hello, during hostilities. Arpu7ne>il.inn ad judicium, an ap- Gratis, for nothing. Ilora fiigit, the hour, or time flics. 0, au *l''\j{y,jnanun gfii t^frcn-e, to err is human, poal to the common sense pf j^.^-j^^jn the same place inankind Arpnii'mdum ad fidem, an appeal to our taitb. Anjnmentum ad populum, an ap- peal to the people. Arg^imeutum ad pasiiones, an ap- peal to the passions. Audi alteram partem, hear both sides. Bona fide, in good faith, in reality. Contra, against. Cacoethcs scribendi, an itch for wri ting. C7>i7r;"&;<5,other circumstaBces l)eing equal. Caput vLoriutim, the worthless re- mains, dead head. Compjos mentis, in one's senses. Cum privilegio, with privileges. Data, things granted. De facto, from the fact, in reality. De jure, from the law, justly. Dei gratia, by the grace or favoi of God Deo volcnte, God willing (D. Y.) Idem, the same. Id est, that i?, contracted i. e. Ignoramus, an ignorant fellow, a dunce. In loco, in this place. In primis, in the first place. In terrorem, as a warning. In propria persona, in his own person. In statu quo, in the former state. Inst., for instant, the present. Ipse dixit, on his sole assertion. Ipso facto, by the fact itself. Ijjso jure, by the law itself. Item, also, article. Jure divine, by dirine right. Jure liumano, by human law. Jus gentium, the law of nations. Locum tenens, deputy, substitute. Labor omnia v/ncif, labor oveicome3 'everything. Licentia rahim, a poetical license. Linguce- lapsus, a slip of the tongue. Magna churta, the great charter, tiie basis of our laws and liberties. Desunt cetera, the^rest are wanting.|j/-g^enio inori, remember death. Desideratum, something desirable. Memorabilia, matters deserving of a thing wanted. i record. Dramatis p)?rsoii()e., characters rc^- Memorandum, a thing to be re- resentec!. ^ • I mcmbcred. • Ihirante vita, during life. ^Meum et luum, mine and thine. CONSTRUCTIVE OBAlirMAR. 217 Multuvi in 2}arvOf much in little, a great deal in a few words. Muialis mutandis, the necessary changes being made. Miitaio nomine, the name being changed. HFetiio h^ imjmne lacesset, no one shall provoke me with, impunity. lie 2)h(S nlira, no farther, nothing beyond. ' j\'^olc)is volens, willing or unwilling. J\'on cojnpos mentis^ not of a sound mind. JVc quid nimis, too much of one thing is good for nothing. jyisi dominus frusira, unless the Lord be with us all efforts are in vain. J}«em:eo7i. {{ot nemine contra dicente,) non« opposing. Kern. J is. (for nemine dissetitiente), none disagreeing. Omnibus, for all, a public conveyance. Ore terms, from the mouth. temporm, mores, the times, the manners. Omncs, all. Onus, burden. Passim, everywhere. Fer se, by itself, alone. Possi co'milatus, the powtr of the countr}'. Prima faeic, at first view tr at first sight, Primum mobile, the main spring. Fro and con, for and aganist. Pro bono publico, for the good of th« public. Pro loc4 et tempore, for the place and time. Pro re natu, for a special businesf . Pro rege, lege, et grtge, for the king, the cor»litution, and the people. ,_, ijr.lmo, with what mi«d. ^({<; jure, by v.'bat right. Quoad, ns far as. (Jvonddin, foimcrly, former. Ixts publica, the commonwealth. Pesvrgam, I shall rise again. Pex, a king ; Regina, a queen. Senatvs eonsult?ini, a decree of sen- ate, (S. C.) Seriatim, in regular order. Sine die, without specifying any par- ticular day. Sine quanoii, and indispensable pre- requisite or condition. Statu quo, the state in which it was. Sub pmna, under a penalty. Sui generis, of its own kind, i. e., , singular. Supra, above, Sutnmum ionum, the chief good. Tria juncta in uiw, three joined in one. Toties qutties, as often as. Una voce, with one voice, unani- mously. Ultimus, the last (contr, ult.) Utih dulci, the useful with the pleas- ant. Verbatim, word for word. VernLS, against. Vade ilccum, go with me ; a book fit for being a constant companion. Vale, farewell. Via, by way of. Vice, in the room of. Vice versa, the reverce. Vide, see (contr, v.) Vide ut supra, see as above. Vis poet ica, poetic genius. Viva voce, orally, by the living voice. Vox2)opuli, the voice of the people. Vvlgo, commonly. Vultvs est index animi, the counte- nance is the index of the mind. Vi)-i(f regina, long live the queen. Vincct amor patriw, the love of our country is the predominant feeling. Sua cuiqu* volujttas, erpry one has his own pleasures. Sic transit gUria mundi, thus passes away the glory of the world. Rtspictjinem, look to the end. Ecqaiescat in pace, may ke rest in peace ! Quid nunc, what now ? applied to a ncwi hunter. Quantum mutatus ab illo, how changed from what he once was ! Principiit obsta, oppose the first ap- pearance of evil. Poeta nascitur, nonft, nature, and not study, must form a poet. Peccavi, I hare sinned. ! si sic omnia, ! that he had al- ways done, or spoken thus. •2 is A.N'ALYTirAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND Noscitur a sooiis, he is known by his companions. T^on omnia 2'>os^ivmvH dmues, we can- not all of us do erf^rv thin^. Ne sulor ■itlt.ra crejjidain, let not the shoemaker go beyond hi-J last, ( r meddle with what lie dues not un- derstand. Nemo morinlium omnlhus horths'ipit no one. is wise at all time-;. Ifedio tutissimus ■ibh, good will act wise by iiteering a middle course. Ignis fatuus, the meteor, or electri- cal phenomenon called " will-o'-the- wisp." Fiat jicstitia, mat ccelum, let justice be done, though the heavens fall. De mortuis nil nisi honum, let noth- ■ ing be said of the dead but what is favoral^le. Domine, durige, Lord^direct us ! Fas est et ah haste doceri, it is allow- able to derive instruction even from an enemy. ABBREVIATIONS. A. B. or I>. A. Artimu Baccalareus, bach- elor of ar'^ A'lj. Av.} riive. AJv. A(!voiU Abp. Archbi.'^hop. Acct Account. A. C. J/Ue Christum, before Christ. A. 1). A»7to Domini, year of our Lord. AJni. Administrator. Aduix. Administratrix. jE. g. Exempli gratia, for example. jEph. Ephesians. iEsq. E.oquire. Etc. Et cetera, and so forth. lEx. Exodus. jExr. Exi'cutor. Feb. FebroJirj. iPig. Figure. ;Fol. Folio. Pr. French. A M. Ante meridiem, before noon; or,F. U.S. Fellow of the Royal Society. anno viiindi, yoar of the world ; or ar-[Gal. Gallatians. tium nmgister, master of arts. Anou. Aii"i)ymi)us. Apr. April. A. U. C. Anno urbis conditoe, the year of|Geo. George. the buililing of tKi.' city (Rome ) jGov. Governor Gall. Gallon. Gen. Genesis ; general. Gent. Gentleman. Aug. AUfTUrt, ]{1. Barrel. B. c. Ji '■>-?■ n> ht. B. I> H jl-lor of divinity. Be' i ''■ ' iiii'Mii. Bp.'l!'':!' -'■ Caijt. I .," .. 1- Chas. t 1 1.=. G. or ccii*. Munlrcd. Chron.«Clir:nic'e« Co. Company ; couuly. Col. Cl.loDPl. Coll. Colli--'. Cor. Coriuilii'.r.s. Cr. Credit, '.r creditor. Cwt. Ilun-^.-ol wirigbt. D. (de.) Dei:ur(U.-<, penny. D. D. Du.t.ir of uirinity. Dec. Dfceiii^er. Deg. Degri'o. Dup. Deputy. Deut. Deuttrono'vy. Do. or ditto. The same. Doz. Dozen. Doct. Doctor. Dwt. Pennyweight. E. East. Ecel. Eoclosiasles. Ed. Ediior. jHeb. Hebrews. IHhd. Hogshead. H. M. His or Her Majesty. H. B. .M. His or Her Britannic Majesty. I Hon. Honorable. iHund. Hundred. lb, Ibid, or Ibidem. In the same place. Id, Idem. The same. I. e. Id est, that is. Incog. Incognito, unknown. Inst. Instant, present, of this month. [j^a. Isaiah. Jan. January. Jaa. James. .Tosh- Joshua. Jan. or Jr. Junior. Kt. Kaiffht Lam. Lamentations. Lat. Latitude. .„ . Lev. Leviticus. ■ ^^^i.^.' Lieut. Lieutenant. LL. B. Ligum Baccalaurens, Bachelor of Laws. LL. D. Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws. Long. Longitude. L. S. Lozus Sigilli, the place of the seal. M. Mille, a thousand. M. A. Master of Arts. Maj. Major. CO NSTRU CTI V r. r, R A %J M A K . 219 Mar. Marrh. Matt. Matthew. M. B. MedicitKB Baccalaureut, Bachelor of Medicine. M. D. MedicitKB Doctor, Doctor of Medi- ■ cine. Messrs. Messieurs. M. P. Member of Parliament. Mr. Mister. Mrs. Mistress. M. S. Manuscript. N. North. N. B. Nota Benr., notice well. N. K. Northeast. Nem. Con. Neniiue Contradicerde, no one opposing. No. Number. Nov. November. N. P. New .style. N. T. New Testament. Num. Numbers. N. W. Northwest. Obt. Obedient. Oct. October. 0. S. Old style. » Oxon. Oxonia, Oxford. Per cent. Pa- centum, by the hundred. Pet. Peter. PI. Plural. P V. Post Merediem, after noon. P. M. Post Master. P. 0. Post Office. Prob. Problem. Prof. Professor. Prop. Proposition. P. S. Poet Scriptum, postscript. Ps. Psalms. Q. or Qu. Question. Q. E. I). Quod rrat demonstrandum, which was to he demnnstratoil. Q. V. Quad vide, which see. Qr. Quarter. Qt. Quart. Rev. Reverend ; Rpvelation. R. N. Royal navy. Hobt. Robert Rt. Ri.sht honorable. S. South. Sec. Secret.? ry. .^. E. .Soiithenst. Sen. Sinior. ■"^ppt. Scp'embor. Sq. Square. St. Sair.t : Street. S. T. P. Su'Ctfc IheoiogiUt doctor, doctor of theology or divinity. S. W. Soutbwe.Ht. Thess. Thf.'saloni.ins. Thos. ThuiTias. Tr. Translator ; Trensuror. Ult. Vlthno U. S. United Stnte.s. V or Vid. Vide, see. Viz. Videlicet, to wit, namely. Vol. Volume. Vols. Volumes Vs. Versii.< against. W. West. W. I. We.«t Indies. Wk Week. AVm. Wini;(m. Yd. Yard. Yds. Yards. 4to, Quarto. 8vo. Oetavo. l2mo. Duodecimo. I8mo. Octodecimo. » ••• r