DUKE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2018 with funding from Duke University Libraries https://archive.org/details/hinducastessects01bhat_0 Hindu Castes and Sects EXPOSITION OF THE ORIGIN OF TEE HINDU CASTE ) STEM AND THE BEARING OF THE SECTS TOWARDS EACH OTHER AND TOWARDS OTHER RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. BY •JO tENDRA NATH BHATTACHARYA, m.a., d.l., President of the College of Pandits, Nadiya, Author of “ Commentaries on Hindu Law,” “ Vyavastha Kalpadrumafyc Calcutta ; THACKER, SPINK AND CO. 1896 . [ All rights reserve//.] CALCUTTA: PRINTED BY THACKER, SPINK AND CO. I I vJ • \ ftSTSH PREFACE. In the last edition of my “ Commentaries on Hindu Law ” I devoted a chapter to the Hindu Caste System which attracted the attention of the Publishers, and they suggested that the subject might well be expanded so as to be brought out as a separate volume. They suggested also that, in order to make the book complete, I should give an account not only of the Castes, but also of the important Hindu Sects, some of which are practically so many new Castes. As I had been already engaged in writing a book about the history and philosophy of religions, the pro¬ posal, so far as the sects were concerned, was welcome indeed. About the Castes I felt very considerable diffidence ; but it seemed to me that, in a town like Calcutta, where there are men from every part of India, it might not be quite impossible to collect the necessary information. When, however, I actually commenced my enquiries, then I fully realised the difficulty of my task. The original information contained in this work has been derived from a very large number of Hindu gentlemen hailing from different parts of India. I here IV PREFACE. gratefully acknowledge the kindness that they have shown in according to me their assistance. I feel very strongly inclined to insert in this book a list of their names. But the publication of such a list is not de¬ sirable for more reasons than one. To begin with, such a list would be necessarily too long to be conveniently included. Then, again, the subject of castes and sects is, in some of its aspects, a very irritating one, and if I were to give publicity to the names of the persons who have assisted me, it might place them in a very false position. So I thank them generally without mentioning any names. In connection also with this part of the work, I must acknowledge my obligations to the works of Risley, Wilson and Sherring, and to Mr. Narsima- yangar’s Report of the last Census of Mysore. As to the last of these, which is compiled by an educated native of the country, it is hardly necessary to observe that it is very reliable, though not very complete. Mr. Risley’s “Tribes and Castes of Bengal” is an exhaustive treatise, and is, generally speaking, reliable also. If there had been similar works for the other provinces, then the task of taking a bird’s-eye view of the whole would not have been quite so arduous to me as it has actually been. With regard to the part of the book devoted to the Hindu Sects, I may mention that the greater portion of it had been written originally for my promised work on the philosophy of religion which I hope to bring out PREFACE. V before long. For the sake of many of my friends and relations near and dear to me I hesitated to give publi¬ city to my views before ; but it seems to me high time now that I should speak out and do what lies in me to set forth the true character of the cults that the majority of those who profess to be Hindus believe and practise. • . The religions of those who are not regarded as Hindus do not come within the scope of this work. But the position which I assign to Christianity, Maho- medanism, Zoroastrianism, &c., must appear clear enough from what I have said in the Introduction to my ac¬ count of the Hind u Sects, about the evolution of human faiths, and about the different principles on which they may be classified. I have tried my best throughout to avoid irreverence and offensive expressions, and the reader, who is not altogether blinded by orthodoxy^ will, I hope, admit that, even with regard to the worst of the abomination-worshipping sects, I have nowhere been harsher than the nature of the case absolutely required. Reverence ought to be by all means shown to persons and institutions that have a just claim to it. But nothing can, in my opinion, be more sinful than to speak respectfully of persons who are enemies of man¬ kind, and to whitewash rotten institutions by esoteric explanations and fine phrases. It is no doubt extremely difficult to get rid of the effect of early training and associations. But those who claim to be educated and enlightened will, I trust, give 302582 VI PREFACE. me an impartial and patient hearing. However strong their faith in Saivism, Saktaism and Radha worship may be, they cannot be altogether blind to the real character of these creeds. One of the greatest thinkers of modern times has, in connection with certain ques¬ tions of political economy, said :— It often happens that the universal belief of one age of mankind—a belief from which no one was, nor, without any extraordinary effort of genius and courage, could, at that time be free—becomes to a subsequent age so palpable an absurdity, that the only difficulty then is to imagine how such a thing can ever have appeared credible. This, I am sure, will before long he the feeling of every honest Hindu with regard to some of the most important features of his so-called religions, and I shall feel I have performed an almost sacred duty if this work promotes in some degree that end. JOGENDRA NATH BHATTACHARYA. Calcutta, May 1896 . CHAPTER III. IV. V. VI —-II. III. _IV. V. C 0 N T E N T S. — + —.— HINDU CASTES. PART I. Introduction. The Origin and Nature of the Hindu Caste System Whether Caste is a Religious or a Social Distinction ... ... ... The Regulations by which the Castes have been made Exclusive ... ... The Origin of the Additional Castes and the Sub-castes The Authorities by whom the Caste Rules are Enforced Nature of the Penalty of Exclusion from Caste PART II. The Brahmans Generally. The Position of the Brahmans in Hindu Society The Brahman’s Proper Professions The Modern Hindu Gurus Enquiries by which the Caste Status of a Brahman may be Ascertained The Sub-divisions among the Brahmans ... PAUL 1—8 9 10-12 13-15 16 , 17 19-23 24-26 27-29 30-32 33,34 CONTICNTS. Vlll CONTICNTS. PART III. The Brahmans of Northern India. CHAPTER PAGE I. The Brahmans of Bengal 35-45 1. The Paschiitya Vaidikas ... 36, 37 2. The Rarhiya Brahmans 37-42 3. The Barendras 42-44 4. The Diikshinatya Vaidikas 44 5. The Madhya Sreni Brahmans 45 II. The Brahmans of Mithila and Behar 46-48 1. The Maithilas 46-48 2. The Sakaldipis 48 III. The Brahmans of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh * ... 49-51 1. The Kanojias 49, 50 2. The Sarnjuparias 51 3. The Sanadhyas 51 IV. The Gaur Brahmans of the Kurukshetra Country 52, 53 V. The Brahmans of Kashmir, Pan jab andSindh 54-57 1. The Brahmans of Kashmir 54, 55 55-57 2. The Brahmans of the Pan jab 3. The Brahmans of Sindh 57 VI. The Brahmans of Assam 58, 59 VII. The Brahmans of Orissa 60-64 1. The Brahmans of Southern Orissa ... 60-62 The Vaidikas The Adhikari, Pujari or Vaishnava 60,61 Brahmans 62 The Mahajan Panthis 62 The Pandas 62 2. The Jajpuria Brahmans ... 63,64 VIII. The Brahmans of Rajputana ... 65-69 1. The Srimalis 66,67 2. The Pallivals 68,69 3. The Pokaranas 69 IX. The Brahmans of Central India PART IV. The Brahmans of Southern India. 70 . I. Preliminary Remarks 71,72 II. The Brahmans of Gujrat 73-81 CHAPTER III. IV. y. vr. VII. VIII. IX. X. I. II. I. II. III. IV. V. CONTENTS. IX PAGK The Brahmans of Maharashtra and Kan- kan ... ... 82-89 1. The Desastha Brahmans ... 82,83 2. The Kankanasthas ... ... 83-85 3. The Yajurvedis ... ... 85,86 4. The Karhades ... ... 86-89 5. The Shenavis of Kankan ... 89 The Middle Class and inferior Brahmans of Maharashtra ... ... 90,91 The Brahmans of the Karnatic ... 92,93 The Brahmans of Dravira ... ... 94-97 1. The Smarta Brahmans ... ... 94,95 2. The Vishnuvite Brahmans of Southern India ... ... ... 97 The Brahmans of Telingana ... ... 98-101 The Brahmans of the Central Provinces ...102, 103 The Brahmans of South Kanara ...104, 105 The Brahmans of Kerala, Cochin, Malabar and Travancore ... ... ... 106-108 PART V. The Semi-Braiimanical Castes. The Bhuinhar Brahmans ... ... 109-13 The Bhats and the Charanas ... ... 114- 7 PART VI. The Degraded Brahjians. The Hossainis and Kuvachandas ... 118 The Pirali Tagores of Calcutta ... 119-124 The Barna Brahmans ... ...125, 126 The Brahmans connected with the public Shrines ... ... ...127,128 The Brahmans degraded by accepting forbid¬ den Gifts and officiating as paid Priests at Cremations ... ... ...129, 130 The Maha-Brahmans The Agradanis The Agra Bhikshu .. The Sawalakhis 129 129 129 130 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. II. PAGE The Bhattas ... ... ... 130 The Maruiporas ... ... ... 130 The Acharyas of Western India ... 130 The Sanichar alias Dakot of Rajputana ... 130 The Brahmans degraded by Menial Service 131 PART VII. The Military Castes. The Rajputs The Kshettris 1. The Sereen Kshettris 2. Kukkurs 3. The Rorhas ... 4. The Banjai Kshettris TheJats The Khandaits of Orissa The Marattas ... The Nairs of Malabar The Maravans, Ahamdians and Kalians ... The Poliyas and the Koch of North Bengal. The Aguris of Bengal 132-137 138-144 . 140-142 142 142 , 142-144 ,145,146 ,147,148 .149,150 ,151,152 153, 154 155 156-158 PART VIII. The Scientific Castes. The Vaidyas or the Medical Caste of Bengal 159-171 The Bez of Assam ... ... 172 The Astrologer Castes of Bengal and Assam 173, 174 PART IX. The Writer Castes. The Kayasthas generally ... ... 175-177 The Kayasthas of Bengal ... ... 178-185 1. The Dakshina Rarhis of Bengal ... 178-180 2. The Uttara Rarhi Kayasthas ... 180-183 3. The Bangaja Kayasthas ... ...183, 184 4. The Barendra Kayasthas ... 184 5. The Golam Kayasthas of East Bengal 185 CONTENTS. xi PAGE The Kayasthas of Upper India ... 186-191 1 . The Srivatsa Kayasthas .. ... 186-188 2. The Ambasthu Kayasthas 188 3. The Karan Kayasthas ... ...188, 189 4. The Sakya Seni Kayasthas ...189, 190 5. The Kula Sreshti Kayasthas 190 6. The Bhatnagari Kayasthas 190 7. The Mathuri Kayasthas 190 8. The Suryadhaja Kayasthas 190 9. The Balmiki Kayasthas 191 10. The Ashthana Kayasthas 191 11. The Nigama Kayasthas 191 12. The Gaur Kayasthas 191 13. The Kayasthas of Unao 191 The Writer Castes of Southern India ...192,193 The Prabhus of the Bombay Presidency ...194, 195 The Kolitas of Assam ...196, 197 PART X. The Mercantile Castes. The Baniyas of Bengal ... 198-202 1 . The Suvarna Baniks of Bengal ... 199-201 2. The Gandha Baniks of Bengal ...201, 202 The Baniyas of Northern India .. 203-217 1 . The Agarwals .. 205-207 2. The Ossawals ... 207-209 3. The Khandelwals ...209, 210 4. The Srimali Baniyas 210 5. The Palliwal Baniyas 210 6. The Porawal Baniyas 211 7. The Bhatiyas 211 8. The Maliesri Baniyas 211 9. The Agrahari Baniyas ... 212 10. The Dhunsar Baniyas ... 212 11. The Umar Baniyas 212 12. The Rastogis... 913 13, 14. The Kasarwanis and the Kasana- dlians ... ...213, 214 15. The Lohiya Baniyas 214 16. The Soniyas ... 214 17. The Sura Senis ... 214 18. The Bara Senis ... 214 xii CONTENTS. CHATTER PAGE 19. The Baranwals 215 20. The Ayodhya Basis 215 21. The Jaiswars 215 22. The Mahobi.yas 215 23. The Mahuris 216 24. The Bais Baniyas 216 25. The Kath Baniyas 216 26. The Raoniyars ...216,217 27. The Jameyas ... 217 28. The Lohanas 217 29. The Rewaris 217 30. The Kanus 217 III. The Baniyas of Gujrat 218 IV. The Trading Castes of Southern India ...219, 220 V. The MercantileCastes oftheTelegu Country 221, 222 VI. The Baniyas of Orissa 223 PART XI. The Artisan Castes Generally Recognised as Clean Sudras. © General Observations ... ... 224-226 II. The Weavers ... ...227-236 1 . The Weavers generally ... . 227-230 2. The Tantis of Bengal . 230-232 3. The Tatwas of Behar . 232,233 4. The Kori and Koli of Upper India .. 233 5. The Tantis of Orissa 233 6. The Koshti of the Central Provinces 233 7. The Weavers of Gujrat ... 233 8. The Weavers of the Dravira Country 234 9. The Weaving Castes of Mysore .234, 235 10. The Weavers of the Telegu Country.. 236 11. The Jugis 236 III. The Sweetmeat-making Castes... ...237-239 IY. The Kumar or Potter ... ... 240 Y The Ironsmiths ... ... ...241-243 VI. The Goldsmiths ... ... ...244,245 1. The Sonar and Shakra of Northern India ... ... ...244,245 2. The Panchanam Yarlu of the Telegu Country and the Ivammallars of Dravira 245 CONTENTS. XIII CHAPTER PAGE VII. The Carpenters ... ... ...246,247 VIII. The Braziers and Coppersmiths ...248,249 1. The Kansa Baniks of Bengal ...248, 249 2. The Kasaras and Thatheras of Nor¬ thern India ... ... 249 3. The Gejjegora and Kanchugora of Southern India ... ... 249 IX. The Sankha Baniks of Bengal ... 250 X. The Grain Parchers... ... ...251,252 XI. The Dirjis or Tailors ... ... 253 PART XII. The Manufacturing and Artisan Castes that are Regarded as Unclean Sudras. ii. hi. IV. V. Tlie Brewers, Tadi-drawers, and Sellers of Spirituous Liquors ... 254-261 . 1. The Sunris of Bengal and Behar ... 255-257 The Kalwars of Northern India ...257, 258 The Shannrs and Ulavars of Dravira 258-260 2. 3. 4. 5. 6 . 7. The Bhandaris of Western India ... 260 The Pa sis of Behar ... 260 The Tiyans of Southern India 261 The Idigas of Mysore and the Telegu Country ... ... ... 261 The Gaundla and Gamalla of the Telegu Country ... ... 261 The Oil Manufacturers ... ...262-264 1. The Telis of Bengal ... ...2627263 The Kalus of Bengal ... ...263,264 The Telis and Ghanchis of Upper India ... ... ... 264 The Tel Kulu Varlu of the Telegu Country ... ... 264 The Ganigas and Vanikans of South¬ ern India ... ... 264 The Salt Manufacturers ... ... 265 The Leather Workers ... ... 266-'26?f^ 1. The Chamars and Muchis of N. India 266, 267 2. The Chakilians andMadigsof S. India 267,268 3. The Leather-working Castes of Raj- putana and Central India ... 268 The Mat-makers and Basket-makers ... 269 8 . 2 . 3. 4. 5. XIV CONTENTS. PART XIII. The Clean Agricultural Castes. chapter PAGE I. II. III. IV. Y. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. The Kurmis and Kunbis ... ...270-273 The Koeris of Northern India ... 274 The Malis ... ... ...275,276 The Kachis ... ... ... 277 The Lodhas and Lodhis ... ... 278 The Agricultural Kaibartas of Bengal ... 279-281 The Sadgopas ,.. ... ...282, 83 The Agricultural Castes of the Central Pro¬ vinces ... ... ... 284 The Agricultural Castes of the Panjab ... 285 The Agricultural Castes of theTelegu Country 286 The Agricultural Castes of Mysore ... 287 The Agricultural Castes of the Dravira Country The Pan-growers 1. The Barui 2. The Tambuli ...288-290 ...291-293 ...291, 292 ...292, 293 PART XIY. The Cowherds and Shepherds. 13 General Observations ...294, 295 II. The Abhirs or Ahirs ...296, 297 III. The Gujars ...298, 299 IV. The Goalas of the Lower Provinces ...300-302 V. The Cowherds of Southern India 304 VI. The Shepherd Castes ... 305 PART XV. The Clean and the Unclean Castes Employed in Personal and Domestic Service. I. The Barbers ... ... ...306,307 II. The Washermen ... ... ... 308 III. The Castes usually employed as Domestic Servants in Hindu Households ... 309 IV. The Castes of the Domestic Servants in Anglo-Indian Households ... ...313,314 CONTENTS. XV PART XVI. Miscellaneous Castes. -CHAPTER PAGE I. The Fishermen and Boatmen ... ... 315 II. The Criminal Tribes ... ... 317 HINDU SECTS. i. ii. in. IV. V. VI VII. VIII. IX X. XI. XII. PART I. Introduction. The Proper Method of Enquiry regarding Religions The Evolution of the Theocratic Art Classification of Religions Definitions of Religion The True Origin of Religion ... Religion as a Foundation of Ethics General Observations about the Sect Founders The Inducements held out by Sect Founders to attract Followers The Methods of Priestjy Operations General Character of the Hindu Sects Classification of the Sects The Mode of ascertaining the Sect to which a Hindu Monk belongs PART II. The Sivite and the Semi-Sivite Sects. 319 325 335 339 342 344 350 353 353 359 364 366 I. The Nature of the Sivite Religion and its great Prevalence • •• 367 II. Probable Origin of the Sivite Religion 370 III. The Sivite Followers of Sankara 374 IV. The Dandis 380 V. The Sanyasis 382 VI. The Parama Hansas 385 VII. The Brahmacliaris ... 388 VIII The Householder Sanyasis . . ,,, 390 IX. The Aglioris ... 391 X. The Lingaits of Southern India... 395 XI. The Sivite Yogis 399 XII. The Inferior Yogis ... • •• 403 XIII. The Sects that practise severe Austerities • •• 405 b XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER PART III. The Saktas. PAGE. I. The Nature of Sakti Worship ... 407 II. Tiie Different Classes of Saktas and their Methods of Worship 409 I. PART IV. The Vishnuvite Sects. The Ten Incarnations of Vishnu 414 II. The Legends about Rama 41 £ III. The Hero-god Krishna as a Historical Character 423 IV. Krishna as the God of the modern Vishnuvite Sects 431 Y. The Sri Vaishnavas of Southern India 434 VI. The Madhavacharis 440 VII. The Ramanandis or Ramats of Northern India 443 VIII. Other Ram-worshipping Sects ... 446 IX. The Nimats 449 X. The Ballavacharya Sect 451 XI. The CHaitanite Sect of Bengal 459 XII. The Swami Narain Sect of Gujrat 472 XIII. Mira Bai 476 XIV. The Mahapurushia Sect of Assam 478 PART V. The Semi-Visiinuvite and Guru-Worship¬ ping Sects. I. The Disreputable Sections of the Chaitanites 480 1. The Spashta Dayakas 481 2. The Sahajias ... 482 3. The Nara Neris 482 4. The Bauls 482 II. The Disreputable Vishnuvite Sects of Upper India 484 1. The Radha Ballabhis 484 2. The Sakhi Bhavas 484 CONTENTS. XVll CHAPTER PAGE III. The Disreputable Guru-worshipping Sects of Bengal 485 1. The Kartabhajas 485 2. The Pratapa Chandis 488 IV. The Disreputable Guru-worshipping Sects of Upper India 490 1. Tiie Satnamis of Oude ... 490 2. The Paltu Dasis 491 3. The Appa Panthis 491 4. The Bija Margis 491 V. The Minor Guru-worshipping Sects of Bengal 493 1. The Bala Hari Sect 2. The Kali Kumari Sect of East 493 Bengal 494 PART VI. Modern Religions intended to bring about Union between the Hindus and the Maiiomedans. I. The Kabir Panthis II. History of the Sikh Faith III. Nature of the Sikli Religion and its Present Condition I. II. III. IV. PART VII. Buddhism. Personal History of Buddha The Rapid Spread of Buddhism and its Sub¬ sequent Disappearance from India Buddha’s Religion .. The Morality of Buddha’s Religion 534 540 544 PART VIII. The Jains. I. The Relative Antiquity of Jainism and Bud¬ dhism ... ... ... 548 II. The Nature of the Jain Religion ... 553 NDU CASTES AND SECTS. -:o:- PART I. INTRODUCTION. CHAP. I.—THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE HINDU CASTE SYSTEM. he institution of caste is a unique feature of Hindu society, and, as nothing exactly like it is to be found in other part of the world, the manner in which it rc vv up in India cannot but be regarded as a question i f he highest importance by the student of social phe¬ nol lena. The subject has, therefore, attracted a large hare of the attention of many erudite scholars, both European and Indian. The mass of information con¬ ned in their works, though not free from errors and inaccuracies, is of very great value. But the usefulness heir writings is marred, to a considerable extent, by more or less superficial views which they take of the o gin and nature of caste as a system. In speaking of it. Mr. Sherring, who may be regarded as one of the ef authorities on the subject, characterises our social v ehanism as “a monstrous engine of pride, dissension B, hc 1 2 INTRODUCTION. and shame,”* and generally has not one good word to say with reference to it or to its authors, the Brahmans. Dr. Wilson also condemns the caste system in toto, though in milder terms. He says that “ among the Hindus the imagination of natural and positive dis¬ tinction in humanity has been brought to the most fear¬ ful and pernicious development.” In his dissertations on “ the natural history of caste ” Mr. Sherring gives, first of all, what he calls an analysis of the Brahman’s character in which he finds nothing but arrogance, selfishness and ambition, and then goes on to observe :— “ To speak of the Brahmans as though they were one and the same people, with the same characteristics is delusive. For thousands of years they have been a disunited people, with mutual antipathies and non-resemblances, instead of mutual likenesses and concord. The Brahmans themselves, and none others, are responsible for this. Their monstrous arrogance, selfishness and assumption have proved the bane of their race. In the cultivation of these vicious qualities they are at one, but in all other respects they are the most inhar¬ monious and discordant people on the face of the earth. The spread of caste, and the multiplication of separate, mutually exclusive, and inimical tribes among the lower Hindu grades, also lies at their door. The detestable example they set could not but be followed by an imitative people without brains of their own. These Hindu tribes would never have dared to establish an infinity of castes among themselves without the direct sanction and assistance of the Brahmans. Moreover, when the Brahmans perceived that castes were increasing beyond decent limits, until the whole country was threatened with an endless number of caste sub-divisions, all for the most part mutually destructive, they might have peremptorily stopped their further multiplication. But they did not. On the contrary, it is plain that they looked on with the utmost satisfaction, pleased at the alienation of tribe from tribe.”—Sherring’s Hindu Tribes and Castes, Yol. Ill, pp. 234-35. The inconsistencies and the fallacies abounding in these extracts are too obvious to require any critical exposition. The author’s views with regard to our religion and our social polity were evidently more influenced by his zeal for his own faith of which he was a missionary, than by his sober judgment. In his life¬ time he had a large number of Hindu friends who still cherish his memory with affection, and he had much better opportunities for studying the peculiarities of our * See Mr. Sherring’s Preface to his Hindu Tribes and Castes. THE ORIGIN OF social fabric than most of any rate, he may certain! sessed sufficient kuowled< shortcomings which exis J exist, among the prie: and there can be no jus censure that he has pa same views have been foremost of modern I views regarding the r Mr. R. U. Dutt, in 1' “ It was unknown to developed in the Epic : body of Aryan Hindus : the soldiers, and the pe under the priestly and lar progress and the g- It should be remem priests and soldiers, t united caste, the Va the mass of the peopl Brahmans, to perfc and study the Veda 1 Hindus have becom The great liv Banerji, gives when he calls sweep of all < by united act I am no < now, and I ing, its dis<" with advai ing, there several ca to believ a man o inferior use of h latter, only, 'CTION. y terms. There is, upon y between a Rajput and Rajput and a Rajput, Brahman. If the Brah- se of a Rajput on the Ksatriyas in this age of •take of the Brahman’s by the Brahmanical perty should not be caste on any account, •change of hospitality exclusive body, and qual footing. Such 'or castes show no g the higher, than of the former. It se any profession, • Hindu has a re- >, which does not no one can feel run the risk of certain prospect working as it caste parvenus hearts, feel •others. But not deserve Hindus look s the neces- anism, and r feelings, •ahmanical cr for the embodied A very stem, in- hastras, 't. On THE ORIGIN OF THE CASTE SYSTEM. 5 the contrary, it provided bonds of union between races and clans that had nothing in common before its introduction. There is no ground whatever for the supposition that in primitive India all classes of people were united as one man, and that the “ unnatural and pernicious caste system ” was forced on them by the Brahmans with the diabolical object of sowing dissen¬ sions among them. The more correct view seems to be that the legislation of the Rishis was calculated not only to bring about union between the isolated clans that lived in primitive India, but to render it possible to assimilate within each group the foreign hordes that were expected to pour into the country from time to time. If those Englishmen who have permanently settled in this country recognized the sacredness of the Shastras, and refrained from eating forbidden food, they might be admitted into the Ksatriya clan under the name of Sakya Seni Rajputs. The authors of such legislation deserve certainly to be admired for their large-hearted statesmanship, instead of being censured for selfish ambition and narrowness. The ambition that led the Hindu lawgivers to place their own class above the rest of mankind, has, no doubt, an appearance of selfishness. But if self-aggran¬ disement had been, as is alleged, their sole motive, then there was nothing to prevent them from laying down the law that the proper men to enjoy the kingly office and the various loaves and fishes of the public service, were the Brahmans. The highest secular ambition of the Brahman was to be the unpaid adviser of the Crown, and, as a matter of actual practice, the entire civil service was left by them in the hands of the Kayasthas. Such professions, accompanied by such conduct, do not betray selfishness. It was only in respect of matters relating to religion that the Brah¬ mans kept in their hands the monopoly of power. But they could not have taken any other course without upsetting altogether the fabric which they had built up. 6 INTRODUCTION. Circumstanced as India, presumably, was in ancient times, there could not possibly have been in that state of things, any great attraction either for military service or for intellectual pursuits. The resources of the country were then too limited for adequately rewarding either the soldier or the scholar, and as any able-bodied man could, in those times, earn his living without any difficulty, either in agricultural pursuits or by breeding cattle, the only way to induce any class of men to adopt a more ambitious or risky career, lay in giving them a superior status by hereditary right. The importance of the ser¬ vice which caste has done to India may be realized, to some extent, from the fact that when, in a party of Hindus, comments are made about an illiterate Brah¬ man, an unbusiness like Kayastha or a cowardly Ksat- riya, they not unfrequently express their doubt as to his very legitimacy. Such being the case, no Kshatriya can refuse to fight, when there is occasion, without laying himself open to the most galling of reproaches. His ancestors never shrank from legitimate fighting, and so he has no choice left. “ He too would rather die than shame.” It is feeling of this kind that urged the ancient Ksatriyas to desperate deeds for the defence of their country, and though long since fallen, yet modern history is not altogether wanting in testimony as to the greatness of that mighty race. The name of Babu Kumara Sing, the last great Rajput hero, is not likely to be soon forgotten, though English historians may not do him justice. Goaded on to rebellion by the ungenerous suspicions entertained against him by a local official, and by the attempt made by that official to insult and imprison him, he besought his friends, rela¬ tives and adherents, to remain loyal to the British Government, and to leave him to shift for himself. But he was the idol of the Bhojpurias, and they gathered round him, like one man, to fight under his banner. At THE ORIGIN OF THE CASTE SYSTEM. 7 their head the octogenarian hero fought bravely to the last, and displayed throughout far better generalship and valour than the cowards who took the leading part in bringing about the conflagration. The old Rajput baron knew well that he had no chance of ultimate success. But as a Ksatriya, claiming the blood of the great Vikra- maditya in his veins, he could not submit to die like a traitor on the scaffold. Had the Government of Bengal reposed that confidence in him which he certainly deserved, the whole province of Behar would probably have remained as quiet as Bengal, and the operations of the mutineers would have been confined to the North- West Provinces and Oude only. In their fourfold division of caste, the Rishis placed their own class, i.e ., the descendants of the Vedic singers and their comrades, above all the others. To the fight¬ ing classes the Brahmanical codes assigned the second rank, and the process, by which they were reconciled to accept the position that was given them, is replete with interest. With regard to the superiority of the Brah¬ mans, Manu says :— “ Since the Brahman sprang from the most excellent part, since he was the first born, and since he possesses the Veda, he is by right the chief of this whole creation.”—Manu, I, 93. But while thus glorifying the Brahmans, the Rishis made great concessions to the Ksatriyas by declaring that the office of the king was their birthright, and also by enjoining on all classes the duty of implicit obedience to the king. Brahmanical legislation has been very successful in organising the Brahman and the Ksatriya castes. To a very great extent, the descendants of the Yedic singers and their comrades have become one race under the name of Brahmans. To a still greater extent have the several fighting clans recognized each other as members of one great family, under the name of Ksat¬ riyas or Rajputs. The Vaishya caste was, in all prob¬ ability, never successfully formed, and, so far as this 8 INTRODUCTION. class is concerned, Brahmanical legislation failed to attain its very noble object. The Baniyas who practise trade and are, generally speaking, a wealthy class, claim in some places to be Yaishyas. But, in all prob¬ ability, the majority of the traders, artisans, and agriculturists never cared for the honour of being in¬ vested with the sacred thread, or for the privilege of reading the Vedas. And when such was the case, the Brahmans themselves could not be too anxious to force these honours and privileges upon them. The chief con¬ cern of the Brahmans, in the efforts they made to realise their ideal of social polity, was to keep the fighting clans in good humour, so that even if the Yaishyas sought for the honour of the thread, the Brahmans could not have given it to them without depriving it of thevalue which it came to acquire in the eyes of the Ksatriyas. Caste is often described by European scholars as an iron chain which has fettered each class to the profes¬ sion of their ancestors, and has rendered any improve¬ ment on their part impossible. This view may, to some extent, be regarded as correct so far as the lower classes are concerned. But with regard to the higher classes, caste is a golden chain which they have willingly placed around their necks, and which has fixed them to only that which is noble and praiseworthy. Any little split that is caused by caste now and then is far outweighed by the union of races and clans which it has promoted and fostered, and there is no justification whatever for the abuse which has been heaped upon its authors. CHAP. II. — WHETHER CASTE IS A SOCIAL, OR A RELIGIOUS DISTINCTION? The question has been hotly discussed, whether caste is a social or a religious distinction ? As shown in the last chapter, it is mainly a social distinction. But as many of the ordinances of our Shastras are based upon it, it has a religious aspect also. The religious rights and duties of the Hindus do in fact vary, to a consider¬ able extent, according to their caste. For instance, on the death of an agnate within seven degrees, a Brahman has to observe mourning for ten days only, while a man of the fighting caste has to wear the “ weeds of woe ” for twelve days, a man of the mercantile caste for fifteen days, and a Sudra for one full month. Then, again, the Yedic rites and prayers which the three higher castes are required to perform every day are all prohibited to the Sudra. The latter can be taught to repeat only those prayers that are prescribed by what may be called the new testaments of the Hindus, i.e., the Purans and the Tantras. But the Brahman who enlists even a good Sudra among his disciples is lowered for ever in the estimation of the people, while by ministering to a Sudra of a low class he is degraded altogether. CHAP. III.—THE REGULATIONS BY WHICH THE CASTES HAVE BEEN MADE EXCLUSIVE. The rules defining tbe proper avocations of the several castes are not imperative, it being laid down in the Shastras that a person, unable to earn his liveli¬ hood otherwise, may take to a profession which is ordinarily prohibited to his class. Manu says :— SO. “ Among the several occupations for gaining a livelihood the most commendable respectively for the sacerdotal, military, and mercantile classes, are teaching the Yeda, defending, and commerce or keeping herds and flocks. 81. Yet a Brahman unable to subsist by his duties just mentioned may live by the duty of a soldier, for that is the next in rank. 82. If it be asked, how he must live, should he be unable to get a subsistence by either of these employments, the answer is, he may subsist as a mercantile man, applying himself in person to tillage and attendance on cattle. 95. A military man in distress may subsist by all these means, but at no time must he have recourse to the highest, or sacerdotal function. 98. A mercantile man, unable to subsist by his own duties, may descend even to the servile acts of a Sudra, taking care never to do what ought never to be done ; but, when he has gained a competence, let him depart from service. 99. A man of the fourth class, not finding employment by wait¬ ing on the twice-born, while his wife and son are tormented with hunger, may subsist by handicrafts.—Manu, Chap. X.” Such being the precepts of the Shastras, it is very often found that a Hindu of one class is engaged in a profession which is the speciality of another, and the tendency of English education is to make all the castes more and more regardless about strict compliance with Shastric rules on the subject. The Hindu legislators made the castes exclusive, not so much by prescribing THE ESSENCE OF THE CASTE SYSTEM. 11 particular professions for each, as by prohibiting inter¬ marriage and interchange of hospitality on a footing of equality. In the beginning intermarriage was allow¬ ed so far that a man of a superior caste could lawfully take in marriage a girl of an inferior caste. But, by what may be called the Hindu new testaments, inter¬ marriage between the different castes is prohibited altogether. As to interchange of hospitality, the Shas- tras lay down that a Brahman must avoid, if pos¬ sible, the eating of any kind of food in the house of a Sudra, and that under no circumstances is he to eat any food cooked with water and salt by a Sudra, or touched by a Sudra after being so cooked. In practice the lower classes of Brahmans are sometimes compelled by indigence to honour the Sudras TTy accepting' their hospitality—of course, eating only uncooked food or such food as is cooked by Brahmans with materials supplied by the host. The prejudice against eating cooked food that has been touched by a man of an inferior caste is so strong that, althoxxoh the Shastras do not prohibit the eating of food cooked by a Ksatriya or Vaishya, yet the Brahmans, in most parts of the country, would not eat such food. For these l'easons, evei'y Hindu household—whether Brahman, Ksatriya or Sudra—that can afford to keep a paid cook generally entertains the services of a Brahman for the perform¬ ance of its cuisine —the resxxlt being that, in the larger towns, the very name of Brahman has suffered a strange degi’adation of late, so as to mean only a cook. The most important regulations by which the castes have been made exclusive are those which l-elate to marriage. In fact, as Mr. Risley in his valuable work on the Castes and Tribes of Bengal rightly ob¬ serves, “ caste is a matter mainly relating to marriage.” Matrimonial alliances out of caste is prevented by the seclusion of the females, their early marriage, anti the social etiquette which requires that even the marriages of boys should be arranged for them by their parents 12 INTRODUCTION. or other guardians. The Hindu youth has to maintain an attitude of utter indifference about every proposal regarding his marriage, and when any arrangement in that respect is made by his parents, grand-parents, uncles or elder brothers, he has to go through the cere¬ mony out of his sense of duty to obey or oblige them. The selection being, in all cases, made by the guardian in accordance with his sober judgment, and never by the parties themselves in accordance with their impulses for the time being, marriage out of caste is almost impossi¬ ble in Hindu society, and is never known to take place except among the very lowest. CHAP. IV.—THE ORIGIN OF THE ADDITIONAL CASTES AND THE SUB-CASTES. The sentiments which Brahmanical legislation en¬ gendered and fostered have led to the formation or o recognition of a vast number of extra castes and sub¬ castes. In all probability the laws of the Shastras failed to bring about a complete fusion of all the clans and races that had been intended to be included within the same group, and their recognition, as distinct sub¬ divisions, was inevitable from the very beginning. New sub-divisions have also been formed in later times by the operation of one or other of the following causes :— 1. By migration to different parts of the country. 2. By different sections being devoted to the practice of distinct professions. 3. By any section being elevated above or degraded below the level of the others. 4. By quarrels between the different sections of the same caste as to their relative status. 5. By becoming the followers of one of the modern reli¬ gious teachers. 6. By the multiplication of the illegitimate progeny of religious mendicants. The Brahmanical sub-classes like the Ridhis, Baren- dras and the Kanojias are so-called on account of their being the inhabitants of Radh, Barendra, and Kanoj, though they all belong to the same stock. The Vaidikas are evidently so-called on account of their devoting themselves exclusively to the study and the teaching of the Vedas. If so, then it is not difficult to see why they kept themselves aloof from those who 14 INTRODUCTION. pursued secular avocations. The Husainis, Ivalankis Maha-Brahmans, Agradanis, Sanicharis, Gangaputras, &c., have become more or less exclusive by being degraded and debarred from association with the other classes of Brahmans on a footing of equality. When one section of a caste affect a superior status and refuse to give their daughters to another section, the latter may for a time admit their inferiority by betraying an eagerness to marry their daughters in the superior caste without having the compliment reciprocated. But sooner or later the connection between them is cut off altogether, and they become distinct sub-castes. With regard to the additional castes, it is stated in the Shastras that they are due to intermarriage and mis¬ cegenation between the primary castes. This explana¬ tion is necessitated by the theory that originally there were only four castes, and has been of great use to the Brahmans for enforcing marriage within caste, and for humiliating such classes as the Vaidyas and the Acharyas who, being by the nature of their profession, very im¬ portant factors in every native court, might otherwise have become too powerful. To me it seems that most of the so-called “ mixed castes ” owe their exclusiveness to either Brahmanical policy, or to the impossibility of including them within any of the four primary groups ; while there are some among the additional castes whose formation is clearly traceable to their being the followers of some revolu¬ tionary teacher of modern times. The Brahmanical explanation of the origin of the additional castes has been accepted by some of the English writers on the subject But to me it seems utterly impossible that any new caste could be formed in the manner described by Mann or any other Hindu lawgiver. In order to accept the theoiy it is necessary to assume that a careful record was kept of every case of irregular marriage and illicit sexual intercourse, and that the progeny of the parties were listed and included THE SUB-CASTES. 15 under separate groups by royal edicts. What seems much more probable is, that in order to make the primary divisions into four castes practically acceptable, most of the sub-divisions in each of them had to be recognized at the very beginning, and the tendency which was thus generated received further expansion by the recognition of the additional castes on account of the circumstances and reasons mentioned already. The motives that led the Brahmans to declare that the astrologer was the son of a shoemaker, and that the medical men were the offspring of irregular marriage between a Brahman and a Vaishya woman, ought to be clear enough to every one who has any idea of the intrigues that usually prevailed in the courts of the Hindu kings. CHAP. V.—THE AUTHORITIES BY WHOM CAST] RULES ARE ENFORCED. Under the Hindu kings, the rules relating to caste were enforced by the officers of the crown in accord ance with the advice of the great Pandits who genei- ally acted as ministers. During the period of Moslem ascendancy, the Hindu barons and chiefs exercised th prerogative where they could. But in Northern Indi: the Hindus have now no recognised spiritual head. In cases of serious violations of Shastric injunctions, tl Pandits are consulted as to the nature of the expiation required. But their power to impose any penalty cr the delinquent is not very considerable. In extreme cases they may, as a body, refuse to accept any gi from the offender, and keep aloof from the religior ceremonies celebrated in his house. But except whei public opinion is too strong to be disregarded, they an very seldom sufficiently united to visit anyone with tl punishment of excommunication in such manner. In Southern India the case is somewhat different There the non-Vishnuvite Hindus are completely under the spiritual authority of the Superiors of the Sankarb monasteries. In fact, the head of the Sringeri monastery at the source of the Toonga Bhadra in Mysore, has the same power over the Smarta Hindus of Southern India that the Pope has over the Roman Catholic population of Europe. See Tlte Queen v. Sri Sankara, I. L. E. 6 Madras, p. 381. The main agency by which caste discipline is stii! • maintained to some extent is the religious sentiment - lism of the Hindus as a nation. But in this respeci CAUSES OF EXCLUSION FROM CASTE. 17 there is no consistency to be found in them. For iu- 'tance, there are lots of men who almost openly eat for- hidden food and drink forbidden liquors, and yet their tV'lT w-castemen do not usually hesitate to dine in their Imuses, or to have connections with them by marriage, ilut if a man goes to Europe he loses his caste, even tlioiigh he be a strict vegetarian and teetotaler. Then, i _ in, if a man marry a widow he loses caste, though suol marriage is notin any way against Shastric injunc- t io ■ while the keeping of a Mahomedan mistress, which i ; serious and almost inexpiable offence, is not visited viih any kind of punishment by castemen. Similarly, a man may become a Brabmo or agnostic and yet remain in i-iute; but if he espouse Christianity or Mahomedanism, his own parents would exclude him from their house, and 1 i'H How every kind of intercourse, except on the most istant terms. He cannot have even a drink of water under his parental roof, except in an earthen pot, which wo. Id not be touched afterwards by even the servants of the bouse, and which he would have to throw away with hi' own hands, if no scavenger be available. The only acts which now lead to exclusion from caste are the following :— 1. Embracing Christianity or Mahomedanism. 2. Going to Europe or America. 3. Marrying' a widow. 4. Publicly throwing away the sacred thread. 5. Publicly eating beef, pork or fowl. 6. Publicly eating kachi food cooked by a Mahomedan, Christian or low caste Hindu. 7. Officiating as a priest in thehouse of a very low class Sudra. 8. By a female going away from home for an immoral pur¬ pose. 9. By a widow becoming pregnant. In the villages, the friendless and the poor people are sometimes excluded from caste for other offences as, for in-; nee:—adultery, incest, eating forbidden food and ui r: ing forbidden liquors. But when the offender is an influential personage or is influentially connected, no one thinks of visiting him with such punishment. B, hc. 2 CHAP. VI.—NATURE OF THE PENALTY OF EXCLUSION FROM CASTE. When a Hindu is excluded from caste— 1. His friends, relatives and fellow-townsmen refuse to partake of his hospitality. 2. He is not invited to entertainments in their houses. 3. He cannot obtain brides or bridegrooms for his children. 4. Even his own married daughters cannot visit him with¬ out running the risk of being excluded from caste. 5. His priest and even his barber and washerman refuse to serve him. 6. His fellow-castemen sever their connection with him so completely that they refuse to assist him even at the funeral of a member of his household. 7. In some cases the man excluded from caste is debarred access to the public temples. To deprive a man of the services of his barber and washerman is becoming more andjmore difficult in these days. But the other penalties are (enforced on excluded persons) with more or less rigour, according to circum¬ stances. In the mofussil the penalties are most severely felt. Even in the towns such persons find great difficulty^in marrying their children, and are therefore sometimes obliged to go through very humiliating expiatory cere¬ monies, and to pay heavy fees to the learned Pandits for winning their good graces. PART II. THE BRAHMANS GENERALLY. CHAP. I.—THE POSITION OF THE BRAHMANS IN HINDU SOCIETY. The most remarkable feature in the mechanism of Hindu society is the high position occupied in it by the Brahmans. They not only claim almost divine honours as their birthright, but, generally speaking, the other classes, including the great Ivsatriya princes, and the rich Vaishya merchants readily submit to their pretensions as a matter of course. A Brahman never bows his head to make a pranam to one who is not a Brahman. When saluted by a man of any other class, he only pronounces a benediction saying, “ Victory be unto you.” In some cases when the party saluting is a prince or a man of exalted position in society, the Brahman, in pronouncing his benediction, stretches out the palm of his right hand, in a horizontal direction, to indicate that he has been propitiated. The form of salutation by the inferior castes to Brahmans varies according to circumstances. When the Brahman to be saluted has a very high position, temporal or spiritual, and the man saluting desires to honour him to the utmost degree possible, he falls prostrate at the feet of the object of his reverence, and, after touching them with his hand THE POSITION OF THE BRAH./IANS. 20 applies liis fingers to his lips and liis forehead. In ordi¬ nary cases a man, of any of the three inferior castes, salutes a Brahman by either joining his palms and raising them to his forehead, in the form of a double military salute, or by simply pronouncing such words as pranam or paunlagi. Thus the amount of veneration shown to a Brahman may vary under different con¬ ditions. But no member of the other castes can, consistently with Hindu social etiquette and religious beliefs, refuse altogether to bow to a Brahman. Even the Chaitanites and the other classes of modern Vaishna- vas, who do not profess to have any veneration for the Brahmans as such, and speak of them as heretics in their own circle, cannot do without bowing to Brahmans and accepting their benedictions in public. The more orthodox Sudras carry their veneration for the priestly class to such an extent, that they will not cross the shadow of a Brahman, and it is not unusual for them to be under a vow not to eat any food in the morning, before drinking Bipracharanamrita, i.e. y water in which the toe of a Brahman has been dipped. On the other hand, the pride of the Brahman is such that they do not bow to even the images of the gods worshipped in a Sudra’s house by Brahman priests. The Brahman asserts his superiority in various other ways. His Shastras declare that on certain occasions, Brahmans must be fed and gifts must be made to them by members of all classes. But the Brahman can accept such hospitality and gifts without hesitation only where the host or donor is a member of one of the three superior castes. The position of the Sudras is, according to the theory of the Shastras and the practice of Hindu society such, that a Brahman cannot accept their presents without lowering himself for ever, while by eating any kind of food cooked by a Sudra he loses his Brahmanism and his sanctity altogether. In the house of a Sudra, a Brahman may eat uncooked food, or such food as is cooked by a Brahman. But the Brahman THE POSITION OF THE BRAHMANS. 21 who does so, while not sojourning in a foreign place, is lowered for ever in public estimation. For all these reasons, a Brahman who accepts a Sudra’s gifts and hospitality at a religious ceremony, is able to pose as a person who makes a great sacrifice to oblige the host and donor. When a Brahman invites a Sudra, the latter is usually asked to partake of the host’s prasada, or favour, in the shape of the leavings of his plate. Orthodox Sudras actually take offence, if invited by the use of any other formula. No Sudra is allowed to eat in the same room or at the same time with Brahmans. While the Brahman guests eat, the Sudras have to wait in a different part of the house. It is not, however, to be supposed that the Sudras take any offence at such treatment. On the contrary, they not only wait patiently, but, in some places, insist upon eating the leavings of the Brahmans, and refuse to eat anything from clean plates. Such orthodoxy is against nature, and is happily somewhat rare. Ordinarily, the pious Sudra takes a pinch from the leavings of a Brahman’s plate, and after eating the same with due reverence, begins to eat from a clean plate. The high caste and well-to-do Sudras never eat in the house of a Brahman without paying for the honour a pranami, or salutation fee, of at least one rupee. The Brahman host never insists on such payment, and in fact it is usually forced upon him. But when a Brahman eats in the house of a Sudra on a ceremonial occasion, the payment of a fee by the host to the guest is a sine GURUS AND GOSSAINS. Among the Tantric Gurus there are a great many who have only Brahman disciples. They are generally very learned men, and are not like the Vaishnava Gossains, who are usually so illiterate that the few among them who can barely recite the Sri Bhagavat are reckoned by their followers as prodigies of Sanskrit scholarship. CHAP. III.—THE MODERN HINDU GURUS. A few words about the probable origin of the modern Guru’s profession may not be out of place here. There is no mention of it in the ancient scriptures of the Hindus, and it is recognized and regulated only by their new testaments. The word Guru or Acliarya originally meant a teacher of the Vedas. The ancient legal and moral codes of the Hindus gave a very high position to the Vedic teachers. Manu says :— “ Of him who gives natural birth, and him who gives knowledge of the whole Veda, the giver of sacred knowledge is the more venerable father, since the second or divine birth ensures life to the twice-born, both in this world and hereafter eternally.” — Manu II, 146. When, by such teachings, the position of the Guru became associated in the Hindu mind with the tenderest sentiments of regard and affection, the Bralnnanical theologians began to think of devising ways to exact that reverence even from persons who have never been Vedic pupils, and who have not even the right to read our holy scriptures. The Vedic mantras are too volu¬ minous and prosaic to attract any considerable number of pupils. Females and Sudras are not allowed to study them at all. For these reasons, no actual teacher of the Vedas could at any time hope to attract round him any considerable number of actual Vedic students. But the position of a Guru having a large number of pupils is a desirable one, and the Tantrics invented a short cut to that position. They gave the name mantra to some mystic and meaningless syllables which might 28 ORIGIN OF THE GURU’S FROFESSION. be communicated and learnt at one sitting. Sudras and females were made eligible for these mantras, and every Brahman with a little tact and show of piety was en¬ abled to gather round him an army of chellas bound by their vow to worship him as a god and to pay a yearly tax to him and his descendants from generation to generation. The chellas are regarded by the Guru as his property, and when the sons of a deceased Guru make a partition of his estate and effects, the chellas are partitioned and distributed among them in the same manner as any other property inherited by them. The simple method invented by the Tantrics for ac¬ quiring the power and position of a Guru over a large number of disciples, has been remarkably successful. Looked at a priori such mystic syllables as hoong, A REN I'It A BRAHMANS. 4a who serve as cooks are the Rarhis of West Burdwan. The Rarhis of the eastern districts of Bengal, i.e., of the districts to the east of the river Iiooghly, are quite as aristocratic as the Barendras and the Vaidikas. The hypergamous divisions among the Barendras are similar to those of the Rarhis in certain respects, the only important difference being that the Barendras have a section among them called Cap* who have a somewhat unique position, though resembling to some extent the Bansaj among the Rarhis. Polygamy is rare among the Barendras ; but the marriage of a daughter among their higher classes is quite as expensive as among the Rarhis. There are many big Barendra landholders, the most noted among * With regard to the origin of the Caps it is said that they are the descendants of a great Kulin named Madhn Moitra by his first wife. Madhn was an inhabitant of a village on the river Atrai, situated near the place where it is now crossed by the North Bengal State Railway. An inferior member of the clan, being treated at a dinner party of his castemen with great contumely, determined to form a matrimonial alliance with the great Kulin at any cost, and with that object hired a boat to take him to the vicinity of Madhu’s residence and was careful to have with him on board of the vessel his wife, an unmarried daughter and a cow. On reaching the neighbourhood of Madhu’s village, he inquired of a Brahman, who was saying his prayers after performing his ablutions on the banks of the river, whether he knew where the great head of the Barendra clan lived. The Brahman, who was interrogated, was himself the person about whom the enquiry was addressed. When the fact was made known to the Brahman on board the boat, he produced a hammer and a chisel threatening to sink the boat with all its inmates unless Madhn agreed to marry the Brahman’s daughter. The old man was too far advanced in life to be quite ready for complying with any request of the kind. But, as an orthodox Hindu, he could not take upon himself any share of the three great crimes, namely, the killing of a female, the killing of a Brahman, and the killing of a cow — which were threatened to be perpetrated in his presence. So he reluctantly gave his consent. But when his sons came to know what he was going to do they were very much annoyed, and they separated from their father at once. The old man was supported by his sister’s husband, who was then the other great Kulin of the caste, and the sons who separated became Caps. The position of their descendants is superior to that of the Srotriyas, but inferior to that of the Kulins. Matrimonial alliance between a Kulin and a Cap reduces the former to the position of the latter. 44 THE BRAHMANS OE BENGAL. them being the great house of Nattore that held pos¬ session of more than one-third of Bengal proper, at the time of the conquest of the country by the East India Company. Next in importance to the Nattore Rajas, but more ancient than their family, is that of the Putia zemindars. The late Maharani Sharat Sundari, whose name is venerated throughout India for her extensive charities, and for her character as a model Hindu widow, was a member of the Putia house. Among the other great Barendra landholders of Bengal are the zemindars of Susang and Muktagacha in the district of Mymensing. Babu Mohini Mohan Roy, Avho is one of the most successful pleaders of the Bengal High Court, and who has lately been made an Additional Member of the Supreme Legislative Council of India, is a Barendra. The majority of the Yaidikas, Rarhis and Barendras are moderate Saktas. They worship all the ancient deities of the Hindu pantheon ; but Durga, Kali and Siva have the largest share of their devotion. Many of them sacrifice goats and buffaloes before the deities they worship ; but among such of their orthodox members as are not affected by English education, and the temptations of modern town life, the drinking of spirituous liquors is still practically unknown. § 4.— The Ddkshirilgjipya Vaidikas. The name of this class indicates that they originally came from the south. They are found chiefly in the district of Midnapore, and seem to have been originally Brahmans of Orissa. A few small colonies of the Dakshinatyas are to be found in the southern portion of the metropolitan district of 24-Pergunnahs. They are a separate caste altogether, and there can be neither intermarriage nor interchange of hospitality between them and the Paschatya Vaidikas. Pandit Siva Nath Sastri, of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, is a Dakshinatya Vaidika. THE MADHYA SRENI BRAHMANS. 45 § 5.— The Madhya Sreni Brahmans of the district of Midnapore. The Madhya Srenis are a very backward class of Brahmans, to be found only in the district of Midnapore. As they have the very same surnames and Gotras as the Radhis of Bengal, they are evidently a section of the Radhis. They themselves profess to be so, and account for their want of connection with the Radhis properly so-called, by saying that as they refused to acknowledge the authority of the Ghataks to determine their status, the Radhi College of Heralds refused to recognise their very existence. The true cause of their forming a separate caste seems, however, to be that they accepted the gifts of the Kaibartas, and lived in an out-of-the-way district. The Madhya Srenis are gen¬ erally very poor and without any literary culture beyond what is necessary for doing the work of a priest. The distinction between Kulins and Srotriyas is not recognised by the Madhya Srenis. The descendants of those who, at one time or other, became famous as Sanskrit scholars, enjoyed, until lately, a higher position than the secular Brahmans. But at present, the status of a party for matrimonial purposes depends chiefly upon the amount of wealth possessed by him. The Madhya Srenis partake of the hospitality of the Kai¬ bartas, and minister to them as priests in all ceremonies except Shradhs.* The Shradhs of the Kaibartas are performed by a class of Brahmans called Yyasokta. * Mr. Risley in his account of the Madhya Srenis says that they have eight Gotras, and that the Madhya Srenis of Mayna and certain other places have a higher position than the rest. But his account seems to be based upon erroneous information. CHAP. II.—THE BRAHMANS OF MITHILA AND BEHAR. § 1.— Maithilas. The Brahmans of Mithila or Tirhoot are called Maithila Brahmans. They form one of the five leading classses of North Indian Brahmans called Panch Gaur. They have no sub-castes, though they are divided into many groups -which are of importance for the purpose of arranging marriages among them. The following are the names of these hypergamous groups :— 1. Srotriya or Sote (Lit. A reader of the Vedas). 2. Jog (A family of an inferior class that has attained a superior status by marriage connections with Srotriyas). 3. Panji Badh (Recognized by the local College of Heralds). 4. Nagar. 5. Jaiwar. A man of a higher group may take in marriage a girl from a lower group. But a girl of a higher group is never given to a bridegroom of a lower class, except where the parents of the former are too poor to marry her to a boy of the same or a superior group. The Maithila Brahmans have a special kind of head¬ dress. Their usual surnames are the following :— 1. Misra (A reader of the two Mimansas). 2. Ojha or Jha* (Both are cor¬ rupted forms of the Sans¬ krit word Upadhya, which means an assistant teach¬ er or priest). 3. Thakoor (God.) 4. Pathak (A reader of theMa- habharat and the Purans). 5. Pura. 6. Padri. 7. Chowdry. 8. Roy. * Persons who profess to exorcise evil spirits or cure snake-bites are usually called Ojhas, or, by a further corruption of the word, ‘ Roja.’ They do not belong to any particular caste, ‘ and are generally low class men. THE MAITHILA BRAHMANS. 47 The Maithilas are very conservative, and still think that it is beneath their dignity to accept service under the British Government, though such feeling has died out completely even among the highest classes of Bengali Brahmans. The head of the Maithila Brahmans is the Maharaja of Darbhanga. The founder of the family, Mahesh Thakoor, bore a Brahmanical surname. But whether on account of the degradation of that highly honorific title, or on account of their belonging to a royal family, his descendants at present use the Ksatriya surname of Sing. The transformation is exactly the opposite of what has taken place in many Ksatriya families, though the ambition of a Rajput to be elevated from the rank of a Sing (lion) to that of Thakoor (god) is certainly more intelligible, than the desire on the part of any royal family to be degraded from the rank of a god to that of a lion. Besides the Maharaja of Darbhanga, there are many other families of big landholders among the Maithila Brahmans. One of the most conspicuous of these is the Raja of Banaili, who is the owner of the extensive estate of Kharakpore in the district of Monghyr, but is about to be ruined by family quarrels, mismanage¬ ment and litigation. The Purnea Zemindars of Sri¬ nagar, who are also big landholders, are a branch of the Banaili family. The Banaili family belong to that division which is called Jog. From very early times Mitkila has been famous for the cultivation of Sanskrit. It has given birth to some of the greatest authorities in Hindu jurisprudence, and in the branch of Hindu philosophy called Nya. The great lawgiver Yajnavalkya is described in the opening lines of his work as a native of Mithila, and tradition still points to a place near the junction of the Ghogra with the Ganges, which is believed to have been the residence of the sage Gautama, the founder of the Nya philosophy. Of the mediaeval and modern 48 THE BRAHMANS OF BEHAR. Maithila authors, the names of Gangesha Upadhya, Pakshadhar Misra, Udayanacharya, Chandeshwar and Bachaspati Misra will continue to be honoured so long as Hindu law and philosophy remain in existence Among the Maithila Sanskritists of recent times, the late Pandit Bapu Jan Jha attained great eminence, and his son, Chumba Jha, is fully sustaining the reputa¬ tion of the family. The other two great living Pandits of Mithila are Halli Jha and Vishwa Nath Jha. The majority of the Maithila Brahmans are Sakti worshippers. They offer sacrifices before the deities they worship, and eat flesh and fish, but ai-e not known to be in the habit of drinking spirituous liquors, as the extreme Saktas are required to do by their Shastras The Maithila Brahmans do not smoke tobacco. § 2 .—Sakaldipi Brahmans of South Behar. There is a class of Brahmans in South Behar who call themselves Sakaldipis or Sakadipis. The majority of them live either by ministering to the other castes as priests, or by the practice of medicine. There are, however, a few Pandits and landholders among them. One peculiar custom in the community is that, like the Sarswat Brahmans of the Panjab, a Sakaldipi may marry within his Gotra, though such marriage is strictly prohibited among the three superior castes by Hindu law. The Sakaldipis are divided into a certain number of Purs or sections, and marriage is impossible only within the Pur. CHAP. III.—THE BRAHMANS OF THE NORTH¬ WESTERN PROVINCES AND OUDH. 1 i 3 most important classes of Brahmans in the North- Western Provinces and Oudh are the following :— 1. Kanojia. | 2. Sarujuparia. | 3. Sanadhya. i loj/a .—The Kanojias hold a very high position among the Brahmans of Northern India. They form one of the five divisions called Panch Gfaur, and the lira limans of Bengal take a great pride in claiming to have been originally Kanojias. The name is derived from the ancient Hindu city of Kanoj, at the con¬ fluence of the Ganges and the Kalinadi, in the district of Parrakkabad. The Kanojia Brahmans are to be found in almost every part of Northern India. But the?i i original home is the tract of country which, before tin me of Wellesley, formed the western half of the kingdom of Oudh, including the modern districts of Pi dibit, Bareilly, Shajehanpore Farakkabad, Cawnpore, Fatehapur, Hamirpur, Banda and Allahabad. The usual surnames of the Kanojia Brahmans are the following:— 1. Awasti. 2. Misra. 3. Dikshit. 4. Sukul. 5. Dobey or Dwivedi. 6. Tewari or Trivedi. 7. Chaube or Chaturvedi. 8. Pande. 9. Bajpai. 10. Pathak. I it each of these there are many sub-sections, having ditfi-i mt positions for matrimonial purposes. B, HO 4 50 THE BRAHMANS OF THE UNITED PROVINCES. Tlie Ivanojias, notwithstanding their high position from the point of view of caste, freely enlist in the army as sepoys, and do not consider it beneath their dignity to serve even as orderlies, peons and gate¬ keepers. The title Pande has a very bad odour with Englishmen since the Mutiny of 1857. But as a class the Ivanojia Brahmans are very remarkable for their aristocratic demeanour and manners, and for their quiet and inoffensive nature. They seldom give way to bad temper, and the practice of any kind of cruelty seems to be quite inconsistent with their general character. They acted no doubt like fiends in some of the episodes of the sepoy revolt. But “the greased car¬ tridge” was a matter serious enough to lead any Hindu to the perpetration of things far worse. Would the British soldiers willingly obey their officers if ordered to bite the dead bodies of their enemies in a battle field ? And if they disobeyed the order, and in doing so subject¬ ed their officers to any kind of insult or ill-treatment, would any reasonable man find fault with them ? The whole world would be horrified at any coercive measure for enforcing such a perverse order. The situation of the sepoys with respect to the “ greased cartridge” was exact¬ ly the same, and yet it is thought that they have not suffi¬ ciently expiated by either being hanged in batches from the boughs of trees, or by being blown away from guns. There are learned Sanskritists as well as good Eng¬ lish scholars among the Kanojias. Many of them practise agriculture, and it is said some till the soil with their own hands. The majority of them are Sivites. There are among them a few Saktas and Srivaishnavas also. The Sivites and Srivaishnavas are strict vege¬ tarians. There are some ganja-smokers and bhang- eaters among the Kanojias, but very few that would even touch any kind of spirituous liquor. The late Pandit Sheodin, who was prime minister of Jaipore for several years, was a Kanojia Brahman of Moradabad. THE SANADHTAS. 51 Sarujuparia .—The Sarujuparias derive their naine from the river Sarnju which flows past the city of Ayodhya. They are most numerous in the vicinity of the river Ghogra. They are said to be a branch of the Kanojias. But whatever may have been their original connection there can be no marriage at present between the two classes, and they must be held to be independent castes. The usual family names of the Sarujeeans are the same as those of the Kanojians. There are good Sanskritists among the Sarorias. They never till the soil with their own hands. Sanadhya .—The Sanadhyas are also said to be a branch of the Kanojia tribe. They are very numerous in the central districts of the Doab, between Mathura to the south-west and Kanoj on the north-east. They live chiefly, as shopkeepers and pedlars. The number of educated men among them is very small. The following are their usual surnames :— 1 . Misr. 14. Khenoriya. 2 . Pande. 15. Tripoti. 3. Dube or Dwivedi. 16. Clioturdhuri or Chowdry 4. Tewari or Trivedi. 17. Samadiya. 5. Choube or Chatervedi. 18. Monas. 6. Upadhya or Ojha. 19. Bratahari. 7. Pathak. 20. Chainpuria. 8 . Boidya. 21. Bhotiya. 9. Dikshit. o 2 Modaya. 10. Parasar. 23.' Sandaya. 11. Devalya. 24. Udenya. 12. Goswami. 25. Chushondiya. 13. Katori. 26. Barsya. The late Guru of the Maharaja of Jaipore, who was believed to have the power of working miracles, and who was venerated as a saint by most of the great Hindu potentates of Central India and Rajputana, was a Sanadhya. CHAP. IV.—THE BRAHMANS OF THE KURUKSHETRA COUNTRY. Gaur Brahmans .—The original home of the Gam- Brahmans is the Kurukshetra country. The Gaurs say that the other four main divisions of North Indian Brahmans were originally Gaurs, and have acquired their present designations of Sarswat, Ivanya-kubja, Maithila and Utkal by immigrating to the provinces where they are now domiciled. The name Adi Gaur adopted by the Kurukshetra Brahmans is in consonance with this view. In Sir George Campbell’s Et h nology of India, it is suggested that the Gaurs may have derived their name from the river Ghagar, which, in ancient times, was a tributary of the Sarswati, and which now dis¬ charges its water into the Sutlej near Ferozepore. Ac¬ cording to popular usage the word Gaur means a priest, and it is not impossible that the name of Gaur Brahmans was given to those who served as priests to the ancient kings of Kurukshetra. The Adi Gaurs practise agri¬ culture and till the soil with their own hands. But there are many good Sanskritists* among them, and they are the only Brahmans whom the Agarwala Baniyas would employ as their priests. There is a class of Gaur Brahmans called the Taga Gaur. These * One of the greatest of these is Pandit Laksman Sastri, of Patiala, now residing in Calcutta, from whom I have derived the greater part of the information contained in this chapter. The late Pandit Gauraswami, who was the first Pandit in his time in the holy city of Benares, was also a Gaur. THE GAUR BRAHMANS. 53 are so designated because they have only the Brahman- ical Taga or sacred thread. They are all addicted to agriculture, and are quite ignorant of the Brahmanical prayers and religious rites. They neither study the Shastras nor perforin the work of a priest. The other castes do not make to them the kind of humble saluta¬ tion ( pranam) due to Brahmans, hut accost them as they would a Rajput or Baniya by simply saying “ Ram Ram.” Some of the Adi Gaurs are now receiving English education. The general surname of the Gaurs is Misra. Their special surnames are the following :— 1. Dikshit. 2. Tiwari. 3. Chaube. 4. Nirraal. 5. Nagwan. 6. Chahanwal. 7. Marhota. 8. Lata. 9. Mota. 10. Indouria. 11. Haritwal. 12. Bhanchaki. 13. Mrichya. 14. Ghagaun. 15. Vidhata. 10. Phoratwal. 17. Gandharwal. 18. Randyana. 19. Pantya. 20. Jhundiya. 21. Kanodiya. 22. Gautama. 23. Gugwal. 24. Mudhalwan. 25. Nagarwal. 26. Sathya. 27. Vajare. 28. Simanant. 29. Durgawal. 30. Khernal. 31. Surahya. The majority of the Gaurs are Sivites. Like the other high caste Brahmans of Northern India they worship also the Salagram ammonite as an emblem of Vishnu, and a triangular piece of Phallic stone representing the Devi or the consort of Siva. There are a few Ballabha- chari Vaishnavas among the Gaurs. The majority of the Gaurs are strict abstainers from animal food and intoxicating drinks. Some of the Gaurs keep the sacred fire, and occasionally celebrate some of the Vedic sacrifices. CHAP. V.—THE BRAHMANS OF KASHMIR, THE PANJAB AND SINDH. § 1 .—Bramhcins of Kashmir. Kashmiri Brahmans. — The usual surnames of tlie Kashmir Brahmans is Pandit. The following observa¬ tions in Sir George Campbell’s Ethnology of India give an exact description of their ethnology and character : — The Kashmiri Brahmans are quite High Aryan in the type of their features, very fair and handsome, with high chiselled features, and no trace of intermixture of the blood of any lower race * * * * The Kashmiri Pandits are known all over Northern India as a very clever and energetic race of office-seekers. As a body they excel the same number of any other race with whom they come in contact .—Ethnology of India, pp. 57-59. The late Mr. Justice Sambhu Nath Pandit of the Bengal High Court was a member of this class. So was also the late Pandit Ayodhya Nath, who was one of the ablest advocates of the Allahabad High Court, and also one of the principal leaders of the Congress. Babu Gobind Prasad Pandit, who was one of the pioneers of the coal mining industry of Bengal, was also a Kashmiri. He amassed such wealth by the success of his enterprise, that he became known as one of the richest men in the country in his lifetime, and, after his death, his descendants obtained the title of Maharaja from the Government of India. Dogra Brahmans .—As there are Dogra Rajputs and Dogra Baniyas, so there is a class of Brahmans, called THE SARSWAT BRAHMANS. 55 Dogra Brahmans. The name is said to be derived from that of a mountain or valley in Kashmir. According to a Dogra student of Nya philosophy at Nadiya, whom I consulted, the name is derived from the Sanskrit com¬ pound Dwau Gartau, which means the “ two valleys.” § 2.— The Brahmans of the Panjab. Sarswats .—The Brahmans of the Panjab are chiefly of this class. They derive their name from that of the sacred river Sarswati, which at a very remote period of antiquity was a noble river, and the course of which may still be traced from its source near the sanitarium of Simla to Thaneshur in the Kuruk- shetra. The Sarswats form one of the five primary classes of North Indian Brahmans, called Panch Gaur. A great many of the Sarswats practise agriculture, and freely partake of the hospitality of the Baniyas and the Ivshetris. There are, however, many among them who are very erudite Sanskritists* and who, in point of culture and Brahmanical purity, are not inferior to the Brahmans of any other class. The majority of the Sarswats are Sakti worshippers, but very few of them eat flesh. They minister to the Kshetris of the Panjab as priests, and there is, in many respects, a close connection between the two castes. Until recently the Sarswats were divided into only two sub-castes, namely, the Banjais f and the Mohyals. The Banjais * One of the greatest of these is Pandit Sadanand Misra of Cal¬ cutta, from whom I have derived a considerable part of the informa¬ tion contained in this chapter. In respect of personal appearance, obliging nature, and refined manners, it is hard to find a superior specimen of humanity. t The word Baniai seems to be a corrupted form of the Sanskrit compound Balm Yaji, which means a Brahman who ministers to many men. But the Sarswats say that their common name Banjai is a corrupted form of Bayanna Jayi, which means the fifty-two victorious clans, and to account for the origin of this name they add that they obtained this name by setting at defiance an order of an Emperor of Delhi directing them to allow the re-marriage of a widow. 56 THE BRAHMANS OF PANJAB. minister to the Kshetris, but the Mohyals never serve as priests. There are many hypergamous groups among the Banjais, which are on the way towards becoming- separate castes. So long as the lower of these classes gave their daughters in marriage to the higher, they could not be regarded as independent castes. But, in very recent times, the lower classes have resolved not to give their daughters to the higher classes, un¬ less they choose to reciprocate the compliment. The result is that marriage alliances between the different classes are now extremely rare, and they are fast on the way towards becoming independent castes. The general surname of a Sarswat is Misr. But each clan has a special surname. The names of the several hypergamous groups among the Banjai Sarswats together with the special surnames of each class are given below :— Names of Groups. 1. Panjajati ( 1. Adrai ) 2. Ghar and ] 3. Char| 4. Ghar ... I 5. Titles. Morlhe. Tekha. Jhingan. .leteli. Kumoria. o Inferior j Panjajati j ' 4 ' L 5. Kaliya. Maliya. Kupuria. Madliuria. Bagge. f P i 2. I 3 - 3. A s h t a J 4. Bans ; 5. I 6. I 7. I 8. Pathak. Sori. Tiwari. Tasraj. Jotashi. Shand. Kurla. Bharadwaj Names of Groups. r i. I 2. I £ I 4 - | 5. 4. Barhi .. -! H. 9. 10 . Titles. Kaliya. Prabhakar. Lakhan Pal. Airi. Nabh. Chitrachot. Narad. Sarad. Jalpatra. Bhamvi Paranoty. Manar. 5. Inferior Banjais not com¬ ing with- { in the above groups... 1 2 . 3. 4. 5. 6 . 7. 8 . 9. Uo. Basude. Bijora. Raude. Mehra. Muslol. Sudan. Sntrak. Teri. Angul. Haster. A Sarswat cannot marry within his clan. But a marriage may take place among them within the Gotra, though such matrimony is strictly prohibited by the Shastras. THE BRAHMANS OF SINDH. 57 The Mohyals are found chiefly in the western dis¬ tricts of the Panjab and in Kabul. Intermarriage between them and the other Sarswats is possible, but not very usual. § 3.— The Brahmans of Sindh. The Brahmans of Sindh are mainly Sarswats. They are divided there into the following classes :— 1. Srikara. 2. Bari (Twelve families). 3. Bavanjahi (Fifty-two families). 4. Slietapalas. 5. Kuvachandas. All these classes eat animal food, though some of them are Yaishnavas of the Vallabhachari sect. Like the Sarswats of the Panjab proper, those of Sindh also eat cooked food from the hands of Kshetris and Roda Baniyas. The Bavanajahis are Sakti worshippers of the extreme class, and not only eat flesh but drink wine. Some of the Slietapalas are also Sakti worship¬ pers of the same type. In speaking of the several classes of Sindh Brah¬ mans Dr. Wilson says :— All these classes of Sarswats are Sukla Yajur Vedis. In using animal food they abstain from that of the cow and tame fowls, but eat sheep, goats, deer, wild birds of most species, and fish killed for them by others They also eat onions and other vegetables forbid¬ den in the Smritis. They are generally inattentive to sectarian marks. They dress like the Hindu merchants and Amins of Sindh, though using white turbans. They shave the crown of their heads, but have two tufts of hair above their ears. They are the priests of the mercantile Lohanas or Lowanas. They have many small pagodas dedicated to the worship of the ocean, or rather the river Indus. Their fees are derived principally from their services at the mar¬ riages, births and deaths of their followers. They are partial to popular astrology, as far as easy prognostication is concerned. They pretend to know where lost articles are to be found. They also cultivate land, and sometimes act as petty shopkeepers.—Wilson’s Hindu Castes, Vol. II, pp. 137-138. CHAP. VI.—THE BRAHMANS OF ASSAM. The majority of the Brahmans of Assam profess to be Vaidakas, though, in fact, they practise either the Tantric or the Vishnuvite cult. The inferior families among them appear to be of the Mongolian race, while even among their most aristocratic classes there appears to have been a copious admixture of Mongolian with Aryan blood. In Upper Assam, including the districts of Sibsagar and Lakhimpur, which, before its annex¬ ation to British India, was for several centuries under the rule of the Ahang dynasty of Sibsagar, a great many of the Brahman families profess to be descend¬ ed from seven Kanojia priests imported into the country about the middle of the seventeenth century by the Ahang King Chutumala alias Jayadhwaja. The Aryan features of most of the members of these families, and the genealogies preserved by them, give very strong support to their claim ; but, at the same time, it is equally certain that there has been a large infusion of non-Aryan blood among them. The fact is conclusively proved by their ethnology, and also by their traditions and customs. They themselves entertain the suspicion that many of the families with whom they now intermarry were originally Sudras, and were made Brahmans only by the edicts of their former kings. That their suspicions are not groundless is proved almost conclusively by some of the curious customs which still prevail among them as to interdining. In other parts of the country, the most puritanic Brah- THE BRAHMANS OF ASSAM. 59 mans do not hesitate to partake of the hospitality of their fathers-in-law or maternal uncles. But among the aristocratic Brahmans of Upper Assam claiming to be descended from the Kanojian stock, no one will eat any kind of food in the house of either his father-in- law or his maternal uncle. It is said that even the daughter of a low class Brahman will not, after being married to a Kanojia of pure descent, eat in her father’s house any kaclii food though cooked by her own mother. The daughter’s sons will eat in their maternal grandfather’s house till their initiation with the sacred thread, but not afterwards. It seems that in practice, the alleged custom, so far as the daughter and the daughter’s sons are concerned, is more honoured in the breach than in the observance. But the very recognition of such rules, if only for theoretical pur¬ poses, and the existence of Mongolian and Aryan types in the same families, clearly establish that the higher Brahmans are of the Aryan stock, and that they intermarried with local Brahmans of the Mongolian race, though with a very considerable degree of reluctance. CHAP. VII.—THE BRAHMANS OF ORISSA. Among the superior Brahmans of Orissa there are two main divisions which rest on territorial bases, and which are as follows :— 1. Dakshinatya or Southern clan. 2. Jajpuria or Northern clan. There can he no intermarriage between these two divisions, and they have nothing in common between them except the status of being Brahmans. § 1.— The Dakshinatya Brahmans of Cuttack and Puri. The Dakshinatya Brahmans of Southern Orissa are subdivided as follows :— Surnames. 1. Vaidikas or Brahmans de¬ voted to eccle¬ siastical pur¬ suits which are- not held de¬ grading ac¬ cording to the Shastras. fl. Kulinsor Vai-"| ] dikas of the highest class, who are mostly residents of one of the sixteen Shasan or of the thirty-two Kotbarvillages. j f 1. Bhatta Misra 2. Srotriyas | 2. Upadhya. 1. Samauta. 2. Misra. 3. Nan da. 4. Pati. 5. Kar. 6. Acharya. or ordinary 3. Misra. | Vaidikas. | 4. Kauth. L 15. Ota. 7. Satapati. 8. Bedi. 9. Senapati. 10. Parnagralii. 11. Nishank. 12. Bainipati. 6. Tewari. 7. Das. 8. Pati. 9. Satapasti. . Pujari, Adhikari or ( Forming one caste, found in every part of Vaishnava Brahmans. I Orissa. Same titles as the above. 3. Secular Brail-1 mans divided into two classes designated as follows)• 1. Mahaja n- panthi or Panigri. 2. Mastlian. J 1. Mahapatra. 2. Panda. 3. Shaubth. 4. Senapati. 5. Nekab. 6. Mekab. 7. Pathi. 8. Panni. 9. Shathera. 10. Pashupaloke. 11. Barn. 12. Mudhiratli. 13. Doytha. 14. Poryari. 15. Kliuntea. 16. GoraBaru, 17. Nahaka. THE SASANI BRAHMANS. 61 The sub-classes that have the highest status among the Dakshinatya Brahmans of Orissa are the Kulins and Srotriyars of the sixteen Shashan and the thirty-two Ivotbar villages. The Shashanis evidently derive their name from the fact of their obtaining, from some ancient Hindu king of the country, grants of land attested by Shashanas or royal firmans. The name Kotbar seems to be a corruption of Krobar and to be the proper designation of the suburban population of the Shasanas. The Shashan villages are inhabited only by the Kulin and Srotriya Brahmans of the ecclesiastic class. In the Ivotbars there are other castes also. The Shashani Kulins have a higher status than all the other classes of Orissa Brahmanas. There are a few good Pandits among the Shashanis, and the majority of them acquire a sufficient knowledge of Sanskrit to be able to discharge the duties of a priest. The following observations are made with regard to the class in Hunter’s Gazetteer of Lidia :— They live on lands granted by former Rajas, or by teaching private students, or as spiritual guides, or more rarely as temple priests. They are few in number, for the most part in tolerable circum¬ stances, though often poor, but held in such high estimation that a Srotriya Brahman will give a large dower in order to get his daughter married to one of them. But the Kulin who thus inter¬ marries with a Srotriya loses somewhat of his position among his own people. The pure Brahman rarely stoops below the Srotriya, the class immediately next to him, for a wife .—The Imperial Gazet¬ teer of India, Vol. X, p. 434. The majority of the Srotriyas earn their living in the very same manner as the Kulins. All the Vaidikas are very aristocratic according to Brahmanical ideas of respectability, and a Shashani Kulin or a Srotriya Brahman will rather live by begging than be engaged in any menial occupation. In fact, there are anion them, and especially among the landless Srotriyas, great many who are regular beggars. But it would be hard to find any one of them tilling the soil, or employed as a domestic servant. &C 62 THE BRAHMANS OF ORISSA. The Adhikari Brahmans are mainly followers of Chaitanya, and have the same position in Orissa that the Gossami and the Adhikari Brahmans have in Bengal. It is said that many of the Oriya Pujaris were originally men of low castes. They have generally many low caste disciples, and are employed as priests in the temples. The Adhikari Brahmans are known by the necklace of basil beads which they wear in addition to their sacred thread. They are not all the followers of one teacher, and the disciples of each individual Guru form a distinct subdivision. Of the several classes of secular Brahmans the Maha- jan Panthis or Panigiris have a high position ; but the Masthans are regarded as a low class, and their very touch is regarded by some as contaminating. With regard to the Masthan Brahmans, Mr. Stirling in his Description of Orissa Proper says:— There is another class known commonly in Orissa by the name of Maliasthan or Masthan Brahmans, who form a very considerable and important class of the rural population. Besides cultivating with their own hands gardens of the Kachu (Arum Indicum) cocoa- nut and areca, and the piper betel or pan, they very frequently follow the plough, from which circumstance they are called Halia Brahmans, and they are found everywhere in great numbers in the situation of Mukadams and Sarbarakars, or hereditary renters of villages. Those who handle the plough glory in their occupation, and affect to despise the Bed or Veda Brahmans who live upon alms. Though held in no estimation whatever by the pious Hindu, they are unquestionably the most enterprising, intelligent, and industri¬ ous of all the Company’s ryots or renters of malguzari land in Orissa. Asiatic Researches, Vol. XV., p. 199. The Pandas who serve as priests and cooks in the public temples receive in their official capacity some homage from other people. But irrespective of their connection with the holy shrines, they are regarded as a very low class everywhere ; and throughout the greater part of India they form separate castes with a very inferior status. In Calcutta there are many Panda THE JAJPURIA BRAHMANS. 63 Brahmans of Orissa who serve as cooks in the houses of the rich Sudras. The Pandas who tout* for pilgrims are not all of the Panda caste. § 2 . — Jajpuria Brahmans. Jajpur is one of the sixteen Shasana towns of Orissa, but, as intermarriage cannot take place between the Jajpuria Shasanis, and the Brahmans of the Shashans in Southern Orissa, the Jajpurias form a distinct class, They are said to be divided into thirteen Houses with the following six Gotras : — 1. Kaphala. 2. Kuraara. 3. Kausika. 4. Krishnatriya. 5. Kamakayan. 6. Katyaana. Their usual surnames are Pati, Panda, Das, Misra, Nondkar, Satapati, &c. There are Adhikari and Maha- janpanthi Brahmans in the northern parts of Orissa as in its southern parts. These do not form separate castes, but intermarriage can take place between them, and the corresponding sections of the Brahmanical caste of southern Orissa. The Jajpuria Adhikari are to be found in large numbers in Calcutta, a great many of them being keepers of stalls on the banks of the * The tours of these Oriya touts are so organised that during their campaigning season, which commences in November and is finished by the approach of the car festival at the beginning of the rainy season, very few villages in any of the adjoining provinces of India can escape their visit and taxation. The very appearance of one of them causes a serious disturbance in the even tenor of every Hindu household in the neighbourhood. Those who have already visited the “ Lord of the World” at Puri are called upon to pay an instalment towards the debt contracted by them while at the sacred shrine, and which debt, though paid many times over, is never com¬ pletely satisfied. That is, however, a small matter compared with the misery and distraction caused by the “ Jagannatli mania,” which is excited by the Pandas’ preachings and pictures. A fresh batch of old ladies become determined to visit the shrine, and neither the wailings and protestations of the children, nor the prospect of a long ai7d toilsome journey can dissuade them. The arrangements of the family are, for the time being, upset altogether, and the grief of those left behind is heightened by the fact that they look upon the pilgrims as persons going to meet almost certain death. The railway about to be constructed between Calcutta and Puri may make a visit to Jaggan- nath a less serious affair. 64 THE BRAHMANS OF ORISSA. holy Bhagirathi, supplying the bathers with oil for anointing their persons before ablution, and materials for painting their foreheads with holy figures and names after bathing. In the town of Jajpur there are some families who have been keeping the sacred fire from generation to generation. Besides the good Srotriyas and Mahajanpanthis there are in Orissa, as in every other part of the country, some classes of inferior Brahmans who are regarded as more or less degraded. One of these classes is called Atharva Vedi.* There may be inter¬ marriage between the followers of Rik, Sham and Yajus, but not between these and the Atharva Vedis. The other classes of degraded Brahmans will be noticed in their proper place. * Some say that the Atharva Vedis are the same as the Masthanis. But the result of my enquiries tends to establish that there are other Atharva Vedis besides the Masthanis. CHAP. VIII.—THE BRAHMANS OF RAJPUTANA. To make the description of the Brahmans of Raj- putana intelligible, it is necessary to say something about the geography of the province. Broadly speaking, it is that portion of India which lies between the river Chambal on the east, and the valley of the Indus on the west. The greater part of this vast tract of country is ruled still by semi-independent Rajput chiefs, and hence it is called Rajasthan, Raithana or Rajputana. The number of chiefs whose territories collectively go by these names is not less than twenty, and the only British pos¬ session within the circuit is the district of Ajmere-Mer- wara, which lies in the centre of the province. The country of the “ Kings’ children ” is, however, not en¬ dowed with much of nature’s gifts. It is divided into two parts by the Aravali hills, which extend from Abu on the south to the historic ridge in the suburbs of Delhi. The western half of Rajputana comprising the terri¬ tories of Marwar, Jesalmere and Bikanir, consists mainly of sandy deserts utterly unfit for growing any kind of food-grains. Of the eastern half which is more fertile, the southern portion is included within the dominion of Udeypur ; the central portion is ruled by the chiefs of Kota, Boondi and Jaipore ; while the northern portion is taken up by Dholepore, Bhurtpore and Alwar. Though, according to its very name, Rajputana is the country of the Rajputs, and though the military Ksa- triyas are the ruling caste almost throughout its length b, hc ( 65 ) 5 66 THE BRAHMANS OF RAJPUTANA. and breadth, yet its Brahmanical population is twice as large as that of the fighting clans, and the influence of the sacerdotal caste in the province is exactly as it is in other parts of India. There are in Rajputana large colonies of Sarswat, Gaur, Sanadhya and Kanojia Brahmans whose connection with the members of their respective races in their original homes, has not yet been completely severed. Of the several classes of Brahmans whose proper home is Rajputana, the following are the most important :— ■ 1. Srimali ... A numerous clan found in every part of Rajputana as well as in Gujarat. 2. Mewad ... Found chiefly in Mewad. 3. Pallivala ... Most numerous in Western and Northern Rajputana. Found also in Bombay and Gujarat. 4. Pokarana .. Most numerous in the Northern and Western parts of Rajputana. Found in considerable numbers also in Sindh and Gujarat. 5. Sanchora ... Original home Sancliora in Sii-ohi. 6. Dahima ... Found chiefly in Marwar and Bundi. 7. Divas ... Found chiefly in Bikanir, Marwar and Nathadwara. 8. Parik ... Found chiefly in Marwar and Bundi. 9. Khandelwal Found chiefly in Marwar and Jaipore. 10. Nandwani Found chiefly in Marwar and Kesouli. Bora. 11. Sikhawal ... Found in Jaipore. 12. Asopa ... Found in Marwar. 13. Rajgor ... Found in every part of Rajputana. 14. Gujar Gor ... In every part of Rajputana. 15. Bhojaks ... Low class Brahmans who minister to the Jains. The Bhats and the Charanas, who are the hereditary bards and genealogists of Rajputana, claim to have the rank of Brahmans, but as they are not regarded as such by Hindu society, I shall speak of them in the part of this work which is devoted to the semi-Brahmanical castes. I conclude this chapter with a few details of the more important sections of the Rajputana Brahmans, collected chiefly from English authorities. § 1 .—The Srimalis. The Srimalis have a very high position whether re¬ garded from a religious or secular point of view. THE SRIMALI BRAHMANS. 67 They minister as priests not only to the Srimali Banyas, but to all the higher castes including the Brahmans of the other classes. They hold also very high offices in the service of the local chiefs. The following account of the Srimalis is taken from Wilson’s Indian Castes :— The Srimalis derive their designation from the town of Srimal, now called Bhinmal, lying to the north-west of Abu and intermediate between that mountain and the river Loni. Their first representa¬ tives are said to have been collected by a local prince from no fewer than forty-five of the most sacred places of the north, west, south and east of India ; but to the traditions to this effect little importance is to be ascribed. The Aryan physiognomy is perhaps more distinctly marked in them'than in any other class of Brahmans in India. In fact, they do not appear to differ much from the type of some of the Euro¬ pean nations, especially of those who have claims to Roman descent. Their costume is generally of a simple but not unbecoming character. Their turbans are on the whole of a graceful form, though not so large as those of many of the other natives of India. On their brows they wear the sectarial marks of the Vaishnavas, Vishnu being their favourite deity. The Srimalis are now scattered not only through several of the provinces of Rajputana, but through Gujarat and lvacha, Central India, the countries bordering on the Indus, and the island of Bombay. In consequence of this dispersion of their body, they have been broken into several distinct castes, most of which now neither eat nor intermarry with one another. They are also divided into two castes, founded on the Vedas which they pro¬ fess : the Yajur Vedi (White and Black), and the Sama Vedi of the Kauthumi Sakha. In the former there are seven gotras or lines of family lineage : the Gautama, Sandilya, the Chandras, Laudravon, Maudralas, Kapinjalas. In the latter there are also seven gotras, the Shaunakas, Bharadvaj, Parasara, Kausika, Vatsa, Atipamanya, and Kashyapa. Most of all their classes are either mendicants or offi¬ ciating priests, though secular service appears to be on the increase among them. They act as gurus and ceremonial Brahmans to the Srimali, Poraval, and Patolya and Urvala Vanyas (merchants) and Sonis or goldsmiths ; and about 5,000 of them, now apart from their brethren, act as gurus to the Oswalas, a class of mercantile Jainas, and are called Oswala Brahmans. A favourite Kuladevi or family goddess among them is that of Mahalaksmi, the spouse of Vishnu, a celebrated image of whom was transferred from Bhimmal to Auhil- pur, or Pattan in the times of the Gujarat kings. The celebrated Sanskrit poet Magh, who is said to have lived in the time of Bhoja Raja, belonged to their fraternity. Their greatest living orna¬ ment is Dalpatram Daya, the Kaviraj, or Poet Laureate of Gujarat, who is also distinguished for his historical research, and sincere aims at social reform. This stirring author and singer supposes that there are 500 Srimali houses in Kacha and Kattiwar; 5,000 in Gujarat; and 35,000 in Marwad and Mewad, exclusive of 50 of impure birth called Daskori near Ahmedabad, 1,500 of them being in Jodhpur (the capital of Marwad) alone.—Wilson’s Indian Castes, Vol. II, pp. 109-111. 68 THE BRAHMANS OF RAJPUTANA. § 2.— Pallivals. The Pallivals are numerous in Jesalmere, Bikanir, Marwad, Jaipur and Kishangarh. Very few of the clan are to be found in Ajmere. The following account of the Pallival Brahmans of Rajputana is also taken from Dr. Wilson’s Indian Castes :— The Pallival Brahmans receive their name from the town of *Palli, the commercial capital of Marwad in Rajputana. They have twelve gotras. They are shrafs, merchants, and cultivators, but serve only in their own caste. They don’t eat or intermarry with other Brahmans. They are found in Jodhpur, Bikanir and Jesal¬ mere, and some others of the Rajput States. A few of them are at Delhi, Agra, and in the Panjab, Gujarat and Mewad. Only one or two of them are in Bombay. They are Smartas and do not use animal food. They do not drink the water of the houses of their own daughters t or any persons not belonging to their own castes. They don’t eat with those of their own caste, who have got isolated from them as with the Gurjas and Mewad Pallivalas. They be¬ long to the Kanya Kubja division of the Brahmans. “ The Nan- davana and Pallivala Brahmans are traders ; were formerly located at Nandavana and Palli, and were there chiefly robbers, conducting their excursions on horseback. They subsequently became traders. They are said still to worship a bridle on the Dasara in memory of their former state.They are scattered throughout the north of India, as Bohras or middlemen between the cultivators and Govern¬ ment.—Wilson’s Indian Castes, Vol. II, p. 119. The following account of the Pallivals of Jesalmere is from Tod’s Annals of Rajasthan :— Next to the lordly Rajputs, equalling them in numbers and far surpassing them in wealth, are the Pallivals. They are Brahmans, and denominated Pallivals from having been temporal proprietors of Palli and all its lands, long before the Rathores colonized Marwar. Tradition is silent as to the manner in which they became possessed of this domain ; but it is connected with the history of the Palli, or pastoral tribes, who from the town of Palli to Pallitana, in Saurashtra, have left traces of their existence; and I am much mistaken if it will not one day be demonstrated that all the rami¬ fications of the races figuratively denominated Agnicula were Palli * “Palli.” —Town in Jodhpur State, Rajputana situated on the route from Nasirabad to Disa, 108 miles to the south-west of the former cantonment. An ancient place acquired by the Rahtors of Kanoj in 1156 A.D. It is the chief mart of Western Rajputana, being placed at the intersection of the great com¬ mercial road from Mandavi in Cutch to the Northern States, and from Malwa to Bahalpur and Sind.—Hunter's Imperial Gazetteer, Vol. XI, p. 1. t Here Dr. Wilson has evidently misunderstood the information given to him. The custom spoken of here is not the speciality of the Pallivals, but is a common one to all the orthodox Hindus throughout India. It is based not on any aristocratic feeling on the part of the father, but to too much obedience to the injunction of the Shastras forbidding the acceptance of any kind of gift from a son-in-law. } Irving’s Topography of Ajmere. THE POKARANA BRAHMANS. 69 in origin : more especially the Chohans, whose princes and chiefs for ages retained the distinctive affix of Pal. These Brahmans, the Pallivals, as appears by the Annals of Marwar, held the domain of Palli when Seoji, at the end of the twelfth century invaded that land from Kanoj, and by an act of treachery first established his power. It is evident, however, that he did not extirpate them, for the cause of their migration to the desert of Jesalmere is attributed to a period of a Mahomedan invasion of Marwar, when a general war contribution (dind) being imposed on the inhabitants, the Pallivals pleaded caste and refused. This exasperated the Raja, for as their habits were almost exclu¬ sively mercantile, their stake was greater than that of the rest of the community, and he threw their principal men into prison. In order to avenge this they had recourse to a grand chandi or act of suicide; but instead of gaining their object, he issued a manifesto of banishment to every Pallival in his dominions. The greater part took refuge in Jesalmere, though many settled in Bikanir, Dhat and the valley of Sind. At one time, their number in Jesalmere was calculated to equal that of the Rajputs. Almost all the internal trade of the country passes through their hands, and it is chiefly with their capital that its merchants trade in foreign parts. They are the Metayers of the desert, advancing money to the cultivators, taking the security of the crop ; and they buy up all the wool and ghi (clarified butter) which they transport to foreign parts. They also rear and keep flocks. The Pallivals never marry out of their own tribe ; and directly contrary to the laws of Mann the bridegroom gives a sum of money to the father of the bride. It will be deemed a curious incident in the history of superstition, that a tribe, Brahman by name, at least, should worship the bridle of a horse. When to this is added the fact that the most ancient coins discovered in these regions bear the Palli character and the effigy of the horse, it aids to prove the Scythic character of the early colonists of these regions, who, although nomadic, were equestrian. There is little doubt that the Pallival Brahmans are the remains of the priests of the Palli race, who, in their pastoral ami commercial pursuits, have lost their spiritual power.—Tod’s Rajasthan, Vol. II, pp. 318—320. § 3.— The Polcaranas. The Pokaranas are very numerous not only in every part of Rajputana, but in Gujarat and Sind also. They derive their designation from the town of Pokarana, which lies midway between -Jodhpore and Jesalmere. The priests at Pushkar are called Pushkar Sevakas or the “ worshippers of the lake.” The Pokarana Brahmans have no connection whatever with the holy lake called Pushkara near Ajmere. They are devoted chiefly to secular pursuits. They are also the priests of the Bhatyas, and there are a few among them who are good Sanskritists and astrologers. They do not eat any kind of animal food. Their physiognomy is distinctively Aryan. CHAP. IX.—THE BRAHMANS OF CENTRAL INDIA. By Central India is meant the part of Northern India enclosed by the river Chambal on the west, the river Narmada on the south, the upper half of the Sone on the east, and the valley of the Jumna on the north. The majority of the Brahmans settled in this tract are foreign immigrants belonging chiefly to the Maharash- trya, Gujrati and Ivanojia stocks. The only classes of Brahmans whose original home can be said to be Central India are the following :— 1. Malavis ... Found chiefly in Mahva. 2. Narmadis ... Found chiefly on the banks of the Nar¬ mada. 3. Jijhotia ... Found chiefly in and near Bundelkhand. The Jijhotias derive their designation from the old name* of Bundelkhand. As there are Jijhotia Brahmans so there are Jijhotia Banyas and Rajputs also. The usual surnames of the Jijhotia Brahmans are the same as those of the Kanojias. It deserves to be noted here that among the Jijhotia Brahmans there is a Mauna Gotra apparently derived from the name of the great Hindu legislator. * The name of Jijhota is mentioned in Huen Tsiang’s Travels. ( 70 ) PART IV. THE BRAHMANS OF SOUTHERN INDIA. CHAP. I.—PRELIMINARY REMARKS. It has been already observed that both according to the Shastras and the popular belief of the people of this country,, the Brahmans of India are divided into ten classes, of which five are natives of Northern India, and the remaining five have their habitat in the Deccan. The majority of the Deccani or Panch Dravira Brahmans are Sivites. The number of Vishnuvites among them is also very considerable. But there are very few Sakti worshippers among them, and they are strict abstain¬ ers from every kind of animal food and intoxicating drink. The Sivites paint three horizontal lines of white colour on their forehead. The Vishnuvites have perpendicu¬ lar lines of red, black or yellow colour painted on their foreheads between the upper part of the nose and the scalp. The colour and the form of the lines differ in the different sects, of which a full description is given in a subsequent part of this work. Some of the Vishnuvites of the Deccan are regularly branded like cattle, either only once when they are first initiated in the privilege of the mantra, or from time to time whenever they are visited by their spiritual preceptors. Among the South Indian Brahmans the line of demarcation between the ecclesiastics and the laity is maintained with much ( 71 ) 72 THE BRAHMANS OF SOUTHERN INDIA. greater strictness than in Northern India. In Bengal and Hindustan proper, a Brahman devoted to secular pursuits is not deemed to be altogether incapable of performing the functions of a Guru or priest, or of receiving religious gifts. For the discharge of clerical functions, those who do not stoop to any kind of secular employment are generally deemed to be best qualified. But in the North religious donations are very often given to, and received by, the secular Brahmans, and cases are known in Bengal in which the privilege of even ad¬ ministering the mantra has been allowed to be exercised by graduates of the Calcutta University, and by persons in the service of Government. The case, however, in Southern India is different. There the laity cannot accept religious gifts, and are debarred altogether from the performance of clerical work. Throughout the greater part of the Deccan, a Bhikshu may at any time become a member of the secular order, and intermarriages take place usually between the ecclesiastics and the laity. But in the Andhra country the distinction is carried to a far greater extent than anywhere else. There the laity form a different caste called Niyogis, and there cannot possibly be any intermarriage between them and the Vaidikas. Throughout the Deccan the laity are called Laukika Brahmans ; and the ecclesiastics have the designation of Blukshus. Another peculiar feature, common to the several classes of South Indian Brahmans, is the fact of their being all subject to the spiritual authority of the Sankarite monasteries. This fact has been noticed already. See p. 16, ante. CHAP. II.—THE BRAHMANS OF GUJARAT. Though Gujarat is situated to the north of the river Narmada, yet, according to Shastric texts, the Gujarat Brahmans form one of the main divisions of the Panch Dravira or the sacerdotal class of Southern India. The majority of them are either Sivites or Yishnuites. But it is said that there are a few Saktas among them of an extreme type not to be found in Bengal. The profession of the Guru is said to be unknown among them. It may be so among the followers of the ancient Sivite cult, the actual nature of which is by very few clearly understood or thought of. But, considering the character of the rites said to be practised by the Gujarati Saktas and Yaishnavas, it does not seem likely that the Guru is less active among them than in other parts of the country. Every Gujarati’s name consists of two parts : the first part being his own name, and the second that of his father. The usual surnames of the Gujarati Brahmans are Bhatta, Yani, Sukkul, Upadhya and Vyas. The number of separate clans among the Gujarati Brahmans is very large. They generally say that there are not less than 84 different sections among them. The list given in Wilson’s Hindu Castes includes 160 independent clans among them. However that may be, the following are the most important:— 1. Audicliya 2. Nagar 3. Raikwar. 4. 5. 6 . ( 73 ) Bliargava. Srimalis. Girnar. 74 THE BRAHMANS OF GUJARAT. These are the most aristoci’atic clans among the Gujarati Brahmans. There are very few among them who live by begging or manual work. But a great many of them have a high secular position, and the majority of them are in well-to-do circumstances. Of the other clans, the Sanchoras usually serve as cooks. The Valodras are, generally speaking, very well-to-do people, a great many of them being money-lenders on a large scale. But they all go about the country begging for alms. They usually perform their tours on horseback. § 1.— Audichyas. The Audichyas, as their name indicates, profess to have come from the north. According to their traditions and the Audichya Prakas, a reputed section of the Skanda Purana, their origin is stated to be as fol¬ lows :— Mulraj, King of Anhilwara Pattana, the Hindu capital of Gujarat, collected the following numbers of Brahmans from the different sacred places mentioned:—From the junction of the Ganga and Yamuna 105; from the Chyavanasrama 100 ; Samavedis, from the country of Kanya Kubja 200; from Kashi 100 ; from Kuril Kshetra 272; from Gangadvara 100 ; from Naimisha forest and from Kuru Kshetra, an additional supply of 132, making a total of 1,109. He conferred upon them as a Krishnarpan, the town of Sihor, with 150 adjoining villages, and the town of Sidhapura, with 100 adjoining villages. By this liberality he did what satisfied those Brahmans denominated the Sahasra (thousand) Audichyas. But other intelli¬ gent Audichyas did not accept his dana (largesses) but forming a toli of their own, became the Talakya Audichya, who acquired for themselves Khambhat (Cambay) and twelve other villages ; while of the others 500 were of Siddhapara and 500 of Sihor.—Wilson’s Indian Castes, Vol. II, p. 94. According to the above account, the Audichyas ought to be divided into the following three classes only : 1. Tolakya Audichyas. 2. Siddhapuria Audichyas. 3. Sihor Audichyas. According to the Audichya Brahmans of Gujarat whom I have been able to consult, there are many THE AUDICHYA BRAHMANS. 75 independent sections among them, of which the follow¬ ing are the most important :— 1. Tolakya. 2. Siddhapuria. 3. Sihoria. 4. Sahasra 5. Kherwar. 6. Una war. 7. Gharia. There can be no intermarriage between these sections, and, for all practical purposes, they are separate castes though they may eat together without violating any rule of caste. Siddhapur is an ancient town and a place of pilgrim¬ age within the territories of the Baroda Raj. Sihor is within the Bhaunagar State, Kathiwar, about 13 miles west of the Bhaunagar town. Its ancient names were Sinhapur and Sarswatpur. It formed the capital of the Gohel Rajputs until Bhaunagar town was founded. The Jhallwaris take their name from the district of Jhallwar in Kathiwar. Kherali is a petty State in the Jhallwar division of Kathiwar. Gohelwar is a tract of country to the south-east of Kathiwar, and forms one of its four main divisions. Kheral is a petty State in Mahi Kantha, a province of Gujarat. Una was an ancient town in Junagarh State, ruled at one time by the Unawar Brahmans. Its modern name is Dalawar. Garb is the name of a petty State in Rewah Kanth, Gujarat. The majority of the Audichyas are devoted to secular pursuits. But there are many among them who are regular beggars. There are a few Vedic Pandits in the class. But the number of these is not very consider¬ able. Wilson says that some of the Audichyas act as domestic servants in the capacity of water carriers. Considering how proud the Brahmans usually are, that may seem as quite impossible. But the existence of the practice among the Gujrati Brahmans is borne out by the result of my own enquiries. The Siddhapurias 76 THE BRAHMANS OF GUJARAT. like, many other classes of Brahmans, may be found to be engaged as cooks ; and the Siddhapuria cooks are said to be very expert in their line. § 2 .—Nagar Brahmans of Gujarat. The Nagar Brahmans are the priests of the Nagar Banyas. There are very few Sanskrit scholars among them. But they count among their numbers many who hold and have held high secular positions. The main divisions among them are the following :— 4. Prasnora. 5. Kishnora. 6. Chitroda. have been able to collect 1. Vadnagara. 2. Vishalnagora. 3. Satliodra. The information which regarding these several classes of the Nagara Brahmans coincides in all material points with what is given about them in Wilson’s book. I therefore cite from it in extenso the following account of them :— The Vadnagora Brahmans receive their designation from the city of Vadnagora lying to the east of Annhilavada Pattana. They are mostly found in the Peninsula of Gujarat, formerly Saurashtra, now Kathiwar, where the business of the native estates is principally in their hands ; but individuals of them are scattered over nearly the whole of the province of Gujarat, being found at Nadiyad, Ahmedabad, Baroda, Surat, &c. Most of them are Rig-Vedis, fol¬ lowing the Sankhyana Sutras ; but some of them profess the other three Vedas, particularly the White Yajur Veda. The majority of them are Smartas; but an inconsiderable number of them are Vaishnavas of the sects of Swami Narain and Vallabliacharya. None of them are practical cultivators, but a few of them act as Desais. The mendicants among them are few in number. They do not eat even with the Nagars of other denomination’s. The Vishalnagora Brahmans receive their name from the town of Vishal, founded by Vishal, the first king of the Vaghela dynasty of Gujarat, sometimes called Visaldeva (said by Colonel Tod to have been installed in Sumvat 1249, A.D. 1192) and which lies a little to the south-west of Vadanagora. They are principally Rig-Vedis, and are either Smartas or Vaishnavas of the sect of Swami Narain. They are mainly either public servants or agriculturists. The Satliodra Brahmans get their name from the town of Sathod on the Narmada. There are some Rig-Vedis among them ; but they are principally of the Madhyandina Sakha of the White Yajur Veda. They are found at Anand, Nadiyad, Ahmedabad, Dabboi and other places. Some of them are in public service, or engaged in buying and selling ; but a good many of them are still Bhikshus, or act as Gurus. They are principally if not wholly Smartas. The Prasnoras are said to belong to Prasnora. They are Rig- Vedis, and of the Vallabhacharya sect, their chief residence being in Kathiwar. They are principally mendicants. THE SRIMALI BRAHMANS. 77 The Krishnoras of Krishnapura are of the Rig, Sama, and Yajur Vedas. Most of them are Bhikshukas of a “ kind respectable for learning.” The Ohitrodas are of the town of Chitrod. They are found at Bhaunagar and Baroda. They say that they have among them¬ selves professors of each of the Vedas. They are not a numerous body. The present Dewan of Baroda, Mr. Muni Bhai, is a Vadnagora Brahman. So was also Mr. Gouri Shankar, Udaya Shankar, c.s.i., formerly Dewan of Bhaunagar, whose portrait is given in Sir Monier Williams’s recent work on Brahmanism and Hinduism. § 3. — The Raikwar Brahmans of Gujarat. The Raikwars are to be found chiefly in Kach and in the district of Kheda in Gujarat. There are many Sans- kritists and English scholars among them. The spiritual guide of the Rao of Kach is a Raikwar ; so is the eminent Pandit Badri Nath Trimbak Nath. Mr. Bhai Sankar, who is one of the leading attorneys of the Bombay High Court, is also a Raikwar. § 4.— The Bhargava Brahmans. The chief habitat of the Bhargavas is the district of Broach at the mouth of the Narmada. The name of the tract inhabited by them is evidently a corrupted form of the Sanskrit Bhrigu Kshettra, the territory of Bhrigu. The Bhargavas were formerly one of the poorest and most ignorant of all the classes of Gujarati Brahmans. In Wilson’s book it is stated that, under the British Government, they were certainly rising. The correctness of his forecast is demonstrated by the fact that there are now many learned men and high officials among them. § 5.— The Srimalis. The Srimalis are, properly speaking, Brahmans of Rajputana, and an account of them has been given in the chapter on Rajputana Brahmans in Part III, Chapter VIII, p. 66, ante. THE BRAHMANS OF GUJARAT. 78 Mr. Dalpatram Daya, c.i.f., the celebrated poet of Gujarat, and the author of the work on caste entitled Gnati Nibandha,” is a Srimali of Abmedabad. The great Sanskrit poet Magha. is also said to have been a Srimali. The Srimali Brahmans of Gujarat have the following sub-divisions among them :— 1. Kachi Srimali. 2. Kathiwadi Srimali. 3. Gujarathi Srimali. 4. Ahmedabadi Srimali, 5. Surati Srimali. 6. Kharabhati Srimali. § 6.— Girnars. Wilson gives the following account of the Girnar Brahmans :— Tlie Girnars derive their name from the ancient mountain city of Girinagar, now represented by Junagadh, the old fort at the root of the celebrated Girnara mountain. In this locality they are prin¬ cipally to be found. They are also met with in other towns of the peninsula of Gujarat. A few of them are in Bombay. They are divided into the following castes. (1) The Junagadhya Girnaras. (2) The Chorvada Girnars of the town of Chorvad on the coast of the peninsula of Gujarat between PattanaSomnath and Mangrol. (3) The Ajakyas, so called from the village of Ajak. These three castes readily eat together, but do not intermarry. They now rank low in the Brahmanhood, from their acting as Gurus to Kolis, and having a variety of occupations as those of adminis¬ trators to native chiefs, clerks, astrologers, cultivators and mendi¬ cants. They are of various sects as suits them for the time being. They are said to professall the Vedas butl the Sama, but are prin- cipallyjof the White Yajur Veda. They must be a very ancient con¬ federation of Brahmans.—Wilson, Vol. II, p. 101. § 7.— The other Classes of Gujarati Brahmans. The other classes of Gujarati Brahmans are men¬ tioned in the following list with brief descriptive notices :— 1. Anavalas or Bhatelas .—Found chiefly in the tract of country between Broach and Daman. The Bhatelas are secular Brahmans, the majority of them being devoted to agriculture and trade. Some of them are employed as Government servants and mercantile assistants. THE NARADIKA BRAHMANS. 79 '1. The Borasidhas .—These derive their name from the town of Borsad in the Kaira district, Bombay Pre¬ sidency. 3. The Cliovishas. —This tribe has representatives at Baroda, and at Sinor and Janor near the Narmada. 4. The Dadhicliis. —Numerically a small body. Found chiefly on the Mahi. There are beggars, cul¬ tivators and ecclesiastics among them. 5. The Dasliaharas. —Said to be found near Aunil- wara Pattan. They are Sakti worshippers. 6. The Deswali. —Literally, the people of the country. They are found chiefly in the district of Kheda. 7. The Jambus. —The Jambus are the Brahmans of the town of Jambusara in the district of Broach. There are cultivators as well as mendicants and astrolo¬ gers among them. 8. The Khadayatas. —The Khadayatas are chiefly of the ecclesiastical profession, acting both as priests and Gurus. They are to he found in the districts of Khedra, Ahmedabad and Broach. 9. The Masthanas. —The Masthanas are found in large numbers in the vicinity of Siddhapura. Like the Masthanas of Orissa, those of Gujarat also are chiefly cultivators. 10. The Modhas. —The Modha Brahmans are to be found chiefly in the districts of Ahmedabad and Kheda. They are the Gurus or spiritual preceptors of the Modha Banyas. 11. The Nandodras. —So named from Nandod, the capital of the Rajpipla State, situated about 32 miles east by north from Surat in a bend of the Korjan river. The Gurus of the Rajas of Rajpipla and Dharmpore are said to be Nandod Brahmans, There are both mendicants and cultivators among the Nandods. 13. The Naradikas. —The Naradikas are to be found chiefly in Cambay and its neighbourhood. They are a small body. There are cultivators as well as men¬ dicants among them. 80 THE BRAHMANS OF GUJARAT. 14. The Narsiparas. —The Rarsi paras are follower of Yallabhacharya. The priests of the shrine of Krisb na at Dakor, in the Thasra sub-division of the Kair; district, are Brahmans of this class. 15. The Parasaryas. —The Parasaryas are said to be found in the south-east of Kathiwar. 16. The Sachora. —The Sachoras are followers of Yallabhacharya. A great many of them serve as cooks. 17. The Sajhodras. —So named from the town of Sajodh near Broach. Like that of the Bhatelas the chief employment of the Sajhods is cultivation. 18. The Somparas. —The Somparas are the Brahmar. who have charge of the temple of Siva at Somenath. They have a somewhat higher position than is usually assigned in the caste system to the priests of other shrines. The Somparas are all Smartas. After tl destruction of the great temple at Somenath by Mahmud Ghazni a new one was erected by Bhima Deva I. This new temple was destroyed by the ren - gade Hindu, Sultan Muzaffer I. The present temph was erected by Rani Ahalya Bai. 19. The Sorathiyas. —The Sorathiyas derive theii name from Saurashtra, modern Surat. They are found chiefly in Junagadha. 20. The Talajyas. —The Talajyas derive their name from the town of Talaja in the Bhaunagar State, situate d about 31 miles south of Bhaunagar town. The Tala¬ jyas are now mainly shopkeepers, and are to be found at Jambusar, Surat, Bombay, Nasik and other towns of Western India. 21. The Tapodhanas. —The Tapodhanas derive their name from the river Tapti on the banks of which they are to be found. Some of them are priests in the local temples of Siva. But the majority of them are cultivators. 22. The Valadras. —The Valadras seem to derive their name from Wala, the capital of the Wala State in THU VAYADA BRAHMANS. 81 Gohelwar division of Kathiwar. The ancient name vVala was Walabhipur. Some of the Valadras are ., tv rich, being money-lenders on a large scale. But majority of them are mendicants and beggars. S ie of the latter class perform their tours on horse¬ back. The Valadras are Smartas and Sakti wor- shi ppers. ;8. The Valmikis .—The Valmikis are to be found 1 Kheda, Cambay and Idar. There are both beggars ml cultivators among them. 24. The Vayadas. —The Vayadas are the spiri¬ tual preceptors of the Vayada Vanyas. The Vayada Br limans are a very small body. he other classes usually included in lists of Guzrati hmanas are either foreigners, or degraded and semi- degraded Brahmans, corresponding to the Agradanis, Maha-Brahmanas and Barna Brahmanas of Northern India. The following are like Barna Brahmans :— 1. Abhira Brahmans—Brahmans who minister to the Abhira cowherds as priests. 2. Muchigor— Brahmans who minister to the Mochis. 3. Kunbigoi —Brahmans who minister to the Kunbis. 4. Darjigors —Brahmans who minister to the darjis or tail¬ ors. 5. Gandharp Gors— Brahmans who minister to the Gan- dharps or musicians. 6. Gurjaru Gors —Brahmans who minister to the Gurjaras. B, HC 6 CHAP. III.—THE BRAHMANS OF MAHA¬ RASHTRA AND KANKAN. The most important classes of Brahmans in Maha¬ rashtra and the Kankan are the following :— 1. Deshastha. I 3. White YajurvedL 2. Kankanastha. | 4. Karhade. 5. Shenavi. It was on Brahmans of the first four of these classes that the Peshwas bestowed religious gifts, and donations in acknowledgment of literary merit. The last have great secular importance. § 1.— The Deshastha Brahmans of Maharashtra . The word Deshastha literally means “ residents of the country,” and, in Maharashtra, the name is given to the Brahmans of the country round Poona, which was the metropolis of the Maharashtra empire. Most of the Deshasthas pursue secular professions as writers, accountants, merchants, &c. However, there were, and still are, among them great Pandits in almost every branch of Sanskrit learning. As among the other classes of South Indian Brahmans, the laity among the Deshas¬ thas are called Laukikas (worldly men) or Grihasthas (householders). The Blukshus or ecclesiastics are also householders, as every Brahman is required to be in his youth ; but as they devote themselves entirely to the study of the Shastras, they alone are held entitled to receive religious donations, and are called Blukshus or beggars. The secular Deshasthas have such secular ( 82 ) THE KANKANASTHA BRAHMANS. 83 surnames as Desai, Despande, Desmukha, Kulkarni and Patil. The Bkikskus are sub-divided into several classes, according to the branch of learning which they culti¬ vate. Those who study the Vedas are called Vaidika ; those w r ho expound the law are called Shastri ; those w’ho make astrology their speciality are called Jotishi or Joshi ; the votaries of the medical science are called Vaidyas ; and the reciters of the Purans are called Puranikas. These distinctions, however, do not affect their caste status. In fact the son of a Laukika Brah man may be a Bhikshu, and a Bhikshu himself may, at any time, by accepting secular employment, cease to be of the ecclesiastical order. The usual surnames of the Bhikshus are Bhatta, Shastri and Joshi. The Deshasthas are followers of the Rik and the Krishna Yajus. There are some Vishnuvites among them of the Madhwa sect. But the majority are Sivites. There is, however, nothing to prevent intermarriage between the Sivites and the Madhwas. There is a large colony of the Deshasthas in Mysore. There are a great many Brahmans of this class in Benares also. Pandit Govinda Shastri, of the Government Sanskrit College of Calcutta, is a Deshastha. The great Sanskrit jurists, Nilkanta and Kamalakar were Deshasthas. The celebrated Tantia Topi of the Sepoy war was a Brah¬ man of the same class. He was born in a village called Gowala, in the district of Nasik. His proper name was Raghu Nath Rao. Tantia Topi was the name of his boyhood. The late Sir T. Madhava Rao was of the same class. § 2.— The Kankanastha Brahmans. As their name indicates, the original home of the Kankanasthas is the Rankan, or the narrow strip of country extending from Broach on the north, to Ratnagiri on the south, and bounded on the west by the Arabian Sea, and on the east by the Western Ghats. The Kankan¬ asthas are also called Chitpavana, a word which evidently 81 BRAHMANS OF MAHARASHTRA AND EANKAN. means a “ purifier or curer of the soul.” But on the authority of the Sahyadrikhanda of the Skanda Purana, which seems to be the composition of a Deshastha, the other classes of Maharatta Brahmans say that Chit- pavana is not a corrupted form of Chitta Pavana, but of Chitapavana, which means a purifier of a funeral pyre. According to the Skanda Purana, the Kankanas- tkas are so-called because the Brahminical hero and incarnation, Parushuram, created them out of a chita or funeral pyre. Leaving aside legends, the name of Chitpavan given to the Kankanastha Brahmans seems to be derived from the town of Ckiplun in the Ratnagiri district, situated near the head of the Kumbharli pass, which is one of the easiest routes from the Deccan to the sea-board. The Peshwas, who very nearly succeeded in establishing Hindu supremacy in India during the last century, were Kankanastha Brahmans. Of the same class also were many of the high officials of the Mahratta empire—the Patvardhanas, the Gokales, the Rastyas, &c. Raja Dinkar Rao, who was Prime Minister of Scindia at the time of the Sepoy war, and who was regarded as one of the greatest administrators of his time, was a Kankanastha. Mr. Justice Ranade, of the Bombay High Court, is a Brahman of the same tribe. So was the late Rao Saheb Vishwanath Harayan Manda- lika, who was one of the ablest advocates of the Bombay High Court, and was also a Member of the Legislative Council of India. As among the Deshasthas, so among the Kankani Brahmans, the majority are devoted to secular pursuits. They are the persons who generally fill “ offices of every kind, including the village and perganali account¬ antships all over the country.”* A great many of them are khotes or landholders, who enjoy valuable proprie¬ tary over the Kankan villages. Though mainly secular, the Kankanasthas do not keep themselves quite aloof Campbell’s Ethnology of India, p. 73. THE YAJURVEDIS. 85 from the cultivation of letters. On the contrary, they have had among; them some of the best scholars in every department of learning. One of the greatest of these in recent times was the late Pandit Bapo Deva Sastri of the Government Sanskrit College, Benares. The following is from the appreciative notice of his life in Mr. Sherring’s Hindu Tribes and Castes :— Bapu Deva Sastri has greatly distinguished himself as a scholar, and has, by his works, shed a lustre on the Sanskrit College, in which for many years he has been a Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, and on the city in which he lives. The titles of some of his numerous works are as follows : On Trigonometry in Sanskrit; Translation of the Surya Siddhanta into English ; On Algebra in Hindi; On Geography in Hindi; On Arithmetic in Sanskrit; Sym¬ bolical Euclid in Sanskrit. * * In consideration of the great services rendered to science and education in India, the Sastri has been made an Honorary Member of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain, and also of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.—Sherring’s Hindu Tribes and Castes , Vol. I, p. 90. Like the Deshasthas, the Kankanis are followers of the Rik and the Krishna Yajus. The Rig Vedis are of the Ashwalayana Sakha, and the Yajur Vedis of the Taittiriya Sakha. The following are sub-classes of the Kanka- nasthas :— 1. Nirvankor. 2. Keloskar. The Kankanis have more than three hundred sur¬ names peculiar to their class. § 3.— The Yajurvedis. The Yajurvedis among the Deshasthas are followers of the Black Yajus. The class of Maharatta Brahmans called Yajurvedi are followers of the White Yajus. They have two branches, namely,— 1. The Kanvas. 2. The Madhyandinas. The Kanvas are so called on account of their adopting the Kanva rescension of the White Yajus. The Mad¬ hyandinas derive their name in the same manner from the Madhyandina Sakha of the White Yajus. Both the 86 BRAHMANS OF MAHARASHTRA AND KANKAN. Kanvas and the Madhyandinas follow the Shatapatba Brahmana, and the Srauta Sutras of Katyana. The Madhyandinas* attach great importance to the per¬ formance of the Sandhya prayer at noon, i.e., after 11 a.m. But the Big Vedis might perform the mid-day prayer even at 7 o’clock in the morning. The Madhy¬ andinas cannot celebrate any Sradh except at noon, whereas the Rig Vedis can perform such a ceremony any time during the day. The Yajurvedis are to be found in every part of the Maharatta country, properly so-called, from Nasik on the north to Kolhapur on the south. They enjoy a very high position among the Brahmans of the country. The majority of them keep themselves aloof from secular pursuits, and deAmte them¬ selves entirely to the study of the sacred literature and to the practice of the Vedic rites. During the reign of the Peshwas, they had perhaps the largest share of the religious gifts made by the State as Avell as in those made by private individuals. The families of the Guru of the Maharaja of Kolahpur, and of the titular Pratinidhi of Sattara are Yajurvedis of the Madhyandina Sakha. § 4.— The Karhades. The Karhades derive their name from the town of Karhad near the junction of the Krishna and the Koina rivers, about fifteen miles to the south of Sattara. While the Deshastlias are Sivites, and the Yajurvedis are observers of the Vedic rites, the Karhades are the extreme Saktas of the Maharashtra country. In Nor¬ thern India, Sivites, Saktas, Vishnuvites, and Vedists are to be found within the same class; and a difference of cult, though giving rise to great animosity, has very seldom brought about the formation of subdivisions in any caste. But in the Deccan, which has been * The name of the Madhyandina Sakha of the White Yajns seems to be derived from that of the Madhyandina School of Hindu astro¬ nomers according to whom the day is regarded as beginning at noon, and not at sunrise or midnight. THE KARHADE BRAHMANS. 87 ruled by great Hindu kings down to recent times, the case is naturally otherwise. The Peshwas were Sivite Brah¬ mans, and, during their ascendancy, the Vishnuvites never could flourish in their country. The only cults, besides that of the Sivite, which then found a congenial soil in the country round Poona, were Sakti worship, which is only the counterpart of Saivism, and the Vedic rites which, though rendered obsolete by more effective and less wasteful forms of worship invented in later times, have still a great charm for the Hindu mind. The Sivite, the Sakta and the Yedic forms of worship have flourished side by side in the Maharashtra country, and naturally there was great bitterness between the professors of these forms of faith. Wherever there are two or more competitors for favour from the same quarter, and each tries to rise in the estimation of the common patron, at the expense of his rivals, sectarian hatred and bigotry must necessarily be rampant. In the Sahyadri Khanda of the Skanda Purana, which bears evidences of being the production of a De- sastlia Brahman, the Karhades are charged with the practice of offering human sacrifices, and of even mur¬ dering Brahmans to propitiate their deities. The charge being preferred by an infallible authority, the Karhades admit its truth, though with the usual qualification that the practice has been given up by them long since. As a matter of fact, perhaps, the practice never existed on a large scale among any class of Brahmans. The Tan- tras recommending human sacrifice are accepted as authorities by the Brahmans of almost all the classes throughout India. Yet, in practice, the only animals that are usually sacrificed by the Sakti worshippers in Northern India are the goat and the sheep, i.e., the animals, the flesh of which the Brahmans eat. The flesh of the buffalo is eaten by some of the low castes, and sometimes buffaloes are sacrificed by the Saktas. But human sacrifice, though recommended by one set of texts, is prohibited by others, and as it must be naturally 88 BRAHMANS OF MAHARASHTRA AND KANKAN. revolting to every one excepting a few depraved fana¬ tics, and as actnal instances of it are extremely rare, if not quite unknown, in modern times, the case was appar¬ ently never very different in mediaeval or ancient India. In the Mahabhart, which is undoubtedly a very an¬ cient work, Krishna himself is made to observe* that the slaughter of human beings for sacrificial purposes was unknown in practice. Coming down to historical times there is nothing in the early records of British rule, or in the Mahomedan chronicles to warrant the conclu¬ sion that the practice prevailed very extensively during the last seven centuries. The injunctions about it in the Tantras were, it seems, meant only to excite awe on the minds of the common people, and to enable the priest to make the votaries more ready to offer as a substitute a goat or a sheep than they would otherwise be. The case is only that of an application of the maxim of priestly politics which the Brahmanical clerics formulate by saying that they must ask for a Kashmere shawl in order to get a bathing towel. Whatever room there may be for comment on the religion of the Karhades, they are equal to the Kanka- nasthas and the Deshasthas in every other respect. The great Maharatta poet Moropant was a Ivarhade. So was the late Bala Gangadhar Shastri Jambhekor, who was a professor in the Elphinstone Institution. The Karhades distinguished themselves sometimes in secular service also. Govinda Pandit, a Karhade Brah¬ man, was sent by the Peshwa as his agent to Saugor, and the Pandit succeeded in taking possession of the district for his master, from Chattra Sal, in 1753. Sheo Ram Bhao was the Sir Soobah or Governor of the pro¬ vince of Jhansi at the time of the conquest of Northern India by the English. His descendants ruled the pro¬ vince as semi-independent kings, till the annexation of the State by Lord Dalhousie. The Karhade dynasty of See Mahabhart, Sava Parva, Chapter XXII. THE SHENAVI BRAHMANS. 89 Jhansi has been rendered particularly famous by the name of the great Rani whose political genius and ability as a military commander have elicited the admi¬ ration of even English historians and generals. There is still a large colony of Karhade Brahmans in Saugor and Damoh who trace their descent from the companions- in-arms of their great clansmen who first conquered the country. There are many Karhades among the officers of the Mysore Raj, the majority of them being connected with its Revenue Survey Department. § 5.— The Shenavi Brahmans of the KanJcan. The Slienavis are believed to be a branch of the Sars- wat Brahmans of the Panjab. They are found chiefly in the Ivankan, Goa, and Bombay. There are a few among them who are of the priestly profession. But the majority of them are devoted to secular pursuits in which they are now generally far more successful than perhaps any other class of Brahmans. Like the Sars- watas, the Slienavis are in the habit of eating fish and such flesh as is not prohibited by the Shastras. The Slienavis are not all of the same religion. There are Sankarites and Madhwa Vishnuvites among them. The late Dr. Bhau Daji, the late Mr. Justice Telang, and the late Pandit Shankar Pandurang were all Slienavis. So is also Mr. Bhandarkar, the present Vice-Chancellor of the Bombay University. CHAP. IV.—MIDDLE CLASS AND INFERIOR BRAHMANS OF THE MAHARASHTRA. § 1 .—Middle Class Secular Brahmans. The following are the middle class Brahmans of the Maharashtra country :— 1. Deva Ruke. j 2. Savashe. 3. Kirvantas. Deva Ruke .—The Deo Rukes are found chiefly in the Kankan. They are generally very poor. They are devoted mainly to agriculture. The Deshasthas will eat with them ; but the Kankanasthas generally refuse to do them that honour. Savaslie .—The Savashes are found chiefly in the Southern Maharatta country. They engage in trade, and are a prosperous class. The name is evidently derived from the Sanskrit word Sahavasi which means an “ associate.” The origin of the application of this designation to them is explained as follows :— In remote times, a certain Brahman came upon a hidden treasure ; but to his amazement, the contents appeared in his eyes to be all live scorpions. Out of curiosity, he hung one of them outside his house. A little while after, a woman of inferior caste, who was passing by the bouse, noticed it to be gold, and upon her questioning him about it, the Brahman espoused her and, by her means, was able to enjoy the treasure. He gave a feast in honour of his acquisition of wealth. He was subsequently outcasted for his misalliance with the low caste female, while those who were with him were put under a ban, and thus acquired the nickname.— Mysore Census Report, p. 235. Kirvantas .—The Kirvantas are found chiefly in the Kankan. Many of them are cultivators. But some ( 90 ) THE DEGRADED BRAHMANS. 91 of them are] very rich, and there are good Sanskrit scholars too among them. They are now being recog¬ nized as good Brahmanas by the Kankanasthas. § 2.— YajaJca Brahmans. The following classes of Maharashtra Brahmans minister to the Sudras as priests, and have consequently a very inferior position :— 1. Palashe. | 2. Abhira. Palashe- -The Palashes are found chiefly in Bom¬ bay and its neighbourhood. They act as priests, as¬ trologers and physicians to the Prablms, Sutars, Bhan- daris, Sonars, and other Sudra castes in Bombay. The high caste Maharatta Brahman say that the Palashes are no Brahmans. But as they are accepted as priests by the many Sudra castes mentioned above, they are certainly entitled to be regarded as one of the sacerdotal clans, however low their status may be. Ahhiras. —The Abhiras are found chiefly in Kandeish. They act as priests to the cowherd caste called Abhira. § 3.— Javala Brahmans. The Javala Brahmans have a low status on account of their serving as cooks, and their habit of eating fish. They are found chiefly in the Kankan. § 4.— Agricultural Brahmans. The following classes of Maharashtra Brahmans are mainly agricultural, and have a very low status:— 1. Kastas—found in Poona and Kandeish. 2. Trigulas—found on the banks of the Krishna. 3. Sopara—found chiefly in Bassin. § 5. — The Degraded and Outcasts Brahmans. The following are the classes of Brahmans that in Maharashtra are regarded more or less as outcastes :— 1. The Hoseini. I 3. Kunda Golaka. 2, The Kalanki. | 4. Randa Golaka. 5. Brahman Jai. An account of some of these will be given in a sub¬ sequent part of this work. See p. 118, post. CHAP. V.—THE BRAHMANS OF KARNATA. In English works on the history and the geography of India, the name Karnatic is usually applied to the tract of country on the east coast of the Deccan between Arcot and Madras. But the name of Karnat is pro¬ perly applicable only to the tract where Kanarese is the prevailing language. It embraces almost the whole of Mysore with the British districts of North Kanara, Dharwar, and Belgaum of the Bombay Presi¬ dency. In external appearance, the Karnat Brahmans differ hut little from the Deshasthas of Maharashtra. The following classes are regarded as the indigenous Brahmans of Karnat :— 1. Babburu Kamme 1 Derive their name from the Kam- 2. Kannada Kamme >me country situated to the east of 3. Ulach Kamme ... j modern Mysore. 4. Haisaniga ... Very numerous in the Hassan divi¬ sion of Mysore. The great Madhava- charya, it is said, was a member of this caste. r « .. -it i, , f Secular Brahmans; followers of 5. ArvattaVakkalu { Madhava . c tt t . i „ f Very numerous in Mysore, but 6. Hale Karnataka... ^ jj ave a i ow caste status. 7. Karnataka. 8. Vaduganadu ... (Lit. from the north). 9. Sirnadu , T .. f From Haiga, the ancient name of 10. Havika - \ North Kanara. 11. Hubu—Found chiefly in North Kanara. Of these, the first seven classes are found chiefly in Mysore, and the last in North Kanara. The Havikas or Haigas have their principal home in North Kanara ( 92 ) THE KANARESE BRAHMANS. 93 and the Skimog division of the Mysore territories. They claim to derive their name from the Sanskrit word Havya, which means “ oblation.” Their usual occu¬ pation is the cultivation of the supari or areca-nut gardens. But there are among them many who are of the priestly order. The Hubus of North Ivanara are a degraded class. A great many of them live either by the practice of astrology, or by serving as priests in the public temples. The Hale Karnatikas of Mysore are considered as a still more degraded class. Their very Brakmanhood is not generally admitted, in spite of their having lately secured a Srimukh from the Sringeri monastery recognising them as a class of the sacerdotal caste. Their chief occupations are agricul¬ ture and Government service, as Shanbhogs or village accountants. By way of reproach they are called Maraka, which literally means slaughterer or destroyer. The following account is given of them in the Mysore Gazetteer :— “A caste claiming to be Brahmans, but not recognised as such. They worship the Hindu triad, but are chiefly Vishnuvites and wear the trident mark on their foreheads. They are most numerous in the south of the Mysore district, which contains live-sixths of the whole number. The great majority of the remainder are in Hassan district. They call themselves Hale Kannadiga or Hale Karnataka, the name Maraka being considered as one of reproach. They are said to be descendants of some disciples of Sankaracharya, and the following legend is related of the cause of their expulsion from the Brahman caste to which their ancestors belonged — One day Sankaracharya, wishing to test his disciples, drank some tadi in their presence, and the latter thinking it could be no sin to follow their master’s example indulged freely in the same beverage. Soon after, when passing a butcher’s shop, Sankaracharya asked for alms; the butcher had nothing but meat to give, which the guru and his disciples ate. According to the Hindu Shastras, red hot iron alone can purify a person who has eaten flesh and drunk tadi. Sankaracharya went to a blacksmith’s furnace, and begged from him some red hot iron, which he swallowed and was purified. The dis¬ ciples were unable to imitate their master in the matter of the red hot iron, and besought him to forgive their presumption in having dared to imitate him in partaking of forbidden food. Sankara¬ charya refused to give absolution, and cursed them as unfit to associate with the six sects of Brahmans . — Mysore Gazetteer, Vol. I, p. 341. CHAP. VI—THE BRAHMANS OF DRAVIRA. Dravira is the name given to the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula, including the districts of Trichinopoli, Tanjore, Arcct, Tinnevelly, Kambakonam, and Madura. This tract of country being inhabited by the Tamil-speaking tribes is roughly distinguishable from the provinces of Rarnat and Andhra towards its north, the prevailing languages of which are respectively Kanarese and Telugu. The Brahmans of Dravira are divided into two main classes according to their religion. The followers of Sankaracharya are called Smartas, and those of Ramanuja and Madhava are called Vaishnavas. All the Dravira Brahmans are strict vegetarians and teetotalers. § 1 .—The Smarta Brahmans . The majority of the Smarta Brahmans are Sivites, and there are very few Saktas or Vishnu worshippers among them. They are all followers of Sankaracharya, and regard the Superior of the Sankarite monastery at Sringeri as their spiritual head. Those among the Smartas who devote themselves entirely to Vedic study and to the practice of Vedic rites are called Vaidikas, and those who earn their living by secular pursuits are called Laukikas. The Vaidikas alone are entitled to religious gifts, and the Laukikas cannot lay claim to largesses for pious purposes. But in other respects the distinction is of no importance whatever, as inter¬ marriage is freely allowed between them. ( 94 ) THE WARMA BRAHMANS. 95 The usual surname of the Smartas is Ayar. The Sanskritists among them use the title of Shastri while the title of Dikshit is similarly used by those in whose family any of the great Vedic sacrifices has ever been celebrated. The following are the most important classes of Dravira Brahmans of the Smarta order: — 1. Warma. I 3. Ashta Sahasra. 2. Brihatcharana. | 4. Sanket. Warma Brahmans . —The Warma Brahmans are very numerous in and near Tanjore. They are divided into the following classes :— 1. Chola Des. I 3. Sabayar. 2. Warma Des. I 4. Javali. 5. Eanjeay. These may eat together, but there can be no inter¬ marriage between them. The late Sir Muttuswami Avar, of the Madras High Court, was a Warma Des Warma of the Tanjore district. Mr. Subramhanya Ayar, who has been appointed to succeed him on the Bench of the Madras High Court, is also a Warma Des Warma. Sir Muttuswami was not only an able Judge, but a great man in every sense of the term. Upon his death, which occurred in January last, the Chief Justice said of him :— “ We are assembled here to express our very great regret at the loss we have sustained by the death of Sir T. Muttuswami Ayar. His death is undoubtedly a loss to the whole country and the Crown. A profound Hindu jurist, a man with very excellent knowledge of English law, with very great strength of mind possessing that most useful quality in a Judge, common sense ; he was undoubtedly a great Judge, very unassuming in manners, he had great strength of mind and independence of character, his judgments were carefully considered, and the decisions he ultimately arrived at were, in a great majority of instances, upheld in the final Court of Appeal. H is advice was often asked for by the Judges of the Court, and—I can speak from experience — was always freely given and was most valuable. He was a man who did honour to the great profession of law, an upright Judge who administered justice without distinction of race or creed, a well read scholar and a gentleman in the best and truest acceptation of the word. The High Court by his death has sustained a heavy loss, a loss which undoubtedly it can ill bear.” 96 THE BRAHMANS OF DRAVIRA. The Warma Brahmans paint their foreheads in two different ways. Some have transverse lines of sandal or sacred ashes ; while others have a perpendicular line of sandal or Gopichandana.* Brihat Char ana .—Among the Dravira Brahmans the Brihat Charanas are nest in importance only to the Warmas. The Brihat Charanas paint their forehead with a round mark of Gopichandana in the centre, in addition to transverse lines of white sandal. Sir Sheshadri Ayar, k.c.s.i., the present Dewan of Mysore, is a Brihat Charaua. So is also Mr. Sundar Ayar, Advocate, Madras High Court. Ashta Sahasi'a .—The Ashta Sahasras are, generally speaking, more handsome than the other classes of Draviri Brahmans. Like the moderate Sakti worship¬ pers of Bengal, the Ashta Sahasras paint between their eyebrows a round mark which is either of white sandal or of a black colouring material formed by powdered charcoal. iSanket .—The Sankets are Dravidians, but are found also in Mysore. The Mysore Sankets cannot speak pure Tamil. There are two sub-divisions among them, namely, the Kausika Sanketis and the Bettadapara Sanketis. Their religion and their social customs are the same, but there can be no intermarriage between them. The following remarks are made with reference to the Sanketis by Mr. Narsimmayangar in his report on the last Census of Mysore :— The Sanketis are proverbially a hardy, intensely conservative, and industrious Brahman community. They are referred to as models for simultaneously securing the twofold object of preserving the study of the Vedas, while securing a worldly competence by cultivat¬ ing their gardens, and short of actually ploughing the land, they are pre-eminently the only fraction of the Brahman brotherhood, who turn their lands to the best advantage .—Mysore Census Report, 1891, p. 236. * A kind of calcareous clay, said to be obtainable only from a tank near Somnath, where the wives of Krishna drowned themselves after his death. VADAGALA AND TENGALA BRAHMANS. 97 § 2 .—The Vishnuvite Brahmans of Bravira. The Vishnuvite Brahmans of Dravira are followers of Ramanuja. They are divided into two classes, namely, the Vadagala and the Tengala. An account of these sects will be given in a subsequent part of this work. The late Mr. Rangacharlu, who was Prime Minister of the Mysore Raj, was a Vadagala Vaishnava. Mr. Bhasyam Ayangar and Rai Bahadur Anandacharlu, who are now the leading advocates of the Madras High Court, and have lately been appointed as Members of the Legislative Council of India, are also Vadagala Vaishnavas of the Tamil country. B, HC 7 CHAP. VII.—THE BRAHMANS OF TELINGANA. Telingana is one of the names of that part of the Deccan where Telugu is the prevailing language. In ancient times this tract of country was included in the kingdoms then called Andhra and Kalinga. At the present time Telingana includes the eastern districts of the Nizam’s dominions, in addition to the British districts of Ganjam, Vizigapatam, Godavari Krishna, Nellore, North Arcot, Bellary, Cudapa, Karnoul, and Anantpore. The Brahmans of this part of the Deccan are known by the general name of Tailangi Brahmans. They are mainly followers of the Apastamba Sakha of the Yajur Veda. There are also Rig Vedis among them. Nearly a third of them are Vishnuvites of the Ramanuja and Madhava sects, the rest being Smartas. There are very few Sakti worshippers among them even of the moderate type. Like most of the other classes of the Deccani Brahmans, the Tailangis are strict vegetarians and abstainers from spirituous liquors. The orthodox Tailangi does not smoke tobacco. The Brahmans of Telingana are sub-divided into several distinct sections. On account of difference of cults there are among them the following three main sub-classes :— 1. Smartas. | 2. Sri Vaishnavas. | 3. Madhavas. The followers of Madhava form a single caste. The Sri Vaishnavas among the Telingana Brahmans form a distinct caste called Andhra Vaishnava. They are not sub-divided as Vadgala andTengala like their co-reli¬ gionists of Dravira. The Smartas are sub-divided into two classes, namely, Niyogi and Vaidik. The Niyogis ( 98 ) THE TAILANGI BRAHMANS. 99 profess to value Yoga or religious contemplation more than Vedic sacrifices. In practice the Nivogis devote themselves mainly to secular pursuits, while the Yaidiks constitute the priestly class. The Niyogis are considered to be eligible for priestly service. But they will never either accept a religious gift, or partake of Shradha food. The several divisions and sub-sections among the Tailangi Brahmans are shown in the following table :— r fl. Vaidika ...-j 1. SMARTA ! 1. Vdnad. 2. Vengi Nadu. 3. Kasai Nadu. 4. Mulki Nadu. 5. Tdaga Nadu. 6. Yajnavalkya Vaidika. 1. Kanva. 2. Madhyandiva. 7. Kanara K amnia Vaidika. Originally Karnata Brahmans now naturalised in the Andhra country. 1 2. Niyogi r ...i 1. Arvelu Varu (Lit., “ the six thousand”). 2. Telingana Niyogi or Telgiana. 3. Nanda Varika Niyogi. 4. Pakul Moti Niyogi. 5. Yajnyavalkya Niyogi. 6. Karnata Kama Niyogi. Originally of Kar¬ nata. 2. RAMANUJITES Andhra Vaishnavas. Sri Vaishnava—Immi¬ grants from Dra- VIRA. I 1. Vadagala. f 2. Tengala. 3. MADHAVA— Followers of Madhava. Velnadu .—The Velnadus are the most numerous class of Tailangi Brahmans. Vallabhachari, who in the 15th century attained great success as a prophet with very little sacrifice of personal ease, and whose descen¬ dants are worshipped almost as gods still in Rajputana, 100 THE BRAHMANS OF TELINGANA. Gujrat and Bombay, was a member of this tribe. According to the Hindustani account of Ballava’s “con¬ quests ” his father was a native of Kankarkom, but his birth took place at a place named Champa near Raipore, while his parents were on their way from their native village to Benares. A full account of Ballava is given in the part of this book dealing with the Indian sects. The Velnadus are most numerous in the Godavari and Krishna districts. Colonies of the tribe are found also in every part of Mysore except Kadur. Venginadu. —The Venginadus are next in importance to the Velnadu, and are found chiefly in the British dis¬ tricts of Godavari and Vizigapatam, formerly called the Vengi country. Kasalnadu. —The Kasalnadus derive their name from Kosala, the ancient name of Oude, from whence they profess to have emigrated to the Kalinga country where they are now found. Murakanadu. — Brahmans of this class are found chiefly in the tract of country to the south of the Krishna. They are pretty numerous in Mysore. There are among them both priests and men devoted to secular pursuits. The present Superior of the chief Sankarite monastery at Sringeri is a Murakanadu. Telaganadu. —The Telaganadus are quite as numerous as the Velnadus. The former are found chiefly in the north-eastern part of the Nizam’s dominions. Yajnavalkya. —This name is given in the Telugu country to the followers of the Kanwa Sakha of the White Yajur Veda. They are called also Pratham Sakhi as in the Mahratta country. Niyogis .—The Niyogis are secular Brahmans. They derive their name from the word Yoga , which means religious contemplation, as opposed to Yaga , which means religious sacrifice. As the word Niyoga in Sanskrit means “ employment,” it is more probable that the Niyo¬ gis are so-called because they accept secular employ¬ ment. The Komatis and the Sudras bow to them, but THE NIYOGI BRAHMANS. 101 the ecclesiastical Brahmans address them with a bene¬ diction. From a secular point of view they have great importance. They are usually employed as writers and village accountants. Aradhyas .—The word Aradhya signifies “deserving to be worshipped.” The Aradhyas do not form a separate caste, as intermarriages take place between them and the Smartas. The Aradhyas of the Telugu country profess to be Brahmans, but are, in fact, semi-converted Lin- gaits, and are not regarded as good Brahmans. Though following Basava in attaching great importance to Linga worship, they adhere to caste and repeat the Gayatri prayers. They act as Gurus or spiritual preceptors to the higher classes of lay Lingaits, while the lower classes among the followers of Basava are left to the guidance of the Jangamas or the priestly Sudras of the sect. CHAP. VIII.—THE BRAHMANS OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES. As a considerable portion of the territories included in what is now called the Central Province was formerly ruled by kings of the Gond tribe, and as there is still a large Gond population in the districts round Nagpore and Jubbulpore, the tract of country inhabited by them is popularly called Gondwana, and the Brahmans settled within it receive the designation of Gond Brah¬ mans. They are called also Jhara Brahmans from the fact of their country being still, to a very large ex¬ tent, covered by forest. Like some of the Mahratta Brahmans, the Gond Brahmans are divided into distinct sections on account of the differences in the Vedas and the Sakhas which they profess. The majority of them are followers of the Yajur Veda. There are also Rig Vedis among them, but very few followers of any of the other Vedas. The Yajur Vedis are divided into various Sakhas, the Madhyandinas, Kanvas, and the Apastambis being the most numerous. There cannot be intermarriage between these. But marriage alliances are possible between the Rig Vedis and the Apastambi section of the Yajur Vedis. All the Rig Vedis are of the Ashwalayana Sakha. All the Gond Brahmans are vegetarians and ab¬ stainers from intoxicating drink. The Yajur Vedis are chiefly Sivites. There are a few Bhagabats and moderate Saktas among them. The Bhagabats are moderate Vishnuvites, paying reverence to Siva also. ( 102 ) THE GOND BRAHMANS. 103 Among the Rig Yedis the majority are Bhagabats and i^ivites. There are a few extreme Vishnuvites among them. There may be intermarriage between the Sivites, Bhagabats, Vaishnavas and Saktas of the same class. Intermarriage is possible also between the Bhikshus and the Laukikas. There are very few wealthy men among the Gond Brahmans. But they have in their community many learned Sanskritists and English scholars. There is in Gondwana a class of Brahmans called Charaki. There are also colonies of the Malwi and the Narmadi. CHAP. IX.—BRAHMANS OF TULAVA, SOUTH KANARA AND COORG. Tulava Brahmans .—Tulava is a small tract of country embracing only the British District of South Kanara and a part of Coorg. Udipi, the chief centre of the Madhava sect, is in Tulava, and is regarded by its mem¬ bers as a very holy place. Dr. Wilson gives the following account of the Tulava Brahmans :— “ The Brahmans taking to themselves the designation of Tulavas are scattered not merely through this province but through some of the territories above the Ghats where they have nearly forgotten their original language. Mr. Stokes mentions the following local varieties of them as found in the Nagara districts :— 1. Shiwali. I 3. Kota. 2. Panchagramadavuru. | 4. Kandavaru. “ These are all varieties,” he adds, “ of Tulava Brahmans, and appear to be almost aboriginal (in a certain sense). They are very numerous in the South of Nagara, Kauladurga, Koppa and Lakavali, where they hold the greatest portion of the betel-nut gardens. They are mostly of Smarta sect, and disciples of the Shringeri and its subordinate Mathas of Tirtha, Muthar, Hariharpura, Bandigadra, Mulavagal, &c. They speak Kanarese only, but their books are partly in the Grantha and partly in the Bal Bodha character. Some sign their names in the Tulava character. They are indifferently educated except a few who are either brokers or in public employ.” The Tulava Brahmans do not intermarry with the other Brahmans on the Malabar Coast. In the regulations, attributed to Sankara- charya, possessed by the Namburi Brahmans, “ it is decreed that intermarriages among the Brahmans north of Parampol, forming thirty-two Gramas of Tulanad with the Brahmans of thirty-two Gramas to the south called Malaylam are forbidden.* A synonym of the Tula Brahmans is Imbran or rather Tambaran. The Tulava Brahmans resemble the Namburis, and consider them¬ selves as the proper lords of the country, pretending that it was * MS. of Col. Mackenzie, quoted in South Indian Christ. Repository, Vol. II, p. 408. ( 104 ) THE BRAHMANS OF SOUTH KANARA. 105 created expressly for their use by Parashurama. They are poly¬ gamists. They cohabit, too, Dr. F. Buchanan tells us, with the daughters of the Rajas. Speaking of the Kumali Raja, a professed Ksatriya, he says: “ The eldest daughter in the female line cohabits with a Tulava Brahman ; her sons become Rajas, and her eldest daughter continues the line of the family. Whenever she pleases, she changes her Brahman.”* They prevent widow re-marriage, but promote widow prostitution in the name of religion ; and with widows and women who have forsaken their husbands and become “ Moylar ” and attached to the temples, they hold intercourse. They burn their dead. They abstain from animal food and spirituous liquors. The Tulava Brahmans are equally divided between the sects of Sankaracharya and Madhavacharya. In Mysore there are some Brahmanic colonists who call themselves Kavarga and Shishyavarga and who are believed to have been originally inhabitants of Tulava. The word Kavarga literally means the first five letters of the Sanskrit alphabet. The reason why the designa¬ tion is applied to the tribe of Brahmans bearing the name is explained as follows in the report on the last Census of Mysore :— The name is said to have a reproachful allusion to a legend, accord¬ ing to which a brother and sister of this tribe deceitfully received a gift by representing themselves as husband and wife at a Bralimani- cal ceremony. By the patriarchal law of visiting the sins of the fathers on the children, the tribe is to this day distinguished by the name of Kavarga (of the Ka class), Ka being the initial syllable of the Kanarese word Kullu (— thief).— Mysore Census Report., p. 235. In Coorg there is a priestly class called Amma Kodaga or Kaveri Brahmans; but as they do not profess to follow any particular Veda, they are, proper¬ ly speaking, no Brahmans. They are a very small community. With regard to them, Richter says :— The Amma Kodagas live principally in the S.-W. parts of Coorg, and are the indigenous priesthood devoted to the worship of Amma the Kaveri goddess. They are of a quite unobtrusive character ; do not intermarry with the other Coorgs, and are, generally speaking, inferior to them in personal appearance and strength of body. Their number is about 50, they are unlettered and devoid of Brahmanical lore. Their diet is vegetable food only, and they abstain from drinking liquor. Their complexion is rather fair, their eyes dark- brown, and their hair black and straight.— Ethnological Compen¬ dium of the Castes and Tribes of Coorg, by the Rev. G. Richter, p. 1. Buchanan's Journey, Vol. Ill, pp. 31, 16. CHAP. X.—THE BRAHMANS OF KERALA, MALABAR, COCHIN AND TRAYANCORE. The part of the western coast of the Deccan which extends from Cannanore and the Chandra Giri river on the north to Cape Comorin on the south, and which embraces at present the British district of Malabar, and the principalities of Cochin and Travancore, is, in many respects, a homogeneous tract distinguishable from every other part of India. This strip of country was called in ancient times Kerala or Chera, and governed by its own king. The language spoken by its people is Malay- lan which, though allied to the Tamil, is a quite distinct dialect. The Nairs and the Namburi Brahmans, who form the chief elements in the population of Kerala, are not to be found in considerable numbers even in the adjoining districts of Coimbatore, Trichinopoly, Madura or Tinnevely. It is, however, the peculiar laws and customs of Kerala that distinguish it most from other parts of India. The very family type among the Nairs is so different from what is found in other countries, that it is very difficult for an outsider to form an idea of it. Among most of the nations throughout the world, each male member when he marries, becomes an unit of the society. During the lifetime of his father he may, with his wife, and in some cases with his children also, live under the parental roof. But each of the male mem¬ bers of the society is, in the eye of law, the centre of an independent group actual or possible. After his death, the usual rule is that his sons succeed to his property ( 106 ) THE NAMBURI BRAHMANS. 107 and his status, ancl every one traces his lineage in the male line, i.e., in the line of his father, grandfather, great-grandfather, &c. The case among the Nairs is very different. Among them every girl is married formally when a child with a Brahman. But the titu¬ lar husband can never claim her as his wife, and when she grows up she may choose any one, either of her own or of the Brahman caste, provided he is not a member of the same tarwad (the common residence of the children of the same maternal ancestor). A female member of a wealthy tarwad never leaves her maternal home, but is visited there by her husband. In the case of less wealthy tarwads, the women generally live with the husbands chosen by them. But in all cases the children succeed to the property and status of their mother’s tarwad, and not to their male ancestors. The marriage customs of the Namburi Brahmans of Malabar are not the same as those of the Nairs ; nor are they quite identical with those of the Brahmans in other parts of India. In a Namburi family, it is only the eldest brother who is ordinarily allowed to take a wife by a regular marriage. If no male children be born to the eldest, then the brother next in rank may marry in the regular way, but not otherwise. The younger brothers, who are forbidden marriage, are allowed to form connexions with Ksatriya and Nair women. The Namburis exact greater deference from the Sudras than the Brahmans in other parts of the country. A Nair, who is a high caste Sudra, may approach, but must not touch, a Namburi. A Tir, who is a cultivator by caste, has to remain thirty-six steps off” from one ; a Malayaer hillman three or four steps further. A member of the degraded Puliyar caste has to keep himself at a distance of ninety-six steps. If a Puliyar touch a Brahman, the latter must make expiation by immediate bathing, and change of his Brahmanical thread. The Namburis are, like most of the other classes of Deccani Brahmans, strict vegetarians. Their male 108 THE BRAHMANS OF TRAVANCORE. members are allowed to eat with the Ksatriyas. The most striking peculiarity in a Namburi is the tuft of hair grown near the forehead, instead of the usual Brahmanical Sikha at the central part of the head. There are both Sivites and Vislmuvites among the Naim- buris. The former are called Chovar, the latter Panyon. The Namburi Brahmans seldom go abroad without holding a chatra or large umbrella. Their women also screen themselves with a chatra when they go out, which they do very seldom. The foreign Brahmans residing in Malabar are called Pattara. The Ambalvashis, who are the employes of the public shrines, are Namburis by descent, but degraded by their avocation. The great Sankaracharya, whose name stands most conspicuous in the struggle for rooting out Buddhism from India, and who is regarded by Brahmans in every part of the country as an incarnation of Siva, was a Namburi. PART y. THE SEMI-BRAHMANICAL CASTES. CHAP. I.—THE BHUINHAR BRAHMANS OF BEHAR AND BENARES. There are various legends regarding the origin of this caste. The Bhuinhar Brahmans themselves claim to be true Brahmans descended from the rulers whom Parusu Ram set up in the place of the Ksatriya kings slain by him. The good Brahmans and the Ksatriyas of the country, however, look down upon them, and in¬ sinuate that they are of a mixed breed, the offspring of Brahman men and Ksatriya women. It is even said that the class was formed by the promotion of low caste men under the orders of a minister to a Raja who wanted a very large number of Brahmans to celebrate a religious ceremony, but for whom his minister could not procure the required number of true Brahmans. But this legendary theory is very strongly contradicted by the Aryan physiognomy of the Bhuinhars who, in respect of personal appearance, are in no way inferior to the Brahmans and the Rajputs. One of the most important points of difference between the Bhuinhar Brahmans, and the majority of the ordinary Brahmans is, that while the latter are divided into only those exoga- mous clans called Gotra, the former have among them, ( 109 ) 110 THE SEMI-BRAHMANICAL CASTES. like the Rajputs, a twofold division based upon both Gotra and tribe. From this circumstance Mr. Risley* has been led to conclude that the Bhuinhar Brahmans are an offshoot of the Rajputs, and not true Brahmans. But as there are similar tribal divisions among the Maithila Brahmans of Tirhoot and the Saraswat Brah¬ mans of the Panjab, it might, on the same ground, be said that the Saraswats and the Maithilas are offshoots of the Rajputs. The theory that Bhuinhar Brahmans are an offshoot of the Rajputs, involves the utterly unfounded assump¬ tion that any of the military clans could have reason to be ashamed of their caste status. The ‘ royal race ’ had very good reasons to be proud of such surnames as Sinha, Roy and Thakoor, and it seems very unlikely that any of their clans could at any time be so foolish as to * The grounds on which Mr. Risley rests his view will appear clear from the following extract:— “ An examination of the sections or exogamous groups into which the Babhans are divided appear, however, to tell strongly against the hypothesis that they are degraded Brahmans. These groups are usually the oldest and most durable element in the internal organiza¬ tion of a caste or tribe, and may therefore be expected to oifer the clearest indications as to its origin. Now we find among the Babhans section names of two distinct types, the one territorial referring either to some very early settlement of the section, or to the birthplace of its founder, and the other eponymous, the eponym being in most cases a Vedic Rishi or inspired sage. The names of the former class correspond to or closely resemble those current among Rajputs; the names of the latter are those of the standard Brahmanical G-otras. Where the matrimonial prohibitions based on these two classes of sections conflict, as must obviously often happen where every member of the caste necessarily belongs to both sets, the authority of the territorial class overrides that of the eponymous or Brahmanical class. Suppose, for instance, that a man of the Koronch territorial section and of the Sandilya epony¬ mous section wishes to marry a woman of the Sakanwar territorial section, the fact that she also belongs to the Sandilya eponymous section will not operate as a bar to the marriage. Whatever may be the theory of the purohits of the caste, the Brahmanical Gotra is disregarded in practice. This circumstance seems to indicate that the territorial sections are the older of the two, and are probably the original sections of the caste, while the eponymous sections have been borrowed from the Brahmans in comparatively recent times. It would follow that the Babhans are an offshoot, not from the Brahmans, but from the Rajputs.”—Risley’s Tribes and Castes, Vol. I, Introduction. THE BHUINHAR BRAHMANS. Ill elub together for the purpose of assuming the Brahma- nic surnames of Dobe, Tewari, Chobe and Upadhya. On the theory that the Bhuinhar Brahmans are an off¬ shoot of the Rajputs, the clans that now profess to be Bhuinhar Rajputs are the residue that have stuck to their original status, and have never aspired to a higher one. But on this supposition it would be difficult to find any reason for the distinction between Bhuinhar Rajputs and the ordinary Rajputs. The clue to the exact status of the Bhuinhar Brah¬ mans is afforded by their very name. The word literally means a landholder. In the language of the Indian feudal system, Bhum is the name given to a kind of tenure similar to the Inams and Jaigirs of Mahomedan times. By a Bhum, according to the Rajputana Gazetteer, an hereditary, non-resumable and inalienable property in the soil was inseparably bound up with a revenue-free title. Bhum was given as compensation for bloodshed, in order to quell a feud, for distinguished services in the field, for protection of a border, or for the watch and ward of a village.* The tenure is very highly esteemed by Rajputs of all classes. The Maharajah of Kishengarh, the Thakoor of Fategarb, the Thakoor of Gunia, the Thakoor of Bandanwara, and the Thakoor of Tantoti are among the Bhumias of Ajmere. In Bengal the fact of the frontier districts of the east having been at one time under twelve Bhumia Kings is well known still by tradition. The meaning of the designation Bhuinhar being as stated above, the Bhuinhar Brahmans are evidently those Brahmans who held grants of land for secular services. Whoever held a secular fief was a Bhuinhar. Where a Brahman held such a tenure he was called a Bhuinhar Brahman. Where the holder was a Ksatriya he was called a Bhuinhar Ksatriya. Bhuinhar Brah- * The Assamese Bhuinhars do not wear the sacred thread, and do not claim to be either Brahmans or Ksatriyas. 112 THE SEMI-BRAHMANICAL CASTES. mans are sometimes called simply Bhuinhars, just as tin masons, whose class name in Bengali is Raj mist (royal architect), are generally called Raj, which mea: a king. In Assam the Bhuinhars hold their lands on ver- favourable terms; but no exceptional indulgence shown to the Bhuinhars of Behar or Benares by th local zemindars. As may be expected the Bhuinha are now chiefly an agricultural class ; but like the good Brahmans, they never touch the plough. They will, however, do any kind of manual work except personal service. They serve not only as soldiers, con stables, orderlies and gate-keepers, but also as porte i s cartmen, and cutters of wood. Many of the Hin cartmen and porters in Calcutta are Bhuinhars. Soi of them are very proud and cantankerous. The fact that the Bhuinhars readily enlist in the army and ii the police may be taken to show, to some extent, wL their caste profession must have been in former time^ The Bhuinhars observe all their religious ceremon- in the same manner as the good Brahmans ; but they practise secular avocations they, like the Lauk: Brahmans of Southern India, are not entitled to accept religious gifts, or to minister to any one as priests. 1 best Brahmans officiate as priests for the Bhuinhars, am! it is not considered that they are degraded by doing so. On the view that the Bhuinhars were anciently fighting caste, it is not at all a matter for worn that there are among them, as among the Rajpi many big landholders. The Rajas named below are the Bhuinhar caste :— 1. Raja of Benares. 2. Raja of Bettia in Champaran, North Behar. 3. Raja of Tikari in Gaya. 4. Raja of Hatwa in Saran, North Behar. 5. Raja of Tamakhi in Gorakpore. 6. Raja of Sheohar. 7. Raja of Maisadal in Midnapore, Bengal. 8. Raja of Pakour in Sonthal Pergunnahs, Bengal. 9. Raja of Moheshpore in Sonthal Pergunnahs, Bengal THE BHUINHAR BRAHMANS. 113 1 i 1 the Rajputs the Bhuinhar Brahmans form one o'w.i! caste, and there are no sub-castes among them. They are divided into a large number of clans which, fo i urposes of marriage, are, with very few exceptions, all ((|ual. The usual surnames of the Bhuinhar Brah- m > are the same as those of the other Brahmans of No iiern India. Being a fighting caste, a few of them hav Rajput surnames. R, HC 8 CHAP. II.—THE BHATS AND THE CHARANAS. The Bhats and the Charanas are very important castes in Rajputana and the adjoining provinces. They are the minstrels, historians and genealogists of the Rajput chiefs, and are very much feared by their con¬ stituents, as it is in their power to lower any family by distorting history. They all take the holy thread, and as their persons are considered to be sacred by all classes, they seem to have been originally Brahmans. The very name of Bhatta points also to the same conclusion, as it means a learned man, and is an honori¬ fic surname of many of the best families of Brahmanas in every part of the country. In all probability the Bhats are the caste who were usually employed by the Rajput princes in diplomatic service, while the Charanas, as their very name indicates, were the spies. At any rate this view not only explains the fact that the Bhats have a higher caste status than the Charanas, but is supported also by the custom which still prevails among the Rajputs of employing the Bhats to conduct negotiations for marriage alliances. Sir John Malcolm gives the following account of the Bhats :— The Bhats or Raos seldom sacrifice themselves; but as chroniclers or bards, they share power, and sometimes office with the Charanas. Among the Bhilalas and lower tribes they enjoy great and exclusive influence; they give praise and fame in their songs to those who are liberal to them, while they visit those who neglect or injure them, with satires, in which they usually reproach them with spurious birth and inherent meanness. Sometimes the Bhat, if very seriously offended, fixes the figure of the person he desires to degrade on a ( H4 ) THE BHATS. 115 long pole, and appends to it a slipper as a mark of disgrace. In such cases the song of the Bhat records the infamy of the object of his revenge. This image usually travels the country till the party or his friends purchase the cessation of the ridicule and curses thus entailed. It is not deemed in these countries in the power of a prince, much less any other person, to stop a Bhat, or even punish him for such a proceeding : he is protected by the superstitious and religious awe which, when general among a people, controls even despotism.— Malcolm’s Central India , Vol. II, Chap. XIV, pp. 113-114. The poetic castes in fact performed the functions of the tiers-6tat in Rajasthan, and the privilege of comment¬ ing on the actions of their Kings, which they possessed and very often abused, was very nearly unlimited. In Rajputana there are many big landholders and men of influence among the Bhats and the Charanas ; but there are very few Sanskritists among them. The usual surname of the Bhats is Rao. They are divided into two classes, namely, the Brahma Bhats and the Yoga Bhats. The former are poets and minstrels who recount, in verse, the history of the great Rajput heroes, ancient and modern. The Yoga Bhats are the genealogists. The Bhats of Bengal are mere beggars, without regular constituents, and without the slightest pretension of poetic capacity. On the occasions of Pujas and Shradhas in the houses of the rich, they present themselves uninvited, and make such a horrid uproar by shouting and singing, that the master of the house besieged by them is glad to pay something to get rid of them. If refused, they will get to the top of a tree or wall, and threaten to commit suicide by falling headlong on the ground. Being thus terrorised the ladies of the house insist upon their immediate dis¬ missal anyhow, and it is therefore quite impossible to avoid submitting to their exactions on ceremonial occa¬ sions. With regard to the Charanas Sir John Malcolm gives the following account :— They are divided into two tribes, the Kachili who are merchants, and the Maru who are bards. These again branch out into one hun¬ dred and twenty other tribes, many of whom are the descendants in the female line of Brahmans and Rajputs. They are taught to read and write, and the class who traffic (generally in camels and horses) 116 THE SEMI-BRAHM4NICAL CASTES. are shrewd men of business ; while the Maru Charanas apply their skill to the genealogy of tribes, and to the recital of numerous legends (usually in verse), celebrating the praises of former heroes, which it is their duty to chant, to gratify the pride and rouse the emulation of their descendants. The Charana’s chief power is derived from an impression that it is certain ruin and destruction to shed his blood, or that of any of his family, or to be the cause of its being shed. They obtain a high rank in society, and a certain livelihood, from the superstitious belief which they are educated to inculcate, and which they teach their children to consider as their chief object in life to maintain. A Charana becomes the safeguard of travellers and security for merchants, and his bond is often preferred among the Rajputs, when rents and property are con¬ cerned, to that of the wealthiest bankers. When he trades himself, he alone is trusted and trusts among the community to which he belongs. The Charana who accompanies travellers likely to be attacked by Rajput robbers, when he sees the latter approach, warns them o£E by holding a dagger in his hand, and if they do not attend to him, he stabs himself in a place that is not mortal, and taking the blood from the wound, throws it at the assailants with imprecations of future woe and ruin. If this has not the de¬ sired effect, the wounds are repeated, and in extreme cases one of the Charana’s relations, commonly a female child or an old woman, is made a sacrifice. The same process is adopted to enforce the pay¬ ment of a debt to himself or a claim for which he has become security. It is not unusual, as the next step, to slay himself; and the catastrophe has been known to close in the voluntary death of his wives and children. The females of the Charanas are distinct from all the other population, both in dress and manners. They often reside in separate villages, and the traveller is surprised to see them come out in their long robes, and attend him for some space, chant¬ ing his welcome to their abode. The Charanas are not only treated by the Rajputs with great respect (the highest rulers of that race rising when one of this class enters or leaves an assembly), but they have more substantial marks of regard. When they engage in trade, lighter duties are collected from them than others. They receive at all feasts and marriages presents that are only limited by the ability of the parties. The evil consequences of a Charana being driven to undergo a violent death, can be alone averted by grants of land and costly gifts to surviving relations ; and the Rajput chief, whose guilt is recorded (for all these sacrifices are subjects of rude poems), as the cause of such sacred blood being shed, is fortunate when he can by any means have his repentance and generosity made part of thelegend.—Malcolm’s Central India,V ol. II,Chap. XIV, p. 108 et seq. About the peregrinations of the Bhats and the Cha¬ ranas, and the periodical visits paid by them to their constituents, a graphic account is to be found in the following extract :— When the rainy season closes, and travelling becomes practicable, the bard sets off on his yearly tour from his residence in the Bhat- wara of some city or town. One by one he visits each of the Rajput chiefs who are bis patrons, and from whom he has received portions of land, or annual grants of money, timing his arrival, if possible, THE CHARANAS. 117 to suit occasions of marriage or other domestic festival. After he has received the usual courtesies, he produces the ‘ Bahi, ’ a book written in his own crabbed hieroglyphics, or in those of his fathers, which contains the descent of the house ; if the chief be the Tilayet or head of the family, from the founder of the tribe ; if he be a Phatayo, or cadet, from the immediate ancestor of the branch, inter¬ spersed with many a verse or ballad, the dark sayings contained in which are chanted forth in musical cadence to a delighted audience, and are then orally interpreted by the bard, with many an illustra¬ tive anecdote or tale. The ‘ Bahi’ is not, however, merely a source for the gratification of family pride, or even of love of song ; it is also a record of authority by which questions of consanguinity are deter¬ mined when marriage is on the tapis, and disputes relating to the division of ancestral property are decided. It is the duty of a bard at each periodical visit to register the births, marriages and deaths which have taken place in the family since his last circuit, as well as to chronicle all other events worthy of remark which have occur¬ red to affect the fortunes of his patron ; nor have we ever heard even a doubt suggested regarding the accurate, much less the honest, ful¬ filment of this duty by the bard.—Forbes’s Bos Mala, Vol. II, pp. •263-64. PART VI. THE DEGRADED BRAHMANS. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. There are various classes of degraded Brahmans who now form, more or less completely, separate castes. Their social ostracism is due to one or other of the following causes :— 1. Alleged intercourse with Mahomedans at some by-gone period. 2. Ministering to the low castes as priests. 3. Being connected with the great public shrines. 4. Accepting forbidden gifts. 5. Ministering as priests at a cremation. 6. Being suspected to be of spurious birth. 7. By being tillers of the soil. 8. By menial service. CHAP. I.—THE HOSAINIS AND KUVACHANDAS. Hosainis .—These are a class of Brahmans to be found in many parts of Western India, and especially near Ahmednagar. They have actually adopted to some extent the Mahometan faith and its observances, though they retain some of the Brahmanic practices too, and generally intermarry only among themselves. As a class they have no importance. They are chiefly beggars. Kuvachandas —Found in Sind, and they generally resemble the Mussalmans in their habits. ( ) CHAP. II.—THE PIRALI TAGORES OF CALCUTTA. Of the several classes degraded by alleged inter¬ course with Mahomedans, the Piralis of Bengal are the most important from many points of view. They claim to be a section of the Radriya Brahmans of the country with whom alone they intermarry, though such alliance is always very expensive to them. The good Radriya who marries into a Pirali family is himself reduced to the rank of a Pirali, and always demands a heavy premium as a sine qua non. With the exception of the family of Babu Debendra Nath Tagore who are Brahmos, the Piralis are very orthodox Hindus. The following account relating to the degradation of Purushottama, the ancestor of the clan, is given by one of their leading members, the late Honorable Prasanna Kumar Tagore, c.s.i.:— Purushottama was called Pirali for having married the daughter of a person blemished in caste. According to the books of the Ghattaks, Janaki Ballabha and Kamdeva Roy Chowdri, inhabitants of Gurgain, in Pergana Chengutia, brought a suit against an ancestor of Sri Kanta Roy, of Jessore. An Amin, named Pirali Khan, was deputed by the zemindar for the purpose of holding an investigation into the case. There was an altercation between the Amin and some of the inhabitants of the place as to whether the smell of a thing was tantamount to half-eating it. Some time after the said Pirali Khan invited several persons all of whom lost their caste, as he made them smell forbidden food. Janaki Ballabha and Kamaileva having sat near the Amin and been reported to have eaten the food, became Mahomedans, under the names of Jamal Khan and Kamal Khan, pursuant to the decision of the Pandits of those times. Their descendants, Arjuna Khan, Dinanath Khan, &c., live like Mahomedans up to this day in Magura and Basundia, ( 119 ) * 120 THE TAGORES OF CALCUTTA. Pergana Chengutia, zillah Jessore. They form their connections by marriage with the Khan Cliowdries of Broome, but not with any other Mahomcdans. The remaining persons present on the occasion were called Pirali. Purushottama was one of the latter. Others give a different account. They say that when Purushottama was in Jessore, on his way to bathe in the Ganges, the Chowdries of that place, who became polluted in the above mentioned way, forcibly took him to their house with a view to give him a daughter of theirs in marriage. Seeing that the bride was very beautiful, Purushottama agreed to marry her. After this marriage, Purushottama left the original seat of his family and settled in Jessore. Purushottama had a son named Balarama. Panchanana, the fifth in descent from Balarama left Jessore and came to Govindpore, the site of Fort William, where he purchased land, and built thereon a dwelling- house and a temple. His son Jairam was employed as an Amin in the settlement of the 24-Pergunnahs and discharged his duties with considerable credit. At the capture of Calcutta he is said to have lost all his property with the exception of Rs. 13,000 in cash. Jairam’s house was taken by the English for the purpose of build¬ ing Fort William. He received some money and land as compensa¬ tion, and removed himself to Pathuriagliata. He died in the year 1762, leaving four sons, named Ananda Ram, Nilmani, Darpa Narayan and Govinda. The eldest, Ananda Ram, was the first who received a liberal English education. His family and that of his youngest brother, who superintended the building of the Fort William, have become extinct. Nilmani was the grandfather of Dwarkanath Tagore, who occupied a foremost rank in the society of his day. See S. C. Bose’s Hindus as they are, pp. 171—74. With reference to the above, it may be observed here that the alleged enjoyment of the smell of a Maho- medan’s savoury meat, cannot, by itself, explain the perpetual degradation of Purushottama, or of any of the other guests of Pirali. The sin of even voluntary and actual eating of such food is not an inexpiable one, and there is not within the four corners of the Shastras, any such utterly unreasonable and Draconian law as would visit a man with eternal degradation for involun¬ tarily inhaling the smell of forbidden food. There are also other inherent improbabilities in the story as narrated above. Unless the Amin, and the inhabitants of the locality where he was conducting his investiga¬ tions, were quite demented, there could not possibly be an occasion for any altercation between the parties as to a question of the Hindu’s religion. Then, again, if the habits and prejudices of the Hindus in those times be taken into consideration, it would seem quite impossible THE TAGORES OF CALCUTTA. 121 that Pirali would have invited any number of them to his house, or that they would have responded to the invitation so far as to enter his dining-room. Hindus and Mahomedans very often exchange visits for cere¬ monial and official purposes. But even when they are on the most friendly terms, a man professing the one religion will not ask a votary of the other to sit by his table while he is at dinner. The orthodox Hindu’s pre¬ judices are such that after sitting on the same carpet with a Mahomedan or a Christian friend, or shaking hands with such a person, he has to put off his clothes, and to bathe or sprinkle his person with the holy water of the Ganges. The Mahomedan gentleman of the country who know well of these prejudices on the part of their Hindu fellow-countrymen, therefore, never ask them to mix too familiarly, and the Hindus also keep themselves at a sufficient distance to avoid that they must regard as contaminations. The dwelling-house of every native of India, be he a Hindu or a Mahomedan, consists of two parts, namely, the zenana and the boytakhana. The zenana apartments are reserved for the ladies, and the dining-rooms for the members of the house are always within the zenana. The boytakhana is the outer part of the house where visitors are received. The Mussal- mans do sometimes entertain their co-religionists in the boytakhana; but no orthodox Hindu would enter such a place while the plates are in it, or would remain there a moment after any sign of preparations for introducing any kind of cooked eatables. From what is stated above, it would appear that the causes assigned by the Piralis themselves for their degradation cannot satisfactorily account for their status in the Hindu caste system. From the general tenor of their story, it seems more probable that Puru- shottama was an officer in the staff of the surveyor, Pirali, and that, as Amins and their underlings usually do, he made himself very unpopular among his co¬ religionists by attempting to invade the titles to their 122 THE TAGORES OF CALCUTTA. patrimony, so as to lead them to club together for ostracising him on the allegation that he had tasted or smelt forbidden food. The reason why the Piralis left their original habitat, and settled in Calcutta, is not far to seek. Purushottama who was first outcasted had evidently made his native village too hot for him. He removed to Jessore ; but even at Jessore he could not have, in his degraded condition, found many friends. His de¬ scendant, Panchanana, therefore removed to Calcutta in search of employment, and a place where he could live in peace. Calcutta was then practically ruled by the East India Company, who had no reason whatever to pay any regard to any rule or decree of caste disci¬ pline. The majority of the well-to-do population of Calcutta were then of the weaver caste, with a sprink¬ ling of Sonar Banyas and Kayasthas. Grood Brahmans visited the towns sometimes for ministering to their disciples or collecting the donations of the rich Sudras to their toles or Sanskrit schools. But those were days when the orthodox and respectable Brahmans of Bengal considered it beneath their dignity to engage in secular pursuits, and even to those who were in¬ clined to pocket their pride for the sake of pelf, the service of the East India Company could not then have much attraction. Whatever the cause might have been, the Brahmanic population of Calcutta was not very large in its early days. When such was the state of things Panchanana settled in it. A Brahman is a Brahman though outcasted by his clansmen. The Sonar Banyas of Calcutta were themselves outcastes, and as for the Tantis and Kayasthas, they could have neither the motive nor the power to subject the outcaste Panchanana to any kind of persecution. The Setts and the Maliks actually befriended his family, though ap¬ parently without recognizing their status as Brahmans so far as to accept their hospitality in any shape. In Prasanna Kumar Tagore’s account of his family history THE TAGORES OF CALCUTTA. 123 it is stated that Ram Krishna Mallik exchanged turbans with his ancestor Darpa Narain. That was no doubt a sign of friendship, but not of the kind of venera¬ tion which Banyas must have for good Brahmans. It is said however that for nearly half a century after the arrival of their ancestor, Panchanana, in Calcutta, the Piralis were recognized as good Brahman. But when they became wealthy and influential, the late Babu Durga Charan Mukerji, of Bag Bazar, formed a party for degrading them. Perhaps some of the Kay- astha magnates of Calcutta secretly supported Durga Charan in persecuting the Piralis. The way in which the Tagores of the last century attained their wealth is not well known. Panchanana’s son Jairam, by serving as an Amin for the survey and settlement of the villages acquired by the East India Company under the charter of Emperor Ferokshere, apparently laid a substantial foundation. His youngest son Govinda, who superintended the building of Port William, presumably improved the patrimony materially. Darpa Narain, the third son of Jairam and the great¬ grandfather of Sir Maharaja Jotindra Mohan, held for some time a high office in the service of the French East India Company. Nilmoni, the second son of Jai¬ ram and the grandfather of the celebrated Dwarka Nath Tagore, did not inherit any share of the family estate. But he was befriended by one of the Sonar Banaiya millionaires of his time, and was enabled by his friend to build a separate house for his residence on the site now occupied by the palatial mansion belong¬ ing to his descendants. Niimoni’s second son, Ram Moni, served as a clerk in the Police Court. Dwarka Nath, the second son of Ram Moni, made himself wealthy and famous in various ways. He began his career by enter¬ ing the service of the Government of Bengal in the Salt Department. About the beginning of the present century when the estates of most of the great zemindars of Bengal were 124 THE TAGORES OF CALCUTTA. brought to sale, for arrears of revenue, the Pirali Tagores bought many valuable properties, and became themselves great zemindars. The total income of the several branch¬ es of the Tagore family must at present be more than £100,000. The leading members of the clan in the last generation were Dwarka Nath Tagore, Prasunna Kumar Tagore and Ramanath Tagore. Among the living celebrities of the family, Maharaja Sir Jotindra Mo- hun Tagore is deservedly esteemed as one of its bright¬ est ornaments. He was a member of the Legislative Council of India for several years, and the British Government oflndia has conferred upon him every possi¬ ble title of honour at its disposal. His brother Maharaja Sourendra Mohan Tagore is a votary of the science of music, but at the same time has been steadily improving his estate by efficient management like his illustrious brother. Dwarka Nath’s son Devendra Nath is now in “ sear and yellow leaf ” of life. On account of his devo¬ tion to religion he is usually called a Maharshi or Saint. His son Satyendra Nath is the first Hindu member of the Indian Civil Service, and is now employed as a District Judge in the Bombay Presidency. Babu Kali Krishna Tagore, who represents another branch, does not move much in Calcutta society ; but next to Sir J. M. Tagore, he is perhaps the richest member of the family. Prom a long time the Tagores have been struggling hard to be restored to caste. Ward says that Raja Krishna Chundra of Nadiya was promised one lac of rupees by a Pirali, if he would only honour him with a visit for a few minutes, but he refused. Similar offers, though of smaller amounts, have been again and again made to the great Pandits of Nadiya, but have been simi¬ larly declined. But the Tagores are now fast rising in the scale of caste. Poor Brahmans now more or less openly accept their gifts, and sometimes even their hospi¬ tality; and Sir J. M. Tagore is on the way towards acquir¬ ing an influence on the Pandits which may one day enable him to re-establish his family completely in caste. CHAP. III.—THE BARNA BRAHMANS. The Brahmans that minister to the low Sudra castes and outcastes, are looked upon as degraded persons, and they generally form separate castes. The good Brah¬ mans will not take even a drink of water from their hands, and intermarriage between them is quite out of the question. In Bengal the following classes ot Sudras and outcastes have special priests :— 1. Sonar Vaniya—Gold merchants. 2. Goala—Cowherds. 3. Kalu—Oilmen. 4. Dhopa—Washermen. 5. Bagdi—Aboriginal tribe of woodcutters and fishermen. 6. Kaibarta. The priests of each of these classes form independent castes, without the right of intermarriage or dining together with any other section of the Brahmanie caste. With the exception of a few of the Sonar Vaniya Brahmans, these Barna Brahmans, as they are called, are mostly very poor, and utterly without any kind of social position. The priests of the Kaibartas are in some places called Vyasokta Brahmans. § 2.— Barna Brahmans of Mithila. The following castes of Mithila have special Brah¬ mans :— Tatwa—Weaver. Teli—Oilman. Kasara— Brazier. Sonar—Goldsmith, ( 125 ) 126 THE BARNA BRAHMANS. § 3.— Barna Brahmans of Gujrat and Rajputana. The following are regarded as Barna Brahmans in Gujrat, and have a low caste status :— Abhira Brahmans—Priests of the cowherd caste. Kunbi Gour—Priests of the Kunbis. Gujara Gour—Priests of the Gujars. Machi Gour—Priests of the Rlachi or fishermen. Gandharpa Gour—Priests of the musicians. Koli Gour—Priests of the Kolis. Garudyas—Priests of the Cliamhars and Dheds. § 4.— Barna Brahmans of Telingana. The following are the names of the classes of Tai- langi Brahmans that minister to the low castes :— 1. Ganda Dravidras. 2. Nambi Varlu. § 5.— Barna Brahmans of Malabar. 1. Eledus—Priests of the Nairs. CHAP. IV.—THE BRAHMANS CONNECTED WITH THE GREAT PUBLIC SHRINES. Of the Brahmans who are considered as havino- a very low status on account of their being connected with the great public shrines, the following classes are the most important :— 1. Gayalis of Gaya. 2. Chowbays of Muttra. 3. Pukar Sevaks of Pushkar. 4. Ganga Putras of Benares. 5. Pandas of Orissa. 6. Pandarams of Southern India. 7. Prayagwalas of Prayag or Allahabad. 8. Divas—connected with the Ballavachari shrines of West¬ ern India. 9. Moylars—connected with the Madhava temples of Tula- va; said to be of spurious birth. 10. Ambalavasis—connected with the shrines in Malabar. 11. Numbi Brahmans—connected with the public shrines of Karnata. Most of these classes are very rich, but utterly il¬ literate. Mere residence in a place of pilgrimage, for a few generations, tends to lower the status of a family. The Bengali Brahmans settled at Benares are called by their clansmen Kashials, and looked down upon as men whose birth is spurious, or as being in the habit of earning their livelihood by accepting forbidden gifts. The Brahmans of Southern India also look down upon their clansmen permanently residing in Benares, without any connection with their native country.* ’The reader may have some idea of this feeling from the following passage in Mr. Wilkin’s Modern Hinduism : — A few months ago, when travelling on the East India Railway, ( 127 ) 128 The Somparas connected with the shrine of Somnath seem to have a higher position than the priests of the public shrines usually have. There is a class of Brah¬ mans in the Doab who call themselves Chowbays of Mathura, but have nothing to do with priestly work. These are very high class Brahmans. There are many learned Sanskritists and English scholars among them. Some of them hold high offices in the service of Govern¬ ment and also of the Native States. One of the greatest of these is Kumar Jwala Prasad, who is at present the District Judge of Azimgai’h. His father, Raja Jai Kishen, rendered eminent services to the Government at the time of the Sepoy Mutiny, and is still employed as a Deputy Collector. Another member of the Chowbay caste, named Raghu Nath Das, is the Prime Minister of Kota. I met with two Brahmans from Mysore. They are educated men ; one of them was expecting to appear in the following B. A. Examination of the Madras University. When we were leaving Benares, it occurred to me to ask if they had any friends in that holy city. They said,—“No, but we soon found some Brahmans from our part of the country.” I said “ oh, then you were well received and hospitably entertained by them of course ? ” I shall never forget the look of infinite disdain with which one of them replied : “Do you think we would eat with men who live in such a city as Benares, and associate with Brahmans of this district ? No, we con¬ tented ourselves whilst there with one meal a day, which we cooked for ourselves.” My question appeared to them about as reasonable as if I had asked a nobleman in England if he had dined with scaven¬ ger.—Wilkin’s Modern Hinduism, pp. 163 164. CHAP. Y—THE BRAHMANS DEGRADED BY ACCEPTING FORBIDDEN GIFTS, AND OFFI¬ CIATING AS PAID PRIESTS AT CREMA¬ TIONS. By the religious codes of the Hindus, the acceptance of certain kinds of movables, such as elephants, horses, etc., is strictly forbidden. But in actual practice even high caste Brahmans are sometimes led by poverty to accept such gifts, especially where the transaction takes place in a distant part of the country, and under circumstances that may render it possible for the donee to keep his act of sin unknown to his clansmen. If the fact becomes known to them he is outcasted, and his descendants remain in the same condition, so long as the nature of the original cause of their degradation is remembered by their fellow-castemen. But in almost every such case the family recovers its lost position after a few generations, and no separate caste is formed. There are, however, certain kinds of gifts which good Brahmans never accept, and which only certain classes of degraded Brahmans are held to be entitled to. These Brahmans are called Maha-Brahman in Northern India, Agradani in Bengal, Agra Bhikshu in Orissa, and Acha- rya in Western India. The Mahii-Brahmans or Great Brahmans are so-called by way of irony. Their caste status is so low that good Hindus consider their very touch to be contaminating, and actually bathe if accident¬ ally affected by such pollution. Almost all the classes b, hc ( 129 ) 9 130 THE SAWALAKHIS. mentioned above take a part in the ceremonies which have to be performed within the first ten days after a man’s death. A great many of them claim also the wearing apparel of the deceased and his bedding, as their perquisites. There is a class of Brahmans in and near Benares called Sawalakhi. They are considered as degraded on account of their being in the habit of accepting gifts from pilgrims within the holy city of Benares. The Sawalakhis are not treated as an unclean class, and a good Brahman will take a drink of water from their hands. There is a class of Brahmans in the N.-W. Pro¬ vinces called Bhattas who minister as priests in cere¬ monies for the expiation of the sin of cow-killing. They are regarded as very unclean. The Maruiporas who officiate in some public burning- ghats as paid priests have a lower position than that of even the Maha-Brhmans and the Agradanis. Gene¬ rally the function is performed by the ordinary family priests without fee of any kind. But in some burning- ghats certain families claim an exclusive right to ad¬ minister the sacrament to the dead, and claim heavy fees in the most heartless manner. These are in Bengal called Maruiporas, literally, dead burners. In Western India they are called Acharyas. In Rajputana and the neighbouring districts there is a kind of Brahman called Dakot and also Sanichar, who accept gifts of oil and sesamum made for propitiating the planet Saturn. They are, therefore, regarded as de¬ graded Brahmans. CHAP. VI.—THE CLASSES DEGRADED BY MENIAL SERVICE, AND THE PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE. The Bhuinhars are now chiefly tillers of the soil ; but apparently the original cause of their being lowered in the scale of caste was the adoption of the military pro¬ fession, and their subsequent practice of agriculture has served only to degrade them a little further. Of the sections of the Brahmanical caste which are held to be more or less degraded on account of their being agri¬ culturists, the following may be mentioned here :— 1. Tagas—Kurukshetra country. 2. Trigulas—found on the banks of the Krishna in the Southern Maharatta country. 3. Soparas—found in Bassein. 4. Sajhodra—found in Gujrat. 5. Bhatelas—found near Broach. 6. Mastanis—found in Orissa and Gujrat. Among the classes degraded by menial service may be mentioned the following :— 1. Javala—cooks in the Maharatta country. 2. Gugali—servants of the Vallabhachari Maharajas. 3. Sanchora—cooks, found chiefly in Gujrat. ( 131 ) PART VII. THE MILITARY CASTES. CHAP. I.—THE RAJPUTS. The political importance of the Rajputs in India is well known, and I need not, in this book, say anything as to what their position had been until the country became subject to Moslem rule. Their past history is a glorious one ; and although it is long since they have been shorn of their ancient greatness, yet it cannot be said even now that they have no importance whatever. From time immemorial, they looked upon war and politics as their only proper sphere, and although the Brahmans allowed to them the privilege of studying the Shastras, yet they never devoted their attention to the cultivation of letters. The traditions of their fami¬ lies, and the hereditary aptitude for the art of warfare developed in them, made them the perfect type of good soldiers. But their want of literary culture made their great generals incapable of recording their own ex¬ periences in such manner as to be available for the benefit of their successors. The Bhats who served as their genealogists lavished praises on their ancestors, and excited them to feats of bravery, but could never give them anything like a good history. The Brah- manical Purans distorted the facts so as to suit the policy of their authors, and gave greater importance to ( 132 ) THE MILITARY CASTES. 133 the good or bad wishes of a Brahman, than to either military or diplomatic skill. On the other hand, the Rajputs themselves were too illiterate to profit by even the little authentic history that was in the Purans. The result was that, with all their natural talents and per¬ sonal bravery, they could not secure to the country a sufficient number of good generals and political minis¬ ters. A genius shone at times. But in no country and in no community are Chandra Guptas and Vikra- madityas born every day. A natural genius like that of Sivaji or Ranjit may do without any kind of edu¬ cation ; but the majority of even the best men in every country require training in order to develop their capacities, and the necessary means for that training was sadly wanting among the Rajputs. Thus, in spite of all their soldier-like virtues, they failed to cope with the early Mahomedan invaders. But the greatest of the Mahomedan rulers—not even Akbar or Alaudin— could break their power completely. The wrecks which they preserve still of their former greatness are not at all inconsiderable. The majority of the leading Hindu chiefs of India are still of their tribe. A great many of the Hindu landholders, big and small in every part of India, are also of the same caste. The Rajputs are still generally quite as averse to education as their ancestors ever were. But already some mem¬ bers of the class have shaken off their old prejudices, and have received the benefits of English education. And the time seems to be fast coming when the scions of the Ksatriya aristocracy will prove to be formidable rivals to the Brahmans and the Kayasthas, in the race for high offices, and for distinction in the liberal pro¬ fessions. Some noble examples of such departure have already been set in Bengal. The well-known Vakils, Babus Prasanna Chandra Roy and Saligram Sing, of the Bengal High Court, are Rajputs by caste. The former is a Rajput zemindar of Nadiya. In the early years of the Calcutta University he 134 THE MILITARY CASTES. attained its highest honours, and for a time, practised with great success in the Bar of the Allahabad High Court. If he had continued in the profession, he might have been one of its recognized leaders ; but the exi¬ gencies of his patrimony and his indigo plantations compelled him to keep himself unconnected with the Bar for nearly twenty years. He has lately resumed his profession as a Vakil of the Bengal High Court, and is fast rising in eminence. In the Judicial Service of Bengal there are at present two gentlemen who are of the Rajput caste. They are the grandsons of the celebrated Babu Kesava Roy of Nakasipara, who was the terror of his district in his time, and who with his army of Goala clubmen successfully set at defiance the authority of the police and the magistracy. The Rajputs are to be found in every part of India, and the total population of the tribe exceeds ten millions. The following table shows their numerical strength in each of the several Provinces where they are most numerous :— N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 3,793,433 Pan jab ... ... ... 1,790,359 Bengal ... ... ... 1,519,354 Rajputana ... ... ... 785,227 Central India ... ... ... 713,683 Bombay ... ... ... 566,942 Central Provinces ... ... ... 379,297 Madras ... ... ... 171,244 Kashmir ... ... ... 402,918 There are no sub-castes among the Rajputs properly so-called. They are divided into a large number of clans, the rules among them relating to marriage being as follows :— 1. No one can marry within his tribe. 2. A girl should be given in marriage to a bridegroom of a higher tribe. 3. A male member of a Rajput tribe may take in marriage any Rajput girl though of a lower class. Like the Sarswats, the Rajputs are said to marry within their Glotra provided the clan is different. THE RAJPUTS. 135 The principal clans of the Rajputs are the following:— 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 10 . 11 . 12 . Besides these, there are twenty-four other principal clans, and each of these is divided into numerous sub¬ clans. The usual surnames of the Rajputs are : Sing, Barman, Thakoor, Raut, Roy, &c. In respect to diet the Rajputs do not strictly conform to the practice of high caste Hindus. There are many among them who eat both fish and such flesh as is not forbidden by the Shastras. Some eat even pork. There are, however, some among them who are very puritanic, and who do not eat any kind of animal food. Their caste vanity is such that it is very rare to find two Rajputs of different families who will eat together, and hence there is a common saying in the country that a “ dozen Rajputs cannot do without at least thirteen kitchens.” The Rajputs of Bengal eat kaclii food, i.e., rice, dal, fish, or flesh cooked in water by a Brahman. In other parts of the country the practice is not uniform, and some Rajputs refuse to take kaclii food even from a good Brahman of their country, unless such person is the spiritual guide of the family. As to pakki food, i.e., such as is prepared by frying flour or vegetables in glii, the Rajputs have not much prejudice, and like the modern Brahmans of Bengal they will take it from any of the clean Sudra castes such as the Dhanuk, Kurmi, Kahar, Lohar, Barhi, Kumhar, Goala, Napit, Mali, Sonar and the Kaseri, provided that no salt or turmeric has been used in the making. These the Rajput will add himself before eating. Suryavansi Somvansi or Chandravansi Yaduvansi. Pramara. Pravihara. Chalukya or Solanki. Chauhan. Tuar. Rathor. Kateliwa. Grahilot. Bais. (Solar race). (Lunar race). I Born out of the sacred 'fire in accordance with the prayer of Brahmans. 136 THE MILITARY CASTES. The Rajput is the best person from whom a Brahman can accept a gift. A Brahman may also officiate as a priest in a Rajput household without lowering himself in the estimation of his castemen. There is nothing in the Shastras to prevent a Brahman from eating even kachi food from the hands of a Rajput. But in actual practice the Brahmans do not eat such rica, dal, fish or flesh as is cooked, or touched after cooking, by a Rajput. The glii cakes and sweetmeats made by the Rajputs are, however, eaten by the best Brah¬ mans, with the exception of only a few of the over puritanic Pandits. The Brahmans will eat also kachi, food in the house of a Rajput, if cooked by a Brahman, and untouched by the host after cooking. The following is a list of the leading Rajput chiefs of India together with the names of the clans to which they belong :— Rana of Udaipur Maharaja of Jodhpur Maharaja of Bikaneer Maharaja of Kishengarh Maharaja of Jaipore Maharao Raja of Alwar Maharaja of Jaisalmir Maharaja of Jhalwar Maharaja of Karauli Maharaja of Kota Maharao Raja of Bundi Maharaja of Vizianagram Sisodya branch of the Gra- hilot clan of Suryavansi Rajputs. Rathor clan of Suryavansi Rajputs. Rathor clan of Suryavansi Rajputs. Rathor clan of Suryavansi Rajputs. Kachawa clan of Suryavansi Rajputs. Naruka clan. Yadu Bhati clan. Jhala clan. Jadun clan of Yaduvansi Rajputs. Chauhan. Hara sept of Chauhans. Of the same clan as the Rana of Udaipur.* The number of minor chiefs and landholders who are of the Rajput caste is so large that a complete list * The Maharaja of Vizianagram, in the Vizigapatam district, represents the royal house of the ancient Kalinga country. According to the local traditions, one of his remote ancestors, named Madhava Varma, came to the Telugu country from the north, and having conquered it, settled there with all his followers, who are divided into five classes. Intermarriage still takes place between these Rajputs and those of Northern India. But there is in Kalinga another class of the military caste who are called Khond Rajus (Lit., hillChattris). The Gajapati Rajas are Khond Rajus, and intermarriage cannot take place between them and. the Rajputs properly so-called. THE RAJPUTS. 137 of them cannot possibly be given in this book. The Maharaja of Domraon, near Arrah, one of the biggest landlords in Behar, is a high caste Rajput, represening, it is said, the line of the great Vikramaditya. The Rajputs are admitted by all to be true Ksatriyas and are not to be confounded with the Kshettris of the Punjab who are usually regarded as Buniyas, and an account of whom is given in the next chapter. The inferior Rajputs of Bengal are call Pukuria, or “ Tonk- men.” They wear the sacred thread, but some of them are to be found employed as domestic servants and tillers of the soil. CHAP. II.—THE KSHETTRIS. There is very considerable difference of opinion as to the exact position of the Kshettris in the Hindu caste system. Some authorities take them to be the same as the bastard caste Kshdtri, spoken of by Manu as the offspring of a Sudra father by a Ksatriya mother.* The people of this country include the Kshettris among the Baniya castes, and do not admit that they have the same position as the military Bajputs. The Kshettris themselves claim to be Ksatriyas, and observe the religious rites and duties prescribed by the Shastras for the military castes. But the majority of them live either by trade or by service as clerks and accountants, and their caste status ought, it seems, to be intermediate between that of the Rajputs on the one hand, and the Baniyas and the Kayasthas on the other. In their outward appearance the Kshettris lack the manly vigour of the Rajput and the broad forehead of the Brahman. But they are generally very handsome, and with their slender figures, their blue sparkling eyes, and their aquiline nose, some of them look exactly like the Jews whom they resemble also in their character. In trading as well as in service, they generally display great shrewdness. But there is not found among them either the enterprise of the Parsis, or the literary industry * See Manu X, 12,13 ; see also Shyama Charan’s Vyavastha Dar- pan, p. 659. ( 138 ) THE KSHETTRIS. 139 of the Brahmans and the Kayasthas. What they want in real ability is, however, more than made up by their power of ingratiating themselves in the favour of their masters at any cost. They possess in great abundance all the virtues and vices of courtiers. But while these form the most conspicuous features in their character, they combine in it a great deal of what is good and noble in the Brahman, the Rajput, the Baniya and the Kayastha. In Campbell’s Ethnology of India is to be found the following account of the Kshetri caste :— “Trade is their main occupation ; but in fact they have broader and more distinguishing features. Besides monopolising the trade of the Panjab and the greater part of Afghanistan, and doing a good deal beyond these limits, they are in the Panjab the chief civil administrators, and have almost all literate work in their hands. So far as the Sikhs have a priesthood they are, moreover, the priests or Gurus of Sikhs. Both Nanak and Govind were, and the Sodis and Bedis of the present day are, Kshetris. Thus, then, they are in fact in the Panjab, so far as a more energetic race will permit them, all that the Maharatta Brahmans are in the Maharatta country, besides engrossing the trade which the Maharatta Brah¬ mans have not. They are not usually military in their character, but are quite capable of using the sword when necessary. Dewars Sawan Mull, Governor of Mooltan, and his notorious successor Mulraj, and very many of Ranjit Sing’s chief functionaries, were Kshetris. Even under Mahomedan rulers in the west they have risen to high administrative posts. There is a record of a Kshetri Dewan of Badakshan or Kunduz ; and, I believe, of a Kshetri Governor of Peshwar under the Afghans. The Emperor Akbar’s famous minister, Todar Mull, was a Kshetri; and a relative of that man of undoubted energy, the great commissariat contractor of Agra, Jotee Prasad, lately informed me that he also is a Kshetri. Altogether, there can be no doubt that these Kshetris are one of the most acute, energetic, and remarkable races of India. The Kshetris are staunch Hindus, and it is somewhat singular * that, while giving a religion and priests to the Sikhs, they themselves are com¬ paratively seldom Sikhs. The Kshetris are a fine, fair, handsome race, and, as may be gathered from what I have already said, they are very generally educated. “No village can get on without the Kshetri, who keeps the ac¬ counts, does the banking business, and buys and sells the grain. They seem, too, to get on with the people better than most traders and usurers of this kind. In Afghanistan, among a rough and alien people,- the Kshetris are, as a rule, confined to the position of * I cannot understand why Sir George Campbell considered this circumstance a singular one. It only illustrates the common saying that a prophet is never honoured in his own country. Christ is not honoured by the Jews; nor is Chaitanya honoured by the Brahmans of Nadiya. 140 THE MILITARY CASTES. humble dealers, shopkeepers, and money-lenders ; but in that capa¬ city the Pathans seem to look at them as a kind of valuable animal; and a Pathan will steal another man’s Kshetri, not only for the sake of ransom, but also as he might steal a milch cow, or a3 Jews might, I daresay, be carried off in the Middle Ages, with a view to render them profitable.”—Campbell’s Ethnology of India , pp. 108— 112 . Many of the Kshettris now go to England, and those who do so are not very harshly treated by their caste- men, as in other provinces. Some of the Kshettris have qualified to practise as barristers. There are four main divisions among the Kshettris. The name of their first and most important division is Banjai, which is probably a corrupted form of the Sanskrit word Banijik meaning a “ trader.” Their second division, the Sereens , are probably so-called on account of their being, or having been at one time, Sirinas , i.e., ploughmen or cultivators. With regard to their third division, the Kuklcurs* it is said that they derive their name from that of a district near the town of Pind Dadan Khan on the Jhelum. The fourth division called Rorhas or Arorhas claim to be Kshetris, but are not regarded as such by any one except their own class. § 1.— Sereens. The Sereens are to be found only in the Panjab. They have four main divisions among them, each of these having a large number of exogamous sections, as shown in the following table :— Class No. 1. 1. Nagar. 2. Koshe. 3. Kupani. 4. Bhalle. 5. Munoaya. Class No. 2. 1 . Kuher. 5. Moorgahi. 9. Sodi. 2. Tihan. 6. Koondra. 10. Khoole. 3. Buhb. 7. Kumra. 11. Poorce. 4. Bhubhote. 8. Ouse. 12. Jeoor. ‘ The name of the Kukkur tribe is mentioned in the Mahdbharat. See Udyoga Parva, Chap. XXVII. 141 THE KSHETTRIS. Class No. 3. 1 . Sohni. 6. Jummoo. 11. Muhlhan. 2. Juyee. 7. Ghyee. 12. Buzaz. 3. Dasan. 8. Joolki. 13. Hera. 4 . Awut. 9. Sooshi. 14. Subhikhi. 5. Dhoosa. 10. Mynra. 16. Boochur. 15. Sucliur. Class No. 4. 1 . Kousai. 10. Sing race. 19. Chum. 2. Bisambhu. 11. Kudd. 20. Kulsia. 3. Choodu. 12. Kesor. 21. Khotbe. 4. Ural. 13. Umat. 22. Ghooman. 5. Kureer. 14. Lumbe. 23. Bulleat. 6. Bussee. 15. Lumb. 24. Surpal. 7. Vassesse. 16. Kupaee. 25. Ohiske. 8. Ubhee. 17. Pathri. 26. Mulhee. 9. Baaantraee. 18. Hudd. 27. Myndra. The above lists, taken from Sherring, were referred to Baba Sumera Singh, the Chief of the Sodi Gurus, now in charge of the Sikh Temple at Patna, and have been pronounced by him to be substantially correct. The third Guru of the Sikhs, Ummer Gas, was of the Bhalle clan, included in class No. 1, of the Sereen Kshettris. The second Guru, Ungat, was of the Tihan clan, includ¬ ed in class No. 2. Tbe last seven Gurus were all of the Sodi clan included within the same group. Guru Nanak, the founder of the sect, was not a Sereen, but a Banji of the inferior Bedi clan. His descendants are called Bedis. The last Guru left no descendants living, and the Sodis, who are now venerated by the Sikhs as his representatives, are the descendants of the following :— 1. Prithvi Chand (Elder brother of Guru Arjoon.) 2. Har Govind. The Bhalles and Tihans form small communities. The Sodis and Bedis are very numerous. The chief of the Bedis is now the Hon’ble Baba Khem Sing, of Rawal Pindi, who has lately been made a member of the Legislative Council of India. The chief of the Sodis is, as stated above, Sumera Singh, the High Priest of the Sikh Temple at Patna. These gentlemen do not possess any knowledge of English. But they 142 THE MILITARY CASTES. are both very intelligent, and there is an air of dignity and greatness in their very appearance which cannot fail to command notice and admiration. It has been already stated that the Bedis, who are descendants of Guru Nanak, belong to the Banjai division of the Kshettri caste, and that the Sodis belong to the division called Sereen. Intermarriages, however, are now taking place between the Bedis and the Sodis. § 2. — The Kukkurs. The Kukkurs are found chiefly on the banks of the Indus and the Jhelum, near the towns of Pind- Dadan Khan, Peshawar, and Nowshera. Their usual surnames are— 1. Anand. 4. Chude. 7. Kolee. 2. Bhuseen. 5. Sooree. 8. Sabliurwal. 3. Solinee. 6. Sotlier. 9. Ussee. Mr. Sherring says that there are some Kukkurs in Benares. In Calcutta there may be some of the class, but I have never met with any one claiming to be so. § 3 .—Rorlia or Arorha. These are, properly speaking, Baniyas. But as they take the sacred thread and claim to be Kshettris, they are included in the group dealt with in this chapter. They are found chiefly in the Panjab. Their total num¬ ber is 673,695. The majority of them are shopkeepers and brokers. The sweatmeat makers of Panjab are mostly Rorhas. The other classes of Kshettris neither eat with the Rorhas nor intermarry with them. § 4.— Banjai Kshettris. The Banjai Kshettris are to be found throughout the greater part of Northern India. The total population of the class in each province is given in the following table :— Pan jab ... . ... 447,933 Kashmir ... ... ... 52,392 N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 46,650 Bengal ... ... ... 121,071 TOE KSHETTKIS. 143 In Bengal proper the Kshettri population is very small. The only places in it where any considerable number of them are found to be settled are Calcutta and Burdwan. The Calcutta Kshettris live here for trade ; the Burdwan Kshettris have been made to colo¬ nise there by the Maharajas of Burdwan, whose family are Kshettris of the Adrai Ghar clan. The Soni Kshettris of Behar who do the work of goldsmiths seem to have been enumerated as Kshettris in the last Census. But the Sonis are a distinct caste altogether, between whom and the good Kshettris there can neither be intermarriage nor intercharge of hospitality on a footing of equality. The Kshettri weavers of Gujrat are also a distinct caste. The Banjai Kshettris are divided into many hyper- gamous and exogamous groups which, with their titles, are shown in the following table :— Names of groups. Names of clans and titles. { 1. Khanna. 2. Mehra. 3. Kapoor. 4. Seth. 2.—Chazati or “ the sex clans ” 0.—Bora Ghor or “ the twelve clans” ' 1. Bahel. 2. Dhouwan. 3. Beri. 4. Vij. 5. Saigol. . 6. Chopra. ( 1. Upal. 2. Dugal. 3. Puri. 4. Kochar. 5. Nande. 6. Mahipe. 7. Hande. 8. Bhalle. 9. Mangal. 10. Badahre. 11. Sowti. ,12. Kulliar. Besides the above there are many other Kshettri clans which have a very low status. The Adrai Ghar Kshettris have the highest position in the caste, and though they may take in marriage a girl from a family 144 THE MILITARY CASTES. of a lower group, they will never give a daughter o their own family to a bridegroom of a lower statu The Maharaja of Burdwan is of the Adrai Ghar clar Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion, was Banjai Kshettri of the inferior class called Bedi. Tb other Sikh Gurus were all of the Sereen tribe. The Sarswat Brahmans of the Panjab usually officiate as priests in Kshettri households. It is said that the Sarswats will eat even kachi food cooked In a Kshettri. If they do so, they are quite within the law of the Shastras. The Brahmans of the other parts of the country do not honour the Kshettris by accepting their hospitality in the shape of kachi food cooked by them. But no Brahman will hesitate to accept their gifts, or to take a drink of water from them. Those Brahmans of Bengal and N.-W. Provinces whose re¬ ligious scruples are not very strong, will take from th< hand of a Kshettri pakki food unmixed with water or salt. They will eat also kachi food in the house of a Kshettri, if cooked by a Brahman, and untouched by the host after cooking. The bastard descendants of the Kshettris are called Puriwal , a name which literally means a person br longing to a town. The Puriwals form a distinct cast and the Sahu Kshettris or Kshettris of pure blood do not intermarry with them. CHAP. III.—THE JATS. The Jats are the most important element in the ) ur 1 population of the Panjab and the western districts of the North-Western Provinces. The last Census n-j\ i's the following figures as the population of the JaP in the several provinces of India where they are found :— Panjab Rajputana N.-W. Provinces Kashmir Central India Sind ... 4,625,523 ... 1,056,160 701,259 142,595 56,530 45,526 The Jats do not wear the sacred thread ; and have among them certain customs which are more like those of the Sudras than of the twice-born castes. But in every other respect they are like the Rajputs. Or- linarily, the majority of both the Jats and the Rajputs live by practising agriculture. But when the occasion arises, the Jat can wield the sword as well as the most aristocratic of the military castes. The late Lion of the Panjab and many of his leading generals were of the Jat tribe. To the same clan belongs also the Maharaja ,1 Bhurtpur, whose ancestors, from the beginning ,f t he last century, played an important part in the politics of Northern India, and at the time of the con¬ quest of the Doab by Lord Lake compelled that great general to raise the siege of Bhurtpur which he had urn ertaken. The present reigning family of Dholepore a i ; also Jats. The Jats themselves claim to be Ksatri- yas. But as they do not wear the holy thread, they are B, HC ( 115 ) 10 146 THE JATS. usually looked upon as having the status of only clean Sudras. There cannot therefore be intermarriage be¬ tween the Jats and the Rajputs. The Jats are, like the Rajputs, divided into a large number of exogamous groups, and, among them, as among the superior Ksa- triyas, marriage is impossible between parties who are members of the same clan. The Jats have been sup¬ posed, by some of the best authorities on Indian ethnology and antiquities, to be a Scythic tribe. General Cunning¬ ham identifies them with the Zantliii of Strabo and the Jatii of Pliny and Ptolemy, and fixes their parent country on the banks of the Oxus between Bactria, Hyrkania, and Khorasmia. But the sufficiency of the grounds on which this view rests has been questioned, Prichard remarks:— “ The supposition that the Jats of the Indus are descendants of the Yuetschi does not appear altogether preposterous, but it is supported by no proof except the very trifling one of a slight resemblance of names. The physical characters of the Jats are extremely different from those attributed to the Yuetschi and the kindred tribes by the writers cited by Klaproth and Abel Remusat who say they are of sanguine complexions with blue eyes.— Researches IV, 132. The question cannot possibly be answered in a satis¬ factory manner so long as the ethnology and history of Russia aud Central Asia are not carefully investigated by scholars. There are certainly historical works in Russia and Central Asia which might throw a flood of light on many an obscure passage of Indian history. But the necessary facilities for such study are sadly wanting at present, and the state of things is not likely to improve, until Russian scholars come forward to take their proper share in the field of Oriental research. In India itself a great deal yet remains to be done to provide the necessary basis of the ethnological sciences. A beginning has been made by Messrs. Dalton, Risley and Ibbetson. But the work must be prosecuted more vigorously before it can be expected to yield any important results. CHAP. IV.— 1 THE KHANDAITS OF ORISSA. The word Khandait literally means a “ swordsman.” The Ivhandaits are to be found chiefly in Orissa and in the adjoining districts of Chutia Nagpore. They were the fighting class of Orissa under the Hindu kings of the province. They are divided into two main sub-classes called the Mahanayaka or the Sreshta Khandaits, and the Paik or Chasa Ivhandaits. These names indicate that the former represent the ancient military commanders, and the latter the rank and file who are now mainly agriculturists, and are there¬ fore called Chasa Khandaits. Intermarriage between these sub-classes is not impossible, but is very rare in practice. Intermarriage takes place sometimes between the Khandaits and the Karans of the Nulia clan. Whatever their origin may have been, the Khandaits have now very nearly the same position as the Rajputs. The best Brahmans do not hesitate to accept their gifts, or to minister to them as priests. The Khandaits do not take the sacred thread at the time prescribed for the Ksatriyas. But they all go through the ceremony at the time of their marriage, and their higher classes retain the thread for ever as the twice-born castes are required by the Shastras to do. With regard to the Chasa Khandait, it is said that they throw away the janeo on the fourth day after marriage. There is a class of Khandaits in Chutia Nagpore who are called Chota Khandaits. They are in the habit of eating fowls and drinking spirits. The Brahmans regard them therefore ( 147 ) 148 THE KHANDAITS. as an unclean caste, and will not take even a drink of water from their hands. The usual titles of the Kban- daits of Orissa are as stated below :— 1. Baglia, Tiger. 2. Bahubalendra, Like the god Indra in strength of arm. 3. Dakliin Kabat, South gate. 4. Daubarik, Sentinel at the gate. 5. Garli Nayaka, Commander of the fort. 6. Hati, Elephant. 7. Jena. S. Maliaratb or Maharathi, Great Charioteer. 9. Malla, Wrestler. 10. Manga raj. 11. Nayaka, Leader. 12. Paschim Kabat, West gate. 13. Praliaraj. 14. Rana Sinha, Lion of the fight. 15. Rout. 16. Rui. 17. Samanta, Officer. 18. Samara Sinha, Lion of the fight. 19. Senapati, General. 20. Sinha, Lion. 21. Uttara Kabat, North gate. CHAR V.—THE MARATTA. The Marattas are the military caste of the Maha- ratta country. Their position in the Hindu caste system was originally not a very high one, and even now it is not exactly the same as that of the Rajputs of Northern India. But the political importance acquired by them, since the time of Sivaji, who was a member of their community, has enabled them to form connec¬ tion by marriage with many of the superior Rajput families, and they may be now regarded as an inferior clan of the Rajput caste. The lower classes of the Marattas do not go through the ceremony of the Upa- nayana, or investiture with the thread. But they take it it at the time of their marriage, and are not held to be altogether debarred from its use. Their right to be reckoned as Ksatriyas is recognised by the Brah¬ mans in various other ways. Even the most orthodox Brahmans do not hesitate to accept their gifts, or to minister to them as priests. The only ground on which they may be regarded as an inferior caste is the fact that they eat fowls. But in no part of the country are the military castes very puritanic in their diet. The Marattas have two main divisions among them. The branch called the “ seven families ” has a superior status. The great Sivaji, and the Rajas of Nagpore and Tanjore were members of this division. The “ seven families ” are — 1. Bhonslay. 2. Mohita. 3. Sirkhe. 4. Ahin Roo. 5. Gujar (not the same as those of Gujrat.) 6. Nimbalkoar. 7. Gliorepore. ) ( 149 150 THE MARATTAS. There is another division among the Marattas called the “ ninety-six families.” These have an inferior status. The Maharajas of Gwalior and Baroda are of this class. The inferior Marattas are usually employed by the superior castes as domestic servants. The Maratta tribe is not to be confounded with the tribe called Mahars who serve as village watchmen and also practise the art of weaving. The Mahars are an un¬ clean tribe, while the Marattas are certainly a clean caste. The name of the Maratta country seems to he derived from that of the Maratta tribe. CHAP. VI.—THE NAIRS OF MALABAR TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN. The Nairs of Malabar and Travancore are more a tribe than a caste. They are generally said to be all Sudras, and they have among them a large number of sections pursuing different avocations, from that of the soldier to the most degrading forms of menial service. The last Census includes them among the military and dominant castes, and as the Maharaja of Travancore is a Nair, I do not see any strong reason to give the tribe a different place in the caste system. The Nairs have among them many who are well educated, and who hold very high positions in the service of Government and in the liberal professions. The caste status of these is similar to that of the Kayasthas of Northern India. But there are some sections among the Nairs whose usual occupation is menial work, and the status of the entire body of the Nairs cannot be said to be the same as that of the writer castes. The following are the names of the different sections of the Nairs : — 1. Valaima. First in rank. 2. Kcrathi. 3. Ilakaia. 4. Shrubakara. 5. Panda Mangolam. 0. Tamil ipaudam. 7. Palicham, Bearers or servants to the Namburi Brah¬ mans. 8. Shakaular or Velakaudu. Oilmen. 9. Pulikai or Andam Nairs. Potters. 10. Velathadam or Erinkulai. Washermen for Brahmans and Nairs. ( 151 ) 152 THE NAIRS OF MALABAR. 11. Pariari or Velakathara. Barbers for Brahmans and Nairs. 12. Agatacharnavar. Menial servants to Brahmans and Nairs. 13. Yedachairai or Yorma. Cowherds. 14. Kulata or Velur. 15. Yahbari. Merchants. 16. Udatu. Boatmen. The peculiarities in the social constitution and in the marriage laws of the Nairs have been described already. See p. 107, ante. Their unique customs and laws are the outcome of the undue advantage taken upon them by their priests, the Numburi Brahmans. The nominal marriage which every Nair girl has to go through with a Brahman is a source of profit to the titular husband. The freedom which is subsequently given to the girl to choose her male associate from an equal or a superior tribe is also advantageous to the Numburis. But the Nairs are being roused to the necessity of better laws, and they have of late been demanding for special legisla¬ tion in order to get rid of their ancient customs, and to have the benefit of such laws as are recognised by the Hindu Shastras. CHAP. VII.—THE MARAVANS, AHAMDIANS AND KALLANS OF SOUTHERN INDIA. In the extreme south of India the most important military caste is that of the Maravans. The Rajas of Ramnad, and Sivaganga are of this caste. The head of the Maravans is the Raja of Ramnad who assumes the surname of Setupati or “ Master of the Bridge,” though it has been decided by the Privy Council that the shrine of Rameshwar belongs to its priest, and not to the Raja of Ramnad. The Raja of Ramnad is, however, entitled to great honor from the other Rajas and noblemen of his caste. “The Raja Tondiman, of Puthukottei, the Raja of Sivaganga, and the eighteen chiefs of the Tanjore country must stand before him with the palms of their hands joined together. The chiefs of Tinnevelly, such as Kataboma Nayakkan, of Panjala Ivureicki, Serumali Nayakkan, of Kudal Kundei, and the Tokala Totiyans being all of inferior caste, should prostrate themselves at full length before the Setupati, and after rising must stand and not be seated.”* The Maravans are said to be in the habit of eating flesh and drinking wine. But they are regarded as a clean caste, and the Brahmans evince no hesitation to accept their gifts. The Maravans allow their hair to grow without limit, and both sexes wear such heavy ornaments on their ears as to make the lobe reach the Nelson’s Manual of Madura, Part II, p. 41. ( 153 ) 154 THE MARA VANS. shoulders. Unlike the other races of the locality the Maravans are tall, well built and handsome. The Ahamdians cannot be regarded as a separate caste. They are rather an inferior branch of the Maravans. Intermarriage is allowed between the two classes. The total population of the Maravans is more than three hundred thousand. The Kalians have a very bad reputation. Their very name implies that they are a criminal tribe. They have some big men among them. Mr. Nelson, in speaking of the Kalians, says :— “ The bovhood of every Kalian is supposed to be passed in acquir¬ ing the rudiments of the only profession he can be naturally adapted, namely, that of a thief and robbery. At fifteen he is usually en¬ titled to be considered as proficient, and from that time forth, he is allowed to grow his hair as long as he pleases, a privilege denied to younger boys. At the same time, he is often rewarded for his ex¬ perience as a thief by the hand of one of his female relations. “ The Kalians worship Shiva, but practise the rite of oircumcision like the Makomedans.” CHAP. VIII.—THE PALIYAS AND THE KOCH OF NORTH BENGAL. The Poliyas and the Koch of North Bengal seem from their physiognomy to be a Mongolian race. They are now purely agricultural. But they may come within the class Poundraca enumerated by Manu* among the Ksatriya clans reduced to the condition of Sudras by not practising the rites prescribed for them. The Poliyas themselves derive their class name from the Sanskrit word Palayita which means a “ fugitive,” and claim to be fugitive Ksatriyas degraded to the rank of Sudras for the cowardice betrayed by them in a great battle which took place at some remote period of antiquity. The Koch were at one time a very powerful tribe, and their kingdom extended over a large portion of North Bengal. The Koch Rajas of Koch Behar and Bijni are believed by the Hindus to be the progeny of the great God Siva, an I to have three eyes like their divine ancestor. The notion is so deep-rooted that it has not been eradicated even by the constant appearance of the present Maharaja of Koch Behar before the public. * See Manu X, 44. ( 155 ) CHAP. IX.—AGURIS OF BENGAL. The Aguris of Bengal claim to be the Ugra Ksa- triya caste spoken of in Manu’s Code X, 9. In Mr. Oldham’s recent work on the Ethnology of Burdivcin, the right of the Aguri to be reckoned as identical with the Ugra Ksatriyas has been questioned. But Mr. Oldham’s theory that the Aguris are the product of illicit unions between the Kshettris and the Shodgopas, has been shown to be utterly unfounded.* It can with * See the following extract from a review of Mr. Oldham’s work which appeared in a recent issue of the Reis and Rayyet. The theory that the Aguris are the product of unions between the Kshettris of the Burdwan Raj family, and the Sadgopas of the Gopbhum dynasty, does not appear to be supported by any kind of proof, historical or ethnological. Mr. Oldham says that his theory is based upon admissions made by the Aguris themselves. But knowing what we do of them, it seems to us impossible that any of them would have given such a humiliating account of their origin. At any rate, according to the principles of the law of evidence recognised by almost every system of jurisprudence, an admission cannot be necessarily conclusive. In the case under consideration, there are very strong reasons why, in spite of Mr. Oldham’s certifying it as properly recorded, the so-called admission should be rejected altogether. The ground on which we base this view is that there are among the Aguris many families whose history is well known to extend to a far earlier period than the time of even Abu Roy and Babu Roy, the founders of the Burdwan Raj. Then again, the ethnic and moral characteristics of the Aguris clearly mark them out as a separate community, unlike any other caste to be found in Bengal. They are by nature, hot tempered, and incapable of bearing subordination, while the Kshettris and Sadgopas, whom Mr. Oldham supposes to be their progenitors, are endowed by qualities the very opposite of these. A Kshettri would do anything to secure the good graces of his master. But a single word of comment or censure, though reasonable and proceeding from a person in authority, would cause the Aguris’ blood to boil and urge him to desperate deeds. The supposed admixture of Sadgopa blood ( 156 ) THE AGURIS OF BENGAL. 157 more reason be said that the Aguris are connected with the Aghari tribe found in Chutia Nagpore and Central Provinces. With regard to the origin and character of the Ugra Ksatriyas, Manu gives the following account:— From a Ksatriya by a Sudra girl is born a creature called an Ugra which has a nature partaking both of Ksatriya and of Sudra, and finds its pleasure in savage conduct—Manu X. 9. The word Ugra means ‘ hot tempered,’ and it is said that to this day the Aguris’ character fully justifies both the name and the description given of the Ugras in Manu’s Code. The Aguris are now to be found chiefly in the district of Burdwan in Bengal. The majority of the Bengali Aguris practise agriculture. But some of them are more or less educated, and hold important offices in the service of Government, as well as of the local landholders. Some of the Aguris are themselves holders of estates and tenures of various grades. There are many successful advocates of the Aguri caste prac¬ tising in the District Court of Burdwan. The Burdwan Aguris appear to have a higher caste status than those of other parts of the country. In the eastern districts of Bengal, Aguris are classed with the hunting and fishing castes. In Burdwan the local Brahmans, who are mostly of a low class, not only accept their gifts, but even partake of such food in their houses as is cooked by Brahmans. As to taking a with that of the Kshettri cannot account for these peculiarities in the moral character of their alleged progeny, except on the theory that when both the father and the mother are of a mild nature, the child, by some law of physiological chemistry, must be fierce and hot tempered. The strongest argument against Mr. Oldham’s theory is afforded by the fact that, unlike the other leading castes, the Kshettris recognise, to some extent, their connection with the bastard, members of their class. The illegitimate sons of the Brahmans, Rajputs and of even the superior Sudra castes, have no recognised position whatever. The only alternative of the mother and the child in such cases is to adopt the faith of one of the latter day prophets, and to be members of the casteless Vaishnava community. Among the Kshettris the practice is very different. Their illegitimate progeny have a recognised though a lower status. They are called Puriwals and certainly not Aguris. See Reis and Rayyet, Feb. 10, 1895. 158 THE AGURIS OF BENGAL. drink of water from the hands of the Aguris, the practice is not uniform. Some Brahmans regard them as dean castes, but many do not. Although the Aguris claim to be Ivsatriyas, yet as they are the offspring of a Sudra woman, they have to perform their religious rites in the same manner as the Sudras. In practice also they per¬ form the Adya Shradh, or the first ceremony for the benefit of the soul of a deceased person, on the thirty- first day after death, and not on the thirteenth day as the true Ksatriyas. The Aguris are divided into two main classes, namely, the Suta and the Jana. The Janas take the sacred thread at the time of their marriage. There can be no in¬ termarriage between the Suta and the Jana. The Sutas are sub-divided into several sub-classes, as, for instance, the Bardamaniya, the Kasipuri,* the Chagramis, the Baragramis, &c. Intermarriage is well-nigh impossible between these sub-castes, and they may be regarded as separate castes. The surname of the Kulins, or the noblest families among the Aguris, is Chowdry. The surnames of the other Suta Aguris are Santra, Panja, Ta, Hati, Ghosh, Bose, Dutta, Hajra, Kower, Samanta. The surname of the Jana Aguris is usually Jana. There are among them also many families having the same surnames as the Sutas. The late Babu Pratapa Chandra Ray, who made a great name by the translation and publication of the great Sanskrit epic, Mahabharnt , was a Suta Aguri. He was not only an enterprising publisher, but a man of rare tact and grace of manners. The actual work of translating the Mahabharat was done by a young but gifted scholar named Kishori Mohan Ganguli, a Brahman of the Radhiya class. * The Bardhamaniyas derive their name from the town of Burdwan, and the Kasipurias from the country of the Raja of Panchkote. I do not know where Chagram and Baragram are. PART VIII. THE SCIENTIFIC CASTES. CHAP. I.—THE YAIDYAS OR THE MEDICAL CASTE OF BENGAL. In Bengal the practice of Hindu medicine is the speciality of the caste called Yaidyas. In Assam there is a similar caste, called the Bez, who have the same privilege. But no such caste is to be found in any other part of India, and, in the other provinces, the Hindu medical science is studied and practised by the local Brahmans. In Bengal also there are a few Brah¬ mans who are Yaidyas by profession. One of the great¬ est of these is Hari Nath Vidyaratna of Calcutta. He has not only established a large practice by his marvellous skill in the healing art, but his mastery of Sanskrit medical literature has attracted round him a crowd of admiring pupils such as very few of those, who are Vaidyas by birth, can boast of. The Vaidyas of Bengal are supposed to be of the caste of mixed descent called Ambastha in Manu’s Code. Though this account of their origin is accepted by most of the Vaidyas themselves, yet, for practical purposes, their position in the caste system is inferior to only that of the Brahmans and the Rajputs. A good Brahman will not minister to a Vaidya as a priest, but even among the Brahmans of the highest class there are very few who will hesitate to accept a Vaidya’s gifts, or to enrol a member of the caste among his ( 159 ) 160 THE SCIENTIFIC CASTES. spiritual disciples. When there is a feast in a Brahman’s house, the Yaidya guests are made to sit at their dinner in a separate room, but almost at the same time as the Brahman guests. The Kayasthas neither expect nor claim such honor. On the contrary, the Dakshina Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengal insist that, as they are the servants to the Brahmans, they cannot commence until their masters, the Brahmans, have finished. The Raj¬ puts do not usually eat in the house of any Bengali Brahman, but when they do, they receive generally the same attention as the Vaidyas. The only reason why the caste status of a Rajput must be said to be superior to that of the Vaidya is that while a Brahman may, without any hesitation, accept a gift from a Rajput and officiate as his priest, he cannot so honour a Yaidya without lowering his own status to some extent. The Yaidyas are, as a class, very intelligent, and in respect of culture and refinement stand on almost the same level as the Brahmans and the superior Kayasthas. The majority of the Vaidyas, wear the sacred thread, and perform pujas and prayers in the same manner as the Brahmans. From these circumstances it might be contended that they are degraded Brahmans, but their non-Brahmanic surnames negative that sup¬ position. In all probability, they are Ambastha Kayas¬ thas of South Behar. This view is supported by the fact that they themselves profess to be Ambasthas, and also by the circumstance that, like the Kayasthas of Upper India, the Vaidyas of East Bengal consider the taking of the thread as more or less optional, instead of regarding it as obligatory. The Vaidyas of the eastern districts do not take it even now, and as to those of Dacca and the adjoining districts it is said that they are taking it only since the time of the famous Raj Ballava, who was one of the most powerful ministers in the Court of Suraj-Dowla, and whose ambition materially paved the way of the East India Company to the sovereignty of Bengal. THE VAIDYAS OF BENGAL. 161 The numerical strength of the Vaidya caste is not very considerable. In the last Census their total num¬ ber is given as amounting to 82,932. The computation of their number seems to be correct enough ; but they have been most improperly placed in the same group with the astrologers, exorcisors and herbalists, implying an insult which is quite unmerited, and against which every one, knowing anything about the importance and use¬ fulness of the class, must feel inclined to protest. If the Yaidyas themselves have not expressed any dissatisfac¬ tion at the wanton attempt to humiliate them, made by the authors of the Census Reports, it is perhaps the consciousness that the Hindu caste system, which gives them a position next only to that of the Brahmans, is not likely, for a long time, to be affected by the fiat of a foreign power, however great it may be. The three main divisions among the Vaidyas are the following :— 2. Bangaja or Barenda Vaidyas. 1. Rarhi Vaidyas. 3. Syllieti Vaidyas. There is a class of Vaidyas in West Bengal called Panchakoti Vaidyas, who derive their name from the district of Panch Kote or Pachete now called Purulia or Manbhoom. But intermarriages take place some¬ times between them and the Rarhi Vaidyas, and they may be regarded as a sub-class of the Rarhis. The Sylheti Vaidyas form a distinct class, not only by their omission to take the sacred thread, but also by intermarriage with Kayasths and even low class Sudras. The following are the usual surnames of the Vaid¬ yas:— 1. Gupta. 2. Sen Gupta. 3. Barat. These titles are common among the Kayas tlias also. B, HC 11 162 THE SCIENTIFIC CASTES. 9. Cliowdry. | Hindu titles of honour common among the 11 Q- oy " ( rich of every caste. 11. Sircar. ) 12. Khan. 1 13. Mallik. > Mahomedan titles of honour. 14. Majumdar. J Like the learned Brahmans, some of the eminent Vaidyas use as their surnames such academical titles as Kabi Ratna, Kabi Bhusana, Kantha Bharana, &c. The Vaidyas are the only non-Brahmanic caste who are admitted into the Sanskrit Grammar schools of Bengal for studying grammar and belles lettres. Not being Brahmans, they are not allowed to study the Vedas and the Smritis. But in respect of general scholarship in Sanskrit, some of the Vaidyas attain great eminence. The name of Bharat Mallik,* who was a Vaidya of Dhatrigram near Kalna, is well-known to every Sans- kritist in Bengal as a commentator on the Mugdhalbodha Vyakarana and as the author of a series of excellent anno¬ tations, read by Brahmans themselves as a part of their curriculum, in order to be able to study and enjoy the leading Sanskrit poems. The late Kaviraj Gangadhar of Berhampore was perhaps one of the greatest Sans- kritists of bis time. He was the author of a large number of valuable works on different subjects, and even the greatest Pandits of the country used to consider him as a foeman worthy of their steel. For professional eminence and skill the Vaidya names now best known are the following :— 1. Paresh Nath Roy (Benares). 2. Govinda Chandra Sen (Moorshedabad). 3. Mani Mohan Sen (Calcutta). 4. Dwarka Nath Sen (Calcutta). 5. Bijoy Ratna Sen (Calcutta). Of these Paresh Nath, Govind Chandra and Dwarka Nath are the pupils of the late Kaviraj Gangadhar. Paresh Nath is perhaps the ablest and the most learned among them, though his devotion to study and certain * Bharat Mallik has left no descendants. His brother’s descend¬ ants are now living at Patilpara near Kalna. THE VAIDYAS OF BENGAL. 163 eccentricities which prepossess men against him, have prevented him from being able to establish a large prac¬ tice. Among the Kavirajes of the Vaidya caste, Bijaya Ratna and Dvvarka Nath have the largest practice in Calcutta. Govinda Chandra is a descendant of the phy¬ sician to the historical Raja Raj Ballava, and is himself employed in a similar relation to the present titular Nabob of Moorshedabad. Mani Mohan is a younger brother of Govinda. He is a young man, but is well grounded in Kaviraji learning, as well as English medi¬ cal science ; and he is fast rising in eminence. He has perhaps the largest number of pupils next to the Brah- manic Kaviraj Hari Nath. In spite of the laudable efforts made by these and other gentlemen, belonging to the profession, to revive the cultivation of our ancient medical lore, Kaviraji must be regarded, to a great extent, as a lost art. A great many of the leading Sanskrit text-books on the subject are still extant. But the necessary incentives and facilities for studying them are sadly wanting. In the absence of museums and botanical gardens adapted to the requirements of the Kaviraji student, the difficulties in his way are great. Until recently he could not get even a printed copy of C/iarak or Susrata , either for love or money. That difficulty has been removed by the enterprise of our publishing firms. But even now the only way to acquire a mastery of our ancient medi¬ cal science lies in being apprenticed to some leading Kaviraj, and to be in his good graces for a great many years. This is necessarily well-nigh impossible except for a few of the friends and relatives of the teachers. There are no doubt a good many Kavirajes who, in accordance with the time-honored custom of the country, consider it their duty to devote their leisure hours, and their surplus income for the benefit of their pupils. But in the absence of regular colleges and museums it becomes very often impossible for them to give the student an exact idea of a great many of the drugs and 164 THE SCIENTIFIC CASTES. plants mentioned in their books. In practice, the Kavi- raji student very seldom studies the works of the best authorities on the subject. He reads a Manual of Therapeutics by some latter-day compiler, and then begins his practice. It is this system that has brought discre¬ dit on the Ivaviraji science. There are splendid works on anatomy and surgery in Sanskrit. But these are neglected altogether. The Kaviraje’s therapeutics no doubt supersedes the necessity of surgery even in such cases as dropsy, stone and carbuncle. But the practice of therapeutics itself is impossible without a supply of such drugs as very few Ivavirajes can procure, or their patients can pay for. The majority of those who are known as Kavirajes are therefore quite incapable of vindicating the value of their lore, and the votaries of the English medical science have succeeded in secur¬ ing the public confidence to a much greater extent. But the great Kavirajes, who have the necessary learning and stock of drugs, are known to have achieved suc¬ cess in cases which the best English physicians had pronounced to be quite hopeless. The very quacks among the Kavirajes often display very remarkable skill, in making diagnosis land prognosis, by simply feeling the pulse, aud without the help of any scientific appli¬ ance, such as the watch, the thermometer, and the stethescope. The Yaidya seldom fails to achieve success in any line that he adopts. The name of Raja Raj Bal- lava, who from a very humble station became the virtual Governor of Dacca under Suraj Dowla, has been already referred to. Under British rule no native of the country can have any scope for the display of similar ability. But, even under the present regime, many Yaidyas have distinguished themselves outside their own proper sphere. The late Babu Ram Kamal Sen, who was the friend and collaborateur of Professor H. H. Wilson, held with great credit the post of the Dewan or Treasurer of the Bank of Bengal. His son, THE VAIDYAS OF BENGAL. 165 Hari Mohan Sen, not only held that post after his father’s death, but subsequently became the Prime Minister of the Jaipur Raj. Babu Hari Mohan’s son is the well- known publicist and patriot, Norendra Nath Sen, the proprietor and editor of the Indian Mirror. The most gifted and the best known among the descendants of Ram Kamal Sen was the late Babu Keshav Chandra Sen. Whatever difference of opinion there many be as to his claaims to be regarded as a religious reformer or as to his capacity as a thinker, there cannot be the least doubt that India has not given birth to a more gifted orator. Wherever he spoke, and whether in English or in Bengali, he simply charmed the audience, and kept them spell-bound as it were. In the beginning of his career, he rendered a great service to the cause of Hinduism by counteracting the influence of the late Dr. Duff, and the army of native missionaries trained up by him. Babu Keshav Chandra was then the idol of the people, as he was the bete noire of the Christian propagandists. He was, however, too practical a man not to value the friendship of the ruling caste, and when Lord Lawrence, who was a man of prayer, became the Viceroy of India, he developed predilections for Christianity which found expression in his splendid oration on “ Jesus Christ, Europe and Asia.” By this move, he softened the bitterness of the missionaries, and at the same time secured the friendship of the Saviour of the Punjab. Thenceforward his leaning towards Christianity increased, until it was actually apprehended that he was in fact a follower of Christ. Lord Lawrence left India in 1868, and in the next year Keshav Chandra visited England. He there professed such doctrines that he was allowed to preach from the pulpits of many Dissenting churches. The influence of Lord Lawrence, and his splendid oratorical powers, intro¬ duced him into the highest society. Her Gracious Majesty herself granted him the honour of an interview. Before his departure a farewell meeting was convened at the 166 THE SCIENTIFIC CASTES. Hanover Square Rooms, at which no less than eleven denominations of Christians were represented. While in England he spoke at upwards of seventy different public meetings to upwards of forty thousand people, and created the impression that his religion was only a form of Christianity. This attitude he maintained with consistency till 1879, the year of Lord Lawrence’s death. On the 9th of April in that year he spoke about Christ as follows in the course of an oration delivered at the Town Hall:— Gentlemen, you cannot deny that your hearts have been touched, conquered and subjugated by a superior power. That power, need I tell you? is Christ. It is Christ who rules British India, and not the British Government. England has sent out a tremendous moral force in the life and character of that mighty prophet to conquer and hold this vast empire. None but Jesus, none but Jesus, none but Jesus, ever deserved this bright, this precious diadem—India, and Jesus shall have it. At this time the political situation of Keshav was apparently very embarrassing. On the one hand, so long as Lord Lawrence was living, he could not, without gross inconsistency and forfeiture of the esteem of the ex-Viceroy, betray any leaning towards the religion of his forefathers. On the other hand, he had in the pre¬ vious year married his daughter to the Maharaja of Kooch Behar, and, as by doing so and countenancing the celebration of the wedding in the Hindu form, he had exposed himself to the charge of inconsistency and ambi¬ tiousness for secular aggrandisement, he could not but feel inclined to profess a liking for those forms. From the point of view of one who did not believe in caste, and desired nothing more than to destroy it altogether, the marriage could be held to be objectionable on the only ground that the parties had not arrived at the marriageable age, according to the standard fixed by Keshav himself. But if the parties themselves desired the marriage, as they certainly did, Keshav could not, consistently with his principles, throw any obstacle in their way. Nor could he object to the form of the marriage which was also a matter entirely between the KESHAV CHANDRA SEN. 167 bridegroom and the bride. But popular voice, in awarding its praise or blame to public men, is seldom very reasonable. The pro-Christian doctrines which Keshav had been professing from the year 1866, and the church-like form of his prayer-house, had made him very unpopular among his countrymen. So the Kooch Behar marriage not only provoked open comments of a very strong character, but actually led to the secession of the majority of his followers. Keshav might perhaps have prevented the split by the line of defence, which, as stated above, was clearly open to him. But he made things worse by declaring that what he had done was in accordance with the order of God, communicated to him in some mysterious way. He said :— “ Men have attempted to prove that I have been guided by my own imagination, reason and intellect. Under this conviction they have from time to time protested against my proceedings. They should remember that to protest against the cause I uphold is to protest against the dispensations of God Almighty, the God of all Truth and Holiness. “ In doing this work I am confident I have not done anything that is wrong. I have ever tried to do the Lord’s will, not mine. Surely I am not to blame for anything which I may have done under Heaven’s injunction Dare you impeach Heaven’s Majesty? Would you have me reject God and Providence, and listen to your dictates in preference to his inspiration? Keshav Chandra Sen cannot do it, will not do it.” Such defence as is contained in the above might serve its purpose in the case of the leader of a set of unedu¬ cated rustics. But in the case of Keshav Chandra, who had some of the most cultured men of the metropolis of British India among his followers, it served only to shake their confidence in him all the more. The party that he had organised by years of hard work melted away in the course of a few days. He could hope to organise another party only by the more or less complete adop¬ tion of one of the faiths of his ancestors. But so long as Lord Lawrence was living that was impossible. And even so late as April 1879, he spoke as a devout Christian in public, as would appear from the passages cited at p. 165, ante. Lord Lawrence died 168 THE SCIENTIFIC CASTES. in 1879, and the very next year Keshav gave the fol¬ lowing certificate of good character to the Hindu religion :— “ Hindu idolatry is not to be altogether overlooked or rejected. As we explained some time ago, it represents millions of broken fragments of God, collect them together and you get the individual Divinity. To believe in an undivided deity without reference to those aspects of his nature is to believe in an abstract God, and it would lead us to practical rationalism and infidelity. If we are to worship Him in all His manifestation we shall name one attribute—Sarswatee, an¬ other Lakshmi, another Mahadeva, another Jagadhatri, &c., and worship God each day under a new name, that is to say, in a new aspect .”—Sunday Mirror, 1880. This is clearly inculcating idolatry to its fullest extent, though the author of it is careful enough not to enjoin expressly the worship of Siva’s Linga, Kali’s obscenities, or Krishna’s battalions of sweethearts. The passage cited above appeared in a newspaper, and was apparently meant only to prepare men’s mind for the coup detat that followed in 1881 under the name of New Dispen¬ sation. Ever since the Kooch Behar marriage, which certainly required something like a Papal Dispensation under which an unlawful marriage might take place among the Roman Catholics, the word “ dispensation ” had evidently taken a firm hold on Keshav’s mind. At least, that is the only explanation which can be suggested of the name which he gave to his new cult. Its manifesto was in form addressed to all the great nations of the world, the chief burden of the document being an exhortation that they should learn to practise toleration. Taking into consideration, however, the events that immediately preceded it in the life of the author, there cannot be any doubt that it was meant only to cover his retreat to the fold of Hinduism, or rather to a position where he could organise a new party, without much in¬ consistency, and without losing the wrecks of his former party. My review of Keshav’s life has already been carried to a far greater length than what may be deemed proper in this book. I cannot carry the notice further. But what I have said will, I hope, suffice to form a just GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE VAIDYAS. 169 estimate of his character and powers. His capacity or solicitude to achieve any real good for mankind may be doubted ; but there can be no question as to his power to dazzle them in a manner which is rare indeed, and the Vaidya community to which he belonged might certainly be proud of him. Although the profession of the Vaidayas enables them to acquire both money and power in a fair and noble way, yet the Brahmanieal ambition of playing the role of a prophet is rather too common among them, and Keshav Chandra’s case is not the only instance of such craving. Babu Pratap Chandra Majumdar, who was his colleague in his lifetime, and who is, or at least ought to be, regarded as his spiritual successor, is also a Yaidva, and possesses very nearly the same gifts as his late chief. Narhari Thakoor, who was one of the leading disciples of Chaitanya, and whose descendants are, as a result of that connection, now able to live like princes at Srikhand near Katwa, was also a Vaidya. So is also the living prophet “ Kumar ” Krishna Prasanna Sen, who, by his advocacy of Hinduism and his charming eloquence, has made himself almost an object of regular worship among certain classes of Hindus throughout the greater part of the Hindi-speaking districts between Bhagulpur and Allahabad. His want of sufficient com¬ mand over the English language has prevented him from attracting much of the notice of the Englishmen residing in this country ; but the influence which he has acquired among the half-educated classes in Behar and Upper India is very great. The higher classes, and especially the Brahmans, are somewhat prepossessed against him on account of his caste, and the usual shallow philosophy of a stumper. The parade which he makes of the fact of his being unmarried, by the use of the designation of “ Kumar ” serves to make him sometimes an object of ridicule. Though the Vaidya population of the country is, as already stated, very small compared with the other 170 THE SCIENTIFIC CASTES. leading castes, yet persons belonging to the medical clan are to be found in high positions in almost all the departments that can attract the intellectual classes. Among high officials, the names of Messrs. B. L. Gupta and K. G. Gupta of the Bengal Civil Service stand conspicuous. In the legal profession, the late Babus Mahesh Chandra Chowdry and Kali Mohan Das, who were among: the ablest advocates of the Bengal High Court in their time, were vaidyas by caste. So was also the late Babu Mritunjoy Roy, who was the leading- pleader of the District Court of Nadiya. Among the living Vaidya vakils of the Bengal High Court, the names best known are those of Doorga Mohan Das, Girija Sankar Majumdar and Akhil Chandra Sen. Babu Girija Sankar is a zemindar also. Babu Akhil is a Vaidya of Chittagong. Among District Court practi¬ tioners the most conspicuous Vaidyas are Guru Prosad Sen, Ambika Chandra Majumdar and Baikant Nath Barat. Babu Guru Prosad practises in the District Court of Patna, Babu Ambika Chandra at Faridpore, and Babu Baikant Nath at Moorshedabad. The latter not only enjoys great professional eminence, but is the friend, philosopher and guide of the local zemindars. In connection with the Press of Bengal, the name of Babu Narendra Nath Sen, Editor of the daily called the Indian Mirror , has been mentioned already. The weekly paper called Hope is also edited by a Vaidya named Ainrita Lai Roy, who passed many years of his life in Europe and America, and served his apprentice¬ ship in the art of journalism in connection with one of the leading newspapers of New York. The Vaidyas are very clannish, and, wherever a Vai¬ dya manages to get into a high office, he is sure to in¬ troduce as many of his castemen as he can into the department. Babu Ram Kamal Sen, who, as mentioned already, was the Dewan of the Bank of Bengal, intro¬ duced at one time a very large number of his clansmen there. The East Indian Railway office at Jamalpore is GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE VAIDYAS. 171 perhaps still similarly full of Vaidyas, introduced through the influence of its late head clerk, Babu Madhu Sudan Boy, the father of Babu Amrita Lai Roy, of the Hope. The Vaidyas are a fast money-making, and a fast money-spending, class. Even the poorest among them are usually quite above want, while a great many of them are in very easy circumstances, either by the prac¬ tice of their profession, or by their success in other lines of business. But a Vaidya has very seldom a long purse. He spends whatever he earns in feeding his relatives and his pupils. The descendants of Raj Baliava were at one time big landholders. But they have been ruined, and the only Vaidya zemindars to be now found in the country are those of Teota, Bani Bau, Rajbari, Meherpore, and Agradwipa. Among the traders and shopkeepers there is perhaps not a single man of the Vaidya caste. CHAP. II.—THE BEZ OF ASSAM. The word Bez seems to be an Assamese corruption of the Sanskrit word “ Vaidya.” At any rate, the Bez caste of Assam have the same position and the same functions as the Vaidyas have in Bengal. Like the Vaidyas, the Bez are an aristocratic and cultured class. Some of the Bez practise Hindu medicine in their native country, while a great many of them are now receiving English education, and adopting one or other of the different pro¬ fessions which are open to the higher classes of Hindus under the present regime. The late Mr. Andi Ram Barua, of the Bengal Civil Service, was a Bez. So is also Dr. Golap Chandra Bez Barua, who holds at present the charge of a public hospital in British Guiana in South America. The Bez wear the sacred thread. t 172 ) CHAP III.—THE ASTROLOGER CASTES OF BENGAL AND ASSAM. In Bengal, the astrologers form a separate caste which has a very low position. In Assam and Orissa the Ganakas and Nakshatra Brahmans, as they are called, are regarded as an inferior section of the sacerdotal caste, and not as an unclean non-Brahmanie caste as in Bengal. In other parts of India astrology is practised by the Joshis who are regarded as good Brahmans. The astrologer castes of Bengal are variously called Acharya Brahmans, Graha Bipras, Daivagnas, Grahacharyas, and Ganakas. In all probability they were Brahmans at one time, but have been degraded to a very low posi¬ tion by the policy of the superior Brahmans. Accord¬ ing to a text cited as authoritative by the Pandits of Bengal, the astrologers are shoemakers by caste, and good Brahmans sometimes refuse to take even a drink of water from their hands. But, with an inconsistency which is quite unaccountable, the most orthodox Brah¬ mans accept their gifts without the least hesitation, and one of the greatest Pandits of Nadiya enlisted the Acharyas of the place among his disciples—the connec¬ tion thus formed being still in existence between their descendants. The numerical strength of the Acharyas is very small. In the last Census, they were, it seems, includ¬ ed among the Jotishis or Joshis, and the total number ( 173 ) 174 THE ASTROLOGER CASTES. of the Joshis in each province is given as follows :— 1. N.-W. Provinces ... 35,266 2. Bengal ... ... 18,360 3. Bombay ... ... 10,147 4. Central India ... 12,204 Very few of the Acharya caste of Bengal have yet been able to distinguish themselves, either by Western learning or by service under the British Government of India. Ganahs of Assam .—The Ganaks of Assam have a somewhat higher position in their province than the Acharyas have in Bengal. The usual surnames of the Ganaks are Dalai and Bara Dalai and their total number 23,739. Compared with the total population of the province, their numerical strength is not very incon¬ siderable. PART IX. THE WRITER CASTES. CHAP. I.—THE KAYASTHAS. The Kayasthas are found in almost every part of India. They are a very large body ; the last Census gives the following figures regarding their numerical strength :— Bengal Assam N.-W. Provinces Central India Rajputana 1,466,748 92,395 521,812 74,471 26,913 Total . 2,239,810 The Kayasthas are described in some of the sacred books of the Hindus as Ksatriyas ; but the majority of the Kayastha clans do not wear the sacred thread, and admit their status as Sudras, also by the observance of mourning for a period of thirty days. But, whether Ksatriyas or Sudras, they belong to the upper layer of Hindu society, and though the higher classes of Brah¬ mans neither perform their religious ceremonies nor enlist them among their disciples, yet the gifts of the Kayasthas are usually accepted by the great Pandits of the country without any hesitation. The literal meaning of the word “ Kayastha ” is 4 standing on the body According to the Purans, the Kayasthas are so-called, because being Ksatriyas, 176 THE WRITER CASTES. they must be regarded as having their origin in the arms of the great god Brahma. The real derivation of the word is, perhaps, to be traced to the idea that the Brahmans must he regarded as the head ornament of the king, and the Kayasthas as ornaments for th arms. However that may he, the Kayasths have, from a very remote period of antiquity, been recognized a the class whose proper avocation is to serve as clerks and accountants.* The Brahmans excluded them from, the study of the Sanskrit language and literature. Be. they learned the three B’s with great care, and, durin j the period of Moslem rule, mastered the Persian lan¬ guage with such assiduity as to make it almost tkei- mother-tongue. At the present time, the honours am ; distinctions conferred by the Indian Universities are as eagerly and as successfully sought by them as by the Brahmans and the Yaidyas. As authors, journalists and public speakers they do not now lag behind an other caste, and, in fact, in some of the department of English scholarship they almost surpass the Brah mans themselves. In the field of journalism, India has not yet had better men than the two Mukerjis— Harish Chandra and Sambhu Chandra. But among public speakers the first to distinguish himself by his orations in English was the late Kayastha Babu Ban Gropal Ghose, while amongst the living batch of orators, the field is equally divided between Kayasthas and Brahmans. The case is the same in the legal profes¬ sion. Of the two best native Advocates of the Bengal High Court one is a Brahman, and the other is a Kayastha ; while of the eight Hindu Judges appointed to the Bench of the High Court of Bengal, since its creation, exactly half the number have been Kayasthas During the time of the Hindu kings, the Brahmans refrained from entering the public service, and the * See Yajnavalkaya, I, 335. From the manner in which the woi Kayastha is used in the ancient Sanskrit works, it seems that origi ally it meant a secretary, clerk or scribe. THE KAYASTHAS. 177 Kayasthas had almost the monopoly of the subordinate appointments. Even under the Mahomedan kings, some of them attained very high positions, as, for instance, the Bangadhikaris, who had charge of the revenue de¬ partment under the Nababs of Moorshedabad, and Rai lPurlav Ram,* the Prime Minister of Ali Verdi Khan. 1 1 jas Shitab Roy and Ram Narayan, who were Govern¬ ed of Behar, in the period of double government or interregnum which intervened between the battle of Plassey and the removal of the Exchequer to Calcutta, were also Kayasthas. Under British rule the Kayastha (dement has been predominating in all the departments of the public service. In the United Provinces, Bengal and Behar, the number of Kiiyastha officials exceeds per¬ haps those of all the other castes taken together. The Kayasthas are said to be the writer caste. But their expe¬ rience of the ways of transacting public business has qualified them for the very highest offices connected with the civil government of the country. They generally , equal to any position in which they are placed. Th. have been successful not only as clerks, but in the very highest executive and judicial offices that have yet been thrown open to the natives of this country. The names of the Ivayastha Judges, Dwarka Nath Mitra, Ramesh Chandra Mitra and Chandra Madhava Ghosh, are well known and respected by all. In the Executive service the Kayasthas have attained the same kind of success. One of them, Mr. R. C. Dutt. is now the Commissioner or chief Executive Ofl r of one of the most important divisions of Bengal. Another named Kalika Das Datta has been for several years employed as Prime Minister of the Kooch Behar Raj, giving signal proofs of his ability as an administra¬ tor by the success with which be has been managing the affairs of the principality in his charge. * ' bu Gopal Lai Mitra, [the able Vice-Chairman of the Calcutta Municipal Corporation, is, on his mother’s side, descended from Kai Durlav. li, HC 12 CHAP. II.—THE KAYASTHAS OF BENGAL. The Kayasthas of Bengal are divided into the follow¬ ing classes :— 1. Dakshina Rarhi. 2. Uttara Rarhi. 3. Baugaja. 4. Barendra. 5. Sylheti. 6. Golam or slave Kayasthas. For all practical purposes these are separate castes, and intermarriage between them is, generally speaking, quite impossible. § 1 .—The Dakshina Rarhis of Bengal. The Dakshina Rarhis, or the Kayasthas of the southern part of Burdwan, affect the greatest veneration for the Brahmans, and profess to believe in the legend that traces their descent from the five menial servants that are said to have accompanied the five Brahmans invited by King Adisur.* The Dakshina Rarhis are divided into three main groups, namely :— 1. Kulin. | 2. Maulik. 3. The seventy-two houses. The Kulins have the highest status, and they again are subdivided into several hypergamous sections that have different positions for matrimonial purposes. The * See page 37, ante. ( 178 ) THE DAKSHINA RARHIS. 179 ostial surnames of tlie several sections of the Dakshina Rarhi Kayastkas are as stated below :— 1 . 2 . 3. Surnames of the Kulins among the Dakshina Rarhi Kayas- thas. Surnames of the Maulikas or middle class Dakshina Rarhis. Surnames of the important classes among the seventy-two families of the Dakshina Rarhis. ( 1. Ghose. < 2. Basu. (. 3. Mittra. f 1. Dey. 2. Datta. 3. Kar. 4. Palit. ‘ 5. Sen. 6. Sinha. 7. Das. . 8. Guha. ( 1. Nag. 2. Som. 3. Rudra. 4. Aditya. 5. Aich. 6. Ralia. 7. Bhanja. 8. Horh. 9. Bramha.' 10. Nandi. 11. Rakshit. 12. Chandra. 13. Bardhan. 14. Bhadra. 15. Dhar. 16. Jas. 17. Sain. 18. Rahut. . 19. Manna. The rules which regulate and determine the elegibi- lity of a Kayastha boy or girl for matrimonial purposes, are quite as complicated as those of the Rarhi Brah¬ mans. But while the status of a Ivulin Rarhi Brah¬ man depends on his being able to marry his daughters with Kulin bridegrooms, the position of a Dakshina Rarhi Kayastha remains intact only if he is able to marry his eldest son into the family of a Kulin of similar rank. A Kayastha can give his daughter to any one whether he is a Kulin or a Maulika. Among the Babus of Calcutta, the number of Dak¬ shina Rarhi Kayasthas is far larger than that of any other caste. The majority of the Dakshina Rarhis are Sakti worshippers of a moderate type. The deities they 180 THE KATASTHAS OF BENGAL worship most generally are Durga and Kali. But their orthodox members follow the discipline imposed upon them by their Brahman Gurus, and they neither drink any kind of spirituous liquor, nor eat any kind of flesh excepting that of goats offered in sacrifice to some god or goddess. Of all the classes of Kayasthas in Bengal, the Dakshina Rarkis have, under British rule, made the greatest progress in education, and in securing official positions. § 2.— The Uttara Rarhi Kayasthas. The caste position of the Uttara Rarhis, or the Kayasthas of the northern portion of the Burdwan Division, is the same as that of the Dakshina Rarhis. But the northerners do not profess the same veneration for the Brahmans as the southerners. The former openly deny the authenticity of the legend which traces the descent of the Bengali Kayasthas from the five menial servants of the five Brahmans brought by King Adisur from Kanouj in the ninth century of the era of Christ. An Uttara Rarhi very seldom falls prostrate at the feet of a Brahman, and usually salutes the priestly caste by a curt pranam, which does not imply much reverence. The Uttara Rarhis are most numerous in the district called Birbhoom, and in the adjoining portions of the Moorshedabad District. Some families of the same clan are to be found also in the towns of Patna, Bhagalpur, Dinajpur and Jessore. Many of the leading zemindars of Bengal, as, for instance, the Rajas of Dinajpur, Paikpara and Jessore are Uttara Rarhis. There was formerly an Uttara Rarhi family of zemindars in the district of Malda who, for several generations, were in possession of the barony of Bhatia Gopalpore, including a portion of the city of Gour. No member of the com¬ munity has risen very high in the service of Government in recent times. But under the Mahomedan rulers of Bengal, the Uttara Rarhis held some of the highest offices. The charge of the revenue department was THE UTTARA RARHIS. 181 then almost entirely in the hands of the Bangadhicary Mahasaya family of Dahpara near Moorshedabad ; and so great was their influence that when Hastings removed the Khalsa or Exchequer to Calcutta, he was obliged to place it in the hands of one of their clansmen, who was also one of their quondam clerks. This man, whose name was Ganga Govind Sing, became, by virtue of his office, the arbiter of the destinies of the Bengal zemin¬ dars, and by taking advantage of his opportunities made himself one of the richest landlords in the country. His master was perhaps too shrewd to negociate directly with the zemindars, like Sir Thomas Rumbold of Madras. He required an intermediary, and as Ganga Govinda was his chief fiscal officer, he was deemed the best man for the office. Perhaps he acquired a great hold over Hastings by helping him in the prosecution and con¬ viction of Hand Kumar. Whatever was the cause of the undue favour shown to him by his master, his power was great. Though serving under the immediate super¬ vision of one of the greatest satraps that England has ever sent out to India, his confidence in the strength of his own position was such that ho compelled the zemindars, whose revenue he had to assess, to give him not only money which could be easily concealed, but also substantial slices of their estates which conclusively proved his corrupt practices. The Raja of Dinajpur, who was his casteman, w r as, out of jealousy, absolutely ruined by him. The proud Brahman Raja Krishna Chandra of Nadiya was reduced by him to such straits as to be obliged to beg for bis favour in the most humiliating terms ;* and at a later time Raja Krishna Chandra’s heir, Raja Sib Chandra, was compelled to be present at the funeral ceremony of Ganga Govind’s mother. When Hastings was hauled up before the * The original of this letter or rather memorandum is given in Dewan Kartika Chandra Roy’s history of the Nadiya Rajas. The following is a translation of it:— “ My son is disobedient, the Exchequer Court is impracticable, I depend upon Ganga Govind.” 182 THE KAYASTHAS OF BENGAL. British Parliament to answer the charges of malad¬ ministration and corruption that were brought against him, Ganga Govinda, as his right-hand man, naturally came in for a large share of the vituperative phrases that the genius of Burke could invent. The great orator characterized him as the “ captain-general of iniquity” “ and the broker-in-chief of bribery.” Nothing, how¬ ever, was ever done to compel him to disgorge the properties he had acquired, and they are still in the possession of his descendants by adoption, now called the Paikpara Rajas.* Since Ganga Govinda’s time no Uttara Rarhi has at¬ tained a high position in the service of Government. The highest officials in their class are at present not above the rank of Subordinate Magistrates. In the legal profession also the Uttara Rarhis are as meagrely repre¬ sented as in the various departments of the public ser¬ vice. The only members of the clan who have any considerable amount of legal practice are Babu Surja Narain Sing, of the District court of Bhagalpur, Babu Purnendu Narain, of the District court of Patna, and Mr. S. P. Sinha, who is a barrister-at-law, and practises in the High Court of Calcutta. Among the Uttara Rarhis Kulinism, or high caste status, is the result of having been originally residents of some particular villages in the Kandi Sub-division of the Moorshedabad District. The names of these vil¬ lages are Rasorah, Panchthupi, Jajan, &c. An Uttara Rarhi Ghosh or Sinha is not necessarily a Kulin. It is only a Ghosh of Rasorah or Panchthupi that can claim a high position in the caste. * The original home of Ganga Govinda was the town of Kandi, now the head-quarters of a sub-division in the district of Moorshe¬ dabad. When he became the Dewan of Hastings, he built, for his residence, a palatial mansion in Calcutta, on the site now occupied by the warehouses on the southern side of Beadon Square. His descend¬ ants used formerly to be called the Rajas of Kandi. But as they now usually reside at Paikpara, in the suburbs of Calcutta, they are also called Rajas of Paikpara. THE BANGAJA KAYASTHAS. 183 The usual surnames of the Uttara Rarhis are as stated below :— 1. Surnames of the Kulins | .V 2. Surnames of the second class called Sanmoulik. { 1 Das n pi, ‘-l, o' ' 4. inha. § 3.— The Bangaja Kayasthas. The importance of this clan is not less than that of any other class of Bengali Kayasthas. The great Pra- tapaditya, whose father had been the prime minister of the last Patau King of Bengal, and who at the time of the conquest of the province by the Moguls carved out an independent kingdom in its seaboard, was a Bangaja. For a time Pratapaditya defied the great Akbar, and the conquest of his kingdom was ultimately effected by Raja Man Sing, chiefly through the treachery of Bhava Nand Majumdar, who had been in the service of Pratapaditya as a pet Brahman boy, and who subsequently became the founder of the Nadiya Raj family through the favour of the imperial general whom he had helped. The descend¬ ants of Pratapaditya are still to be found in the neigh¬ bourhood of his ruined capital in the Sundarbans. Though shorn of their greatness, they are to this day locally called Rajas, and possess very considerable in¬ fluence among their castemen. The zemindars of Taki, who still possess some property, are the descendants of Pratapaditya’s uncle, Basanta Roy. The ancient Rajas of Bakla, which covered nearly the whole of the modern district of Bakergunge, were also Bangajas. So, too, were the ancient zemindars of Noakhali and Edilpore. Perganak Edilpore in Fureedpore is now in the possession of Babu Kali Krishna Tagore of Calcutta. The Bangajas are to be found chiefly in the eastern districts of Bengal. In Calcutta they are not numeri¬ cally strong; but are represented by such leading men ( 1. Das. < 2. Datta. ( 3. Mittra. 184 THE KAYASTHAS OF BENGAL. as Mr. Justice Chandra Madhava Ghosh, who is now one of the Judges of the Bengal High Court, and Mr. M. Ghosh, who is now one of its leading Advocates. The usual surnames of the Bangaja Kayasthas of the different grades are as mentioned below :— Bangaja Kayasthas. Surnames of the second class of Bangaja Kayasthas. Surnames of the third class of Bangaja Kayasthas. Basu. J 2. Ghosh. 1 3 - Guha. (. 4. Mittra. < 1- Datta. i 2. Nag. 1 3. Nath. r i- Adhya. 2. Aukur. 3. Bhadra. 4. Bishnu. 5. Chandra. 0 . Das. 7. Deb. 8. Dhar. 9. Kar. i 10. Kundu. 11. Nanda. 12. Nandi. 13. Pal. 14. Palit. 15. Raha. 16. Rakshit. 17. Sen. 18. Sinha. 1 19. Som. § 4.— The Barendra Kayasthas. The Barendra Kayasthas do not differ from the other classes of Bengali Kayasthas either in culture or in respect of caste status. The usual surnames of the several grades of Barendras are as stated below :— f L Chaki. First class ...< 2. Das. 1 3. Nandi. f !• Datta. Second class -{ 1 Deb. Nag. l 4. Sinha. f !• Dam. Third class 1 : Dhar. Gun. l 4. Kar. THE GOLAM KATASTHAS OF EAST BENGAL. 185 § 5 .—The Golam Kayasthas of East Bengal. There are many Kayasthas in East Bengal who are called Golams or slaves. Some of them are still attach¬ ed as domestic servants to the families of the local Brahmans, Vaidyas, and aristocratic Kayasthas. Even those who have been completely emancipated, and are in the position of well-to-do and independent citizens, are obliged by local custom to render on ceremonial occasions certain menial services for the glorification of their ancient patrons and masters. Some of the Golams have in recent times become rich landholders, and it is said that one of them has got the title of Rai Bahadoor from Government. The marriage of a Golam generally takes place in his own class ; but instances of Golams marrying into aristocratic Kayastha families are at present not very rare. The Golams are treated by all the high caste Hindus as a clean caste. The Brahmans who minister to the ordinary Kayasthas as priests, evince no hesitation to perform similar rites for the Golams. The Golams of the Vaidyas serve also the Brahmans and the Kayasthas; but the Golams of the Brahmans and the Kayasthas do not serve the Vaidyas. CHAP. III.—THE LALA KAYASTHAS OF NORTH¬ WESTERN PROVINCES, BEHAR AND OI7DH. The Lala Kayasthas have the same position in Behar, N.-W. Provinces and Oudh that the several classes of Kayasthas, spoken of in the last chapter, have in Bengal The Lalas are, however, very much addicted to drinking and gambling, and in these respects they differ very materially from the Bengali Kayasthas who, as moderate Saktas or bigoted Vishnuvites, are mostly teetotalers. The Kayasthas of Hindustan proper are divided into the following classes :— 1. Srivastas. 7. Mathuri. 2. Karana. 8. Surya Dhaja. 3. Amhasta. 9. Balmiki. 4. Sakya Seni. 10. Astama. 5. Kula Sreshti. 11. Nigama. 6. Bkatnagari. 12. Goar. 13. Unai. Members of these different clans may eat together and smoke from the same pipe. But intermarriage between them is impossible, and they must be regarded as separate castes having only a similar status. The usual surnames of the Lala Kayasthas are : Das, Lai, Kai, Sahaya and Sing. § 1.— The Srivasta Kayasthas. The Srivastis derive their name from the ancient city of Srivasta, which was the capital of the king¬ dom of IJttara Koshala, and which has been, identified ( 186 ) THE SRIVAETA EAYASTHAS. 187 with a place called at present Sahet Mahet * in the district of Gonda. The Srivasta Kayasthas are a very numerous body, and are to be found in every part of the United Provinces, Behar and Oudh. Some of the Srivastis take the sacred thread, and some do not. Those who take the thread are teetotalers and vegetari¬ ans. The rest indulge in flesh meat and strong drink. It is said that the Srivastis are all of the Kasyapa Gotra. But if they are Sudras then they do not violate any rule of the Shastras by marrying within their Gotra as they are necessarily obliged to do. There are, how¬ ever, some other peculiarities in the marriage customs of the Srivastis which cannot but be held to be inconsis¬ tent with the law of the Hindu Shastras on the subject. For instance, it is said that, as among some of the Rajputs and Kalwars, so among the Srivasta Kayasthas, a marriage may take place between a boy and a girl even where the bride is older in age. The following sur¬ names are assumed by some of the Srivastis :— 1. Akhori (literally “ a man of letters”). 2. Amodha. 3. Qanongo (a lawyer). 4. Muhtavi. 5. Bhowri. Among the Kayasthas of Upper India, the caste status of a family depends usually upon the official position held by their ancestors in the service of the former rulers of the country. The descendants of the Patwaris or village accountants have generally the lowest position. The four leading Srivasti families of Behar are the following :— 1. Thefamilyof theRajasof Tillothu in the District of Arrah. 2. The family of Raja Rajesri Prosad of Surajpore in Arrah. 3. The family of the Rajas of Sedisapore near Dinapore. 4. The family of the Sadder Kanaregos of Bakhraf in the District of Mozufferpore. * For a full account of the ruins of Sahet Mahet, and the grounds on which they are held to be the remains of the ancient city of Srivasta, see Hunter’s Imperial Gazetteer , Vol. XII, p. 126. f Bakhra is in the vicinity of the site of the ancient free city of Vaisah, of Buddhistic history. 188 THE KAYASTHAS OF NORTHERN INDIA. The ancestors of these families held very high offices in the service of the Mogal Emperors, and also under the East India Company, in the early days of its political supremacy. The Sedisapore family rendered very important services to the British Government at the time of the Sepoy Mutiny. The four families mentioned above still possess considerable local in¬ fluence, and among their castemen their supremacy is undisputed. The Srivasta zemindars of Sahebganj in the District of Chapra have also considerable influence among their castemen. The late Hon’ble Har Bans Sahoy of Arrah was a Srivasti. So also is Raj Jai Prokash Lai, the present factotum of the Raja of Domraon. § 2 .—The Amhastha Kayasthas. Manu gives the name Ambasth to the progeny of a Brahman father and Vaishya mother, and lays down that their proper profession is the practice of medicine.* But there is a class of Kayasthas in Behar, and in the eastern districts of the N.-W. Provinces, who alone use that name to designate their caste. Its derivation is not definitely known. It is quite possible that it is derived from the name of a Perganah in Oudh called Ameth. The Ambastha Kayasthas are very numerous and influential in South Behar including the districts of Monghyr, Patna and Gaya. Raja Ram Narayan, who was Governor of Behar, in the early days of British ascendancy, was an Ambasthi. He has no lineal descendants, but his family is represented by some collaterals, of whom Babu Isri Prasad of Patna is one. § 3 .—The Karan Kayasthas. The Kai’an clan of North Indian Kayasthas are to be found chiefly in Tirhoot or North Behar where they are usually employed as Patwaris or village accountants. Manu, X, 8, 43. THE SAKYA SENI KAYASTHAS. 189 Their position is inferior to that of the Srivastas and Ambastas. The Uttara Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengal claim to be Karans. The Karans of Orissa have no connection with those of North Behar. § 4 .—The Sakya Sent Kayasthas. The Sakya Seni Kayasthas are very numerous in the District of Etawa in the Doab, and are to be found in every part of the Gangetic valley from Hardwar to Patna. Many of the wealthiest landholders of Etawa, Eta and Fatehpore are Sakya Sen is. Like the Sri¬ vastas they are divided into three classes, namely, Ail, Dusri and Ivhore. These do not intermarry, and must be regarded as separate castes. The Sakya Senis have a lower social position than the Srivastas. Raja Shitab Roy, who was Governor of Behar in the days of what is called the “ double Government,” was a Sakya Seni. The following account regarding him is to be found in Macaulay’s review of the administration of Warren Hastings :— A chief named Shitab Roy had been intrusted with the govern¬ ment of Behar. His valour and his attachment to the English had more than once been signally proved. On that memorable day on which the people of Patna saw from their walls the whole army of the Moo'ul scattered by the little band of Captain Knox, the voice of the "British conquerors assigned the palm of gallantry to the brave Asiatic. “ I never,” said Knox, when he introduced Shitab Rov covered with blood and dust, to the English functionaries assembled in the factory, “ I never saw a native fight so before.” Shitab Roy was involved in the ruin of Mahomed Reza Khan, was removed from office, and was placed under arrest. “ The revolution completed, the double Government dissolved, the Company installed in the full sovereignty of Bengal, Hastings had no motive to treat the late ministers with rigor. Their trial had been put off on various pleas till the new organization was complete. They were then brought before a committee over which the Governor presided. Shitab Roy was speedily acquitted with honour. A formal apology was made to him for the restraint to which he had been subjected. All the eastern marks of respect were bestowed on him. He was clothed in a robe of state, presented with jewels and with a richly harnessed elephant, and sent back to his Government at Patna. But his health had suffered from confinement; Ins spirit had been cruelly wounded ; and soon after his liberation he died of a broken heart.” 190 THE KAYASTHAS OE NORTHERN INDIA. The late Raja Bhoop Sen Sing of Patna was the daughter’s son of Sliitab Roy’s son, Kalyan Sing. Bhoop Sen left two sons named Mahipat and Roop Narain. The line of Maharaja Mahipat is now represented by his widowed daughter-in-law, Maharani Tikam Kumari. Kumar Roop Narain is still living, but is a lunatic. The family have their residence in the quarter of Patna called the Dewan Mahallah. § 5.— The Kula Sresliti Kdyasthas. The Kula Sreshti Kayasthas are found chiefly in the districts of Agra and Eta. § 6.— The Bhatnagari. The Bhatnagar Kayasthas derive their name from the town of Bhatnagar or Bhatner in the Hanumangar District on the north of Bikaneer. “They are found in great numbers in almost all the districts inhabited by the Gaur Brahmans, from Sambhal and Morada- bad to Agroha and Ajmere. They are also scattered over some of the Eastern provinces. The Bhatnagaris are not considered very pure Hindus, and are more addicted to drinking than other Kayasthas. But their official position in some places has enabled them to acquire considerable influence. They are the Kanangos of Gwalior and Mahaban in Mathura. The Gaur Bhatnagars are Kanangos of Mariyahu in Jounpore, of Chapra and Monghyr.* § 7 .—The Mathuri Kdyasthas. The Mathuri Kayasthas are, as their name indicates, inhabitants of the country round the ancient city of Mathura. § 8.— The Suryadhaja Kdyasthas. The Suryadhaja Kayasthas are to be found in the Districts of Balia and Gazipur. In the Bijnour District the Suryadhajas claim to be Brahmans. Elliot’s Supplemental Glossary , p. 36. THE KAYASTHAS OF UNAO. 191 § 9.— The Balmilci Kdyasthas. The Balmiki Kayasthas are to be found in Gujrat. The late Mr. Justice Nana Bhai Haridas, of the Bom¬ bay High Court, was a Balmiki Kayastha. § 10 .—-The Ashthana Kdyasthas. The Ashthana Kayasthas are to be found in Agra, Balia and Gazipur. § 11.— The Nigama Kdyasthas. The Kayasthas of Unao claim to be Nigama Kayas¬ thas. § 12.— The Gaur Kdyasthas. Like the Gaur Brahmans, the Gaur Kayasthas appear to have been originally inhabitants of the tract of country now included in the Delhi Division of the Punjab. The Gaur Kayasthas are to be found in almost all the Districts lying between Delhi and Patna. The Gaur Kayasthas of Azimgad are chiefly Sikhs. The Bhatnagaris seem to be a section of the Gaurs. § 13.— The Kdyasthas of Unao. The Kayasthas of Unao are a very important commu¬ nity. They claim to be of the Nigama class. There are many eminent lawyers and high officials among them. CHAP. IV.—THE WRITER CASTES OF SOUTHERN INDIA. In the Andhra country, including the north-eastern districts of the Madras Presidency, the work of writers and accountants is done chiefly by the Niyogi Brah¬ mans. The Karnams of the province, whose caste status is similar to that of the Kayasthas of Northern India, are also employed in similar capacities. The Karnams are, however, a small community, and as very few of them have attained high positions in Govern¬ ment service or in the liberal professions, they cannot be said to be equal to the Kayasthas of Bengal, either socially or intellectually. The Karnams take the sacred thread, but are regarded by all as Sudras. In Mysore and in the British districts towards its south and east, the classes that are usually held to be entitled to the designation of writer castes, are the Kanakkans and the Shanbhogs. Intellectually aud so¬ cially these are more like the Karnams, than like the Kayasths of Northern India. In the Dravira country, the Vellalars and some of the Vadugas claim to be Kayasthas, and though they are generally described as agricultural castes, they seem to have, in many respects, the same position as the writer castes of Northern India. The Vellalars are divided into two classes, the usual surname of one of which is Mudaliar, and that of the other Pillai. The Mudaliars have a higher position than the other Vellalars. The Mudaliars are found chiefly near Arcot and Salem. The ( 192 ) THE VELLALARS. 193 Vellalars, whose surname is Pillai, are found chiefly in the extreme south. Neither the Mudaliars nor the Pillais take the sacred thread ; but they are regarded as very clean Sudras, and the Brahmans accept their gifts without much hesitation. The Vadugas are not, properly speaking, a separate caste. In Dravira the name is applied to the Sudras of the Telegu country who have migrated, and are domiciled, in the Dravira districts. The high caste Vadugas have the same position as the Vellalars. The usual surname of the Vadugas is Naidu. There are many well-educated men among both the Vadugas and the Vellalars, and members of these castes are as numerous in the public service and the liberal pro¬ fessions in Southern India, as the Kayasthas are in the same lines of business in Northern India. B, lie 13 CHAR V.—THE PRABHUS OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. The word Prabhu literally means ‘ lord.’ It is the caste name of a very small but important community found in Western India. Their total number is only 29,559 ; but they are a very intelligent and ener¬ getic class. The two main sub-divisions among them are the following :— 1. Chandra Seni Prabhu—found chiefly near Poona. 2. Patani Prabhu—found in Bombay and Gujrat. There are other classes of Prabhus besides these, as, for instance, the Donna Prabhus, of Goa. The Prabhus wear the sacred thread, and, claiming to be Ksatriyas, J perform their poojas and prayers in the same manner as the highest of the twice-born castes. Nevertheless ; they are usually considered to have only the same foot¬ ing as that which the Kayasthas have in Northern India. They held very high offices under the Maratta , kings. The great Sivaji’s chief secretary was a Chan¬ dra Seni Prabhu, named Balaji Auji, whose acuteness and intelligence are recorded by the English Govern¬ ment at Bombay on an occasion of his being sent there on business.* Mulhar Ivhanderao Chitnavis, Vakil, dis- ! trict Amraoti, is a descendant of Balaji Auji. Two of his other descendants are now receiving their education in England at the expense of the Maharaja Guikwar of Baroda. Sakharam Hari Gupti, who was Minister to * See Grant Duff's History of the Marathas, Vol. I, p. 201. ( 194 ) THE PRABHUS OF WESTERN INDIA. 195 Raghunath Rao, Peshwa, and who suffered a cruel death for his fidelity to his master, was a Prabhu also. One of his descendants is employed at present as a General in the army of H. H. the Maharaja Holkar. Rowji Appaji, who was Minister to Govinda Rao Guik- war, and who after the death of his master became the most powerful man in the country and almost a “ King¬ maker,” was also of the Prabhu caste. Rowji’s brother Babaji was the Commander of the Guikwar’s Cavalry. Of the same caste were also Mahipat Rao, who was Prime Minister to Madhoji Bhouslay, and Krishna Rao Madhav Chitnavis, who was Prime Minister to Raghuji Bhouslay II, of Nagpore. The Hon’ble Gangadhar Rao Madhav Chitnavis, who is at present on the Legislative Council of India as an Additional Member, is a grandson of the Nagpore premier, Krishna Rao Chitnavis. The Hon’ble G. M. Chitnavis is a young man ; but the ability and moderation which he has displayed on some of the most trying occasions would do credit to many a grey-headed Councillor. His brother, Mr. Shankar Rao Madhav Chitnavis, holds a very high position in the Civil Service of India, being at present a District Magistrate and Collector in the Central Provinces. Of the other conspicuous names among the living members of the Prabhu caste, the following may be mentioned here :— 1. Dewan Bahadoor Luxman Jagannath Vaidya, of Poona, late Dewan of Baroda. 2. Rao Bahadoor Vasudev Mahadeo Somnath, Sir Soobah of Baroda. 3. Raghonath Sheo Rao Tipnavis, Sessions Judge, Bombay Presidency. 4. Rao Bahadoor Kandron Daji Adhicari Huzoor, Account¬ ant, Poona. 5. Rao Bahadoor Anna Gopal Kotwal, Deputy Collector, Surat. CHAP. VI.—THE KOLITAS OF ASSAM. The Ivolitas are found not only in Assam, but also in the Southern Tributary States of Chutia Nagpore. Colo¬ nel Dalton describes the Kolitas of Chutia Nagpore as of fair complexion, with good features and well-propor¬ tioned limbs, and expresses the opinion that they are of Aryan blood with “a slight deterioration arising from intermixture with the less comely aborigines. The same remarks apply to the Kolitas of Assam. They are re¬ garded by the best authorities as genuine Hindus of unmixed descent.* The highest class Kolitas in Assam, called Bora Koli¬ tas, live chiefly by serving as clerks and accountants. Under the Ahang Rajas almost all the Bora Kolitas were employed in the civil service of their country. Some of the high class Kolitas practise trade. When a Kolita manages to become a big man, he claims to be a Kayastha and takes the sacred thread. Of the inferior Kolitas, who are mainly agricultural, many serve as menials in the houses of Brahmans. The Kolitas are a pure Sudra caste, and they are almost the only Sudras in Assam who are allowed to enter the cook-room of a Brahman. There are some Kolitas who are artisans, but their status is inferior to that of the agricultural Kolitas. Some of the Kolitas are now the abbots of the monasteries appertaining to a Vaishnava sect found¬ ed by an Assamese Brahman in the fifteenth century. * Hunter’s Imperial Gazetteer, Vol. I, p. 355. ( 196 ) THE KOLITAS OF ASSAM. 197 The usual surnames of the Bora Kolitas are Kokatia and Choliha, both of which have the same signification, and are the Assamese and Ahang equivalents of the designation “ clerk,” their literal meaning being “ paper writer.” The surname of the inferior Kolitas is Ivolita. The Kolita population is more numerous in Upper and Central Assam than in the Surma Valley. Of the 253,860 Kolitas returned in Assam in 1881, 241,589 were inhabitants of the Bramhaputra Valley. The Kayastha population of Assam is confined mainly to the Surma Valley. PART X. THE MERCANTILE CASTES. CHAP. I.—THE BANIYAS OF BENGAL. The word Baniya is a corruption of the Sanskrit word banilc which means “ merchant.” The Baniyas are certainly entitled to be regarded as Vaishyas. But the Baniyas of Bengal do not wear the sacred thread, and the best of them are looked upon as inferior Sudras. The Baniyas proper of Bengal are divided into two classes, namely,— 1. Suvarna Banika—gold merchants. 2. Gandha Banika—spice merchants. Besides these there are two other classes, namely, the Kansa Banika and the Sankha Banika, whose profession and caste names entitle them to some extent to be regarded as Baniyas, but who are not popularly taken to come under the category. From the point of view of caste, the Gandha Baniks, Kansa Baniks, and Sankha Baniks have all a higher position than Suvarna Baniks ; but in respect of wealth, intelligence and culture, the latter stand on a far higher footing. There are among the Sonar Baniyas a great many who are big capitalists. These have very little enterprise, and generally seek the safest investments. The middle classes among them have generally poddari shops in the large towns where ( 198 ) the suvarna baniks. 199 they sell and buy gold and silver in the form of ingots, as well as in the shape of plate and jewellery. The Gandha Baniyas form the majority of the grocery shop¬ keepers of Bengal. The Kansa Baniks and Sankha Baniks also pursue the occupations assigned to their castes. There are many well-to-do people among the Gandha Baniyas and the Kansa Baniyas, but the Sankha Baniyas are, as a class, very poor. § 1 .—Suvarna Baniks of Bengal. The Suvarna Baniks are popularly called Sonar Baniyas. They are a very intelligent and well-to-do class, but they are treated as a degraded caste. The good Brah¬ mans do not take even a drink of water from their hands. Their spiritual guides are the C-haitanite Gos- sains, and their religious services are performed by a class of degraded Brahmans called Sonar Baniya Brah¬ mans. The Sonar Baniyas are believed to be very hard-fisted, and perhaps they are actually so in certain concerns of life ; but they never deny themselves any personal comfort consistent with their ideas of economy. Some of them live in palatial mansions, and keep splendid equipages. They do not invest much of their money for the benefit of their souls in the next world, and with the exception of a few of their wealthy members, they very seldom incur any expenditure by way of charity to the poor. As a class the Sonar Baniyas are, by nature, endowed with very strong common sense and sound judgment, and so they seldom fail to prosper in any line of business which they take up. Though traders by caste, they do not take any considerable share in either the internal or the foreign trade of the country. As already stated, there is very little enterprise among them, and a Sonar Baniya who has a long purse generally seeks more to conserve his patri¬ mony than to improve it by risky speculations. 200 THE BANIYAS OF BENGAL. The free admission of all the castes into the English schools and colleges set up in the country, since the commencement of British rule, has enabled many of the Sonar Baniyas to distinguish themselves, more or less, as English scholars. The greatest among these was the late Mr. Lai Behari Dey, the well-known author of the Govinda Samanta and the Folk Tales of Bengal. Babu Bhola Nath Chandra, the author of Travels in India, is also of the Sonar Baniya caste. I do not know any Sonar Baniya who has yet attained much eminence in the Bar ; but in the Judicial Service, there are many who hold very high positions. The most notable among them is Babu Brajendra Kumar Seal, who has now the rank of a District Court Judge, and who may one day prove an ornament of the Bengal High Court. In the Medical Service also there are some Sonar Baniyas holding very high positions. The total Sonar Baniya population of Bengal is accord¬ ing to the last Census 97,540 souls in all. They are divided into two classes called Saptagrami and Ban- gaja. The usual surnames of the Saptagramis are Mallick, Seal, Dhar, Laha, Baral, Adhya and Sen. Very few of these titles are peculiar to the class. But the leading Mallicks, Seals and Lahas of Calcutta are of the Saptagrami division of the Sonar Baniya caste. Abandoned by the higher classes of Brahmans, the Sonar Baniyas have naturally fallen into the hands of the Chaitanite Gossains. The teachings of their spi¬ ritual guides have made them strict abstainers from an- mal food and intoxicating drinks. To that extent their religion has had a very wholesome influence on them. The inevitable result of Vishnuvite teachings is, however, to cause a relaxation of the fetters by which the noble religion of the primitive Hindu Rishis sought to enforce sexual fidelity, and it is said that by leading their fol¬ lowers to pander to them in imitating the alleged flirta¬ tions of Krishna, the Chaitanite Gossains, and the Ballavachari Maharajas are sometimes able to make them THE GANDHA BANIKS. 201 wallow very deep in the mire of the most abominable practices. But, though the religion of the Gossains may be calculated to corrupt the morality of their followers, it must be almost impossible for the teachers to take ad¬ vantage of their cult for the gratification of their lust, without losing the esteem of their disciples which is their only source of income. Many of the Gossains, whom I know, are themselves very good men, and the chellas being also very shrewd men of the world, the stories that are usually retailed about their religious practices must to a great extent be quite without found¬ ation. It is only when the chella is a young widow without any near relation to protect her, that the spiritual teacher may find it possible or safe to corrupt her. But even in such cases the Gossain is boycotted by his disciples in a manner which makes him very miserable indeed. Even apart from such checks, no class of men can possibly be so bad as some of their religions tend to make them. The Sonar Baniyas are very neat and clean in their habits. They dress very decently, and their style of conversation very seldom betrays their low status in caste. Their ladies are generally very handsome. § 2 .—•The Gandha Baniks of Bengal. The Gandha Baniks, though entitled to be regarded as Vaishyas, are treated in Bengal as middle class Sudras, from whom a good Brahman may take a drink of water without any hesitation. A Brahman may even condescend so far as to accept their gifts and officiate at their religious ceremonies, without losing altogether his connection with his caste. The Gandha Baniks usually live by keeping shops, where they sell spices, sugar, ghi, salt, medicines and food-grains. They retail opium and charas. But they very seldom sell ganja, except through a Mahomedan servant. The majority of the shopkeepers of Bengal are either Gandha Baniks or Telis. There are not, among the 202 THE BANIYAS OF BENGAL. Gandha Baniks, such big capitalists as are to be found among the Sonar Baniyas ; nor such big traders as among the Telis. But, generally speaking, the Gandha Baniyas are a well-to-do class. They stick to the profession of their caste, and I do not know any member of the class who has obtained any University distinction, or has held any high office in the service of Government. The Gandha Baniyas are all, however, possessed of suffi¬ cient education to be able to keep accounts. Their usual surnames are Sinha, Dhani, Mullik, Ue, Nag, Sadhu, Datta and Dhar. Their total numerical strength is, according to the last Census, 123,765. The Gandha Baniyas live in good houses. But they very seldom spend much of their wealth in any other kind of personal comfort. It is very unusual for them to be dressed decently, and even the wealthiest among them generally live in a very shabby style. The Gandha Baniyas spend very considerable amounts in Pujas and marriages. But in other respects, the priestly class have very little influence on them either for good or evil. Their women have a very high character for conjugal fidelity. CHAP. II.—THE BANIYAS OF NORTHERN INDIA. To give an exhaustive list of the several Baniya tribes and of their sub-tribes is quite as impossible as the enu¬ meration of the several clans of the Rajputs and the Brahmans. In the Annals of Rajasthan it is stated that the author’s Jaina teacher, who had for a series of years been engaged in compiling a catalogue of the Baniya tribes, and had at one time included in it the names of not less than 1,800 different clans, was obliged to aban¬ don the pursuit, on obtaining from a brother priest, from a distant province, one hundred and fifty new names.* Colonel Tod’s teacher was evidently contemplating the enumeration, not only of the main tribes, but of their sub-divisions in every part of India, including Gujrat, where the sub-divisions among the Baniyas are as numerous as those among the local Brahmans. The main divisions of the Baniyas are not quite so numerous as the statement cited above from the Annals of Rajas¬ than might suggest. The commercial tribes best known and most usually found in Upper India are the follow¬ ing : 1. Agarwala. 2. Osswal (including the Sri- mals and Sir Srimals). 3. Khandelwal. 4. Srimali. 5. Palliwal. 6. Porawal. 7. Bhatiya. 8. Mahesri. 9. Agrahari. 10. Phusar. 11. U mar. 12. Rastogi. 13. Kesarwani. Tod’s Annals of Rajasthan, Vol. II., p. 1S2. ( 203 ) 204 THE BANIYAS OF NORTHERN INDIA. 14. Kesandhan, 15. Lohiya. 23. Mahuvia. 24. The Bais Baniyas. 25. The Kath Baniyas. 26. The Raoniyas. 27. The Janarya. 28. The Lohana. 39. The Rewari Baniyas. 30. The Kanu. 16. Soniya. 17. Sura Seni. 18. Bara Seni. 19. Baranwal. 20. Ayodhya Bansi. 21. Jaiswar. 22. Mahobiya. Of these the first ten are the richest and most enter¬ prising. They claim Rajputana and the adjoining tracts as their original home, but are to be found in every part of Upper India, from the Sutlej to the Brahma¬ putra. They are, generally speaking, very intelligent, and, although not possessing much of literary culture, their aristocratic appearance, cleanly habits, courteous manners, and capacity for every kind of business, mark them out as men of a superior stamp. They are all strict vegetarians and abstainers from strong drinks. The above are the chief tribes of Upper India that usually profess to be, and are recognized as, branches of the Baniya or mercantile caste. Among the persons actually connected with the trading business of Hindus¬ tan proper, a very large number are of the Kshetri caste, who, as already stated in a previous chapter, claim to be of the military group, but who, as a matter of fact, are mainly cloth merchants. In the Punjab, United Provinces, Behar, and Calcutta, the Kshetris have almost the monopoly for the sale of all kinds of textile fabrics, from Cashmere shawls and Benares brocades to those cheap Manchester dhotis which are now hawked in the streets of towns by the shrill and familiar cry of “ three pieces to the rupee ; four pieces to the rupee, &c.” The majority of the several classes of brokers in Northern India are also of the Kshetri caste. Among the sellers of food-grains, oil-seeds, salt, spices, &c., the several tribes of the Baniyas mentioned above may collectively form the majority. But the number of Telis and Kallwars among them is also very considerable. In fact, the Telis, whose proper avocation is the manufac- THE AGARWALS. 205 ture of oil, and the Kallwars who are brewers, claim to be Baniyas, though that claim is not admitted by any one outside their own spheres. § 1.— The Agarwals. The Agarwalas, Khandelwals and Ossawals are the most important classes of Baniyas in Upper India, and are to be found in every part of it from the Sutlej to the Brahmaputra, and even outside these limits. The Agarwals trace their descent from a Ivsatriya king, Agra Sen, who reigned in Sirhind, and whose capital was at Agraha, now a small town in the Fatehbad Tahsil of the Hissar District, Punjab. The exact date of Agra Sen is unknown, but some conjecture about it may be made from the tradition that his descendants took an important part in the struggles between Hinduism and Jainaism, and that many of them were led to embrace the Jaina religion at the time. After the capture of Agraha by Sahabuddin Ghori in 1194, and the dispersalof the tribe in consequence of that disaster, they renounced the military profession, and took to trade. There are a few Jains among the Agarwals. The majority of the caste are Vishnuvites. Some of them offer worship to the shrines of Siva and Kali. But there are none among them who can be called Sivites or Saktas. They all profess great reverence for the field of Kurukshetra and the river Ganges. They worship very particularly the goddess Laksmi, and celebrate with great pomp the Diwali, or general illumination of their houses, in the night of the new moon in October. The Jain Agarwalas are chiefly of the Digambari order. The Hindu Agarwals profess great reverence towards snakes, in accordance with their traditional belief that one of their remote female ancestors was a Nag kanya, i.e., the daughter of a serpent king. In Delhi the Vaishnava Agarwals paint pictures of the snake on either side of the outside doors of their houses, and make offering of fruits and flowers before them. A great many of the 206 THE BANIYAS OF NORTHERN INDIA. Agarwals take the sacred thread ; but they consider the practice as optional, and not desirable for those whose pursuits or habits of life render it impossible to observe the rules and ceremonies prescribed to the twice-born by the Shastras. According to the last Census, the numer¬ ical strength of the Agarwals is as shown in the following table :— N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 311,517 Bengal ... ... ... 19,297 Central Provinces ... ... ... 14,726 Total, including the figures of other Provinces where they are found ... 354,177 There are about 18 Gotras among the Agarwals, and they observe the rule of the Shastras forbidding marri¬ age within the Gotra. Intermarriage is allowed between the Jainas and Hindus in their caste. Their widows are not allowed to re-marry. The Gauda Brahmans usually minister to them as priests. They are all strict vege¬ tarians and teetotalers. The illegitimate offspring of the Agarwals are not altogether without a caste status. They are called Dasa, while those of legitimate birth are called Bisa. The Agarwals claim to be the only true representatives of the Aryan Vaishyas, and their occupations have throughout been in keeping with the tradition. “After the dispersion of the tribe by Sahabuddin Ghori their talent for business brought individual members to the front under the Mahomedan Emperors of Delhi. Two of Akbar’s Ministers—Madhu Sah and Todar Mai—are said to have been Agarwals.”* But the majority of the caste have from remote times been, and still are, employed in banking, trade, petty money-lending, and similar pursuits. A few are zemindars and holders of large tenures ; but in most cases their connection with the land may be traced to a profitable mortgage on the estate of an hereditary landholder, so that landholding # Tod’s Annals of Rajasthan , Vol. I, p. 548. THE OSSAWALS. 207 cannot properly be reckoned among the characteristic pursuits of the caste. The poorer members of the caste find employment as brokers, book-keepers, touts, workers in gold and silver embroidery, and take to any respect¬ able pursuit except cultivation.* § 2.— The Ossaicals, Srimals and Sri Srimals. Though bearing different designations according to the names of their original abodes, the Ossawals, Srimals and Sri Srimals are all members of the same caste. They are, however, not to be confounded with the Srimalis who form a distinct caste, and with whom they cannot intermarry. A very considerable number of the great Indian bankers and jewellers are Ossawals, and Colonel Tod cannot be very far from the mark in observing that half the mercantile wealth of India passes through their hands. In Rajputana they hold also very high offices in the service of the local chiefs. But in British India, where only the subordinate appointments are open to the natives of the country, there are scarcely half-a-dozen Ossawals connected with the public service. The late Raja Siva Prasad, who was an Ossawal, held the post of Inspector of Schools in the North-Western Provinces. Among the living officials of the Ossawal caste, the only name generally known is that of Mr. Bishen Chand, who is a Deputy Collector in the United Provinces. In Rajputanathe services of the Ossawals are better appreciated. From time immemorial they have held there the highest offices connected with finance and the administration of civil justice ; and even at present many of the leading offi¬ cials there are of the Ossawali clan. The present Dewan of Udaipore, Babu Panna Lai, is of that tribe ; so is also Mr. Nath Malji, the chief fiscal officer of Jaipore. It is said that there are a few Vishnuvites among the Ossawals. But the majority of them are Jains, and * Risley’s Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Vol. I, p. 7. 208 THE BANIYAS OF NORTHERN INDIA. they spend vast sums of money in building and furnishing temples dedicated to their saints. The best and most ancient of these shrines are at Palitana and Girnar. There are also a few recently-built Jain temples in Calcutta which are well worth visiting. The Ossawals are to be found in almost all the great towns of Northern India. The Jagat Setts of Moor- shedabad, whose political support mainly paved the way of the English to the acquisition of the sover¬ eignty of Bengal, were Ossawals. That family is well- nigh ruined now, but there is a large colony of Ossawals at Azimgunge near Moorshedabad, who are all very wealthy bankers and landholders. The greatest of these are Ray Dhanpat Sing and his nephew Ray Chatrapat Sing. The members of this family have all been very remarkable men as bankers and zemindars. Ray Latchmipat, the father of Chatrapat, was at one time involved in difficulties which threatened his ruin ; but his reputation for strict honesty, and his skill in the management of his business, enabled him to tide over the crisis with success, and to pay his creditors in full with interest. His creditors themselves offered to forego the interest, but he declined to avail himself of the concession even in the darkest hours of his peril, und now the credit of the family is established all the more. There was lately a run on the bank of Ray Dhanpat also. Some of his creditors tried to have him declared an insolvent. But he contested their proceedings, and in¬ stead of taking advantage of the law for the relief of insolvent debtors, he is, like his brother, about to pay the last farthing that he owed to his creditors. Such integrity in actual practice has certainly far greater value than the olla podrida of copy-book ethics and Machiavelism for which the priestly class claim to be worshipped by their followers. The great defect in the Baniyas of Northern India is, as already observed, their incapacity to march in advance of, or even with, the times. With all their wealth and THE KHANDELWALS. 209 »parity for business they have done nothing whatever troduce those new industries which the country now 1 y needs, and which, after the experimental stage is over, are sure to be profitable. They work in the old >oves, or in lines presented to them ready-made, and the; have not yet given any evidence of an aptitude for ►rganising new spheres of commercial activity. In this respect they are far surpassed by the Parsis and the Nagar Baniyas of Gujrat. Among our Ossawals, Agarwals, Khandelwals, Mahesris or Sonar Baniyas there is not a single name that, in respect of enterprise, can be compared with that of Sir Mangal Das Kathu Bhai o! Sir Dinshaw Manikjee Petit. I he Bhojak Brahmans minister to the Ossawals as p riests in the performance of those Brahmanical cere- moi ies that are not eschewed by the Jains. The social a k of the Ossawals is the same as that of the Agarwals, their gifts would be accepted without hesitation by Bi hmans of all classes. .ike the Agarwals, the Ossawals give a recognised sta 1 is to their illegitimate progeny calling them Dasa, wh, e those of legitimate birth are called Bisa. he usual surnames of the Ossawals are Chand, Das, i, Lai, Singh, Golecha, Doogar and Nalaka. § 3.— The Khandelvoal Baniyas. he Khandelwal Baniyas are not inferior to any of Ih other divisions of the caste, either in wealth or in respect of refinement. They derive their name from the town of Khandela in the Jaipore State, which at one time was the chief city of the Shekhawati Confe- 1 ition.* There are both Vishnuvites and Jains among thmn. The Vishnuvite Khandelwals take the sacred tin ad. The millionaire Setts of Mathura are Khandel- wa’i and of the Jain persuasion, with the exception >ne branch only that has lately adopted the Vishnu- * See Tod’s Annals of Rajasthan, Vol. II, p. 434. B, HC 14 210 THE BANITAS OF NORTHERN INDIA. vite faith, through the influence of an Achari monk of the Ramanuja sect, named Rangachari Swami. Mulchand Soni of Ajmere is a Jain Khandelwal. § 4. — The Srimali Baniyas. Like the Srimali Brahmans, the Srimali Baniyas trace their name to the town of Srimal now called Bhinal, near Jhalore in Marwar. With regard to Bhinal and Sanchore, Colonel Tod says :— These towns are on the high road to Cutch and Gujrat, which has given them from the most remote times a commercial celebrity. Bhinal is said to contain fifteen hundred houses, and Sanchore about half that number. Very wealthy mohajans or ‘ merchants ’ used to reside here, but insecurity both within and without has much injured these cities, the first of which has its name mal, from its wealth as a mart.—Tod’s Annals of Rajasthan, Vol. II, p. 332. Like the Agarwals, the Srimalis give a recognised status to their illegitimate offspring, and call them Rasa Srimalis, while those of legitimate birth are called Bisa. The latter are all Jains. But among the Dasa Srimalis there are both Jains and Yishnuvites. There are many rich men among the Srimali Baniyas, as, for instance, Panna Lai Johori, the leading jeweller of Bombay, and Makhan Lai Karam Chand, the lead¬ ing banker of Ahmedabad. Like the Ossawals and the Khandelwals, the Srimali Baniyas generally stick to their caste profession, and keep aloof from the public services, and the practice of the liberal professions. There are, however, some exceptions. Dr. Tri Bhuvan Das, of Junagar, is a Srimali. § 5.— The Pallheal Baniyas. The Palliwal Baniyas derive their name from the ancient commercial mart of Marwar, about which an account has been already given in connection with the Palliwal Bramhans.* Among the Palliwal Baniyas there are both Jains and Yishnuvites. They are very numerous in Agra and Jaunpur. See page 68, ante. THE BHATIYAS. 211 § 6.— The Poraioal Baniyas. The Porawal Baniyas seem to derive their name from Pore Bunder in Gujrat, and, if so then, they are Gujrati Baniyas. They are strong in Lalitpur, Jhansi, Cawnpur, Agra, Hamirpur, and Banda. They do not take the sacred thread. The Srimali Brahmans minister to them as priests. Mr. Bhagu Bhai, one of the wealthiest bankers of Ahmedabad, is a Porawal. § 7.— The Bhatiyas. Like most of the other Baniya castes of Rajpntana, the Bhatiyas claim to be Rajputs. But whatever ground there may be for such pretension, this much is certain, that they have no connection whatever with the Bhatti clan of the Rajput tribe. The Bhatiyas deal very largely in the cotton piece-goods imported into this country from Manchester. The last Census gives the following figures regarding their numerical strength :— Bombay ... ... ... ... 22,603 Punjab ... ... ... ... 23,649 Scinde ... ... ... ... 8,491 There is a large colony of Bhatiyas at Karachi in Scinde. § 8.— The Mahesri Baniyas. The Mahesris are a numerous tribe found in almost every part of the N.-W. Provinces, Rajputana and Behar. They are to be found in large numbers in Nagpore also. The majority of them are Vishnuvites, and take the sacred thread. The number of Jains among them is not very considerable. Their name is probably derived from that of the ancient town of Maheshwar near Indore. But some say that their original home is Bikanir, while the Mahesris of Mozufferpore trace their name from the town of Mahesha near Bhurtpore. The well-known banker, Bansi Lai Abirchand, of Bikanir, who has agencies in almost every part of India, is a Mahesri. So is Sheva Ram Khosal Chand, of Jubbulpore. 212 THE MERCANTILE CASTES. § 9.— The Agraliari Baniyas. The Agraharis are found chiefly in the districts round Benares. Their numerical strength is slightly in excess of one hundred thousand. There are not many wealthy men among them. They take the sacred thread, and, like the other leading Baniya clans, are strict vegetarians and teetotalers. There are many Agraharis who have embraced the Sikh faith. There is a large colony of such Agraharis in the district of Arrah. § 10 .—The Dhunsar Baniyas. The Dhunsars are found chiefly in the Gangetic Doab, between Delhi on the west and Mirzapore on the east. There are many big landholders among them. They take their name from Dhusi, a flat-topped hill, near Bewari, in Gurgaon. They are all Vishnuvites, and there are no Jains among them. They do not devote themselves entirely to trade. In fact their chief pro¬ fession is penmanship, and they combine in themselves the office-aptitude of the Kayasth, with the Baniya’s capacity for mercantile business. Under Mahomedan rule, they occasionally filled many high offices of State. Under the present regime a good many of them hold such appointments in the public service as are open to the natives of this country now. § 11.— The Umar Baniyas. The Umars are very numerous in the tract of country between Agra on the west and Gorakhpur on the east. The Baniyas of the districts adjoining Cawnpur are chiefly Umars. The tribe has very few representatives in Behar. They are usually recognised as good Vaish- yas, and their caste status is not regarded as inferior to that of any other Baniya tribe. They take the sacred thread after the death of their fathers, but not before. THE KASARWANI AND KASANADHAN. 213 § 12.— The Rastogi Baniyas. The Rastogis are very numerous in the Upper Doab, and in almost all the chief towns of the United Pro¬ vinces, as, for instance, Lucknow, Fatehpur, Farak- kabad, Meerut, and Azamgarh. The tribe has a few representatives also in Patna and Calcutta. All the Rastogis are Vaishnavas of the Ballava sect. Like the Umars they take the sacred thread after the death of their fathers, and not before. There are some wealthy bankers among them. Even the poorest among them are generally found well clad. They have the following sub-divisions : — 1. Amethi—probably from the Pergunnah of that name, in the Sultanpore District, Oudh. 2. Indrapati—from Indrapat, the ancient name of Delhi. 3. Manhariya—probably from Mailiar in Baghelkhand. §§ 13, 14.— The Kasarwani and the Kasanadhan Baniyas. These two tribes seem to derive their names from the Sanskrit word kansa, which means “bell-metal.” If that be the correct derivation of their caste designation, then their original occupation was the keeping of shops for the sale of those brass and bell-metal utensils which are a necessity in every Hindu household. But as, in practice, they generally keep shops for the sale of food- grains and oil-seeds, it does not seem impossible that their names are corrupted forms of Krishana Vanik and Krishana Dhani , both meaning the “ husbandman’s banker. ” They are pretty numerous in every part of the United Provinces and Behar. The last Census gives the following figures relating to their numerical strength :— Kasandhan, 97,741—most numerous in the districts of Banda and Basti. Kasarwani, 65,625—most numerous in Benares. The majority of these two tribes are petty shopkeepers, and the number of wealthy men among them is not very considerable. Most of them are quite illiterate. 214 THE MERCANTILE CASTES. A few have education enough to serve as book-keepers and clerks in the offices of the Hindu bankers. The Kasarwanis allow their widows to re-marry, but do not recognise the possibility of divorce. Shopkeeping is their regular occupation. But there are a few among them who practise agriculture. The Kasarwanis of the districts round Benares are chiefly Ram worshippers, and are generally strict vegetarians and teetotalers. They, however, offer worship to the Sakti goddess Bin- dhya Basini, of Mirzapore, releasing the animal which they offer, without slaughtering it. They do not take the sacred thread. § 15.— The Lohiya Baniyas. As their name indicates, the caste occupation of the Lohiyas is the sale of ironware. The numerical strength of the class is not very considerable. The majority of them are Vishnuvites ; but there are among them some Jains also. The taking of the sacred thread is very rare among them. § 16 .—The Soniyas. The Soniyas are dealers in gold. But the Soniyas of Upper India are not a very wealthy class like the Sonar Baniyas of Bengal. There are many Sonis in Allahabad. Those of Benares profess to have migrated there from Gujrat. § 17.— The Sum Seni Baniyas. The Sura Seni Baniyas evidently derive their desig¬ nation from the ancient name of the Mathura District. § 18.— The Bam Seni Baniyas. The Bara Senis are an important community. There are many rich bankers among them. They seem to derive their name from Barshana in the suburbs of Mathura. At any rate, the clan is very strong in Mathura and the adjoining districts. THE MAHOBIYAS. 215 § 19.— The Baranwal Baniyas. The Baranwals are a numerous but not a very wealthy class. They take their name from Baran , the old name* of Bulandshahar. They were driven away from their original home by the oppressions of Mahomed Toglak, and are now to be found chiefly in Etawah, Azamgarh, Gorakhpur, Moradabad, Jaunpore, Gazipur, Behar and Tirhoot. They are orthodox Hindus, and allow neither divorce nor the re-marriage of widows. Wherever possible they employ Gaur Brahmans as their priests. In Tirhoot they employ Maithili Brahmans also. They are mostly shopkeepers. A few have taken to agriculture. There are a few big landholders and bankers among them ; as, for instance, Babu Bolaki Lai, of Monghyr. Some of the Baranwals take the sacred thread. § 20.— The Ayodhya Basi Baniyas. Like many other castes the Baniyas have a clan deriving their name from the ancient kingdom of Oudh. The Ayodhya Basi Baniyas are to be found in every part of the United Provinces and Behar. § 21.— The Jaiswar Baniyas. The Jaiswar Baniyas seem to derive their name from Perganah Jais in the Salon Division of the Rae Bareilly District, Oudh. They are very numerous in the eastern districts of the United Provinces. They do not take the sacred thread. There is a branch of the tribe of brewers called Kallwars in Northern India who pre¬ tend to be Jaiswar Baniyas. The Jaiswars are usually to be found among the petty shopkeepers and pedlars. § 22.— The Mahobiya Baniyas. The Mahobiya Baniyas derive tbeir name from the town of Mahob in the Hamirpur District. * See Hunter’s Imperial Gazetteer, Vol. Ill, p. 133. 216 THE MERCANTILE CASTES. § 23.— The Mahuria Baniyas. A clan very strong in Behar and in the Doab. In Behar they are the richest of all the local Baniya tribes. There are many big landholders and rural bankers among them. They finance the cultivators of sugar¬ cane, and have almost the monopoly of the local trade in sugar. They do not take the sacred thread, but are regarded as good Hindus of the Yaishya class. Tika Sahu, of Hansua Noagong, in Gaya, who was one of the biggest zemindars of the district, was a Mahuria. Like the Sikhs the Mahuris are strictly for¬ bidden the use of tobacco, and a man detected smoking would be expelled from the community. In all prob¬ ability the Mahurias are a section of the Rastogis. § 24.— The Bais Baniyas. These Baniyas are found chiefly in Behar. Like the other high caste Baniyas, they allow neither divorce nor the re-marriage of widows. A great many of them keep shops for the sale of brass and bell-metal vessels. Some of them practise agriculture. The Bais of Kumaon are a different clan, having the same status. § 25 .—The Kath Baniyas. The Kath Baniyas are found in Behar. The majority of them are shopkeepers and money-lenders ; but many have taken to agriculture, and work even as landless day labourers. Some members of the caste have of late become zemindars. The Maithila Brahmans minis¬ ter to them as priests. They allow the re-marriage of widows, but not of divorced wives. They burn their dead, and perform sradh on the thirty-first day. § 26 .—The Raoniyar Baniyas. The Raoniyars are found in Gorakhpur, Tirhoot and Behar. The local Brahmans minister to them as priests. They allow the re-marriage of their widows ; but not of THE KANUS. 217 divorced wives, except with the permission of the Pan- chait. The Raoniyars are not Vishnuvites like most of the other Baniya tribes. They regard Siva as their tutelary deity, and like the Agarwals pay special rever¬ ence to Laksmi, the goddess of Fortune. The majority of them are petty traders and money-lenders. They are called also Nonia. § 27.— The Jameya Baniyas. These are found chiefly in the Etawa District. They claim to be descendants of Pralhad, who, according to the Vishnuvite legends, was the son of the monster Hiranya Kasyapa, and was saved by Krishna himself from the persecutions to which he was subjected by his father. § 28.— The Loliana Baniyas. The Lohanas seem to be allied to the Bhatya. They are found chiefly in Scind. The total Lohana popula¬ tion of India exceeds half a million. § 29.— The Rewari Baniyas. The Rewari Baniyas are a very small clan. They evidently derive their natne from Rewari in Gurgaon. Their usual occupation is the keeping of cloth shops. There is a small colony of Rewari Baniyas in Gaya. § 30 .—The Kanu Baniyas. The Ivanus are petty shopkeepers dealing chiefly in food-grains and supplying travellers with the requi¬ sites for cooking their meals. CHAP. III.—THE BANIYAS OF GUJRAT. The barren deserts of Rajputana are the principal home of the Baniyas. In the contiguous province of Gujrat also the Baniyas are very numerous, wealthy and enterprising. The Srimalis, Ossawals and Khan- delwals, who are to be found in large numbers in Gujrat, as in almost every other part of Northern India, are, properly speaking, Baniyas of Rajputana, and have been described already. The main divisions among the Baniyas of Gujrat proper are the follow¬ ing ; — 1 . Nagar | 1 . Dasa. 7. Jharola. .2. Bisa. 8. Sorathiya. 2. Disawal. 9. Khadaita. 3. Porawal -j [k Dasa. Bisa. 10. 11. Harsora. Kapola. 4. Gujar. 12. Urvala. 5, Modh. 13. Patolia. 6. Lad. 14. Yayada. Each of these sections has a corresponding Brah- manical caste who usually minister to them, and to them only, as priests. For instance, the Nagar Brahmans minister to the Nagar Baniyas ; the Modh Brahmans minister to the Modh Baniyas ; and the case is the same with the others. The majority of the Gujrati Baniyas are Yishnuvites and followers of Ballabhachari. The number of Jains among them is also very considerable. The Vishnu- vite Baniyas take the sacred thread. CHAP. IV.—THE TRADING CASTES OF THE SOUTHERN DECCAN. The chief trading castes of the Madras Presidency are the Chettis, Komatis, Nagartas and Lingait Banijigas. The word Chetti is probably allied to the Sanskrit word Sreshthi, which means a banker or a big merchant. The Chettis of the Madras Presidency correspond to the Baniyas of Northern India. The Chettis are divided into numerous clans between whom intermarriage is impossible. Like the Baniyas of Northern India, some of the clans of Chettis take the sacred thread. A few of the Chettis are vegetarians ; but the majority of them eat fish as well as such flesh as is not forbidden by the Shastras. The Chettis claim to be of the Vaishya caste, and those of them who take the sacred thread are certainly entitled to be regarded as such. But the Brahmans of their Province look upon them as Sudras, and an orthodox Draviri Vaidika will neither accept their gifts nor officiate as a priest for them. The original home of the Natkutai Chettis, who form one of the most important clans in the caste, is Madura. They do not care for English education or for service under Gov¬ ernment. The majority of the Chettis practise trade. They have all a knowledge of the three IPs, and some of their clans stand next to only the Brahmans and the Vellalars in respect of literary culture. Some members ( 219 ) 220 THE MERCANTILE CASTES. of these Chetti clans hold very high positions in the service of Government, and in the liberal professions. The total Chetti population is as stated below :— Madras Burma Mysore 693,552 5,723 2,702 The Chettis are very numerous in the town ot Madras, and in the Districts of Krishna, Nellore, Cuddapah, Kornool, Madura and Coimbatore. There are very few members of the clan in Malabar or South Kanara. The trade of the Malabar coast is carried on chiefly by the local Brahmans and Mussulmans. The usual pro¬ fession of the few Chettis there is agricultural banking. “ They advance money on growing crops of pepper, ginger, turmeric and other produce, superintend the cultivation themselves, and ultimately obtain possession of the land.”* In Mysore the Lingait Banijigas preponderate over all the other trading castes. The Komatis and Nagartas are usually found only in the towns and practising trade. But of the Lingait Banijigas and Telegu Banijigas a considerable number practise agriculture, and are re¬ sidents of rural villages. Madras Census Report for 1871, Vol. I, p. 143. CHAP. V.—THE MERCANTILE CASTES OF THE TELUGU COUNTRY. The mercantile castes of the Telugu country are called Komatis. They claim to be Vaishyas, and take the sacred thread. They are an educated class, and count among their number many who have obtained high University distinctions, and hold respectable posi¬ tions in the liberal professions or in the service of Government. Upon the whole, the Komatis have almost exactly the same position in Telingana, that the Baniyas have in Upper India. The Komatis have many divisions among them, of which the following are the most important:—- 1. Oavuri. 3. Beri Komati. 2. Kalinga Komati. 4. Balji Komati. 5. Nagar Komati. The Gavuri Komatis have the highest position. They are strict vegetarians and teetotalers. The other Koma¬ tis are said to be in the habit of eating flesh meat. In matters relating to religion, the majority of the Gavuri and Kalinga Komatis are Sankarites, and only a small fraction are either Lingaits or followers of Ramanuja. Among the Beri Komatis the majority are Lingaits. In matters relating to social discipline, the Komatis acknow¬ ledge the authority of the spiritual successors of Bhas- karachari, who have their chief monastry at Gooti in the Bellary District. The Brahmans minister to the Komatis as priests without reciting the Yedic mantras. The Komatis now claim that they are entitled ( 221 ) 222 THE MERCANTILE CASTES. to sucli recitation. The practice of marrying the maternal uncle’s daughter not only prevails among the Komatis as among the other castes of Southern India ; but where there is a maternal uncle’s daughter, a Komati has no option, and it is obligatory on him to take her in marriage. The Komatis sell confec¬ tioneries, and there is no separate caste in Telingana corresponding to the Mayara or the Halivai. The total Komati population of India is as stated below :— Madras ... ... ... 287,983 Hydrabad ... ... 212,865 Mysore ... ... ... 29,053 Total 545,206 CHAP. VI.—THE BANIYAS OF ORISSA. As in Bengal so in Orissa there are only two classes of Baniyas, namely, the Sonar Baniya and the Putli Baniya. The Putli or packet Baniyas correspond to the Gandha Baniya of Bengal. The Sonar Baniyas and the Putli Baniyas of Orissa have the very same position there that the corresponding castes have in Bengal — the Putli Baniyas being regarded as a clean caste, and the Sonar Baniyas an unclean caste. As in Bengal, so in Orissa also, the Sonar Baniyas are richer than the spice- selling caste. Like all the other castes of the province the Baniyas of Orissa are generally in a far more back¬ ward condition than the corresponding classes of the Hindu community in other parts of India. The Baniyas of Orissa are sadly wanting in both capital and enter¬ prise, and what little wholesale trade there is in the province is almost entirely in the hands of foreigners. ( 223 ) PART XL THE ARTISAN CASTES GENERALLY RECOGNIZED AS CLEAN SUDRAS. CHAP. I.—GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Though in practice many of the Banick or Baniya clans, spoken of in the preceding chapters, are treated as having no higher status than that of clean Sudras, and though one of them, namely, that of the Sonar Baniyas is regarded as actually unclean, yet their claim to be reckoned in the third group of the four main Hindu castes being undeniable, they are not included among Sudras in any Shastra, ancient or modern. The cultivating and the manufacturing castes are equally entitled to be looked upon as Vaishya according to the Shastric definition of the term ; but as they do not generally take the sacred thread, they are all regarded as Sudras, and, according to a modern text, only nine of them, namely, the following, are entitled to be treated as clean :— e f 1. Tanti d m j 2. Modakakara ■js | -!3. Kulala h j 4. Karmakara ^ ° 15. Teli 6. Gopa 7. Barui 8. Mali 9. Napita ( 224 ) ... Confectioner. ... Potter. ... Ironsmith. ... Oil manufacturer. ... Cowherd. ... Grower of betel leaf. ... Florists. ... Barber. CASTE RULES. 225 This list does not include any of the chief agricul¬ tural classes, and omits also such clean artisans as the goldsmith and the carpenter. In practice a few of the other artisan classes, not included in the list of Nava Sayakas, are regarded as clean Sudras, as also the majority of the cultivating tribes ; while the Telis, though included in it, are regarded as more or less unclean in practice. The manufacturing castes that are actually regarded as more or less clean are the following 1. Tanti 2. Modakakar 3. Kulala 4. Karmakara 5. Svarnakara 6. Sutradhar, Sutar or Barhi 7. Kasera and Thathera 8. Kandu and Bhad Bhunja 9. Dirji Weaver. Confectioner. Potter. Ironsraitli. Goldsmith. Carpenter. Braziersand coppersmiths. Grain parchers. Tailors. To form an idea of the exact status of these and other clean Sudras, the reader should bear in mind the following rules of the Hindu caste system :— 1. A man of any of the superior castes may drink such water as is fetched or touched by a clean Sudra, whether the water be of the river Ganges or from any other source. 2. The water of the river Ganges, though fetched by an unclean Sudra, is not thereby rendered unfit for the high caste Hindu’s drinking purposes. Bat every other kind of water is polluted by the touch of an un¬ clean Sudra. 3. Even the water of the sacred Ganges is rendered useless to a Hindu by the touch of a non-Hindu. 4. The touch of non-Hindus and unclean Sudras being contaminating, it is only the clean Sudras that can render the necessary personal service to the high caste Hindus like the Brahmans, Rajputs, Vaidyas, and Kayasthas. 5. The twice-born castes cannot, without rendering themselves liable to expiation, eat any cooked food b, hc 15 226 CLEAN AND UNCLEAN CASTES. touched by a Sudra. The result of this rule is that a Sudra menial, whether clean or unclean, can be of no use to a high caste Hindu for the actual cooking of his food, or the serving of it. In fact, in the absence of a Brahman cook, the high caste Hindu has himself to cook the food of his servant. For the actual cuisine work, the clean and the unclean Sudras stand on the same footing. But while the clean Sudra can assist in the process in various ways, the unclean Sudra is not allowed even to enter the cook-room. It is for this reason that the clean Sudras alone are usually appointed as menials in Hindu households. 6. Another important difference between the clean and the unclean Sudras lies in the fact, that while a Brahman can minister to the former without losing his Brahmanism, he cannot show such honour to the latter without being degraded for ever. 7. Further, though the Shastras forbid the acceptance of the Sudra’s gifts without any reference to his status, yet in practice the best Brahmans do not hesitate to accept the bounty of the Nava Sayakas, when the amount offered is a large one. Most of the great Pandits of the country accept, more or less openly, the gifts of Maharani Svarnamayi, who is a Teli by caste. But, with the exception of the Chaitanite Gossains, even the poorest and most illiterate Brahmans will not usually accept the gifts of a washerman, fisherman, vintner or courtesan. CHAP. II.—THE WEAVERS. § 1.— The Weavers Generally. The weaving industry of India was, until recently, a very lucrative one, and it, therefore, happens that it is not the monopoly of any particular caste. The most important classes engaged in it are :— 1. Tanti Population in Bengal 472,798. 2. Tatwa Do. Do. 328,77S. In Bengal 3. Julaha Do. Do. 726,781. 4. Kapali Jugi* Do. Do. 134,002. U5. Do. Do. 406,473. In Assam 1. Tanti Popidation in Assam 11,002. 12 . Jugi Do. Do. 177,746. ri. Kori Population in N.-W. Provinces In N.-W. P. i 924,795. 12. Julaha Do. Do. 902,125. U Chipa Do. Do. 36,245. 1. Koshti Population in the Bombay Presidency 70,274. 2. Sali Do. Do. 59,161. In Western India • 3. Khatri Do. Do. 51,740. 4. Thakerda Do. Do. 63,232. 5. Kawalia Do. Do. 53,688. 16. Devang Do. Do. 38,275. '1. Kai Koia Total population in the Madras Presidency 31(5,620. In Southern India- 2. 3. Sali Patwa Do. Do. Do. Do. 308,285. 74,374. 4. Togata Do. Do. 59,208. u Domba Do. Do. 74,249. The total population of the several classes of weavers in India is 9,3G9,902 souls. But all these classes are • As to this caste, see p. 236, post. ( 227 ) 228 THE WEAVING CASTES. not Hindus. The Julahas, who form one-fourth of the I entire population, may have been at one time low caste I Hindus, but are now all Mahomedans. Even among those classes of weavers that are Hindus, the caste status of many is very low, and they certainly do not belong to the group called Nava Sayakas or the nine Sudra castes. The weavers of India were, until recently, a very prosperous class ; but the importation of machine-made piece-goods* from Manchester has, of late, thrown many thousands of them out of employ. These dragged on a life of poverty for some years, and at last either died of semi-starvation, or were forced by necessity to become menial servants or tillers of the soil. As the hand-looms of India are now constructed, the best weaver, with the assistance of his whole family to dress and card the yarn, cannot turn out more than five yards of cloth in a day ; but the motive power required to work such a loom is very slight, and the machinery might certainly be so improved as to enable one man to work at least half-a-dozen similar looms. It is said by some that if the weaving industry of India has ceased * With regard to the effect of the importation of machine-made piece-goods on the condition of the Indian weavers, Mr. Risley makes the following observations : “ Although the Tantis admit weaving to be their immemorial profession, many of them have of late years been driven by the influx of cheap machine-made goods to betake themselves to agriculture. It is difficult or impossible to say with any approach to accuracy what proportion of the caste have abandon¬ ed their original craft in favour of trade or agriculture. The Uttara Kula Tantis of Western Bengal have, on the whole, adhered to weaving, and it is popularly believed that their comparative poverty i is mainly due to their attachment to the traditional occupation of the caste. Among the Aswini or Moriali about one-third are sup¬ posed to have given up weaving and settled down as regular cultiva¬ tors.—Risley’s Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Vol. II, p. 301. It must be exceedingly difficult for a foreigner to appreciate exactly the story of human misery implied in the above. If thirty- ■ three per cent, of any class of Tantis have reconciled themselves, by hard necessity, to the handling of the plough, perhaps another thirty- three per cent, died of sheer starvation, before the survivors in the struggle could think of giving up their ancestral looms and shuttles, • and adopting such a plebeian occupation as agricultux - e. DEPRESSED CONDITION OF THE WEAVERS. 229 to be paying in consequence of the competition of foreign piece-goods, the Indian weavers should, de¬ spite their caste prejudices, take up some other line of business. The principle of Free Trade has been in¬ voked in order to justify our indifference, and that of our Government, to the sufferings brought on the millions of our weavers by the import of Manchester piece- goods. But neither the science of Political Economy nor the principle of Free Trade requires that when foreign goods make their way into the markets of a country, the people of it should make no efforts to save the sinking vessel of their own industries. The principle of Free Trade insists only upon absolute freedom being left to the consumer to buy his goods from the cheapest and best market according to his own judgment. In this country domestic industry alone suits the genius of the people, and, so far as the weaving industry is concerned, it is certainly not desirable, even from the point of view of Political Economy, that the hand- looms should be superseded by steam-power looms. Domestic industry does not involve any expenditure on account of supervision, mill buildings, or brokerage to : company promoters. Domestic industry cannot render it necessary to collect raw materials or manufactured goods in one place to such an extent as to involve the risk of any heavy loss by fire, shipwreck or damp. The 1 skill possessed by the people of a country in any art being, according to the science of Political Economy, an important part of its capital, India is at present i suffering a prodigious loss, through allowing the skill acquired by her weavers by generations of practice to remain unemployed and become deteriorated. A very little improvement in the hand-looms might not only enable them yet to hold their own against foreign , competition, but save the heavy loss to the Indian people and to the world which now takes place in freight, insurance, warehousing and other charges incurred *230 THE WEAVING CASTES. unnecessarily for the benefit of Manchester. The weavers of India are themselves too ignorant of the mechanical sciences, and too poor at present, to make the necessary improvements in their looms, by their own capital and exertions. The matter is one which deserves the earnest attention of our publicists. § 2.— The Tantis of Bengal. The Tantis of Bengal are Sudras of the Nava Sayaka or Upper nine group. They are divided into many sub-castes, which, however, need not be mentioned here. The Brahmans who minister to the clean Sudra castes like the Tantis are not, as already observed, degraded for ever, though as Sudra Yajakas (priests of Sudras) they are looked down upon by the Asudra Pratigrahis, i.e., those who never take any gifts from Sudras. The Tantis being a clean caste their men and women are eligible for domestic service in the houses of the Brah¬ mans. The following are the usual surnames of the Tantis of Bengal:— 1. Basaka—Surname of the higher class Tantis of Dacca, some of whom are now settled in Calcutta. 1: Nan n :::l k Km.:: 1 Su ™ to the Tan - 4. Ash ...) 7. Bit ...j tls 01 ■ Ben S al - 8. Seal—A surname of both Tantis and Sonar Baniyas. 9. Nandi—A surname of the Kayasthas, Telis and Tantis. 10. Datta—A surname of the Kayasthas, Tantis, Sonar Baniyas, &c. 11. Pal—A surname of the Kayasthas, Telis, Goalas and Tantis. 12. Shah—A Mahomedan title which is the usual surname of the wine-selling caste called Sunri; some of the Dacca Tantis have also this surname. 13. Aitch—A surname of the Kayasthas and the Tantis. 14. Pramanik—A surname of many of the middle class and inferior Sudras such as the Teli, Napit, Tanti, Tura, &c. 15. Chandra—A surname of the Kayasthas, Sonar Baniyas and Tantis. Generally speaking, all the Tantis of Bengal are Yishnuvites and teetotalers. Like the other superior Sudra castes of Bengal, they do not allow divorce or the re-marriage of widows. It is, however, said that some THE TANTIS OF BENGAL. 231 of the Tantis openly live in their houses with widowed females of different castes. The admission of concubines in the dwelling-house and their treatment as wives are common enough among the unclean castes. But such instances among the superior classes are very rare—the discipline of caste being among them still powerful enough to keep under a wholesome check any tendency towards such defiance of public opinion. The weavers of Calcutta are its earliest settlers, and being still in possession of a considerable portion of its land, they are, generally speaking, a well-to-do class. But the condition of their castemen in the interior has in recent times become indeed deplorable, as stated already. The only places in the interior of Bengal where a few well-to-do Tantis may still be found are Dacca and Santipore. The fine muslins for which these places are famous still command very high prices in the market, and the weavers employed in the industry have not yet been materially affected by the cheap and coarse pro¬ ducts of the Manchester mills. According to the traditional belief of the people of this country, the weavers are as a class very dull-headed. But, as a matter of fact, the weavers of Calcutta have attained very high University distinctions, and are not very inferior to the Brahmans and Kayasthas in culture and refinement. In the interior the weavers are gene¬ rally quite illiterate ; but the common sense of the majority of the class must be held to be very strong. The religious teachers of the country do not usually find them quite so pliable as the Baniyas. In fact the la¬ mentations of the Gossain, about the indifference of the weavers towards religious sermons and recitations, have passed into a proverb. It is only at Dacca and Kutwa that the Gossains possess any considerable influence over the Tantis. With regard to the weavers of Kutwa a doggerel verse is recited by the other classes of people in the locality which ironically observes that the great¬ ness of a Vaishnava cannot be exactly apprehended even 232 THE WEAVING CASTES. by the gods, and that the Tantis of Kutwa alone can appreciate it. The weavers of Bengal are very industrious, thrifty and sober. The only luxuries in which they indulge are fish, curry, and a porridge of black kidney beans. They never waste one moment of their time in idle talk or amusement. Their adult males are always at their looms, while their females devote themselves to dressing and carding the yarn whenever they are not occupied with household work. The weavers do not manufacture the yarn. In former times, it was spun by old women of all the classes, including high caste Brahman ladies. But mule twist has now silenced the primeval charka, and the sound of the spinning wheel can seldom be heard now even in the remotest villages. The yarn now used by the Indian weavers is mainly imported from England, and is supplied to them by some capitalist who advan¬ ces also money and food-grains to his constituents, and generally has them completely under his power. They have to give him the products of their looms at a fixed price, and he never allows them to sell a yard of their cloth to any other person. It is only where there is a competition among the capitalists that the poor weavers find a little relief. § 3.— The Tativas of Behar . The Tatwas of Behar have not the same position in the Hindu caste system that the Tantis have in Bengal. The two names are corrupted forms of the same Sanskrit word Tantubaya , which means a weaver. But the Tat¬ was of Behar are in the habit of eating flesh and drink¬ ing strong liquors, and so they are regarded as an unclean caste. The existence of such clans as Chamar Tanti and Kahar Tanti among the weavers of Behar points also to the conclusion that their status was lowered partly at least by the admission of low castes among them. Besides the indigenous Tirhutia Tantis, there are in Behar many colonies of Tantis from other THE KORI, KOLI AND KOSHTI. 233 provinces as is indicated by the names of Kanojia, Baiswara, &c., by which they are known. The Tatwas being an unclean caste, the Brahmans do not take even a drink of water from their hands, and if a Brahman officiates as their priest he becomes very nearly a degraded person. The priestly work of the Tatwas is sometimes performed by such of their castemen as have enlisted as members of one or other of the modern Hindu sects. § 4.— The Kori and Koli of Northern India. The Kori and Koli of Northern India are weavers professing the Hindu faith ; but they are very low castes, and a member of any of the higher castes will not take even a drink of water from their hands. § 5.— The Tantis of Orissa. The Tantis of Orissa are divided into the folio wing- clans : — 1. Gola Tanti—These weave fine cloth. 2. Hans Tanti—These make coloured cloth of various patterns. 3. Moti Bans Tanti—These weave coarse cloth from thread of English or local manufacture. Many of Moti Bans Tantis of Orissa have of late deserted their ancestral profession, and have become teachers in village schools. The Tantis are regarded as an unclean caste in Orissa. § 6.— The Koshti of the Central Provinces. The weavers of the Central Provinces are called Koshti. They are a semi-clean caste. The Mahars of the Province weave coarse cloths. § 7.— The Weavers of Gujrat. There is a class of Kshettris in Gujrat whose profes¬ sion is weaving. They are good Hindus. But there is not in Gujrat any caste that can be said to correspond to the Tantis of Bengal. 234 THE WEAVING CASTES OF MYSORE. § 8.— Weavers of the Dravira country. The cotton weavers of Southern India are called Kaikalar. It is said that they are addicted to drinking spirits, and that their habits are similar to those of the aboriginal tribes. But the Sudra Yajak Brahmans minis¬ ter to them as priests, and there is one class among them called Saliyar, who take the sacred thread. The silk weavers of Southern India are called Patnulkar. Ethnologically they are a superior race, and their caste status is also higher than that of the Kaikalars. Ac¬ cording to the traditions of the Patnulkars of Southern India, their original home was Grujrat. Both the Kai¬ kalars and Patnulkars are generally quite illiterate. § 9.— The Weaving Castes of Mysore. The general name of the weaving castes of Mysore is Neyige. The following description of the several sections to whom the designation is applicable is taken from the last Census report of Mysore :— Under the generic name of Neyige (weaving) sixteen sub-castes appear with an aggregate population of 86,986 persons in almost equal numbers for the two sexes, bearing a ratio of l - 76 per cent, to the total population. The sixteen divisions may be condensed into eight distinct sub-orders as below— Devanga ... 49,006 Togata ... 13,300 Sale or Saliga... ... 10,255 Bilimagga ... 9,946 Seniga 105 Patvegar ... 3,174 Khatri 946 Saurashtrika ... 254 Total ... 86,986 These sub-divisions do not intermarry with one another or have any social intercourse. In numerical strength the Devangas, sub¬ divided into Kannada and Telegu Devangas, hold the first place. The former are Lingaits, but have no intercourse with the Lingait Banijiks; whereas Telegu Devangas are both Vishnuvites and Sivaites. There is no intermarriage, however, between this and the other clan. The next in order of strength are the Togatas who are Sivite weavers, and produce the coarse kinds of cloth that are worn only by the poorer classes. Their language is Telegu. THE WEAVING CASTES OF MYSORE. 235 Sales or Saligas comprise two clans,—the Padmasale and the Sakunasale. Between them there is no intermarriage. Like the Togatas, they are of Telegu origin. The former are Sivaites, while the latter are worshippers of Vishnu. Then comes the Bilimagga sub-division, also called Kuruvina Bana- jigaru, the former term being considered a nickname. They are an indigenous caste like the Devangas, and speak Kannada. Stnigas .—Though a small number, they are a wealthy caste of weavers. They are immigrants from the Lower Karnatic, and manu¬ facture female cloths of superior kind and high value. They are Lingaits by religion, but are not friendly with the Lingait Banaji- gas, &c. Patvegars are silk weavers and speak a corrupt Marathi con¬ glomerate of the Gujrati and Hindi. They worship all the Hindu deities, especially the female energy under the name of Sakti, to which a goat is sacrificed on the night of the Dasara festival, a Mussulman slaughtering the animal. After the sacrifice, the family of the Patvegar partake of the flesh. Many of their females are naturally fair and handsome. The Khatri are also silk-weavers, and, in manners, customs and language, are akin to the Patvegars, but do not intermarry with them, although the two castes eat together. The Khatris claim to be Ksatriyas. Saurashtrika . — The only other ingredient of the class of weavers deserving of special mention is the Saurashtrika, commonly known as the Patnuli or Jam Khanvalla. They manufacture superior kinds of cotton and woollen carpets and an imitation shawl of cotton and silk mixture, and of green colour called khes. These people were originally immigrants from Northern India, and settled in the Madras Presidency where they are known as Patnulis, i.e., weavers of silk and cotton. With silk they manufac¬ ture a fine stuff called Kutni, which no other weavers are said to be able to prepare. It is largely used by Mussulmans for trousers and lungas (gown). It is said that Haider Ali, while returning from his expedition against Madras, forcibly brought with him some twenty- five families of these weavers who were living in the Tanjore district, and established them at Ganjam near Seringapatam ; and in order to encourage silk and velvet weaving, exempted them from certain taxes. The industry flourished till the fall of Seringapatam, when most of the clan fled from the country, a few only having survived those troublous times. At present there are only 254 souls returned of these people, employed in making carpets in Bangalore city. They speak a dialect peculiar to themselves ; it is a mixture of Maharash¬ tra Gujrati, Kannada and Tamil; their written language is Kannada. They are Vishnuvites and wear trident marks. Their hereditary Gurus are the Srivaishnava Brahmans of the Tatachar and Bliattra- char families. In Bangalore the Smarta Brahmans act as their Purohits for conducting marriage and other ceremonies. In reli¬ gious observances, they imitate the Brahmans and perform Upan- ayana (investiture of. the sacred thread) on their boys before the tenth or twelfth year. They do not intermarry with any other class of weavers . — Mysore Census Report, pp. 246-247. Besides the above there is a caste in Mysore called Ganigar. They are sack weavers and makers of gunny bags. Some of them are agriculturists. 236 THE JUGIS. § 10.— The Weavers of the Telegu country. The weavers are called Niy ata Kam in tlie Telegu country. The profession is practised by the following castes :— 1. Pattasali—strict vegetarians. 2. Devangala or Deyandra) These eat fish, but do not in- 3. Saliyar j dulge in intoxicating drinks. These are all clean castes. The Devangalas and the Saliyars are mostly Liugaits, wearing the Linga Sutra and regarding the Jangamas as their spiritual superiors. Those who are not Liugaits wear the Yajna Sutra of a twice-born Hindu. § 11 .—The Jugis. Besides the above there is a caste called Jugis who are weavers and who are found in many parts of India. The Jugis are Hindus, and of late years they have been claiming to have the right of taking the sacred thread ; but they are generally regarded as very inferior Sudras, and in all probability they are the illegitimate and semi-legitimate descendants of the mendicants called Jogis* who, with Gorakhpur as their head-quarters, were at one time perhaps as numerous in every part of India, as the Sankarite Sanyasis and Vislmuvite Vairagis are now. The name of the caste, their usual surname of Nath, their practice of burying their dead, and the profession of lace and apron string selling practised by them point to the conclusion that they are connected with the ancient Jogis in the same way as the Ghar Bari Sanyasis and the Grihasthi Vairagis are with the true Sanyasis and Vairagis. Like the Jugis, some of the Jogi mendicants are still found engaged in the making and selling of apron strings and other things of the same kind. These are called Duri Har Jogis. * As the Jugis in some places serve as priests to idols called Dharraa Raj, it is quite possible also that they are the descendants of the ancient Buddhist monks. CHAP. III.—THE MAYARAS, HALWIS AND CURIAS. The Mayaras and the Halwis of India make those confections which form very important items in the daily food of the majority of well-to-do Hindus and Mahomedans. These delicacies are highly prized by all classes of the people of India, and the demand of the poorer families for them is limited only by their means. The dainties manufactured and sold by the Halwis are of various kinds, and some of them, as, for instance, the preparations of cream made at Kish- nagar, require very considerable skill, and are very costly. Some of the Hindu confectioneries are made of only sugar, curd and fine chips of cocoanut. These, though prepared by a Mayara or Halwi, may be offered to the gods, and are eaten without any objection by orthodox Brahmans, as well as by the widows of the higher castes who are required by the Shastras to be, and, in practice, usually are, quite as puritanic in respect of their diet, as the students of the Vedas are enjoined, and ought to be. Some of the Mayaras and Halwis make other kinds of confections which are called pakki methai, and which usually consist of flour, pease meal, pulverised rice, cream, &c., fried in ghi or baked in strong solutions of sugar. The pakki methais pre¬ pared by the Sudra confectioners are eaten by Hindu children, married ladies, and Babus of “ liberal views,” but never by orthodox Hindus or their widows. In the towns, the Mayaras and the Halwis now make and sell ( 237 ) 238 THE CONFECTIONERS. even some kinds of vegetable curries which are eaten by the classes who eat their pakki metliai. Some of the confectioners in the towns are Brahmans. But even their methais are not eaten by the strictly orthodox, or the widows of the higher castes. With regard to the Mahomedans it is hardly necessary to say that as they do not recognize the Hindu caste system, they eat every kind of sweetmeat whether Jcachi or pakki and by whatever caste manufactured. Some Maho¬ medans have learnt to practise the art. But considering the very small number of the Mahomedan Halwis, as they are called, it does not seem that they have been able to secure a very large share of the patronage of even their own co-religionists. In fact they are gene¬ rally quite unable to manufacture the nicer varieties, and that is, perhaps, the reason why the Hindu-made confectionery finds great favour even with the Maho¬ medan aristocracy of the country. The word Mayara is a corrupt form of the Sanskrit compound Modaka-kara, which means a confectioner. The word Halwi means primarily a kind of pudding made by frying flour in ghi, and then boiling the whole in a solution of milk and sugar. The word Halwi is also used as the designation of the confec¬ tioner caste in Upper India. The Halwis and Mayaras are divided into a large number of sub-castes, an enu¬ meration of which does not seem to be necessary in this book. Some members of these classes possess a little knowledge of book-keeping. But the majority are quite illiterate. The usual surnames of the Mayaras of Bengal are Manna, Modak, Laha, Nag, Nandi, and Bakshit. The figures given by the several Censuses as to the total population of the Mayaras and the Halwis do not seem to be quite reliable. According to the Census of 1881, the total number of Mayaras in the Lower Pro¬ vinces, including perhaps the Halwis, was, at that time, 308,821 souls. According to the last Census, the total Halwi population of Bengal, Behar and Orissa, including THE MAYARAS AND HALWIS. 239 perhaps the Mayaras, is 160,859. The Halwi population of the N.-W. Provinces is, according to the last Census, 96,492. In Panjab, the profession of the Halwi is practised by the Kainbohs and also by* the caste called Rora or Arora spoken of at p. 211, ante. The class that make sweet¬ meats in Orissa are called Guria, from the word Gur, which means unrefined sugar. In Southern India, there are neither Halwis nor Mayaras, and confections are there usually made and sold by the Brahmans and the Komatis. * See p. 285, post. CHAP. IV.—THE IvUMAR OR POTTER. The Sanskrit names for tire potter are Kulal and Kumbhakara. In Southern India the potters are calle i Kusaven. The word Kumbhakar literally means ‘ maker of earthen jars.’ In practice, the Kumars mak. many other kinds of earthen vessels. As the poor: classes of India use only earthen vessels as their coo: ing pots and water pots, and as earthen pots are used even by the rich for cooking purposes, the Kumar indispensable in every village of importance. T Kumar’s services are required also for making those clay images that in Bengal are set up at stated tin: - in the houses of the rich and in public places, and whic after being worshipped for a few days, are thrown iD some river or tank with great pomp. Such being t ; functions of the Kumars, the caste is found in even part of India, and their total numerical strength is, ic cording to the last Census, 3,346,488. Some of t Kumars, as for instance, those of Nadiya and Ghur possess very considerable skill in painting and making clay statues. In most parts of the country the Kum¬ ars are regarded as a clean caste. In Gujrat they j are regarded as exceptionally clean, but in the Central Provinces and Orissa they are regarded as unclean. It is said that in some parts of N.-W. Provinces a they are regarded as an unclean caste. The Kumars are an illiterate caste, and there an very few among them who can sign their own nar Their usual surname is Pal. ( 240 ) CHAP. V.—THE KARMAKARS AND LOHARS. The Hindu ironsmitk is called Karmakar in Bengal, and Lokar in all tke otker Provinces of Northern India, including Bekar and Ckutia Nagpur. Tke Kamars are in Bengal included among tke upper nine of the Sudra castes. In Bekar tke corresponding caste of 1 iokars kave tke same position, and tkere also a Brahman will take a drink of water from tke kands of an ironsmitk witliout any kesitation. It is only tke Lokars of Ckutia Nagpur and Central Provinces wko are regarded as an unclean caste. Tkat is, kow- evor, not on account of tkeir profession, but tkeir prac¬ tice of eating fowls. Tke Kamars of Bengal are unacquainted tvitk iron smelting, and now-a-days tkey generally work on pig- iron imported from Europe, and sold by the wholesale dealers of Calcutta. Tke import of hardware from Europe has led to tke absolute neglect of the excellent sources of iron ores which are to be found in many parts of India, and especially in tke western districts of Bengal and in Mysore. Iron smelting is, however, still practised to some extent in tke Central Provinces and Ckutia Nagpur by the local Lokars.'* In every village throughout India tkere is generally a Ivamar or Lokar, whose function is to manufacture and repair tke agricultural implements of tke local people. * .For an account of the indigenous process of iron smelting, see Air. P. N. Bose’s Hindu, Civilisation, Vol. II, p. 308. B, HC ( 211 ) 16 242 THE BLACKSMITHS. In the vicinity ot' the large towns, Kamars and Lohars are generally to be found who display great skill in the manufacture of cutlery, padlocks, swords, nails, books, &c. The name of Prem Chand Karnar, of Kanchan Nagar in Burdwan, is on the way towards becoming almost as famous in connection with cutlery as that of Rogers of Sheffield. The padlocks made by Das & Co. bid fair to supersede those of Chubb, and in respect of the manufacture of swords, the superiority of the Indian Kamar’s work has been proved, over and over again, by the experiences of English soldiers in the field.* If in spite of their skill the Indian Kamars are not able to hold their own in the local markets, their failure is not to be attributed to any fault on their part. The products of a domestic industry must necessarily be more costly than machine-made wares. Then, again, the outturn of the small manufactories to be found in the remote villages cannot be so easily collected together in a commercial focus for distribution, and exchange, as the produce of large foundries. The result of these causes is very strikingly illustrated by the fact that while the worthless padlocks turned out by the fac¬ tories in Birmingham are to be had in every hardware shop in India, and sell in millions, the Kamaria padlocks of the ancient types, which are considered by all to be the best and safest mechanisms of the kind, cannot generally be had either for love or money, and can be procured only by special order to some workmen whose very names are generally un¬ known,—the advantages of the modern art of advertise¬ ment being as yet quite unknown to them. Circumstanced as India now is, the revival and improvement of the iron industry of the country seems to be well-nigh beyond the bounds of immediate * See tlie remarks of Mr. Forbcs-Mitchell in Iris Reminiscences of the Indian Mutiny. THE KAMMALLARS. 243 possibility. It is only the patronage of the railways that can render large foundries pecuniarily successful. But the Indian railways ai - e all practically in the hands of the Indian Government, and knowing well how our rulers are handicapped by the party politics of the Home Government, no reasonable man can expect them to deny their patronage to the English manufac¬ turers for the sake of benefiting an Indian industry. The village Kamars and Lohars are generally very poor, their income very seldom exceeding that of an unskilled labourer. In the docks and railway workshops which have lately come into existence in certain parts of the country, the Kamars and Lohars not only find employment readily, but generally earn very high wages. The most well-to-do persons among the Kamars are those who have given up their caste profession, and practise the art of the goldsmith. The Kamars are generally Sakti worshippers, and are usually employed in slaughtering the animals offered in sacrifice to the bloodthirsty gods and goddesses that receive the adoration of the “ energy worshippers.” For his services, on such occasions, the Kamar receives the head of the slaughtered goat, or a money gratuity, amounting to about half a shilling. The rich goldsmith Kamars of Dacca are mainly Vishnuvites. In Southern India there is a caste called variously Kammallars, Panchanam Varlu and Panehval, who com¬ bine in them the functions of the goldsmith, coppersmith, brazier, ironsmith, carpenter and sculptor. The Kamars and Lohars are generally quite illiterate. Their total number is, according to the last Census, 2,625,103 souls. CHAP. VI.—THE GOLDSMITHS. § 1.— The Sonar and Shakra of Northern India. The position of the goldsmith in the Hindu caste system is not the same in all the provinces. Not being expressly included in the Navasayaka group, die is, in Northern India, generally regarded as somewhat unclean. But it is suggested that he comes within the division called Karmakar, and the best Brahmans will not sometimes hesitate to take a drink of water from his hands. The position of the Sonar in Behar, N.-W. Provinces and Panjab is similar to that of the Shakra or Swarnakara of Bengal. In the Panjab, the Hindu Sonars take the sacred thread, just as most of the other Sudra castes there do. In the extreme south of the Indian Peninsula, the goldsmiths do not form a separate caste, but are included in the group called Kannnallar, whose sub-sections practise five different kinds of handi¬ craft, viz., work (1) in gold and silver, (2) brass and copper, (3) iron, (4) carpentry, (5) sculpture. The corre¬ sponding group of castes in Mysore is called Panchvala. The goldsmith sections in Mysore are called Akkasala or (Arkasala) Agasala. The Agasalas are recognised by the other Panchsalars as the head of the clan. In Telingana there is a similar group of castes called Panchanam Varlu, an account of which is given in § 2 of this chapter. In the Central Provinces there are two classes of goldsmiths called Sonar and Panchallar. They take the sacred thread at the time of marriage, ( 244 ) THE SONAR AND THE SHAKRA. 245 and are regarded as clean castes. The goldsmiths are a very intelligent class—perhaps a little too sharp. They usually practise their hereditary profession, and, as it is very lucrative, they very seldom give a liberal education to their children in order to qualify them for a more ambitious career. § 2.— The Panchanam Varlu of the Telegu country and the Kammallar of Dravira. It has been already stated that the artisan castes working on metal, wood or stone are called Panchanam Varlu in the Telegu country, Panchval in Mysore and Kammallar in Dravira. The Panchanams of Telingana trace their origin from the five faces of the god Siva. They take the sacred thread and claim to have a higher status than the priestly Brahmans. But the other castes regard them as very unclean. In fact, not even a Paria will take a drink of water from the hands of a Pancha¬ nam. Formerly the Panchanams were not allowed to wear shoes, or to carry umbrellas with them, or to ride in a palld even at the time of marriage. They have four sub¬ castes, with five different occupations as stated below :— 1. The profession of the goldsmith is practised by the Kansali. 2. That of the blacksmith by the Kamari. 3. Do. carpenter by the Wadronga. 4. Do. brazier by the Kansliari. 5. Do. sculptor by all the above-mentioned castes. The Kansalis, or the goldsmiths, have generally a little education, but the others are usually quite illiterate. The Kammallars of Dravira have the same divisions among them, but perhaps a higher status than the Pan¬ chanams of the Telegu country. The corresponding group of castes in Mysore is, as already stated, called Panchval. They profess to be descended from the celestial architect Visvakarma and wear the Brahmani- cal triple cord. They claim to be equal to the Brah¬ mans, but their pretensions are not admitted by any one not of their caste. CHAP. VII.—THE SUTAR AND THE BARHI. In Bengal and Western India the carpenters are called Sutra Dhar or Sutar, from the Sanskrit word Sutra , the thread, with which the course of the saw is marked. Though their profession is a clean one, they, like the Sonars, are regarded as a semi-clean caste. Good Brahmans do not usually take drinking water from their hands, and they are ministered by a special class of Brahmans who are treated as degraded persons, and whose status is inferior to that of even the Sudra Yajakas. Some of the Sutars of Bengal practise the art of paint¬ ing pictures of the Hindu gods. The female members of some of the Sutars make an article of food for the middle classes called chipitaka or dura. It is prepared by boiling unhusked rice, and husking it, while yet slightly soft, by placing it in a wooden mortar, and beating it with a wooden hammer attached to the end of a beam which is worked like a lever. While the motive power is supplied by the foot of one of the females engaged in the manufacture, another female feeds the mortar, and takes out from it the flattened grains mixed with the loose husk which is afterwards winnowed off. The dura, when it is first brought out of the mortar, is very sweet. But generally it is eaten long afterwards when it is completely dry. When soaked in milk and mango juice, and mixed with sugar and plantain, it becomes a highly enjoyable delicacy. The making of dura is not the monopoly of the Sutars. There is another caste called Ganrariya whose females take a considerable share in the business. The Sutar ( 246 ) THE CARPENTER CASTES. 247 population of India is, according to the last Census, as stated below :— 175,554 196, ‘246 127,776 103,419 Bengal Bombay Central India Hyderabad The Barhis have a somewhat higher status than the Sutars. Good Brahmans will take drinking water from their hands, and those who officiate as their priests are not degraded altogether. The Barhi population of India is nearly one million, and is distributed as stated below :— N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 568,630 Bengal ... ... ... 293,553 Central Provinces ... ... ... 69,833 The Badigas of Northern Deccan seem to be the same as the Barhis. But they were separately enumerated at the last Census, and their population is stated to be as follows :— Madras ... ... ... 376,434 Bombay ... ... ... 65,916 Mysore ... ... ... 9,408 The Tarkhans of the Panjab and the Khatis of Raj- putana are also carpenters by caste. The total population of the carpenter castes in India exceeds three millions, and yet the demand for their services at present is such that they get very high wages in every part of the country. While a weaver can hardly earn two annas in a day, and an agricultural labourer gets not more than three annas,—the average daily income of a carpenter does not fall short of ten annas. Such being the case, many Mahomedans and low caste Hindus are now taking to the profession. The carpenters of Bombay are, like those of Bengal, called Sutar. In Western India the Sutars are re¬ garded as a clean caste, and have many educated men among them. The late Dr. Sakharam Arjoon, who had the largest medical practice in his time, was a Sutar. The Sutars of Bengal are generally quite illiterate. CHAP. VIII.—THE BRAZIERS AND COPPER¬ SMITHS. § 1.— The Kansa Baniks of Bengal. The Kansa Baniks or Kansaris of Bengal are both manufacturers and sellers of brass, copper and bronze vessels. In tbe other provinces of Northern India, the corresponding castes are called Kasera, Thathera and Tamhera. The caste status of the Kansa Baniks is exactly similar to that of the Gandha Baniks. The ordinary Sudra Yajaka Brahmans minister to both as priests, and even the best Brahmans will take a drink of water from their hands. Many good Brahmans accept even the Kansaris’ gifts openly and without any hesitation. The Kansaris are a well-to-do class, and there are among them a few who are reckoned among the richest men of the country. Such is Babu Kaii Krishna Pramanik of Calcutta, and such was the late Babu Guru Das Das of Nadiya. The late Babu Tarak Nath Pramanik, the father of the former, used to spend enormous sums of money every year in charity to the poor, and in the performance of religious ceremonies. But so vast were his resources, that the prosperity of his family continues undiminished to the present day ; while the family of Guru Das has been ruined by similar extravagance, combined with injudicious specu¬ lations and the bad counsel of his legal advisers. ( 248 ) THE KASARAS AND THATHERAS. 249 The total Kansari population of Bengal is, according to the last Census, 55,833 souls in all. There are several sub-classes among them, of which the most im¬ portant are the Saptagrami and Mohmadabadi. The usual surnames of the Kansaris are Das, Pramanik and Pal. Generally speaking, the Kansaris are an illiterate class, though some of them are able to keep their own accounts. Kansari boys are sometimes found in the English schools of the country. But they never make much progress. Most of the Kansaris are Devi worshippers and eat flesh meat. Like the Kamars, the Kansaris are sometimes employed to slaughter ani¬ mals for sacrificial purposes. § 2.— The Kasaras and Thatheras of Northern India. The Kasaras and Thatheras of Northern India have, generally speaking, the same characteristics and social status as the Kansaris of Bengal. Some of the Kasaras of Behar worship the Mahomedan saints called Panch Piriya. § 3.— The Gejjegora and Kanchugora of Southern India. The Gejjegoras are the makers of the small bells worn by dancing women round their ankles. The Kanchugoras are also called Bogaras. They are the braziers and coppersmiths. CHAP. IX.—THE SANKHA BANINS OF BENGAL. The designation Sankha Banik literally signifies a “ conch shell merchant.” The Sankha Baniks are popularly called Sankaris. Their chief business is the manufacture of the shell bracelets which the poorer Hindu women of East Bengal wear for ornamental purposes, and which even the richest Hindu ladies have to wear at the time of their marriage and certain other auspicious occasions. The Sankaris make also those shell bugles which the Hindu warriors of ancient times used on the battle-field, and which are now used only in connection with religious ceremonies. The caste position of the Sankaris is exactly the same as that of the Gandha Baniks and Ivansa Baniks. The Sankaris are to be found in only a few of the large towns of Bengal. Their numerical strength is very small, and, generally speaking, they are very poor, and quite illiterate. The profession of the Sankha Banik was never a very lucra¬ tive one, and it has of late been injuriously affected by the introduction of glass bracelets which are now in fashion among all classes of Indian women. The glass bracelets are very cheap, and they do not lose their lustre by use like the shell ornaments. ( 250 ) CHAP. X.—THE GRAIN PARCHERS. The Kandus derive their name from the Sanskrit word kandu , which means a frying-pan or oven. Their caste profession is grain parching, though they not only sell parched grain but many kinds of sweatmeats also. Parched rice, maize or pea is not in itself kachi tood, and may, though prepared or touched by a Sudra, be eaten by a Brahman. But when put into the mouth such food, by being mixed with the saliva, becomes kachi khana, and so orthodox Brahmans and the widows of the Brahmans, Kayasthas and Rajputs cannot eat it, except at dinner-time. In practice the aristo¬ cratic widows and the puritanic Brahmans very seldom eat fried rice or any other kind of parched grain, and these things are usually eaten by only little boys, married ladies, and the lower castes, as part ot their tiffin. When Brahmans think of eating fried rice they do not evince much hesitation to procure it from a Kandu's shop. Such being the case, it is hardly neces¬ sary to add that the Kandus are a clean Sudra caste from whose hands a Brahman may take a drink of water. The total Kandu population of the country is number¬ ed at 524,155 souls. The Kandus are quite illiterate. The Bhad Bhunjas practise the same profession, and have the same status, as the Kandus. The last Census gives the following figures relating to the numerical strength of the Bhad Bhunjas :■— N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 316,368 Central India ... ... ... 7,248 Rajputana ... ... ... 4,977 ( 251 ) 252 THE GRAIN PARCHERS. There are two classes of Kahars called Dhimar and Gond, who are also grain parchers. The grain parch¬ ing castes, mentioned above, are to be found chiefly in the United Provinces and Behar. In Bengal proper the Mayaras act both as grain parchers and sweetmeat makers. CHAP. XI.—THE DIRJIS OR THE TAILORS. There is a caste in some parts of the Panjab, N.-W. Provinces, Rajputana and Deccan who are called Dirji. They usually live by working as tailors. The Dirjis of the Pan jab take the sacred thread. In Bengal the tailors are all Mahomedans. With regard to the Dirjis of Mysore, the following account is given in the last Census Report of the State :— “ The order is divided into two sub-divisions, viz., Dirji, Chippiga or Nam Dev and Rangare. The first three, known by the collective name of Dirji, are professional tailors, while the Rangares are also dyers. The Dirjis are immigrants from the Maharatta country and worship Vitthoba or Krishna .”—Mysore Census Report, p. 246. PART XII. THE MANUFACTURING AND ARTISAN CASTES THAT ARE REGARDED AS UNCLEAN SUDRAS. CHAP. I.—THE BREWERS, TADI-DRAWERS AND SELLERS OF SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS. Of the several unclean castes, the most important are those connected with the manufacture and sale of spirituous liquors. Of these the following deserve special notice :— 1. Sunri (Found in Bengal, Assam, Madras and Central Provinces. Total population 525,698). 2. Kalwar (Found in every part of Northern India. Total population 1,195,097). 3. Shanar and Illawar (Found in Southern India only). Total population: Shanar ... ... 690,434 Illawar ... ... 703,215 Billawa ... ... 127,037 4. Bhandari (Found only in the Bombay Presi¬ dency. Total population, 70,014). 5. Pasi (Palm juice drawers; found chiefly in Behar). 6. Tiyan ... 538,0751 7. Idiga ... 196,901 VFound in the Deccan. 8. Gaundla ... 235,902j All these occupy a very low position in the Hindu caste system, and although a great many of them have in recent times become very wealthy, through the ( 254 ) 2. Tacli or palm juice drav>ers. THE STTNRIS OF BENGAL. 255 encouragement given to the liquor traffic for fiscal purposes, yet their caste status has not improved very materially. They have been, for more than half a century, struggling hard to be recognised as a clean caste. * But the only classes who openly hold any communication with them, for purposes other than business, are those followers of the latter-day prophets that fatten on the rejected elements of pure Hinduism. An orthodox Brahman, Rajput, Yaidya or Kayasth, pro¬ fessing any of the aristocratic forms of ancient Hinduism, would not allow a brewer to enter even his parlour, and if obliged, for the sake of business, to visit a publi¬ can in his house, he would after coming home put off his clothes, and put on another suite after regularly bathing, or sprinkling his body with the holy water of the Ganges. In Southern India a Brahman considers himself contaminated by the approach of a Shanar within twenty-four paces. In the other parts of India there is no such hard-and-fast rule. But the practice in this respect is much the same throughout the country. In East Bengal and Orissa, even the ordinary washer¬ men and the barbers refuse to render their usual services to the Sunris, and the very palki bearers decline to carry them on their litters. § 1.— The Sunris of Bengal and Beliar. The Sunris of Bengal and Behar are perhaps the richest of the several clans of brewers. Many of them are now among the leading traders and bankers of the country, and have given up altogether the practice of their caste profession. The Sunris of Bengal proper are all Vishnuvites' of the sect founded by Chaitanya, and some of them may be found among the Chaitanite monks called Babajis or Reverend Fathers. Although the Sunris are by nature somewhat hard-listed, yet they patronise the Chaitanite ministers and shrines with such liberality that, within the last few years, many of the aristocratic Brahmans of the Tantric cult have espoused THE BREWERS AND TADI-DRAWERS. 25G the Vishnuvite faith in order to have a share of their largesses, albeit the condition on which they are given is said to be that the donee must partake of the hospitality of the donor. To comply with such a sine qua, non must be very humiliating to every Brahman, and it is hard to believe that love of lucre has sufficed in any case yet to overcome Brahmanical pride to such an extent. With regard to the religion of the Sunris, Mr. Bisley, on the authority of the late Dr. Wise, makes the following observations which are remarkably in accordance with the actual facts :— According; to Dr. Wise almost every member of the caste is a follower of Chaitaniya, and the rich are celebrated for the ostenta¬ tious observance of the Sankirtana chants in honour of Krishna after the decease of any relative. The chief rites observed in Eastern Bengal are the worship of Ganesa on the 1st Baisakh (April—May), and the 1st of Aghan (November—December); of Gandeshwari on the 10th of Asin (September—October); of Durga at the time of the Durga Puja in October ; and of Ganga whenever their boats are starting on a trading voyage. The majority being Yaishnavas, animals are rarely offered to any deity; but when this is done, the victim is afterwards released. Shahas are very fond of pigeons, and in the courtyard of almost every house a dovecot is fixed, as they believe that the air fanned by pigeons’ wings wafts good luck. They are also devoted worshippers of Kartikeya, the Hindu god of war, constructing annually in November a life-size effigy of the god, and keeping it within the female enclosure for a year. Other Hindu castes throw the image into the river immediately after the Kartik Puja, but the Shahas allege that their special veneration of the god is often rewarded, the barren rejoicing and the husband becoming the joyful father of children. It is easy to understand in what way this figure gives rise to scandalous stories among Bengalis, and how the Shaha becomes a butt for the wit and sarcasm of his neighbours. The Behar Sunris follow the average Hinduism of that part of the country, and worship most of the regular gods as occasion offers. Their minor gods are very numerous. Dharam Raj, Bandi Goraiya, Govindji, Hanuman, Kasi Panjiar, Joti Panjiyar, Apurba Panjiar, Mira, Saiyed, Julpa, Soklia, Hosan Khan, and Panch Pir. Rice cooked in milk and sugar, cakes of ghi ( puri ), and various kinds of fruit are offered to them, and afterwards eaten by the worshippers. Kids are sacrificed to Bandi. On Sundays milk and flowers are offered to the Sun. In Bengal, says Dr. Wise, the Brahman, pecu¬ liar to the caste, boasts that he never accepts alms from anyone not a Sunri, but it is quite certain that none of the clean castes would present him with charity. These Brahmans, who assume the bom¬ bastic titles of Yidyasagar, Vidyalankar, Chalcravarti and Pathak, like the Puroliits of the other low castes, read the funeral service at the burning ghat, and are looked down upon by other members of the sacred order. The Sunris of Behar are served by a low class THE KALWARS. 257 of Maithila Brahmans, who also minister to the religious neces¬ sities of the Teli caste. No other Brahmans will eat and drink with these men, who are known by the contemptuous epithet of Telia Babhan. In Chutia Nagpur the Brahmans who serve the Sunris call themselves Kanojias, but they have no right to the name, and no other Brahmans will have anything to do with them.—Risley’s Tribes and Castes of Bengal , Vol. II, pp. 278-279. The Sunris of Bengal being Vishnuvites are strict vegetarians and teetotalers. There are a few Vish- nuvite Bhagats among those of Behar also. But the majority of the Behar Sunris eat mutton, goat’s flesh and fish. Some eat even field rats. Most of them indulge freely in strong drink. The total number of Sunris in the different provinces is as shown in the following table:— Bengal .. ... ... 423,466 Assam ... ... ... 51,970 Central Provinces ... ... ... 15,420 Madras ... ... ... 34,842 Total ... 525,698 The usual family names of the Sunris are Saha, Roy, Das, &c. § 2.— The Kalwars of Northern India. The Kalwars of Northern India have the same caste status as the Sunris of Bengal, and like them have many rich men among them, as, for instance, Babu Ram Prasad Chowdry, of Monghyr, and Babu Tejnarain, of Bhagalpur, the founder and endower of the Tejnarain College, Bhagalpur. The Kalwars are more numerous than the Sunris, and the majority of them are now petty shopkeepers having nothing to do with their ances¬ tral profession. A very large portion of the Behari grocers and pedlars of Calcutta are Kalwars. On being first questioned they generally profess to be Baniyas, and they confess their real caste status only when sufficiently pressed. The Kalwars are divided into many sections, as, for instance, the following :— 1. Biyahut. 2. Jaiswar or Ajodhyabasi. 3. Banodhya. 4. Klialsa. 5. Khoridaha. 6. Diswar. B, HC 17 258 THE BREWERS AND TADI-DRAWERS. The Biyahuts and the Jaiswars have now no concern with the manufacture or sale of spirituous liquors, and as the Biyahuts do not allow their widows to re-marry, they are generally treated as a semi-clean caste. The Jaiswar’s profession is similarly unexceptionable, but they worship the Mahomedan saints called Panch Piriya, and chiefly on that account, but partly also on account of their marrying their widows, they are regarded as having a lower status than the Biyahuts. As the Jaiswars worship some of the Mahomedan saints the Biyahuts and Khoridahas take a delight in going directly against the fundamental points of the Islamic faith, by offering pigs and wine to a local divinity called Goriya.* The Banodhyas worship the Brahma Deo, the spirits of Brahmans dying in the unmarried condition. The Kalwar population of India is 1,195,097 souls. In the Central Provinces, the Kalwars are the brewers, and the Mahars are the tadi-drawers. The Kalwars are there generally very rich as in other parts of the country. In the Punjab the majority of the brewers are Kallals. Some members of the scavenger caste, called Choorha, also practise the some profession. § 3.— The Shanars and Illavars of Dravira. The Shanars and Illavars are identical in caste. They are a very rich community, and are very numer¬ ous in the southern districts of the Indian Peninsula. The caste is called Illavar in the northern part of the tract where they are found, and Shanar in the extreme south. In South Kanara the Illavars are called Billavars. * The Goriya is worshipped in the form of little mounds or plat¬ forms of clay to be found in many Behar villages. The precise nature of the Goriya’s claim to worship is not generally known. He seems to be the presiding deity of gors or tombs. The pigs and wine which are offered to the Goriya are not eaten or drunk by the votaries, but given to the low caste Dosadhas whose god he is. THE SHANARS AND ILLAVARS. 259 The Shanars eat flesh and fish, and drink strong tadi. “ The peculiar marriage customs of the Nairs, together with their singular rules of inheritance, are practised by many Ulavars and by a few Shanars. Hus¬ band and wife easily separate and contract other alliances. All inherited property descends to maternal nephews, while other kinds of property are shared equal¬ ly by nephews and sons. Socially, these tribes are treat- with great ignominy. Their women were until recent¬ ly not permitted to wear clothing above their waist. They were not allowed to carry umbrellas, to wear shoes or golden ornaments, to build houses above one story in height, to milk cows, or even to use the ordi¬ nary language of the country. Even now their posi¬ tion is one of great humiliation.”* The treatment which the Shanars receive from the Hindu community being as stated above, many of them have been easily led by the British missionaries to embrace the faith of Christ. With l’egard to the origin, occupation and social position of the Shanars, the Rev. Dr. Caldwell gives the following interesting account :— There is reason to suppose that the Shanars are immigrants from the northern coast of Ceylon, where the same or a similar caste still exists, hearing a grammatical and intelligible form of the same name ‘ Shandrar,’ of which ‘ Shanar ’ is etymologically a corruption. It is also tolerably certain that the Illavars and Teers ( i.e ., Singhalese and Islanders), who cultivate the cocoanut palm in Travancore, are descendants of Shandrar colonists from Ceylon. There are traces of a common origin among them all; ‘ Shanar,’ for instance, being a title of honour among the Travancore Illavars. It is traditionally reported that the Shanars who inhabit Tinneveli came from the neighbourhood of Jaffna in Ceylon ; that one portion of them, the class now called Nadans (lords of the soil), entered Tinneveli by way of Ramnad, bringing with them the seed nuts of the Jaffna palmyra, the best in the Bast, and appropriating or obtaining from the ancient Pandya princes, as the most suitable region for the cultivation of the palmyra, the sandy waste lands of JVIanad in the south-east of Tinneveli, over which to the present day, they claim rights of seignorage, and that the other portion of the immigrants, esteemed a lower division of the caste, came by the sea to the south of Travancore, where vast numbers of them are still found, and whence, having but little land of their own, they have gradually See Shelving, Vol. Ill, pp. 184-185. 260 THE BREWERS AND TADI-DRAWERS. spread themselves over Tinneveli on the invitation of the Nadans and other proprietors of land, who, without the help of their poorer neighbours, as climbers, could derive but little profit from their immense forests of palmyra. Some of these immigrations have pro¬ bably taken place since the Christian era ; and it is asserted by the Syrian Christians of Travancore, that one portion of the tribe, the Illavars, were brought over from Ceylon by tlieir ancestors for the cultivation of the cocoanut palm. The Shanars, though prob¬ ably immigrants from Ceylon, are Hindus, not of the Brahmanical but of the Tamil or aboriginal race. The caste of Shanars occupies a middle position between the Vel- lalars and their Pariah slaves. The majority of the Shanar confine themselves to the hard and weary labour appointed to their race. But a considerable number have become cultivators of the soil, as land- owners or farmers, or are engaged in trade.—Dr. Caldwell’s Essay on the Tinneveli Shanars, pp. 4—7. Good Brahmans never minister to the Shanars as priests, and their religious ceremonies are usually per¬ formed by the Pandarams. § 4 .—The Bhandaris of Western India. The tadi-drawers of the Kankan and Bombay are called Bhandari. Their total number is about one hun¬ dred and seventy thousand souls. They themselves do not drink the juice of the palm in the fermented state. § 5 ,—Tlie Pasis of Behar. The Pasis are the tadi-drawers of Behar. They eat fowls and field rats, and indulge freely in spirituous and fermented liquors. Many of them have taken to cultivation, and hold lands as occupancy or non-occu¬ pancy ryots. Others are employed as day labourers, porters and coolies. The good Brahmans never officiate at their religious ceremonies, and at their sacrifices, funerals and marriages, they get either a degraded Brahman, or a member of their own caste, to act as the priest. They allow their widows to re-marry in the sagai form. They allow also divorce and the re-mar¬ riage of divorced wives. The Pasis worship all the minor gods of Behar, as, for instance, Bandi Goriya and Sokha. In the month of Jeth the sickle ( 'hansuli ) used for cutting the palm tree is regularly worshipped by them with flowers and grain. THE IDIGAS AND GAUNDLAS. 261 § 6.— The Tiyans of Southern India. The Tiyans of Malabar and Travancore are palm cultivator!- and tadi-drawers like the Shauars and Illa- vars. The Tiyans, however, are regarded as even more unclean. They are generally very handsome, but they are treated as Pariahs. They practise polyandry. The total number of the Tiyans exceeds live hundred thou¬ sand souls. § 7.— The Idigas of Mysore and the Telugu country. The tadi-drawers of Mysore and the Telugu country are called Idigas. They do not seem to be regarded as a very unclean caste, as they are now freely employ¬ ed in domestic service. They were formerly employed as soldiers under the local Palligars. The number of persons returned as Idigas by the last Census is 196,901. § 8. — The Gaundla and the Gamalla of the Telugu, country. The Graundlas of Hyderabad are a numerous commu¬ nity. They number 235,902 persons. The Gfamallas of the Telugu country are the same as the Graundlas. There are no Shanars or Kalwars in the Telugu country. The Idigas and the Gfamallas are the tadi- drawers, while the Sunris are the brewers. There is in the Telugu country another caste named Sittigadu, who have the same occupation as the Idigas. CHAP. II.—THE OIL MANUFACTURERS. The oil manufacturing castes are called Teli, Kalu and Ghanchi in Northern India. In the northern parts of the Deccan the oil-makers are called Ganigas and Tel Kalu Yarlu. In the extreme south the name of the caste is Vanikan. They are all regarded as more or less unclean everywhere.* § 1.— The Tells of Bengal. The Telis of Bengal have now nothing to do with the manufacture of oil, and they claim to derive their name from Tula, which means the shopman’s scale, instead of from Taila, which means oil. But the deri¬ vation of Teli from Tula is grammatically impossible, and the suggestion is strongly contradicted by the fact that the Telis in other parts of the country are actually oil-pressers. However that may be, the Telis of Bengal ai’e, as stated in a previous chapter, included among Nava Sayakas, and regarded as clean Sudras. * In speaking of the Telis of Bengal, Mr. Risley says :— “ Their original profession was probably oil-pressing, and the caste may be regarded as a functional group recruited from the respectable middle class of Hindu society. Oil is used by all Hindus for domestic and ceremonial purposes, and its manufacture could only be carried on by men whose social purity was beyond dispute.”— Risley's Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Vol. II, pp. 305, 306. The above shows how difficult it is for an English author to give a correct view of the mechanism of our society. The fact is that ghi and oil are not contaminated or rendered unfit for a Hindu’s use by the touch of even the lowest castes. ( 262 ) THE TELIS OF BENGAL. 263 The Telis of Bengal are a very important caste. The majority of them being shopkeepers and grain merchants, they are a very well-to-do class. Some of them as, for instance, the family of the celebrated Rani Svarnamayi of Moorshedabad, and the Rajas of Diga- patiya have become very rich landholders under British rule. The usual family names of the Telis are— 1. Kunrlu, peculiar to the class. 2. Pal Chowdry. An aristocratic surname assumed by the big Teli zemindars. 3. Pal ) 4. Nandy > not peculiar to the class. 5. Dey f 6. Chowdry "1 7. Mallick > not peculiar to any class. 8. Ray J There are very few among the Telis of Bengal who are quite illiterate, while, under British rule, some of them have attained great eminence as scholars. The most distinguished among them was the late Rai Ivisto Das Pal, Bahadoor, whose name is sure to be'remembered for a long time as one of India’s greatest journalists and public men. The late Babu Rasik Krishna' - Mallick, who was one of the distinguished batch of scholars turned out by the Hindu College of Calcutta at a very early period of its existence, was also a Teli. Among the living celebrities of the caste, the name of Srinath Pal may be specially mentioned here. He is a nephew of the Maharani Svarnamayi, and is treated by her as her own son. As a student he attained some of the highest honours that the University of Calcutta can confer. For the last ten years he has been managing the Maharani’s vast estates with great ability. The Telis of Bengal have many sub-divisions among them, as, for instance, Ekadasa, Dwadasa, Betna, Tush Kota and Saptagrami. § 2.— The Kalus of Bengal. The caste that actually manufactures oil in Bengal is called Kalu, and is regarded as an unclean caste having 264 THE OIL-MAKING CASTES. a somewhat higher status than that of the brewers. The Kalus are all illiterate, and though there are very few wealthy men among them, they are generally quite above want. In the Nadiya district there is at Tihatta a Kalu landholder of the class called Talukdars. The usual surnames of the Kalu are Gorai, Sagari, Sadhu, Khan and Set. The Kalus number 191,355 persons in Bengal. They are chiefly Yishnuvites. A special class of degraded Brahmans minister to them as priests. Their spiritual guides are the Chaitanite Gossains. § 3. — The Telis and Ghanchis of Upper India. In Upper India the oil-pressers are called Teli and also Ghanchi. Their position is nowhere higher than that of the Kalus of Bengal. § 4. — The Tel Kulu Varlu of the Telugu country. The oilmen of the Telugu country are called Tel Kulu Varlu. They take the sacred thread. § 5. — The Ganigas and Vanilmns of Southern India. The oil-pressers are called Vanikan in the Dravira country. In Mysore the name of the caste is Ganiga. In the Kanarase country they are called also Jotiphana or Jotinagora, i.e., the tribe of light. They have also in some localities different names according to pecu¬ liarities of their machines, or the method of working them. For instance, those whose mills are made of stone and worked by yoking pairs of oxen are called Hegganigas ; Kiru-Ganigas is the name of those who work with wooden mills ; while those who yoke only one bull to the mill are called Vantiyettu Ganigas. The Linga-wearing Ganigas called Sajjanas, hold no social intercourse with the other sections. There are both Vishnuvites and Sivites among the other Ganigas. CHAP. III.—THE SALT MANUFACTURERS. The Luniyas or Nunias of Northern India are, as their names indicate, primarily salt manufacturers. The salt industry of Bengal being very nearly ruined by the fiscal regulations which give greater facilities to the importation of Cheshire salt than to indigenous manufacture, the practice of their caste profession by the Luniyas has become well-nigh impossible. The majority of them are now saltpetre makers and navvies like the Beldars and the Koras. They are a numerous community as will appear from the following table :— N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 412,822 Bengal ... ... ... 318,441 Bombay ... ... ... 14,599 In some parts of Behar the Luniyas are treated as clean Sudras. But the practice is not uniform, and generally they are regarded as semi-clean Sudras. The inferiority of their caste status is due, not to their pro¬ fession which is a clean one, but to the fact of their being a non-Aryan race, and to their habit of eating- pork and drinking spirituous liquors. They are chiefly Saktas, and there are very few Vislmuvite Bhakats among them. They allow divorce, and the re-marriage of widows and divorced wives. The salt manufacturing caste of the Madras Presidency are called Uppilian, Uppara and Upaliga. The salt-petre- making caste of Northern India are called Rehgar and Shoragar. ( 265 ) CHAP. IV.—THE LEATHER WORKERS. § 1 .—The Chamars and Mach is of Northern India. The Chamars and Muchis are generally regarded as identical in caste. The name Chamar is derived from the Sanskrit word Charmakar, which means “ a maker of leather.” The meaning of the name Muchi is not very clear. The suggestion that the name is connected with the Sanskrit word Matsya is contra¬ dicted by the fact that the Muchis have nothing to do with the catching of fish. The Chamar population of Northern India is very large, and exceeds eleven million persons as will appear from the following table :— N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 5,855,208 Punjab ... ... ... 1,206,837 Bengal ... ... ... 1,101,253 Central India ... ... ... 888,018 Central Provinces ... ... 880,108 Rajputana ... ... ... 846,675 The Muchis are less nuraei ous and number about one million persons, below :— They are distributed as shewn Bengal ••• ... ••• 406,333 Punjab . . ... ... 407,634 Bombay ... ••• ••• 63,051 The Chamars and the Muchis have a variety of occupations. Primarily, they are skinners, tanners, shoemakers, and musical instrument makers. They practise also the weaving of coarse cotton cloths and mats of reed. In Northern India, the Chamars serve for hire as agricultural labourers and workers, In ( 266 ) THE CHAMARS AND MUCHIS. 267 Bengal they generally supply the bands of instrumental musicians who are a necessity to every Hindu at the time of religious ceremonies of a joyful nature. After the Sepoy Mutiny an attempt was made to recruit the native army from the ranks of the Chamars instead of from the higher castes like the Brahmans and Rajputs. But the experiment did not, it is said, prove successful. The Chamars and Muchis are very unclean castes. Their very touch renders it necessary for a good Hindu to bathe with all his clothes on. In the villages they generally live in a distinct quarter. When their services are required by a high caste Hindu, he will allow them to enter the outer enclosure of his house, but not into the interior of any building used as a dwelling-house or chapel. For the Muchi and Maho- medan musicians who are a necessity on festive occa¬ sions, there is generally special accommodation in the mansions of the rich and in the big temples. Those who play on the kettledrum and the pipe called sanai , and who are generally Mahomedans, are perched on the top of the main entrance, while the Muchi bands entertain the bye-standers from the Nat-Mandir or dancing hall in front of the puja dalan or chapel. § 2.— The Chakilians and Madigs of Southern India. The professions and caste status of the Chakilians and Madigs are the same as those of the Muchis and Chamars of Northern India. The Chakilians number 445,366 persons. The Madig population is nearly double that of the Chakilians. With regard to the Madigs, the following observations are made in the last Census Report of Mysore : — The Madig is the village cobbler ; he removes the carcases of the village cattle, skins them, and is bound to supply the village communi¬ ty with agricultural articles made of skin or leather, such as thongs of the bullocks, buckets for lifting water, &c. The Madig caste is 239,575 strong. The Madigs are by religion Vishnuvites, Sivites and Sgktas. The caste is divided into two independent sub-divisions, the 268 THE LEATHER-WORKING CASTES. Desblmga and Others, between whom there is no intermarriage. The former acknowledge the Sri Vaishuava Brahmans as their Gurus, to whom they pay extraordinary homage on all ceremonial occasions. The Madigs in the province are decidedly an indigenous class. They are mostly field labourers, but some of them till laud, either leased or their own. In urban localities, on account of the rise in the value of skins, the Madigs have attained to considerable affluence .—Mysore Census Report for 1891, pp. 254-55. § 3.— The Leather-working Castes of Rajputana and Central India. Besides the Chamars and Muchis there are some other leather-working classes in Rajputana having the following names :— 1. Bambi. | 2. Jatia. | 3. Sargara. In Bikanir the Chamars are called Balai. The Bam- bis are workers in leather, weavers, and village servants, and receive the skins of all unclaimed dead animals. The Jatias, like the Muchis of Bengal, eat the flesh of dead animals. The Sargaras are cultivators and drum- beaters. The worship of the snake goddess Manasha is considered by the Muchis in some parts of the country as their speciality. Some Muchis regularly beg from door to door with an image or emblem of either the snake goddess or of the small-pox goddess. A Muchi of Bikanir who lived in the early part of the present century, founded a religious sect. CHAP. V. -THE MAT-MAKERS AND BASKET- MAKERS. § 1. — The Mat-makers. Mat-making anil basket-making are clean arts. Cut they are generally practised by the aboriginal castes, whose low social status is due more to their non-Aryan blood and their non-observance of the Shastric restric¬ tions regarding diet and drink, than to the nature of their professions. The celebrated Sitalpatis (Lit. cool mats) of East Bengal are manufactured by a caste called Patiyals. The Masnudpatis of Cossijarah are not made by any particular caste, and the art is said to be practised by even the local Brahmans. The nicer varieties of these and the Sitalpatis are very costly ; but they are very cool, and in summer they are considered as a necessity by the Indian aristocracy. I am not aware whether there is any demand for them in foreign countries. § 2. — The Basket-makers. The following are the castes that usually make baskets :— 1. Dom, 1,257,826 ... Found everywhere in Northern India. 2 Baiti ... Found in Bengal. 3. Metha Koran ... Found in the Madras Presidency. 4. Bansphor, 89,955 A branch of the Dom tribe, found chiefly in Northern India. 5. Turi, 50,020 ... Found in Bengal and Assam. 6. Bind ... Found in almost every part of the United Provinces. The Binds not only make mats, but are tadi-draw- ers, boatmen and fishermen also. ( 269 ) PART XIII. THE CLEAN AGRICULTURAL CASTES. CHAP. I.—THE KURMIS AND THE KUNBIS. The most important agricultural castes of Northern India are those called Kurmis and Kunbis. They are divided into many sections, which, for practical purposes, are independent castes. But the status of these sec¬ tions is, generally speaking, the same, and as they all designate themselves as Kurmis or Kunbis, they may be treated as a single caste. The derivation of their name is not very clear. It may be traceable to some abori¬ ginal language, or to an abbreviated form of the Sanskrit compound Krisld Karmi , which means an agriculturist. The Kurrni population of India is very large, the total exceeding ten millions. They are distributed as follows :— Bombay N.-W. Provinces Bengal Hyderabad Berar Central Provinces 3,577,873 2,035,768 1,321,628 1,233,930 834,432 805,766 There are no Kurmis in Bengal proper or Punjab. Taking a bird’s-eye view of the ethnology of Northern India, it would appear that the principal elements in the rural population of the country are the Kurmis, Gopas, ( 270 ) THE KURMIS. 271 Kaibartas and Chamars, and that the Brahmans, Raj¬ puts, Kayasthas and Baniyas, though numerically very strong, constitute only its town population. From this fact, and from the ethnological difference between the two groups,*' the conclusion seems reasonable that the Kurmis, Gopas, Kaibartas and Chamars had occupied the country at a very early period ; and that the higher castes subsequently settled among them as conquerors, merchants or priests. The Kurmis, Gopas and Kaibartas are neither pure non-Aryans nor pure Aryans. But their features clearly show that they are a mixed race, having a very large share of Aryan blood. There are the following sub-divisions among the Kurmis :— 1. Ghamela. 2. Kochaisa. 3. Sanswar. 4. Chandani (found also in the Central Provinces). In Beliar ... 5. Banodhiya (originally of the Banodha country, including the modern districts of Bareilly and Unao). Rae 6. Fasfasia. 7. Jaiswar (found in almost every b part of Northern India). ( 1. Saithwar. 2. Atharya. In Gorakpur and 3. Chunorwar. Benares. 1 4 - Akorwar. 5. Patnawar. 1 6. Kewat. f L Rowat. 1 2. Jadan. In Rohilkhand 3. Bharti. 1 4 - Kattiar. l 5. Gungwari. Lower Doab k Singraon. Cliaporya. Central Doab l. Kanojia. Upper Doab k Jhunia. Ghorchora. In Saugor and Ban- delkhand. Jaiswar. In Nagpore 1 . Jhari. * See Dalton’s Ethnology of Bengal, p. 320; see also Campbell’s Ethnology of India. 272 THE AGRICULTURAL CASTES. Ill Hoshangabad ... 1. Chauria. ( 1. Manohas. 2. Charnaos. I 3. Deriesias. ! 4. Sino'rnwln In Raipore 4. Singrowlo. T 1 1 n The religion of the Kurmis in Behar is the same as that of the other local Sudra castes. They offer wor¬ ship to the gods of the Hindu pantheon, and also to such local deities as Sokha, Sambhu Nath, Goriya, &c. The majority of them are, however, mainly followers of Kabir and Ramanand. Some of the Kurmis worship also the Mahomedan saints called Panch Piriya. The altar of the Panch Piriya consisting of a plat¬ form of earth, is erected outside the dwelling-house. A Mahomedan priest officiates at the worship, and the animal offered is sacrificed in the usual method of the Mahomedans. If a fowl is sacrificed, it is taken away by the priest. Sometimes castrated goats and pigeons are offered, and these, after their jabai or ceremonial slaugh¬ ter, according to Mahomedan ritual, are eaten by the votaries. In accordance with vows previously made fo the health of children or some other similar object, the Kurmis of Behar sometimes celebrate also the Mahome¬ dan Maharam festival. Some of the Kurmis eat fowls and field rats ; but they do not eat pork or beef, and are generally regard¬ ed as clean Sudras. The ordinary Sudra Yajaka Brahmans minister to them as priests, and they are deemed by the highest castes as eligible for domestic service. The Kurmis are an illiterate class. But they make good soldiers, and there are many big landholders among them. The poor and landless members of the caste live chiefly by domestic service. The Kurmis have no peculiar surnames. But when any one of them attains such wealth or position as to he THE KURMIS. 273 rejected by the local people, he would add to his ■ a le one or other of the following adjuncts :— 1. Chowdry. 2. Mahanto. 3. Maharai. 4. Malito. 5. Manto. 6 . 7. 8 . 9. 10 . 11. Sing. Morar. Mukhya. Pramanika. Rout. Sarkar. n almost all the sub-castes of the Kurmis, excepting the Ayodhya Bansi, Ghamela and Kochaisa, a widow is tllowed to re-marry. If she marry a younger brother or co isin of her late husband, she cannot forfeit her claim to a share of her husband’s estate, or her right to the guardianship of her children. If she marry an outsider, these rights are forfeited. Divorce is permitted among th< Kurmis, and a divorced wife may marry again in the same manner as a widow. The Kurmis of Northern India usually employ a Brahman to officiate as priest at their marriages. In Chota Nagpore and Orissa, the practice is different. There the work of the priest, on su h occasions, is done by some elderly member of the house or by the Laya of the village. The Kurmis burn their dead, and perform their shrads in the same manner as other high caste Sudras. The pei iodfor which they observe mourning varies accord¬ ing to local practice, from ten days to thirty days. n, HC 18 CHAP. II.—THE KOERIS OF NORTHERN INDIA. The Kurmis and Ivoeris differ in nothing except that the former are producers of the agricultural staples, while kitchen gardening is the speciality of the latter. In the vicinity of the large towns in Northern India, the Koeris raise the fruits and kitchen vegetables required for local consumption. They take a part also in rearing tobacco, opium, and other agricultural stuffs requiring more care and skill than the staple crops. They never serve in a menial capacity. The caste status of the Koeris is similar to that of the Kurmis. In the matter of food, the majority of both these castes conform to the rules laid down in the Shastras. But it is said that, like some classes of the Kurmis, fowls and field rats are eaten by some of the Koeris also. The Sudra Yajaka Brahmans of all classes minister to the Koeris as priests. The majority of the Koeris are Sivites and Saktas, and there are not many Yaishnavas among them. They are regarded as a clean Sudra caste, and the Brahmans will take drinking water from their hands without any hesitation. The Koeris will eat both kachi and pakki food cooked by a Brahman ; but will not eat the leavings of a Brahman’s plate as the Shastras inculcate the Sudras to do, and is practically done by many of the better Sudra clans. The Koeris are quite as illiterate as the Kurmis. The Koeris are very numerous in Behar, and are found also in the N.-W. Provinces. Their total numerical strength is nearly one and three-quarters of a million. ( 274 ) CHAP. III.—THE MALTS. In almost every part of Northern and Western India there are tribes called Malis who are devoted mainly to the kind of agriculture practised by the Koeris. Their numerical strength is very considerable, as will appear from the following figures taken from the last Census report:— Bombay Raj pu tana N.-YV. Provinces Panjab Berar Bengal Central Provinces ... 313,084 ... 381,164 ... 270,719 ... 201,189 ... 202,488 ... 151,962 ... 141,086 The Malis are supposed to derive their name from the Sanskrit word “mala” which means garland. But there does not appear any reason why the name of the agricultural Malis should have had such an origin. The flower-supplying Malis form a vary small community, and it does not seem probable that the agricultural Malis were originally flower-suppliers. It seems more probable that the florists, who are called Phul Mali in the N.-W. Provinces, are a section of the great Mali tribe whose primary occupation is agriculture. The flower-supplying Malis are found chiefly in the large towns, and in the vicinity of the leading public shrines. Flowers of various kinds, and the leaves of the basil and the wood-apple being indispensable to every Hindu for the worship of his gods, every member of the higher castes has generally a garden attached to his dwelling-house. If he have no such garden, he has to ( 275 ) 276 THE AGRICULTURAL CASTES. buy the requisites from a Mali, or to procure them from the garden of a neighbour. In the vicinity of the sacred shrines the demand for flowers, garlands and the sacred leaves enables the Mali to carry on a brisk and profitable trade. The Malis of Bengal are also the manufacturers of the tinsel with which the clay idols are usually decorated. They are likewise suppliers of pyrotechnic works, and the tinsel crown which a Hindu has to wear at the time of marriage. The Malis are an illiterate class. They are a clean caste. The Malis of the Central Provinces and Berar are very skilful cultivators. They eat flesh and drink spirits. CHAP. IV.—THE KACHIS. The Kachis are found chiefly in the central districts of Northern India. They are very much like the Koeris. They are very good cultivators. There are many sub-Iivisions among them, as, for instance, the following : — 1. Kanojia 2. Sakya Seni ... 3. Hardiya 4. Murao 5. Kachchwaba. 6. Salloria. 7. Anwar. The Kachis number 1,384,222 persons distributed as stated in the following table :— N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 706,530 Central Provinces ... ... ... 122,646 Central India ... ... ... 472,134 These figures do not, it seems, include the Muraos who were separately enumerated at the last Census. The Muraos number 677,982 persons, and are found only in the United Provinces. The Kachis are very numerous between Rai Bareli and Kanoj. ... From Kanoj. ... From the ancient town of Sankisa in Farakkabad. ... Said to derive their name from the fact of their cultivating huldi or turmeric). ... Said to be so named from the fact of their cultivating mula or radish. ( 277 ) CHAR V.—THE LODHAS AND THE LODHIS. Like the Kachis, the Lodhas are found chiefly in the central districts of Northern India. They are dis¬ tributed as shown in the following table :— N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 1,065,025 Central Provinces ... ... ... 293,110 Central India ... ... ... 252,658 The caste status of the Lodhas is somewhat lower than that of the Kurmis. Like the other agricultural castes they are mostly illiterate. There are a few land¬ holders among them. The following are the names of their principal sub-divisions :— 1. Patoria, found chiefly in the districts of Delhi, Alighar and Etah. 2. Mathuria, so named from the ancient town of Mathuria. 3. Sankallajaria. 4. Lakhia. 5. Khoria. 6. Pania. The Lodhis are a different tribe. They are to be found in Jhansi, Lalitpore Sagor, Damoh, and Hosungabad. The Lodhis are very turbulent and revengeful and are very unlike the peaceable Kurmis. The principal landowners of the district of Damoh are Lodhis. ( 278 ) CHAP. VI.—THE AGRICULTURAL KAIBARTAS OF BENGAL. The Clmsa Kaibartas of Bengal form an important section of its rural population. In the district of Midna- pore they may be reckoned among the local aristocracy. In the other districts where they are found their position is only next to that of the Kayasthas. The designation of Kaibarta is applicable to four distinct classes having different occupations. Of these the Chasas and the Lakhinarayans of Midnapore are the most numerous, and have the highest position. The Jalias who are fishermen, and the Tutias who are mulberry growers, and devoted chiefly to sericulture, are treated as unclean castes. The Chasa and Lakhinarayan Kaibartas are regarded as very nearly clean. In the Tumlok and Contai sub-divisions of the Mid¬ napore District, where the number of high caste Brah¬ mans and Kayasthas is very small, the Kaibartas may be said to form the upper layer of the local population. A great many of them are zemindars and holders of substantial tenures. They were a very well-to-do class until recently, but they have become very much depress¬ ed by the abolition of the manufacture of salt in the district since the year 1861. This measure, which has brought about the ruin of one of the most ancient indus¬ tries in the country, was adopted in accordance with the demands of an agitation which had been got np in England by English ship-owners and merchants. They represented that the East India Company were shame¬ fully oppressing the people by making a monopoly of ( 279 ) 280 THE AGRICULTURAL CASTES. such a necessity of human life as salt. The word ‘mono¬ poly ’ being a bugbear to English people, they were easily deceived, and the agitationists, finding sympathy from the Press and the Church, could not fail to secure their object. As a matter of fact, the monopoly system on which salt was manufactured by the East India Com¬ pany, since the days of Clive whose genius first adopted it, was a boon to the country; and its abolition has not been productive of any good to any class of Indian people, though it has been highly beneficial to English ship-owners and salt merchants. Now that the princi¬ ple of Free Trade is about to divert the salt trade of Bengal so as to mainly benefit Germany and Arabia, it is to be hoped that the question may be reconsidered, and the monopoly re-established on its ancient footing. In the Metropolitan districts of Nadiya and Twenty- Four Pergunnahs, the Kaibartas form the lower layer of the middle classes. In the former district they may be now said to have even a higher position. In the palmy days of indigo cultivation there, many of the local Kaibartas obtained those ministerial employments in the factories of the English planters which were very lucra¬ tive, but were too risky to have much attraction for Brahmans and Kayasthas. By the practice of every kind of oppression to compel the ryots to cultivate indigo, the Kaibarta employes of the English factors made themselves the greatest favourites with their mas¬ ters. To such an extent was this the case that in the drama called Indigo Mirror —for the translation of which the philanthrophic English missionary, Mr. Long, was sentenced to suffer incarceration as a criminal— a Kayas- tha Dewan of an indigo planter is made to brag before his master by saying that, although of the writer caste by birth, he was qualified and prepared to render the very same kind of service as a Kewat. The planters have been ruined chiefly by the litigation in which they involved themselves. But the descendants of their em¬ ployes are generally in very easy circumstances. Some THE KAIBARTAS OF BENGAL. 281 of them are now big landholders, while, with their ancestral reputation for oppressing the people, and their willingness to run the risk of criminal prosecutions, a good many of them are able to secure high offices in the service of those parvenu zemindars who seek to improve their rent-rolls by the simple method of forcibly evict¬ ing the freeholders and permanent tenants from their lands. Some of the Kaibartas of Nadiya have of late been competing for University distinctions, and have attained also high offices in the service of Government. In Calcutta the millionaire Marh family of Jaun Bazar are of the Kaibarta caste. They possess very valuable house property in the town, and also extensive zemin- daries in the interior of the country. The Kaibarta population of India is very large, the total being more than three millions. The Midnapore Kaibartas have the following surnames:— 1. Myti. 6. Gholooi. 2. Bera. 7. Patra. 3. Jana. 8. Pandit. 4. Giri. 9. Das. 5. Bhumya. 10. Maji. 11. Kayal. The usual surnames of the Nadiya Kaibartas are Das, Biswas, and Bhaumik. Marh, as a surname, is not very common either in Midnapore or in Nadiya. In the Census reports and in Mr. llisley’s Ti'ibes and Castes of Bengal a distinction is made between Kaibar¬ tas and Kewats. As a matter of fact, the name Kewat is only a corrupted form of Kaibarta, and is applied to designate them only when the speaker’s contempt for them is meant to be implied. Though regarded as somewhat unclean, yet in Bengal and in Tirhoot also, the poorer Kaibartas are now and then to be found employed as domestic servants in the households of the higher castes. The Kaibartas have special Brahmans, but in Midnapore the ordinary Sudra Yajaka Brahmans minister to them as priests in all ceremonies excepting Sradha. CHAP. VII.— 1 THE SADGOPAS. The majority of the actual tillers of the soil in Bengal are Mahomedans. The only Hindu castes in Bengal proper that are chiefly devoted to agriculture are the following :— 1. Kaibarta. I 3. Koch. 2. Sadgopa. | 4. Aguri. Of these, the Aguris and the Koch have been spoken of already in the chapters devoted to the military castes. The Sadgopas are a small community, their total popu¬ lation being slightly above half a million. They are found chiefly in the districts of Burdwan, Midnapore, Hooghly, Nadiya, Twenty-Four Pergunnahs and Ban- koora. The majority of them live by agriculture or menial service, but there are among them many big landholders and men of culture. Among the Sadgopa zemindars the names best known are the following:— 1. The Rajas of Narjole in Midnapore. 2. The Sarkars of Peosara in Hooghly. 3. The Roys of Madhavpore near Tumlok. 4. The Haidars of Badla in Midnapore. 5. The Panjas of Jala Bindu in Pergunnah Sabong, Midnapore. Of the Sadgopas who have attained high offices in the service of Government, the following may be men¬ tioned here :— 1. Babu Grish Chunder Chowdhry, Subordinate Judge, Bengal. 2. The late Roy Sharat Chandra Ghose, Bahadoor, Execu¬ tive Engineer. ( 282 ) THE SADGOPAS. 283 The most distinguished member of the Sadgopa com¬ munity is the well-known Dr. Mahendra Lall Sarkar of Calcutta, the founder of the Indian Science Association. He is not only one of the best physicians in India, but stands in the foremost rank of Indian scholars and pub¬ licists. For several years he has been a member of the Bengal Legislative Council, and a leading member of the Syndicate of the Calcutta University. The Sad- gopas have representatives also in what may be called the prophetic trade, which requires neither learning nor culture, but only a little shrewdness. Nest to Chaitanya, the most successful of the latter-day prophets of Bengal was a Sadgopa of Ghoshpara. An account of the sect founded by him is given in another part of this work. As usual the Sadgopas are divided into Kulins and Maulika. Their sub-sections and surnames are as stated below :— 1. Kulin 2. Maulika /"l. Poorba kooliya or inliabi- C 1. Soor. tants of the eastern sides 2. Newgy. of the Hooghly river. ( 3. Biswas. 2. Paschim kooliya or inliabi- (l. Koowar. tants of the western sides 2. Hazra. . of the river Hooghly. ( 3. Roy. '1. Ghosh. 2. Pal. 3. Sirkar. 4. Haidar. 5. Pan. I (i. Chowdiy. 17. Karfa. CHAP. VIII.—THE CHIEF AGRICULTURAL CASTES OF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES. The chief agricultural castes of the Central Provinces are the following :— 1 . Kunbi. 5. Kirat. 2. Puar. 6. Lodha. 3. Teli. 7. Lodhi. 4. Mali. 8. Kolta. The biggest tenure-holders are the Kunbis, Telis and Malis. The Puars are celebrated for their skill in the construction of reservoirs of water and aqueducts. The Telis are the best agriculturists. In the Central Provinces the Lodhas are found chief¬ ly in Hosungabad. The Lodhis are a distinct caste. They are very good agriculturists and are found chiefly in Jabbalpore, Saugor, Narsingpore, Hosungabad, Bhandara, Chindwara, and Damoh. The population of the principal agricultural tribe of the Central Provinces is as stated below Kunbi Mali Lodha Teli 805,766 141,086 293,110 731,756 The Teli’s proper profession is the manufacture of oil. But the majority of the Telis of the Central Pro¬ vince are engaged in agricultural pursuits. There are many big Teli landholders in the districts near Nagpore and Raipore. The Koltas are found chiefly near Sambalpore. ( 284 ) CHAP. IX.—THE AGRICULTURAL CASTES OF THE PANJAB. The chief agricultural castes of the Panjab are the Jats and the Kambohs. An account of the Jats has been given already. The Kambohs have two divisions among them : one practising agriculture, and the other making and selling confectionery. The latter take the sacred thread, but the former do not. In the Census Reports, the Arrains, Sainis and Ghiraths are included among the agricultural castes of the Panjab. The Arrains are mainly kitchen garden¬ ers like the Koerisand Kachis of Northern India. Most of the Arrains are now Mahomedans. The Sainis are sellers of fodder, and the Ghiraths are a mountain tribe who are employed generally as domestic servants. In the Panjab some of the Sarswat Brahmans till the soil with their own hands. Among the agricultural classes of the province must be included also the Tagus who profess to be a section of the Gour Brah¬ mans. For an account of these Tagus see p. 53, ante. The total population of each of the chief agricultural castes in the Panjab is as stated below:— Jat Kumboh Arrain Saini Ghirath Tagu 4,625,523 151,160 896,314 125,352 173,673 11,966 ( 285 ) CHAP. X.—THE AGRICULTURAL CASTES OF THE TELEGU COUNTRY. The agricultural castes of the Telegu country* are the following ;— 1. Telega. 2. Yellama Vara. 3. Kamma Varu. 4. Reddi Varu. 5. Kapu. 6. N agas. These are all high caste Sudras. They enlist in the army as common soldiers. The Reddis at one time were the rulers of the country. Most of the Paligars belong to one or other of. the agricultural castes men¬ tioned above. Bam Dev Rao Nagama Naidu, zemindar of Vallura in the Krishna District, is a Telega. Yarlagada Unkinira, zemindar of Salla Palli in the same district, is a Kamma Varu. The zemindars of Yanaparti and Yadwal in the Nizam’s Dominions are Reddi Varus. The zemindars of Venkatagiri, Noozbid, Pittapur and Bobili belong to the Vellamma caste. The agricultural Sudra castes mentioned above fol¬ low the local Ksatriyas in all matters relating to religion and diet. They eat almost every kind of meat excepting beef. They also drink spirituous liquors, though in privacy, and with great moderation. * As to the geographical boundaries of the Telegu country, see p. 98, ante. ( 286 ) CHA-P. XI.—THE AGRICULTURAL CASTES OF MYSORE. The most important of the agricultural castes of Mysore are the Vakkaligas and the Tigals. The Vak- kaligas have many sub-divisions among them, of which the following are the most important:— 1. Gangadhikara. I 5. Halli Kara. 2. Kunchitiga. I 6. Dasa. 3. Morasu. i 7. Halu. 4. Reddi. I 10. Musaku. 11. Telegu Vakaliga. The Tigalas are of Tamil origin. Besides these there are some classes of cultivators called Lingaits, though they are not all followers of the Basavite faith, but have among them Vaishnavas, Saivas and Jains. The classes that serve as agricultural labourers in Mysore are called Halaya, Huttalu and Mannalu. The Halayas of Mysore correspond to the Parias of the Dravira country. The status of the Huttalu and Mannalu is very much like that of slaves, the former being the hereditary servitors of their masters, and the latter being serfs attached to the soil, and changing hands with it. The total number of Vakkaligas in Mysore is 1,286,217, and that of the agricultural Lin¬ gaits in the State 291,857. ( 287 ) CHAP. XII.—THE AGRICULTURAL CASTES OF THE DRAYIRA COUNTRY. In the Dravira country agriculture is practised chiefly by the Vellalars, Vadugas, Maravans and Aham- udians. These have been described already, the first two as writer castes, and the last two as semi-military castes. Besides these there are many other castes whose principal occupation is agriculture. Of these the most important are the following :— 1 . 2 . 3. 4. 5. Kavarai | ^ Kappilian. Vunnia or Pulli. Oddar or Waddava. Upparava. The Baligi. The Totiyar or Kambalatters. 6. Pallan. 7. Padeyatchi. 8. Nathambadayan. 9. TJrali. With regard to the Kavaris, Mr. Sherring gives the following account :— This is a very extensive tribe with at least eighteen branches, some of which are so important and numerous as to deserve to rank as separate tribes. The Kavaris were originally devoted entirely to agriculture, in the capacity of landowners, while their lands were cultivated by inferior races; but, although most are still engaged in their hereditary callings, uniting with it the tilling of the soil, there are several clans which pursue other avocations, and are sailors, small traders, pedlars and the like. They are properly a Telegu people, which language nearly all of them speak, yet some having settled in the ‘ Tamil ’ country, now carry on the business of life in the latter tongue. Two branches of the Kavari tribe are the following :— 1. The Baligis—chiefly petty traders, hawkers, and so forth. 2. The Tottiyars—Tottiyans or Kambalattars. The Tottiyars are said to be split up into nine clans, differing considerably from one another. They are very industrious and ener¬ getic as cultivators, and in other pursuits many of them occupy an important position in the city of Madras. ( 288 ) THE ItAVARIS AND KAPILIANS. 289 Several clans of Tottiyars entered the District of Madura as colonists four or five hundred years ago, where they have dis¬ tinguished themselves as agriculturists, especially in reclaiming waste lands. They are fond of cock-fighting and hunting, and have a character for dissoluteness beyond that of other castes. The worship of Vishnu is popular among them, and they have great reverence for relics, are very superstitious, and are peculiarly ad¬ dicted to the practice of magic. The people generally regard them with awe, because of their mystical rites, which are said to be singularly successful in curing snake-bites. In feature, the Tottiyars have a distinctiveness of their own, separating them in a marked manner from neighbouring tribes. The men wear a bright coloured head-dress, and the women cover themselves with ornaments, neg¬ lecting to cover the upper part of their persons. The marriage ceremonies of the Tottiyars are curious. Polyandry in reality, though not professedly, is practised by them. They never consult Brahmans, as they have their own spiritual guides, called Kodangi Nayakkans, who direct their religious ceremonies, preside at their feasts, cast their horoscopes, and enjoy many privileges in return, some of which are not of the most reputable character. The Kapilians are a respectable class of Canarese cultivators. With regard to the Vannias or Pullis, the following observations are to be found in the Madras Census Report for 1871 :— Before the British occupation of the country, they were slaves to the Vellalar and Brahman cultivators ; but a large number of them are now cultivators on their own account, or else work the lands of the higher castes on a system of sharing half the net produce with the proprietors. Others are simply labourers ; and many of them by taking advances from their employers, are still practically serfs of the soil, and unable to extricate themselves from the bondage of the landlord. In all respects, these people have the characteris¬ tics of aboriginal tribes. As a rule, they are a very dark-skinned race, but good field labourers, excellent farm servants and cultivators. They abound largely in the Tamil Districts of Trichnapoli and Tanjore .—The Madras Census Report for 1871, Vol. I, p. 157. Of the several classes of agricultural labourers in the Dravira country, the most important are the Pallans. Regarding these the following description is given in Nelson’s Madura Manual :— Their principal occupation is ploughing the lands of more for¬ tunate Tamils. Though nominally free, they are usually slaves in almost every sense of the word, earning by the sweat of their brow a bare handful of grain to stay the pangs of hunger, and a rag with which to partly cover their nakedness. They are to be found in almost every village, toiling and moiling for the benefit of Vellalars and others, and with the Pariahs doing patiently nearly all the hard and dirty work that has to be done. Personal contact with them is carefully avoided by all respectable men ; and they are never B, HC 19 290 THE AGRICULTURAL CASTES. permitted to dwell within the limits of a village ; but their huts form a small detached hamlet, removed to a considerable distance from the houses of the respectable inhabitants, and barely separated from that of the Pariahs.—Nelson’s Madura Manual, Part II, p. 58. The palm cultivators of the Dravira country are the tadi-drawing castes, namely, the Shanars, Illavars, Billawars and Tiyans. For an account of them see page 259 et seq. The Oddars are an aboriginal race. They serve as agricultural labourers and also as navvies. They profess to be worshippers of Vishnu and bear upon their breasts the trident marks of that deity. But they drink spirits and eat pork and field rats. They are very industrious, and work readily with their wives. Polygamy is largely practised by them. Divorces are very frequent in their community. The Upparavas are properly culti¬ vators, but are employed in the manufacture of salt and saltpetre. CHAP. XIII.—THE PAN-GROWERS. § 1.— Barui. The Barnji or Barui grow the aromatic betel leaf which Indians of all classes, including both Hindus and Mahomedans, chew in combination with certain spices. The leaves are made into little packets, the inside being painted with slaked lime mixed with catechu, and filled with chips of areca nut, coriander seeds, cardamom, mace and cinnamon. When filled the open end of the packet is fastened with a clove. When chewed in this form the lime and the catechu serve to give a red colour to the lips, while the spices give fragrance to the mouth. The price of the betel leaf varies, according to quality, from half-a-dozen to more than a hundred to the pice. The price of ready¬ made packets is usually five to the pice. Every native of India who can afford to do so will chew at least half-a-dozen pan packets every day, while some are so fond of this little luxury that they cannot do without at least one hundred in a day. The largest number are chewed after meals and at bed-time. In ceremonial assemblies held by the Indian princes and high functionaries, pan and attar are given to the guests at the end of such meetings. When a relative or familiar friend pays a visit to the house of a Hindu or Mahomedan, the pan salver and the smoking pipe are indispensable for showing due courtesy. When the visit is of a very formal nature, or when the host is a ( 291 ) 292 THE BETEL LEAF GROWERS. Mahomedan and the guest a Hindu, then spices are offered instead of pan. In some parts of India, as, for instance, Upper Assam and the southern parts of the Madras Presidency, the betel leaf grows in the open air as a creeper to the areca nut palm, or to bamboo posts set up in their midst. In these parts of the country, there is no such caste as Baruji ; but throughout the greater part of India, the pan creeper requires very considerable care, and the pan-growers, who have to devote their whole time to their gardens called Baroja, have become a separate caste with the designation of Baruji. The exterior of pan gardens may be seen very often by the Indian Railway traveller, when, through the window of his carriage, he takes a view of the aspect of the country through which he may be passing. The outside is not very attractive, but the scenery inside is very pic¬ turesque, and well worth the trouble of visiting. The Baruis are a clean caste, and the ordinary Sudra Yajaka Brahmans, minister to them as priests. Their total population is, according to the last Census, as stated below :— Bengal ... ... ... 249,841 N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 153,459 Central Provinces ... ... ... 24,614 Assam ... ... ... 22,797 The Baruis are, generally speaking, quite illiterate and the few among them who have lately attained some degree of culture are trying their best to pass as Kayasthas. § 2.— The Tambulis. The Tambulis derive their name from the Sanskrit word Tambul, which means betel leaf. The proper profession of the caste is the sale of the betel leaf, and in some parts of the country the Tambulis still practise their hereditary avocation. But the Tambulis of Bengal are a well-to-do class, and, like the Telis, have long since given up their ancestral business. THE TAMBULIS. 293 They now carry on either wholesale or retail trade in food-grains and oil-seeds, and at present they neither know, nor would admit, that their caste status is the same as that of the Barui. As both Telis and Tambulis generally carry on the same kind of business, the popular idea in Bengal is that the two are sub-divi¬ sions of the same caste, if not quite identical. In fact there are reasons for supposing that some Tambuli fami¬ lies have got themselves admitted into the Teli caste, and have given up their connection with their own caste. For instance, it is well known that the founder of the Pal Chowdry family of Ranaghat was one Krishna Panti, who had been originally a pan-seller, but subse¬ quently became a big merchant, and still later a big zemindar, by purchasing, at the time of confusion which followed what is called the Permanent Settlement of Bengal by Cornwallis, the extensive estates belonging to the Nadiya Raj. Krishna Panti was not only a pan¬ seller originally, but his surname also indicates that he was of the pan-selling caste. The family, however, profess to be Telis, and have, since becoming land¬ holders, created and assumed the aristocratic Teli sur¬ name of Pal Chowdry. The last Census gives the following figures regarding the Tambuli population of India :— Bengal ... ... ... 105,416 N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 74,134 Central India ... ... ... 24,398 The Tambulis of Behar, N.-W. Provinces and Central India are generally quite illiterate. In Bengal, their more aristocratic castemen stand on almost the same footing with the Telis in point of culture and refine¬ ment. The usual surnames of the Tambulis of Bengal are Pal, Panti, Chail and Rakshit, and those of the Behar Tambulis are Khiliwala and Panti. PART XIV. THE COWHERDS AND SHEPHERDS. CHAP. I.—GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. The total population of tlie several castes whose primary occupation is cattle breeding is very large, amounting to nearly twenty millions in all. About three-fourths of the number are cowherds. They are variously called Goala, Goli, Golla, &c., which desig¬ nations are all colloquial forms of the Sanskrit word Gopala (lit. keeper of cows). The majority of the cowherd castes live on the income of the dairy produce of the flocks they keep, supplemented by that of agriculture which they also practise to a very considerable extent. With the ex¬ ception of the Ahirs, almost all the other cowherd castes are more or less notorious for their thieving propensities. Although the Gopas or cowherds are included among the upper nine of the Sudra castes, yet, with the exception of the Ahirs, they are regarded as somewhat unclean. They have special priests, and a good Brahman cannot minister to any of them without being degraded for ever. Their low status in the caste system is due partly to their being suspected as criminal tribes, and partly also to the fact that they are in the habit of castrating their bull-calves, and branding their cattle with red-hot iron. In the modern towns ( 294 ) THE COWHERDS AND SHEPHERDS. 295 of British India, some Goalas are suspected to be in the habit of secretly selling their bull-calves and old cows to butchers ; but in the interior no Goala can do so knowingly without running the risk of severe perse¬ cution by the caste. Generally speaking the Goalas are a poor and illiter¬ ate class. They celebrate their marriages and shradhs in accordance with the Brahmanical shastras; but they are not a priest ridden class, and they do not devote much of their time or money to any religious rite or ceremony beyond those mentioned above. In some parts of the country, the Goalas wear a necklace of beads like the other Nava Shayakas. But it is very unusual for a man or woman of the cowherd caste to be initiated in the mantra of any sect, and that being the case they neither say any prayers nor count beads. CHAP. II.—THE ABHIRS OR AHIRS. The Abhirs are the most numerous and the cleanest of the several castes of cowherds. Their total number exceeds eight millions, and they are to be found in almost every part of India to the north of the river Narmada. From the extent of country over which they are spread, and from the references to them in the most ancient Sanskrit works, it seems very probable that they had been settled in the country long before the Brahmans and the Ksatriyas found their way into it. There is abundant evidence also as to the ancient Abhiras having been capable of wielding the sword as well as the crook. Krishna, the great hero and statesman of ancient India, who is now worshipped by the majority of the Hindus as their chief god, was, if not actually an Abhira himself, at least bred up from his infancy in the house of an Abhira cowherd. The Narayni army which he organised, and which made him so powerful that his friendship was eagerly sought by the greatest kings of his time, is described in the Mahdbharat as being all of the Abhira caste. The story of the Sanskrit drama “ Mrichakatika” may be taken to warrant the conclusion that for a man of the cowherd caste to be a king, was not an uncommon event in ancient India. Further, it is established by authentic history, that a dynasty of Ahir kings ruled over Nepal at the beginning of the Christian era. But whatever the political importance or the military prowess of the Abhiras may have been in ancient times, ( 296 ) THE ABHIRS. 297 they are now simple cattle breeders and tillers of the soil. There are a few landholders among them, but the majority of them are very poor and illiterate. The three main divisions among the Alhrs are the following :— 1. Nand Bans—found chiefly in the Central Doab. 2. Yadu Bans—found chiefly in the Upper Doab and to the west of the river Yamuna. 3. Gwal Bans—found chiefly in the Lower Doab and in the districts adjoining Benares. The practice of marrying the widows of an elder brother prevails among some of the Aliir tribes in the Upper Doab, as among the Jats and Gujars of the loca¬ lity. In the neighbourhood of Delhi, the Ahirs eat, drink and smoke with the Jats and the Gujars. The Rajputs generally repudiate all connection with the Ahirs, though it seems very probable that the Yadu Bansi Ksatriyas were originally Ahirs. The Ahars, who are found chiefly in Rohilkhand, seem to be a sub-class of the Ahirs, though they disclaim such connection. CHAP. III.—THE GTJJARS. The Gujars are a pastoral tribe of Western India, tlie majority of whom have in recent times espoused the Mahomedan faith. With the Jats they form the backbone of the rural population of the Panjab, though inferior to them in civilization, industry, and agricul¬ tural skill. The Gujars possessed at one time great importance, as appears from the fact that they gave their name to the peninsula of Gujrat, and also to the district of the same name in the Panjab. As the Gujars are at present, they are believed to be one of the criminal classes, there being among them many who are said to be cattle-lifters and gang robbers. The name of the tribe seems to be derived from the compound Gouchor which might mean a “ grazier of cows.” In Scinde the Gujars keep cows, while the Gowars sell milk and its preparations. The Gujar population of India exceeds two millions, and is distri¬ buted as follows :— Panjab ... ... ... 711,800 N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 345.978 Rajputana ... ... ... 573,003 Kashmir ... ... ... 248,789 Central India ... ... ... 204,511 The Gujars are an illiterate caste. There are very few big men among them. It is quite possible that among the minor chiefs and landholders there are a few who were originally Gujars. But as these now claim to be Ksatriyas, it is very rare to find any ( 298 ) THE GUJARS. 299 one even among the barons who will admit his being of the Gujar caste. The higher classes of Brahmans do not minister to the Gujars as priests. They have a special class of ecclesiastic scalled Gujar Gour Brahmans. It is a noticeable fact that the religion of Guru Nanak, which was eagerly embraced by the Jats and Boras, and gave them a new political life, failed to make any impression on the Gujars. They seem to be quite as indifferent to all forms of religion as the other cowherd castes. A great many of them have, no doubt, espoused the Mahomedan faith, but that must be due to com¬ pulsion. In the last Census Beport the Gujars are included among the military and agricultural castes; but their proper place seems to be among the pastoral tribes. CHAP. IV.—THE GOALAS OF THE LOWER PROVINCES. § 1.— The Goalas of Bengal. The common name of the several cowherd castes is Goala. Even the Ahirs and the Gujars are spoken of generally as only sub-divisions of the Goala caste. It is, however, not to be supposed that the Goalas of the different provinces are completely identical in caste. Even in the same province there are generally as many different sections among them as among the higher castes. The Goala population of Bengal is very large. According to the last Census their number exceeds four millions. The Goalas form the principal Hindu element in the agricultural population of Bengal proper. The majority of the cultivators in the eastern and central districts of Bengal are Mahomedans. Of the Hindu ryots by far the largest number are Goalas among whom may be included the Sadgopas. The only other Hindu castes that usually earn their living by agriculture are the Kaibartas, Aguris, Kapalis and the Paliyas. The Goalas are generally illiterate and poor. There are, however, some among them who hold posses¬ sion of valuable tenures, and there are a few zemindars also among them. Instances are known also of Goalas having attained University distinctions, and holding such high offices as are now usually allowed to be filled by the natives of this country. ( 300 ) THE GOALAS OF BENGAL. 301 The usual surnames of the Goalas of Bengal are the following :— 1. Ghosh. I 3. Barik. 2. Pal. I 4. Babui. 5. Dhali. The Goalas of Bengal are divided into the following classes :— 1. Pallava—found chiefly in Calcutta and its vicinity. 2. Bagri or Ujaini — these are believed to castrate bull- calves, and are therefore treated as somewhat unclean. 3. Barendra Goalas—the Goalas of North Bengal. 4. Rarhi Goalas — the Goalas of Burdwan. 5. Magliai — Goalas of Magliadha or Behar. These are said to extract butter from unboiled milk, and are there¬ fore regarded as somewhat unclean. 6. Godos — found chiefly in the Nadiya District. 7. Sadgopa—found chiefly in the Burdwan Division. An account of the Sadgopa tribe has been given already in connection with the agricultural castes of Bengal. Of the other sections of the Bengal Goalas only the Godos require special notice. The Godos of Bengal. The name of this class seems to be derived from the Gada, which means a fort. From their very name, and from what other facts are known relating to them, it seems probable that formerly they served in the armies of the Hindu and Mahometan kings of the country. Their services are still utilised by the landholders of Bengal for those little boundary warfares which usually involve them in the most ruinous litigations, civil and criminal. The Godos of the tract of country to the east of the famous field of Plassy are a criminal tribe of the worst type. They are hereditary gang robbers, assassins and free lances. After more than a century of British rule, highway robberies are still so frequent in the locality, that no one can, even now, safely travel alone through the pergunnah inhabited by them. Some of the Godos practise agriculture ; but, like the Irish peasants, they never pay any “ rint ” to their landlords, 302 THE GOALAS OF BEHAR. and have brought about the ruin of many capitalists who bad invested their money in taking perpetual leases of the pergunnah from its zemindar. Like the other criminal tribes, some of the Godos give regular training to their children in the arts of thieving and gang robbery. On occasions of festivity in the houses of the local nobility, they sometimes exhibit their skill in their art, and amuse and astonish the spectators by their feats. Reclining on a bamboo stick, about six feet long, one would get to the top of a house, while another with a similar weapon would ward off any number of brickbats that might be hurled against him. The importance of such gymnastic skill to a burglar must be obvious. § 2.— The Goalas of Behar. Like the Goalas of Bengal, those of Behar also are divided into a large number of sub-tribes. They all appear to be looked upon as good Sudras, and the ordinary Sudra Yajaka priests of Behar minister to them as priests. As in other parts of India, the Goalas of Behar are, generally speaking, an illiterate class. There is, however, among them a section who usually acquire a sufficient knowledge of the three R.’s to be qualified for book-keeping in the vernacular. The Separis, as they are called, are employed by the landholders as Putwaris or village accountants. They are looked upon as an inferior class by the other Goala sub-castes. The Goalas of Behar allow their widows to re-marry. The usual family names of the Behar Goalas are the following :— 1. Bhandari. I ,3. Mahato. 2. Bhagata. | 4. Majhi. § 3.— The Goalas of Orissa. Among the Goalas of Orissa there are three main divi¬ sions, namely, the Krishnaut, the Mathura Bansi and the Gaura Bansi. They are all generally very poor. The THE GOALAS OF OKISSA. 303 Oriya litter-carriers of Calcutta are mostly of the Goala caste. A very large number of them are employed by the European residents of Calcutta as orderlies, punka- pullers, furniture cleaners and gardeners. Being Hindus they cannot serve as cooks or table-servants. But, apart from their caste prejudices, they are very serviceable and obedient, and they are sometimes employed as personal servants by the Hindu residents of Calcutta. The only reason why they are not more largely employed by the Hindu aristocracy of Bengal is the fact that they would never eat any food cooked by a Bengali, and in the household of a Hindu of moderate means, it is considered very inconvenient to have a servant who would cook his own food, instead of eating the preparations of the family cook. The Oriya domestics are generally very trustworthy like the Kahars of Northern India. The master’s goods, however valua- able, are always safe in their custody. It is only when deputed to make any purchases that an Oriya servant is tempted to act dishonestly, and to appropriate a part of the money by giving a false account. Like the Goalas of Behar those of Orissa allow the re-marriage of their widows. CHAP. V.—THE COWHERDS OF SOUTHERN INDIA. In the Telegu country the cowherds are called Gol- lalu, in Mysore Golla, and in the Tamil country Mattu Edia. Among the Gollalus there are many sub-divisions, one of which is called Yathavas. The Yadava clan of Ksatriyas in Northern India is probably an offshoot of these pastoral Yathavas. Among the Ma tu Edias there are two classes, one of which profess the Yaishnava faith, and the others are Sivites. There can be no marriage alliance between these two sub-divisions of the Mattu Edias, and practically they are separ ite castes. The Gollas of Mysore are divided into two sub-orders called Uru Golla and Kadu Golla, v ho neither eat together nor intermarry. They are mostly Krishna worshippers. There are some very odd customs among the Kadu Gollas of Mysore. “It is said that on the occurrence of a childbirth, the mother with the babe remains unattended in a small shed outside the village from 7 to 30 days when she is taken back to her home. In the event of her illness, none of the caste will at¬ tend on her, hut a Nayak (Beda) woman is engaged t( do so. Marriages among them are likewise performed in a temporary shed erected outside the village, and the attendant festivities continue for five days when the ' married couple are brought into the village. Their females do not, on the death of the husband, remove or break the bangles worn at the wrists.” * Mysore Census Report, p. 24&, ( 304 ) CHAP. VI.—THE SHEPHERD CASTES. The following table gives the names of the several shepherd castes of India, together with the figures relating to their numerical strength :— Gadaria, 1,294,830 (found in Northern India). Dangar, 1,305,583 (found chiefly in the vicinity of the Marattha country). Attu Ediyar, 665,232 (found chiefly in Southern India). The shepherds have a lower caste status than the cow- In i ds. The family of the Maharaja Holkar are said by some to be of the Dangar caste ; but they take the sacred thread, and the Brahmans accept their gifts without any hesitation. There are many Gadarias in and near some of the old towns of Bengal such as Nadiya and Dacca. These do not practise their caste profession, but live chiefly b\ working as bricklayers. Their females make the preparation of rice called chira described in page 246. The shepherd castes are regarded as somewhat unclean ev( ry where. B, HC ( 305 ) 20 PART XV. THE CLEAN AND THE UNCLEAN CASTES EMPLOYED IN PERSONAL AND DOMESTIC SERVICE. CHAP. I.—THE BARBERS. Though the text referred to at p. 224, ante , includes the barbers among the upper nine classes of Sudras, yet as they pare the nails of all the classes, the higher castes do not, in many parts of the country, take even drinking water from their hands. In Bengal, Behar and Orissa the napit is regarded as a clean caste. In the Telugu country, the corresponding caste of Mangli is regarded as clean also. In almost all the other pro¬ vinces, the barber is regarded as unclean. In Orissa the barber caste is called Bhandari ; in the Tamil country the name of the caste is Ambatta ; in Mysore the desig¬ nation of the class is Nayinda ; in Telingana the caste name of barbers is Mangali ; and in Northern India their most common names are Nai, Nain and Hajam. In the Panjab there are two classes of barbers. The ordinary barbers are regarded as an unclean caste. But there is a class who do only such work as is required of the napit on occasions of marriage. These take the sacred thread, and are regarded as a clean caste, from whose hands a Brahman will not only take drink¬ ing water, but even pakki food. ( 306 ) THE BARBERS. 307 As a Hindu cannot celebrate any religious ceremony without first shaving, the barber is an important func¬ tionary of Hindu society. Every Hindu has his family napit, as he has his family Guru, priest and washerman. The napit shaves him and all the male members of his family ; while the napit 1 s wife or mother pares the nails of the ladies, and paints their feet with lac-dye. Besides his regular pay, the napit has claims to various kinds of perquisites on every birth, death, marriage and puja in the families of his constituents. When a birth takes place the family barber acts as the errand boy to convey the happy news to all the relatives of the babe ; and on such occasions the kith and kin are expected to present to the barber a shawl, or a piece of silk cloth, or a brass vessel of some kind, together with some money, according to their means. As a Hindu lady upon her first pregnancy is usually taken to her father’s house, the parents of her husband have to pay heavy fees to the family barber of her father, if a male child is born. In Behar the napit acts also as an assistant on the staff of match-making embassies, and makes a handsome extra income by that kind of business. In the remote villages, the Hindu napits , like the European barbers of the seventeenth century, practise also surgery and open boils and abscesses. Some napits serve as domestic servants in the houses of the higher castes ; but a Hindu of the barber caste will never till the soil with his own hands. The napits are reputed as very acute people, but as a class they are quite illiterate, and there are very few rich men among them. Ho napit has yet attained any University distinctions, nor has any member of the class been able to attain a high position in the service of Government by dint of ability. The usual surname of the napit in Bengal is Para- manik. A member of the caste is at present in the Subordinate Executive Service of Bengal ; but with a few solitary exceptions the napits are quite illiterate. CHAP. II.—THE WASHERMEN. The W ashermen are called Dhopa in Bengal, Dliobi in Northern India, Warthi and Pont in the Central j Provinces, Yaunan and Agasia in Southern India and Chakli in the Telugu country. On account of the unclean nature of their occupation, they are regarded as an unclean caste in almost every part of India ex¬ cepting the Telugu country where the Chakli are held eligible for being employed as domestic servants. They are, generally speaking, quite illiterate. But a few of them have recently managed to get themselves appointed to some very high offices in the service of Government. Like the napit, the Dhobi has not only a regular salary, but has claims to various perquisites on occa¬ sions of birth, death and marriage in Hindu families. The Dhobi’s personal expenses are not’very considerable. He expects and gets a dish of rice at least once every month from each of his constituents, and for purposes of clothing, he freely uses the clothes given to him for washing. The sight of a Dhobi’s face is, like that of an oilman, considered as a bad omen at the commence¬ ment of a journey, and is avoided. ( 308 ) CHAP. III.—THE CASTES USUALLY EMPLOYED AS DOMESTIC SERVANTS IN HINDU FAMILIES. § 1.— Bengal. The Dakshin Radhi Kayasthas of Bengal claim, as a matter of honor, to have the right of serving as menials to Brahmans. As a matter of fact, the Kayasthas are very well-to-do people, and have too much pride to stoop to domestic service. Even the slave Kayasthas of Eastern Bengal are now trying to give up such service, and to he on the same level with the other Kayasthas. In Bengal the nine clean Sudra castes mentioned in page 224, ante , are generally considered by the aristocratic Hindus as most eligible for domestic service. The Kansaris and the Sankharis who, proper¬ ly speaking, belong to the mercantile caste, are held eligible also for similar employment. The Sadgopas, being included among the clean Gopas, are regarded as clean Sudras, and are held to be entitled to the same honor. The Shekra, Sutar, and Kaibarta are regarded as clean castes in some places, and unclean in others. The Teli and the Goala, though included among the Nava Sayakas, are not in practice regarded as clean everywhere; However, generally speaking, the Navasayakas with the Kansari, Sankhari, Sadgopa, Shekra, Sutar and Kaibarta may be, and are usually, employed as domestic servants in all Hindu families in Bengal, ( 309 ) 310 DOMESTIC SERVANTS. § 2.—iV".- W. Provinces and Behar. Kahar.—Tliis caste derives its name from the Sanskrit word Slcandhalcara, which means one who carries things on his shoulders. The primary occupa¬ tion of this caste is carrying litters. But there are several sub-castes among them, and while some of these practise their proper profession, the others are either boatmen, fishermen, grain parchers,basket-makers, or weavers. The most important sub-castes of the Kahars are the Rawani and the Turah. The Rawanis are to be found in large numbers in every town of Northern India. They serve as litter carriers, punka-pullers, scullions, water-carriers and personal attendants. In every well-to-do family there is at least one Rawani to serve as the “ maid of all work.” The Turahs, who are boatmen and fishermen, are to be found chiefly in Behar and N.-W. Provinces. They have some colonies in Bengal, in the ancient towns of Dacca and Nadiya, and in the market town of Shah Ganj near Hooghly, founded by Azim Oshan, the grandson of Aurangzebe, who was for some years the Governor of Bengal. The Turahs of Bengal have, however, formed themselves into a separate caste, and the fact that they are a branch of the Kahar caste is not even known to them. Of the Rawanis very few are domiciled in Bengal. Those found in this part of the country are chiefly natives of Gaya, who come every year in the beginning of the winter season, and go back to their native home in June or July, or when they deem it convenient. No class of Kahars can be said to have the right of being regarded as clean Sudras. The fishing classes are certainly unclean, and they are treated as such. Although the Rawanis do not catch fish, yet even they ought not to stand in a better position. A great many of them are in the habit of drinking spirits, and eating field rats and even pork. But it is difficult to get more DHANUK AND AMAT. 311 trustworthy and obedient servants, and the necessity of Hindu families has made them a clean caste. No good Brahman, however, officiates as a priest for the perform¬ ance of a religious ceremony in which a Kahar is con¬ cerned. The Kahar’s priest is treated as a degraded Brahman, and his Guru or spiritual guide is usually an ascetic. Most of the Rawanis are worshippers of tSiva and Kali, and there are very few Vishnuvites among them. They have great reverence for the shrine of Kali near Calcutta. Those of them who come to Calcutta never fail to give a puja there, and even in the districts remote from Calcutta, their usual cry, when they take a litter on their shoulders or drop it, is, Jai Kali Calcuttawali .* The Kahar population of India is as stated below :— N.-W. Provinces ... ... ... 1,208,530 Bengal ... ... ... ... 621,176 Dhanuk.—The Dhanuks are a clean Sudra caste found chiefly in Behar. In all probability they were originally slaves. The superior castes will take a drink of water from their hands, and the Maithila Brahmans minister to them as priests. They are usually employed as domestic servants. Amat. — The Amats are a clean caste. They are divided into two sections, one of which is called Ghar- bait, and the other Biahut. The Gharbaits live by practising agriculture, while the Biahuts usually serve as * The name of Calcutta is supposed by many to be derived from the shrine of Kali. But there can be very little doubt as to its having a very different derivation. The word Kol, which literally means ‘ lap,’ is usually used to denote the open ends of the alluvial formations which are formed on the sides of the rivers of Bengal by the deflection of their currents. The Kols, so long as they exist, arc used as natural harbours. But the peninsulas surrounding them are, after some years, cut through by changes in the course of the river. The place is then called Kata Kol or Kolkata, literally “a lap cut open.” There are many riparian villages in Bengal which are called Katakol. The name of Calcutta is clearly formed by the union of the same component words in a different way. 312 DOMESTIC SERVANTS. domestic servants. The two sections do not intermarry. The Maithila Brahmans minister to both as priests. § 3.— The Servant Castes of the Panjab. The castes that in the Panjab are usually employed by the Hindu aristocracy as domestic servants are the following :— 1. Jhiwar. 2. Kirat. 3. Jat. 4. Kambo. 5. Rora. 6. Salariya. The proper profession of the Jhiwar is the catching of fish ; but in the Panjab they are not on that account regarded as unclean, and, in fact, are generally the only men in their country who serve as water- carriers. The Hindu Kambos claim to have come from Afghanistan. The Mahomedan Kambos call themselves the descendants of the old Kai sovereigns of Pei'sia. § 4. — The Servant Castes of the Telugu country. The castes held eligible in the Telugu country for employment as domestic servants are the following :— 1. Mangli ... Bai’ber. 2. Chakli ... Washerman. 3. Idiya ... Brewer. 4. Golla ... Cowherd. § 5.— The Servant Castes of Maharashtra and Central Provinces. The castes usually employed by the higher classes of the Hindus in the Maharatta country and in the Central Provinces are the inferior Maharattas and the Kunbis. In the Central Provinces the aboriginal Gonds, though they eat beef and are regarded as unclean, are yet em¬ ployed as domestic servants for such kinds of work as do not require the touching of drinking water. CHAP. IV.—THE CASTE OF THE DOMESTICS IN ANGLO-INDIAN HOUSEHOLDS. The domestics who do menial work in Anglo-Indian households are recruited from low class Mahomedans and the very lowest class Hindus. An up-country Brahman or Ksatriya may be found to do the work of a gate-keeper or orderly in the house of an Englishman, but will never do any work that must compel him to touch his master’s plates, dining table, clothes or shoes. If a high caste and orthodox Hindu accidentally touch any of these things, he will neither enter his cook-room nor eat any food without washing away the contamina¬ tion by bathing. The plates containing cooked meat are an absolute abomination to a good Hindu, and the very sight is shocking to him. According to orthodox Hindu notions, the dining table itself remains unfit to be touched even when the plates are taken off. But in this respect the prejudices of all classes of Hindus are fast wearing off, and not only Hindu officials but independent Hindu gentlemen may in these days often be found sitting by the side of an Englishman’s dining table, and afterwards drinking water or chewing pan without bathing or change of dress. Such being the case, the high caste Hindu peons and orderlies have not at present the same amount of objection to touch their master’s furniture that they had formerly. But even at the present they will not, either for love or money, touch their master’s shoes or clothes, or have anything to do with the arrangement of his furniture and bedding. 314 DOMESTIC SERVANTS OF ANGLO-INDIANS. In Hindu households, a poor Brahman may do the work of a cook ; but under no circumstances will a Brahman or a Rajput do such menial service as is fit only for Sudras and low castes. Almost the only kind of work which a high caste Hindu will do in an English household is that of a letter carrier or door attendant for announcing the presence of visitors. With regard to the caste of the other classes of domestics in Anglo-Indian households, it may be ob¬ served, generally, that the Mahomedans have the mono¬ poly of such as appertain to the stable. Even in Hindu households, the coachmen and the footmen are always followers of Islam. The cooks, scullions and butlers are either Mahomedans (or Aracanese) or Madrasis of the low castes called Paria and Tiyan. The punka- pullers are either Goalas of Orissa or Kahars of Behar. Oriyas and Kahars are employed also as farashes for wiping off the dust from the furniture, and for cleansing and lighting the lamps. The washerman is the Hindu Dhobi, Yannan or Agasia ; while the scavengers and the nightsoil men are all usually of such aboriginal tribes as are called Hari, Methar, Churha, &c. In Calcutta the Oriya is the maid of all work in European households in every department except the kitchen and the stable ; but it is said that the Madrasi Paria and Tiyan are still more pliant and useful than the cowherds of the land of Jaganath. PART XVI. MISCELLANEOUS CASTES. CHAP. I.—THE FISHERMEN AND BOATMEN. § 1.— The Fishermen and Boatmen of Bengal. The same castes are usually both fishermen and boatmen. They have all a very low caste status. In Bengal the following castes earn their living chiefly by plying boats for the conveyance of goods and pas¬ sengers, and by catching and selling fish :— 1. Malo both boatmen and fishermen. 2. Tnraha ,, ,, ,, 3. Chandral ,, ,, ,, 4. Jelia Kaibart ,, „ „ 5. Tiyar „ „ „ The Nikaris of Bengal, who are fishermen, are all Mu salmans. § 2.— The Fishermen and Boatmen of Northern India. The most important classes of boatmen in Northern India are Dhiwars of the United Provinces, and the Jhiwars of Pan jab and Scinde. These names are derived from the Sanskrit word Dhivar, signifying a fisherman. The boatmen of Northern India are called Mallah. They are closely connected with the caste called Kahar. The Mallahs of Cawnpore are called Kadhar. The ( 315 ) 316 FISHERMEN AND BOATMEN. Mallaks are divided into many sections of which the following are the best known :— 1. Gaure. 2. Banar. 3. Tirhutia. 4. Kanojia. 5. Saroriya. 6. Mariyai'i. 7. Kewat. The Jhiwars who are found in Panjab and Scinde are considered there as a clean caste. They are not only fishermen, but serve also as water-carriers to high caste Hindu families. The boatmen of the Panjab are mostly Mahomedans. § 3.— The Fishermen of Gujrat. The fishermen of Gujrat are called Macki. § 4.— The Fishermen of the Malabar Coast. The following are the fishermen castes of the Mala¬ bar Coast:— 1. Vellamar, live by fresh water fishing. 2. Marakan, enjoy the monopoly of the sea-fisheries. 3. Shembadan, fishermen of Malabar. § 5.— The Fishermen , Boatmen and Litter-carriers of Mysore. The caste that generally work as fishermen, boatmen and litter-carriers in Mysore are there called Besta. With reference to these, the following account is given in the last Census Report of Mysore :— These (the Besta ) are fishermen, boatmen and palanquin-bearers. Their number is 99,897, or a little short of one hundred thousand persons, absorbing a little over two per cent, of the total and are more than 5 per cent, of the class. These are known by different names according to localities. In the Eastern districts, they are called Besta (fishermen); in the Southern Toraya, Ambica and Gauge Makkalu. The Telugu-speaking population call them Parivora (boatmen) ; while in the Western parts their names are Kalyara and Bhais. There are a few other sub-divisions returned, with insignificant numbers, under the names of Belli, Ohammadi, Raya- ravuta and Surmakalu. These are acknowledged to be of a lower rank. Their chief occupations are fishing, palanquin-bearing and lime-burning. Some of them are employed by Government as peons, &c., whilst a large number is engaged in agricultural pursuits. CHAP. II.—THE CRIMINAL TRIBES. Among the Goalas who are cowherds by caste, and are to be found in almost every part of India, there are many bad characters, but the class as a whole cannot be called a criminal tribe. The Gujars, who are to be found chiefly in Rajputana and Scinde, and who are also cowherds by caste, are believed to be addicted to thieving. Besides these there are particular castes and tribes in every province of India who are believed to be professional thieves and gang robbers. In Bengal the following castes furnish by far the largest number of criminals :— 1. Bagdi ... An aboriginal caste, generally employed as navvies and wood-cutters. 2. Baori ... An aboriginal caste, found in large number in West Burdwan. 3. Kaora 1 Found chiefly in the tracts to the South 4. Pod J and South-East of Calcutta. 5. Dome 1 Aboriginal tribes whose ostensible occupa- Nolo J tion is basket and mat-making. 6. Hari ... Sweepers. 7. Bedia ... Herbalists and snake-catcliers. The criminal tribes of Behar are the following :— 1. Dome. I 2. Bind. The following are the criminal tribes of the Upper Gangetic Doab :— 1. Gujar. 2. Jat. 3. Sansi. 4. Marasi. 5. Mehter. 6. Meo (mostly Maliomedans now, though observing Hindu festivals and rites). 7. Bahelya. 8. Haibora. ( 317 ) 318 THE CRIMINAL TRIBES. The undermentioned are the criminal tribes of Raj- putana : — 1. Thori. 2. Chura. 3. Sansi. 4. Bauria. 5. Maghaya. 6. Mewa. 7. Grassia. 8. Bheel. The following are the criminal tribes of the Madras Presidency :— 1. Kallau (found in the Draviva). 2. Koravar (Do. do.) 3. Gerakalas (found in Telingana). 4. Chaphon (found chiefly in the valley of the Krishna river). The following are the criminal tribes of the Bombay Presidency :— 1. Rarausi (found chiefly in Maharashtra). 2. Katha Kavi (found in Northern Konkan). 3. Katori (found in Northern Konkan). 4. Banjari. 5. Lambanis. 6. Waddar. 7. Bedar (found in the Southern Maharatta country). 8. Pardhi (found in Khandesh and Berar). 9. Bheels (found in Khandesh). 10. Bompti (found in the Maharatta country). 11. Pintdari (found everywhere in the Deccan. Not a separate caste, but originally an association of vagabonds and robbers). HINDU SECTS. -:o:- PART I. INTRODUCTION. CHAP I.—THE PROPER METHOD OF ENQUIRY REGARDING RELIGIONS. To give an intelligible account of the Hindu sects and to fix their precise place relatively to other reli¬ gious systems, it seems to me absolutely necessary, at the outset, to say something about the essential nature of religions generally, and the usual course of their development. It is only by the light of such a dis¬ quisition that the study of the origin and growth of the several religious sects to be found in this country can be made interesting and profitable. In what I am going to say the reader will, I fear, find a great deal that is not in accordance with the prevailing ideas on the subject ; and, in order that there may be no mistake in weighing and appraising the opinions I express, I must at the very threshold explain the method on which I propose to proceed. In theology, as in astronomy, physiology, geology and many other sciences, we cannot, by mere observa¬ tion, carry our investigations to the required point. As ( 319 ) 320 HINDU SECTS. the functions of the internal organs of the human body or the manner in which the rocks have been formed cannot be known by direct observation, so it is impos¬ sible, by the same means, to give a satisfactory answer to many of the vexed questions of theology. We can¬ not depute anyone to any place beyond this earth to ascertain whether our so-called prophets were in fact what they professed to be, or whether they were not mere men like ourselves though possessed of greater shrewdness. The only way open in such cases to arrive at the truth is to start with a hypothesis which is based on probability. If the hypothesis which is adopted suffice to explain all the known facts connected with the subject, no scientific mind can hesitate to accept it. At any rate when an hypothesis fails to explain the phenomena which it is meant to account for, it must be rejected at once. The belief of every orthodox person that his own religion was brought direct from heaven by an incar¬ nation of God Almighty, or by a trusted agent specially deputed by the Most High, has primd facie the same element of improbability as the Ptolemaic theory of astronomy. It is perhaps much more reasonable to suppose that the sun and the planets revolve round our poor earth, than to believe that although this little orb of ours, is as a speck compared with the entirety of the universe, yet it is the place where God Almighty delights to make long sojourns in human form. To a man whose common sense has not been per¬ verted by early training, and who knows the ways of the world, the assertion that any particular religion has had its origin in a special message of Divine favour to any race or nation, might appear to be open to question. When a stock-broker or com¬ pany promoter issues a rose-coloured prospectus re¬ garding the present condition or probable future of a commercial concern, no man who understands business INTRODUCTION. 321 thinks of buying its shares without satisfying himself by proper in quiriesthat the persons recommending it to the public are competent to form a correct forecast, and are not interested in misrepresenting the facts. When a quack advertises a medicine as having the power to cure every kind of malady that the human system is heir to, he is always looked upon with suspi¬ cion, though he may dupe many poor sufferers who, in their hopelessness, may be disposed to rely upon him. The alchemists and Sanyasis, who claim to have the power of converting the baser metals into gold, very seldom find in these days anyone foolish enough to be taken in by them. When a cute loafer appears in a native court, and pretends to be a near relative or secret agent of the Viceroy, he is seldom trusted even by the weakest of our Princes. If then it is a wise policy in other departments of life to look with suspicion upon the men who promise too much and profess to possess extraordinary powers, it must be difficult to see any reason why we should make an exception in favour of the professors of the theocratic art, who apparently lived and died in exactly the same manner as any ordinary mortal, and yet claimed to be the incarnations, representatives or trusted agents of the Most High. Prima facie they stand on no better footing than the alchemist, the company promoter, the quack medicine vendor, and the loafer without credentials. To those who have had opportunities for studying the ways of sharpers, the man of religion must appear to be even more unreliable than those who practise on the cre¬ dulity of the people in other spheres. The honesty of the latter can be tested in various ways, and as they know well that if they fail to achieve what they promise they might become legally punishable, none but the most reckless among them can feel inclined to cheat men by alchemy or a commercial bubble. But the priests of modern times very seldom make any promise which they can be called upon to fulfil in this world. They D, ho 21 322 HINDU SECTS. deal in salvation and the spiritual happiness of the soul after death, and, for the purpose of avoiding an audit, they have a far safer vantage ground than even the engineers of the Indian Public Works Department, and the mooktears or attorneys of the Indian county courts. The P. W. D. official who attempts to enrich himself bv the pretence that the embankment which he had been commissioned to build on the sea-coast has been washed away by a storm-wave, or the mooktear of the old type who attempts to cheat his master by pretend¬ ing to have bribed the Police for him, runs a chance of detection which might lead to his utter ruin. But such fears need not disturb the priest’s deep repose. Such being the case, and the profession of the priest being calculated to bring far more honour, power and wealth than any other calling, his temptations are great. So he cannot reasonably claim from men even that amount of confidence which can be reposed on the 1 quack or the alchemist. It is true that the curers of our souls very often affect to be quite indifferent to wealth and worldly comforts, and from this fact it is argued that the motive to cheat men being wanting, they may be treated with confidence. But to every one who has studied the ways of the priests, it must be evident that they have all a morbid craving, for, at least, being honoured by men, and that though, at the outset, they may profess to be above the vulgar love of lucre, yet as soon as their power is sufficiently estab¬ lished, they betray an amount of avarice and craving for luxurious living that is not to be found in the great¬ est secular rulers. While the latter are satisfied with a small fraction of the income of their subjects, the priest will bring complete ruin on his victims, if by doing so he can turn an extra penny. Even the lawyer’s fees have a limit. But there is no limit whatever to the demand of a priest. He pretends to have the power of enriching his followers. But the actual result of his operations is only to impoverish them. INTRODUCTION. 323 Like some unscrupulous loan brokers the man of religion does not hesitate the least to break even a bruised reed. In fact the greater the embarrassment of the victim, the greater is the opportunity of both. A big landowner is heavily in debt. A broker comes to him, and offers to raise the loan required by him at a very moderate rate of interest. The proposal is very tempting to him, and when it is accepted, the broker finds little difficulty in getting out of him a few hun¬ dred rupees for alleged preliminary expenses. With that money he goes away, never to turn up again. The same experiment is tried by every one of the birds of the same feather, and the result of their com¬ bined operations is to make their victim sink deeper and deeper in the mire. The modus operandi of the priest is exactly the same, the only difference being that he never finds it necessary to abscond or decamp. When his rites and incantations are proved by the event to be ineffective, he will throw the responsibility on a malignant star, or account for the failure by attri¬ buting it to want of faith in his dupe. At an early stage of their career, the spiritual teachers, no doubt, deal in a little genuine milk of whole¬ some morality. But that fact cannot entitle them to be implicitly trusted, for as soon as they find that they are blindly followed by the mob, they hesitate not the least to adulterate their ethical stock-in-trade with the most powerful anaesthetics, intoxicants and narcotics, so as to dispose their followers to submit to their operations with alacrity. The priests ask us to have faith in them, and we are too much accustomed to the demand to perceive its absurdity. But if an alchemist, quack or company promoter were to press upon us such advice, surely we would not blindly yield to it. So far I have been speaking of only the natural presumption which there ought to be against the claims to extraordinary powers put forward by, or on behalf of, the so-called prophets and incarnations. That 324 HINDU SECTS. presumption may or may not be rebutted by tbe evidence adduced to support their case. That is not the question which I am going to deal with just now. But in order to discuss it properly, I must first of all try to analyse the way in which, according to the evidence afforded by history, religious systems have been actually deve¬ loped. I shall then show that their course is consistent only with the doctrine that they have their origin in the policy of men, and not in any extraordinary measure adopted by the Most High through His mercy towards us. CHAP. IT.—THE EVOLUTION OF THE THEOCRATIC ART. On the supposition that our religions have been given to us by God Almighty, they cannot possibly have any course of development. They must have existed, at the beginning, in the same state as now. As the speculations of Laplace, Lyell and Darwin are shut out altogether on the supposition that the universe was created in the manner described in the ancient scriptures and codes of law, so a faith in divine revelation precludes all inquiry as to the origin and evolution of the theocratic art. But the evidence afforded by history shows that religions have had a regular course of evolu¬ tion, and I propose first of all to trace its successive steps. With reference to the subject which I purpose to deal with here, there are at present two quite opposite theories which, for want of better names, I may call the orthodox theory and the modern theory. According to the orthodox theory, religion was in its highest state of purity in the beginning of creation, and, through the growing wickedness of men, it is becoming more and more corrupt, as the world is advancing in age. According to the other theory, which is favoured by the philosophers of modern Europe, and by those of our countrymen who blindly follow them, religious ideas were extremely crude in the primitive times, and, as civilisation has advanced, its inevitable progress has been from fetichism, idolatry and polytheism to monotheism pure and simple. With regard to the orthodox theory, ( 325 ) 326 THE THEOCRATIC ART. I need not say anything. But with regal'd to the modern theory it must be observed that it is open to exception on more grounds than one. It assumes that, as in other departments, the progress of religion is determined solely by the advancement of men in philo¬ sophical thoughtfulness. This view is directly contra¬ dicted by one of the greatest of English historians. Macaulay says :— There are branches of knowledge with respect to which the law of the human mind is progress. In mathematics, when once a pro¬ position has been demonstrated, it is never afterwards contested. Every fresh story is as solid a basis for a new superstructure as the original foundation was. Here, therefore, is a constant addition to the stock of truth. In the inductive sciences again, the law is progress. Every day furnishes new facts, and thus brings theory nearer and nearer to perfection. There is no chance that, either in the purely demonstrative, or in the purely experimental sciences, the world will ever go back or even remain stationary. Nobody ever heard of a reaction against Taylor’s theorem, or of a reac¬ tion against Harvey’s doctrine of the circulation of the blood. But with theology the case is very different. As respects natural religion—revelation being for the present altogether left out of the question—it is not easy to see that a philosopher of the present day is more favourably situated than Thales or Simmonides. He has before him just the same evidences of design in the structure of the universe which the early Greeks had. We say just the same, for the discoveries of modern astronomers and anatomists have really added nothing to the force of that argument which a reflecting mind finds in every beast, bird, insect, fish, leaf, flower and shale. The reasoning by which Socrates, in Zenophon’s hearing, confuted the little atheist Aristodemus, is exactly the reasoning of Paley’s Natural Theology. As to the other great questions, the question, what be¬ comes of man after death ? we do not see that a highly educated Euro¬ pean, left to his unassisted reason, is more likely to be in the right l^han a Blackfoot Indian. Not a single one of the many sciences in which we surpass the Blackfoot Indians throws the smallest light on the state of the soul after the animal life is extinct. In truth, all the philosophers, ancient and modern, who have attempted, without the help of revelation, to prove the immortality of man, from Plato down to Franklin, appear to us to have failed deplorably. • The great English historian, in his usual way, goes here a little too far. There are clearly marks of pro¬ gressive development in the theocratic art. However, the historian is certainly right in the view that the progress of theology has not been in the same lines as that of the physical or the mathematical sciences. The reason of this is not far to seek. The progress of the Sciences depends upon the progress of the human { - ) ITS EVOLUTION. 327 intellect, and not upon any other circumstance. A scientific discovery cannot, in most cases, affect the pecuniary or political interest of any class. And even where it has a prejudicial effect on such interests, the arguments and experiments by which it is proved render it quite impossible to ignore it. But the chauges in the modus operandi of the priests depend upon, not one, but three different factors, namely, their increasing shrewdness, the increasing boldness engen- dered in them by their success, and the state of society with which they have to deal. Hence, in theology there are those complicated movements which puzzle the superficial thinkers, and are characterised by them as backward or forward according to their peculiar ideas of progress or retrogression. When other circumstances do not offer any impedi¬ ment, the theocratic art certainly becomes more and more developed according to a law of its own, and the view propounded by Macaulay that it has remained stationary cannot be accepted, consistently with the facts recorded in history and the sacred Scriptures. The now generally accepted doctrine of the European philosophers who hold that the natural progress of religion is from fetichism, polytheism and idolatry to monotheism seems to be equally undeserving of accept¬ ance. It no doubt embodies a fraction of the truth. The theocratic art begins indeed with fetichism. But the highest development it is capable of, is not mono¬ theism,—which represents only an usual concomitant* of one of its intermediate states,—but abomination-worship, which is the climax that it can attain. This is proved by the undeniable evidence of history, and it must be so according to the hypothesis that religion has its origin in the policy of the priests, and not in divine grace. There is by nature a groundwork for superstitious belief in the human mind. So long as the fortunes of See page 333. 328 THE THEOCRATIC ART. men depend to a great extent on chance, so long as the medical science is not sufficiently advanced, and so long again as we are unable to predict or control meteorological phenomena, the human mind must he prepared more or less to submit to the exactions of the priest, the quack and the fortune-teller. The jurisdic¬ tion of these is becoming more and more narrowed with the progress of the sciences, and of the arts of shipbuilding, navigation and canal irrigation, coupled with such institutions of modern civilization as insur¬ ance offices, fire brigades, poor-houses and hospitals. When anyone gets fever now, whatever may be his orthodoxy, he depends more upon quinine than upon the Batuka Vairaba or the Aparajita incantatious of his priests. There was a time when, in order to avoid the visitation of heaven’s wrath in the form of the thunder¬ bolt, every Hindu caused a label to be stuck up on the upper parts of the door frames in his house, containing a few Sanskrit verses. But the science of electricity has of late been teaching the people to depend more upon the lightning rod, than on the names of the five thunder-preventing saints. In order to prevent loss by fire or boatwreck, Indian traders, in many places, still spend very large sums of money to secure the favour of Bramha, Ganga and Vallabhachari. But the advantages of brick buildings and insurance are being understood more and more, and, in Bengal at least, the rage for Bramha Puja and Ganga Puja has diminished very materially. Whether the clearances of the Val¬ labhachari shrine at Nathdowra from marine policies, vowed to it by the traders of Gujrat and Bombay, have diminished or not, is a matter as to which I have not been able to get any reliable information. In any case, the sphere of the priests’ operations is becoming more and more circumscribed. However, his domain is still wide enough. But because there was, and still is, a natural inclina¬ tion in men to believe in, and rely on, the supernatural, ITS EVOLUTION. 329 it does not follow that their religious beliefs have a spontaneous course as the European thinkers seem to assume. History proves that the empires of the priests are established in the very same manner as those of the secular monarchs. However much a settled Govern¬ ment may be desired by men, yet history does not furnish a single instance in which the blessing of a strong ruler at the head has not been more or less forced upon the people who are placed under his sway. Similarly, however much a religion may be valued by those who profess it, it had never been wanted until it was forced upon them by the literary genius or poli¬ tical tact of some great teacher. In fact, in religion and politics, as in every other sphere, it is the artist that creates the demand for the inventions of his art. Upon a careful survey of the religious systems of the world, it appears that all the primitive religions incul¬ cate the worship of either the friendly powers of nature or of demons. Generally speaking, the priest cannot approach the savage, who lives by hunting, fishing or cattle breeding, except by the most merciless bullying. The savage can have no scope or ambition for acquiring wealth or high office, and as he has en hypo- tliisie no idea of any kind of luxury, the promise of heaven can have no influence on him, and he can have no motive to worship friendly gods. The only way to make him amenable to priestly discipline, lies in leading him to believe that diseases and deaths are caused by a set of fierce and bloodthirsty gods who can be pro¬ pitiated only by the sacrifice of goats, pigs, sheep, &c. His cattle being his principal, if not his sole, wealth that is the only method of worship which his priest can turn to account. Hence the demon-worship and the sacrifice of animals in the pre-agricultural stage of civilization. With the development of society, men become subject to hopes, influences and fears which had been unknown to them before. When agriculture begins to be practised, 330 THE THEOCRATIC ART. the tillers of the soil find that rain is necessary for their operations, and that it does not take place in all years when most wanted. At this stage the shrewder members of society, who hate manual labour and desire nothing so much as to live on the fruits of other people’s industry, can easily persuade the primi¬ tive ploughman to believe that rainfall depends upon the will or caprice of a deity who, like most mortals, has his price. The belief being impressed, the primi¬ tive priest has only to invent a plausible and attractive programme. The expedient which he has usually recourse to is the kindling of a fire, and the burning of butter or incense on the altar. These are the least bulky goods that the primitive agriculturist could be called upon to supply to his priest. The process is somewhat wasteful if carried out under too much vigil¬ ance. But in the operations of the priest, as in those of the political adventurer, wastefulness is inevitable. The primitive priest is compelled by the necessity of his position to promise tangible good service, such as rainfall to the tillers of the soil, health to the sick, and children to barren women. His constituents cannot appreciate the value of salvation, Moksha, Nirvana or spiritual happiness of the soul after death, and in order to make them venerate him and submit to his exactions, he is obliged to promise more substantial services. In doing so he has to tread upon very treacherous ground. But rainfall may take place at the required time in the course of nature ; the sick man may be restored to health by nature ; and a woman believed to be barren maj’ also bear a child in the course of nature. If the event be such as to support the priest’s pretensions, he knows how to take the credit. If there be disappointment, he knows how to transfer the responsibility to a malignant star, or to want of faith on the part of his dupe. Nevertheless the priest cannot but be conscious that it is not safe to promise the rendering of worldly ser¬ vice. He therefore takes the earliest opportunity ITS EVOLUTION. 331 to shift his ground. By promising Nirvan, Moksha or salvation he runs no risk whatever. He therefore sets himself to educate the people to value these principalities in Utopia. That seems to be the true origin of the Upanishads and the metaphysics of the ancients. In the primitive stage of agriculture, the powers supposed to be concerned in sending rain to earth receive the largest share of worship. When the priest finds how easy it is to dupe the majority of men, he goes on adding more and more gods to his pantheon, inventing at the same time the most complicated and attractive programmes, so as to win the esteem and confidence of the people, and to make himself a neces¬ sity to them. Nothing comes amiss to him at this stage. Allegorical divinities, the souls of deceased persons, nay, rivers, hot springs, trees, birds, beasts and serpents suffice to serve as the bases of elaborate rites. The votary is called upon to supply not merely butter, mutton, goats, wine and scents, but everything else that might add dignity to, or put a decent veil on, the priest’s opera¬ tions. Some of the things required by him to give cover to his spoliations are quite useless, and withal very difficult to procure. But, as I have already said, wastefulness is inevitable in priestcraft as in the modus operands of the other classes who live by their wits. Neither the priests nor any other class of sharp men can afford to abide by the principles of taxation laid down by Adam Smith. The secular rulers may be called upon to be satisfied with only such sources of revenue as enable them to get almost the whole of what is paid by those who are made liable to the tax. But the priest, the mooktear and the engineer will very seldom hesitate to set their weapons in motion for fear that they might not get more than a fraction of what their victims must lose. The nature-worshipping priests have, in some coun¬ tries, been able to maintain their empire for ages. But 332 THE THEOCRATIC ART. it is simply impossible that they should be allowed to reign unmolested for ever, and, sooner or later, their success leads others to play a bolder game. These autocratic and ambitious teachers generally succeed in giving a rude shock to the fabric built by the nature- worshippers. They claim to be worshipped as gods themselves, and cannot tolerate the practice of according any homage to the dumb material objects and powers. So they proclaim, more or less directly, that men must worship them, and not Indra or Woden, Jupiter or Thor, who might serve as convenient shams in the beginning, but are, like the Bahadoor Shahs and the Wajid Alis, quite useless when the adventurer’s power is completely established. Whether this view of the origin of the man-worshipping religions, and of the process by which they supersede the nature-worshipping cults, be accepted or not, this much at least is established beyond doubt, by the evidence of history, that the former have always followed the latter, and that there is not a single instance in which they have appeared in the contrary order. According to the ideas generally favoured by the modern thinkers, monotheism is the highest develop¬ ment that religion is capable of. This view is quite natural in those who are more conversant with Chris¬ tianity and Mahomedanism than with any of the other religions. The Mahomedans never take the trouble to study other religions, and Europeans are placed amidst such surroundings, that, with all their inquisi¬ tiveness and industry, it is well-nigh impossible for them to make an accurate estimate of the several systems, or to arrive at a correct determination regard¬ ing their relative position. Europe knows only one form of faith, and that cult is an exotic plant so stunted and dwarfed by the Lutheran Reformation, that it has never found scope for developing all its potentialities. Europe is, in fact, no more the place for the study of reli¬ gions than the desert of Sahara is for the study of botany. ITS EVOLUTION. 333 The evidence afforded by history goes very far to prove that monotheism is only the usual appendage of the man-worshipping religions. The apostle of monotheism says :—“ There is but one God and I am his viceroy.” On the supposition that such preach¬ ing is not based upon genuine revelation, it must be admitted to have for its object the creation of a strict monopoly. The truth seems to be that mono¬ theism is no more an advanced idea in theology than the absolute monarchies set up by Julius Cassar and Cromwell were institutions in advance of the lloman Senate, and the British Long Parliament. In our experience of every-day life, we see that when too much power is acquired by any individual, its abuse is inevitable, and priestly power is no exception to the rule. The success with which the nature-worship- ping and the man-worshipping priests are able to ply their trade, emboldens some adventurers to play still more daring games, and to inculcate the worship of such abominations as enable them to create every possible opportunity for gratifying their depraved lust by corrupting the morals of their dupes. The cults in¬ vented by them are, generally speaking, of very recent origin, and cannot but be taken to be the highest deve¬ lopments that the theocratic art is capable of. From what is stated above, it will appear that the usual transition of all religions is from nature-worship to man-worship, and from man-worship to abomination- worship. In India all these forms of faith are to be found in the living condition. In Europe nature- worship has been since long suppressed altogether, and the Lutheran Reformation, combined with the common sense of the laity, has smothered the inevitable ten¬ dency to abomination-worship. Perhaps it was rendered unnecessary by the confessional rites of the Roman Catholic Church. But the fact of there having been such tendencies even in Europe is abundantly proved 334 THE THEOCRATIC ART. by history. Perhaps no class of priests have been more prone to abuse their power than the Popes and their lieutenants. In speaking of the See of liome Macau¬ lay says : During the generation which preceded the Reformation that Court had been a scandal to the Christian name. Its annals are black with treason, murder and incest. Even its more respectable members were utterly unlit to be ministers of religion. Their years glided by in a soft dream of sensual and intellectual voluptuousness. Choice cookery, delicious wines, lovely women, hounds, falcons, horses, newly-discovered manuscripts of the classics and burlesque romances in the sweetest Tuscan, just as licentious as a fine sense of the graceful would permit, these things were the delight and even the serious business of their lives. * * * * When these circumstances, and the history of such early sects as the Marcionites and the Carpocratians* are taken into consideration, it seems that Europe has had a very narrow escape from abomination-worship of the aggravated type with which we are unfortunately too familiar in this country. However that may be, the existence of the abomination-worshipping sects in the world cannot be ignored, and, if their origin and history be studied, it would appear that they have, in all cases, followed the man-worshipping cults, as they must do on the hypothesis that the religions have had their origin in human policy. See Gibbons’ Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. CHAP III.—THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. The religious systems existing in the world can be classified in various ways, in accordance with different principles. From the point of view of their usual course of evolution, they are, as stated in the last chapter, capable of being divided into the following classes :— 1 . fl. Demon-worship Nature-worship (includ¬ ing the worship of al¬ legorical divinities, trees, rivers, hot springs, birds, beasts, &c.). Man-worship (a) Relighois inculcating the worship of an imaginary god of such a type as to dispose men to worship of the mendicant beggars. (b) Religions inculcating the worship of some great teachers believed to have attained a higher 2. condition than that of the gods, by austerities or any other means. (c) Religions inculcating the worship of some great men believed to be the agents of the Most High. (d) Religions inculcating the worship of an ancient hero as a god, or an incarnation of a god. 1.3. Idea-worship Found chiefly among savages. Found chiefly among the agricultural nations of primitive times. Found in almost every civilized country. The Siva-worshipping religion is of this class, though there is in it an element of abomi¬ nation-worship. Buddhism and Jainism. Christianity, Mahome- danism and Sikhism. Ram-worship, Krishna- worship. Found among cultured people in civilized countries. ( 335 ) 336 CLASSIFICATION OF RELIGIONS. 4. Abomination-worship Found only in countries that have an ancie'.r, . civilization combined with the ignorance if the masses. 5. Mixed religions. Viewing the religions in connection with their infl"- O a ence on the morality of men, they fall under the following groups :— 1. Religions having little or nothing to do with the preach¬ ing of morality. 2. Religions encouraging chiefly pure morality according to the lights of their teachers. 3. Religions encouraging immorality more or less, while inculcating some morality also. 4. Religions directly inculcating the grossest immoralities. 5. Religions indirectly encouraging immorality. Looked at from the point of view of the services which the priests offer to perform, their faiths may be classified as follows :— - 1. Tangible-service-promising religions. 2. Intangible-service-promising religions. 3. Mischief-making religions. Looked at from the point of view of the subsiders and services claimed by the priests, the religions may be classified as follows :— { Almost all the ancient religions are of this character, and favour indirect taxation. 2. Religions demanding the / Most of the man-worsli i - building of monasteriesJ ping and abominatin' - and temples in addition - ! worshipping religions are to other votive offerings. [ of this character. 3. Mere alms-taking religions. These may be said to fa¬ vour direct taxation. { The religions of the Malo- medans, the Sikhs, and the Nagas are more or less of this character., Looked at from the point of view of church govern¬ ment, the religions may be grouped in many different ways, as, for instance, the following :— 1. Aristocratic religions, of which the ministers are heredi¬ tary priests. 2. Republican religions, of which The ministers are ordaini became followers of Chaitanya, with the view apparent! of being re-admitted into Hindu society. Haridas was a poor Mahomedan who had suffered much by hi heresy, and whom Chaitanya had to keep near him a all times for the purpose of protecting him from the persecutions of his co-religionists. To avoid offendinj. the prejudices of his other followers, he kept Harida at a slight distance. But there are various incidents in the life of Chaitanya which prove conclusively that he dearly loved the Yavana. At the presens time, the Chaitanite teachers are never found to minister to any Mahomedan. But they do not den- the benefit of their services to any of the low caste that can pay them adequately. Even Chamars, Doms, Bauris and Bagdis are sometimes admitted within thei 1 fold. Such action on their part may by some b regarded as evidence of a liberal spirit. But the sam view cannot certainly be taken of their enrolling th unfortunates of the towns among their spiritual con stituents. Among the Chaitanites, as among almost all the othe sects, there are both mendicants and regular house holders. The leading men among the Chaitanite householders are the descendants of the immediat disciples and apostles of the prophet. They are looked down upon by the aristocratic Hindus a persons who live by trading on the rejected element of pure Brahmanism. But some of them have almost princely incomes from the contributions of their disciple^ and the emoluments of the shrines of which they are chaitanya’s collaborateurs. 465 owners. The majority of the Gossains of Nadiya : i descendants of the father of Yishnupria, the second if© of Chaitanya. These so-called Gossains are not i i, onised as such in any authoritative work of the and in fact they are Sakta Brahmans partially rted to the Chaitanite faith on account of its lucra- ■ ess, but yet conducting themselves now and then as worshippers, except when taking their parts in ;rvice of the great Chaitanite shrine, of which they ar the hereditary proprietors. Among the followers of Chaitanya, the highest positions were held by Adwaita an Mityananda. They were called the two Prabhus or Lords, while Chaitanya himself was called the Maha Prabhu or the Great Lord. Adwaita was a Barendra Brahman of Santipore, where a large number of his descendants are still living. Nityananda was a Brah¬ man of Rarhiya clan. He was a native of the district ot Birbhoom, and was, it seems, a Nimat Yaishnava of the school of Jayadev, who had his head-quarters in the villages of Kenduvilla, in the same district. It •was perhaps Nityanand’s influence that made Chaitanya a Radha-worshipping Yishnuvite. Nityanand’s de¬ scendants are to be found chiefly in Calcutta and in a village called Khardaha, near Rarrackpore. Next to that of the two Prabhus mentioned above, there was a ade which consisted of six members called Gossains. lese were not all Brahmans. But their descendants are highly revered. Among the so-called mendicants (Yairagis) of the l lhaitanite sect, there are both males and females. The males are called Babaji, and the females Mataji. The number of real ascetics among them is very small, if not actually nil. The majority of the Babajis and the Matajis openly live as husbands and wives, the only difference being that the former dress like ascetics, and the latter like widows. Some of the Babajis pretend to be Brikat, or men disgusted with the world. But these are generally the men who are most notorious for orofligacy. They b, hc 30 466 THE CHAITANITES. live in monasteries, and affect such hatred of the female class that they cook their food with their own hands, and do not allow any member of the softer sex to enter their kitchens. But the vow of celibacy is against nature, and it need hardly be observed that very few are able to maintain it. The Chaitanites are teetotalers and very inoffensive people. The poorer among the mendicants live by begging a handful of rice from door to door. There are a few among the ascetics who have rich disciples, and have incomes on which they can manage to live decently. These men spend a large part of what they earn in building and improving monasteries, and in feeding pilgrims. Sometimes they happen to have very rich men among their guests, and these not un- often make very liberal contributions to their monas¬ teries. In Nadiya, the birthplace of Ghaitanya, there are several very flourishing monasteries where the Vish- nuvite pilgrims and sojourners are treated as honoured guests, and provided with both food and shelter. The Superiors of these establishments have a very high position in their sect, though the alien rulers of the country have been led somehow to treat them as lodging house-keepers, and to subject them to a tax as such. The humiliation is felt by them very keenly, and it is much to be regretted that these leading Divines of one of the most important sects in India should be so treated for a paltry revenue of about £40 per annum. The majority of the Chaitanite Babajis are of the clean Sudra castes, the Kayasthas among them having generally the highest position, however much they may profess equality. The male element of the monastic orders consist to some extent of childless persons and persons who have suffered such bereavements as to make their life a burden to them. These are generally the most respectable members in their community. There are among them many bad characters too. If proper enquiries be made, it may appear that they have in their THEIR DRESS AND HABITS. 467 society many ex-convicts, criminals who have eluded the pursuit of the police, and persons who have been excommunicated by their castemen for unholy love- making. The ranks of the Chaitanites, as of many other sects, are swelled also by bachelors and widowers unable to get a bride for marriage in orthodox form. The Chaitanite nuns are recruited chiefly from the superannuated unfortunates of the towns. The order is joined also by some of the unchaste widows of the lower classes. The dress of the Chaitanite monks consists of the usual lenguti and girdle, with a bahir las or outer garment, which is a piece of cotton cloth without border and about two yards in length. The baliir has is sometimes dyed yellow by means of turmeric. But generally the garments of the Chaitanite monks are of white colour. Their dress, however, does not give to them the respect¬ able appearance that is imparted by the red garments of the Sankarite Dandis and Parama Hansas. The Chaitanites have great regard for the basil plant, and not only are their necklaces and rosaries made of basil beads, but they eat basil leaves with every article of food and drink. The Chaitanites paint their foreheads, in different manners, according to the directions of their teachers. There are always the usual perpendicular lines of the Vishnuvite. But at the bottom there is something like a bamboo leaf or basil leaf. The usual ipainting mate¬ rial is the faint yellow of Gopi Chandan. The Chaita¬ nites paint not only their foreheads, but several other parts of their body. They do not brand themselves like the Ramanujites or the Madhavites. But by means of engraved metallic stamps immersed in a solution of Gopi Chandan, they imprint daily on their arms and breasts the names of their deities. By such odd demonstrations of their devoutness, and especially by painting the name “ Gora ” on their ■arms and body, they make themselves the butt of a 468 CHAITANYA AS A PROPHET. great deal of ridicule. The word Gora is a corrupted form of the Sanskrit word “ goura,” which means yellow, and is not only one of the many names of Chaitanya, but is applied also to the English soldiers of the British Indian Army, as contra-distinguished from the Kala or the black sepoy soldiers. From this double sense of the word Gora, the point of the joke that is usually cracked, at the cost of a painted Chaitanite, may be easily understood. As the High¬ land regiments are called Nangta Gora in India, a Brahman wag would ask the Babaji to paint that ex¬ pression on his body, instead of having on it the word Gora alone unqualified by the adjective Nangta or naked. Of all the great teachers of the world no one has done more to popularize religion than Chaitanya. As, on the one hand, a Chaitanite teacher need not either be a scholar or an eloquent speaker, so, on the other, anybody may at any time, and at any place, practise the cult. The operation is simplicity itself. The devout Chaitanite need not have a priest by his side for performing his worship. He has only to paint his body and to count his beads. The business does not require any elaborate preparation, or knowledge of Sanskrit liturgy. The painting materials and the rosary of the Chaitanite are all his stock-in-trade, and these are so cheap and so handy that the poorest can afford to have them by his side at all times. The most potent engine invented by Chaitanya for spreading his religion is the musical procession called Sankirtan. The Hindu temples are places for silently offering flowers, money and other acceptable presents to the presiding deities. In no Hindu town is there any such place as a Christian church, or a Mahomedan mosque, where a priest might deliver a sermon. Then, again, to attract an audience by an impressive speech requires a kind of power which is very rare. But a Sankirtan party for patrolling the streets may be organised without any difficulty, and HIS TEACHINGS. 469 is generally far more effective than a sermon, however eloquent. Chaitanya’s object, like that of Buddha, was to attract an army of followers anyhow. But the prophet of Nadiya adopted a method which was far better calculated to serve his purpose than that of any other religious leader, ancient or modern. Buddha neglected the laity, and preached a religion which was very far from being intelligible to ordinary men. Chaitanya taught that Bhakti, or fervent devotion, was the only road towards God, and that Bhakti was of the following kinds :— 1. The devotion of a servant to his master. 2. Do. friend to a friend. 3. Do. parent to a child. 4. Do. lady to her lover. Chaitanya recommended Radha worship, and taught that the best form of devotion was that which Radha, as the beloved mistress of Krishna, felt for him. Chaitanya’s cult is therefore called the Bhakti marga, or the road of fervent devotion, as contra-distinguished from th ■ Jnan marga of the learned Sanskritists, the Yoga marga of the poor illiterate Yogis, the Karma marga of the priestly Brahmans, and the Pushni * marga of the Ballavites. To persons incapable of cherishing such feelings, Chai¬ tanya recommended the repeated utterance of the names of Krishna and Radha. Such practice gives an occupa¬ tion to votaries not inclined to think or work hard, and enables them to obtain a high character for piety at a very little cost. The most important feature in Chaitanya’s cult is the rejection of esoteric methods. The great Vislmuvite prophet of Bengal does not ask his followers to conceal anything, or to pretend to be what they are not. In these respects the Chaitanite cult differs very materially from the T'.ntric faith. Before the time of Chaitanya, Mathura was the chief centre of Krishna worship, and Brindavan, the scene * See p. 458, ante. 470 chaitanya’s religion. of Krishna’s flirtations with the milk-maids, was actually a forest. Chaitanya, with his followers Rup and Sanatan, not only reclaimed that place, but after identifying the sacred spots in it which are specially named in the Purans, caused those big shrines to be built which formed the nucleus for the town that the place has now developed into. In the birthplace of Chaitanya, a temple for worship¬ ping his image was set up, it is said, in his lifetime, by his second wife, Vishnu Priya Devi. The temple itself was washed away, at the end of the last century, by the ad¬ joining river Bhagirathi. But the image had perhaps become valuable property, and was preserved by the de¬ scendants of Vishnu Priya’s father, although they were then staunch Saktas. During the palmy days of the Sakta Rajas of Nadiya, the idol had, however, to be kept concealed. But when the celebrated Ganga Govind Sing became, by the favour of Hastings, the most powerful man in the country, he successfully prevented the Nadiya Rajas from persecuting the Chaitanites. A splendid shrine was built for the old image which had been, for a long time, kept concealed by the Gossains. Other shrines sprang up rapidly, and the Chaitanites are now about to be numerically the predominating element in the population of Nadiya. Ganga Govind himself built some splendid temples in the suburban village of Ram Chandrapore to the north-west of the present town. But these temples were washed away by the Bhagirathi in the time of Lala Babu, the grandson of Ganga Govinda. Lala Babu made himself famous by becoming a Chaitanite mendicant. But instead of attempting to build new temples in or near Nadiya, he adopted the more ambitious programme of making Brindavan his head-quarters. He built a magnificent temple there, and, by affecting a zeal for restoring to the locality its primeval condition, he managed to acquire, free of charge, almost all the villages which formed the scene of Krishna’s sports. Nadiya has since then been ITS FLOURISHING CONDITION. 471 neglected by the descendants of Ganga Govind. But, even without their patronage, the Chaitanite cult is now, under the aegis of British rule, flourishing in its birth¬ place. The saying that a prophet is never honoured in his own country enshrines an eternal truth, although it sounds somewhat paradoxical. But it is only a parti¬ cular case of the obvious truth embodied in the adage which says that no man can be a hero to his valet de chambre. Nearly four hundred years have passed since Chaitanya left Nadiya for good. His highest ambition at that time was, according to his biographers, to make himself entitled to be treated with respect by the- Brahmans of his native town. The Nadiya people, from generation to generation, continued to hate him. But just now there is a turn in the tide. The large incomes cleared by the owners of the Chaitanite shrines, have opened the eyes of the Sakta Brahmans of the town to the advantages of the new cult, and already a good many of them are to be found with necklaces of basil wood on their necks to denote that they are Chaitanites in faith. Some of these new converts have already opened Chaitanite shrines, and if these become successful, as they now promise to be, there are likely to be more converts and more Chaitanite shrines. If the great prophet could now visit his birthplace, he might not yet receive that homage from his fellow-castemen which was the highest object of his ambition at the beginning of his ministry. But what he would find would far exceed his most sanguine expectations. The sect that he organised has developed into a gigantic body whicli threatens to throw into shade the representa¬ tives of his old enemies, if not to make them all humble followers. CHAP. XII.—THE SWAMI NARAYAN SECT OF GUJRAT. The Swami Narayan sect, which is fast gaining ground in Gujrat, was founded by a Brahman of Rohil- khand, who was apparently a Sankarite ascetic in his youth. His monastic name was Sahajanand, but he is now known by the name of Swami Narayan, which he took up when he set himself up as a Vishnuvite teacher. He left his home in the year 1800, and, in the course of his peregrinations, repaired to Gujrat, with the object apparently of visiting the places of pilgrimage in the province. While there, he was led to place himself under a Guru, named Ramanand Swami, with whom he resided for some time in Junagarh, and afterwards at Ahmedabad. At the latter place, Sahajanand, by his learning and fascinating manners, drew round him¬ self such a large army of disciples as to excite the jealousy of the local Brahmans and magnates. To avoid being persecuted by them, he removed to the vil¬ lage of Jetalpur, twelve miles to the south of Ahmeda¬ bad. Even here he was not allowed to remain in peace. Gn the pretence that there might be a collision between his followers and the other Hindus of the locality, he was arrested by the officials of the Gaikwar and thrown into prison. This unjust and cruel treatment roused popular sympathy in his favour, and served only to increase his influence. Verses were published extolling his merits, and pronouncing curses against his persecu¬ tors. The result was that they were before long obliged ( 472 ) THE SWAMI NARAYAN SECT. 473 to release him. Thereupon he retired with his followers to Wartal, then a small village, now a town, in the Kaira District of the Bombay Presidency. He had now arrived at the stage in his prophetic career, when it was necessary for him to build some temples and convents for giving a local habitation and footing to his cult. His popularity and fame were then at their height, and there could not be any difficulty in raising the neces¬ sary funds. The religion of Swami Narayan is a mixture of Laksmi worship and Radha worship, as would appear from the fact that of his two principal temples at Wartal, one is dedicated to Narayan and Laksmi, and the other to Radha and Krishna. The worship of Krishna, in his character of Ranchor or fight-quitter, being very common in Gujrat, an image of the deity, re¬ presenting the part that he played in quitting Mathura is associated with those of Laksmi and Narayan in the principal shrine. An image of Swami Narayan himself is similarly associated with those of Krishna and Radha in the second temple. The town of Ahmed- abad has also similar shrines of the Swami sect. In the Vallabhite sect, the Swami had very powerful enemies to deal with. Their power was so firmly established that it was no easy work to oust them, or even to attain a position of rivalry by their side. The Swami, therefore, proceeded very cautiously, and the same spirit still characterises not only his repre¬ sentatives at Wartal and Ahmedabad, but also his monks. The result is that though the Yallabhacharis have not yet lost much of the ground appropriated by them, and are yet in full possession of the middle classes, including the Baniyas, the Kunbis, the Ahirs and the Kayasths, yet the superior morality of the Swami Nara¬ yan has seriously undermined the power of the Maha¬ rajas, and there are signs that their influence is waning. The Swami Narayan sect is, on the contrary, in the full vigour of youthful growth. The middle classes 474 heber’s account of swami narayan. being in the possession of the Vallabhites, the Swami, from the necessity of his position, was obliged to admit to his faith the low castes such as the Dhobi, the Mochi, the Darzi and the Napit, who were rejected by the Vallabhites. But the Swami did not, on that account, fall very low in the estimation of his country¬ men. He maintained his dignity by keeping the un¬ clean castes at arm’s length, and by ordaining that nowhere, except in Jagannath, shall cooked food or water be accepted from them, though it be the remains of an offering to Krishna. Thus, while the Swami secured for his sect the adhesion of the low castes, he succeeded in maintaining for it a character for re¬ spectability that rendered it possible to attract followers from even the highest castes. The total strength of the sect is at present about 200,000 souls. But the rule being that every person admitted to it should try to bring in at least six others, its number is fast increasing. As in almost every other Hindu sect, there are among the followers of Swami two classes of men, namely, men¬ dicants and householders. The number of mendicants exceeds 1,000. They are bound by their vows to live a life of celibacy. They serve as missionaries, and, in their proselytizing work, usually itinerate in pairs to cheer, support and watch each other. While at head-quarters they live in the convents attached to their shrines. They have a regular manual of instructions and moral pre¬ cepts which they distribute among the people in the manner of the Christian missionaries. The Swami Narayanis are required to wear two rosaries made of basil stems, one for Krishna and the other for Radha. The forehead mark of the sect is like the letter U with a circular spot in the centre representing Teeka.. The females have to paint a circular mark with red powder of saffron. The mendicants of the sect wear the salmon-coloured dress of ascetics. Bishop Heber, in the course of one of his tours in Western India, had an interview with Swami Narayan, BISHOP HEBEIl’s ACCOUNT OF SWAMI. 475 and the following is an extract from the interesting account that he has left of it : — About eleven o’clock, I liad the expected visit from Svami-Nara- yana. The holy man was a middle-sized, thin, plain-lookin'; person, about my own age, with a mild and diffident expression of counte¬ nance, but nothing about him indicative of any extraordinary talent. He came in somewhat different style from all I had expected, having with him nearly two hundred horsemen. When I considered that I had myself an escort of more than fifty horse I could not help smiling, though my sensations were in some degree painful and humi¬ liating at the idea of two religious teachers meeting at the head of little armies, and filling the city which was the scene of this inter¬ view with the rattling of quivers, the clash of shields, and the tramp of the war-horse. Had our troops been opposed to each other, mine, though less numerous, would have been doubtless far more effective, from the superiority of arms and discipline. But in moral grandeur what a difference there was between his troops and mine ! Mine neither knew me nor cared for me, though they escorted me faith¬ fully. The guards of Svami-Narayana were his own disciples and enthusiastic admirers, men who had voluntarily repaired to hear his lessons, who now took a pride in doing him honour, and who would cheerfully fight to the last drop of blood rather than suffer a fringe of his garment to be handled roughly. In my own parish of Hod- net there were once, perhaps, a few honest countrymen who felt something like this for me, but how long a time must elapse before a Christian Minister in India can hope to be thus loved and honoured ? —Chap. XXV. CHAP. XIII—MIRA BAI. The name of Mira Bai is highly revered among the Yishnuvites of Western India, and especially among the Vallabhites. She cannot be said to have been the founder of any sect. But the author of the Bhakt.a Mala , or biographical sketches of the Yishnuvite saints, gives a very prominent place to her in his book, and connects with her name a large number of legends of a more or less miraculous character. The following account of her life is taken from Wilson’s Hindu Sects :— Mira was the daughter of a petty Raja, the sovereign of a place called Merta; she was married to the Rana of Udayapur, but soon after being taken home by him, quarrelled with her motlier-in-law, a worshipper of Devi, respecting compliance with the family adora¬ tion of that goddess, and was, in consequence of her persevering refusal to desert the worship of Krishna, expelled the Rana’s bed and palace : she appears to have been treated, however, with consi¬ deration, and to have been allowed an independent establishment, owing, probably, rather to the respect paid to her abilities, than a notion of her personal sanctity, although the latter was attested, if we may believe our guides, by her drinking unhesitatingly a draught of poison presented to her by her husband, and without its having the power to do her harm. In her uncontrolled station, she adopted the worship of Ranachhor, a form of the youthful Krishna ; she became the patroness of the vagrant Vaishnavas, and visited, in pilgrimage, Brindaban and Dwaraka. Whilst at the latter, some per¬ secution of the Vaishnavas, at Udayapur, appears to have been insti tuted, and Brahmans were sent to bring her home from Dwaraka ; previously to departing, she visited the temple of her tutelary deity, to take leave of him, when, on the completion of her adorations, the image opened, and Mira leaping into the fissure, it closed, and she finally disappeared. In memory of this miracle it is said, that the image of Mira Bai is worshipped at Udayapur, in conjunction with that of Ranachhor. The Padas that induced this marvel, and which are current as the compositions of Mira Bai are the two following:— Pada 1.—Oh, Sovereign Ranachhor, give me to make Dwaraka my abode : with thy shell, discus, mace, and lotus, dispel the fear of ( 476 ; MIRA BAI. 477 Yama : eternal rest is visiting thy sacred shrines ; supreme delight is the clash of thy shell and cymbals : I have abandoned my love, my possessions, my principality, my husband. Mira, thy servant, comes to thee for refuge : oh, take her wholly to thee. Pada 2.—If thou knowest me free from stain, so accept me : save thee, there is none other that will show me compassion : do thou, then, have mercy on me : let not weariness, hunger, anxiety, and restlessness, consume this frame with momentary decay. Lord of Mira, Girdhara her beloved, accept her, and never let her be separated from thee. There may be a substratum of truth in the account of Mira’s life summarised in the above. But as the greater part of it is well calculated to make the inmates of roval zenanas unduly favourable towards the Vishnu- vite religion and the Yisbnuvite mendicants, the mira¬ culous features of the story cannot but be attributed to the inventive genius of some clever Krishna-worshipping monks. It involves a phase of clerical politics which is well worth studying. To the sharp man nothing is impossible. His ambition knows no bounds, and of him it may be truly said that Stone walls do not a prison make, Nor iron bars a cage. The Ranas of Udaipore should have given an em¬ phatic denial to the whole story. But the bait of re¬ flected glory was made too alluring, and they could not avoid falling into the trap. CHAP. XIV.—THE MAHAPURUSHIA SECT OF ASSAM. The Mahapurushia is the most important of the Yishnuvite sects in Upper Assam. It was founded by a Kayastha bearing the name of Sankar Dev. It is said that his father was a native of Upper India, and that he himself was born at a place called Alipukhori in Assam in the year 1448 A.D. He received a sound education in Sanskrit in his boyhood, and, in the course of his peregrinations as a pilgrim, is said to have visited Nadiya, and to have been initiated in the Vaishnava faith there by Chaitanya. Sankara wrote some original works on the Vaishnava faith, besides translating into Assamese the Bhagavat and some other important Vishnuvite Purans. In Assam there are several monasteries appertaining to the sect. These are called Satra, and are usually presided over by a Supe¬ rior of the Kalita caste. The most important parts of a Satra are the Nam Ghar and the Bhaona Ghar. The Nam Ghar is the chapel where the followers of ^the faith meet together for recitations and songs involving frequent mentions of the several names of Vishnu. Sankara was opposed to idolatry. But in the Nam Ghar there is always a copy of the Bhagavat enthroned on a dais. Every Satra has also, among its objects of worship, a block of stone with the footprint of Sankara engraved thereon. The followers of the faith reverentially offer their adoration to these footprints. The Bhaona Ghar corresponds to the Nat Mandir or ( 478 ) THE MAHAPURUSHIAS OF ASSAM. 479 dancing-hall of the Hindu shrines in Bengal. Sankar wrote some dramatic works of a religious nature, and the Bhaona Ghar serves the purpose of theatres for exhibiting these. The most important of the Satras are at Bardowa, in the District of Nowgong, and at Barpeta in the District of Gowhati. The mendicants of the Mahapurushia sect are called Ivevalia. For the accommodation of these there are large convents attached to most of the Satras. Female devotees are allowed to live in the Satras, but are not allowed to mix with the other sex at the time of worship. The tombs of Sankar Deva and his principal disciple, Madhav Deva, are to be found in the Barpeta Satra. PART V. THE SEMI-VISHNUVITE AND GURU- WORSIIIPPING SECTS. CHAP. I.—THE DISREPUTABLE CHAITANITE SECTS OF BENGAL. From what has been already said about the Chaita- nite sect, it would appear that its respectable members are of the following classes :— 1. The Gossains, who are the descendants of the disciples of Chaitanya. 2. The Yrikats, who are celibates. 3. The lay followers of the faith. The position of the lay followers depends upon their secular condition and caste status, and the fact of then- professing the Chaitanite faith does not elevate or lower them in public estimation. The Gossains, who are Brahmans, are generally looked down upon by the non- Chaitanites on account of their being in the habit of administering the sacrament of the mantra to the low castes, and accepting their hospitality. The aristocratic Brahmans generally avoid eating any cooked food in the house of a Chaitanite Brahman. But alliances by marriage between the two classes take place very fre¬ quently, and the Gossains have, generally speaking, a respectable position in Hindu society. They dress and live like householders. ( 480 ) THE SPASHTA DAYAKAS. 481 The majority of the Vrikats are men of the clean Sudra castes. They are bound to a life of celibacy, and, theoretically at least, they hate female society to such an extent that they cannot allow a woman to cook their food. They are mostly cenobites, living in monas¬ teries which are supported by their disciples, and by the lay members of their sect. Very few of them have to beg for food from door to door. Some of them have a little education, and pass some portion of their time in studying the religious literature of their sect, and in giving recitations which are attended by their co¬ religionists in the neighbourhood. The majority of them are quite illiterate, and fritter away their time in a wearv round of ablutions, body painting and counting of I leads. They have a peculiar but not very graceful uniform. Their position in their sect is very high, but in Hindu society generally they are looked down upon, more or less, as charlatans. Besides the Vrikats, who never marry, and do not admit having any connection with any female, there are some classes of Chaitanites who dress and make then- toilet like monks, but have some females regularly and openly associated with them. All these have, generally speaking, a very low position in society. They are divided into the following classes:— 1. Sanjogi. 3. Sahajia. 2. Spashta Dayaka. 4. Nara. 5. Haul. . Sanjogis. — The Sanjogis, as their name implies, are married men. They live, work and dress like householders. They are mostly descended from the unfortunates of the towns. ' Spashta Dagakas .—The Spashta Dayakas are a semi¬ monastic order. They assume the garb of mendicants. But their monks and nuns live together in the same monastery, and it is hardly necessary to say what their mutual relationship is understood to be. It is only the low castes that get themselves admitted to the order. 31 B, HC 482 THE DISREPUTABLE SECTS. The so-called monks of this sect may be recognised at once by the single string of basil bead necklace which they wear. The nuns of the sect shave their heads clean, with only a tuft in the centre. The forehead mark of the Spashta Dayaka is slightly smaller than that of the other Chaitanites. The Spashta Dayaka monks and nuns openly join together in dancing and singing. The Sahajias .—The Sahajias represent the most developed form of Radha worship. They inculcate that every man is Krishna, and that every woman is Radha. They also profess that no man or woman need be attached to a single Guru. The result of these doctrines is the utter absence of any bar to promiscuous inter¬ course, and the full play of the inclinations and impulses of the parties. Nara Neri .—The Kara Neris are very low class Chaitanites. A Nara is a male ; and a Neri is his female associate. Their peculiarity is that the husband and wife sing and beg together, and not separately. They generally wear a coat of Kantha or rags patched together. The following is a translation of a Bengali song giving a very comic description of the duties of the female associate :— If you want Gour, you must be prepared to carry on your shoulder my Kantha (bed sheet of rags.) You must carry my Kantha and accompany me in my eleemosy. nary tours. You must sleep at night under the shade of some tree, and prepare every now and then my pipe of hemp. If you want Gour, you must carry on your shoulders my Kantha. In the original the song is very amusing. The Bauls .— The name of this sect is derived from the Sanskrit word “ Batul,” which means a madman. The Bauls are low class men, and make it a point to appear as dirty as possible. They have a regular uni¬ form, which consists of a cone-shaped skull cap and a long jacket of dirty rags patched together, extending from the shoulders to the lower parts of the legs. Not THE BAULS. 483 only their dress, but their musical instruments, their dancing, and their songs are all characterised by a kind of queerness which makes them very amusing. The quaint allegories and the rustic philosophy of their songs are highly appreciated by the low classes. Their exhibitions are upon the whole so en joyable that, in most of the important towns of Bengal, amateur parties of Bauls have been organised who cause great merriment, on festive occasions, by their mimicry. The Bauls are spoken of as Vaishnavas ; but, pro¬ perly speaking, they are a godless sect. They do not worship any idols, and, on that account, their religion may be regarded as a very advanced one. But accord¬ ing to their tenets, sexual indulgence is the most approved form of religious exercise, and it is said that they have been known to drink a solution made from human excretions. The moral condition of these and some of the other sects, such as the Karta Bhajas, Margis, Bija Margis, Paltu Dasis, Apapanthis and the Satnamis, is deplorable indeed, and the more so as there is no sign of any effort in any quarter to rescue them. Aristocratic Brahmanism can only punish them by keeping them excluded from the pale of humanity. The modern religions can afford to give them better treat¬ ment. But they seem to be considered as too low or incorrigible by even the proselytising religions. If the Chaitanite Gossains, Christian Missionaries or Maho- medan Mullas could reclaim these they would be entitled to the everlasting gratitude of mankind. /./ . 7 / CHAP. II.—THE DISREPUTABLE VISHNUVITE SECTS OF UPPER INDIA. § 1.— The Radha Ballabliis. It has been seen already that the earlier Krishna- worshipping sects associated with him his married wives, and that they do not even now offer any adora¬ tion to his mistress Radha. The neglect of the worship of Lakshmi, and the adoration of Radha as the consort of Krishna, originated probably in the fifteenth century, and it seems that it was either Nimbaditya or Chaitanya who introduced it. The Radha Ballabhi sect, which gives greater importance to the worship of Radha than to that of Krishna himself, was founded, it is said, by one Hari Vans, who lived at the end of the sixteenth century. Some say that the Radha Ballabhi is a sub-sect of the Vallavabites. The Radha Yallabhis have their head-quarters in Vrindaban. Radha Yallabhite Gossains and shrines are to be found in every part of Upper India. § 2.— The Sdkhi Bhavas. The Sakhi Bhava sect acquired some importance about half a century ago, and at that time included in it a few of the best men of the country. But it seems to be now nearly extinct. Its members were taught to regard themselves as Sakhis or the female companions of Radha, and, in order to approach that character to the utmost extent possible, some of the Sakhi Bhavas went the length of assuming the female dress and wearing female ornaments. They also feigned some physical conditions which are possible only to women. ( 484 ) CHAP. III.—THE DISREPUTABLE GURU¬ WORSHIPPING SECTS OF BENGAL. § 1.— The Kartabliajas. The word Karta literally means a “doer.” In the vernacular of Bengal it is used as the designation of the executive head of a joint family. The expression Kartabhaja may be translated into English as the “ adorers of the headman.” The Kartabhaja sect is the most important of the class that may be called as Guru-worshippers in Bengal. It was founded by a man of the Sadgopa caste, named Ram Sarana Pal, who was an inhabitant of the village of Ghoshpara, in the vicinity of the Kanchrapara Station of the Eastern Bengal Railway. Like most of the other latter-day prophets, he professed to have derived his powers from an invisible teacher. The Aulia Gossain, whom he acknowledged as the source of his inspiration, was in all probability a pure myth, invented by him for being better able to impress upon his followers the importance of having a Guru. After Ram Saran’s death, he was succeeded by his widow, generally known by the name of Sachi Mayi. After her death the c/addi, of the Guru was occupied by his son Ram Dulal Pal, and he was succeeded by his son Ishwar Pal. The sect seems to be still flourishing as in the time of the original founder. Like most other sect founders, Ram Saran was a man of great originality. To be ready with a pretext for exacting money from his followers, he declared that ( 485 ) 486 THE KARTABHAJAS. lie was the proprietor of every human body, and that he was entitled to claim rent from every human being for allowing his soul to occupy his body. The idea is very similar to that involved in the Mahratta claim of chouth, and has, though on a much smaller scale, served very similar purposes. To enforce his right, and to give a pecuniary interest to his followers, the Karta appoints the chief men among the latter as his bailiffs and agents for collecting his revenue. The majority of the dupes of the sect are women who readily pay the small tax that is demanded of them, for the sake of securing long life to their husbands and children. Each agent of the Karta is generally on very intimate terms with a childless and friendless widow in the village or group of villages entrusted to his charge, and through the instrumentality of this woman he is able to hold secret meetings which are attended by all the female votaries within his jurisdic¬ tion, and in which he plays the part of Krishna. The agents of the Karta are required to pay over their collections to him, at a grand levee held by him at his family residence in the month of March. At this time the Karta performs the most astounding miracles. Leprosy, blindness, deafness and every kind of malady which the medical science deems as incur¬ able, are said to be cured by the Guru of the Kartabhajas in the course of a few moments. When a very large number of persons are interested in propping up a myth, it is no wonder that it should find ready believers. To give to the reader an idea of the process by which miracles are achieved by the Karta, I may relate here what I once heard about the experiences of a blind man at one of the annual levees at Ghosbpara. The crowd was great, but somehow he managed to elbow his way through it, and to bring his case to the notice of the Karta. Quite suddenly he was seized by some attend¬ ants, and taken to the side of a tank within the premises. He was there laid on the ground, and, while THE KARTABHAJAS. 487 holding him fast to it, some of them commenced to rub the sockets of his eyes with sand, in the most violent manner. While the process was going on, they vociferously enquired every now and then whether his eyesight was restored or not. Finding no other way of escape from the excruciating torture to which he was being subjected, the man, after a while, gave an answer in the affirmative, and then there was a shout of “ Sachi Mayi-ki-Jai,” which resounded through the whole village. He was made to bathe in the tank for washing away the sand, and being clad in a new dliooti he was given something like the honour of a Roman triumph. He was borne aloft on the air, and taken through the crowd with the same vociferous shouts, and the same declarations to the effect that the blind i man was restored his eyesight through the mercy of Sachi Mayi. After this advertisement of the miracle, the subject of it was deported from the village in such manner as to render it impossible for anyone among the crowd of pilgrims to make any independent enquiry about the matter. Perhaps the sequel was that one of the attendants represented himself as the blind man restored to his eyesight. The Kartabhajas have no distinguishing marks, nor have they any sacred literature which they can call their own. They have no monasteries or mendicants. The formula for the first initiation of a person to the Kartabhaja sect is : “ The spiritual teacher alone has real existence.” When the neophyte has made sufficient progress in spirituality then the teacher whispers in his ears another formula, of which the following is a translation ;— The great lord Aulia is the head of all. I move about according to your pleasure. I do not live apart from you for a moment. I am always with you, O great lord. The exhibition of fervid love is the only form of religious exercise practised by the Kartabhajas. They do not worship any god or goddess. At their secret 488 RAJA PRATAP CHAND. nocturnal meetings they sing some songs regarding Aulia Gossain, Krishna or Gouranga, and while some of the party become so affected as to fall in a swoon, the rest anxiously repeat the name of Hari in their ears in order ostensibly to restore them to their senses, but in reality to render undue familiarity justifiable. What the results of such practices are may be easily imagined. § 2.— The Pratap Chandi Sect. The Pratap Chandi sect is said to have been founded by the unfortunate Raja Pratap Chand of Burdwan. He was the only son of Maharaja Tej Chand by his first wife. Pratap’s mother died when he was very young, and his father took another wife named Rani Kamal Kumari. From his boyhood Pratapa showed great favour to the mendicants that visited Burdwan, and passed a considerable portion of his time in their company. As he was by caste a Punjabi Kshettri, it is quite possible that, among the mendicants that paid him court, there were some spies from Lahore. However that may have been, he became very much disgusted with the kind of life that his father led, and the amount of power that was given in the manage¬ ment of affairs to Paran Babu, the brother of Rani Kamal Kumari. Things had become intolerable enough, and when Tej Chandra, in his old age, married a daughter of Paran Babu, Pratap made one desperate effort to bring his father to his senses. Leaving the palace of Burdwan, he repaired to Kalna, and after living there for some time gave out that he was seriously ill. His object in doing so was to test his father’s affection for him, and also to extricate him from the surroundings by which Rani Kamal Kumari and her brother, Paran, kept him enmeshed. Mahai’aja Tej Chand actually started from Burdwan with a view to see his son at Kalna. But the intrigues of the Rani and her brother led him to discontinue his journey, and to trace his steps HIS PERSONAL HISTORY. 489 back to his palace. To please his son, the old Raja sent two lacs of rupees to him for his death-bed expenses, but that served only to provoke him all the more. It was given out in Kalna one evening that he was dead. A part of the foreshore of the river Bhagirathi at Kalna was enclosed by screens, and while a funeral pyre was made to burn within it, the Raja effected his escape in a boat which had been brought for him. It is believed that he went directly to Lahore, and that he left Lahore only when he heard of the death of his father. In the meantime Paran had managed to get one of his sons adopted by Maharaja Tej Chand, and when Pratapa arrived at Burdwan, Paran had so managed matters that the real heir-at-law found it impossible to get admission to his palace. Pratapa then tried to take possession of Kalna. But the Collector of Burdwan befriended Paran and his son, and while the Raja and his men were sleeping in a steamer, they were taken by surprise by the troops sent against them. Several members of the Raja’s retinue were killed by the musketry fire which was opened against them. The Rajah effected his escape by throwing himself overboard, and swimming across the river. He was arrested afterwards and hauled up before a criminal court on a charge of rioting. The best men among the witnesses deposed in favour of his identity, and the only men that swore against him were either the relatives of Paran, or persons well known as being capable of per¬ jury. However, the evidence in his favor was disbe¬ lieved, and he was sentenced to suffer incarceration for six months. After his release, he was still the idol of the people, and, at this time, he organised the sect which bears his name. Like that of the Kartabhajas, it favoured esoteric worship, and it very seldom came prominently to public notice. Nevertheless it flourish¬ ed all the same at one time. Its ramifications extended to the remotest villages in the province. It seems to be dying out now. CHAP. IV.— 1 THE GURU-WORSHIPPING AND DISREPUTABLE SECTS OF UPPER INDIA. § 1.— The Satnami Sect of Oude. The Satnami sect of Oude was founded by one Jagjivandas, a Ksatriya who lived about a century ago, and was an inhabitant of the village of Sardaha on the bank of the Saruju. He died at Kotwa, a place lying midway between Ajodhya and Lucknow. He wrote several tracts inculcating, like the other sect founders, absolute indifference to the world and implicit obedience to the spiritual guide. Among his followers there are both householders and mendicants. The former recognise the distinctions based on caste ; but, like the mendicants of the other Indian sects, the Satnami monks, though recruited from different castes, stand on the same footing. The Satnami mendicants do not beg from door to door, but are supported by the lay mem¬ bers of their sect. They have several convents, the chief one being at Kotwa where Jagjiwan’s tomb is still in existence. The heads of the Satnami convents are addressed as Saheb. The inferior mendicants use the surname of Das or slave. A Satnami mendicant may be known at once by his red coat, his skull cap of red colour, his perforated mantle, and the perpendicular mark painted with ashes or Shama Bindi clay, and extending from the tip of the nose to the uppermost part of the forehead. The lay members of the sect are initiated in the Ram¬ worshipping cult, and are taught to repeat a long ( 490 ) THE BIJA MARGIN. 491 formula giving pre-eminence to the great hero god of Oude. The mendicants are also initiated in the same mantra, and to that extent their creed is unexception¬ able. But like the Bauls of Bengal they are said to practise the horrible rite called the Gayatri Kriya, which is nothing more or less than the drinking of a solution of the secretions and excreta of the human body. The Satnamis do not worship any idol. They are strict vegetarians and teetotalers. § 2.— The Paltu Dasi Sect. The Paltu Dasi sect is essentially of the same character as the Satnamis. The Paltu Dasis have their chief monastery in Ajodhya. The mendicants of the sect wear yellow garments and cap. Some of them allow their hirsute appendages to grow without limit, while others shave their heads and moustaches clean. They accost each other saying “ Satyaram.” They are found chiefly in Ajodhya, Lucknow and Nepal. They are said to perform the Gayatri Kriya like the Satnamis. The sect was founded by one Paltu Das about the same time as that of the Satnamis. § 3.— The Appa Pant his. The Appa Pantha sect was founded by one Munna Das, who was a goldsmith by caste, and who was an inhabitant of a place called Marwa to the west of Ajodhya. The Appa Panthis are practically semen worshippers. They dress like the Paltu Dasis. § 4.— The Bija Margis and Margis. The Bija Margis and Margis are found chiefly in Kathiwar. The monks of the sect have each a nun associated with him, whom he would place at the dis¬ posal of any male member of the Hindu community, on payment of a reasonable fee, and on condition of observing certain rites. The monks practically serve 492 THE DISREPUTABLE SECTS. as panders of their wives. This is the peculiar and the most extraordinary feature of the Bija Margi cult. There are many religions which sanction murder, rapine, drinking, debauchery and adultery. But the sect under notice is perhaps the only one in the world which expressly sanctifies pandering of the worst kind. The Bij Margis have, it is said, many other horrible practices. CHAP. V.—THE MINOR GURU-WORSHIPPING SECTS OF BENGAL. § 1.— The Bala Hari Sect. This sect was founded about half a century ago by a man of the sweeper caste named Bala Hari. He was in his youth employed as a watchman in the service of a local family of zemindars, and being very cruelly treated for alleged neglect of duty he severed his connection with them. Alter wandering about for some years, he set him¬ self up as a religious teacher, and attracted round him more than twenty thousand disciples. The most import¬ ant feature of his cult was the hatred that he taught his followers to entertain towards Brahmans. He was quite illiterate, but he had a power of inventing puns by which he could astonish his audience whenever he talked or debated. His widow inherited not only his position, but all his powers. I met her in the year 1872. Her first question to me was about my caste. I knew well about the hatred of the sect towards Brah¬ mans, and instead of mentioning that I was a Brahman, I used a pun to say that I was a human being. She was very much pleased, and after offering me a seat she went on propounding the tenets of her sect. The greater part ot her utterances was meaningless jargon, but she talked very fluently and with the dignity of a person accustomed to command. Though a Hari by caste, she did not hesitate to offer me her hospitality. I declined it as politely as I could, but considering the ( 493 ) 494 THE KALI KUMARI SECT, courtesy that she showed to me, I could not but feel some regret that the barrier of caste rendered it quite impossible for me to comply with her request. The followers of Bala Hari have no peculiar sect marks or uniform. Some members of the sect are in the habit of begging for food from door to door. They are known not only by the absence of sect marks on their person, but also by their refraining from mention¬ ing the name of any god or goddess at the time of asking for alms. § 2.— The Kali Kumari Sect of East Bengal. The following account of the Kali Kumari sect of East Bengal is taken from Babu Guru Prasad Sen’s Introduction to the Study of Hinduism :— In the district of Dacca one Kali Kumar Tagore became the centre of a religion, the like of which sways the masses every now and then. Kali Kumar knew only the ordinary Bengali, which fitted him to be the gomashta of a rich widow, of the Kayastha caste of his village. Beyond the Gayatri, he did not know anything of the Vedas, and, as for the Purdnas, he knew as much as a Bengali Brahman, or a Bhadralog would know from recitations thereof by others, and not by reading them in the original for himself. Nor was there any peculiar sanctity in his life, as the mode of business which he follow¬ ed shows. Yet it came to be known that he had cured some cases of incurable diseases. His fame spread, and, within a short time, his home became something like a splendid fair, where a vast mass of people congregated every day from all parts of the district, some to get themselves treated for diseases, and others to have a look at a real live god. The prescribed mode of treatment which is said to have been very successful was nothing else than bathing three times a day, believing in the divinity of Kali Kumar Tagore, taking in a little ball of earth from Kali Kumar’s house, and giving a Hari-loot. A warrant of arrest was issued by the Sub-divisional Officer, in con¬ nection with something which Kali Kumar did with regard to his business as a gomashta, and before it could be executed, he died, and the religion of which he became the temporary centre died with him. At one time his followers could be counted by lacs. / I PART YI. RELIGIONS INTENDED TO BRING ABOUT UNION BETWEEN THE HIN¬ DUS AND THE MAHOMEDANS. CHAP. I.—THE KABIR PANTHIS. The Mahomedans established their empire in India in the thirteenth century, and within less than two hundred years, sects began to be organised with the avowed object of bringing about a fusion of the creeds professed by the rulers and the ruled. The experi¬ ments that were made did not prove very successful. But their moral effect was great, and they tended at least to soften the bitterness between the Hindus and the Mahomedans, and to establish greater harmony than would otherwise have been possible. Among the noble teachers who undertook to bridge over the gulf, the van was led by a low caste poet named Kabir who lived at the end of the fifteenth century. Chaitanya admitted some Mahomedan disciples. But the Radha¬ worshipping religion which he inculcated had nothing in common with the pure monotheism of the Arabian prophet. Kabir sought to create a new platform on which both Hindus and Mahomedans could meet with¬ out departing very considerably from the fundamental tenets of their original creeds. Kabir is usually said to have been a Jolaha or Mahomedan weaver. His Mahomedan followers believe ( 495 ) THE KABIR PANT HIS. 49G him to have been a Mahomedan. But, according to his Hindu biographers, he was the child of a Brahman widow, and having been abandoned by his mother, was taken possession of and brought up by a Jolaha. Kabir is said to have been a disciple of Ramanand, and his religion is in fact a form of the Ramait cult. Kabir did not deny the existence of the Hindu deities ; but he declared that their worship, and the performance of the rites prescribed by the Shastras, were quite unnecessary. Kabir admitted Mahomedans among his followers, and strongly criticised the faith and practices of both Hindus and Mahomedans. Kabir recommended the adoration of the Divinity under the name of Rama, and his followers generally worship Rama as the supreme god. The Kabirite monks wor¬ ship the spirit of Kabir. The priests of the sect do not administer any mantra to their followers. The latter accost the former by saying either “ Dandpat” or “ Bandgi ” or “ Ram Ram.” The spiritual superiors respond to the salute by uttering the formula “ Guru ki Daya,” which means “ the mercy of the preceptor.”; The followers of Kabir have no peculiar dress. Some of them wear necklaces of basil beads, and paint their foreheads in the same manner as the Ramats. But they do not admit the necessity of these symbols. Kabir was a great controversialist himself. But to his follow¬ ers, he recommended the practice of hypocrisy in order to avoid polemics. His advice to them was— Shab se liiliye shah se miliye shah ka lijiye nam Han Ji Han Ji sliabse kijiye wosa apna gam. Translation ;—Associate and mix with all, and take the names o£ all; say to every one, yes sir, yes sir. Abide in your own abode. A large part of the low caste population of Central and Western India are followers of Kabir. In Bengal and Southern India there are very few resident Kabi- : rites. But there is hardly a town in India where strolling beggars may not be found singing songs of Kabir in original, or as translated in the iocal dialects. IAP. II.—HISTORY OF THE SIKH FAITH. § 1.— Nanak, the first Sikh Guru. The religion of the Sikhs, like that of Kabir, was ■originally meant to bring about union between the Hindus and the Mahomedans. But the actual result was very different from what had been contemplated. Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion, was a con¬ temporary of Kabir, Chaitanya, Ballavachari and Martin Luther. In all probability Nanak was a disciple ■of Kabir. At any rate, the ethics and theology of the great poet and moral teacher made a profound impression upon him. The programme that he chalked out for himself was to bring about that much-desired 1 eace between the Hindus and the Mahomedans, which was impossible, while the latter were under the belief 1 jut there was great merit in spreading their religion by means of the sword. Nanak was a Kshettri of the Bedi clan. His father Kalloo was a resident of the village of Tilwandi, a place about sixty miles to the north of Lahore. Nanak himself was not born there. When pregnant, his mother, in accordance with the time-honoured custom of the country, was taken to her father’s house ; and the honour of being the birthplace of the first Sikh Guru belongs to the village of Mam near Kot Katchwa, where his maternal grandfather had his residence. Nanak was married at a very early age, aud his father tried hard to set him up in some kind of business. But he had an irresistible ambition for b, hg ( 497 ) 32 498 HISTORY OF THE SIKH FAITH. the position of a religious teacher ; and neither the remonstrances of his father, nor the blisses of domestic life that awaited him at home, could dissuade him from the line that he was bent upon adopting. He travelled to many distant places, and, in the course of his peregrinations, is said to have visited Mecca. Nanak 5 s religion may be described briefly as a Hinduised form of Mahomedanism or a Mahomedanised form of Hinduism. He admitted the mission of Maho¬ met, and regarded himself as a successor to the Ara¬ bian prophet. But with this attitude towards the Mahomedan faith, Nanak did not deny the existence of the Hindu gods and goddesses, and he only deprecated their worship. Like Mahomet, Nanak inculcated the worship of a Supreme Deity. The exact nature of his views on the subject may be gathered from the following :— A hundred thousand of Mahomeds, a million of Brahmas, Vishnus, and a hundred thousand Ramas, stand at the gate of the Most High ; these all perish, God alone is immortal. Yet men who unite in the praise of God, are not ashamed of living in contention with each other. He alone is a true Hindu whose heart is just, and he only is a good Mussulman whose life is pure. Whatever might have been his views about the other prophets that lived before him, Nanak believed in his own mission and called upon his followers to have faith in him. It is said of him :— One day Nanak heard a voice from above, exclaiming, ‘ Nanak approach 1’ He replied ‘ Oh God ! what power have I to stand in Thy presence?’ The voice said, ‘ close thine eyes.’ Nanak shut his eyes and advanced : he was told to look up : he did so, and heard the word, ‘ wa’! or ‘ well done!’ pronounced five times, and then ‘ wa ! Guruji, or well done! Teacher.’ After this God said ‘Nanak ! I have sent thee into the world in the Kaliyuga (or depraved age)—go and bear my name ! ’ Nanak said, Oh God ! how can I bear the mighty burthen? If my age was extended to tens of millions of years, if I drank of immortality, and my eyes were formed of the sun and moon, and were never closed, still Oh God! I could not presume to take charge of Thy wonderful name ! ‘ I will be thy Guru ’ Teacher, said God, and thou shalt be a Guru to all mankind, thy sect shall be great in the world, and thy word “Puri Puri!” the word of the Bairagi is “ Ram ! Ram !” that of the Sanyasi, “ Om Nama Narayan!” and the word of the Yogis “ Ades ! Ades !” and the salutation of the Mahomedans is “ Salam Alikum” and that of the GURU NANAK. 499 Hindi s ‘Ram ! Ram !” but the word of thy sect shall be “Guru” 'and I will foigive the crimes of thy disciples. The place of worship of the Bairagis is called Ram Sala ; that of Yogis, Asan; that of the Sanyas is Mat; but that of thy tribe shall be Dharma Sala. Thou must teach unto thy followers three lessons —the first, to worship my name; the second, charity; the third, ablution. They must not abandon the world, and they must do ill to no being; for into every being have I infused breath ; and whatever I am, thou art, for between us there is no difference. It is a blessing that thou art sent into the Kaliyuga. After this ‘wa! Guru’ or ‘ well done l Teacher’ was pronounced from the mouth of the Most High Guru or teacher (God) and Nanak came to give light and freedom to the universe. Thus like Mahomet and Christ, Nanak professed to be the representative of the Most High, the only dif¬ ference being that while Christ called himself the son of God, and Mahomet made his followers believe that he was the trusted agent or ambassador of the Almighty, Nanak assumed a relationship which, though not identi¬ cal with any affected by any one before him, was equally intelligible to both the Hindus and Mahomedans of India. Nanak declared that he had the honour of having God Almighty for his own Guru, and that he was appointed by the Deity himself to be the Guru of mankind. By adopting this attitude Nanak not only showed great originality, but struck a chord in the hearts of his countrymen which could not fail to secure him their reverence and affection. As a disciple has not necessarily all the powers of the Guru, Nanak, in the above legend, takes care to attribute to God Almighty the observation that there was no difference between Him and His duly appointed disciple. As Nanak took the name of Guru, his disciples call themselves Sikhs, the designation being a corrupted form of the Sanskrit word Shisliya, which means a disciple. Nanak had a large number of followers from an early period of his ministry. One of them was Mardana, who was a Mussulman by birth. Of the other followers of the first Sikh Guru, the two most celebrated were Boodha and Lehna, the former a Jat, and the latter a Kshettri of the Tihan clan. Nanak set aside the claims of his own sons, and appointed Lehna, to whom he 500 HISTORY OF THE SIKH FAITH. gave the name of An gat, to be his successor. Nanak died at Kirtipore on the bank of the Ravi in the year 1539 A.D. The village is now one of the principal places of Sikh pilgrimage, though the tomb has been washed away by the river. Nanak had two sons named Lutchmi Das and Sreechand. The Honorable Baba Khem Sing is descended from one of them. Nanak’s precepts for the guidance of his followers are contained in the Adi Granth or First Holy Book of the Sikhs. The second part of their scripture, called the Dasam Padsha ki Granth, or Book of the Tenth King, was composed by Guru Govind, the tenth and last of the Sikh pontiffs. The Adi Granth has been translated into English by Professor Trumpp, of Munich. As the religion of Mahomet had served to give rise to war and rapine, Nanak was fortunate enough in being able to take upon himself the function of a peacemaker. The life of every living being was sacred in his eyes. The breath that was given by the Almighty was to be taken away only by Him. Nanak denounced war which involved murder and discord. We shall see further on how the Sikhs were led, at a subsequent period, to adopt the very opposite doctrines and practices. § 2.— Angat, the second Sikh Guru. It has been already stated that Nanak set aside the claims of his own sons, and appointed one of his dis¬ ciples, to whom he gave the name of Angat, to be his successor. Angat was naturally hated by the sons of Nanak, and to avoid their persecutions, he removed to a place called Kudoor, on the bank of the Beas. He there lived in obscurity with only one attendant named A m ar Das. His death took place in the year 1552 A.D. § 3 .—Amar Das , the third Sikh Guru. Angat had no children, and was succeeded by his attendant Amar Das, who was a Kshettri of the Bhalle elan. Amar Das attracted a large number of disciples, GURU ARJOON. 501 and resided at his native village of Govindwal, where he died in the year 1575 A.D. § 4 .—Ram Das, the fourth Sikh Guru. The fourth Sikh Guru was Ram Das, who was the son-in-law of his predecessor Amar Das. Ram Das and his successors were all of the Sodi clan. He obtained from Akbar a freehold grant of the land on which now stands the town of Amritsar, that, since its foundation, has been the metropolis of the Sikh religion. The political importance that Ram Das acquired through the favour of the great monarch was of far greater con- sequence than the actual bounties of the Crown. When it came to be known that Ram Das stood high in the favour of the Emperor, many of the local barons enlisted themselves among his disciples. § 5.— Arjoon, the fifth Sikh Guru. Ram Das died in 1582 A.D., and was succeeded by his youngest son Arjoon. The fifth Sikh Guru kept great state and lived in splendour. The four preceding Gurus used to dress themselves as fakirs or beggars, but Arjoon was clothed in costly raiments, and kept fine horses. Towards the latter part of his reign, he removed to Amritsar, where he built his dwelling-house, and the temple in the midst of a tank which still forms the chief shrine of the Sikhs. The Adi Granth or the Sikh old testament was commenced by Nanak, and after being finished by Arjoon was deposited in the temple built by him. Guru Arjoon drowned himself in the river Ravi to avoid the persecutions threatened by the Hindu Governor of Lahore named Chandashah, who was a member of the same caste as the Guru, and whom the Guru had mortally offended by refusing an offer of matrimonial alliance. § 6 .—Har Govind , the sixth Sikh Guru. The sixth Sikh Guru Har Govind was the son of Arjoon. Har Govind possessed the talents of a 502 HISTORY OF THE SIKH FAITH. great general, and was the first to entertain a standing army. Dara, the eldest son of Shah Jehan, who was the Governor of the Panjab at the time, was a man of catholic views like Akbar, and did not at first give any trouble to Har Govind. But a very unjust and high¬ handed act on the part of the Governor’s attendants led Har Govind to retaliate and right himself in a manner which gave great provocation to the Governor. The result was that an expedition was sent against the Guru. The latter succeeded in defeating and driving off the Imperial army, but knowing well the resources of the Mogal Empire, he left Amritsar, and took refuge for a time in the jangals of Bhatinda in the District of Hissar. While there a second army was sent against him, which was repulsed in the same manner as the first. The Guru was equally successful in repelling a third attack by a large detachment of the Imperial army. After this Har Govind retired to a mountain fastness, called Hiratpore, on the bank of the Sutlej. He died there in the year 1639 A.D. He had five sons of whom the eldest died in his lifetime, leaving a son named Har Rao. Teg Bahadoor, the ninth Guru of the Sikhs, was the second son of Har Govind. § 7 .—Har Rao , the seventh Sikh Guru. Har Govind was succeeded by his grandson Har Rao. The seventh Guru assisted Dara in his struggle for the throne of Delhi, and by doing so incurred the wrath of Aurengzebe. When the latter had established his power, he sent a threatening message to Har Rao. The Guru pacified him by sending his eldest son, Ram Rao, to the Imperial Court, with a message to the effect that he was only a fakir, and that his only employment was to pray for the prosperity of His Majesty. § 8 .—Har Kisen , the eighth Sikh .Guru. Har Rao died in 1663 A.D., and was succeeded by his youngest son Har Kisen. Ram Rao, the eldest son TEG BAHADOOR. 503 of Har Rao, was then at Delhi, and, npon hearing of his exclusion from the succession, appealed to the Emperor in order to have the nomination made by his father set aside, and to be recognised as the lawful Guru of the sect. Aurengzebe summoned Har Risen to show cause against the claim made by Ram Rao. Har Risen obeyed the summons, but on arriving at Delhi died there of small-pox in the year 1666 A.D. § 9.— Teg Baliadoor , the ninth Sikh Guru. By the death of Har Risen, Ram Rao derived no advantage whatever. The Sikhs on this occasion elected Teg Bahadoor, the second son of Har Govind, as their Guru, and Ram Rao was sorely disappointed again. Teg Bahadoor lived at Bukala, and, attracting numerous followers, became a greater Guru than most of his pre¬ decessors. The members of his own family were, how¬ ever, not friendly to him, and, through the advice of one of his followers, he removed to Delhi with the view perhaps of settling there permanently, and acquiring the vantage ground which residence in a metropolis never fails to give to a religious teacher. But, unfor¬ tunately for him, his grand-nephew Ram Rao was still at the Imperial Court, and tried to injure him by poisoning the mind of the Emperor against him. The Emperor saw through the artifice, and allowed him at first to depart in peace. After leaving Delhi he travelled towards the east, and, arriving at Patna, lived there for some years. Guru Govind was born here. After that Teg Bahadoor, with his family, returned to Delhi. But no sooner had Ram Rao heard of his arrival than he began to intrigue for his ruin again. The Emperor was led to summon him for answering the charges that were brought against him. Teg Bahadoor was alarmed, and he again left Delhi, settling himself ultimately at a place called Mukhwal in the territories of the Raja of Ruh- loor. When Ram Rao came to know his whereabouts, he managed to get him summoned again before the 504 HISTORY OF THE SIKH FAITH. Imperial Court. Knowing the danger of refusing com¬ pliance with the order of the Great Mogal, the Guru sent for his youthful son, and addressing him said :— “ My son, they have sent for me for the purpose of taking away my life, but though they kill me, do not lament my death ; you will be my successor, and do not forget to avenge my blood.” Having thus appoint¬ ed Govind Rao his successor, the Guru departed from Mukhwal. On his arrival in Delhi, he was thrown into prison. Some days afterwards he was sent for to the Emperor’s presence. Aurengzebe had apparently no intention to injure him. But, out of a kind of weakness which was very unusual in him, he allowed Ram Rao to have his own way in the matter. Ram Rao demanded an explanation from his grand-uncle in the presence of the Emperor. The Guru was not, it seems, actually ordered to be executed. When Ram Rao persisted in calling upon him to state what he had to say by way of defence, he wrapped a piece of paper round his neck, and challenged his adversary to cut the same with a sword. This gave Ram Rao the opportunity he wanted. The executioner upon being ordered to deal the blow, cut off the head of the Guru, without being able tq cut the paper. When taken up and read, it was found to contain a few words in Hindi signifying ‘I give my head but not my secret,’ Aurengzebe is generally blamed by historians for this act of cold-blooded mur¬ der. But considering the manner in which the Emperor was led to countenance the act, it seems that it must have been due more to the malice of Ram Rao than to religious bigotry on the part of the Emperor. §10.— Govind , the tenth Guru of the Sikhs. Teg Baliadoor was succeeded by his son Govind, By the injunction of his father he was pledged to avenge his death. The new Guru therefore lost no time to assemble together the followers of the faith. Messengers were sent to every part of the GURU GOVINDA, 505 Punjab to invite the faithful to Mukhwal, and in a short time crowds began to pour into the city of the Sikh Guru from every direction. When they were assembled, Govind stood up in their midst and address¬ ed them as follows :— My father Teg Baharloor ordered me to avenge his blood, and with this view I have collected a large army, but money is required for its maintenance. Now, my friends, every one of you must prepare to obey my orders and contribute money. In the next place you must be all of one mind, and adopt the same manners and have the same religious belief. There must be no castes among you as exist among the Hindus. You must be all equal, and no man greater than another. You must place no belief in the Shastras, or religious books of the Hindus. You must abstain from visiting any of the places of religious worship, such as the Ganges, Budreenath, and pay no respect to any of their gods : pay respect to Guru Nanak and to none else. The four castes of the Hindus are to be dissolved from henceforth. At the conclusion of the above speech, most of the Brahmans and Kshettris among the audience openly declared that they would not accept Nanak or any other Guru as their guide. They were thereupon allowed to depart in peace ; but a large number re¬ mained behind who were mostly low caste men, and they expressed their willingness to follow the Guru. Next day Govind collected them all, and formally initiated them in the faith by the Sikh ceremony of baptism, called pahooldi and also Amrita Diksha, which was invented and made use of on this occasion for the first time. An account of the nature of this ceremony is given in the next chapter. With the military resources which Govind acquired in the manner described above, he proceeded to conquer the territories of some of the local chiefs. He attained some success at first. But they applied to the Emperor for help, and the Governors of Lahore and Sirhind were ordered to give them due protection. The Impe¬ rial troops, combined with those of the Rajas, marched against Govind, and closely besieged the Fort of Mukh¬ wal where he had his residence. His cause becoming hopeless, he was deserted by most of his followers, and 506 HISTORY OF THE SIKH FAITH. with the few that remained faithful to him, he effected his escape. The miseries and privations that he suffered for some time afterwards were great. But he again managed to organise an army, and inflicted a signal defeat on the Imperial troops in a battle which was fought at a place called Moogatsir. The place which Govind had at this time made his head-quarters was in the midst of an arid desert, where no water was procurable, except from a few tanks which he held in his posses¬ sion. The Imperial troops, unable to obtain any water, dispersed, and, being pursued by the Sikhs, numbers of them perished. The news of Govinda’s victory spread like wildfire, and large crowds resorted to him every day to swell his army. When Aurengzebe heard of the ill success that had attended the expedition sent against Govinda, he sent a messenger summoning him to answer for his conduct. The Guru not only showed great honour to the Imperial messenger, but professed great humility, and softened the bitterness of the Emperor also by submitting a versified statement of his grievances in Persian. Aurengzebe was then having enough of trouble from the Marattas, and was not inclined to exasper¬ ate any other class of his Hindu subjects. Whether on that account, or because he was satisfied that Govind had been unjustly persecuted, the order sum¬ moning the Guru was cancelled, and Govind was politely invited to visit the Emperor. Govind, after some hesitation proceeded to the south in order to have the honour of an interview with the Great Mogal. But while Govind was on his way to the Deccan, Aureng¬ zebe died there. The Guru, however, was received with great honours by Bahadoor Shah, the son and successor of Aurengzebe, and was prevailed upon to accept service under the Mogal as a commander of five thousand. Govind, after these events, might have lived for a long time in peace ; but the great ambition of his life was frustrated. The four sons that he had, BANDA. 507 and who all promised to be his worthy successors, had met with sad deaths during the period of trouble that followed the siege of Mukhwal. There was no tie now to bind him to the world, and being weary of life he schemed to bring about his death. The son of a man whom he had murdered in the course of a quarrel, was invited to take his revenge by killing him. The young man had received such kind treatment from the Guru that he was quite inclined to forgive him. But the youth was taunted as a coward for not retaliating for the death of his father, and was ultimately so provoked as to inflict a mortal wound on the Guru. Govind’s death took place in the year 1708 at a place called Nandser in the dominions of the Nizam. § 11.— Govinda? s successor Banda. Govinda’s sons had pre-deceased him, and he appointed none formally to be his successor as Guru. So the title ended with him. Before his death, he however charged his disciple Banda with the task of avenging the blood of his father and grandfather. Banda, though a Byragi (a religious ascetic unconcerned with the world), was a very ambitious man, and he did not fail to utilise to the utmost the opportunities and resources that the dying injunction of the last Guru placed within his reach. He aimed at nothing less than the conquest and sovereignty of the Panjab, and he began his opera¬ tions by the siege and destruction of Sirhind where the two youngest sons of Govind had been murdered in cold blood, at the time when the Guru himself was shut up within the walls of Mukhwal. Banda set fire to Sirhind, and murdered all the iuhabitants, sparing none on account of either age or sex. The fury of the Sikhs being now excited to the utmost extent possible, and they being made to advance too far to recede, Banda crossed the Sutlej, and employed fire and sword wherever he went. He destroyed the town of Wattala, 508 HISTORY OF THE SIKH FAITH. and proceeded to Lahore. After having burned and pillaged that city, he massacred its inhabitants. After these operations, the Byragi crossed the Ravi, and marched towards Jammu. When the Emperor Ferok- shere heard of the desolation caused by the bloodthirsty fanatic, he appointed one of his best generals, named Abdool Samad, to be the Governor of the Panjab. On reaching Lahore, the new Governor pursued Banda closely, and succeeded in bringing about an engage¬ ment in which the Byragi was signally defeated. Fora time, the Sikh leader obtained refuge in a hill fort, but the place was closely invested by the Imperial general, and captured by him within a short time. Banda was made a prisoner and taken to Delhi, where he was first of all compelled to be the silent and helpless spectator of the execution of 740 of his companions. Their disci¬ pline was such that not one of them winced under the excruciating tortures to which they were subjected. In the closing scene of this horrible drama, Banda’s son was placed in his lap, and the father was ordered to cut the son’s throat. Banda did what he was ordered to do, without uttering a word. As if that was not enough, the son’s heart was taken out of his body, and thrown in Banda’s face. Banda himself then had his life tortured out of him, his flesh being torn out with red-hot pincers.. The savage slaughter of Banda and his companions in Delhi, and the strong measures adopted by Abdool Samad in the Panjab, annihilated the Sikh faction for a time. Abdool Samad died during the reign of Maho¬ med Shah, and was succeeded by his son Zukeera Khan, who proved to be a very weak administrator. During his viceroyalty, the zemindars of the Panjab threw off their allegiance to the Mussulmans, refused to pay their revenue, and oppressed the ryots. The latter, who were mostly Jats, embraced the Sikh faith in order to have that protection which the de jure ruler of the country was unable to afford. About this time Ahmed Shah Durani attempted to hold possession of the Panjab; KANJIT SING. 509 but the Sikhs collected in large numbers round Lahore, and inflicted a signal defeat on the Afghan General Jehan Khan. Upon the death of the Durani King, which took place shortly afterwards, the Sikh leaders parcelled out the territories of the Panjab among them¬ selves, and established something like a federal govern¬ ment over the whole extent of country between the Jamna and the Indus. The independent principalities thus formed were called Missuls, and at the beginning these Missuls never came into collision with one another. But this state of things could not possibly last long, and ultimately the whole of the Panjab came under the sway of the powerful Ranjit Sing. CHAP. III.—NATURE OF THE SIKH RELIGION AND ITS PRESENT CONDITION. It has been already stated that the religion of the Sikhs is a mixture of Hinduism and Mahomedanism. The followers of Guru Nanak, like those of Mahomet, profess for theoretical purposes to be monotheists. But in practice, while the Mahomedans revere their prophet as the trusted friend and agent of the Most High, the Sikhs in a similar manner regard Nanak and his suc¬ cessors as Gurus or teachers duly initiated and appoint¬ ed by the Deity himself. So far as belief in superior powers is concerned, the only difference between the Sikhs and the Mahomedans lies in the fact that while the former recognise the existence of the Hindu gods, the latter deny altogether the divinity of the heathen deities. Broadly speaking, Sikhism may be described as Mahomedanism, minus circumcision and cow-killing, and plus faith in the Gurus. Even in outward appearance, a Sikh, with his short trousers, flowing beard, forehead free from paint, and neck without beads, looks more like a Mahomedan than a Hindu. The only visible sign by which he may be distinguished is the iron ring which he wears on the wrist. According to the strict tenets of their faith, the followers of the Gurus are pre¬ cluded from performing any fasts, pilgrimages or rites enjoined by the Hindu Shastras. In practice many of the Sikhs not only visit the places held sacred ( 510 ) / ORIGIN OF THE SIKH FAITH. 511 by the Hindus,* but perform many of the ceremonies prescribed for the orthodox. The few Brahmans and Kshettris that there are among the Sikhs, take even the sacred thread which the last Guru ordered to be put off. Under British rule Sikhism is fast losing its vitality, and drifting towards amalgamation with the Hindu faith pro¬ perly so-called. During the decaying period of the Mogal power, when lawlessness and anarchy prevailed in almost all the distant provinces of the Empire, the Sikh faith became very popular in the Panjab, as it not only gave that protection to the people which the officers of the Crown were incapable of affording, but opened out to the Jat cultivators a career of ambition which, according to the orthodox, is deserved only by the aristocratic Rajputs. “ The quiet and industrious Jat, so long as he remained a cultivator of the field, never concerned himself with his neighbours’ affairs or pros¬ pects ; but when he saw a lawless set of Sikh robbers, with numerous followers, and apparently in the enjoy¬ ment of every luxury of life, which he found it im¬ possible, with every exertion of himself and his family, to procure, it is no wonder that he was often tempted to renounce his life of toil and trouble for the less irksome pursuits of a robber.”f At the present time the acquisition of wealth or political power by robbery or brigandage has been ren¬ dered well-nigh impossible by t'HQpaxBritannica which reigns over the whole country, and the religion of the Sikhs has therefore lost its chief attraction. In the course of a few more generations Sikhism is likely to be superseded by one of those forms of Vaishnavism which alone have the best chance of success among a subject nation in times of profound and undisturbable peace. * The Sikhs perform religious ablutions in the holy rivers in the same manner as the Hindus. Ranjit Sing came to British territory in 1804 to bathe in the Ganges. — McGregor’s History of the Sikhs, Vol. I, p. 156. t McGregor’s History of the Sikhs, Yol. I, p. 157. 512 THIS CLASSES THAT EMBRACED THE FAITH. The total Sikh population of India is less than two millions. Of these the majority are Jats and Churahas. There are a few Brahmans and Kshettris in the sect, but their number is very small. The Sikh Gurus tried to abolish the distinction of caste altogether. But that institution is naturally dear to those to whom it gives an elevated status by hereditary right, and it is no wonder that the Brahmans and Kshettris held aloof from the confederacy in spite of its political advan¬ tages. The castes that eagerly joined the standard of the Sikh Gurus were the agricultural Jats, the trad¬ ing Roras, and the tribe of scavengers called Churaha. The Jats, like the Marattas, are a fighting nation by instinct. Perhaps the iron rule of the Rajputs repres¬ sed the martial ardour of both for ages. But when the Rajputs were subverted by the Mahomedans, and the Mahomedans themselves became too weak to wield the sword with success, the Jats in the north, like the Marattas in the south, required only competent leaders at their head to urge them on to “ the paths of glory that lead but to the grave.” The Jats are looked down upon by the Rajputs, and that was perhaps one of the great motives why the former willingly submitted to the leadership of the Sikh Gurus, and discarded the authority of the Brahmans who supported the preten¬ sions of the “king’s sons.” The Roras were similarly looked down upon by the Kshettris and had a similar motive to attain to a position higher than theirs. What¬ ever was the cause, the Jats and the Roras formed the backbone of the Sikh brotherhood. The low caste of scavengers, called the Churaha, were also eager to em¬ brace tbe new faith, as it alone gave them a chance of abandoning their filthy profession, and attaining a posi¬ tion of respectability, with the title of Sing. The Churahas were admitted to the faith by the baptism of pahooldi; but the high caste Sikhs refused to be placed on the same footing with them. The result was the formation of something like a new caste under the name NATURE OF THE NEW FAITH. 513 of Mazabi Sikhs. The Churaha Sikhs, called Mazabi, are not allowed to eat or drink with the high caste Sikhs. In the Sikh wars the Mazabis greatly distin¬ guished themselves. They were remorselessly cruel in battle. The Sikhs have no regular priesthood, and no reli¬ gious ceremonies besides the baptism of paliooldi called also Amrita Dikslia. Even this baptismal rite was unknown during the time of the first nine Gurus, and was first invented by the tenth pontiff, Govind. As neither the Hindus nor the Mahomedans have any ceremony corresponding with it, it is quite possible that Guru Govind derived the idea from the practice of the Christian Church. The ceremony itself is a very simple and rude one, and has nothing of the grandeur or complicacy of a Hindu rite. As stated already, the Sikhs have no regular priesthood, and it is therefore ordained that the paliooldi or Amrita Dikslia may be conducted by any five persons duly initiated in the faith. When there is a candidate for baptism, a meeting of the initiated members residing in the locality is held. The prayer of the applicant is brought to the notice of the assembly, and, if they decide in favour of admitting him, a stone cup contain¬ ing a solution of sugar in water is brought before them. The liquid is stirred with a double-edged sword by at least five of the elders present. When this is done a portion of the solution is sprinkled over the eyes, ears and head of the neophyte, and the rest is drunk by all present including him. The Sikhs denounce idolatry, but at the same time worship the Granth or the Bible of their sect in the very same manner as the Hindus worship the images of their gods. In speaking of the Granth in the shrine of Amritsar, Sir Monier Williams says :— The Granth is, in fact, the real divinity of the shrine, and is treated as if it had a veritable personal existence. Every morning it is dressed out in costly brocade, and reverently placed on a low throne under a jewelled canopy, said to have been constructed B, HC 33 514 THE HOLY BOOK OF THE SIKHS. by Ranjit Sing at a cost of 50,000 rupees. All day long chowries are waved over the sacred volume, and every evening it is transported to the second temple on the edge of the lake opposite the cause¬ way, where it is made to repose for the night in a golden bed within a consecrated chamber, railed otf and protected from all profane intrusion by bolts and bars.—Sir Monier Williams’ Hinduism and Brahmanism, p. 177. The Holy Book is treated as a living personality, also by the dedication, before it, of a pan of Hahva called Kara Prasad. After being kept before the Grranth for some time, the Hahva is distributed among all persons present in the temple at the time. Even good Hindus are said to accept the dole* reverentially. The Sikhs do not usually offer any other kind of food before the object of their adoration. For an idea of the contents of the Granth, the following passages may be referred to :— At the beginning is the True One. Know that there are two ways (that of Hindus and t at of Mussalmans), but only one Lord. By thyself all the creation is produced ; by thyself, having created, the whole is caused to disappear. Thou O Hari! alone art inside and outside; thou knowest the secrets of the heart. Mutter the name of Hari, Hari, O my heart, by which comfort is brought about, by which all sins and vice disappear, by which poverty and pain cease. Thou art I, I am thou, of what kind is the difference ? Like gold and the bracelet, like water and a wave. By the perfect Guru the name of Hari is made firm in me. Hari is my beloved, my king. If some one bring and unite (him with me), my life is revived. Thou art my father, my mother, my cousin, my protector in all places. Then what fear and grief can there be in me ? By thy mercy I have known thee. Thou art my support, my trust. Without thee there is none other ; all is thy play and thy arena, O Lord ! The Lord is my dear friend. He is sweeter to me than mother and father, sister, brother and all friends; like thee there is none other, O Lord ! Be united with the Lord of the Universe. After a long time this (human) body was obtained. In some births thou wast made a rock and mountain. In some births thou wast produced as pot herb. In the eighty-four lakhs of existence thou wast caused to * This practice clearly shews that the Sikhs are regarded as Hindus by the members of the orthodox faith. It may be also mentioned here that the name of Guru Nanak is actually invoked by many orthodox Brahmans of Northern India, along with those of some other Hindu gods. THEIR SUB-SECTS. 515 wander about. No hot wind touches those who are protected by the true Guru. The Guru is the true creator. Protected by the Guru he is admitted to the true house and palace of Hari. Death cannot eat him. I am continually a sacrifice to my own Guru. I am become a sacrifice to my own Lord. From the Veda, from the book of the Koran, from the whole world he is conspicuous. The King of Nanakis openly seen. Having forgotten all things meditate on the One ! Drop false conceit, offer up thy mind and body.—Sir Monier Williams’ Hindu¬ ism and Brahmanism, p. 171. The doctrines and sentiments contained in the above are such as are favoured by every Hindu. The good words put in at every step for securing to the Guru the love and regard of his followers, are the usual charac¬ teristic of tbe sacred literature of modern Hinduism. The Sikh Gurus never encouraged celibacy or men¬ dicancy, and declared that marriage and the acquisition of wealth were necessities of human life. The class of Sikh fanatics called Akalis, or ‘ men for times of danger,’ do however, in practice, generally remain unmarried. They usually live in the Sikh monasteries called Dharmasala, and they are easily known by their blue turbans with iron discs. They are regular des¬ peradoes, and it is a very dangerous thing to provoke them. During the days of Sikh rule, they were gene¬ rally treated with great indulgence, and were kept as a reserve for great emergencies. The Sikhs have several sub-sects, among which the Udasis, the Nirmailis and the Govind Shahis are the most important. The first two are followers of Nanak. The last belong to the order founded by Guru Govind. The Sikhs reverence the descendants of Guru Nanak and the representatives of the family of Govind. But no one has priestly authority in the sect either by birth or by appointment. The pahooldi of the Sodis and the Bedis themselves has to be conducted in the same manner as that of the other Sikhs. The chief shrines of the Sikhs are those of Amritsar, Patna, Nander, Tarantara, Moogatsar, Kartarpore and Panja Shah. The name of the first of these places literally means “ the 516 THE CHIEF SIKH SHRINES. tank of nectar.” It is the site of the tank, the dry bed of which was by Nanak miraculously filled with water. The fourth Guru Arjoon first built the temple, and at a later period the town became the rendezvous of the Sikh leaders. Patna is held to be a sacred town on account of its being the birthplace of Guru Govind. Nander is the name of the place in the Nizam’s domi¬ nions where Guru Govind died. Tarantara, in the Amritsar district, is held sacred by the Sikhs on account of its having a tank the water of which is believed to be a cure for leprosy. Moogatsar is in the Ferozepore district, and is held sacred on account of its being the site of the famous battle by which Guru Govind re¬ established his power. Panja Shah is near Rawal Pindi, and is celebrated as the place where Guru Nanak per¬ formed certain very extraordinary miracles. He drew out water from the rocky base of a hill, and when a rival saint tried to crush him and his followers by hurling the hill upon them, Nanak kept it in position by stretch¬ ing out his right hand for its support. The hill has on its sides some finger-marks which are taken by the devout to be conclusive evidence of the truth of the legends. PART VII. BUDDIIIS M. CHAP. I.—PERSONAL HISTORY OF BUDDHA. Although the religion of Buddha is not usually re¬ garded as a form of the Hindu faith, and although it has disappeared almost entirely from India proper, the land of its origin, yet, for many reasons, it seems to me necessary to say something in this book about its history and character. Buddha rejected the authority of the Vedas, and strictly prohibited the performance of the Vedic rites, which involved the killing of animals and the drinking of strong liquor. But his own system was founded entirely upon Hindu philosophy, and as it recognized the gods of the Hindu pantheon, it cannot be said to have the same relation to Hinduism as Chris¬ tianity or Mahomedanism. In fact, Buddhism is not more antagonistic to orthodox Hinduism than the cults of the Jangamites or the Vaishnavas. The latter, though they reject the authority of the Vedas and deny the spiritual supremacy of the Brahmans, are yet regarded as Hindus, and there is no reason w hy Buddhism should be assigned a different footing. The religion of Buddha was, if not the first, at least one of the earliest, of the man-worshipping and morality¬ preaching faiths. The Vedic singers who preceded them never claimed to be superior to, or identical with, the gods of their pantheon. Their highest ambition was only to be recognised as men of extraordinary ( 517 ) 518 buddha’s attitude towards the gods. powers. Their religion offered chiefly tangible good service, and had not much to do with either the improve¬ ment or the corruption of morality. Their success in securing the reverence of men naturally led those who followed them to aim at attaining higher altitudes. Buddha did not, like the later prophets, claim to be an incarnation or agent of the Most High. Ideas of that kind were perhaps unknown to him, and, at any rate, did not originate with him. However, he tried to at¬ tain the same goal by a different route. He, in a man¬ ner, denied the existence of a Supreme Brahma, and spoke of the lesser gods of the Hindus pantheon as his inferiors. According to his elaboration of the Hindu doctrine of metempsychosis, the condition of a god is the highest stage* * * § which every sentient being is capable of attaining before becoming a Buddha or Bodhisatwa.f In the Buddhistic scripture we read of a certain frog f that from simply listening to the Buddha’s voice, while reciting the law, was born as a god in the Trayastriusa heaven. In some of the stories of Buddha’s miracles, as, for instance, in the one relating to his descent § from heaven to Sankisa, it is stated that the gods acted as his personal attendants. It is also stated in some places that the gods rever¬ enced him as a superior being, and, when allowed, con¬ gregated together to hear his preachings. His policy with regard to the lesser deities of the Hindu pantheon was, in fact, the same as that of the British Govern¬ ment of the present time towards the Indian princes, and not that of Dalhousie. He did not, like some of the later prophets, aim at being in the position of a “ lonesome tower ” in the midst of a level plain. Such being the case, his religion must be said to be a form of Hinduism, and not wholly antagonistic to it. * See Sir Monier Williams on Buddhism, p. 121. t See Glossary. X See Sir Monier Williams on Buddhism, p. 122. § Rockhill’s Life of Buddha, p. 81; Sir Monier Williams’ Bud¬ dhism, p. 414, et seq.; Legge’s Fu Hian, p. 48. EARLY LIFE OF BUDDHA. 519 The main facts relating to the personal history of Buddha* are well-known, and I refer to them only for the purpose of marshalling them in such a manner as to render their historical bearing and value clear enough. The great prophet was the son of a Ksatriya chief named Suddhodana, who ruled over a small kingdom at the foot of the Himalayas, between the rivers Rapti and Rohini. The chief town of the State was Kapilavastu, which has been identified with a vil¬ lage named Bhuila, in the Basti district, about 25 miles to the north-east of Fyzabad, and 12 miles to the north¬ west of the town of Basti. Buddha’s mother, Maha Maya, died on the seventh day after his birth, and although he was taken care of by his mother’s sister, Maya alias Gautami Mahaprajapati, who was also one of his father’s wives, his childhood was in all pro¬ bability not a very happy one. In his early years, he received some education under a teacher named Kau- eika,f and it was perhaps this teacher who awakened in his young mind that craving for the study of the Hindu philosophical systems which was very strong iu his mind at the time that he left his paternal roof. He married three wives, and, according to some of the accounts relating to his life, he was blessed with a child when he was himself twenty-nine years old. According to other accounts, his wife Yasodhara gave birth to Rahula long after his departure from home. In any case, with such intellectual and physical activity as he possessed, the monotony of home-life was perhaps extremely irksome to him. Possibly the fact of his * I shall in this chapter speak of the prophet everywhere by the name of Buddha, though that designation is applicable to him only in the condition which he attained when he was about thirty-seven years old. His other names were :— 1. Sakya Sinha, Lion of the Sakya race. 2. Siddhartha, one who has attained the object of his religious practices. L Sugatf ata } A P erson in the P a th of enlightenment, t Kockhill on the Life of Buddha, p. 19. 520 EARLY LIFE OF BUDDHA. being motherless, and his father having other wives, made him very miserable. That he was not a great favourite with the family appears pretty clear from the fact that, after his voluntary exile, his father did nothing whatever to bring him back to his palace. If, like the late Raja Pratapa Chand,* of Burdwan, Buddha wanted to test the affection of his father for a mother¬ less child, he was doomed to a sad disappointment, though, for the sake of the good name of his father, or in order to uphold his own prophetic pretensions, he never expressed his feelings on the subject. What the real cause of Buddha’s renunciation of home was, can¬ not possibly be known. But there cannot be much doubt that the stories to be found on the subject in the Bud¬ dhistic scriptures are mere myths. According to these legends Buddha grew up to man¬ hood without having any idea of death, disease or the decay caused by old age, and that when in his twenty- ninth year he first saw a dead body, an old man and a diseased person, he was so impressed with the miseries of human life, as to determine at once to leave his home in the search after a remedy. The stories on the subject are very dramatic no doubt; but they cannot be taken to have any element of probability consistently with what is known to all men regarding the usual course of human affairs. Even supposing that Buddha’s domestic life was a happy one, and that the only motive which led him to adopt the garb of a mendicant was his phi¬ lanthropic zeal for the good of mankind, it does not seem reasonable to suppose that his determination was the result of a sudden impulse. Cases of renunciation like his are not of rare occurrence among Indian princes. In our own days Lala Babu and Rajas Protab Chand and Ram Krishna have perhaps made far greater sacri¬ fices than the son of Suddhodana. In every case of Sanyas in high life that has taken place in recent times, * For an account of the Raja, see page 488, ante. HIS RENUNCIATION OF HOME. 521 the determination is more or less known to have been caused by domestic unhappiness, or by the undue influ¬ ence of some religious teacher on the enthusiastic neophyte. It seems likely, therefore, that Buddha was influenced in the same way. At any rate, the steadiness which he evinced in the course of life that he adopted, goes very far to show that his determination was not the result of a sudden impulse, but of long and careful deliberation. If he had been led by only an accidental flash of enthusiasm, his zeal would have cooled down as quickly, and he would have come back to his father within a few days. But he had evidently gone through a long course of mental preparation, and the realities of a mendicant’s life did not frighten him. After leaving home Buddha repaired to Raj Giri, the metropolis of the Magadha Empire at the time. This line of action on his part, at the very outset, does not seem to be consistent with the view that it was only the miseries which he had found existing in the world that led him to leave his paternal roof. Surely he could have no reason whatever to suppose that Raj Giri was the place where the necessary remedy was obtainable. It seems much more probable that, like other men of ability and ambition, he was naturally attracted to the metropolis of the Empire in a search after adventure. According to his biographers, his sooth¬ sayers had predicted that he was to be either a mighty Emperor or a Buddha. This may be taken to show what the goals of his ambition originally were. Evidently he saw no way to be an Emperor, and therefore adopted the safer but more ambitious career that ultimately led to his being worshipped as a god by all classes, including both princes and peasants. It is said that the princely mendicant of Kapilavastu attracted the notice of King Bimbasara on the occasion of his very first, entrance into Raj Giri. That is not impossible. But it seems more probable that he became known to the king either through his preceptor 522 buddha’s study of philosophy. Ram Putra Rudraka, or through Amba Pali of Vaisali, who was Bimbasara’s mistress, and who subsequently became one of the leading Buddhistic nuns. Ram Putra Rudraka was evidently one of the favoured Pandits of the Court of Birabasara, and as such Pandits, when they visit the kings who patronise them, are generally accompanied by their leading pupils, it seems highly probable that the Buddha’s first introduction to Bim- basara was the result of his having enlisted himself as a pupil of the great philosophical teacher of Raj Giri at the time. Whatever the origin of the acquaintance may have been, the great prophet knew that to establish a high position in the country, or in the estimation of the king, by dint of Sanskrit scholarship alone was a very difficult task, and was quite impossible during the lifetime of his preceptor. So after passing some time at Raj Giri as a pupil of Ram Putra Rudraka, and acquiring some reputation there as a scholar of great promise, he retired to an adjoining forest on the banks of the river Niran- jan, and there for a time gave himself up to the practice of the most severe austerities. The discipline to which he was believed to have subjected himself at the time raised him considerably in the veneration of King Bim- basara and the people of the country. But the practice of asceticism, though highly useful at the beginning of a religious man’s career, cannot be continued by him forever, if he has a secular ambition. At any rate, after sis years of self-mortification, the Incarnation of Enlightenment discovered that penances and fasts were not the road to heaven. His reputation for superior sanctity had been then completely established, and so he emerged from his seclusion, giving out that he had discovered the true remedy for the miseries of this world. The panacea that he professed, to have dis¬ covered was neither very original nor of any use for practical purposes. His doctrines were exactly the same as those of many orthodox Hindus, namely, that our miseries are caused by desires, and that, in order to buddha’s austerities. 523 get rid of the miseries, we must learn to overcome the desires. Sir Monier Williams* gives Buddha the credit of having had the power to clothe old ideas in new and more attractive dresses. But, in this instance, the great anti-Brahmanical prophet adopted the ideas of Brahmanical philosophy, without any modification what¬ ever. Cessation of desires was the panacea prescribed by both, as if it were possible for any human being to feel happy without food, drink, health, and the joys of conjugal association. From the point of view of common sense, the true remedies for the miseries of life are the sciences of medicine, agriculture, &c., the arts of weaving, road-making, navigation, &c., properly managed political governments, and such institutions as hospitals, poor-houses, insurance offices, light houses, fire brigades, &c. A spiritual teacher may be believed to have the power of saving the soul from perdition after death. But so far as the miseries of this world are concerned, it is impossible to give either Buddha, or any other prophet, the credit of having given us a satisfactory remedy. However that may be, Buddha was so convinced of the value of his discovery, that he at first felt inclined to keep it to himselff instead of giving the benefit of it to the world. Even the gods were distressed at this determination on his part, and he was led to abandon it only for the sake of the repeated remonstrances addressed to him by the great deity| Brahma. This legend affords a typical instance of the manner in which Buddha utilised the agency of the gods to serve his political purposes. In secular spheres such tactics would hardly be of any use even with the weakest of Asiatic princes. But the faith of men in the saints and prophets is unbounded. When Buddha at length made up his mind to give men the benefit of his discovery, he thought of making * See Sir Monier’s Buddhism, p. 104. t Mahavagga, I, 3, 4. t lb., 1,5,6. 524 BEGINS HIS PREACHING. his former teachers Ruddaka and Allada* his first pupils. If this had been possible his name and fame could have been made at once. But the idea, though a very clever one, could not possibly be given effect to. As soon as it arose in his mind, a god, who was in wait¬ ing, informed him that his old teachers had passed away from the earth. He then proceeded to Benares with a view to preach the new faith to the five men who had been deputed by his father to attend him when he was studying philosophy at Raj Gin. They attended him also when he practised austerities on the banks of the Niranjana river. But when he gave up asceticism, and became mindful of worldly comforts, these men left him and went to Benares. According to the Buddhistic scriptures, the cause of their leaving his company was his abandonment of asceticism. But the fact that they did not return to their native country, but proceeded to Benares, seems to point to the con¬ clusion that they had been sent thither by Buddha in - order to prepare the ground for him. However that may be, the five attendants were not, according to the Buddhist chronicles, at first inclined to recognise the Buddhahood of their former master. But they were soon overpowered by his commanding bearing, and the sermon that he delivered to them. They had addressed him familiarly as a ‘ friend,’ and he spoke as follows :— Do not address, O Bhikshus, the Tafhagata by his name, and with appellation “ Friend.” The Tathagata, O Bhikshus, is the holy ab¬ solute Sambudha. Give ear, O Bhikshu ! The immortal (Arnata) has been won (by me) : I will teach you : to you I preach the doctrine. If you walk in the way I show you, you will ere long have penetrated to the truth, having yourselves known it and seen it face to face; and you will live in the possession of that highest goal of the holy life for the sake of which noble youths fully give up the world and go forth into the homeless state.”— Mahavagga, I, 6, 12. The five quondam attendants to whom Buddha spoke as above were all under the belief that there was Mahavagga, I, 6, 2—4. MAKES CONVERTS. 525 great merit in asceticism, and, addressing him again in the same familiar style as before, they said :— By those observances, Friend Gautama, b.y those practices, by those austerities, you have not been able to obtain power surpassing that of men, nor the superiority of full and holy knowledge and insight. How will you now, living in abundance, having given up your exer¬ tions, having turned to an abundant life, be able to obtain power surpassing that of men and the superiority of full and holy know¬ ledge and insight 1—Mahavagga, I, 6, 13. The reply which Buddha gave to this embodies a doctrine which would have entitled him to be regarded as one of tbe greatest benefactors of mankind, if he had not insisted upon his followers to give up their connection with the world, and to become monks and nuns. He said :— There are two extremes, O Bhikslius, which he who has given up the world ought to avoid. What are these two extremes ! A life given to pleasures, devoted to pleasures and lusts : this is degrading, sensual, vulgar, ignoble, and profitless : and a life given to mortifica¬ tions, this is painful, ignoble and profitless. By avoiding these two extremes, O Bhikshus, the Tathagata has gained the knowledge of the Middle Path which leads to insight, which leads to wisdom, which conduces to calm, to knowledge, to the Sambodhi, to Nirvana. —Mahavagga, I, 6, 17. A nobler doctrine, no doubt, than that of those who taught their followers to practise self-mortification in every possible form. But as Buddha insisted upon renunciation of home life, it is impossible to give him even the negative credit of having done nothing to make men more miserable than they are by nature. That compliment is due to Manu and Yajnyavalkya, and not to any of the latter day prophets. To return to the story of the first conversions made by Buddha. The sermons which the prophet addressed to his attendants did not at first make any impression. The same questions and the same answers had to be repeated thrice, and, if we are to believe the Buddhist scriptures, the prophet had to struggle hard in order to convince them of the truth of his doctrines. Buddha’s sixth convert was a young man* of Benares named Yasa. He was followed by his parents. While * Mahavagga, I, 7, 4—10. 526 BUDDHA AT RAJ GIRI. the neophyte was passing the first night after his con¬ version in the hermitage of his teacher, his father searched for him in every part of the town. The son had left his slippers on the banks of the Varuna, and the father upon seeing them was led to apprehend that he had been killed by some wild beast. When thus in a state of terrible anxiety he met with Buddha, who, upon being questioned, offered him the information he wanted on condition of his accepting the new faith. Yasa himself became a Bhikshu, while his father, mother and wife remained at home as lay disciples. Fifty-four other men of Benares were led to follow the example of Yasa, so that there were sixty Bhikshus in all at the end of the first year. Buddha deputed these, two by two, to preach his faith in other parts of the country. He himself returned to the vicinity of Gaya, where, before long, he succeeded in converting some of the greatest of the local Pandits, together with their disciples. The prophet had now a very large number of followers, and had acquired such importance that he was invited by King Bimbasara to revisit Raj Giri. A large and commodious garden house, called the Venuvana, or the Bamboo grove, was presented to him by the king. Bimbasara supplied also everything that Buddha and his followers required for food, drink and clothing. Being thus able to keep his followers well-housed and well-fed, Buddha was able to add to the number of his disciples every day. These disciples spent nine months in the year in preaching the new faith, and passed the three months of the rainy season in one of those monasteries that either the kings or the people of the country built in different places for their accom¬ modation. Buddha passed the second year of his ministry in Raj Giri. It was at this period that Sudatta, a rich merchant of Sravasti,* became his disciple, and invited For an account of this city, see p. 188, ante. BUDDHA AT SRAVASTI. 527 him to visit the chief city of Kosala. Buddha suggest¬ ed to him the building of a Vihara for his reception. Sudatta built the monastery of Jetavana, and when everything was ready he sent word to Buddha asking him to take possession. When Buddha arrived at Sra- vasti he was received with great honour, and a formal gift of the Jetavana was made to him. Buddha passed the icos or rainy season of the third year of his ministry in Sravasti. During his residence there King Prasnajit of Kosala was converted to his faith. Shortly after his conversion the King of Kosala sent a message to Suddhodana, congratulating him for hav¬ ing such a great son as the Buddha. Thereupon the King of Kapilavastu sent several messengers to Buddha asking him to visit his parents and relatives. After avoiding compliance for a long time, Buddha at last consented to meet the wishes of his aged father on condition of his building a monastery for the holy order at Kapilavastu. Suddhodana agreed to the con¬ dition, and built a Vihara, to which was given the name of Nyagrodhvana or Banyan grove. When Buddha arrived at Kapilavastu, his father and his other relatives gave him a warm reception. They all embraced his faith, and a great many of them entered the monastic order. Some of these Sakya monks gave great trouble to him afterwards. From the Buddhistic histories it appears that no teacher before Buddha had ever allowed women to enter any monastic order. Buddha himself had, it is said, some misgivings on the subject. It is represented that he regarded women with great distrust, and that he was ultimately obliged to grant them the privilege, for the sake of his favourite disciple Ananda, who pleaded their cause, and for meeting the wishes of his old maternal aunt and step-mother, Mahaprajapati Gau- tami. At the council held at Raj Giri after Buddha’s death, his first locum tenens , Maha Kasyapa, severely censured Ananda for the part that he had taken to get 528 ADMISSION OF FEMALES AS NUNS. women admitted to the holy order.* But when Maha- prajapati Gautami and her companions were admitted as nuns, Ananda’s age cannot have been more than ten years, and it is therefore difficult to see how he could be responsible for enrolling them in the holy orders. The entreaties of Gautami Mahaprajapati, if the story be based upon truth, were certainly irresistible to Buddha. But it seems very probable that he wanted to admit females, more for the sake of adding to the attractions ol monastic life, than for the sake of obliging either Ananda or his aged aunt. Some of the rules laid down for the guidancef of the Bhikshus point to the above conclusion Buddha, like many other mendicants, was a grea; favourite with the softer sex. While yet engaged in his meditations at Gaya, he was attended by a girl named Sujata. Later on he went one day to a neighbourin_ village named Senika, the headman of which had tw. unmarried daughters named Nanda and Nanda Bala These ladies prepared a nice pudding for Buddha, and after putting the same into his alms-bowl, asked him to marry them. Their guest rejected their prayer. But he visited them again when on his way from Benare- to Raj Giri, and on this occasion admitted them into his sect as lay disciples. Another of his devoted femal disciple was the lady of Yaisali called “ Yisakha, thi mother of Mrigadhara,” in the Buddhistic annals. The precise time when Amba Pali, the mistress of Bimbasara, became a disciple of Buddha, is not known Most likely the acquaintance began at the time when Buddha was a student at Raj Giri. At any rate, when he began to preach his new faith, Amba became on of his most devoted disciples, and he not only accepte' the gift of a garden house made by her to him, bu actually partook of her hospitality} with all the monk- * See Rockhill on the Life of Buddha, p. 152. t See ib., pp. 61, 62 ; Cullanvagga X, 1. + See ib,, p. 129; Legge’s Travels of Fa Hian, p. 72. SCHISM AMONG BUDDHA’S FOLLOWERS. 529 iccompanying him. The example thus set by the teacher was perhaps very largely followed by his dis- iples. What the result was may be easily imagined. After the conversion of the Sakya ladies, Buddha vvent to the town of Yaisali, now identified with a village called Bisarah, in the vicinity of Bakhra, in the Muzafferpur district. Yaisali was a sort of free city governed by an oligarchy consisting of its leading residents called the Lichavis. At Vaisali Buddha vanquished in argument Purna Kacyap and many other philosophical teachers. After these feats Buddha went to the Trayastrinsat* heaven, and there preached h faith to his mother and a host of gods. During the period that he was away from earth his disciples were oppressed with grief on account of his absence. He felt compassion for them, and after about three months came down to earth again by a Vaidurya (lapis lazuli) staircase, the foot of which was fixed near an Udum- bar tree in the town of Sankisa near Canouj. A few years before Buddha’s death there was a great schism in his camp, headed by his cousin, Deva Datta. He had been made to enter the holy order by Aratagem, and was never a very sincere follower : Buddha. As Buddha had the confidence of the of King Bimbasara, Deva Datta somehow managed to uake himself a favourite with Ajata Satru, the heir- •ipparent to the throne of Magadha. Ajata Satru brought about the death of his affectionate father in a wry cruel manner ; but Deva Datta’s attempts to put ■in snd to the life of his great cousin were frustrated by gome kind of miracle or other. After the death of Bii ibasara, the inevitable reaction came on in the mind of Ajata Satru. He was sorely oppressed with remorse, and, through the influence of his step-brother and physician Jivan Kumara Bhand, he soon took stepa to be reconciled to Buddha. In Kosala also there took place a revolution similar to that in Magadha. King B, HC See Glossary. 34 530 COLLAPSE OF HIS SCHEMES. Prasnajit’s son, Virudhaka, was led by Ambarisha, a son of the royal chaplain, to dethrone his father, and to compel him to leave the kingdom. The Prime Minister of the State at first refused to help Virudhaka. But the ultimate success of the heir-apparent in attaining the object of his guilty ambition was mainly due to the co-operation of the premier. After his dethronement, Prasnajit repaired to Raj Giri in order to seek for refuge. But be died of hunger and thirst before Ajata Satru could do anything for his relief. The success of the revolution that took place in Kosala was in all probability due to the support that Virudhaka received from the orthodox faction, and not to that of any schism among the followers of Buddha. At any rate, Virudhaka, after ascending the throne of Kosala, never showed any sympathy.for the new faith. On the contrary, he immediately declared war against the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, and, after con¬ quering them, effected their complete destruction. Buddha was, it seems, made an eye-witness of the ruin of his race. After the completion of the conquest of Kapilavastu by Virudhaka, Buddha repaired to Raj Giri and lived there for some time. He had been reconciled to Ajata Satru. But after his humiliation at Kosala, the young king of Magadha apparently refused to treat him and his followers with the liberality that they had been accustomed to before. According to the Buddhistic histories there was a great famine in the country about a year before the prophet’s death, and he was obliged to confess to his army of monks that he was not in position to support them, and that they must shift for themselves. Apparently the prophet felt very much distressed at the collapse of his ambitious schemes, and so he left Raj Giri for good. He had now very nearly completed the usual span of human life, and yet did not think of dying in peace in the city which he had made his head¬ quarters, and where alone he could expect to have a LEAVES RAJ GIRI FOR GOOD. 531 large number of his followers round him during his last moments. On his way to Kushinara, on the Gondah, where he intended to die, the prophet sojourned for a few days at Patali Putra, and the Buddhist chroni¬ cles take care to record that he was there respectfully entertained by Yarshakar, the Brahman Minister of King Ajata Satru. The biographers of the prophet are, however, silent as to the kind of treatment that he received from King Ajata Satru when leaving Raj Giri for good. The omission seems to be significant. After leaving Patna, Buddha made a halt at Vaisali, living there for a few days in the garden house presented to him by Amba Pali, and partaking of the hospitality of the old courtezan. The event in the life of a prophet which causes the greatest strain on the ingenuity of his loyal biographer, is his death. For an exact idea of the manner in which the Buddhistic annalists acquitted themselves in this difficult task, the reader must refer to the original works. The biographers of Buddha some¬ times state the facts without any kind of colouring. But this is not the case throughout. For instance, in many places the favourite disciple Ananda is charged with the responsibility of his master’s death, because of his not asking him to prolong his life.* It is stated also that while at Beluva, a dire illness fell upon Buddha,t but he thought that it would not be right for him to pass away while the congregation of Bhikshus was scattered. So he determined to retain hold on his body until it had accomplished its task. Divested of the coating of legendary colouring, the plain fact was that Buddha recovered from the illness which seized him while he was at Beluva. After passing the rainy season there, he went back to Vaisali and stayed there for a short time. He made * Rockhill’s Life of Buddha, p. 152. + Ib„ p. 130. 532 DIES AT KUSHINARA. up his mind to die at Kushinara, and with that object left Vaisali for good before long. On his way to his intended place of death, he halted at various places, and at one of these, then called Jalauka, he was invited by one Kundu, a worker in metal, to partake of his hospitality. The host put some pork in Buddha’s alms-bowl, and that was the cause of the malady that brought about his death. His demise caused the earth to shake and thunderbolts to fall. His funeral was performed by the Mallas of Kushinara, in accordance with the directions which he gave before his death, and which were as stated in the following report of the conversation he had with Ananda on the subject:— “ Ananda .—How then, Lord, must the Brahmans and householders who are believers honour the Blessed One’s remains. Buddha.— Ananda, they must treat them as those of a King of Kings. Ananda. —Lord, how do they treat the remains of a King of Kings ? Buddha. —Ananda, the body of a King of Kings is wrapped in bands of cotton, and when it has thus been wrapped, it is covered with five hundred layers. After that it is put in an iron-case filled with oil, and it is covered with a double cover of iron; then a funeral pile of all kinds of odoriferous woods is built; the remains are burnt, and the fire is put out with milk. Then they put his bones in a golden casket and in the cross road they build a chaitya over his remains, and with baldachins, flags and streamers, perfumes, garlands, incense and sweet powders, with sounds of music, they honour, praise, venerate and revere him, and celebrate a feast in his honour. So likewise, Ananda, must they treat the Tathagata’s remains.”* These directions may be taken to show what kind of ambition lurked in the heart of the great mendi¬ cant. As instances of suicide in high life are not quite unknown, so there are many cases on record of men in affluent circumstances renouncing home, either for domestic unhappiness, or for love of adventure, or out of a craving for variety. But Sannyash for such causes deserves no more admiration or honour than felo de se. The monarch who sacrifices his personal comfort for the happiness of his subjects has certainly far better claims to be adored by them, than a thought- Rockhill’s Life of Buddha, p. 137. HIS AMBITION FOR SECULAR HONOURS. 533 less heir-apparent who voluntarily sacrifices his prospects with a view to sink into a position of obscurity. A love of physical comforts and worldly honour is inherent in human nature, and whatever in¬ difference an ascetic may profess towards such things, it must be impossible for him to smother altogether his natural craving for them. The late Lala Babu voluntarily left home in the garb of a mendicant, leaving his princely estate in the hands of his wife. But a close study of the methods by which he afterwards acquired the valuable zemindaris in Mathura, Aligar and Bulandshahar that he dedicated to his idol at Brindaban, renders it impossible to give him credit for being even then free from the usual Kayastha instincts. The case with Buddha was appar¬ ently the same. He gave up, it is true, the certain prospect of inheriting the petty principality ruled by his father. But every act done, and almost every word uttered, by him show that he was actuated by a deep-rooted ambition for a far higher position. CHAP. II.—THE RAPID SPREAD OF BUDDHISM AND ITS SUBSEQUENT DISAPPEARANCE FROM INDIA. The instruments and measures which contributed most to the rapid spread of Buddha’s religion were (1) the army of monks that he succeeded in raising ; (2) the admission of Sudras and women to the holy orders ; and (3) the rage for building monasteries that he managed to create. The Hindu law-givers had declared that it was lawful for the Yedic students to live by begging. The inevitable result was that many pretenders assumed the garb of Yedic scholars. At a subsequent time, ascetics like the Nigranthis, without even any pretension of learning, swelled the ranks of beggars. When Buddha commenced his preachings, the number of such mendicants was apparently very considerable. But they never had any organisation, and although, in years of plenty, they could procure their food by beg¬ ging, they had no friend or patron to see that they were well-housed and well-clad, or properly fed in seasons of scarcity. Buddha was able to attract such men by offering them better prospects. There was generally no difficulty about their commissariat. That was man¬ aged by leaving them to billet themselves on the people. The most important thing was to provide them with barracks. Ex hypothesi, they had volun¬ tarily renounced home, and the public could not well he asked to find for them what they professed to have abandoned suo moto, in their indifference to worldly ( 534 ) HOW BUDDHA SECURED MONASTERIES. 535 comfort. The genius of Buddha, however, was ready with a pretext for the new requisition on the laity. The monks were themselves quite indifferent to physi¬ cal comforts and discomforts ; but the practice of severe austerities, and the passing of the rainy season in an uncovered place, were strictly prohibited by their master. By travelling in the rainy season, a monk might unwittingly cause the destruction of insects. That was to be avoided anyhow. As a specimen of the preaching by which kings and rich men were led to build Yiharas and Sangaramas, the following may be referred to :— To give houses to the order, a place of refuge and joy, so that we may there exercise concentration and holy intuition, has been com¬ manded by Buddha as the most noble gift. Therefore let a wise man, who understands what is best for himself, build beautiful houses, and receive into them the knowers of the doctrine. He may give food and drink, clothes and lodging to such the upright with cheerful heart. These preach to him the doctrine which drives away all suffering; if he apprehends the doctrine here below, he goes sinless into Nirvana.— Cullavogga, VI, 15. From the beginning of his career as a prophet, Buddha saw the importance of having for his army of monks suitable habitations. In the second year of his ministry, he managed to get the Venuvana garden house at Raj Giri from King Bimbasara. The next year the merchant prince Sudatta Anatha Pindada was led to build the Jetavanavihara at Sravasti. In the sixth year Suddhodan built, at his son’s request, a monastery at Kapilavastu. The date when Airba Pali presented to Buddha her garden house at Vaisali is not known. In all probability the gift was made at an early period. Sometimes the rich were induced, or compelled by adverse circumstances, to make over all their property to the Sanga. A notable instance was Jyotiska, a merchant of Raj Giri, whose wealth bad excited the jealousy of King Ajata Satru, and led to his persecution in various ways. To avoid further molesta¬ tion, he made over all his estates to Buddha, and enrolled himself a Bhikshu. 536 RAPID SPREAD OF BUDDHISM. Theoretically, the Buddhist monks were entitled to live in their Vihars only during the rains. But, as Sir Monier Williams* rightly observes, such restrictions were soon ignored, and a residence in covered houses became usual at all seasons. Thus homeless beggars were provided with comfortable habitations at the expense of the toiling classes. Through the liberality of the pious men and women among his lay disciples, Buddha was generally able to keep his followers well-housed and well-fed. But there were times when neither the charity of the rich, nor the miraculous powers of the prophet, sufficed to provide his monks with the means of sustenance. Just before his death, when there was a famine in the land, he advised them to billet themselves on their friends and relatives. The occasions for such shifts and expedients, however, were rare. As a general rule, his followers were better housed and better fed than the majority of people. As Buddhism spread, kings, princes and the rich vied with each other for the privi¬ lege of endowing monasteries. The result was that not only were the monks enabled to live in comfort, but a career of ambition was opened to a great many of them. Each of the monasteries became a centre of power. The monk who could manage to become the head of one of them, generally acquired princely wealth and influence. Neither orthodox Hinduism nor any of the pre-Buddhist sects had such attractions for poor men of ambition. Each monastery in the frontier stations became a fresh centre of power, and thus the new religion spread by gigantic strides. To Buddha is given the credit of doing away with caste. He, however, never interfered with the state of things he found among the laity. He ignored caste only so far as to admit all classes to his Sanga, and to allow his monks to take cooked food from even the See Sir Monier William’s Buddhism, p. 428. ADMISSION OF WOMEN AS NUNS. 537 lowest castes. One of his greatest disciples, Upali, was a barber, and be made the junior monks, drawn from the higher castes, bow to him. This innovation may be regarded as praiseworthy by many. Buddha however was no reformer. When it suited his policy, he talked of morality, to discredit the Yedic rituals. But his chief aim in all that he did and said was to attract a swarm of followers, and to that end he sacri¬ ficed everything else. He set at nought some of the noblest rules of discipline imposed on society by the Hindu Shastras. To keep his army w r ell-fed, he made it lawful for them to accept the hospitality of even the degraded. What led Buddha to admit women to holy orders, it is not possible to say. This much seems probable, that they proved one of the chief attractions to the new faith. As the orthodox Hindu religion does not favour the re-marriage of widows, and as in Hindu society an old widower cannot possibly get a bride of such an age as to be a proper mate for him, aged men and women, among the lower castes, are sometimes obliged to embrace one of the modern Vishnuvite faiths for the sake of marriage. It is chiefly by the operation of this cause that fresh recruits are now-a- days secured for the existing monastic orders, and their practice is apparently based on that of the ancient Buddhists, whose place they now occupy. By the orthodox faith, no Hindu lady is permitted to perform any religious rite except in the company, or for the benefit, of her husband. In fact, according to the Hindu Shastras, the only religious duties of a woman are, to obey her husband in his lifetime, and, after his death, to live an abstemious life under the guardianship of her sons or some relative of her deceased lord. Whatever conflicts there may be in our ancient codes as to other points, they all agree in not allowing a woman to go out of the protection of her husband or guardian, for joining any class of mendi- 538 THE RAPID SPREAD OF BUDDHISM. cants. Buddha himself had adopted the same policy at first. The innovation he sanctioned later on has been productive of a deal of mischief. The circum¬ stances which had induced him to the step have been referred to already. It is said that he evinced great reluctance in enrolling among his followers the Bhik- shunis or nuns. It is said also that the regulations originally framed were such as to keep the two sexes completely separate. They were not allowed to live in the same monastery like the matajis and babajis of the present day. The Buddhist nuns were not to reside in forest hermitages, but within the walls of a village or town “ in huts or nunneries, by twos or in greater number, for a sister was not allowed to live alone.”* “ To make a journey with a nun, to go aboard the same boat with her or to sit with her alone and without a witness, was strictly forbidden.”* These were wholesome regulations no doubt. But it is to be feared that the confessional invitations and observances neu¬ tralised them altogether. The nuns were required every half month to “ betake themselves to the monk, who had been named to them, by a resolution of the brotherhood, to receive his spiritual instruction and admonition. In the presence of another monk, that monk sits waiting the nuns, and when they have made their appearance, bowed themselves to the ground, and sat down before him he speaks to them of the eight high ordinances, and expounds to them, either by way of sermon or by question and answer, what he deems profitable of the teaching and maxims of Buddha.”* These rules and regulations may at first sight seem unobjectionable. But such opportunities as they created for contact between the monks and the nuns were tempt¬ ing enough to celibates. As among the modern Yaishnavas, so among the Buddhists, the female devotees proved the source of * Oldenberg’s Life of Buddha, translated by Mr. W. Hoey, pp. 380, 381. ITS DISAPPEARANCE FROM INDIA. 539 both their strength and weakness. Buddha himself, as we have seen, had admitted a courtezan. In their old age the fallen women become anxious to be restored to society. But an orthodox Brahman cannot minister to any of them, without being himself degraded. It is only the followers of the latter-day prophets that can elevate their social status. The rapid spread of Buddhism at first was perhaps due more to the monastic system, the admission of Sudras into the holy orders, and the enrolment of nuns, than to any intrinsic merit of its own. The monasteries in the beginning served like military canton¬ ments and recruiting camps. The wealth of the fallen women served as an attraction to the beggars. But <“>o the admission of such women necessarily brought discredit on the faith, and rendered the continuance of the higher classes in it quite impossible. And when the monasteries themselves became hot-beds of immorality, the whole system melted away under the fierce rays of public opinion among the Brahmans and other higher classes. CHAP. III.—THE RELIGION OF BUDDHA. Buddha never recommended the worship of any deity, visible or invisible, and his religion is therefore usually regarded as godless. To form, however, an exact idea of his faith, it is necessary to examine his tenets in connection with those of the Vedic priests and the Nigranthi ascetics whom he sought to dis¬ credit. The Brahmans were interested in upholding the importance of the great Vedic sacrifices. To make their agency indispensable, the exegetes of the Mimansa school went so far as to declare that the gods had no real existence, and that it was only by the performance of the sacrifices in the manner prescribed by their Shastras, and not by independent prayers, that men could hope to derive the benefit they sought from the invisible powers. The weakest points in the Vedic cult were the denial of the real existence of the gods, and the encouragement it gave to the slaughter of animals, and the drinking of strong liquors. The Nigranthis were the first to protest against these doc¬ trines and practices, and Buddha adopted their tenets with certain modifications so as to suit his policy. The object of the Nigranthis was to discredit Brahmanism, and to secure at least the respect of the mercantile castes. The Ksatriyas, whose proper profession was war, could not feel much aversion towards the bloody and bacchan¬ alian rites of the Brahmans. To keep the fighting classes in good humour, the Vedic priests had to neglect and lower the manufacturing and mercantile castes. ( 540 ) THE RELIGION OF BUDDHA. 541 To secure the veneration of these classes, who are in¬ terested in peace, the Nigranthis made their religion as inoffensive as possible. Buddha wanted to make his religion equally acceptable to both the Ksatriyas and the Vaishyas. He prohibited the killing of animals, but allowed his followers to eat the flesh of animals killed by others. Buddha himself ate flesh meat when given to him as alms. In fact, his death was caused by the eating of pork. The great bugbear of the Hindu theologians of all classes is the necessity of transmigration, and the con¬ sequent difficulty of avoiding the pains of birth, diseases, decay and death. The Vedic priests, with their ritua¬ listic learning, professed the doctrine that the desired liberation from the bonds of flesh was obtainable either by Vedic knowledge, or by the performance of the Vedic sacrifices. The Nigranthis, who were poor and illiterate beggars, found it more convenient to parade their poverty, and to inculcate that the practice of as¬ ceticism was the only way to attain salvation and superior wisdom. Buddha’s object was to organise a large army of monks. He therefore condemned both luxury and asceticism, and recommended moderate living, avoiding both over-indulgence and excessive self-mortification. The way to attain wisdom and beati¬ tude lies, in his opinion, in religious contemplation and the practice of the rules of morality, and not in asceti¬ cism. The Vedic priests of Jaimini’s school denied the real existence of the gods. Buddha not only ad¬ mitted their reality, but emphasized his belief in them, by assigning to them separate and well-defined heavens. He was, however, quite as interested in declaring them powerless as Jaimini himself. The latter taught that the only way to attain happiness and avoid misery was the performance of sacrifices, and that, as the gods had no real existence, prayers addressed to them, in any other form, were useless. Buddha taught (1) that there was nothing but misery in the world ; 542 THE RELIGION OE BUDDHA. (2) that to get rid of this misery men must cease to have desires ; (3) and that cessation of desires could be brought about by every man,—whether Brahman, Ksatriya, Yaishya or Sudra,—by deep meditation, and the observance of certain rules of diet and discipline. The ultimate object of the Yedic priests was to exact as much ghi, meat and wine as possible, by indirect taxation on the Ksatriya princes. The ambition of the Nigrantlii beggars did not extend beyond securing for the benefit of the class the small charities of the niggardly Baniyas. The purpose which Buddha evi¬ dently had in view was to collect round him a cheap and large army of followers, and to be in a position to keep them well-housed and well-fed by the method of direct taxation involved in the claims of the mendi¬ cants for alms. Buddha admitted the existence of the gods, but maintained that they were subordinate to the man of enlightenment, and powerless for good and evil. He did not prescribe any form of liturgy or worship. His object was to make himself a power in the country, and to make men honour him as a god. So he pre¬ scribed for recitation the following formula :— Buddham Saranam G-achami ; Dharmam Saranam Gachami ; Sangam Saranam Gachami. Translation :—I go for refuge to the Buddha ; I go for refuge to the law ; I go for refuge to the order. The deification of Dharma or law in a personified form is certainly free from any taint of selfishness. But as Buddha inculcated the same reverence to himself and to the order founded by him, it cannot be said that his teachings were the outcome of pure philanthropy. The inevitable result of the direction was to lead to the regular worship of Buddha with his Dharma and his Sanga. These three, called the Tri Ratna, or the three jewels, afterwards became the Buddhist Triad. Im¬ ages representing them were set up in the Yihars, and became regular objects of worship. The way being opened, other gods and saints were soon admitted to THE RELIGION OF BUDDHA. 543 the pantheon, and the religion of the great iconoclast became one of the most idolatrous and superstitious faiths in the world. Buddha may not be responsible for all the later accretions. But there cannot be much doubt as to his having struggled hard to be worshipped as a god. He put an end to the old dynasty of kings, not for giving liberty to the people, but only to step into the throne himself under a new name. For an account of the later phases of Buddhism and the development of abomination worship in connection with it, the reader must refer to treatises expressly devoted to the subject. CHAP. IV.—THE MORALITY OF THE RELIGION OF BUDDHA. It has been already observed that Buddhism was perhaps one of the earliest of the morality-preaching religions. The early Vedic faith was more concerned with rainfall and other worldly matters, than with the inculcation of ethical principles. Buddha and his prin¬ cipal disciples professed to have miraculous powers for controlling the course of natural phenomena. But they performed miracles by the mere exercise of their will, and not, like the Brahmans, by incantations—by burning of ghi, libation of wine, or the slaughtering of animals. It must, however, be mentioned here that Buddha never encouraged the performance of miracles by his followers. On the contrary, he censured them severely whenever they displayed their powers in violation of his orders. Thus the Buddhistic scriptures countenance the pre¬ tensions of the monks, and at the same time supply them with a pretext for avoiding requisitions for exhi¬ biting their powers. So far as Buddha preached such rules of morality as the Pancha Sila, his religion deserves every praise. The fundamental principles of his moral code were—(1) kill no living creature ; (2) steal not; (3) commit not adultery ; (4) lie not; (5) drink not strong drink. For teaching such ethics, he is entitled to the heart-felt gra¬ titude of the world. But there is nothing in his cult to show that the teaching of morality was his sole or his principal object. The Vedic religion, which ( 544 ) buddha’s morality. 545 prevailed in his time, encouraged, for sacrificial pur¬ poses, the killing of animals, and the drinking of strong liquors. The abuse had, at one time, become very great, as appears from the Mimansa and the Brahmana litera¬ ture. The first to raise the voice of protest were the Nigranthis. However, Buddha also deserves due credit for holding up to ridicule the Vedic sacrifices. Buddha was digging for the foundations of a new religion, and he naturally treated without mercy the weak points of the ancient faith. But the religion and practices that he inculcated were very far from being unalloyed blessings. The Brahmanical Shastras caused no doubt a great waste of the resources of the country, for the cultivation of a kind of learning the value of the greater part of which might certainly be questioned. But while the exactions of the Vedic priests were occa¬ sional and justifiable to some extent, Buddha imposed on his countrymen the burden of a standing army of idlers. It may be alleged that some of the Buddhist monks were men of true piety, and did good to society by earnest efforts to improve its morality. But it is diffi¬ cult to suppose that the Buddhist monks and nuns were of a better type than the Vishnuvite Babajis, Matajis or Mohants that we see at the present day. The fact seems to be that the wifeless and childless cenobites— and especially those who hold charge of the rich monas¬ teries or are otherwise well provided—cannot have any regard for public opinion, and their inevitable tenden¬ cy, in most cases, is to drift into a disreputable course of life. The preaching of morality by such men is out of the question. In his zeal for the success of his own religion, Buddha tried to upset even the best and most unexceptionable sides of Brahmanism. The Shastric laws relating to social discipline are based upon an express recognition of the natural wants, necessities and appetites of men. For instance, the orthodox codes not only regard mar¬ riage as allowable, but make it imperative on every b, hc 35 546 buddha’s moral teachings. man and woman. Such legislation is beyond all praise and, at any rate, is intelligible. But it does not seem possible to view in the same light the laws imposed by Buddha on liis followers. His injunctions were that all able-bodied and healthy men, not in the service of the king, should sever their connection with the world, should lead a life of celibacy, and should live on the charity of the public. If universally accepted, such legislation would tend to the total extirpation of the human race. Surely that was not the object of the great prophet. What then was it ? A careful review of his life and teachings leads to the conclusion that his sole object was to make himself a power in the country, by organising an army of monks. He professed to have found a remedy for the miseries of this world. He professed to be a teacher of morality. But the actual result of his teachings was to increase, rather than diminish, the sum total of human misery and immorality. By following him, some of his monks and nuns derived no doubt certain advan¬ tages. But their gains were like those of the comrades of a Nadir Shah or a Mahmood of Ghazni. They con¬ tributed nothing, either directly or indirectly, to the production of wealth, and whatever they gained was only so much loss to the world. The demoralisation that was caused by Buddha’s teachings may be gathered from the following account of the circumstances under which he ruled that minors, under the age of twenty, were not to be ordained as monks:— 1. At that time there was in Rajgraha a company of seven¬ teen boys, friends of each other : young Upali* was first among them. Now Upali’s father and mother thought: How will Upali after our death live a life of ease and without pain ? Then Upali’s father and mother said to themselves : ‘If Upali could learn writing, he would after our death live a life of ease and without pain.’ But then Upali’s father and mother thought again: If Upali learns writing, his fingers will become sore; but if Upali could learn arithmetic, he would, after our death, live a life of ease without pain. * This Upali is different from the famous Upali who was one of the chief disciples of Buddha ; the latter came not from Raj Griha, but from the Sakya ountry. HIS CLAIMS TO BE ADORED. 547 2. But then Upali's father and mother thought again : ‘ If Upali learns arithmetic, his breast will become diseased.’ But if Upali •could learn money-changing, he would, after our death, live a life of ease and comfort, and without pain. But then Upali’s father and mother said to themselves: ‘If Upali learns money-changing, his eyes will suffer. Now here are the Sakka Puttiya Samanas who keep commodious precepts and live a commodious life; they have good meals and lie down on beds protected from the wind. If Upali could be ordained with the Sakkya Puttiya Samanas, he would, after our death, live a life of ease and without pain.’— Mahavarjga, I, 49, 1-2. From the above, it would appear that the Buddha’s monks were, in his time, believed to live in greater com¬ fort than even clerks, accountants and money-changers. If this was actually so, the economical demoralisation caused by him must have been very serious, and such as could be rectified only by bitter experience. Whatever the case may have been in Buddha’s lifetime, there cannot be any doubt that after his death the majority of the monks had to pass their lives in great misery. If they had been left free to marry and to work for bread, they might have become happier and more use¬ ful members of society. The fact that they often broke their vows* shows how galling the restraints were to which they subjected themselves. No doubt, they acted with their eyes wide open. But the majority of men in this world are utterly incapable of guiding themselves by their own judgment. They allow themselves to be fascinated by fine words and clever jugglery. When their guides lead them rightly, they deserve to be worshipped as benefactors of mankind. It is, how¬ ever, impossible to accord that credit to a teacher who* gave the utmost encouragement to all classes to become monks and nuns. * A great many of such cases formed the occasions for fresh legis¬ lation. See Mahamgga. PART VIII. THE JAINS. CHAP. I.—THE RELATIVE ANTIQUITY OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM. From what has been already stated in connection with the religions of the mercantile castes, it will have appeared clear that Jainism is one of the most important of the living cults among the Hindus. It is professed by at least a million men, and some of those are among the wealthiest and most refined in the Hindu community. It seems to be a very ancient religion, having apparent¬ ly a more hoary antiquity than even Buddhism. The Buddhist scriptures speak of certain hostile sects called the Nigranthis and the Tirthikas. In all probability these were the very sects that, at a sub¬ sequent period, came to be designated Jains. The ’Nigranthis were evidently so-called, in early times, on account of their having no written scriptures. They secured the veneration of the public by the practice of austerities, by pretending to work miracles, and by professing tenderness for every form of animal life. To them written scriptures were unnecessary, and even if their early teachers possessed sufficient learning and capacity for recording the tenets and legends of their cult, it was perhaps more to their interest to deny the utility of all written scriptures than to give counte- ( 548 ) EARLY HISTORY OF JAINISM. 549 nance to bookish blind faith. However, their success soon brought literary men to the field, and the example of the Buddhists led them to compile canonical treatises on the model of those of Buddha. It was not until then that the members of the sect began to evince a prefer¬ ence for the designation of Jain. They never dis¬ avowed their identity with the old Nigranthis. In fact, there are passages in the Jain scriptures where their authors speak of themselves and their sect as the Nigranthis. But the word is now interpreted as deno¬ tative of persons who are not bound to this world by any tie. This interpretation is rendered necessary by the fact that, if taken in its true and natural sense, the old designation of the sect might serve to discredit the authenticity of its modern scriptures. As to the sect called the Tirthikas in Buddha’s time, it is hardly necessary to observe that its very name goes a great way to establish its identity with the Jains who worship the Tirthankaras. The existence of the Jain religion before Buddha’s time, is rendered probable by a great many other facts. The Jains believe in twenty-four deified saints called by them Jinas and also Tirthankaras, of whom at least the last two, namely, Paresanath and Mahavira alias Yardhamana, were historical personages. In the Jain Kalpa Sutras it is stated that Ivumara Pal will found Anhilwara Patan and become a disciple of Hem Chan¬ dra 1,669 years after the death of Mahavira. There is independent evidence to shew that the conversion of Kumar Pal took place about 1174 A.D., and conse¬ quently the last Jina had passed away about 500 years before Christ. The Jains of Bengal reckon Yardha¬ mana to have lived 580 years before Vikramaditya, i.e., in the seventh century B.C. According to the Jain histories, Mahavira lived in the sixth century B.C. This date being given by authors who evidently lived at a much later period, and who were interested in a hoary antiquity for their prophets, may not be regarded 550 THE NIC4RANTHI SECT OF B'UDDHA’s TIME. as thoroughly reliable. But it is corroborated to some extent by Buddhist books. According to the sacred history of the Jains, Mahavira had many disciples, among whom was Gosala, who headed a schism which led to the formation of a sect called the Ajivakas. This sect, and the name of its founder, are distinct¬ ly referred to in the earliest of the Buddhist scriptures. The Buddhist sacred writings frequently speak of a hostile teacher bearing the name of Nigantha Nata- putra, who went about naked in the streets, and whom Buddha vanquished in argument. The Jain Kalpa Sutras also speak of Mahavira by the name of Nata- putra. There is, therefore, good reason for holding that Buddha and Mahavira were contemporaries. In the Jain scriptures, a Gautama is spoken of as one of the disciples of Mahavira. But the Gautama of the Jains was a Brahman, and the account of his life, as given in their sacred books, does not tally in any way with what is known regarding the personal history of Buddha. However, as Buddha himself is called a Jina, and as he at one time sought to attain wisdom by the practice of austerities, like the Nigranthis, it is not impossible that he was a disciple of Mahavira. This view receives material support from the fact that the Sakyamuni is sometimes spoken of in the sacred books of his cult as the twenty-fifth Buddha or Jina. As according to the Jains, Mahavira was the twenty- fourth Jina, it may be that Buddha was originally a disciple of Mahavira, and that, after organising a new schism, he proclaimed himself as the twenty-fifth Jina. If the Jains are not the same as the Nigranthis and the Tirthikas, they are, at any rate, followers of a similar faith. The Vedic Brahmans indulged in animal food, intoxicating drinks and other luxuries. The Ni- granthis were perhaps the first to protest against these practices in the most uncompromising manner. The Jains profess the same tenderness for every living WAS IT THE SAME AS THE JAINA. 551 creature, and the same aversion from flesh meat. The Nigranthis practised asceticism for the attainment of beatitude. The Jain monks do the same. The Nigran¬ this went about without any garment. The Digambara Jains are, according to their name, naked ascetics. We do not know what gods or saints the ancient Nigranthis worshipped. To that extent alone there is room for doubt as to the identity of the Jains with the pre-Buddhist Nigranthis. Whatever doubts there may be as to the period when the Jain religion, as we find it now, first origin¬ ated, there cannot be any question as to its apper¬ taining to an earlier stratum of religious thought than Buddhism. This is proved historically by the Jain’s identity with the pre-Buddhist Nigranthis and also by an examination of their ascetic nature. Their asceticism, and extreme tenderness for every form of animal life, are the outcome of a spirit of bitter hostility to the Vedic religion. Buddha steered a middle course. He preached that “ unkindness cannot purify a mortal who has not overcome desires.” He forbade the killing of animals, but allowed his followers to eat flesh meat. In fact, even to the last, he never sought to overcome his Rajput predilection for pork. It seems reasonable then to conclude that Buddhism arose in India at a later period than Jainism. In all probability the Jain faith had been established among the mercantile classes long before Buddha, and when Buddha preached his new faith he did not find it possible to secure any class as a whole among his followers. The Ksatriyas were from time immemorial in the hands of the Brahmans. The peaceful religion of the Nigranthis had greater attraction for the mercantile Banyas. Buddha found both the fields occupied, and addressed himself more to organise monasteries and missionaries, than to secure, among his lay disciples, any particular class of citizens. If the Jain faith is not the same as that of the pre- Buddhist Nigranthis, then it must be held to have had 552 THE NAME JAIN A : ITS MODERN ORIGIN. its origin at a much later period than Buddhism. It is true that the Jain scriptures place the last of their Tirthankaras before Buddha. But there is no reliable proof that any religion bearing the name of Jainism existed before the era of Christ. CHAP. II.—THE NATURE OF THE JAIN A RELIGION. Like the Buddhists, the Jains reject the authority ot' the Vedas, and deny the spiritual supremacy of the Brahmans. But they do so more in theory than for practical purposes. In actual practice, they celebrate most of the purificatory rites prescribed by the Brah- manical Shastras,and employ Brahmans as priests for the performance of these, as well as for offering worship to their deified saints. They show greater respect to their yatis or monks than to the Brahmans who serve as their priests. The yatis are recruited from all the higher castes. They live in monasteries, where, at stated times, they recite their holy books before the audience of lay visitors that assemble on such occa¬ sions. They also deliver extempore sermons and lec¬ tures before their co-religionists. They never do any priestly service in connection with the worship of any deity or saint, or for the performance of any domestic rite. The middle class yatis cast horoscopes, and give astrological advice to their constituents. But the higher class yatis refuse to do even that kind of work. There are two principal sub-sects among the Jains. One of these bears the name of Digambara ; and the other Swetambara. The word Digambara means sky clad , i.e., naked, and the Digambari Jains are so called because some of their monks go about in the streets naked, and because their images are never dressed or ornamented. The Swetambars are so called because their monks wear white robes. A Swetambari monk ( 553 ) THE JAIN GACHAS. 554 may carry an alms bowl in bis hand. A Digbambar i/ati is not allowed to do so, and has to receive his food in the palm of his hands. The Swetambaris carry with them a brush and a handkerchief for preventing flies from entering the mouth or the nose. The Digambaras do not attach any importance to the Chamar or the Puttika. The Ossawalis are all Swetambari Jains. In Southern India, Jaypore and Behar, the Digambaris are more numerous than the Swetambaris. The majority of the Agarwals are Vishnuvites. Of those among them who profess the Jain faith, the greater number are Digam¬ baras. In Northern India, there are no Jains outside the mercantile Baniya classes. In Southern India, there are Jains having a higher or lower caste status. In Punjab there is a caste called Pabra who are all said to be Jains. The Jaina monks are not allowed to marry. A man of any caste may be a Jaina yati. The Jaina monks beg cooked food, taking a spoonful from each house. They do not take coins. They have no regular monas¬ teries, and usually live in Dharmasalas, or guest houses, founded by the lay Jains. When they do so the} r do not take any kind of alms from the proprietor of the establishment. They always travel on foot, and are not allowed by the rules of their order to ride on a palki, carriage or horse. Formerly they were divided into a large number of Gachas or brother¬ hoods. Most of these have ceased to exist since long. The only Gachas existing now are the following :— 1. Khartar Gaclia. •2. Tapa Gacha. 3. Kamala Gacha. 4. Lonka Gacha. 5. Pachani Gacha. Each Gacha forms a distinct brotherhood. But a difference of Gacha does not imply any difference of religion. There are, however, sub-divisions among both THE JAIN A SUB-SECTS. 555 the Digambaris and the Swetambaris which originated in doctrinal differences. The Digambaris have the following sub-orders among them :— 1. Mula Sangi ... These use brushes of peacock’s feathers, wear red garments and receive alms in their hands. 2. Kashta Siangis... These worship wooden images and employ brushes of the tail of yak. 3. The Tera Panthis The Tera Panthis do not worship images, and have neither temples nor yatis. Their lay presbyters re¬ cite their sacred books and serve as teachers of the faith for the benefit of younger generations. 4. Bis Panthis ... These worship images, but make their offerings in front of them and not on them. There are similar sub-sects among the Swetambaris. They are as follow :— 1. Lumpaka 2. Bais Tala 3. Tera Panthi 4. Dhoondias ... Founded by .Jinendra Suri in the 16th century. These do not worship images. ... Founded by a teacher named Raghu- nath. ... Founded by a teacher named Bhikan Nath, and hence called also Bhikan Panthi. These discard images, and keep their mouths veiled when they go out. ... These keep their mouths veiled at all times, and affect to conform strictly to all the moral rules of their reli¬ gion. They do not worship images. They have nuns among them called Dhoondis. The Jain laity are called Sravaks (vulf/. Soragi). The word Sravak literally means hearer, and the desig¬ nation is applied to the laity, because it is their duty to hear the sermons and recitations delivered by the yatis. The Jain’s daily routine of prayers is neither long nor complicated. The yatis are not bound by any rules at all, and the Sravak is only required to visit a temple, to walk round the images within it three times, to make an obeisance to the idols with an offering, 556 .1 AINA FESTIVALS AND SHRINES. and pronounce some such mantra or salutation formula as the following :— Namo Arhatanam ; Namo Siddhanara ; Namo Aryanam; Namo Upadhyanam ; Nama Loe Sabba Sahunam. Translation : —Salutation to the Arhats ; salutation to the Saints who have attained the supreme objects of their religious life ; salu¬ tation to the Sages ; salutation to the Teachers ; salutation to all the Devout in the world. The Jain Sravaks wear neither the sacred thread, nor any necklace of wooden beads to denote their religion. They do not paint any kind of mark on their foreheads like the Hindus properly so called. The chief festivals of the Jains take place on the days con¬ secrated by the birth and death of their last two Tir- thankars. The Jains observe some of the Hindu festivals also, as for instance the following :— 1. Sri Pancliami, or the worship of the goddess of learning in the month of Magh (January—February). 2. Vasanta Yatra, or the spring festival popularly called Holi. 3. Aksaya Tritiya, or the day of the commencement of the Satya Yuga. The chief places of Jaina pilgrimage are the follow¬ ing : 1. Girnar ... In Gujrat. 2. Abu. ... In Rajputana. 3. Benares ... The place where Parswanath was born. 4. Pareshnath ... A hill in the district of Hazaribag, Bengal, where Parswanath attained enlightenment. 5. Kundalgrama ... The birthplace of Mahavira. It is in the vicinity of the Laksmi Sarai Station, B. I. Railway. 6. Papapuri ... The place where Mahavira died. It is near Raj Giri. INDEX AND GLOSSARY. Abadhuta Sanyasi—A person who professes to be a mendicant of the class called Sanyasi, but has not been regularly initiated to the order—384. Abhir— The name of a tribe of cowherds found in almost every part of Northern India—91, 297. Abhir Gor— A class of Guzrati Brahmans who minister to the Abhirs of the locality as priests—81, 126. Achari— The general name of certain classes of divines among the Srivaishnavas — 438, 444. Acharlu— One of the surnames of the Srivaishnava Brahmans of Southern India. The word is formed by the addition of “ lu,” the Telegu sign of the plural, to the Sanskrit Acharya— 439. See Charlu. Acharya— originally it meant a Vedic teacher—27. in some parts of India the family Guru is also called Acharya — 437. the word is now used as a surname by some families of Brahmans — it is also one of the class names of the astrologer caste—173. in Western India there is a class of Brahmans who are called Acharyas, but who, like the Maha-Brahmans of Northern India, are considered as degraded persons on account of accepting funeral gifts—129. Adhikari— Lit. an officer ; a person in possession. It is the general name of some classes of Vishnuvite Brahmans in Bengal and Orissa—60, 62. Adhya —Lit. a rich man. A surname of the Sonar Baniya caste of Bengal—200. Am — Original.— Ahi-Brahmo Samaj — See Brahmo. Adi Gaur— The name of a class of Brahmans of the Kurukslietra country — 52. ( 557 ) 558 INDEX. Adi Sur—T he name of a King of Bengal who reigned over] the country in the ninth century of the Christian era—35, 37, 17S, 180. Aditya— Lit. sun. A surname of the inferior Dakshina Rat-hi Kayasthas of Bengal—179. Adrai Ghar —Lit. two and a half houses. The name of the highest sections among' the Sarswat Brahmans and the Kshettris of the Pan jab—56, 143. Adwaita —A Barendra Brahman of Santipore who was one of the chief associates of the prophet Chaitanya—465. Adwaita Yadi —The school of Hindu philosophy, according to which the only existing principle of the universe is the Divine soul, and everything else is but a manifestation of it—441. Agarwala— A very wealthy class of Baniyas—52, 202, 205. Agasala —One of the names of the goldsmith caste of Mysore—244. Agasia—O ne of the names of the washermen caste of Mysore- 308, 314. AGHORI — A sect of very filthy habits now nearly extinct—344, 391. Agra Bhikshu —Lit. a beggar who accepts the first dole in a distribution of charitable gifts— it is the name of a class of Brahmans in Orissa who are considered as degraded persons on account of accepting funeral gifts- 129. Agradani— Lit. an acceptor of first gifts—129. a class of degraded Brahmans in Bengal who accept funeral gifts—14, 129. AfK Atrading caste of Upper India—203, 212. Agricultural Brahmans—131. Agricultural Castes— The chief agricultural castes : (1) Of Bengal—282, 300. (2) Of the Central Provinces—284. (3) Of the Panjab—285. (4) Of the Telegu country—286. (5) Of Mysore—287. (6) Of Dravira—288. Aguri _An agricultural caste of Burdwan claiming to be of the military order—156. Ahamdians— An inferior section of the Maravan tribe of Southern Dravira—154. AhaR— A cowherd caste of Upper India—297. Ahinroo— A surname of the superior classes of the Maratta tribe—149. AHIR-296. See Abhir. INDEX. 559 AlCH—A surname : (1) Of the inferior Dakshina Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengal—179. (2) Of the Tantis or the weaver caste of Bengal proper — 230. Ajata Satru —Lit. one who has no enemies. The name of the king who ruled over Magadha at the time of Buddha’s death—529. Akali —A class of Sikhs—515. Akbar—T he Great Mogul Emperor—133. Allauddin— Emperor of Delhi— 133. Altar— (1) Abolition of idolatry leads to book-worship, altar-worship, monastery-worship, or guru-worship—338. (2) Altar*worship is practised in some countries by poor rustics who cannot afford to have regular idols—256, 258. Aluna— An ascetic who does not eat salt—406. Amar Das— The third Sikh Guru—500. Amat — A clean Sudra caste of Behar—311. Ambalvashi— Namburi Brahmans of Travancore who are degraded by serving as priests in the public shrines—108, 127. Ajiba Pali —One of the chief female disciples of Buddha — 528. Ambastha— (1) A caste of mixed descent according to Mann’s code, supposed to be represented by the medical caste of Bengal—159. (2) A class of Kayasthas found in Behar—188. Ambatta— The barber caste of the Dravira country—306. Amma Kodaga—A priestly class found in Coorg. They are called also Kaveri Brahmans—105. AMRITA Diksha —Lit. initiation in nectar or immortality. The name of the Sikh ceremony of baptism—513. ANAND—Lit. delight: (1) The most usual surname assumed by Sivites and Tantries affecting a saintly character — 389. (2) The name of the favourite cousin and disciple of Buddha—528. Ananda Charlu— The Hon’ble—97, 439. Ananda Giri—O ne of the immediate disciples of Sankaracliarya and the author of the Sankara Digvijaya —375. Anavala — A class of Brahmans found in the tract of country between Broach and Daman. They are called also Bhatela—78. Andhra —The ancient name of the north-eastern part of the Nizam’s dominions — 98. Andhra Vaishnava — The Tailangi Brahmans who are followers of Ramanuja—98. Angat— The second Sikh Guru—500. Annals of Rajasthan— Tod’s— 68, 203, 455. Anookul Chundra Mookerji—The late Mr. Justice—42. Aparajita— A hymn, the recital of which is supposed to be effective in curing fever—328. INDEX. 5 (JO Araphya— Lit. deserving to be worshipped. A class of Tai'angi Brahmans who minister as gurus to the higher classes of i gaits—101. Aranya— Lit. ajforest. One of the surnames of the Sankarites- Arjoon— (1) The most heroic and chivalrous of the five Pandava bro 1 < -426. (2) The fifth Sikh Guru—501. Ak.toon Misra — The author of a commentary on the Mahabhfi -36. Arkasala —One of the names of the goldsmith caste of My -244. See Agasala. Arorha —A tribe of the Punjab claiming to be of the military ca • but living chiefly by the practice of trade—142, 239. See Rorlia. Arrain —An agricultural t ibe of the Panjab—285. Artisan —The average income of the Indian artisans—247. Arvatta Vakkalu— A class of Karnatic Brahmans—91. Arvelu —A class of secular Brahmans of the Telegu country— 99. Asceticism— not encouraged by orthodox Hinduism—377. the advantages and disadvantages of asceticism for pur of priestcraft—357. practised chiefly by the illiterate and the poor who have nothing to parade except their poverty—541. Ash —A surname of the Tantis or the weavers of Bengal—230. Ashta Bans —A clan of the Sarswat Brahmans of the Panjab- 56. Astama —The name of a class of the writer caste of Upper In 186, 191. Ashta Sahasra— Lit. the eight thousand. A class of Di- Brahmans, 95, 96. Asopa— A class of Brahmans found in Manvar—66. Asram —Lit. a dwelling-place. The styles of living recommended by the Hindu Codes of law at different periods in the lif person of the twice-born castes—376. one of the surnames of the Sankarites—376, 380. Assam— (1) The Brahmans of Assam—112. (2) The Bez or medical caste of Assam—172. (3) The Ganak or astrologer caste of Assam—174. (4) The Kolita or writer caste of Assam—196. (5) The Mahapurushia sect of Assam—478. Astrologer— the various names of the astrologer castes—173. their low position—173. Asupra Pratigrahi— A Brahman who does not accept a Su gifts—230. INDEX. 561 A fiARVA Vedi— A class of Brahmans found in Orissa—64. At'TU Ediyar— A caste of shepherds found in the Dravira coun¬ try—305. Audichya— Lit. Northern. A class of Gujrati Brahmans—73, 74, 76. Audichya Prakas— An apocryphal portion of the Skanda Pa¬ rana,—74. A lia Gossain— Lit. bishop No. I. A religious teacher from whom the founder of the Karta Bhaja sect of Bengal professed to have derived his inspiration, but who, in all probability, was not a really existing personage—352. \v \TAR —Lit. one who comes down from heaven. An incarnation- 417, 418. A asti— One of the surnames of the Brahmans of Northern India—49* A v vNGAR— One of the usual surnames of the Sri Vaishnava Brah¬ mans of Southern India—439. A i ar— The usual surname of the Smarta Brahmans of Dravira—95 AYODHYA— The Sanskrit name of the province called Oude in English—419. Ayodhya Bansi— Lit. persons claiming to be descended from natives of Oude. The name (1) of a class of Baniyas found in Upper India—204, 215. (2) of a class of Kalwars or brewers—257. Babaji —Lit. Revered father. The general name of the Vishnnvite mendicants of Bengal—465. IUbburu Kamme— A class of Brahmans found chiefly in Mysore— 92, 545. Babu— meaning and use of the epithet—22, 179. Babus of Calcutta—179. Bai ui—O ne of the surnames of the cowherd caste of Bengal—301. t-lACCHUS—The identity of the Greek God Bacchus and the Indian deity bearing the name of Siva—368. Badahre—A surname of the Khettris of the Punjab—143. Badari Nath— The name of the Hindu shrine on the Himalayan slope in the district of Gharwal—375, 383. BaI/IGA —The name of the carpenter caste in Northern Deccan—247. B com—A surname of the Barendra Brahmans of Bengal—42. B a 01 —An aboriginal tribe of wood cutters, fishermen and litter carriers—125. B \ ha —From Byaghra which means tiger. A surname of the Khandaits of Orissa—148. BAGRI—The tract of country which now forms the Presidency Divi- ion of Bengal—301. B, HC 36 562 INDEX. Bahadoor Shah— The last of the titular Emperors of Delhi—332. Bahel— A surname of the Punjabi Kshettris—143. Bahelya— One of the criminal tribes of Upper India—317. Bahir Bas—A piece of cloth worn round the waist by mendi¬ cants— 445, 467. Bahu Balendra— Lit. like the god Indra in strength of arms. Used as a surname by some of the Kliandaits of Orissa—148. Bairagi— Lit. a person disgusted with the world. The general name of Yishnuvite mendicants—444. BAIS—The name : (1) of a tribe of Rajputs—13-5 (2) of a tribe of Baniyas—204, 216. Bais Tola— A subsect of the Jains—555. Baithak— Place of rest—454. Baitak Khana- The building or room in the dwelling house of an Indian nobleman where the male members of the family trans¬ act business and receive visits from outsiders—121. Baiti— A low caste found in Bengal—269. Bakhra— A town in the district of Mozufferpore near the site of the ancient free city of Vaisali—187. Bala Gopala— Lit. the cowherd boy. The character in which Krishna is worshipped by some of the Vishnuvites, and especially by the Ballabites—453. Bala Hari— The name of a man of the sweeper caste of Meherpore in Nadiya, who founded a religious sect—493. Balai —The name of the Chamars of Bikanir—268. Balaram— The elder brother of Krishna—424. Baligi —An agricultural tribe of Southern India—288. Balji Komati— A section of the Komati, or the trading caste of the Madras Presidency—221. Ballavacharya— One of the chief Yishnuvite sect founders—451. Ballabhite Shrines— 455. Balmiki— (1) The author of the Ramayan—421. (2) The name of a class of Kayasthas found in Western India- 186, 191. See Valmiki. Bamaohari— Lit. left hand ritualists. It is the name of the class of Sakti worshippers who offer intoxicating liquors to their deity and drink the same—409. See Dakshinachari. Bambi—O ne of the castes of Rajputana that has the same status and hereditary occupation as the Chamars—268. Bana— A forest. One of the surnames of the Sankarites—376. Banaili—S ee Raja of Banaili—il. INDEX. 563 Banda—A cruel and fanatical Sikh General who became the leader of the sect after the death of Guru Govind—307. Bandyopadhya— A surname of the Rarhi Brahmans of Bengal—38 Bancadhikari— An Uttara Rarhi Kayastha family of Dahpara in the suburbs of Moorshidabad, whose ancestors were the chief fiscal officers under the Mahomedan rulers—177. BANGAJA— Lit. born in Bengal. The name :— (1) of a section of the Vaidya, or medical caste of Bengal—161. (2) of a section of the Kayastha, or writer caste of Bengal—183. Banik —See Baniya. Baniya— (1) Derivation of the name—198. (2) Common name of the mercantile castes—8. (3) A wealthy class entitled to be regarded as Vaishyas—8, 198. (4) Baniyas of Bengal—198. (5) Baniyas of Northern India—203. (6) Baniyas of Gujrat — 218. (7) Baniyas of Orissa—223. Ban.tai— The name of the higher sections of the Sarswat Brahmans and Ksliettris of the Punjab—55, 56, 142. Banjari— 318. Bankers —Hindu bankers — 208, 211. BANODHYA— From Banodh , the name of the tract of country embra¬ cing the modern districts of Unao and Rai Bareily—38, 257. Bana Prastha—A forest recluse— 377. Bansa.ja —A class of the Rarhi Brahmans of Bengal whose position is inferior to that of the Kulins—38. Bansi Lal Abir Chand—A Mahesri Baniya of Bikanir, and one of the richest bankers of India — 211. Banshhor— Lit., a bamboo perforer. A branch of the Dom tribe of basket makers—26. Baori— One of the aboriginal tribes of West Burdwan—317, 464. Bapu Deo Shastri— Late Professor of Mathematics, Government Sanskrit College, Benares — 85. Baral—A surname common among a large number of the superior castes of Bengal—200. Baranwal— A class of Baniyas found in Upper India—204, 215. Bara Seni—A class of Baniyas found in Upper India—204, 214. Bakat—A surname of the Vaidyas or medical caste o Bengal—161. Barber Castes— 306. Bardhan— A surname of the inferior Dakshina Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengal—179. 564 INDEX. Barendra —Sanskrit name of the part of North Bengal which embx-aces the districts of Rajsliahi, Pubna and Bogra. The name: (1) of a class of Brahmans found chiefly in the above-mentioned districts—42, 44. (2) of a section of the Vaidya, or medical caste of Bengal—161. (3) of a section of the Kayastha or writer caste of Bengal—184. (4) of a section of the cowherd caste—301. Barhi —The carpenter caste of Northern India—246. Bari —A class of Brahmans found in Sindh—57. Barik —A surname of the Goalas of Bengal—301. Baroj— A pan garden—292. Barsya— A surname of the Sanadhya Brahmans of Upper India—51. B A RTJI—The caste of pan growers—291. Basak— A surname of the weaver caste of Bengal—230. Basava —The founder of the Linga-worshipping sect of Southern India—101, '395. Bastt— A surname of the Agui-is and of the Dakshina Rarh and Bangaja Kayasthas of Bengal—158, 179, 184. Basil— The venex-ation of the Vashnuvites for the basil plant, and the necessity of basil leaves for worshipping Vishnuvite idols—275, 467. See Necklaces and Rosaries.. Basket-makers and Mat-makers—269. Batuka VaIRABA—A hymn, the recital of which is supposed to be effective in curing fever—326. Baul—F i-om Batul, a madman. A class of beggars who px-etend to be mad on account of religious fervour, and try to uphold their pi-etension by their fantastic dress, dirty habits, and the queer philosophy of their songs—482. Bedi —The class of the Punjabi Kshettri caste, of which the great, Sikh prophet Guru Nanak was a member—142, 518. Bedia— Herbalists and snake-catchers—217. Behar— (1) The Brahmans of Behar—48. (2) The Bhuinhai-s of Behar—109. (3) The writer castes of Behar—186, 191. (4) The Baniyas of Behar—216, 217. (5) The weavers of Behar—232. (6) The ironsmiths of Behai’—241. (7) The goldsmiths of Behar—244. (8) The gi’ain parchers of Behar—251. (9) The tadi-drawing castes of Behar—260. (10) The deities worshipped by the low caste Hindus of Behar 256, 258, 272. Beldar —A caste of navvies found in Upper India—265. Bera—A surname of the Kaibarta caste of Midnapui - —281. INDEX. 565 Beri —A surname of the Punjabi Kshettris — 143. Beri Komati—A section of the Koniati or the trading caste of the Telegu country — 221. Besta— Tlie caste that work as boatmen, fishermen and litter carriers in Mysore—316. Betel leaf —The manner in which it is eaten—291. Bez —The name of the medical caste of Assam — 172. Bhava Nand Majeemdar— The ancestor of the Nadiya Rajas who first acquired for the family a conspicuous position—36, 183. Bhaij Bhunj a — A caste of grain parchers found in Upper India — 251. Bhadra — Lit., a gentleman. A surname of the Daksliina Rarhi and Bangaja Kayastlias of Bengal—179, 184. Bhaduri —A surname of the Barendra Brahmans of Bengal—42. Bhagat— See Bhakat. Bhagbat— (1) The name of a Puran which deals chiefly with the life and doings of Krishna—26, 452, 456, 463. (2) When used as an adjective Bhagbat means “ pious.” (3) In some parts of the country the word is used as the name of a sect whose members are moderate Vislinuvites, and revere Siva also as a god — 102. Bhakat — A follower of one of the Vishnuvite faiths tliatenjoin strict abstinence from flesh meat and intoxicating drinks. From bhakta, which means one devoted to religion and the service of the gods. The word is purposely mispronounced as its last syllable is the same as that of Rakta, which means blood, and the shedding of which is regarded with great horror by every Vishnuvite, 265. Bhaktamal — A Hindi work containing biographical sketches of the Vishnuvite saints, and stories of miracles performed by them —476. Bhakti Yoga — The road of fervent devotion, which is one of the ways for attaining spiritual excellence — 399. Bhallf. —A surname of the Punjabi Kshettris — 143. Bhanchoki — A surname of the Gaur Brahmans—53. Bhandari—L it., storekeeper (1) One of the tadi-drawing castes of the Bombay Presidency — 254, 260. (2) The barber caste of Orissa — 306. BHANDARKAR—Prof. Bhandarkar—89. Bhang —An intoxicating drug—367. Bhanja — A surname of the inferior Dakshin Rarhi Kayastlias of Bengal—179. Bhaona Ghar— The hall in front of a Mahapurushia shrine in Assam—478. Bharat— One of the younger brothers of the hero god Ram—419. Bharat Mallik—A great Sanskritist of the Vaidya caste who lived about half a century ago—162. 560 INDEX. Bharati —One of the surnames of the Sankarites—376. Bhargava— A class of Brahmans found in Gujrat—73, 77. Bhasyam Ayangor —One of the leading advocates of the Madras High Court—97, 439. Bhat—A caste of geneologists and bards—66, 115. Bhatiya —A trading caste found chiefly in Bombay and Sindh— 203,211. Bhatnagari —A class of Kayasthas found in Upper India—186,190. Bhatpara —A village near the Naihaiti Station of the Eastern Bengal Railway, inhabited by a large number of highly respect¬ ed Vaidika Brahmans, some of whom are very learned Sanskrit- ists—36, 37. Bhatta — A Brahmanical surname—73, 83. Bhattacharya —Lit. a revered teacher. The students of the indigenous Sanskrit institutions address their teachers as-- The descendants of the great Sanskrit teachers use the word as their family surname—36, 37. Bhatela —A class of Brahmans found in the tract of country between Broach and Daman—78. Bheel— An aboriginal tribe of Central India—318. Bhikshu —Lit. a beggar. The name is applied to those Brahmans of the Deccan who devote themselves entirely to theological studies and the performance of religious rites—72, 82. Among the Buddhists the name is applied to religious mendi¬ cants—528. Bhojak —Lit. eater. A class of inferior Brahmans found in Raj- putana who minister to the Jains as priests, and partake of their hospitality—66. Bho.JAN Dakshina—F ee paid to a Brahman guest for honouring the host by partaking of his hospitality—21. Bho.tpuria —A native of the district of Arrah— 6. Bholanath Chandra—A uthor of Travels of a Hindu —200. Bhonslay —The surname of one of the superior classes of the Maratta tribe—149. Bhatiya —A surname of the Sanadhya Brahmans—51. Bhau Da.ii —The late Dr.-, of Bombay—89. Bhum—A tenure of a feudal character—111. Bhuinhar Brahmans—109. Bidehi— A general name of mendicants who go about naked—447. Bijamargi —One of the disreputable Vishnuvite sects of Gujrat— -491. Bijaya Ratna Sen— One of the leading Kabiraji physicians of Cal¬ cutta—162. Bileimagga —A caste of weavers found in Mysore—234. INDEX, 567 Billawa —One of the tadi-drawing castes of Southern India— 254-258. Bimba Sara —The King of Magadha at the beginning of Buddha’s ministry—521. Bind —A low caste found in Upper India — 289. Bipra Charana Mrita — Lit., the nectar of a Brahman’s feet. It is the name of the water contained in a cup or in the palm of a person’s hand, in which the toe of a Brahman has been dipped. There are many orthodox Sudras who never eat any food in the morning without drinking beforehand such water—20. Bisa—T he name of the legitimate sections of some of the Baniya castes of Upper India — 208, 209, 210. See Dasa. Bispanthi —A subsect of the Digambari Jains, 555. Biswas— Lit., a trust. A surname common among most of the Sudra castes, and among some Mahomedans also—281, 283. Biyahut — A section of the Kalwar caste, so called on account of their not allowing the remarriage of widows in Sagai form—258. Blacksmith Castes—241. Boatmen—315. Bodhi Satva —One who is destined to be a Buddha—518. See Monier Williams on Buddhism p. 135. Bogara — One of the names of the braziers of Mysore—249. Boidya —A surname of the Sanadhya Brahmans—51. See Vaidya. Bonnerji, W. C.—One of the leading advocates of the Bengal High Court — 42. Book worship —Abolition of idol-worship leads generally to book- worship, altar-worship, monastery-worship or guru-worship—.338. See Sikh Religion. Borasidhas— A class of Gujrati Brahmans found chiefly in the Kaira district—79. Bose — From the Sanskrit word Basil which means wealth. A sur¬ name— (1) of the Aguri caste of Bengal, 158. (2) of the Dakshin Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengal—179. (3) of the Bangaja Kayasthas of East Bengal—2S4. See Basu. Brahma—A surname of the inferior Dakshina Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengal—179. Brahma —The creating god of the Hindu Triad—367. Brahmachari— Lit., a student of the Vedas. An ascetic who wears garments dyed red, and lives by begging—378, 388. Brahmacharya — The discipline which a reader of the Vedas is required to observe in respect of diet and manner of living—388. 568 INDEX. Brahman— The part of Vedic literature which lays down the programme for the performance of the great Vedic sacrifices—545. The name of the caste that have the right of studying and teaching the Vedas, and to officiate as priests, while the military and the mercantile castes have the right of only studying the Vedas— (11 The position of the Brahmans in Hindu society—If). (2) The manner in which the other castes salute the Brahmans— 20 . (if) The manner in which the Brahmans pronounce benedictions when saluted—19. (4) Style in which the inferior castes have to address their letters to Brahmans—21. (5) Style in which Brahmans address their letters to the three other castes—21. (6) The formula for inviting a Sudra to partake of the hospitality of a Brahman--21. (7) The Rajputs are the best persons from whom a Brahman can accept gifts—136. (8) A Brahman cannot accept a Sudra’s gifts without lowering his position in society—20. (9) A Brahman can have no objection to officiate as a Purohit (ritualistic priest) to a Rajput—136. (10) The position of a Brahman is lowered very materially by officiating as a ritualistic priest to a Sudra—25. (11) According to the Sliastras, a Brahman may eat cooked food from the hands of a Kshattriya or Vaisliya—136. (12) In practice the Brahmans do not generally eat such food, 136. (13) Exceptional custom among the Sarswat Brahmans of the Punjab—144. (14) A Brahman loses his caste status altogether by eating cooked food touched by a Sudra—20. (15) A Brahman may eat uncooked food from the hands of a Sudra, and also such food as is cooked by a Brahman in the house of a Sudra—20, 21. (16) The position of a Brahman is lowered very materially by accepting the hospitality of a Sudra in any shape, while not on a sojourn in the course of a journey from one place to another—20. (17) The Brahmans who exercise the profession of Guru and have only Brahman disciples, have a very high position, 25. (18) The position of a Brahman is lowered, but not very materially, by his enrolling Sudras of the higher classes among his disciples—175. (19) Account of the Brahmans of Northern India—35, 70. (20) Account of the Brahmans of Southern India—71, 108. (21) The semi-Brahmanical castes—109, 117- (22) Degraded Brahmans, 118,131. (23) As a Brahman alone can serve as a cook in a Brahmanical family, and as in the families of the inferior castes also a Brahman cook is almost a necessity, the designation of Brahman has in some places suffered a strange degradation, and has come to signify a cook—11. INDEX. 569 Brahmanical Legislation— (1) The origin of the caste system in Brahmanical legislation—4. (2) Success of Brahmanical legislation in organising the Brahman and the Kshattriya castes (3) Partial success of Brahmanical legislation in organising the Vaishiya caste—8. Brahma Vaivarta Puran— One of the Vishnuvite Purans—431, 452, 463. Brahmo— An idea-worshipping religious sect, which was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, and of which the late Babu Keshav Chandra Sen was the leader for a long time. The sect is not numerically very strong, but includes amongst its members some of the best men of the country. It is at present divided into four sections, namely— (1) The Adi or original Brahmo Samaj presided over by Devendra Nath Tagore—124. (2) Progressive Brahmo Samaj founded by the late Babu Keshav Chandra Sen—165. (3) Babu Pratapa Chandra Majumdar’s Samaj—169. (4) Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, presided over by Pandit Siva Nath Sashtri—44. Bra.i endra Kumar Seal- A Sonar Baniya who is now one of the District Court Judges of Bengal—200. Branding— 71, 437, 441. Bratahari —A surname of some families of Sanadya Brahmans—51. Brewer— (1) The brewer castes—254, 261. (2) Their low position in Hindu society—254. Brikat —From the Sanskrit word Birakta which means disgusted. The celibates among the Chaitanite mendicants of Bengal call themselves Brikat or men disgusted with the world, purposely mis¬ pronouncing the word, as its last two syallables form one of the Sanskrit words for blood, the very name of which ought never to be on the lips of a Vishnuvite—465. Buddha— (1) His personal history—517. (2) The rapid spread of his religion and its subsequent dis¬ appearance from India—534. (3) Nature of his religion—540. (4) The moral principles inculcated by his religion—544. Buffaloes—S acrifice of goats and buffaloes by the Sakti worship- pers—44, 410. Burke—182, 394. Calcutta— (1) Derivation of the name—311. its social condition in the last century—122. its early settlers—231. 570 INDEX. Campbell—Sir George— his ethnology of India —52. his derivation of the name of the Gaur Brahmans—52. his description of the character of the Kashmiri Brahmans—54. his description of the Kankanastha Brahmans—84. his account of the Kshettri caste of the Punjab—139. Cap— A class of the Barendra Brahmans of Bengal whose position is inferior to that of the Kulins, but superior to that of the Srotriyas. -43. Carpenter Castes— 246, 247. Carpocratians —One of the early Christian sects whose doctrines and practices were to some extent similar to those of the Kowls and Kartabhajas of this country—334. Caste— (1) Its origin in Brahmanical legislation—4. (2) Origin of the additional castes and sub-castes—13. (3) Brahmanical explanations of the origin of the additional castes—14. (4) Caste, as rightly observed by Risley, is a matter mainly relat¬ ing to marriage—11. (5) Caste was not meant to create social splits—4. (6) It has created bonds of union where none had existed—5. (7) The regulations by which the castes have been made exclusive—10. (8) The difficulties in the way of making a false pretension as to caste—30. (9) Absence of any cause of jealousy or ill-feeling between the different castes—4. (10) Offences which lead to exclusion from caste—17. (11) Nature of the penalty of exclusion from caste—18. (12) Authorities by whom caste rules are enforced—16. (13) Clean Sudra castes from whom a Brahman may take a drink of water—224, 225. Celibacy— (1) Not encouraged by Orthodox Hinduism—545. (2) Nor by the Sikh religion—515. Central Province— (1) The Brahmans of the Central Province, 102. (2) The weavers of the Central Province—230. (3) The goldsmiths of the Central Province—244. (4) The agricultural castes of the Central Province—284. Chackravarti —Lit. one occupying the centre of a circle. Hence the lord of a district, a king of kings. The word is now used by many families of Brahmans in Bengal—37. Chahanwal —One of the surnames of the Gaur Brahmans—53. Chail —A surname of the pan-selling Tambuli caste—293. Chainpuria— A surname of the Sanadhya Brahmans—51. Chaitanya —Lit. consciousness— (1) One of the surnames of the Sankarite Brahmacharis—389. (2) One of the names of the great Vishnuvite prophet of Bengal. See Gauranga, Gaura Nirnai Mahaprabhu, INDEX. 571 Chaitanite— Followers of Cliaitanya. Chaki— A surname of the Barendra Kayasthas of North Bengal— 184. Chakilian —One of the castes of Southern India that correspond to the Chamars of the North—267. Chakli—A name of the washermen caste of the Telegu country— 308. Chalukya—T he name of a tribe of Rajputs — 135. Chamar — A corrupted form of the Sanskrit compound Charmakar, which means maker of leather—266. The name of the caste of shoemakers — 266. Chamar — A fan of yak's tail or peacock's feathers put together in the form of a nosegay with a handle--254. Chandra —A surname — (1) Of the inferior Dakshina Rarlii Kayasthas of.Bengal—179. (2) Of the Bangaja Kayasthas of East Bengal—184. (3) Of the Sonar Baniyas of Bengal—200. (4) Of the Tantis or weaver caste of Bengal propei — 230. Chandra Gupta— Emperor of Magadha (320 B. C.)—133. Chandral —One of the castes of boatmen and fishermen—315. Chandra Madhav Ghosh—O ne of the Judges of the Bengal High Court — 177. Charaka —One of the greatest authorities of the medical science in Sanskrit — 163. Charaki— A class of Brahmans found in the Central Province—103. Charana —Geneologists and bards found chiefly in Rajputana and Gujrat, 66—115. Charka — A corrupted form of the Sanskrit word Chakra which means a wheel. Charka is the name of the Indian spinning wheel — 232. Charlu — A surname of the Sri Vaishnava Brahmans of Southern India—439. See A charlu. Chattopadhya— Lit. the Upadhaya (assistant teacher or priest) of the village of Chatta. A surname of some of the Rarhya Brah¬ mans of Bengal—38. Chattra Sal—88. Chaturvedi — Lit. a reader of the four Vedas : one of the usual sur¬ names of the Brahmans of Northern India — 49, 51. Chaube— A corrupted form of Chaturvedi—49. Chauhan — The name of a tribe of Rajputs—135. Chazati—L it. the six clans. A name of a section of the Kshet- tris of the Punjab—143. Chella— From the Sanskrit root Chala to guide. Disciple—201. Rights of gurus and their descendants over their Chellas—28. 572 INDEX. Chetti— Derivation of the word—219. surname of the trading caste of the Madras Presidency—219. Chipitaka —An article of food. The process of its manufacture— 246. CniPLUN T —A town in the Ratnagiri district, Konkan—84. Chippiya —One of the names of the tailor caste of Mysore—253. Chira —A corrupted form of Chipitaka —S4. Chitodra —A sub-class of the Nagar Brahmans of Gujrat— 76. Chitpavana —A name of the Kankauastlia Brahmans— 83. Choliha —A surname of the Kolitas of Assam—197. Chopra— A surname of the Punjabi Kshettris—143. Chovar —Sivite Namburi Brahmans of Travancore—108. Chovisha— A class of Gujrati Brahmans found near Baroda—79. Chowdry —A corrupted form of the Sanskrit word Chaturdhurin, a man in possession of the four axles. It was at one time the official designation of some public functionaries having very important jurisdictions. It is now an usual surname, not only of all the Hindu castes, but of also several families of aristo¬ cratic Maliomedans—37, 51,162, 273, 283. Chumba Jha —One of the living Pundits of Mithila—48. Churaha— The sweeper caste of the Punjab— 314, 512. Classification— (1) of religions—335. (2) of the Hindu sects—365. Clean Sc dr a Castes— The rights and privileges of the clean Sudra castes—225. Confectionary— The castes that make confectionary—237, 239. Confessional —Ceremony of the Buddhists—538. Confessional Rites—O f the Roman Catholic Church—333. Conscience —Its connection with the prevailing opinions of the society—345. Cooch Behar— See Kooch Behak— 155. Cook—B rahmans who serve as cooks—43, 74, 76, 80, 91,131. Coulomb, Madame —One of the immediate disciples and assistants of the late Madame Blavatsky, the founder of what is-called Theosophy—352. Courtesy —Requisites of courtesy to visitors— 291. Criminal Tribes— 294, 298, 317. Cutlery —Superiority of the cutlery made by Prem Chand Kamar, of Kanchan Nagar near Burdwan—242. INDEX. 573 Dabistan— Lit. school of manners. A Persian work about India- 392, 446. Dadhichi— A class of Gujrati Brahmans found chiefly on the banks of the Mahi river—79. Dadupanthi—A non-idolatrous Ram-workshipping sect of Jeypore in Rajputana—446. Dahima —A class of Brahmans found chiefly in Marwar and Bun- di—66. Daivajna— One who can predict the decrees of the gods, i.e., future events. An astrologer—173. Dakor—A celebrated Hindu shrine in the Kaira district, Gujrat—80. Dakot —A class of Rajputana Brahmans who are degraded by the acceptance of gifts made for propitiating the malignant planet Saturn—130. Dakshinachari —Lit. observer of the right hand system of wor ship. It is the name of the moderate section of the Sakti adorers who eat flesh-meat, but do not drink spirits—409. See Bamachari. Dakshinatya Vaidika— Lit. Vaidika Brahman of the South A class of Brahmans found near Calcutta, and in the district of Midnapore—35, 44. Dakshin Rabat —Lit. the Southern gate. A surname of the Khan- daits of Orissa—148. Dakshin Rarh —Southern part of the tract called Rarh. The district of Burdwan—37. Dakshin, Rarhi Kayasthas —A section of the Kayastha caste of Bengal—178. Dal— Pulses, such as green kidney beans, black kidney beans, gram, peas, &c. Porridge of huskless pulses which forms an essential dish at every regular meal of both Hindus and Mahomedans 136. Dalai — A surname of the astrologer caste of Assam—174. Dalan—A brick-building—266. Dalpat Ram Daya, c.i.e. — A living poet of Gujrat and the author of a book on castes entitled “ Gnati Nibandha ”—78. Dam— One of the surnames of the Dakshin Rarhi and the Barendra Kayasthas of Bengal—184. Dandi— Lit. a staff bearer. The general name of some classes of ascetics who carry a staff. The majority of them are Sanka- rites—376, 380. there are among them Sri Vaishnavas—439. and also Madhwas—441. Dangar—A caste of shepherds found in the Maharatta country -305. Darbhanga— See Maharaja of Durbhanga—i”. DarjEE—T ailor. See Dirji— 253. 574 INDEX. Darjigor— A class of Gujrati Brahmans—81. Darpa Narain Tagore— An ancestor of the Pirali Tagores of Cal¬ cutta—120. Das —Lit. a slave. A surname of the Sudra castes, and also of the Vaidya or medical caste of Bengal—161, 179, 183, 184. Dasarath—T he name of the father of Kama, the hero god —419. Das Kuta —A section of the Madhwa sect—441. Dasnami —The general name of the several orders of monks that regard Sankaracharya as the original founder of their sects— 376. Dasahara —A class of Gujrati Brahmans found near Aunilwara Pattan, 79. Datta —A very common surname of the Kayasthas, Sonar Baniyas, Tantis, Sadgopas, Aguris, &c.—179, 183, 184, 158, 230. Daubarik —Lit. a sentinel. A surname of the Khandaits of Orissa—148. Dayan and —A Gujrati Brahman, who left home at an early period of his life, and became a Sankarite, mendicant. He received his education in the town of Mathura and was one of the greatest Sanskritists of modern times. He organised a new sect and struggled hard to replace idolatry by fire-worship—338. Definitions of Religion—339. Deshastha —Lit. the residents of the country. The name of a class of Maharashtra Brahmans—82. Deswali —A class of Gujrati Brahmans found chiefly in the Kheda district—79. Dev— The Kayasthas, who have the surname of Dey generally change it to Dev when they acquire an aristocratic position. Deva—G od. Devalaya —Lit. the house of a god. Ordinarily used to denote a temple. Used as a surname by some of the Sanadhya Brahmans of Upper India—51. Devanga —A caste of weavers found in Mysore—234. Devangala —A caste of weavers found in the Telegu country -236. Deva Ruke —A class of Maharashtra Brahmans—90. Devendra Nath Tagore—124. Devi— Goddess. Used as an affix to the names of Brahman ladies— 22. Dey —A very common surname among the superior Sudras, and especially among the Kayasthas of Bengal—179, 183, 184. Deyandra —A caste of weavers found in the Telegu country— 236. Dhali —Lit. shield bearer. One of the surnames of the Goalas of Bengal—301. INDEX. 575 Dhanuk— Lit. a bowman. A clean Sudra caste of North Behai 1 — 311. Dhak — A Surname—1. (1) Of the inferior Dakshin Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengal—179. (2) Of the inferior Bangaja Kayasthas of East Bengal—184. (3) Of the inferior Barendra Kayasthas of North Bengal 184. (4) Of the Sonar Baniyas of Bengal—200. Dhakam Sala—A house for the accommodation of beggars and mendicants—515, 554. Dhakma Raj— One of the names of Buddha—236, 374. Dhivar —Fishermen — 315. Dhofa — The name of the caste of washermen—125, 308. Diiowan — A surname of the Panjabi Kshettris—143. Dhritarashtra— One of the patriarchs of the Mahabharat — 424. Dhusar —A trading caste of Upper India — 203, 212. Dibya < harita— A Kanarese work giving an account of the life and doings of Ramanuja—434. DIKSHIT—One of the surnames of the Brahmans of Northern India —49, 51, 53. Dinkar Rao— Minister of Scindia at the time of the Sepoy Mutiny -84. DIR.JI —A caste of tailors—253. Disawal— A class of Gujrati Baniyas—218. Divas—A class of Brahmans found chiefly in Bikanir, Marwar, and Nath Dawra—66, 127. Divorce — Allowed among some of the low castes — 259, 265, 273, 290. Dobey — A. corruption of the Sanskrit compound Dwirvedi which means a reader of two Vedas. It is one of the common surnames of the Brahmans of Northern India—49, 51. Dogra Brahmans— 54. See—Kashmir Brahmans. Dom — An aboriginal tribe living by basket-making, mat-making &c., and addicted to thieving—269, 317. Domestic Servants— (1) The castes employed as domestic servants by the Hindu aris¬ tocracy—309. (2) The castes employed as domestic servants by the Anglo-In¬ dians—313. Doong— One of the meaningless syllables which the Sakti wor¬ shippers call Mantras, and which were originally believed to confer supernatural powers, but are now. regarded as having only a purificatory effect when whispered into the ears of a person by his guru—28. t)RAtrPADi—The consort of the five heroes of the Mahabharat—429. 576 INDEX. Dravira— The Sanskrit name of the Tamil-speaking districts towards the South and South West of Madras—33, 94. (1) The Brahmans of Dravira—94. (2) The writer castes of—192. (3) The weavers of—234. (4) The artisan castes of—245. (5) The tadi-drawing castes of—258, 261. (6) The oil-making caste of—264. (7) The agricultural castes of—288. (8) The cowherds of—304. (9) The low castes of Dravira that are employed as domestic servants by the Anglo-Indians—314. (10) The Sri Vaishnava sect of Dravira—434. Dudhahari—A n ascetic who lives on milk only—405. Dugal—A surname of the Panjabi Kshettris—143. Durgawal—A surname of the Gaur Brahmans—53. Durlav Ram— Prime Minister of Nawab Ali Verdi—177. Duryobhana—O ne of the heroes of the Mahabharat—425. Dutt—M r. R. C. (1) His view about the Hindu caste system—3. (2) His official position—177. Dwaitavadi— The school of Hindu philosophy according to which the human soul is a distinct essence, and is not identical with the Divine soul—440. Dwarka Nath Mittra—A Kayastha, and one of the ablest Judges that have yet adorned the Bench of the Bengal Hian t — The chief authority of Bengal as to rituals of every kind—37. Raghu Nath— One of the greatest authorities of Nya philoso¬ phy—37. Raha—A surname of the inferior Kayastlias of Bengal—179, 184. Rahula— Son of Buddha—519. Rahuta— A surname of the inferior Dakshin Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengal—179. Rai Das— One of the disciples of Ramanand, and the founder of a religious sect—444. Raikwar—A class of Gujrat i-Brahmans— 77. Raja Kishen Chand of Nadiya—124,181. Raja of Banaili—47. Raja Pratap Chand of Burdwan—488, 520. Raja Shir Chandra of Nadiya— 181. See Maharaja. Raj Giri—T he metropolis of the Magadha Empire at the time of Buddha—521,526. Raj Gor —A class of Brahmans found in Rajputana—66. Rajput —Lit. the sou of a king. The designation of the most important of the military castes—6, 131. Rajputana— 65. (1) The Brahmans of Rajputana—65, 126, 127, 130. (2) The Baniyas of Rajputana — 205, 211. (3) The Sivite shrine of Eklinga in Rajputana—403. (4) The Dadu Pantlii sect of Rajputana — 444. (5) The Ram Sanehi sect of Rajputana—447. (6) The criminal tribes of Rajputana — 318. (7) The leather-working- castes of Rajputana—268. Rajshuya — A religious sacrifice which only the most powerful king in the world is entitled to celebrate—426. 606 INDEX. 4 Rakshit— Lit. protected— A surname: (1) of the Vaidyas or the medical caste—161. (2) of the Kayasthas of Bengal—179, 184. Rama— One of the great hero gods of the Hindu pantheon—419. Ramanand— The founder of the Ram-worshipping sect called Ramat—443. Ramanuja— The founder of the Sri Vaishnava sect of Southern India-94, 434. Ramat— The Ram-worshipping sect of Northern India founded by Ramanand—443. Ramayana— An epic poem in Sanskrit about the life and adventures of the hero god Rama—419, 422. Ram Das— The fourth Sikh Guru—501. Ramesh Chandra Mittra—Sir—177. Rameshwar— A Sivite shrine on an island near Cape Comorin—3S4. Ram Gopal Ghose— One of the best English orators of the last generation—176. Ram Kamal Sen— Collaborator of Prof. H. H. Wilson—164. Ram Mohon Roy—40. Ram Narain—Raja—177. Ram Sanehi— A non-idolatrous Ram-worshipping sect of Raj- putana—447. RAMUsi—One of the criminal tribes of the Maharatta country—318. Ranade, Mr. Justice— of the Bombay High Court—84. Rana Sinha— Lit. the lion of battles. A surname of the Klian- daits of Orissa—148. Randa Golaka—A class of degraded Brahmans fouud in the Maha¬ ratta country—91. Randayana —A surname of the Gaur Brahmans—53. Ranga Charlu— Late Prime Minister of Mysore—97. Rangres— A caste of dyers—253. Ranjit Sing— 133, 531. Raoniya— A class of Baniyas—204,216. Rarh —One of the names of the district of Burdwan—37. Rarhi— The name of a class of Brahmans found chiefly in the Western districts of Bengal proper—13, 35, 37. Rastiya —A surname of the Kankanastha Brahmans—84. Rastogi— A trading caste of Upper India—203, 213. Rathor —The name of a tribe of Rajputs—135. Ratnagiri— A district of the Bombay Presidency—81, 84. INDEX, 607 RAVANA— The monster King of Ceylon who carried away Sita, the wife of the hero god Ram, and against whom the god waged a long and bloody war ending in the death of the monster-421. Rawal— High priest of the temple of Kedar Nath on the Himalayan slopes—398. Rawani KaHar —A caste of litter-carriers and domestic servant found chiefly in Behar—311. Reddi VarlU— An agricultural tribe of the Telegu country—286. Rehgar —One of the saltpetre-making castesof Northern India — 265. Rewari— A class of Baniyas found in Upper India and Gaya- 204, 217. Richter— author of Ethnological Compendium of the Castes and Tribes of Coorg— 105. his account of the Amma Kodaga or Kaveri Brahmans of Coorg — 105. Rishi— The holy legislators whose ordinances are regarded as infal¬ lible and binding, and from whom the Brahmans are supposed to be descended—200. Risley— H. H. — B.A., C.I.E. — his work on the castes and tribes of Bengal—11. his description of the essential nature of caste—11. his account of the Madhya Sreni Brahmans of Midnapore—45. his account of the status of the Bhuinhar Brahmans — 110. his account of the Agarwal Baniyas—207. Ritualism—T he advantages of ritualism for purposes of priest¬ craft — 356. Roja—A corrupted form of Ojha, which itself is a colloquial of the Sanskrit word Upddhya that means an assistant teacher or priest. The designation of Roja is usually applied to snake-charmers and exorcists—46. Roman Catholic Church—333. Rosaries— (1) Basil bead rosaries of the Vishnuvites—467. (2) Rudraksha seed, lotus seed, and crystal rosaries of the Sivites and Tantrics—412. Rout—A surname of the military castes—148. Roy — L it. a rich man. A surname used by the aristoeratic families of all the castes—37, 162. Roy Chattrapal Sing— 1 Roy Dhanpat Sing— J Hindu bankers of Bengal—208. Rudra—A surname of the inferior Dakshin Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengal — 179. Rudraksha— The rough berries of the tree called Eloe carpus Ganitrus in botany. Rosaries and necklaces of Rudraksha are used by the Sivites and Tantrics, and never by the Vishnu¬ vites—412. 608 INDEX. Rui—A surname of the Khandaits of Orissa—148. Rukaiini— The chief of the married wives of Krishna—424, 451, 462. Rup Gossajii —One of the disciples of Chaitanya—464. Sadgopa— an agricultural caste of Bengal—282. employed also as domestic servants—309. Sadhaean Bbahmo Samaj—44. Sadhu Khan— A surname of the oil-making caste of Bengal—264. Sagai— Re-marriage of a widow, from Sanaa which means associa¬ tion—260. Sagaea— One of the surnames of the Sankarites—376. Sagaei—A surname of the oil-making caste of Bengal—264. Sahajia— One of the lowest of the Chaitanite sects of Bengal—482. Sahet Mahet—A place in the district of Gonda identified as the site of the ancient city of Sravasta—187. Sahu Kshettei—K shettris of legitimate birth—144. Saigal— A surname of the Panjabi Kshettris—143. Sain —A surname of the inferior Dakshin Rarhi Kayastlias of Bengal—179. Saini —An agricultural tribe of the Panjab—285. SAJJANA— Lit. good men. A name of those Ganigas or oilmen of Mysore who are Lingaits—264. Sakaldipi— A class of Brahmans found in South Behar—48. Sakha—L it. a branch. The different recensions of the Vedas are called Sakha—31. Sakha Ram Aejoon—The late De.— of Bombay— 247. Sakhi Bhaba —A sect of Vaishnavas who effect to be the female associates of Krishna and his mistress Radha—484. Sakta —Lit. worshippers of energy— the name is applied to the class of Hindus who worship the female organ of generation and naked images of the consorts of Siva. Their favourite colour is red, and they are addicted to eating flesh meat. Some of them drink intoxicating liquors -407. the majority of the Brahmans of Bengal, Mitliila and Panjab are Saktas of a moderate type—44, 48, 53. the Karliade Brahmans of the Mahratta country are Saktas—86. the Kayastlias are mostly Saktas—179, 1868. Sakti-woeshippee—S ee Sakta. Sakya Race— The tribe of Kshatriyas in which Buddha was born— 529, 530. INDEX. 609 Sakya Seni— Sakya Sinha—L it. the lion of the Sakya race. One of the names of Buddha—519. Sale— A caste of weavers found in Mysore—234. Salgram— Ammonite stones found at the source of the Gandak and kept by every Brahman among his penates for daily worship as emblems of the god Vishnu—364, 381. Salya— See Sale. Salyar—A caste of weavers found in the Telegu country— 236. Salt Manufacture— its former condition in the seaboard of Bengal—279. its abolition—280. Salutation— (1) Manner in which the inferior castes salute the Brahmans—20. (2) Manner of saluting Dandis and Bralimacharis—387. (3) Manner in which the Sri Vaishnavas salute each other— (4) Style of salutation practised by the followers of Kabir—496. Samant— A general. A surname used by some families in almost every caste —148, 158. Samara Sinha— Lit. the lion of battles. A surname of the Khan- daits of Orissa—148. Sambhu Chandra Mookerji—The late Dr.—. One of the best English writers that India has ever produced—176. Sambhu Nath Pandit—The late Mr. Justice—54. Sampradaya—A n association ; a sect—449. Sanadhya— a class of Brahmans found chiefly near Agra—49. a surname of some families of Sanadhya Brahmans—51. San atan—P rimeval— Sanatan Goswami— One of the cnief disciples of Cliaitanya— 464. Sanchora— A class of Brahmans found in Rajputana and Gujrat— 66, 80. Sandhya Prayer —The Vedic prayers which every Brahman is required to say at morning, noon and evening—86. Sanai— A musical instrument of the nature of a flute—267. Sanga —Brotherhood of Buddhistic monks—529. Sanichar— A class of Rajputana Brahmans who are considered as degraded on account of their accepting gifts made for propitia¬ ting the planet Saturn—14, 130. SANJOGI —Chaitanite Vaishnavas who are mendicants in name, but who live as householders with morganatic wives—481. 39 B, HC 610 INDEX. Sankaracharya —One of the greatest of Hindu theologians who lived in the ninth century of the Christian era—94, 108, 374. Sankar Dev —The founder of the Mahapurushia sect of Assam—478. Sankar Digvijaya —The name of a work professing to give an ac¬ count of Sankaracharya’s controversial victories—375. Sankari— 198, 250—See Sankha Banik. Sanket —A class of Dravira Brahmans—95, 96. Sankha Banik— Lit. conch shell merchant. The name of a caste found in Bengal whose proper profession is the manufacture of shell bracelets and shell bugles. In ordinary Bengali the caste is called Sankari—198, 250. Sankirtan— Lit. proclaiming. The name is usually applied to musical processions, in which the processionists sing songs about Krishna and Radha to the accompaniment of the music of earthen drums and brass cymbals—358, 461, 468. Sansi— One of the criminal tribes of Upper India—317, 318. Santra— A surname of the Aguri caste of Bengal—158. Sanyal—A surname of the Barendra Brahmans of Bengal— 42. Sanyasi—A man who has given up all connection with the world— 376, 383. Saptagram —Lit. the seven villages. It was the name of an ancient town of Bengal popularly called Satgong. It was deserted at the time when the Portuguese first established their factory at Hooghly. The East India Railway Station of Trisbigha, near Hooghly, is on the site of Satgong— Sapta Grami— (1) A section of the Sonar Baniya caste—200. (2) A section of the brazier caste—249. Sapta Sati —The name of a class of inferior Brahmans found in Bengal—35. Sarswat —A class of Brahmans found chiefly in the Punjab— 55. Sarswati— (1) Hindu goddess of learning—375. (2) The name of an ancient river now nearly dried up—55. (3) A surname of the Sankarites—376. Sarttjuparia—A class of Brahmans found chiefly in the districts to the north and east of Benares—49. Satani —A section of the Sri Viashnavas of Southern India—438. Sattodra —A section of the Nagar Brahmans of Gujrat—76, 80. Sathya— A surname of the Gaura Brahmans—53. Sati—L it. a chaste wife. (1) The name of the first wife of Siva—31, 372. (2) The burning of a widow on the funeral pyre of her husband— Satya Bhama— One of the married wives of Krishna—424. INDEX. 6J1 Saurashtrika —From Saurashtra, the Sanskrit name of Surat. A class of Gujrati weavers found in Mysore—234. Sava Sadhan —Devotional exercise with a dead body—412. Savashe —A class of Maharatta Brahmans—90. Seal—L it. Quality of being devoted. Used as a surname: (1) By some Sonar Baniyas—200. (2) And some weavers of Bengal—230. Note —To understand the meaning of this surname take, for instance, the name Vaishnava CharanSeal. The meaning of the whole name is that the person bearing it is devoted to the feet of Yaishnavas. SEN— A surname: (1) Of the Vaidyas of Bengal—161. (2) Of the Bangaja Kayasthas of Bengal—184. (3) Of the Dakshin Rarlii Kayasthas of Bengal—179. (4) Of the Sonar Baniyas of Bengal—200. Senapati— Lit. commander of an army. A surname of the Khan- daits of Orissa—148. Sen Gupta —A surname of the Vaidyas of Bengal—161. Seniga— A caste of weavers found in Mysore—234. Separi— A section of the Goala caste of Beliar—302. Sereen Kshettris—140. Serfs —287. See Agricultural Tribes of Mysore. Seth— A corruption of the Sanskrit word Sresliti which means “ banker.” The word is used as a surname by some aristocratic families among— (1) The Kshettris of the Panjab—143. (2) The Baniyas—200. (3) The weavers of Bengal—230. (4) The oil-making caste of Bengal—264. Shanar— One of the tadi drawing castes of Southern India—254, 258. Shanbog— The writer caste of Mysore—192. Sharat Sundari, Maharani—43. Shashan— Firman ; royal letters patent. Hence landed property given by the king—61. Shashani Brahmans— High caste Brahmans of Southern Orissa deriving tlieir name from the 16 villages granted to them by a former king of the country, and which are still inhabited bv Brahmans only—60, 61. Shastra— Lit. the books that govern society. The term is used as the general name of all Sanskrit works— Shastri— A man who knows the Shastras, used as a surname by the Sanskrit scholars of the country—83. Shekra— Corrupted form of Swarnakara which is the Sanskrit name of the goldsmith—244. Sheli— A sign worn by the Kanfat Yogis on the neck—397. 612 INDEX. Shembadan —One of the castes of fishermen in the Malabar Coast —316. Shenavi —A class of Maharatta Brahmans—89. Sheodin, Pandit —A former Prime Minister of Jaipore—50. Sheo Ram Bhao— The first Sir Subah or Governor of Jhansi under the Maharattas—88. Sherring— His work on castes—1, 2, 288. Sheshadri Ayar— Prime Minister of Mysore—96. Shetapala— A class of Brahmans found in Sindh—57. Shishya Varga —A class of Brahmans found in Mysore—105. Shetab Roy —Governor of Behar at the beginning of the East India Company’s rule—177, 189. SHORAGOR—One of the saltpetre-making castes of Northern India —265. Shradh—A ceremony in honour of a deceased person required to be celebrated on various occasions, and especially on the day following the expiration of the period of mourning prescribed for the caste— 50. Siddhapur— A very old town and a place of Hindu pilgrimage within the territories of the Baroda State—75. Siddhapuria Audichya— A section of the Audichya Brahmans of Gujrat—74. Siddhartha— Lit. one who has attained the object of his aspirations. One of the names of Buddha—519. Sihor Audichya —A section of the Audichya Brahmans of Gujrat -75. Sikhawal—A class of Brahmans found in Jaipore— 66. Sikh Religion— (1) Its origin—497, 506. (2) Its nature—510. Sikh Shrines—515. Simanat—O ne of the surnames of the Gaur Brahmans—53. Sinha —Lit. a lion. A very common surname among all the castes —47,148,179,183,184. Sircar— Lit. the chief officer. A very common surname among all the castes—162. Sarkhe —A surname of one of the superior classes of the Maharatta tribe—149. SlTA —The consort of the hero god Rama, and the heroine of the Ramayan—419, 422, 444, 451. Sitalpati— Lit. a cool ma A kind of mat made in East Bengal—269. SlTlGADU— A tadi drawing caste of tiie Telegu country—261. Siva —One of the chief gods of the Hindus—367. Sivaganga—The Raja of— 153. INDEX. 613 Sivaji— The founder of the Maharatta Empire— 133, 149. Sivanath Shastri — One of the leaders of the Sadharan Brail mo Samaj — 44. Sivoham — I am Siva. A formula which the Sivite divines utter every now and then—373. Skanda Purana— One of the mythological works in Sanskrit— 84, 87. Slavery —See Golam Kayasthas of Eastern Bengal — 185. See Agricultural Tribes of Mysore — 287. See Agricultural Tribes of Dravira — 289. See Bhanuks — 311. Smarta — Lit. a student of the Smritis or the Hindu Codes of Law. In the Deccan the designation is applied to the Brahmans who are followers of Sankaracharya—94, 98. Snake Charmer— 404. See Roja ; see also Kanipa Yogis. Snake-worship— (1) By the Agarwala Baniyas—205. (2) By the Muchis of Bengal — 268. Sodi — The clan of the Panjabi Sireen Kshettris of which the last seven Sikh Gurus were members — 141. Soham —Lit. “ I am he.” A formula which some classes of ascetics utter every now and then to assert their identity with the divi¬ nity—380. Solanki—T he name of a tribe of Rajputs — 135. Som — A surname of the Kayasthas and the Sonar Baniyas of Bengal—179, 184. Sompara —The Brahmans who have charge of the temple of Som- nath in Gujrat—80. Somvansi — Lit. the descendants of the moon. The name of a tribe of Rajputs — 135. Sonar— The name of the goldsmith caste of Upper India—244. Sonar Baniya — A trading caste of Bengal who deal in gold and silver—125, 198, 199. Soniya—A class of Baniyas found in Upper India—204, 214. Sopara—A class of Maharatta Brahmans devoted mainly to agricul¬ ture — 91. Sorathiya —Appertaining to Saurashtra or the country round the town of Surat — (1) Sorathiya Brahmans—80. (2) Sorathiya Baniyas— 218. Sorooi —Corrupted form of Sravak, which means the lay Jains—555. SOURENDRA MOHAN TAGORE—SIR MAHARAJA—124. Sowti —A surname of the Panjabi Kshettris—143. Spashta Dayaka —A Chaitanite sect—481. Sravaka — The lay Jains — 533. 614 index. Sreshtha Khandaix —The highest class of the Khandaits of Orissa —147. Sri —One of the names of the goddess of wealth. Used as a prefix : (1) To the names of all living men— (2) To the names of deceased persons who are regarded as great or holy men— (3) To the names of gods and goddesses—- (4) To the names of holy places— Srikara —A class of Brahmans found in Sindh—57. Srimal —A section of the Osawal Baniyas—202, 207. S RIM a LI— (1) A class of Brahmans found in Eajputana and Guirat—66, 67, 73, 77. (2) A class of Baniyas found in the same provinces—210. Srimukh—A decree or order made in writing by the Superior of the Sankarite monastery at Sringeri—93. Sringeri—A town on the river Toombhadra, in Mysore, where there is the chief monastery of the Sankarite sect—16, 93, 175. Sripat —Lit. the abode of prosperity. When a Hindu has to mention the place of residence of his spiritual guide, the rules of orthodox etiquette require that he should put before it the prefix Sripat. The query Where is your Sripat? is the proper formula for asking a Hindu to mention the place of residence of his spiritual guide. Sometimes the formula is jocularly used in asking a newly married person to mention the place of abode of his father-in-law—366, Sri Rang am —An island in the river Kaveri where there is the principal shrine of the Ramanuja sect—456. Sri Srimal —A section of the Ossawal Baniyas—202, 207. Sri Vaishnavas —The usual designation of the followers of Ram¬ anuja and Ramanand—50, 98, 436, 443. Srivasta —The capital of the ancient kingdom of Kosala identi¬ fied with a place now called Sahet Mahet in the district of Gonda—186, 187, 527. Srivasta— One of the most important of the writer castes of Upper India and Behar—186, 188. Srotriya —Lit. a reader of the Vedas. Among the Mithila Brah¬ mans, the section having the highest status, are called Srotriya. In Bengal and Orissa, the Kulins of each class of Brahmans have the highest status among their castemen, and the Srotriyas are inferior to the Kulins—38, 46, 60, 61. Sub-castes—P robable origin of the sub-castes and additional castes—13. Subhabra —Krishna’s sister married to Arjoon—427. Suddhodana —The name of the father of Buddha—519. INDEX. 615 SUDRA— (1) Sudra’s period of mourning—9. (2) Sudras are not allowed to recite Vedic prayers—9. (3) Distinction between clean and unclean Sudras—225. (4) The nine classes of clean Sudras called Navasayaka —224. See Brahmans. Sudra Yajaka —A Brahman who ministers to a Sudra as a ritualis¬ tic priest—91, 234, 248, 272, 274, 281 and 292. Sugata —One of the names of Buddha—519. Sukul —One of the surnames of the Brahmans of Northern India -49. Sumatra —Step-mother of the hero god Rama—419. Sunri —One of the castes that manufacture and sell wine—254, 255. Sura Seni —A class of Baniyas found chiefly in the districts ad¬ joining Mathura—204, 214. Suraya—A surname of the Gaur Brahmans—53. Surnames— (1) Of the Aguris of Bengal—158. (2) Of the Bangaja Kayasthas of Bengal—184. (3) Of the Barendra Brahmans of Bengal—42. (4) Of the Barenara Kayasthas of Bengal—184. (5) Of the Bhuinhar Brahmans- 113. (6) Of the Brahmacharies—389. (7) Of the Dakshin Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengal—179. (8) Of the Dasnamias— 376. (9) Of the Desastha Brahmans of the Maharatta country—93. (10) Of the Gandha Baniyas of Bengal—202. (11) Of the Gaur Brahmans of Northern India— 53. (12) Of the Goalas— 301. (13) Of theGujRATi Brahmans— 73. (14) Of the Kaibartas of Bengal—281. (15) Of the Kalus of Bengal—264. (16) Of the Kanojia Brahmans—49. (17) Of the Kansaris—249. (18) Of the Kashmiri Brahmans—54. (19) Of the Khandaits of Orissa—148. (20) Of the Kshettris of the Panjab-140, 143, 273. (21) Of the Kurmis— 273. (22) Of the Maithila Brahmans—46. (23) Of the Marattas— 149. (24) Of the Oriya Brahmans— 60, 63. (25) Of the Ossawals—209. (26) Of the Rajputs- 135. (27) Of the Rarhi Brahmans of Bengal—3S. (28) Of the Sadgopas of Bengal — 283. (29) Of the Sanadhya Brahmans of Upper India—51. (30) Of the Sanicarite Dasnamis and Brahmacharies -376. 382. (31) Of the Sarswat Brahmans of the Panjab—56 (32) Of the Sonar Baniyas of Bengal—200. (33) Of the Sarujuparia Brahmans—51. 616 INDEX. Surnames— [Concluded.) (34) Of the Sri Yaishnavas— 439. (35) Of the Srivasta Kayasthas—187. (36) Of the Uttara Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengal—183. (37) Of the Vaidyas of Bengal—161. Surya Dhaja —The name of a class of Kayasthas found in Upper India—186. SusANG—A town in the district of Mymensing—44. Susruta —One of the greatest authorities of the Sanskrit medical science—169. Sutar —A carpenter—246. Suvarna Banik —Lit. gold merchant. The Sanskrit name of the caste called Sonar Baniya—199. Swami—A n usual prefex of the names of Dandis and Parama Han- sas—386. Swamji —The proper expression for speaking respectfully of Dandis and Parama Hansas— Swami Narayan —A religious teacher of Gujrat who founded a Vishnuvite sect that has a large number of followers—472. Swarna Makshi —Lit. golden fly. Metallic beads having the appearance and lustre of gold—384. Swayamvara —Lit. election by one’s own choice. A form of Hindu marriage now nearly obsolete, in which the father convenes a meeting of eligible bridegrooms, and the maiden is asked to declare her choice by throwing a gai’land on the neck of the candidate favoured by her—426. Sweetmeats— (1) The Mayara and the Halwi castes that make sweetmeats— 237, 239. (2) The different varieties of the Indian sweetmeats—237. (3) The kinds of Mayara and Halwi made sweetmeats that may be dedicated to the gods and eaten by high caste widows and orthodox Brahmans—237. (4) The kinds of Mayara and Halwi made sweetmeats that may be eaten by only married women and children—237. Swetambara— The sect of Jains that clothe the images worshipped by them, and do not require their monks to go about naked—553. See Digambara. Ta—A surname of the Aguri caste of Bengal—158. Tadi —Palm juice, from tal, the Sanskrit name of the palm tree—254. Taga Gaijr—A semi-Brahmanical caste of the Kuru Kshettra country devoted mainly to agriculture—52, 53,131. Tagore —A corrupted form of the Sanskrit word Thakoor which means “ God,” and is used by the Sudras in addressing the Brahmans. The Piralis, in order to avoid being treated as non-Bralimans, assumed the surname at a very early period of their residence in Calcutta, and subsequently corrupted it to Tagore for the purpose of anglicising the appellation—119. INDEX. 617 Tailangi —Appertaining to the Telegu speaking country—98. Talajya — A class of Gujrati Brahmans—80. Tambuli—P an-growing caste—292. Tamil—T he language of Dravira—94. Tanti —The weaver caste of Bengal—230. Tantia Topi—83. Tantra— Certain Sanskrit works inculcating the worship of the female organ of generation in various shapes, and sanctioning the eating of flesh meat and the drinking of strong liquors — 407. Tantric —Appertaining to, or believing in, the Tantras — 25, 407. Tantric and Yaishnava religions compared—29, 394, 463. Tapodhana —A class of Gujrati Brahmans found on the banks of the Tapti — 80. Tara —One of the names of the consort of Siva—408. Tarkhan —The name of the carpenter caste of the Panjab—247, Tarwad —The common residence of a Nair family in Malabar—107. Tathagata —One of the names of Buddha—519. Teg Bahadoor—T he ninth Sikh Guru — 503. Telang—The late Mr. Justice Kashinath Trimbak— of the Bombay High Court—89. Telaga —An agricultural tribe of the Telegu country—286. Telaga Nadu — A class of Tailangi Brahmans — 99, 100. Telegu —The language of Telingana— 98. Telegu Country—S ee Telingana. Teli— one of the castes of oilmen—125, 264. an agricultural tribe of the Central Province—284. Telingana— (1) The Brahmans of Telingana—98. (2) The mercantile castes of Telingana — 221. (3) The weavers of Telingana — 236. (4) The goldsmiths, ironsmiths, coppersmiths, and carpenters of Telingana—245. (5) The tadi drawers of Telingana — 261. (6) The oil-making caste of Telingana—264. (7) The agricultural castes of Telingana — 286. (8) The cowherd castes of Telingana—304. (9) The barber caste of Telingana—306. Telkulu Varlu — The oil-making caste of the Telegu country—264. Tengala — One of the sections of the Sri Vaishnavas of Southern India—97, 436. Tera Panthi—A Jain sect—533. Tewari —A corrupted form of the Sanskrit compound Trivedi which means a reader of the three Vedas. One of the common surnames of the Brahmans of Northern India — 49, 51, 53. 618 INDEX. THAKOOR —Lit. a “ god.” Surname of Brahmans and Rajputs. Used also now-a-days to denote a cook—11, 22, 135. Thakoor Mahasaya —Lit. magnanimous god. an honorific expression used by the inferior castes in addressing Brahmans—22. the same expression is used by Brahmans themselves in ad¬ dressing their spiritual guides— Tharassi —A class of ascetics who always remain standing—405. Thathera —One of the castes that in Upper India manufacture and sell brass and bell metal utensils—249. Thori —One of the criminal tribes of Rajputana—318. Thumra— Stone beads—384. Tiffin— (1) The usual tiffin of orthodox Hindus and high caste widows in well-to-do circumstances consists of preparations of sugar and curd—237. (2) Children and married ladies are allowed to eat pakhi methai made by the Mayaras and the Halwis—237. (3) The tiffin of the poorer classes consists mainly of parched rice, grain or peas—251. Tigal —One of the agricultural tribes of Mysore—287. Tilak —Forehead mark—437. Tir —An agricultural tribe of Travancore—107. Tirtha —A place of pilgrimage. One of the surnames of the Sanskarites —376. Tirthankar— A Jain saint—549. Tiruman — A kind of calcareous clay used by the Sri Yaishnavas of Southern India in painting their forehead—417. Tiyan —The lowest of the tadi drawing castes—254, 261, 314. Tiyar —One of the castes of boatmen and fishermen—315. Tobacco— The following castes and sects do not smoke tobacco : (1) Maithila Brahmans—48. (2) Tailangi Brahmans—98. (3) Mahuri Baniyas—210. (4) The Ram Sanehi sect—448. (5) The Sikhs—216. Tod, Colonel— his Annals of Rajasthan—68, 203, 206. his account of the Pallivals of Jesalmere—68. his account of Bhinal and Sanchore—210. his account of the Ballabhite shrines—454, 455. Todar Mal —the great Finance Minister of Akbar, was an Agarwal according to Colonel Tod—206. according to Sir George Campbell he was a Kshettri—139. the name is in favor of the view that the great financier was a Baniya. INDEX. 619 Togata —A caste of weavers found in Mysore—234. Tola Kya Audichya —A section of the Audichya Brahmans of Gujrat—74. Trading castes— (1) Of Bengal—198. (2) Of Northern India—203. (3) Of Gujrat—208. (4) Of Southern Deccan — 219. (5) Of the Telegu country—221. (6) Of Orissa—223. Trayastrinsa Heaven —Lit. the heaven of the thirty-three divini¬ ties. One of the Buddhistic heavens. See Monier Williams on Buddhism — 207. Trifala —The popular name of the mark painted on the forehead by the Ramats—444. Trigula — A class of Maharatta Brahmans devoted mainly to agriculture—91. Tripoti —A surname of the Sanadhya Brahmans — 51. Tripundra —The three horizontal lines painted on the forehead by the Sivites — 375. Trivedi —A reader of three Vedas. A common surname among the Brahmans of Northern India—49, 51. See Tewari. Tuar —The name of a tribe of Rajputs—135. Tulava —One of the names of the tract of country now called South Kanara — 104. Turah —A caste of Northern India employed as boatmen and fishermen — 310, 315. Udenya —A surname of the Sanadhya Brahmans — 51. Udipi —A town in South Kanara where the Madhwas have their principal shrine — 104, 440. Ulach Kamme — A class of Brahmans found chiefly in Mysore—91. Umar —A trading caste of Upper India — 203, 212. Unao Kayasthas— 186,191. Universities —The castes by whom the honours and distinctions conferred by the Indian Universities are sought—176. Upadhya —A teacher or priest whose learning and rank are inferior to those of an Acharya or Bhattacharya — 37, 39. Upal—A surname of the Panjabi Kshettris—143. Upanay'AN —Investiture with the sacred thread— Upanishad — Philosophical works in Sanskrit regarded as a part of Vedic literature—331. Upparava —An agricultural tribe of Dravira—288. 620 INDEX. Uppilian Uppara Upaliga I Names of the salt-manufacturing caste of the Madras | Presidency—265. Ueali —An agricultural tribe of Dravira—288. Urdha Bahu—A class of ascetics who always keep the right hand uplifted— 405. Urdha Mukhi—A class of ascetics who keep their face pointed towards heaven at all times—405. Urdha Pundra —A vertical line painted in the middle of the forehead by the Vishnuvites and the moderate Saktas—412. Uru Gold a —A section of the cowherd caste of Mysore—304. Urvala —A class of Gujrati Baniyas—218. Utkala —Sanskrit name of the part of India now called Orissa— 33. Uttara Rarh —The district of Birbhoom and the Kandi sub-divi¬ sion of the Moorshedabad district—180. Uttara Rarhi Kayasthas —The writer caste of Uttara Rarh—180.- Vadagala —A section of the Sri Vaishnava sect of Dravira—97, 436. Vader— The mendicants of the Lingait sect—397. Vadnagara— A section of the Nagar Brahmans of Gujrat—76. Vaduga Naidu —A Tamil compound signifying “ immigrants from the North ”—91, 193. Vaidika— (1) The name of certain classes of Brahmans in Bengal, Orissa and Telingana—36, 44, 60, 99. (2) The general name of those Brahmans of Deccan who devote themselves to ecclesiastical pursuits—94. Vaidya —Lit. a learned man. (1) The name of the medical caste of Bengal—159. (2) A surname of several classes of Brahmans—51, 83. Vaisali— One of the chief towns of North Beliar at the time of Buddha, proved by the researches of antiquarians to have been near the river Gandaka, in the vicinity of the modern town of Bakhra, in the district of Mozufferpore—187, 528, 534. Vaishnava— And Tantric religions compared—29, 394, 463. Vaishya Caste —general name of the castes that devote themselves to agriculture, cattle-breeding, manufactures, &c.—7. did not avail themselves much of the privileges of reading the Vedas and wearing the sacred thread granted to them by the Brahmans—7. Vajare— A surname of the Gaur Brahmans—53. Vakkaiiga— One of the agricultural tribes of Mysore—287. Valodra— A class of Gujrati Brahmans—80. Vallabhacharya —451. See Ballavacharya. INDEX. 621 Valmiki— (1) The author of the Ramayan—421. (2) A class of Gujrati Brahmans—81. (3) A class of Kiiyasthas—191. Vanikan— The oil-making caste of Dravira—264. VANNAN—The washermen caste of Dravira—308, 314. Vardhaman— (1) The last of the Jaina saints — 549. (2) The name of the district of Bengal called Burdwan— Varuna— A rivulet which forms the northern boundary of Benares -526. Vayada— (1) A class of Gujrati Brahmans—81. (2) A class of Guji-ati Baniyas—218. Vedas— 8, 27, 437, 514, 517, 545. Vellalar— One of the superior Sudra castes of Dravira—192. Vellama —An agricultural tribe of the Telegu country—286. Vellamar— One of the fishermen castes of the Malabar coast- 316. Velnad — A class of Tailangi Brahmans—99. Venuvana— The name of a monastery at Raj Giri given to Buddha by King Bimbasai’a of Magadha—526. Vidhata — Lit. Providence. A surname of the Gaur Brahmans—53. Vidyapati — One of the earliest of Bengali poets and the author of a lai’ge number of songs about the illicit amours of Krishna—432. VlJ—Surname of the Panjabi Ksliettris — 143. Vija Margis — 491 — See Bija Mary is. Vikramaditya— 133,137. Vira Saiva—A Siva-woi'shipping sect of Southern India called also Lingaits—365, 395. Visaln agora — A section of the Nagar Brahmans of Guji’at — 76. Vishishtadwaita Vada— Lit. qualified dualism. The name of the philosophy of Ramanuja—435. Vishnu Puran— The name of one of the Sanskrit Purans or poeti¬ cal works on sacred history and mythology—431. Vizianagaram— The capital of the Hindu Kingdom of Vijaynagara which flourished for more than two centuries, and was destroyed by the Bamini kings in the year 1565. “ The capital can still be traced within the Madras Distinct of Bellary on the right bank of the Tongabhadra river ; vast ruins of temples, fortifica¬ tions, tanks and bridges now inhabited by hyenas and snakes. Hunter's Imperial Gazetteer, Vol. VI—281. Vrikat—A mendicant who professes to be disgusted with the world—468. See Brikat. VUNNIA—An agricultural tribe of Di-avira—288. 622 INDEX. Vyas—T he author of the Mahabharat— Vyaskuta —A section of the Madhwa sect—441. Vyasokta— A class of Brahmans who minister to the Kaibartas of Midnapore as priests—45. Waddava— An agricultural tribe of Dravira called also Odar—288. Wadronga— The section of the Panchanan Varlu of Telingana that work as carpenters—245. Wa.tid Ali— The last of the titular Nawabs of Oudh, deposed by- Lord Dalhousie in the year 1856—332. Warma—O ne of the most important classes of Dravira Brahmans -95. Warren Hastings—39,181. Wartal— A town near Ahmedabad where the Swami Narayan sect have their chief shrine—473. Warthi— The washermen caste of the Central Province—308. Weaver Castes—227, 236. Widows— (1) Remarriage of low caste widows in Sagai form—260, 265, 273, 297, 302, 303. (2) Hindu widows of the higher castes are not allowed to re¬ marry— (3) They are not allowed to eat cooked food more than once in twenty-four hours— (4) They are not allowed to eat palcki method made by Mayaras or Halwis—237. (5) Palcld methai, though made by a good Brahman or made at home, cannot be eaten by a high caste widow except as a part of her regular meal at midday—237. (6) Parched grains are not eaten by widows—251. Wilson—The late Dr. — of Bombay. (1) His work on the Hindu castes—2. (2) His account of the Sindh Brahmans—57. (3) His account of the Srimali Brahmans—67. (4) His account of the Pallival Brahmans—68. (5) His list of the Gujrati Brahmans—73. (6) His account of the Nagar Brahmans of Gujrat—76. (7) His account of the Girnar Brahmans of Gujrat—78. (8) His account of the Tulava Brahmans of Kanara—104. Wilson—Prof. H. H.— his work on the Hindu sects—384. his account of the Parama Hansas—384. his account of Mira Bai—476. Writer Castes— 175,197. writer castes of Bengal—178,185. writer castes of Upper India—186, 191. writer castes of Southern India—192, 193. writer castes of the Bombay Presidency—194,195. writer castes of Assam—196, 197. INDEX. 623 Yaduvansi— (1) A tribe of Rajputs—135. (2) A section of the Ahir tribe of cowherds—297. Yajaka —Lit. a priest. The name is usually applied to Brahmans who minister to the Sudras as ritualistic priests—91, 234, 238. Yajnavalkya— (1) One of the great Hindu sages and legislators who, in the opening verses of his Code of Laws, is described as a native of Mithila—47. (2) The name of a class of Tailangi Brahmans—99. YaJURVEDI —Lit. a student of the Yajurveda. The name of a class of Maharatta Brahmans—85. Yani—F rom yajnik, a sacrifices One of the surnames of the Gujrati Brahmans—73. Yantra —A triangular plate of copper or brass worshipped by the Tantrics as an emblem of the female organ of generation, and of the consort of Siva—408. Yasodhara — The name of one of the wives of Buddha — 519. Yati — A Jain monk—553. Yavana — It is the name given by the Hindus to the Mahomedans and the Europeans—464. Yoga— a kind of religious exercise—399. the advantages and disadvantages of Yoga for purposes of priestcraft—400. 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Squibs from the u Pig.” .. 2 -Memoir of Lord William Beresford .. 14 Aberigh-Mackay. Central Indian Chiefs .. .. .. S Adams. Principal Events in Indian and British History .. .. .. 32 Agnew and Henderson. Criminal Procedure .. .. .. 39 Ahmed. N.-W. P. Land Revenue .. 33 Akbar. By Mrs. Beveridge .. .. 10 Alexander. Indian Case Law on Torts .. .. ..36 Aliph Cheem. Lays of Ind .. .. 6 Ali, Cheragh. Exposition of the popular “ Jihad ”.9 Ali, Ameer. Ethics of Islam .. 8 -Law of Evidence .. .. 40 -Mohamedan Law, 2 vols. .. 41 -Student’s Handbook .. 41 Amateur Gardener in the Hills .. 19 Anderson’s Indian Letter Writer 31, 32 Baillie. Kurrachee.10 Bauerjee. Devanagari Alphabet .. 33 —— Elements of Arithmetic .. 31 -Lilavati .. .. .. 26 Barker. Tea Planter’s Life .. .. 24 Barlow. Indian Melodies .. 4 Barrow. Sepoy Officer's Manual .. 27 Battcrsby. Practical Hygiene .. 16 Beddome. Handbook to Ferns and Suppt. 23 Bedchambers. Rules and Orders .. 36 Bellew. Races of Afghanistan 10 Bell. Student's Handbook to Hamil¬ ton and Mill .. .. 32 -Laws of Wealth .. .. 32 ——Government of India .. 33 ■-: in .Bengali .. 33 Bengal Code Regulations .. .. 35 Beresford, Lord William .. .. 14 Bernard. Indian Military Law .. 28 Bernier. Moghul Empire .. 47 Beveridge. Nand Kumar .. .. 10 Beverley. Land Acquisition Act .. 34 Bhartrihari. Tawney .. .. 30 Bhuttacharjee. Hindu Law .. 41 Bignold. Leviora .. .. 4 xr ug e. Birch. Management of Children 16, 20 Bonavia. The Date Palm .. .. 23 Bose. Hindus as they are .. .. 8 Boutflower. Elementary Statics and Dynamics . 32 Broughton. Civil Procedure .. 37 -Letters from a Mahratta Camp .. .. .. 47 Busteed. Echoes of Old Calcutta .. 11 Bush. Quartermaster’s Almanac .. 26 C—Major. Horse Notes .. .. 14 -Dog Notes .. .. 15 Calcutta Turf Chib. Rules .. .. 13 -Racing Calendar .. 13,14 -Racing Calendar Volumes .. 13 Calcutta University Calendar .. 32 Carnegy. Kacliari Technicalities .. 42 Cashmir en famille .. .. 20 Caspersz. Law of Estoppel .. 36 Chalmers. Negotiable Instruments 36 Chan Toon. Buddhist Law .. 42 Clarke. Composite Indices .. .. 23 -Divan-i-Hafiz .. .. 28 -Awarifu-i-Maarif .. .. 29 Coldstream. Grasses of the Southern Punjab .. .. 46 Collett. Specific Relief Act .. .. 36 Collier. Local Self-Government ,. 38 -Bengal Municipal Manual .. 38 Cowell. Hindu Law .. .. 41 -Constitution of the Courts 42 j Cunningham. Indian Eras .. .. 9 Currie. Law Examination Manual 42 Cutliell. Indian Idylls .. .. 5 Deakin. Irrigated India .. .. 25 De Bourbel. Routes in Jamoo .. 21 Dey. Indigenous Drugs .. .. 16 Donogh. Stamp Law .. .. 43 Dryden. Aurengzcbe .. .. 47 Dufferin, Lady. Three Years’ Work 17 -National Association .. 17 Duke. Queries at a Mess Table .. 16 -Banting in India .. .. 16 Dutt. Literature of Bengal .. 4 Edwards. Notes on Mill’s Hamilton 33 -Short History of English Language .33 Edwood. Elsie Ellerton „ .. 3 50 INDEX. age. Page. Edwood. Struy Straws o Hart-Davies. The Inspector 6 - Autobiography of j Spin. <5 Hastings. Warren Hastings .. 47 Eha. Tribes on my Frontier 5 Hawkins. The Arms Act .. 18 --- Behind the Bungalow 6 Hayes and Shaw. Dogs for Hot .-Naturalist on the Prowl . 7 Climates English Selections for the Calcutta Entrance Course .. .. 32 Ewing. Handbook of Photo¬ graphy _ .. .. 1, 26 Fauna of British India Field. Landholding -Introduction to Bengal Reg illations .-Law of Evidence -Message Book Fink. Analysis of Reid’s Enquiry ——— Analysis of Hamilton Fire Insurance in India Firminger. Manual of Gardening. Fletcher. Poppied Sleep -Here’s Rue for You .. Forrest. Indian Mutiny -Warren Hastings Forsyth. Highlands of Central Indi ———Revenue Sale Law . -Probate and Administration Four-anna Railway Guide Gall and Robertson’s Readings Science George. Guide to Book-keeping . Godfrey. The Captain's Daughter. Gogol. The Inspector Goodeve on Children. By Birch . Gordon-Forbes. From Simla to Shipki —-From the City of Palaces . Gowan. Kashgaria Gracey. Rhyming Legends of Inc Gray. Dhammapada Gregg. Text-book of Indian Botany .. .. 24, 33 Greenstreet. Lain. 5 Gribble and Hehir. Medical Juris¬ prudence .. .. 16, 40 Grierson Kayathi Character .. 29 Grimley. Revenue Sale Law .. 34 -Income-Tax Act .. .. 43 -Sea Customs Law .. .. 43 Hafiz. The Divan .. .. 2S Hall. Principles of Heat 32 Hamilton. Indian Penal Code .. 3S Handbook of Indian Law .. .. 42 Hardless. Clerk’s Manual .. .. 31 --Indian Service Manual 31 •-Government Office Manual 31 Hart. Address before Indian Medi¬ cal Congress 16 Hayes. Horse-Breaking -Riding ■Points of the Horse 11 11 11 Indian Racing Reminiscences 12 .... ... .12 . 12 . 13 . 13 . 17 . 16 17 37 S, 19 35 -Veterinary Notes - Training -Soundness -(Mrs.) The Horse-Woman -My Leper Friends Hehir. Rudiments of Sanitation . ■-—Hygiene of Water Henderson. Testamentary Devise Hendley. Hygiene Holmwood. Registration Act House. N.-W. P. Rent Act .. Hukm Chand. Res Judicata Humfrey. Horse Breeding .. Hume. Criminal Digest Hunter. Annals of Rural Bengal Hutchinson. Medico-Legal Terms Ince. Kashmir Handbook .. -Rawal Pindi to Srinagar India in 1983 Indian Articles of War -— Idylls .. .. ---Horse Notes -Notes about Dogs -Medical Gazette -Cookery Book Inland Emigration Act .. .. 24 Insolvency Act .. .. .. 36 Jackson. Statistics of Hydraulics.. 24 James. A Queer Assortment .. 3 Jolly. Hindu Law .. 41 Jones. Permanent-Way Pocket Book 24 Journal of the Photographic So¬ ciety .. .. 20, 45 35 37 14 39 46 28 20 20 IS, 44 IS -Indian Art Julian. A Bobbery Pack in India Kalidasa. Malavikagnimitra Keene. Handbook to Agra .. -Handbook to Delhi .. -Handbook to Allahabad Kellelicr. Specific Performance -Mortgage in Civil Law —-Possession Kelly. Practical Surveying for India Kentish Rag. Regimental Rhymes King and Pope. Gold, Copper and Lead King and Pope. Guide to Royal Bo¬ tanic Gardens — 23 INDEX. 51 Page. | King-Harman. Rcconnoitrcr’s Guide .. ..26 Kiuloch. Large Game Shooting .. 14 - -Russian Grammar .. 29 Kipling. Barrack Room Ballads .. 4 - Departmental Ditties .. 7 _ Plain Tales from the Hills 4 Kuropatkin. Kashgaria .. -- 9 I amb. Tales from Shakespeare . 33 Lays of Ind . . .. • • 0 Le Messurier. Game Birds .. .. 23 Lee. On Indigo Manufacture .. 23 Legislative Acts. Annual Volumes 43 Lethbridge. Golden Bonk .. .. 47 -Moral Reading Book 33 Littlepagc. Rudiments of Music .. 32 Lloyd. Notes on the Garrison Course .. .. 28 Loth. English People and their Language . . . . .. 33 Lyon. Medical Jurisprudence IS, 40 MacEwen. Small Cause Court Act 37 Malcolm. Central India . . . . 9 Map of Calcutta .22 Map of the Civil I)ivisions of India 22 | Mark by. Lectures on Indian Law 35 Maude. Letters on Tactics .. .. 27 - -Invasion and Defence of England .. .. 27 Myam-ma. By Tsaya .. .. 9 Mazumdar’s Life of K. C. Sen .. 9 MeCrindle. Ptolemy .. .. 9 -—-- Megasthenes .. .. 9 --Ery thriean Sea .. .. 9 - Ktesias . 9 Mem Sahib’s Book of Cakes .. .. 19 Mignon. Stray Straws .. .. 2 Miller. The Teeth .16 Miller and Hayes. Modern Polo . . 15 Mitra. Transfer of Property .. 36 - Hindu Law of Inheritance.. 41 —- Cholera in Kashmir .. 17 Mitter. Spoilt Child. 2 Moses. The Baby .17 Morison. Advocacy .. .. .. 43 Mookeijee, Onoocool Chunder .. 7 Moore. Guide to Examination of Horses . 15 Murray-Aynsley. Hills beyond Simla .. ..21 Nclthropp. Explanation on Duplex Telegraphy .25 Newland. The Image of War .. 10 Ncwnham-Davis. Midsummer Night’s Dream .. ..7 Noer. Life of Akbar „ .. ..10 Norman. Calcutta to Liverpool .. 21 Page. Northam. Guide to Masuri .. .. 21 Nunn. Stable Management .. 15 O’Connell. Ague .. .. .. 17 O’Donoghue. Riding for Ladies 15 O'Kinealy. Civil Procedure.. .. 37 Onoocool Chunder Mookerjee .. 7 Oswell. Spoilt Child .. .. 2 Paper Sights.28 Phillips. Revenue and Collecto- rate Law . 34 -Manual of Criminal Law .. 39 -Land Tenures of Lower Bengal .. ..34 -Our Administration of India 35 -Comparative Criminal Juris¬ prudence .. 39 Photographer’s Pocket Book .. .. 26 Pocket Code Civil Law .. .. 3.8 -Penal Laws .. ..39 Pooshkin. The Captain’s Daughter 6 Pogson. Manual of Agriculture .. 23 Pollock on Fraud .36 Polo Rules .. .. 15 -Calendar .. 15 Poole. Studies in Mohammedanism 47 Powell. Mayam-Ma .. ..9 Prinsep. Criminal Procedure .. 39 Racing Calendar .. .. .. 45 Ranking. Guide to Hindustani 30 -Pocket Book of Colloquial Urdu .. .. 29 -Hidayat-al-IIukama .. 28 Ray. Poverty Problem in India .. in Raoul. Reminiscences of Pig-stick¬ ing .14 Regimental Rhymes .. .. 4 Reid. Inquiry into Human Mind.. 3 -Chin-Lushai Land .. .. 10 -Culture and Manufacture of Indigo .. 24 Regulations of the Bengal ("ode .. 35 Reminiscences of 20 years’ Pig-stick¬ ing .14 Reynolds. N.-W. P. Rent Act .. 34 Richards. Snake-Poison Literature 17 Riddell. Indian Domestic Economy 19 Rivaz. Limitation Act .. .. 37 Romance of Thakote .. .. 4 Rowe and Webb. Hints on the Study of English .. .. .. 31 -Companion Reader .. ..31 Roxburgh. Flora Indica ., 23 Russell. Malaria .. .. .. 18 Rumsey. Al-Sirajiyyah .. 41 Rubbee. Origin of the Mohamc- dans in Bengal .. .. 8 Sandberg. Colloquial Tibetan ... 29 52 INDEX. Page. Saraswati. Hindu Law of Endowment 41 Second Bombardment and Capture of Fort William .8 Sen, Keshub Chunder .. .. .. 9 - Guru Pershad. Hinduism .. 9 Shakespeare. Midsummer Night’s Dream .. 7 Shaw and Hayes. Dogs for Hot Climates 15 Sherring. Light and Shade .. .. 3 Shinghaw. Phonography in Bengali 31 Sinclair. Projection of Maps 25, 32 Siromani. Hindu Law. 2 vols. .. 41 Skrine. Indian Journalist .. .. 10 Sleeman. Rambles and Recollec¬ tions .. .. .. 47 Small. Urdu Grammar .. .. 29 -Anglo-Urdu Medical Hand¬ book .. .. .. 29 Song of Shorunjung.2 Spens. Indian Ready Reckoner .. 31 Stapley. Primer Catechism of Sani¬ tation 33 Stephen. Principles, Judicial Evi¬ dence .. .. .. 40 Sterndale. Mammalia of India .. 24 - Municipal Work .. 38 - Seonee .. 14 - Denizens of the Jungles 14 Stow. Quadruplex Telegraphy .. 25 Sutherland. Digest, Indian Law Reports 40 Swinhoe. Case-Noted Penal Code .. 40 Talbot. Translations into Persian .. 29 Tawney. Malavikagnimitra.. .. 29 -Bhartrihari .. .. 30 -English People and their Language 33 Temple-Wright. Flowers and Gardens 20 Thacker. Guide to Calcutta.. .. 21 ■ ■ — Guide to Darjeeling .. 21 - Indian Directory .. .. 22 - Tea Directory .. .. 22 - Map of India .. .. 22 Theosophical Christianity .. .. 9 Thuillier. Manual of Surveying .. 25 Toynbee. Chaukidari Manual .. 3 Tweed. Cow-keeping in India .. 1 - Poultry-keeping in India .. 1 Tweedie. Hindustani, and Key .. 3 Tyaeke. Sportsman’s Manual 14, 2- Underwood. Indian English Walker. Angling .. .. .. J Watson. Railway Curves .. .. 20 Webb. Indian Lyrics .. .. 3 -Indian Medical Service .. 17 -English Etiquette .. .. IS -Entrance Test Examination Questions .. .. .. 32 Wheeler. Tales from Indian His¬ tory .. .. 9, 33 Whish. District Office in N. India 3 Wilkins. Hindu Mythology .. 8 --- Modem Hinduism Williamson. Indian Field Sports .. 1 Wilson. Anglo-Mahomedan Law— Introduction .. .. .. 41 -Anglo - Mahomedan Law- Digest .. ■! Wood. Fifty Graduated Papers in Arithmetic, &c. .. .. 33 Woodman. Digest, Indian Law Reports .40 Woodroffe. Law of Evidence .. 4' Young. Carlsbad Treatment .. 1; \