ADVERTISING AND SELLING PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE By Harry L. Hollingworth Instructor in Psychology in Columbia University New York City Published for the Advertising Men's League of New York City Incorporated (Xz»(Xir>0(Xir>o 0oo<:::z>o (XZX) D. APPLETON & COMPANY Publishers New York ADVERTISING AND SELLING PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE Harry L. Hollingworth Price $2 00 net Bv mail $2.16 npHIS book has resulted from the co- -*- operative attempt on the part of a group of practical business men and one or two individuals whose interests were scientific, to formulate and sys- tematize those facts and laws which re- late to the processes of appeal and response in the selling and advertising of goods, and to undertake new investi- gations which might result in the dis- covery of new facts and principles with both practical and scientific interest. The book is intended for sales managers, advertising managers, business heads, and such students as may be interested in the practical side of advertising and selling. It aspires to render serviceable the accepted facts, laws and methods resulting from a wide study of human nature and human behavior. Business men will find the volume to contain a mass of suggestive material carefully worked out with a view to producing actual results for those who have merchandise to sell. D. APPLETON & CO. Publishers New York •'•'^4. /ii«' ADVERTISING AND SELLING ADVE RTISING AND SELLING PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE BY HARRY L. HOLLINGWORTH INSTBCCTOR IN PSYCHOLOGY IN COLUMBIA UNIVEBSITT, NEW YORK CITY; LECTUREB IN BDSINESS PSYCHOLOGY, SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY. PUBLISHED FOR THE ADVERTISING men's LEAGUE OF NEW YORK CITY, INC. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY NEW YORK AND LONDON 1913 Copyright, 1913, by the ADVERTISING MENS LEAGUE OF NEW YORK CITY, INC. Printed in the United States of America ^\C)~o PREFACE This book has resulted from the cooperative attempt, on the part of a group of practical busi- ness men and one or two individuals whose in- terests were chiefly scientific, (a) to formulate and systematize those facts and laws which re- late to the processes of appeal and response in the selling and advertising of goods, and (b) to undertake investigations which might result in the discovery of new facts and principles of both practical and scientific interest. This attempt has proceeded on the basis of four distinct aims, which it is well to have clearly in mind. These aims have been: (1) To sort out, from the general body of psychological doctrine, such principles as under- lie the mental processes involved in creating, pre- senting and reacting to appeals which are pre- sented in the form of advertisements, arguments, selling talks, etc.; to state these in systematic form for convenient acquisition and reference by the active and prospective business man. (2) To examine such various methods, media and devices as have proven clearly successful or vi PREFACE unsuccessful in known circumstances, places, and with different commodities, and to deduce and formulate any principles revealed by such com- parative study. (3) To carry on, in a cooperative way, new experiments and investigations, by exact scien- tific methods, and with the definite intention of helping to render the technique of the laboratory more and more serviceable in handling the prac- tical problems of daily business life. (4) To devise accurate and reliable methods of testing beforehand the probable value of appeals which are intended for actual use in advertising and selling, (a) by more exact study of the known principles of appeal and response and their ap- plications in business transactions, and (b) by a comparison of laboratory tests with keyed results produced by the appeals in business campaigns. The results of this cooperative attempt are pre- sented in the chapters which follow. The first line of work will constitute the skeleton of the book, and the results of the other inquiries will be introduced by way of illustration and proof of the principles presented. The book is intended primarily for the general reader and for the student with practical rather than theoretical interests. It does not pretend to present nor even to conform to any particular PREFACE vii "system" of academic psychology, but aspires to render more concretely serviceable, within a par- ticular field, the accepted facts, laws and methods resulting from the experimental study of human nature and human behavior. But it is hoped that the professional student of human nature may also find the motive and method of the book to be at least suggestive, and in that sense valuable. In its original form the book consisted of a series of lectures given, during several successive years, under the auspices of the Advertising Men's League of New York City. This fact de- termined the practical bearing of the material presented. It is quite impossible to give due credit to all whose work has been of service to the writer in this undertaking. From the practical point of view the suggestions and criticisms of the members and chairmen of the League Round Tables have been invaluable. On the scientific side, an attempt is made in the bibliography to indicate the chief sources which have been specifi- cally utilized. But I must render particular thanks to the many members of my college classes whose zeal and labor have made many of the ex- periments possible. I am under especial obliga- tion to Dr. E. K. Strong, Jr., at one time assist- ant in the Barnard laboratory, and since Re- search Fellow, in Columbia University, for the viii PREFACE Advertising Men's League and the National As- sociation of Advertising Managers, for his con- stant interest and assistance, and for a great amount of data, more specifically referred to in the text. But, above all, the very existence of the book, the opportunity of preparing it, and very much of such concreteness and value as the book may con- tain are due to the untiring activity and the stim- ulating professional ideals of Mr. Wm. H. Inger- soll. President of the Advertising Men's League. It was under his leadership that the Round Table Study Course was conceived and effectually or- ganized, and through his suggestions and advice that the course on Principles of Appeal and Re- sponse was originally planned. Harry L. Hollingworth. Columbia University, New York. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGES 1. — Measuring the Strength of an Appeal 1-lG Machinery' Advertisements — Soap Adver- tisements — Electric Light Advertisements. II. — The Nervous Basis of Mental Processes 17-27 III. — The Analysis of Task and Media . . . 28-45 The Task — Analysis of Advertising Types — Media. IV. — The First Task : Catching the Attention 46-59 Causes of Attention — Results and Laws of Attention. V. — Mechanical Incentives 60-90 Intensity — Magnitude — Motion — Con- trast — Isolation — Position. VI. — Interest Incentives 91-126 Novelty — Color — Cuts and Illustrations — Suggested Activity — The Comic — Feeling Tone, Instinct and Habit. VII. — An Experimental Test of the Relative Attention and Memory Value of the Mechanical and Interest Devices . . 127-131 VIII. — The Second Task : Holding the Attention 128-141 Mechanical Helps — Interest Devices. IX.— Feeling Tone of Form 142-157 Lines — Closed Forais — Principles of De- sign. ix CONTENTS CHAPTEB PAGES X. — Feeling Tone of Content 158-188 Character of Colors — Color Combinations — Color Balance — Feeling Tone and Im- agination — Strain and Relaxation, XL — The Third Task: Fixing the Impression 189-215 Principles of Connection — Laws of Origi- nal Connection — Pidnciples of Revival — Minor Devices — Memorability of Different Kinds of Facts — Trade Marks — Vicarious Sacrifices in Advertising. XIL — The Fourth Task: Provoking the Re- sponse 216-236 Direct Appeals to Feeling — The Nature and Laws of Suggestion — The Laws of Suggestion. XIII. — Instincts, Their Nature and Strength . 237-252 XIV. — The Relative Strength of the Chief Instincts and Interests 253-286 Summary. XV. — Sex and Class Differences of Interest TO Business Men 287-305 Sex Differences — Age and Class Differ- ences. Books and Articles Referred to in the Text or Recommended for Further Reading 306 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS PAGES Machinery advertisements 6, 7 Soap advertisements 12, 13 A long circuit appeal 23 A short circuit appeal 25 A classified appeal 32 Publicity appeal 34 Publicity appeal 34 Display appeal 36 Display appeal 37 Forms of focal points of attention 47 An experiment on attention 57 Graphite advertisements 68, 69, 70 White on black 77 Attention value of isolation 79 Absence of counter attraction 80 Novelty as an effective attention device 93 The conventional 94 The novel 95 Curves showing visual acuity with lights of differ- ent colors 97 Chromatic aberration in the human eye 104 Illustration as an attention and interest device. . . .106 The use of illustration 107 A strictly relevant illustration 110 xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS PAQES An irrelevant illustration Ill A remotely relevant illustration Ill Irrelevant illustration 112 Violating the law of the resting point 116 Illustrating the law of the resting point 117 The objective comic. The calamity 121 The objective comic. The naive 122 The subjective comic. Play on words 123 The subjective comic. Play on words 124 Influence of repetition on the objective comic... 125 Influence of repetition on the subjective comic. . . .126 Figures appearing to change character 134 Cards from New York Subway 135 Securing unity through structure 136 An attempt to secure unity by mechanical means. .138 The fine black line, suggesting precision and hard- ness 143 The broad black line, suggesting solidity and weight 144 Appropriate use of horizontal lines 145 Inappropriate use of diagonal lines 146 Feeling tone from direction of lines 148 Rhythm in design 152, 153 Balance of mass against vista 155 JMechanical balance of mass against mass 155 The law of balance disregarded 156 Harmonious coordination of subject, type and trade mark 167 Type faces suggesting refinement and delicacy of the texture 167 Inappropriate feeling tone 174 Feeling tone of associations inappropriately used. .175 Strain 178 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS PAGES Relaxation 179 Use of lower case letters and of favorable length of line 180 Illegibility resulting from the exclusive use of capi- tal letters 182 Illegibility and strain is produced by too great variety of type faces, interrupted lines and in- effective spacing 183 Illustrating the ease of reading and feeling of relaxation produced by the use of lower case letters and by the presence o^ appropriate spacing 184 Forward reasoning — correct arrangement .-r 194 Backward reasoning — incorrect arrangement 195 The curve of forgetting 203 Relative attention value of fifty geometrical forms. 213 General and specific appeals 240, 241, 242, 243 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE CHAPTER I MEASUEING THE STRENGTH OF AN APPEAL One of the first tasks of any science is that of devising methods of measurement. There could be no science of physics without the possibility of measuring forces, velocities, magnitudes, temper- atures, etc. Experimental psychology arose only when men began to succeed in measuring the in- tensity, speed, uniformity and difference of men- tal and motor processes. In so far as salesman- ship is to be scientific it must also evolve methods of measuring its materials. Now the first step in any business transaction is the presentation of what we may call, for the sake of convenience and simplicity, an appeal. This appeal may take the form of an advertise- ment, an informal selling talk, or a more direct proposition such as a form or personal letter or circular, or it may consist merely in the knowl- 1 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE edge, on the part of the customer, that a given commodity possesses certain desirable qualities, will accomplish certain results, etc. It will be seen at once that all salesmen are not equally persuasive, all advertisements are not equally ef- fective, nor are all qualities or re&ults equally valuable. A question of prime importance, then, is : ' ' How is it possible to determine the strength, the * pulling power' of an appeal?" If such meas- urement is possible, this will be the first step in the application of scientific method to this field. It is, of course, obvious that the relative strength of appeals may be measured by the de- termination of the actual results: the number of inquiries, the amount of sales, the cost per sale, the demand for the articles, etc. Attempts to make these measurements have always been made. The sales of each salesman have been checked up with those of others, advertisements have been keyed, by means of different addresses, street or box numbers, differently numbered cata- logues, etc. The effects of changes in location, new methods of display, etc., have been judged by the subsequent changes in output. But two difficulties in the use of these methods are appar- ent at once, 2 MEASURING STRENGTH OF AN APPEAL In the first place it is exceedingly difficult to trace, with any precision, the actual effect of an appeal already presented. Innumerable disturb- ing factors complicate the calculation : the sea- son, the medium, the activities of competitors and imitators, the method of sale (whether retail, wholesale, mail order, etc.), the effects of other means of publicity which may be operating at the same time, changes in styles, wants, and general prosperity on the part of consumers. Conditions are not under control and even inferior methods may occasionally be more remunerative, for the time being, than a more cautious attempt to se- cure the uniform conditions of trade, circulation, competition, etc., which would be required for a careful experimental measurement. The second difficulty is that such methods are costly. All the measurements take place after the appeal has been presented, and expenses must be met regardless of the success or failure of the appeal. Cooperation might afford relief at this point were it not for two facts. The results of one campaign involving one commodity, one clien- tele, one set of executive and distributive opera- tions, cannot be carried over bodily to another business venture in which all or several of these factors are changed. Further, business is com- 3 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE petitive, and successful methods are not pro- claimed and communicated to all comers. We must devise, then, not only a method of measurement, but a method which will permit of measurement beforehand, and which will be so flexible as to permit adaptation to widely variant circumstances. And since we are dealing with such subjective things as interest, feelings, per- suasions, attention, choice, motive, action, belief, we cannot employ any objective scale such as the yard stick, the balance, the clock work, or ther- mometer. But we need not despair. In the psy- chological laboratory we find students measuring the intensity of sensations, the degree of atten- tion, the strength of belief, the legibility of hand- writing, the agreeableness of color combinations, the excellence of literary compositions, the emi- nence of scientific men, the humor of comic situ- ations, and many other things which are no less subjective than the persuasiveness of a selling talk or the pulling power of an advertisement. It was in such a laboratory that the first success- ful attempt was made to measure beforehand the relative strength of such appeals as are com- monly employed in business. In the following portions of this chapter descriptions will be given of some of these measurements, which were made 4 MEASURING STRENGTH OF AN APPEAL in my own laboratory, either by myself or by my students and fellow workers. In later chapters the various methods employed will be presented, and I shall further show how the application of such laboratory methods enables us not only to measure the strength of the appeal as a whole, but also to analyze it into its various elements. By means of such analysis we can determine the nature of these elements, the ways in which peo- ple of various ages and classes react to them, the deeper-lying reasons for these reactions, and can present in concrete detail the processes going on in the mind of the customer engaged in a busi- ness transaction. In the following accounts the general plan will be: 1. To secure measurements, by laboratory methods, of the probable relative values of vari- ous appeals. In doing this we must arrange for controlled conditions by restricting the appeals to the same commodity or type of article, and by keeping uniform, for the time being, such items as size, legibility, familiarity, etc. These factors will later be discussed, each in its proper place. 2. Having measured the appeals in the labo- ratory, we shall secure the actual returns or re- 5 -OfJ h .i' • C ^ ?!^ fi ,■ I . ■t-i 3 rv-. U ■ — '•+2 p^ ; •- ' .^ ^■, - _ - - -' - 3 H B 1 y^ : 05 ^ T ; -ij: . _j^ J Iw^ - « ? a» C3 ^ .Int. f ^^ ■ iK' n 2 -i Btlil^ rt I^Ea ^ J3 I^^D ^ o <+H r>~. i1 JI.eiil ? -;| -5-'3?it; , : -i- . -1 - o ^ ' ' .! c ■;<= ^ a ;■::• d c a i ^ ^^^ iJl^^^nL 1 :' "c <";! H _ •a )^ ? ■ - a* ^ 'Pj ^rnP^^^w^T^T ^ ;2 - ■ , N ^^v lii'yi Ht^U F 1 : - '^j t "a G ^^ . ; ^¥*^ 1 : X5 "P - _ C U ^ <1J c: - U on^ - — ^ < -SI M-< -^ o w c a . ■; I i C i - 4)« t , 4> . ■S 1 (4 '5 JC« 1 t-i , = J y S i 3 ' 1^' (90 ^t j u*= •OS (84 '1 SI y 04 - - -< a *M ^ B 3 -^^ -.» CQ Vi 4, „- 4J > |2 f^ PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE suits which the appeals produced. Partly for this reason printed advertisements are chosen as ma- terial rather than letters, personal interviews, or the commodities themselves. The results will, however, apply as well to the various sorts of appeal already enumerated in so far as they have elements in common with the advertisement. 3. We shall then compare the laboratory meas- urements with the actual returns provided by the business concerns using the advertisements, in order to see in how far the actual results after circulation agree with the laboratory results which could have been determined beforehand. In no case were the actual results revealed until the laboratory measurements had been already made and announced. MACHINERY ADVERTISEMENTS The first series studied was a set of machinery advertisements shown in the illustrations on pp. 6 and 7. There are five appeals, of uniform size, each constituting an attempt to influence buyers or inquirers in favor of the same commodity. The following table shows the results of the labora- tory test, the ten persons experimented on being seniors in an engineering school, thus represent- 8 MEASURING STRENGTH OF AN APPEAL ing the general class of people to whom such ap- peals would be directed in the natural course of business. If a given appeal w^as found to be the strongest for a given individual, it was marked 1 for him. If it was found to be the least persua- sive, it was marked 5, and the intermediate posi- tions indicate corresponding places in the order of strength. In the final column of the table is given the actual order of merit of these five ad- vertisements, determined by the number of in- quiries which followed upon each when run in the same medium. It is not necessary at this point to discuss two factors which will at once occur to the mind of every business man: the ''cumu- lative effect" of successive appeals, and the "law of diminishing returns" which may operate when a series of appeals is presented to the same body of readers. These factors will be treated in their TABLE I Appeal A B C D E Ten different persons tested 3 2 3 2 5 14 5 13 14 4 5 5 3 2 4 2 1 Order of Average Superiority by test 3.0 4 2.6 2 2.3 1 4.4 5 2.7 3 Order of Superiority by actual returns 4 2 1 5 3 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE proper places. They do not influence the signifi- cance of the returns in the case now under con- sideration. If now the relative values of these appeals, as judged by actual inquiries produced, be compared with the order as determined by laboratory tests, it will be seen that the two orders agree perfectly. The tests showed C to be the strongest and D to be the weakest, and, as a matter of fact, C pulled forty times as many inquiries as did D, in spite of the fact that the cost of running and preparing D was six times as great as for C. The other appeals range between these two extremes. The testing of this series in the laboratory before their appearance would have resulted in the elim- ination of the weaker appeals, and consequently in increase of returns and diminution in the cost of publicity. The reasons for the striking differences in the strength of these five appeals will be made clear in subsequent chapters. Analy- sis leads to the discovery of differences and of principles which are true not only for the appeals in this series but for appeals in general. The point to be made now is that the laboratory test is a genuine and reliable measure of the pulling power of the different advertisements. 10 MEASURING STRENGTH OF AN APPEAL SOAP ADVEKTISEMENTS A second case of close agreement is shown in Table II. The series of appeals consisted of eight advertisements. Two laboratory tests were made, one on 25 people, and the other on a differ- ent group of 100 people. The advertisements are shown on pp. 12 and 13. The first column in the table gives the letters used to identify the adver- tisements. The second column shows the relative persuasiveness of the appeals as determined by the first experiment, the third column as deter- mined by the second experiment. These two tests TABLE II Result of Result of As judged As judged Appeal First Second by by Experiment Experiment Pack'rMf.Co. Advt. Agency A 1 2 4 2 B 2 1 1 3 C 3 3 2 1 D 4 4 3 4 E 5 5 5 5 F 6 6 6 6 G 7 7 7 7 H 8 8 8 8 agreed perfectly except that advertisement A, which stood first in pulling power in the first test, stood second in the second test. The fourth col- umn gives the relative order of merit of the ap- 11 A ^y** , ^^ A RefreaKiftfj Shampoo with PACKER'S TAR SOAP not onK- cl<--..n>cv iht- Ikit, but imp.,rt^ vlijor to tht v.l„.lc >^3l|v Its t;ener(niv, tit.tm\ btlltr r\(IMu-*J into thv scdlp "ith ocutlc .iik! coti- " tinut-d fn.lniptilatioii' >(.tfc(i> ..nd rtnii)iC5 jll djndruH'ami %i:tii>rrlit.il ac-ti.iD impaff. v,v;or u, the >;lnr„lu- br stnitturt. uiiiL-h no„rnli ,,iul , cllliM-ilthc hiir, thii. M,M,nl.,l.n>^ .Iv ■ Ijrautll and m.MiuaMMni; it. m1,,!;tv. ntt PAcmi «F(. CO.. w. i: c, ii F^i« si , n™ t«i PACKER'S JAR SOAP p 12 PackfiAA ToA Soap HAIR ^■". SKIN E ^ G H 13 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE peals, as judged by the manufacturing company concerned, on the basis of twenty years' experi- ence. The final column gives the order as judged by three experts of the advertising agency which had charge of this firm's publicity campaigns. Each of these various orders was determined in- dependently, and without knowledge of the results of the other orders. The agreement is almost as striking as it was in the case of the machinery appeals. A change in the grading of just one advertisement in each of the last three columns will make all four columns agree. It is apparent that a preliminary laboratory measurement af- fords real knowledge of the strength of such ap- peals. ELECTRIC LIGHT ADVERTISEMENTS A third example must suffice by way of merely illustrating the reliability of the laboratory meas- urement. Table III shows five electric light ad- vertisements as measured first by laboratory test and second by the cost per inquiry produced. Ap- peals A and B are the best two by both measure- ments. On appeals C and D the two measure- ments agree within one place in the series. Only on E is there any considerable discrepancy. 14 MEASURING STRENGTH OF AN APPEAL TABLE III Appeal Order as measured by cost per inquiry Order as measured by laboratory test A 1 2 3 4 5 2 B 1 C 4 D 5 E 3 Many significant things are revealed in these experiments which enable us to formulate general laws as well as to test the value of the specific appeals. By way of illustration, it must suffice for the present to call attention to appeal B in the first experiment, that with the machinery ad- vertisements. Notice that in Table I, where the measurements of each of the ten people are re- corded, B stands either at the top or at the bot- tom of the series of five appeals — never in the middle. Except for two people this appeal stands either first or last, and these two exceptions are not real differences, for even here the positions are 2 and 4. This means that there are two types of people in the group studied. For one type ap- peal B is very effective, and these are, be it noted, the very people for whom appeal D is very weak. For the other group, for whom appeal B is weak, D is fairly strong. Each of these appeals B and 15 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE D, then, influences only one-lialf of the group of people. To secure a more universal appeal it would be necessary either to run both advertise- ments, thus doubling the cost of returns, or to construct a third type of appeal which should combine the virtues of B and D. Appeal C is as close an approximation to this ideal appeal as the series affords. Note that it stands fairly high for both types of people. Only in two cases does it stand below the middle of the series. These differences are not accidental nor peculiar to this series of appeals. They are found in many series and with every group of people I have had occa- sion to study. Explanation of these facts will be given in due time. CHAPTER II THE NERVOUS BASIS OF MENTAL PROCESSES Every mental process, even that of being im- pressed or repelled by an advertisement or a salesman, lias a nervous basis. We have many proofs of this dependence of consciousness upon the nervous system. Thus injuries to the ner- vous system affect our consciousness, as do drugs which act temporarily upon the nerve tissue. Many forms of mental disease are caused by de- structive processes in the nervous system. Ex- perimental physiology finds that certain areas in the brain are control centers for certain sets of movements and of higher sensory and mental processes such as seeing, hearing, understanding the meaning of words, associating ideas, etc. All of our knowledge depends on the possession of sense organs — eye, ear, etc., and these sense or- gans are only special modifications of parts of the nervous system. Finally, comparative anat- omy shows us that in the animal series, from low- est to highest forms, increase in the coniplexity 17 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE of consciousness is always accompanied by in- creased complexity of the nervous system. Consequently, any study of mental processes should take account, also, of the underlying ner- vous processes. Such an account not only aids greatly in the explanation of the mental proces- ses, but also serves as a scheme or diagram which is useful in systematizing and remembering the mental processes themselves, their laws, and their relations to each other. Considered from this point of view a man is simply a nervous mechanism, which is capable, on the one hand, of being sensitive to objects and events in the outside world, and, on the other hand, of responding to these impressions by the various sorts of movements which make up his reactions, his behavior. Sensation on the one hand and movement on the other, sum up his life. When the sense impression is very simple — a sound, or a flash of light — we call it a stimulus; when it is more complex — an invitation, a prob- lem, a strange object, an argument or an adver- tisement — we call it an appeal. When the reac- tion is very simple we call it a movement; when it is more complicated, and perhaps involves many movements, we call it a response. All mental life, then, can be analyzed into the 18 NERVOUS BASIS OF MENTAL PROCESSES two simple elements of appeal and response. A motorman suddenly sees a danger signal and stops his car. The red light is the appeal, and his movement in applying the brakes is the re- sponse. We try to teach a child to talk. The ob- ject we point to is the appeal, his speech move- ments are his response. Even the little polite- nesses and civilities of social life, the conven- tionalities of the street, the seashore, the banquet table, are solely a matter of this or that response to this or that situation. What distinguishes the insane man from the rest of us is the fact that he responds wrongly or irregularly to the stimuli and appeals of the world in which he is placed. In salesmanship the situation is quite the same. Given a certain salesman, a certain article, a cer- tain set of advantages or arguments, this consti- tutes the appeal. The important factor remain- ing is the way in which the customer will respond to the given appeal. The operation of an adver- tisement, be it good or bad, is precisely the same process. The appeal here usually comes through the sense of sight; it consists, let us suppose, of a poster of definite size, position, color and com- position, and it advances certain selling points for the article it desires to announce. Here is the sensory side, the stimulus. Now how does the X9 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE passerby react to the appeal? It may "catch his eye," he may read it through, and, either now or on a later occasion, buy the article. Or he may behave quite differently. The appeal may never come into his consciousness, in which case the poster is passed unnoticed. Or he may observe it, remark, "What a glaring, unsightly blotch of color!" and pass by on the other side. No mat- ter which of these things he does, it constitutes his response — a response made up of movement and general behavior. A pertinent question now is : What is the ner- vous mechanism of such a process; what hap- pens in the nervous system when a man responds to a stimulus? Here, then, we must get some knowledge of the nervous elements, and some in- sight into the way in which these elements com- bine to form the complex nervous system. The simplest nervous mechanism that can un- derlie a process of appeal and response is a com- bination of two nerve cells. These cells are mi- nute structures with a main body and two sets of branches. The cells are situated for the most part in the brain and in or alongside the spinal cord. There are, in the main, two kinds of nerve cells, sensory cells and motor cells. The sensory cell sends one long branch out to the surface of 20 NERVOUS BASIS OF MENTAL PROCESSES the body to some sense organ, as the eye, ear, finger tips, etc. The other branches of this cell are short, and run chiefly toward motor cells which lie at a greater or less distance from it in the brain or cord. These short branches are met by the short processes coming from the motor cell, which in turn sends its long fiber out to a muscle, in some more or less remote part of the body. This arrangement constitutes what is known as a ''reflex arc," because nervous impulses pass along it much as do electrical currents along a circuit. Nervous energy set up by the outside stimulus passes along the sensory fiber to the cen- ter, where it is transmitted to the motor cell and passed on out to the muscle, reinforced, perhaps, by energy from other cells that are acting at the same time. The result is a movement of the mus- cle. The response is caused directly, we may even say mechanically, by the energy generated by the stimulus. So the nervous element falls into two sections, a sensory end which, is the basis of ap- peal, and a motor end which is the basis of re- sponse. These pure reflexes are not usually accom- panied by consciousness. The impulse simply passes into the spinal cord and out. Examples 21 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE of such reflexes are blinking the eye when struck at, sneezing, coughing, the heart beat, etc. But this simple arc represents the lowest level of nervous activity, that controlled by spinal cen- ters. In the human being we may point out two higher and more complicated levels, which involve in the one case the higher brain, or cerebrum, and in the other the lower brain area, the cerebellum, medulla, etc. Thus some appeals do not lead to an immediate and reflex response, but require deliberation, com- parison and choice. These higher thought proc- esses, processes of reasoning, argument, and de- cision, depend on the activity of nervous centers in the cerebrum. The sensory impulse, instead of issuing from the cord at once, in the form of a motor impulse, passes over a more devious path. It runs up along the cord to the higher brain cen- ters and sets up activity through processes which, on the side of consciousness, appear as memories, associations, trains of thought, judgments. Only after these processes have been brought to bear on the appeal, when the past experience, conscious knowledge, interests, purposes, and ideals have determined what sort of response should most profitably follow — only then does the reaction come. What the response will be, or when it will 22 NERVOUS BASIS OF MENTAL PROCESSES come, can not be predicted from the outside, as was the case with the simple reflexes. The re- sponse may be delayed, its character is uncertain, and it may be quite out of proportion to the phys- ical strength of the stimulus. Before you build, learn the itiN'estment advantages NATCO l-ldLLOVv/TILE MUl PKOOf - lur I I— » I »« t NATIONAL- FiRE ■ PRCJDFING COMPANY A Long Circuit Appeal Such a process of appeal and response operates, we may say, by means of the higher level. It in- volves what we may call in the psychology of ad- vertising and salesmanship the long circuit. It 23 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE is apparent at once that it corresponds to a well- known type of selling talk, the reason why copy which invites and presents careful comparisons and weighing of advantages and disadvantages, copy which consists of the candid exposition of selling points. But there are objects in our experience which, although they do not provoke an immediate re- flex response, are, nevertheless, reacted to much more quickly, uniformly, and strongly than those which operate over the long circuit. Thus, in looking over a book catalogue there are certain titles which immediately catch my attention and lead me to examine them closely. Other titles I may seem not to see. If I am out walking on a fine afternoon and see a baseball game in pro- gress in a nearby field, I find myself stopping to watch it, quite as a matter of course and with no preliminary deliberation. If I am passing through a lonesome part of the city on a dark night and see a stealthy form slink behind a tree ahead of me, I instinctively reach toward my hip pocket or tighten my grip on my walking stick. So when the mother sees an advertisement that offers an article guaranteed to promote baby's comfort, or when an ambitious man sees a device described that will certainly economize his time or other- 24 NERVOUS BASIS OF MENTAL PROCESSES wise increase his efficiency, he finds that, quite in an unpremeditated way, he has left off doing other things and is reading through the announce- ment or description. All of these responses, while perhaps not immediate, are, nevertheless, quick ; they are strong, and we can be reasonably Hands Tied? Do5oii\Miittogcton-S1irrrFD I L, Hurt a certain line .if work >uu think Ji)u coulj do Ktttr in— if>ouoii]5 h nl Itie training Or Kerljin kind of pi>snit>ii >ou \M)uUI like t)hoId only Mill fcjr \ .iir •liiiiK jrc tic 1 This Coupon is for YOU A Short Circuit Appeal certain in advance what their character will be. We will find that in such cases the object has ap- pealed to some universal instinct, interest or de- 25 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE sire, or has awakened some strong feeling. Sucli appeals call into action centers which are prompt, powerful and definite in their response. Such a process, then, involves what we may call the short circuit. Such an appeal obviously, in turn, cor- responds to a distinct kind of argument, the dis- play/ advertisement or the emotional selling talk which does not argue but simply attempts to work on strong feeling, instinct or ideal. The range of such special appeals is exceedingly wide, for there are many objects in our experience toward which we all react by this feeling circuit, without stopping to ask why we so respond. Our reaction is determined beforehand, for the most part by the history of the race in dealing with these ob- jects. Generally speaking, it is true that the long cir- cuit is determined chiefly by the past experience of the individual, the short circuit by the history of the race. All of us behave in both ways. The particular way in which we respond on a given occasion will depend on the character of the ap- peal, the commodity concerned, the type of the person, his age, sex, present activity, and a great number of other individual differences which it is the business of psychology to study, classify and explain. 26 NERVOUS BASIS OF MENTAL PROCESSES The practical value of a study of human nature comes to depend on the fact that there are some universals, some ways in which all people are alike. When no such universal traits are found, there will be either types or classes, the members of which resemble each other, or the members of the race will be distributed according to a more or less bilaterally symmetrical curve, with the greatest number of individuals arranged about the average or central type, while others depart from this type both above and below, the num- ber of people for a given character becoming less the further that character is from the type. Here, then, is a concrete problem in salesman- ship and advertising. For what sort of com- modities and with what sort of people is the direct short circuit appeal eifective ; what objects and classes of objects can be effectively advertised and sold by an appeal to special feelings or in- stincts? And for what objects will the long cir- cuit be employed, the reason why argument, most effectively? Some answer to these questions we may hope to get as we continue, answers based partly on our general psychological knowledge, partly on the concrete experience of practical men and partly on definite experiments now being per- formed in the laboratories. 27 CHAPTER III ANALYSIS OF TASK AND MEDIA THE TASK We may analyze the task of an argument or an advertisement in terms of the reflex are, for their operation is the same as the operation of any other stimulus. The process is always: 1. Stimulus catches attention, comes to no- tice, separates itself from other impres- sions. 2. The impression either (a) at once drops out of consciousness, or (b) holds the at- tention, i.e., becomes dominant in con- sciousness and causes adjustment of the perceiving organ for closer examination. 3. In so doing it arouses central associations, memories, interests, feelings, and becomes firmly attached to these ; the impression is fixed, and remains as idea or image. 4. It leads to motor response. This response 28 ANALYSIS OF TASK AND MEDIA is an essential factor in determining the final meaning of the appeal. Psycho- logically as well as commercially, the re- sponse is one of the most important ele- ments in the whole process. Always bear in mind that a sensory impression or revived image has its inevitable motor issue. This will be an important principle later on. We shall only mention it now. And remember that this response does much to determine the charac- ter of the perception. Observe this process when a fly lights on the baby's cheek, or when we run a sliver in our finger: 1. We say: ''Oh! what's that? Oh! it's a sliver. ' ' 2. We carefully observe the sliver, locate it, observe its length, depth, etc. 3. By the short circuit we respond at once by instinctive movements, sucking, grimacing, pressing, etc. 4. By the long circuit we compare, remember, reflect, and either secure a jackknife or go to a doctor. 5. We remember the event and act more quickly next time by virtue of this mem- 29 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE ory and response. The object is charac- terized by the response. An advertisement must go through the same process : 1. I see Ingersoll's watch advertisement with the many hands. I say: "Hello, what's that?" 2. I examine it, read it through with care. 3. But now comes the apparent difference be- tween the advertisement and the ordinary stimulus. With the ordinary stimulus the response, we may think, is immediate. But it is not always. With lower forms of life this is true. But the chief difference be- tween man and lower forms is in the re- tarded reaction. Even the response to a pin prick may be delayed and complicated. Such delay usually characterizes the re- sponse to an advertisement, and this con- stitutes one of the two chief psychological differences between advertising and sales- manship. Hence the impression must be fixated for delayed response, must be re- membered, and given, in memory, prefer- ence over other advertisements for simi- lar commodities. 30 ANALYSIS OF TASK AND MEDIA 4. Finally the appeal must lead to specific response, to favorable action toward the particular article or brand announced. This analysis gives us the psj^chological tasks of an appeal. It will be advantageous to preface our study of these four tasks with a brief exami- nation of the pure psychology involved in these four aspects of the reflex are : 1. In the first section we have to do with the psychology of attention and perception. 2. In the second with the psychology of at- tention, interest, and feeling, etc. 3. In the third with the psychology of memory, association, emotion, mental imagery, etc. 4. Lastly with volition, habit, instinct, effec- tive conception, imitation, suggestion, etc. Before taking up the investigation of these four fundamental sections, we may with profit get a general view of advertisements in their different forms, see what the general psychological char- acter of each type is, and inquire in which forms the psychological subtleties play a role, and in which they do not. Let us first examine the ap- peal with respect to its own purpose and charac- 31 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE ter, and then with respect to the medium in Avhich it is found, for media as well as individual adver- tisements have their psychology. ANALYSIS OF ADVERTISING TYPES With respect to their quality and purpose, we may distinguish three chief types of advertise- ments. I. The Classified Advertisement. — Here the psychological subtleties play their feeblest role. A Splendid Opening for a Special Representative ^ There are several sections of ^** the country where repre- sentation is wanted. A Jeading publication in its field. A liberal offer" to the right men. If you want to add another paper to Box T. P. M., A Classified Appeal The classified advertisement contains a simple an- nouncement or invitation, intended only for those who are a priori interested in it. It will be sought 32 ANALYSIS OF TASK AND MEDIA for by the proper person. In fact, you would rather the other person did not see it. His cor- respondence would only annoy you. You already have attention and interest. You need not seek for mnemonic qualities, for the right person will surely make a memorandum of the matter. You will have no difficulty in provoking response. The right person will respond without further incen- tive. The only psychology involved here is the psychology of intelligibility. We must observe : 1. The psychology of expression — of clear, accurate and succinct statement — and this chiefly as a means of eliminating the wrong correspondent. 2. The ordinary psychology of typography — the laws of reading, spacing, position, cataloging, color, legibility of type, etc. 3. The knowledge of media, which is not so much a matter of a priori psychology as a matter of advertising technology and sta- tistics. This is a separate field in the sci- ence of business in which there is yet much to be done. II. The Publicity Advertisement. — This type is not, strictly speaking, an advertisement at all, i.e., it does not pretend to operate successively on 33 PRIxVCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE NATIONAL BISCUIT COMPANY GRAHAM CRACKERS — 104^ am A PACKAGE Publicity Appeal ^ ^ JL ^ O KA. x-j Publicity Appeal 34 ANALYSIS OF TASK AND MEDIA the complete arc. It is a public reminder, in- tended to reinforce informative appeals already issued or about to come. It usually seeks merely to familiarize a name or trade mark already known, or excite curiosity concerning a com- modity about to be announced. (1) Its psychology is usually mechanical — utilizing the principles of size and con- trast. (2) Its mnemonic psychology is also me- chanical, utilizing chiefly the principle of repetition. (3) But it also involves the psychology of names, that of trade marks and that of the memorability of different hinds of facts. III. Display Advertisements. — In display ad- vertisements the role of psychological factors is most prominent. The display advertisement ex- plicitly takes the place of the salesman; it is a direct appeal, and is calculated to provoke a more or less direct, and more or less immediate re- sponse. According to its kind, it may work through the rational circuit or the feeling circuit. All parts of the arc are thus involved. It is con- sequently on this type of advertisement that we 35 PRINCIPLES OF APPEAL AND RESPONSE will base most of our analysis, chiefly because of its ideal character. But all that is said of this Display Appeal type will be seen to apply in greater or less degree to the two other types, and to all forms of business appeal which have elements in common with advertisements. 36 ANALYSIS OF TASK AND MEDIA Papers Bo!m of Necessity EVERY "Eagle A" Water-marked Bond Paper is a paper 'with a reason — each was born cf necessity — the necessity of fiaying a paper which in quality, color and hnish would best adapt itself to the needs of each individual user. There is an *' Eagle A " Bond Paper for the man who wants one million circulars end who figures the cost first; aa well aa a peper of distinctive character and ex- cluBiveness, for the man Who orders one thousand letter beads and who considers quality first and cost lasL " Eagle A" Bond Papers are not of one grade. They're of thirty-four grades. They are not for one use. They are for every use. But they are all of lOO^o value, whether it be a paper on which to address a bank presl- deijtt, or to write a memorandum to the ofHce-boy. To' make each one of the 34 Bond Papers a Qualrty-plua Paper— to give to each a distinctive character and qual- ity, color and finish — to Trade-mark the whole with the Water -mark of the "Eagle A" — and to place them within the reach of every paper-user, is a condition iDade possible only by twenty-nine mills, each making paf^rs of necessity, but all united for the economic production and marketing of each particular grade. Look hr Uu "EatU A" WaUr-majiu It't a foeJ habit "Em1>.A" Pa»