THE STUDY CLASS
^ íSritíUe for íí)e âtuîjrnt
OF
ENGLISH LITERATURE
BY
ANNA BENNESON McMAHAN
The use of literature is to afford us a platform whence
we may command a view of our present life, a purchase
by which we may move it. — Emerson.
CHICAGO
A. C. McCLURG AND COMPANY
1891
Copyright
By a. g. McClurg and Co.
a.d,. 1891
Soff
/ó" /g f;l
TO
MRS. ADELAIDE HASTINGS WOOD,
WITH AFFECTION AND GRATITUDE.
PREFACE.
IS book has grown out of a series of
privately printed " Outlines/' some of
which have been in use for over five
years. These have been issued from
time to time in recognition of two notable, though
nearly new, features of modern life : First, the
great zeal and impetus for study among women
throughout the country, expressing itself chiefly
through the organization of study clubs ; and,
second, the vast amount of such zeal going to
waste through misdirected efforts and the lack
of efficient leadership. Educational resources
offered no provision for these groups of women
of mature- years and busy lives, whose school¬
days were long past, and whose only incitement
was from within. The subjects and methods
fitted to the high school or university did not fit
vi
PREFACE.
the woman's club, since generally its members
were those who snatched from commonplace and
continuous cares only an occasional hour for
study. Chatauqua and the societies for the
encouragement of home study were scarcely
more helpful ; for while indeed offering many
suggestions for courses of reading and text-book
lessons, they took almost no account of the
deeper needs of the new movement. The com¬
mon impluse that drew these women together
was not so much a wish to acquire facts, as a
seeking for knowledge that should in some way
issue in life, in character, in the power to think
and to express the thought. This, then, was
the problem : to provide something that should
stir dormant faculties into life, that should
awaken the mental powers and furnish a clew
to the relative values of things past and present
in literature and in life, for the use of persons
whom one had never seen, and with whom
one must communicate from a distance. This,
briefly stated, was the underlying purpose from
which, by a process of evolution unnecessary to
describe, has grown a circle of classes by corre¬
spondence, too large to be conducted longer by
means of separate letters and privately printed
pamphlets.
PREFACE.
• •
Vil
Nearly all of the study-schemes included in
the present volume have been used by one or
another of these correspondence classes ; each
scheme is divided into thirty outline topics, to
accord with the average number of club meet¬
ings in a year. Thus the one hundred and fifty
topics provide for a five years' course, but the
order in which the subjects occur may be varied
at the option of the student ; their present
arrangement is not intended to prescribe any
" true order of studies " applicable to all cases,
but represents an order that has been found
least difficult for beginners and most likely to
tempt to further study. Each of the schemes is
complete in itself; all, however, belong to the
same field, — namely, English Literature.
If some justification seems to be needed for
adding one more to the already long list of works
dealing with this theme, it may be found in the
fact that these " Outlines " concern themselves
with literature itself rather than with the history
of literature. In general, their questions can only
be answered by direct study of the author in
hand, being of a kind not to be settled by the
cyclopaedia or the school manual. They aim to
look somewhat closely at a few great works
rather than to marshal a long list of names and
viii
PREFACE.
titles ; to fix the attention on the writings them¬
selves rather than on what has been said about
these writings ; to stimulate individual study and
to develop the critical faculty by personal exam¬
ination of an author's text rather than to collect
gossip about the man himself or to rest content
with judgments at second hand, however distin¬
guished the authority. In carrying out this plan
the classification has been based on affinity in
kind rather than on sequence of time. The rela¬
tive merits of a given work are only to be de¬
termined by reference to those of like nature
with itself. Within these separate departments,
however, the chronological method has been fol¬
lowed, comparative studies being also introduced
for the sake of emphasizing the different char¬
acteristics of a given class of writings at dif¬
ferent epochs.
The studies are arranged under five general di¬
visions with subjects as follows : Shakespeare,
The English Drama, English Poetry, Rob¬
ert Browning, The English Essay. Within
these will be found nearly every writer of note
in English literature from the days of Elizabeth
to our own, with the exception of the writers
of prose fiction.; the addition of The English
Novel may be expected at a future time.
PREFACE.
ix
Although correspondence must of necessity be
inferior to personal conference, by just so much
as letters fall below conversation as a means of
inspiration, yet that it may result in developing
an always delightful, often stimulating, and some¬
times truly scholarly and original interchange of
thought is a fact which has been amply proved
by these five years of experience. In order as
far as possible to reproduce the conditions of
such correspondence, a few letters treating of
the subjects on which the author's advice has
been most often sought are prefixed to the
study-schemes ; and each group of " Outlines "
is preceded by a chapter bearing on the special
matter in hand.
The present volume stands for a belief that
what has proved useful to the few may be
welcomed by a larger public ; may even be
acceptable in the class-room of those institutions
for the higher education where it begins to be
recognized that although means for the study
of the history of literature are ample, the helps
to the study of literature itself are yet few and
inadequate.
CONTENTS.
Page
I. Concerning Choice of Subject ... 13
II. Concerning Method in Study . , . 19
III. The Interpretation of Literature . 25
IV. The Art of Composition 36
V. Introductory to the Study of Shake¬
speare . 44
VI. Outlines of the Study of Shake¬
speare . 49
VII. Introductory to the Study of the
English Drama 92
VIIL Outlines of the Study of the Eng¬
lish Drama 98
IX. Introductory to the Study of Poetry 137
X. Outlines of the Study of English
Poetry 144
XI. Introductory to the Study of Brown¬
ing 187
XII. Outlines of the Study of Browning 193
XIII. Introductory to the Study of the
English Essay 226
XIV. Outlines of the Study of the Eng¬
lish Essay 232
THE STUDY CLASS.
L
CONCERNING CHOICE OF SUBJECT.
HE best educated mind is not the one
which is in possession of the largest
number of facts ; it is the mind which
is most capable of examining a sub¬
ject, of forming its own opinions concerning it,
and of understanding its relations to other sub¬
jects in literature and in life. If we desire to
attain this mental power, what class of studies
shall we choose as best helpers on our way?
Shall we embrace science ? Science, it is urged,
deals with certainties; it brings facts, and re¬
nounces guess-work ; it lays down rules that are
of immense importance to the individual and to
the race at large ; it explains the laws and forces
14
THE STUDY CLASS.
amid which we live every day, and is indeed our
only exact knowledge.
Granting all that may be claimed for the im¬
portance of science as a practical guide for the
care of our bodies and our houses, our cities and
our farms, it is still true that there are large sec¬
tions of human life — and those the sections
which most shape the daily conduct, the entire
moral, affectionate, spiritual nature of man —
with which science has nothing to do, except
very indirectly. On the questions that concern
man's greatest interests — the questions that
reach into man's deepest life as a social, ethical,
loving, rational creature — science is for the
most part silent. True, there is in this regard
considerable difference in the different branches
of science. The superior sciences, like astron¬
omy and geology, widen the outlook more than
the experimental sciences ; meteorology inspires
more than mineralogy ; physiology more than
chemistry. But the most that science can do is
to deal with the questions of physical existence,
with the forces of the material world. Not any
theory of the outward universe, however scienti¬
fically established, is going to solve life's deepest
questions. Indeed, one of the greatest dangers
of scientific study is its tendency to narrow the
vision. Even Huxley confesses, " It looks as if
the scientific, like other revolutions, meant to
CONCERNING CHOICE OP SUBJECT, 15
devour its own children ; as if the growth of sci¬
ence tended to overwhelm its votaries ; as if the
men of science of the future were condemned
to diminish into narrower specialists as time
goes on. I do not think any such catastrophe a
necessary consequence of the growth of science,
but I do think it an evil to be provided against.
The man who works away at one corner of
nature, shutting his eyes to all the rest, dimin¬
ishes his chance of seeing what is to be seen in
that corner."
For these reasons, scientific studies do not
seem to me the best choice for the aims we have
in view ; for, however valuable the exact sciences
may be to the progress of civilization, they are
not the means best fitted to move the mind into
action and to develop the mental grasp we wish
to acquire.
Shall we then turn to history and walk in her
paths ? A leading modern historian defines his¬
tory as the study of man, — of the workings of
man's nature as carried out in political society.
But to become historians in this high sense pre¬
supposes large powers of insight, of comparison,
even of imagination; the very qualities which
we have not, and which must be acquired by
some simpler and more gradual approaches.
Therefore, in general, history does not prove a
stimulating study in the woman's club ; or, at
i6
THE STUDY CLASS.
least, not unless its members are already consid¬
erable students, with judgment, sensibility, and
imagination sufficiently cultivated to enter into
the spirit of past men and past generations and
to realize that, as Freeman puts it, " History is
past politics, and politics present history." With
any less equipment, historical study is pretty
sure to mean a mere accumulation of dates and
names, and the student finds herself no whit
furthered in the power of sustained and accurate
thinking.
Some may protest here, " Why attempt to
draw these distinctions between different classes
of study? How can you hope to prescribe any
one as best^ when people differ so much in taste
and acquirement ? " I admit the difficulty. It
is true that people differ so widely in quality of
mind and in natural gifts that some will be
drawn more to one pursuit and others to an¬
other. Nature is the best guide ; and always one
who is called to a given pursuit will do better
work by following that than by attempting any
other. But, looking as we are now, for some¬
thing which shall stir dormant faculties into life,
which shall awaken the mental powers and fur¬
nish a clew to the relative values of things past
and present, I have no hesitation in giving the
preference to literature, above all other studies.
In literature, the master minds of each genera-
CONCERNING CHOICE OF SUBJECT. 17
tion have expressed the truths of life that they
themselves felt and knew. Books are the out¬
come of enriched and mellow minds ; they are
the fruit of thought with imagination all com¬
pact ; " they are not made, they grow ; they are
written, usually, because their authors could not
resist the pressure from within to take the pen
in hand. The great books .belong to no local
sphere ; their universality addresses itself to the
minds and hearts of men everywhere, and they
become the property of a race or of all mankind.
"Faust," "The Divine Comedy," "Hamlet,"
— who cares in what small neighborhood they
were written ? They belong to the whole world ;
and the reason is, that their authors embodied
not merely the transient thoughts and feelings of
their time, but their conception and grasp of
universal life. Hence they have a message for
all time; and hence, too, they are the studies
best fitted to awaken the forces hidden away in
the mind, to arouse the sensibility which is worth
so much more than mere acquisition.
It is not within my present purpose to
name any one or two books as absolutely the
best; to insist upon any certain programme
either in Emerson or Shakespeare or Browning
or Carlyle or Goethe ; but I do urge the study
of masterpieces in literature, because through
these we are led to deal with the great questions
3
i8
THE STUDY CLASS.
of man's relation to the universe in which he finds
himself, and because, in the words of Emerson,
" The use of literature is to afford us a platform
whence we may command a view of our present
life, a purchase by which we may move it."
II
CONCERNING METHOD IN STUDY.
O beginners in study, there are two
words which need often to be re¬
iterated, — simplicity and thorough¬
ness. The programme should be
simple in scope, but thorough within that
scope. Take some one subject, — it matters
not so much what one, provided it be selected
with reference to the time you propose to
spend, and to your mental capacity ; learn that
thoroughly, and you will have gained just so
much of equipment for all studies whatsoever.
Those were wise words spoken by Professor
Sonnenschein to the students of Mason College,
Birmingham : —
" There is something in the consecration of
all the faculties to a limited field that braces the
mind and gives it intellectual grip. . . .
" Let me compare the mind to a house with
many windows. For a vital comprehension of
20
THE STUDY CLASS.
truth, I would prefer to look through one win¬
dow thoroughly cleaned, than through all of
them half-purified from the obscuring medium
of error and prejudice. To the young student,
especially, I would say, ' Clean one of your
windows ; be not content until there is one
branch of your subject — if it be only the
branch of a branch — which you understand as
thoroughly as you are capable of understanding
it, until your sense of truth is satisfied and you
have intellectual conviction.' Be assured that in
learning this one thing, you will have added an
eye to your mind, an instrument to your thought,
and partially diave learned many things. . . .
Doubtless it would be a grand thing to have a
knowledge of all the great objects of human
contemplation ; but we must recognize the
limitations of our nature, and renounce the
impossible.
"On the other hand, we may console our¬
selves with the reflection that one subject deeply
studied involves the examination of others. No
man can thoroughly probe a difficult question of
law without coming upon problems of morals,
politics, and religion ; no one can carry his
researches into language far, without solving, on
the way, many a question of logic and even
metaphysics. In this way one science leads
ever to another ; and the specialist is not so
CONCERNING METHOD IN STUDY, 21
incomplete as he is sometimes supposed to be.
His knowledge stretches itself out in many direc¬
tions, like the branches of a tree, which spring
from a single trunk and are centred in it. Still,
no man can be a master of all sciences.^"^
That this is exactly the reverse of the
methods common among clubs, no one will
deny who is familiar with the situation. As a
rule, the main object seems to be to cover the
largest possible field. If the subject be history,
the programme will include several centuries
and many nations ; if literature, then a dozen
or twenty authors will be set down, — all for one
winter. Recently, in a club where it was pro¬
posed to enter upon a study of Browning by
giving one year's work to it, it was objected,
" What ! give a whole year to one poet ? Why
not have one essay on Browning, one on Words¬
worth, one on Tennyson, and so on ?" When
we consider the amount of reading, of concen¬
tration, of brooding thought, requisite to the
preparation of any essay in the least degree
individual, or one which shall be anything more
than a neat patchwork from the encyclopaedia
and Poole's Index, it is apparent what were the
ideals of that club. I hold in my hand the
programme of another club whose oldest mem¬
ber has not yet reached twenty years, and
where " Browning " does thus actually appear
22
THE STUDY CLASS.
as one among other literary subjects^ — the
others being " Gladstone," " Hans Sachs," etc.
Now, not only is this a waste of time, but it
unfits for any real brain-work. The mind is
^Hattooed all over with masses of fact," but
there is no real growth. People fancy they are
studying when in fact they are weakening and
frittering away the mental fibre ; they are foster¬
ing the charlatan's pride of boasted knowledge
instead of the scholar's grace of humility.
I know the other side of the question. I do
not forget the German scholar who died regret¬
ting that he had undertaken to master the
Greek language instead of concentrating on
the dative case ; nor Holmes's scarabseist, who
devoted himself to beetles, and counted the
general entomologist as necessarily a humbug.
But women's clubs are too far away from such
tendencies to need any warning of this danger.
Suppose then this one single line of interest
to be adopted ; suppose, for example, Shake¬
speare is the topic. The genuine way, the
scholar's way, would be to begin with a careful
study of the text of some one play, proceeding
to others only when this is somewhat under¬
stood. But is this the club way? By no means ;
this is not half high-sounding enough. Let us
have for a beginning three essays; let us call
them (I refer to the printed programme of one
CONCERNING METHOD IN STUDY, 23
of our clubs) " Classic Drama/' " Romantic
Drama/' " Shakespeare's Place in Literature."
In the name of all tjhat is honest, what can a
company who have never read a Greek drama,
who are beginners only in Shakespeare, do with
such subjects as these? Compare with such
pretension the confession of Mr. Frank Marshall
that he had been studying " Hamlet " for four¬
teen years, and then found out how little he knew
about it; or Professor Hudson's modest dis¬
claimer : I have been studying Hamlet more
than forty years, — studying him with such small
powers of thought as I had. ... I have learned
by experience that one seems to understand him
better after a little study than after a great deal ;
and that the less one sees into him, the more
apt one is to think he sees through him, — in
which respect he is indeed like Nature herself."
It is gratifying to note a tendency toward
simplicity in the programmes of some of the
older clubs, but it would be encouraging to see a
more rapid progress in this better way. For
example, a programme constructed in the spirit
of Ruskin when he says, " Teach or preach or
labor as you will, everlasting difference is set
between one man's capacity and another's. . . .
This mental supremacy is incommunicable, . . .
and nearly the best thing that men can generally
do is to set themselves, not to the attainment.
24
THE STUDY CLASS.
but the discovery, of this ; learning to know gold
when we see it from iron-glance, and diamonds
from flint-sand, being for most of us a more
profitable employment than trying to make
diamonds out of our own charcoal."
A word concerning the number of persons
who can join in a class profitably. The average
club is too large. For genuine study fifteen is a
very large number; ten or even less is better.
To all new clubs I would say, Limit yourselves
to a small membership ; to the old clubs, who
cannot do this, Form study-groups, bringing the
results if you like into the larger body, but do
not attempt to " carry " it all.
III
THE INTERPRETATION OF LITERA¬
TURE.
ONSIDERABLE uncertainty exists in
some minds concerning the true
meaning of the study of literature.
Therefore, let us distinguish between
right and wrong conceptions of what constitutes
its intrinsic value, between right and wrong
methods of approach to it as a liberal study.
At the outset, let us rid ourselves of a consid¬
erable body of traditions, inherited from school¬
days. English literature, as we then studied it,
meant a barren catalogue of names, works, and
dates; its masterpieces, if studied at all, were
considered only as so much material for exer¬
cises in grammar, syntax and etymology ; groups
of writers were told off according to their " gen¬
eral characteristics," and marked with labels
which, being readily committed to memory, were
as readily forgotten long ago. The conception
20
THE STUDY CLASS.
of literature as the expression of art or genius,
as being charged with a message which it was
ours to master and assimilate, had not then
found its way into the schools, nor has it yet
come to general recognition there, though it is
to be found in some instances under the leader¬
ship of an occasional enlightened and inde¬
pendent teacher.
Thus it happens that our first duty in ap¬
proaching literature is to discard the old notions ;
regarding it neither as a collection of facts for
the memory, nor merely as material for the
study of words and phrases, but rising to the
higher conception of literature as an expression
of the truths of life and the world, as seen by
the master minds of each generation. To grasp
these truths will tax the highest arts of interpre¬
tation, — not merely the art of verbal analysis,
nor yet alone the art of analysis of form and
style, but also the still higher art of analysis of
sentiment, etbic, and thought.
Every work of art, be it picture or statue, or
melody or writing, has in it some central prin¬
ciple of life ; just as every man whose life is life
in any true sense of the word, and not a mere
affair of chance, of impulse, of moods or acci¬
dents, has in him some central principle of life
which animates and controls his words and acts.
I know that I am taking issue with a very popu-
INTERPRETATION OP LITERATURE. 27
lar doctrine. The doctrine of art for art's sake
alone — that is, for the production of a fine
piece of work, no matter whether in carving a
cherry-stone or in painting a madonna — has
been preached long enough to corrupt the taste
and even the morals of the whole reading com¬
munity. The writer, it is now insisted, must be
concerned with no other end than to portray
his subject accurately and vividly, no matter
whether the subject be eagle or reptile, saint or
brute. To realize where these shallow theories
are leading, we have only to look at a large part
of current fiction. Whole pages and infinite
pains are given to evolving the last psychological
depths of the intimations given in the way some
weakling ties his cravat, or some frivolous maid
gathers her shawl about her shoulders. It is
excellent art, but it is art so wretchedly mis¬
applied that it can hardly be called literature.
No, art is not for its own sake, it is for man's
sake ; and it ought further to be for the brightest
and best, and not for the most trivial in man.
No man can write a book that amounts to any¬
thing, without a purpose. Indeed, a man of
genius is always a man of desperate intensity of
purpose. When Shakespeare portrayed Macbeth,
he meant blasted ambition and murder; when
Shylöck, — avarice overreaching itself ; when
lago, — cold-blooded infamy. He did not say
28
THE STUDY CLASS.
SO to himself, but he looked to it that the reader
should.
If you will grant me, then, this central, inform¬
ing thought in every work, I urge that we must
not be satisfied unless we master it. There may
and probably will be ornaments and illustrations,
just as the tree-trunk puts forth branches and
leaves ; and your analysis will include these also,
— but recognized as secondary, and in their
proper relations to the main thought.
This would seem to be a point so self-evident
as to render emphasis superfluous ; but experi¬
ence shows that nothing is harder than to get
students in the way of analyzing what they read.
A club that had been studying Daniel De-
ronda " for many weeks were asked to bring in
as a final exercise the motive of the work, as it
lay in the mind of each member. The result
was that some brought essays, others citations of
favorite passages, others synopses of certain
chapters, but not one true analysis of the motive
or content of the work was produced. To make
a synopsis is a different and much simpler
matter than this of analysis. Almost any one,
with a little attention, can give a fair résumé of
the various points made by an author, following
their original order ; but it may happen that a
great thinker, either from deficiency of literary
art, or from other cause, does not work up his
INTERPRETATION OP LITERATURE. 29
theme in any orderly progression, so that the
enumeration of its points as they occur would
yield no analytic description of its contents.
Many of Emerson's essays illustrate this fact,
owing to his method of composition, — his custom
of putting all his stray thoughts into a common
drawer, from which he drew forth on occasion
whatever seemed to bear relation to the subject
in hand. Thus, at first glance, much of Emer¬
son appears to be mere disjecta membra^ which
yet, on closer inspection, is seen to have a unity,
and unity of a very high kind. When people say
that a writer is unintelligible, it often means that
they do not wish to be at the pains to under¬
stand him. Now, it is idle to presume to read a
book saturated with deep thinking without doing
a little thinking ourselves, even if every great
thinker (as is not always the case) had the gift of
clear expression. The common outcry against
Browning's obscurity is not without some foun¬
dation ; yet a large part of the difficulties come
from the fact that, as he says, he does not
write his verses as a substitute for an after-
dinner nap or cigar. He cannot be read in a
wholly passive state of mind ; to get to the in¬
terior of his meaning requires intellectual exer¬
tion. An eminent philosophical writer has said
that when he first began to read Kant's Cri¬
tique," he found it took an hour or two to get
30 THE STUDY CLASS.
over a few lines ; but when he once got through
Kant, he could read a dozen inferior books in a
day. He had acquired a mental strength just as
surely, and by the same law, as one acquires
physical strength in the gymnasium. The thing
of value is, not that one has leaped or turned
some single bar, but that hereafter all other bars
are more easily turned or leaped.
Therefore, let me repeat that no writing can
be said to be truly grasped until it has been
analyzed, either mentally or in writing. It will
often be found that the essential points are
summed up in notable sentences or clauses.
Very systematic writers, like Higginson or John
Fiske, have landing-places, so to speak, where
they pause to glance back over the way they
have travelled, or to indicate the nature of the
rest of the journey. Such writers are very easy
of analysis. But without such view-points, — and
poetry is almost always without them, — we
must make up for their absence by more alert¬
ness of attention, insight, and imagination. The
more complex the work, — as for example in
such a case as Goethe's "Faust,"—the more pro¬
longed and exacting the task, but also the more
intense and delightful the thrill of discovery.
Whoever has felt it will sympathize with Dow-
den's description : " The happiest moment in
the hours of study of a critic of literature is
INTERPRETATION OP LITERATURE. 31
when seemingly by some divination, but really
as the result of patient observation and thought,
he lights upon the central motive of a great
work. Then, of a sudden, order begins to form
itself from the crowd and chaos of his impres¬
sions and ideas. There is a moving hither and
thither, a grouping or co-ordinating of all his
recent experiences, which goes on of its own
accord, and every instant his vision becomes
clearer, and new meanings disclose themselves
in what has been lifeless and unilluminated. It
seems as if he could even stand by the artist's
side and co-operate with him in the process of
creating. With such a sense of joy upon him,
the critic will think it no hard task to follow the
artist to the sources from whence he drew his
material, — it may be some dull chapter in an
ancient chronicle, or some gross tale of passion
by an Italian novelist, — and he will stand by
and watch with exquisite pleasure the artist
handling that crude material, refashioning and
refining it, and breathing into it the breath
of a finer life."
When we have thus gained entrance to the
heart of an author by the doorway of one work,
we may well undertake to find other ways
through other works, and finally to inquire con¬
cerning his production as an organic whole,
What was his relation to others before and after.
32
THE STUDY CLASS,
what was his own special mission, his own force
as a part of the history of literature. This does
not mean personal gossip, into which so many
writers of text-books, and, alas ! so many liter¬
ary critics of good powers are prone to fall. Let
me illustrate what the study of English literature
should not be, by giving in full the questions
relating to Sir Philip Sidney from a book very
popular and much used among women's clubs :
1. Give some account of the life, character
and attainments of Sir Philip Sidney.
2. What tragical event occurred during his
residence in France?
3. Give the date of that event.
4. Of what country was he elected king?
5. Why did he not accept the crown?
6. Mention Sidney's prose works.
7. What estimate was placed upon them by
his own age?
8. Which one is now most highly esteemed?
9. Had any prose fiction been written in
English before Sidney wrote his?
10. How does he rank among the prose
writers of his time?
11. In what kind of poetical composition did
he excel?
The first thing that strikes us about these
questions is that all may easily be' answered by
consulting any cyclopaedia, and they make no
INTERPRETATION OF LITERATURE. 33
demand which shall require the student to read
so much as a single line of Sidney's writing.
The only faculty called into exercise is memory.
There is nothing to encourage reflection, nothing
which has the slightest tendency to cultivate the
critical faculty, nothing which even hints at
what constitutes the life and power of any one
of Sidney's writings.
Suppose, in place of these unprofitable in¬
quiries, we substitute questions which cannot
be answered without a careful and critical study
of Sidney's own utterances, — questions which
demand knowledge at first-hand, and whose
answers hinge upon the exercise of individual
judgment and upon comparative study with
other authors, also at first-hand. Let us take,
for example, Sidney's " Defence of Poetry," and
apply to it some such method as this : —
1. Discuss Sidney's definition of poetry. Offer
a better, either original or quoted.
2. Discuss Sidney's canons of dramatic com-
position. Compare the state of the English
Drama as described by him with its succeeding
developments, and say how far these were the
effect of a direct departure from Sidney's
principles.
3. As an argument for the usefulness and
supremacy of poetry, has the lapse of three
centuries impaired the value of this essay?
3
34
THE STUDY CLASS.
4. Compare this earliest critical writing of im¬
portance on the Art of Poetry with such notable
modern ones as those of Shelley, Emerson, and
Matthew Arnold, and state how they differ or
agree in their views of
(d) Rhyme or melody as a factor in poetry.
(d) Moral purpose in relation to art.
(c) Nature of poetic inspiration,
5. Sidney and the early writers, in classifying
poetry, have much to say of the mould into
which it is cast (as heroic, lyric, dramatic,
etc.), — a classification commonly omitted by
later writers. Reasons for this difference of
treatment.
Not one of these questions, observe, can be
answered in any parrot-fashion or without direct
study of the masterpiece by the student himself,
in the exercise of his own critical faculty and
powers of comparison. Others might be added,
looking toward the interpretation of the work on
its historical side, through the general move¬
ment. of the life and mind of the times ; but
these should come later, and might involve more
extensive libraries and greater expenditure of
time and money than are available to most
students. For such an undertaking as I have
indicated, — namely, the interpretation of partic¬
ular masterpieces of literature through critical
study, — the means are fortunately open to every
INTERPRETATION OF LITERATURE. 35
one. All, or nearly all, the great classics of our
language are available in cheap editions ; he who
will may take counsel with the great ones of
earth and learn what has been the message of
each to mankind. For, as has been truly said,
" If your study does not directly or indirectly
enrich the life of man, it is but a drawing of
vanity with cart-ropes, a weariness to the flesh,
or at best, a busy idleness.'*
IV.
THE ART OF COMPOSITION.
HERE is no surer way of finding out
exactly how much or how little one
knows of a given subject than to
attempt to write about it. Accord¬
ingly the writing of essays should have some part
in every study, with due attention to certain im¬
portant steps that must precede and attend the
act of composition.
First, let us consider what place books may
rightly occupy in the preparation. Richter has
offered the maxim : " Never read till you have
thought yourself empty ; never write till you
have read yourself full." I should accept this
advice with certain reservations. I should wish
to make a distinction between books according
as they fall into the one or the other of two
classes ; fact books or opinion books. Books
furnishing ready-made opinions, critical writings,
are now so numerous and enticing that the
THE ART OP COMPOSITION, 37
temptation to let them take the place of individ¬
ual study is very great indeed. George Eliot,
speaking of this subject, says : " Who learns to
discriminate shades of color by considering what
is expected of him? The habit of expressing
borrowed judgments stupefies the sensibilities
which are the only foundations of genuine judg¬
ment, just as the constant reading and retailing
of results from other men's observations through
the microscope, without ever looking through
the lens oneself, is an instruction in some truths
and some prejudices, but is no instruction in
observant susceptibility ; on the contrary, it
breeds a habit of inward seeing according to
verbal statement, which dulls the power of out¬
ward seeing according to visual evidence."
I agree with the writers quoted, that all books
of this nature should follow, and not precede,
individual study at first-hand. But there is an¬
other class of books—let us call them fact-books
— which should not come under this sentence of
postponement. They are the books which throw
light on obscure allusions, inaccessible facts, con¬
temporary conditions, or the books which are
in any way collateral with the theme, and help
to furnish the proper atmosphere for its under¬
standing. Such books may go along with, or
even precede, original study. For example, the
student of Dante would be very foolish to deny
38
THE STUDY CLASS.
himself the light of Longfellow's notes, or to
refuse the aid of such books as Scartazzini's
"Hand-Book," or Mrs. Oliphant's "Makers of
Florence." On the other hand, he will do well
to refrain from Dante essays, such as Canon
Farrar's, or Miss Blow's, or Harris' " Spiritual
Sense of the Divina Commedia," — critical writ¬
ings merely, — until after he has studied " The
Divine Comedy " itself. So with Shakespeare.
The notes explanatory of the text should go along
with the text itself; the opinions of Hudson,
Dowden, and Schlegel are of immense value, as
they supplement, probably enlarging or modify¬
ing your own ; but shun them until you are
possessed of some of your own.
Next to books — indeed, some would say be¬
fore books — comes conversation. The Chinese
have a maxim, "A single conversation across
the table with a wise man is better than ten
years' mere study of books." If we cannot
assent to this extreme statement of the Orientals,
we shall all agree, I think, that discussion by
different persons throws side-lights that can be
gained in no other way. Therefore, I would
say to all clubs. Cultivate conversation as a part
of your programme. I say cultivate it, because
it will no more come without cultivation than
beautiful flowers will come out of untended soil,
and because at present it is an art so much
THE ART OF COMPOSITION.
39
neglected. Once begin to notice, and it seems
astonishing how few persons possess the true
conversational instinct. After listening to a
paper, a considerable number of listeners may
ask pertinent questions, and give out apt im¬
pressions, repeating that convenient phrase, It
seems to me," not oftener than every other
sentence ; but a company in which every one
is on the alert to catch a kindred idea, say an
àpropos thing, and pass it on to the next is a
very rare sight indeed. " I do not call a woman
cultivated," says Mallock, in " The New Repub¬
lic," " who can merely ask me if I have read
such and such a book, and say nothing about
it." He might have gone still further and
added, that even if she knew every fact and
date and name, there would still be the mere
frame-work of conversation ; for without fine
perceptions of relative values, and trained
powers of discrimination, there is no genuine
culture.
If these preliminary steps have been diligently
taken, — reading, individual brooding, conversa¬
tion with others, — the process of composition
will be comparatively easy. Keep always in mind
that the first aim of expression is clearness ; the
first question for every writer in every instance is
to ask himself, " What, precisely, is the thought
I wish to express ? " Begin at the thought and
40
THE STUDY CLASS.
work out, rather than at the words and work in,
lest perchance you find yourself swamped in
mere words. The only way to learn to write
well, as to learn to do anything well, is to do it j
yet there are certain precepts, by no means new,
which even the most practised writers need
often to call to mind.
I. For the first one we may go back even so
far as to that good old schoolmaster Roger
Ascham, who enjoined his pupils, "To think as
wise men do, and speak as common people do."
How rare are the examples of such a beautiful
simplicity ! It is a useful exercise for any one,
after completing his first draft, to go over the
whole manuscript carefully with this one thought
in mind, — choice of words. If you find a long
word, look at it with suspicion ; do not let it
stand if there is a shorter or simpler one
equally expressive of your meaning. Word-
choosing fills a peculiarly important place in
English composition, because English has a
larger stock of words than any other language
that ever existed in the world. To write Eng¬
lish well, one must be completely in touch with
the English vocabulary ; and by this process of
self-examination you are making a highly useful
philological study, adding to your vocabulary,
and gaining a power to express shades of mean¬
ing. Think of the ridicule that a late President
THE ART OP COMPOSITION. 41
of the United States would have escaped had he
stopped to draw his pen through innocuous
desuetude " and to rewrite "harmless disuse."
2. Next to simplicity, study conciseness. Pro¬
lixity, either in thought or in expression, makes
bad writing Not to know the essential from
the unessential, is simply not to know the mafter
in hand, and, therefore, to portray it falsely and
ill. Pascal said of one of his letters, " I could
have made it shorter if I could have kept it
longer." A friend once prefaced a paper, say¬
ing, " If I had had more time, I should have
written a great deal less." Few people, I fancy
have not at some time been in a position to
make a similar confession. Only great genius
can delay till the last moment, write at white
heat, and then hurry an essay before his audi¬
ence. For ordinary mortals a much safer plan
is to write long enough beforehand to let the
paper get cold and the mind be diverted into
other channels, so that the writer can, to a
degree, approach the work as though it belonged
to another person. Sometimes not only revision
but entire rewriting will be necessary; nor
would such a labor be without abundant pre¬
cedent. Macaulay wrote and rewrote some
of his essays, long as they were, three times
over; George H. Lewes was one of the most
thoughtful and careful of writers, yet he had
42
THE STUDY CLASS.
one of the first articles which he sent to the
Edinburgh Review returned by the editor to
be re-written all through ; and the second
edition was so far superior to the first that
he never afterward sent his first copy to the
press, but invariably wrote everything twice
and sometimes three times before submitting
it to editor or publisher.
3. But although conciseness be a great virtue,
this need not exclude ornament. Illustration is
often a happy means of enforcing and beautify¬
ing the thought. The concrete is always more
vivid and picturesque than the abstract. Lowell
says, " A metaphor is not an argument, though
it be sometimes the gunpowder to drive one
home and imbed it in the memory." Make
sure, however, that such adornments grow natur¬
ally out of your subject ; beware of seeking them
only to fasten them on painfully. The joining
seam will then mar your work more than your
purple patch " will adorn it.
4. In regard to quotations, do not hesitate to
support your own opinion by the words of an¬
other, provided the expression be better than
any possible to yourself, or provided you wish
the weight of another's authority. Let these seem
to grow naturally out of your subject, rather than
that the quotation shall be the principal matter
and your thought a dilution of it, or that there
THE ART OF COMPOSITION,
43
should be any suspicion of the pedantry of show¬
ing familiarity with many high-sounding names.
5. Lessing used to say that a man is no more
responsible for his literary style than for his nose.
This would be true if the influences which go to
forming a literary style, and they are many, were
entirely at the mercy of chance. John Bur¬
roughs has told somewhere, that finding he was
imitating Emerson's style in consequence of
being under the spell of his thought, he turned
sharply about and began to make and write
those Nature studies by which he is now chiefly
known, and in which he was forced to use a
language of his own. Or, one may deliberately
choose some master as his model, and study
how he produces his effects for the express pur¬
pose of discipline according to the same rules.
Helen Hunt Jackson took Higginson's "Out-
Door Papers," trying to rewrite them, or to find
if in any instance a word or phrase could be
changed, studying them in this way over and
over again. It has been said that most Lon¬
doners write like the Times editorials, that being
the literature they chiefly read. Lowell says that
the elder masters of English writing "lunched
with Plutarch and supped with Plato," hence
the dignity of their style.
V.
INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY OF
SHAKESPEARE.
HAKESPEARE'S plays began a new
order and kind of literature. His
rank rests not upon his being the
child of a drama that came before
him, but upon the fact that he is the father of a
whole class that have come after him. Nor, in¬
deed, shall we get much light even in this direc¬
tion so long as we regard Shakespeare chiefly as
dramatist^ the main fact being, as Emerson says,
that " he was a full man that liked to talk ; " that
he became dramatist simply because, for the
moment, the drama was " ballad, epic, news¬
paper, caucus, lecture. Punch, and library at the
same time ; " and that to take account of form
where such wisdom of life is in question is like
making a question concerning the paper on
which a king's message is written."
Looking at Shakespeare from this high point
INTRODUCTORY TO SHAKESPEARE. 45
of view, — regarding his writings not as plays, but
as expressions of his mind and art, — we find in
him this supreme purpose, to depict life. Shake¬
speare enters into the position and feelings of
his creations in order that he may portray the
motive and life of a soul. The inward, not the
outward life is the theme ; character, not events ;
and the movement and issue depend upon what
that soul evolves from the conditions in which it
is placed. Nothing like this had ever been be¬
fore essayed \ but a motive so noble, joined to
so great power in its execution, has been suffi¬
cient to give the tone to all imaginative writing
since ; so that the words here used as descriptive
of his work express also the aims of all later
fiction, the difference between him and his suc¬
cessors being a difference in power, in method,
and, more especially, in form, but never a differ¬
ence in motive. It is not necessary here to
dwell upon the various causes that have con¬
spired to bring about a change of form, or to
explain why prose fiction in books supplies to
the modern mind the same place that acted
drama did to the mind of the sixteenth century.
The point is, that to Shakespeare it is due that
human life was for the first time set in its right¬
ful place as a study of supreme moment; that
in the study of Shakespeare the most important
matter is to treat his plays as life-problems, his
46
THE STUDY CLASS.
characters as human beings like ourselves, moved
to the same laughter and tears, thrilled by the
same passions, yielding to the same temptations,
triumphing over the same obstacles, crushed by
the same misfortunes.
Accordingly, the following studies will concern
themselves with attempts at establishing a chron¬
ological order, very little ; with endeavors to
piece out the character of the writer from his
creations, still less ; with textual controversies,
not at all; with questions of vocabulary and
syntax, only so far as may be necessary to a
clear understanding of the meaning.
Coleridge has said that " to judge aright, and
with distinct consciousness of the grounds of
our judgment, concerning the works of Shake¬
speare, implies the power and the means of
judging rightly all other works of intellect, those
of abstract science alone excepted." Let us
consider what faculties must be applied to the
undertaking. It is obvious that the dramatic
form makes very large demands upon the reader,
by calling upon him to supply much that would
be supplied for him by the narrative or epic
form ; it demands from him not only a much
closer attention., so that no hint, or touch, or
word escape him, not only much more reflection
in order that he may interpret the significance of
these as indications of character, but also an-
INTRODUCTORY TO SHAKESPEARE. 47
Other exercise of the mind, imagination, in
order to fill in the gaps and determine the un¬
known from the known. He must himself con¬
struct the physical, mental, and spiritual traits,
much as a naturalist must from a dry bone re¬
construct the living, moving frame of the animal
of which he has had no sight; but with this
différence, that while naturalists of equal knowl¬
edge will agree in their animal, scarcely any
two persons will agree entirely in their Macbeth
or Hamlet or Lear, owing to the variable quality
of the imagination which recreates them.
Every play, after due attention and reflection,
reveals itself as a skeleton, whose substance is
known by these signs : —
1. The words and acts of each character,
always bearing in mind the circumstances and
motives which may color and modify his sin¬
cerity of speech and action.
2. The light in which each is regarded by
others, bearing in mind their individual bias as
modifiers of their judgments.
3. The author's own view so far as may be
gathered from the whole course of the play, —
just as in real life we judge a man from his
general course of action, habit of mind, and
modes of expression.
Availing ourselves, then, of such things as
these, — using them as legitimate materials for
48
THE STUDY CLASS,
interpretation by the individual imagination, —
let us first apply ourselves to the play alone,
reading carefully by acts and scenes, and discuss¬
ing freely in the class meeting, but always re¬
membering that the questions are not to be
considered as exhaustive or exclusive, but rather
merely as suggestive of fruitful lines of inquiry.
Only after this preliminary reading and dis¬
cussion, shall we consult the critics and actors ;
their opinions are of immense value as modify¬
ing or supplementing our own, but we must take
care that they are not allowed to supplant our
own. At the conclusion of each play, some in¬
quiry into its sources and bibliography may seem
to bring us somewhat in touch with the man and
the artist ; and, finally, we shall do well to present
on paper our conceptions of the characters as
they have fixed themselves in our minds.
In a list like the following, limited to five
plays, the difficulty has been to make a choice.
The selection as it stands has been made less
with reference to the presentation of the abso¬
lutely best, about which there would be much
difference of opinion, than with reference to
the exhibition of the chief varieties, — thus serv¬
ing to illustrate the fitness of that appellation
bestowed by Coleridge and perpetuated by the
common consent of mankind, the myriad-minded
Shakespeare.
VI.
OUTLINES OF THE STUDY OF
SHAKESPEARE.
LFE'S and Hudson's editions of the
single plays are recommended as
the ones most helpful and con¬
venient for the use of the student.
"The Merchant of Venice," "Hamlet" and
" Macbeth," are issued in the Furness Variorum
Edition, and are masterpieces of complete and
comprehensive editing. For information about
Shakespeare, his mind and art, the best single
book in small compass is Dowden's Shakespeare
Primer ; Fleay's Shakespeare Manual is also very
valuable.
The references to acts and scenes in these
Outlines follow the line numberings of Rolfe,
this being the edition commonly preferred by
students.
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPICS.
I. A Midsummer-Night's Dream, Act I.
II. A Midsummer-Night's Dream, Act II.
III. A Midsummer-Night's Dream, Act III.
IV. A Midsummer-Night's Dream, Acts IV. and V.
V. A Midsummer-Night's Dream. General Résumé.
VI. Julius Caesar, Act I.
VII. Julius Caesar, Act II. Scene i.
VIII. Julius Caesar, Act II. Scenes 2, 3, 4, and Act III.
Scene i.
IX. Julius Caesar, Act III. Scenes 2 and 3.
X. Julius Caesar, Acts IV. and V.
XI. Merchant of Venice, Act I.
XII. Merchant of Venice, Act II.
XIII. Merchant of Venice, Act III.
XIV. Merchant of Venice, Act IV.
XV. Merchant of Venice, Act V.
XVI. Merchant of Venice. Summary.
XVII. Macbeth, Act I.
XVIII. Macbeth, Act II.
XIX. Macbeth, Act III.
XX. Macbeth, Act IV.
XXI. Macbeth, Act V.
XXII. Macbeth. The Supernatural Element.
XXIII. Macbeth. Summary.
XXIV. Hamlet, Act I.
XXV. Hamlet, Act II.
XXVI. Hamlet, Act III.
XXVII. Hamlet, Act IV.
XXVIII. Hamlet, Act V.
XXIX. Hamlet. General Résumé.
XXX. Shakespeare's Art and Place in Literature.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE, 51
TOPIC I.
A Midsummer-Night's Dream, Act L
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
I. 15. Explain "companion," as used here.
I. 16,17. Explain " I woo'd thee with my sword," etc.
Give some account of the exploits of
Theseus as related in Grecian mythology,
I. 50,51. Explain "Within his power to leave the
figure," etc.
I. no. Explain " spotted."
1. 170. Explain "best arrow."
2. 4. Explain the nature of interludes^ and the
custom of the day in respect to them.
2. 22, 33. Explain the allusions to " Ereles."
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Shakespeare's dramas commonly follow two rules ;
— (i) They foreshadow in the first scene of the first act,
the main idea of the plot ; (2) They introduce all the
principal characters before the close of the first act. Ap¬
plying these tests to the present case, what should you
expect concerning the characters of this play ; and in
whom should you suppose the interest would centre ?
2. Had Shakespeare any special reason for paying
tribute to "single blessedness" (Sc. i, 1. 74-78) ?
3. One of Shakespeare's arts was his masterly choice
of words to heighten the effect he wished to produce.
Point out any instances in this act of the skiiful use of
adjectives for such a purpose.
4. Usages of the time in respect to female parts on the
stage, as shown by the cast of characters in Scene 2.
52
THE STUDY CLASS.
5. History of the play ; when written, probably, and
for what occasion ; before whom acted ! when printed,
and in what form.
6. Did Shakespeare draw his knowledge of Theseus
and Hercules from the classics or from romance ?
These characters have been called "the knights-errant
of antiquity." Fitness of this seemingly anomalous
description }
TOPIC II.
A Midsummer-Night's Dream, Act II.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
I. 8,10. Comment on,—
" To dew her orbs upon the green,
The cowslips tall her pensioners be."
' 88,117. What season in England corresponded
with this description, and how does it
help to fix the date of writing ?
I. 98. What was the " nine men's morris " ?
I. 145-61. What celebrated festivities probably al¬
luded to here ?
I. 165. What flower is meant by the "love-in-
idleness " ?
I. Explain the following words : lob ( 16),
quern (36), neeze (56), ringlets (86), pelt¬
ing (91). wade (189).
II. Topics for discussion.
I. The elves of English folk-lore had distinctive
characteristics, to the popular notion of which Shake¬
speare conformed. What do you learn of them in the
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 53
following respects, quoting passages from this act in
evidence ?
a. Size.
b. Power of invisibility and of assuming various
forms.
c. Favorite haunts.
d. The fairy-rings.
e. Love of music.
f. Swiftness of motion.
g. Mischievous sports.
h. Changelings.
(See Dyer's "Folk-Lore of Shakespeare," Chap. I.)
2. Give some account of the traditions concerning
Robin Goodfellow. (See Jonson's ballad in Percy's
" Reliques of Ancient Poetry.")
3. Some account of Oberon, and origin of the name.
4. Titania, and reasons for Shakespeare's choice of
this name for the Queen of Fairyland.
5. Notice that the rhythm changes whenever the
fairies speak; what was Shakespeare's custom in this
respect ?
6. Does English literature, previous to Shakespeare,
present any similar examples of fairy poetry?
TOPIC III.
A Midsummer-Night's Dream, Act III.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
i. 114-22. Comment on the birds mentioned. Ex¬
plain the allusion in the lines —
Whose note full many a man doth mark
And dares not answer nay."
54
THE STUDY CLASS.
Scene. Line.
1. 152-62. Ten lines rhyming together are very un¬
common in Shakespeare. What special
effect was probably designed.^ In res¬
pect to rhyme, how do Shakespeare's
early plays compare with the later ones ?
2. 97. Explain "With sighs of love that costs
the fresh blood dear."
2. 296. Explain the point of the epithet " painted
maypole."
2. 393. Explain "Turns into yellow gold his salt
green streams."
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Sources of the play. Mention previous writings
from which Shakespeare may have gleaned severally
as follows : —
a. Characters and names of Theseus and Hippolyta.
â. Philostrate.
c. Interlude of Pyramus and Thisbe.
d. Machinery of Oberon and his fairy court.
e. Magic of the flower-juice.
2. Did Shakespeare commonly invent his plots, or
use one already familiar ? How was it in the present
instance ?
3. Shakespeare's plots usually culminate near the
middle of the play. At what point do you place the
culmination in this instance ?
4. Discuss the manner in which the three separate
actions are developed in this act, the blending of the
diverse elements into an artistic harmony. Was this
complexity of action a new thing in dramatic literature}
5. Cite the passages of special poetic beauty, in this
act.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 55
TOPIC IV.
A Midsummer-Night's Dream, Acts IV. & V.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Act. Sc. Line.
iv. I. 27. Comment on *'the tongs and the bones."
I. 30. Explain Bottom's " bottle of hay."
39) 40» Comment on the " woodbine and honey¬
suckle " and " female ivy."
I. 129. Explain "the rite of May."
I. 188. Explain the sense in which Demetrius is
"like a jewel."
V. I. 44-67. Explain the allusions in the title of the
four " sports " offered by Philostrate ;
mention some of the theories concern¬
ing the " muses mourning for the death
of learning."
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Is there any special significance in the choice of
" Bottom " as the weaver's name ; also, in making him
claim a "reasonable good ear " (Act. IV. sc. i, 1. 26)}
2. Was the fondness of Theseus for hunting due to
Shakespeare's invention ; if not, where may he have
found it ?
3. What allusion in Act IV. fixes the exact days of
the year in which the action takes place
4. Discuss both the thought and the expression of
the opening speech of Theseus (Act V.), concerning
the nature and office of the poet's inspiration.
5. Quote Theseus' answer to Hippolyta when she
calls the interlude " silly stuff," and say what require¬
ments it makes on readers of the drama, or, indeed, on
interpreters of any art.
THE STUDY CLASS.
6. Special significance of the choice of Pyramus and
Thisbe as the subject of the interlude ? Does it seem
to you a sort of parody on the pathetic part of the
play ?
7. In what plays or poems had this story been told
previously. (For "A New Sonet of Pyramus and
Thisbe," see Knight^s edition, note on the line " This
palpable gross play.")
TOPIC V.
A Midsummer-Night's Dream. General
Résumé.
I. Title of the play.
The word midsummer does not occur in the text of
the play, nor is this the time when the action takes
place. What, probably, had Shakespeare in mind in
choosing the title? Who is the dreamer, — the poet,
any of the characters, or the spectator ?
II. Duration of the action.
Does it cover the four days of the first speech in the
play ?
III. Characteristics.
Show in what ways this play is " original and peculiar
in its whole character, and of a class by itself," as
Verplanck expresses it. Compare with "The Tem¬
pest ; " how like and how unlike ?
IV. Fairies.
How do these differ from human beings in their mental
and moral nature ? Read Hood^s " Plea of the Mid¬
summer Fairies," and note its tribute to Shakespeare.
OUTLINE-STUDY OP SHAKESPEARE, 57
V. Human characters.
Are these of special interest or strongly differentiated ?
VI. Dramatic estimate.
1. Pepys wrote in his Diary (1622), "It is the most
insipid, ridiculous play that I ever saw in my life.'*
Hazlitt said, " When acted, it is converted from a
delightful fiction to a dull pantomime." Do you agree
in judging the play unfitted for stage representation ?
2. Give some account of various adaptations; the
dates of stage-presentation.
VII. Chronology.
Where in the list of Shakespeare's plays is this one
generally placed? On what evidence, internal and
external ?
VIII. Essay.
Prepare a brief paper on any one of the foregoing
topics ; or, write a general thesis on the play as a
whole.
TOPIC VI.
Julius CíEsar, Act I.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
I. 3. Explain the use of "mechanical ; " compare
with Mid.-NighPs Dream, Act III. sc. 2,
1. 9.
I. 67. Explain the nature of the "feast of Luper-
cal ; " its purpose, and its relation to the
name of our month February.
58
THE STUDY CLASS.
2. 4. Explain the allusion " run his course/' and
by reason of what office and rank this
was done by Antony.
2. 155. Explain the allusion "there was a Brutus
once," and the purpose of the allusion
on this occasion.
2. 158,9. Explain " jealous " and " aim."
2. 269. When Cicero "spoke Greek," was his speech
according to the custom at court ?
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Give a brief résumé of the historical events imme¬
diately preceding the date at which the play opens.
Explain the customs of the time with respect to
"triumphs;" what one is alluded to in Scene i, and
how many had Caesar previously celebrated ?
2. What effect on the incipient conspiracy might be
wrought by seeing (in Scene 2) Caesar's wish for a
child ?
3. How do you interpret the "passions of some
difference " (sc. 2,1. 37) to which Brutus confesses ?
4. Discuss the motives of Cassius in protesting his
own truthfulness and his reserve in forming friend¬
ships. (Sc. 2,11. 62-75.)
5. Discuss the sentiment in Scene 2,11. 136 and 137.
Do you believe in "luck," or, with Cassius, that "men
at some time are masters of their fates " ?
6. What special feature of Roman life at this period
does Shakespeare bring out prominently in the first
scene ?
7. What means are taken to develop in the audience
a sense of impending horror ?
8. Collateral reading. Church : Roman Life in the
Days of Cicero.
OUTLINE-STUDY OP SHANESPEAPE. 59
TOPIC VII.
Julius Caesar, Act II. Scene i.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
I. 66. Comment on "the genius and the mortal
instruments."
I. 70. Why does he say " brother Cassius " ?
I. 85,86. Meaning of "Erebus" and "prevention."
Compare this thought with the place
given to Brutus and Cassius by Dante
in his " Inferno." (Canto XXXIV.)
I. 197. Explain the Elizabethan use of the word
" ceremony."
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Discuss the speech of Brutus, beginning "It must
be by his death." What indications do you gather
from it concerning the character Shakespeare meant
to represent?
2. Discuss the speech of Brutus beginning, " Be¬
tween the acting of a dreadful thing." Is such a state
of mind peculiar to Brutus, or is it a general human
characteristic ?
3. What trait of character is revealed in Brutus
through his interview with Portia ? Compare with
the conjugal scene in i Henry IV., Act II. Scene 3.
4. What self-revelations are made by Portia in her
plea with Brutus, and her allusion to the "voluntary
wound " ?
5. A modern critic has suggested that this scene
properly belongs in Act I. since one conspiracy (against
Brutus) ends and another (against Cœsar) begins.
6o
THE STUDY CLASS.
Discuss some of the points of interest thus far,
namely : —
a. The Roman populace. Rome in the last days
of the Republic.
b. T^he art of Cassius in working things to his own
ends.
c. The part taken by Brutus in the war between
Pompey and Caesar. How does it affect our
judgment of his present action ?
TOPIC VIII.
Julius Caesar, Act II. Scenes 2, 3, 4, and
Act III. Scene i.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Act. Sc. Line.
ii. 3. 89. Explain the allusion " shall press for cinc¬
tures," etc.
3. 94. Was it true that the crown was about to
be offered ?
4. 42. Explain " Brutus hath a suit," etc.
Iii. i. ii. As to the locality of the assassination, what
differences between the play and the his¬
torical account ?
i. 77. Is there any classical authority for "Et tu,
Brute " ?
II. Topics for discussion.
i. Comment on the important part played by super¬
stition in the religious beliefs and customs of the
Romans. Are soldiers commonly more superstitious
than men in other callings?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 61
2. Describe Caesar's various emotions, in Act IL,
Scene 2. Quote to prove.
3. Compare Calpurnia with Portia.
4. Comment on Portia's conduct in Scene 4. Is it
inconsistent with your former impressions of her }
5. Does the tone of Caesar's talk ]ust before his death
accord with what history says of him ? If not, what
good dramatic reasons may have caused Shakespeare
to depart from historic conceptions.^
6. Does the prophecy of a stage celebrity (Act III.
sc. 1,11. 112-119) seem natural at such a moment ?
7. Read some collateral history \ for example, the
last three chapters of Froude's Caesar ; or Chap. XVI.
of Allen's Short History of the Roman People.
8. Write character studies of
a. Julius Caesar.
h Portia.
TOPIC IX.
Julius C.®sar, Act III. Scenes 2 and 3.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
2. 13. Meaning of " lovers " here.
2. 35. Explain " the question of his death."
2. 179. Explain Caesar's angel."
2. 241. Value of a drachma?
II. Topics for discussion.
I. A new dramatic action now begins, and these two
scenes should comprise an entire act. Note that all
characters thus far introduced disappear, with the ex¬
ception of Antony, Brutus, Cassius, Lucius and the
citizens. Reasons for the introduction of Cinna ?
02
THE STUDY CLASS.
2. As a piece of composition, what is your opinion
of Brutus's speech? Had Shakespeare any historic
basis for giving Brutus this style? What traits of
character are implied ?
3. Comment on Mark Antony's oration. Trace the
different motives underlying the successive stages of
his appeal; reasons for dwelling on the "honourable
men,'" for referring to the battle of the Nervii, etc.
4. Points of difference between the two speeches ;
had the one by Cassius also been given, what direction
do you think it would have taken ?
5. Was Antony right in calling Brutus an orator and
himself none ? Is there any difference between a speech
and an oration ? If so, what ?
6. Do you find any proof of the truth of Brutus's
judgment of Antony that he " could do no more than
Caesar's arm when Caesar's head is off " ?
7. Compare the effect of the respective speeches of
Brutus and Antony upon the people. Why was An¬
tony's speech convincing and Brutus's simply puzzling ?
8. Collateral reading, Merivale's History of the
Romans under the Empire, Chap. XXIH. ; quoted by
Hudson m school edition of " Julius Caesar."
TOPIC X.
Julius CíESAr, Acts IV. and V.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Act. Sc. Line
iv. I. 49. Explain "bay'd about with enemies."
3. 8,- Explain " every nice event should bear its
comment."
3. 47. Explain the " venom of your spleen."
OUTLINE-STUDY OP SHAKESPEARE. 63
Act. Sc. Line.
V. I. 14. What was the bloody sign of battle " }
I. 75. Meaning of " I held Epicurus strong.'^
IL Topics for discussion.
1. How long a time do you suppose to have elapsed
since the close of the last scene ? According to history,
where did the opening scene of Act IV. occur ? Where,
according to the play }
2. How long a time, historically, between Scenes i
and 2 of Act IV. ?
3. Discuss the general truth of the description of a
*'hot friend cooling " (Act IV. sc. 2, 11. 19-28).
4. In the quarrel between Brutus and Cassius, which
one shows the best spirit and helps most toward
reconciliation ?
5. What do you think of Brutus's boast that he " can
raise no money by vile means,'^ considering his willing-
ness to take the money raised by Cassius ?
6. What did Cassius have in mind in saying, " Now,
Brutus, thank yourself," etc. (Act V. sc. i, 1. 45) ?
7. Comment on Brutus's manner in announcing
Portia's death.
8. Do you consider the play rightly named ; is Brutus
or Caesar the real hero }
9. Is the play an unintentional glorification of
tyrannicide }
10. Write character studies of
a* Brutus.
h» Cassius.
c. Mark Antony.
64
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XL
Merchant of Venice, Act I.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
I. 66. Explain "When shall we laugh? say,
when ? "
I. 74. Explain "You have too much respect upon
the world."
I. 165, 166. Consult Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar,"
and compare the two Portias.
1. 185. Explain " of my trust or for my sake."
2. 5-8. How do you understand Nerissa's philoso¬
phy of life ?
3. I. Value of the Venetian silver ducat in
Shakespeare's time, and at present?
3. 30-33. Explain Venetian customs as shown in
Shylock's question, " What news on the
Rialto ? " also, in his refusal to dine
with Bassanio.
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Do you agree with Bassanio that " Gratiano speaks
an infinite deal of nothing " (Act I. sc. i, 1. 114) ?
2. Was Antonio's sadness a mood, or due to some
vague presentiment of evil, or to something inherent
in the nature of the man ? Does Gratiano understand
Antonio aright ?
3. What clew to Portia's character in her comments
on her suitors, and evident preference of " a scholar and
a soldier " ?
4. Consider Portia's decision to let chance provide
a husband rather than ignore her father's will. In
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 65
matters of the affections, what weight should attach
to parental authority as compared with individual
rights ?
5. Sum up the grounds of Antonio's bitterness; of
Shylock's. Is one man more justifiable than the
other ?
6. In proposing the pound of flesh forfeiture, does
Shylock already look forward to compassing the death
of Antonio ?
7. Why does Bassanio fear the bond more than does
Antonio himself ?
TOPIC XII.
Merchant of Venice, Act II.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Sc. Line.
2. 92. Explain " I have set up my rest to run away."
2. 143. Explain a fairer table."
5 30. What indication here of Venetian architecture ?
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Take Bassanio's expostulation with Gratiano
(sc. 2) and Gratiano's own reflections on life-pur¬
poses (Act I. sc. i), and describe the character of
Gratiano.
2. Why does Shylock accept this invitation (sc. 5,
1. 11), having spurned a similar one before the bond
was signed ?
3. Does Jessica's conduct as a daughter seem entirely
unnatural, considering the revelations of her home life ?
Do the different solutions of parental responsibilities,
exemplified by Portia and Jessica, carry with them any
" lessons to parents " }
S
66
THE STUDY CLASS-
4. Probable effect of Jessica's flight with Antonio's
friend on Shylock's attitude toward Antonio.
5. What relation to each other have the rapid suc¬
cession of incidents in Act II. so 8, — the Jew's fury
at the abduction of his daughter, the first indication of
possible disaster to Antonio's ships, a further allusion
to the close friendship of Antonio and Bassanio ?
6. What interval of time do you suppose to elapse
between Acts I. and II. ?
TOPIC XIII.
Merchant of Venice, Act III.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
2. 49-53. What allusion to English customs }
2. 85, 86. Explain the force of "beard" and "white
liver."
2. 274. Explain "impeach the freedom of the
State."
3. 27. Explain " commodity," with reference to
Venetian laws and customs.
Date of the action of the play, as shown by references
to the University of Padua, and also by Antonio's " ven¬
tures in Mexico."
IL Topics for discussion.
1. Does Shylock's first thought of enforcing his bond
occur in this act, or earlier
2. Do you judge Shylock had a genuine love for his
religion and for his Sacred Nation ? Does the syna¬
gogue appointment imply religious hypocrisy ?
3. Do you detect any tenderness in the nature of
Shylock}
OUTLINE-STUDY OP SHAKESPEARE, 67
4. Are Portia's content with the present, and Bassa-
nio's impatience, at the beginning of Scene 2, sex-
characteristics ?
5. Name the influences which make it certain that
Bassanio, as a true lover, must choose the leaden
casket.
6. Interpret the song accompanying Bassanio's act of
choosing. What influence has it on the event ? Did
Portia thereby disobey the spirit while holding to the
letter of her injunctions t
7. How does Bassanio's success with the caskets
affect your expectations with regard to Antonio's fate ?
8. Recalling Portia's stately reserve to former lovers,
are you prepared for her complete self-surrender to
Bassanio ? Which — Bassanio or Portia — seems to
you to do the chief love-making?
9. What new and more intimate relations of Antonio
do you gain through his letter, and what Bassanio says
of the writer ? Through his scene with the jailer and
his acceptance of the issue of events ?
10. Do you accept Portia's theory of the necessity of
likeness between friends ?
11. Character of Bassanio in brief.
TOPIC XIV.
Merchant of Venice, Act IV.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
1. 29. Special signification of " royal merchant " here
and elsewhere applied to Antonio ?
2. 16. Explain the meaning of "old" here; what sur¬
vival of it have we in modern speech ?
68
THE STUDY CLASS.
II. Topics for discussion.
1. What effect on the nature of the suit has Shylock's
refusal of the money ? Why does not Shylock, as well
as Portia, think of this }
2. Were Antonio's demands (Sc. i, 11. 371-381) neces¬
sary or reasonable ?
3. At what point does Shylock first realize the position
in which he has placed himself ?
4. When Shylock leaves the court, what are your
feelings toward him.'' Have you anything to urge in
his defence}
5. Do you suppose that Shakespeare meant to excite
sympathy for Shylock ?
6. In your judgment, did Shylock "contrive" against
Antonio's life}
7. Was Portia's line of defence supplied by Bellario
or original with herself.«^ What opportunities for legal
study were available to women of her time ? Were
trained wit and exact knowledge exceptional in the
sex?
8. Was Bassanio right to break his promise about
the rings ? What principle of conduct, expressed by
himself in a previous line of the play, would justify
him ?
9. Reasons for the introduction of Scene 2, both with
relation to the progress of the story and for artistic
purposes ?
10. Discuss the law of the trial scene. (Read Shylock
V. Antonio, by C. H. Phelps, in Atlantic y April, 1886.)
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 69
TOPIC XV.
Merchant of Venice, Act V.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
I. 1-15. Explain the classical allusions.
I. 109. "The moon sleeps with Endymion." In the
number of its classical allusions, how does
this play compare with Shakespeare's other
plays ?
I. 197. Explain the meaning of " virtue " of the ring,
by reference to Portia's speech in presenting
it. (Act III. sc. 2.)
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Name other poets, ancient and modern, who make
use of this ancient notion of the music of the spheres
(1. 61).
2. Is the Fifth Act necessary or not ; its relation to
the rest of the play? Why is it generally omitted in
stage-representation ?
3. Why does Antonio appear in this act and Shylock
not ? How does it show the working out of the prin¬
ciples of good and evil ?
4. Is there any ethical import, any life-lesson in the
Merchant of Venice ? If so, what ?
5. What do you consider the finest passage in the
play ?
6. Does your chief interest centre in Portia and her
lover, or in the relations of Shylock and Antonio ?
Shakespeare's probable intention in this respect ?
7. Shakespeare's part as actor at the Globe Theatre in
this play. (See Goadby's " England of Shakespeare,"
pp. 163-167.)
70
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XVI.
Merchant of Venice. Summary.
I. Historical and bibliographical.
1. Sources of the play.
a. Story of the caskets. Earlier forms of the same
story.
â. The pound of flesh. Earlier forms of the same
story.
c. Combination of the two stories by an earlier
dramatist.
d. Similar incident in history with the rôles of Jew
and Christian reversed.
e. To which of these sources was Shakespeare
probably indebted ?
2. Date of writing. Date of publication. Early
editions.
3. State briefly the method of determining the chron¬
ological order of Shakespeare's plays. (Dowden's
" Primer," pp. 32-46.) Its value ? Where, according to
this scheme, does the "Merchant of Venice " come ?
E-eferences :
Dowden : Shakspere Primer, pp. 91-96.
Morley : Ed. Merchant of Venice in Cassell's National
Library (10 cts.) reprints the old stories and poem.
II. With the critics.
Hazlitt : Characters of Shakespear's Plays, ed. Bohn,
pp. 189 fol.
C. Knight: Ed. of Shakespear, Comedies, 1.449-456.
Hudson, Dowden, Gervinus and others, at the student's
convenience.
" The Sisters of Portia," and " Shylock " in Shake-
spearianaj November, 1886.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 71
III. With the actors.
Lawrence Barrett, Shakespeariana^ November, 1886.
Henry Irving, Shakespeariana^ January, 1884.
Edwin Booth, Shakespeariana^ March, 1887.
IV. Character studies.
I. Antonio. 2. Shylock, 3. Portia.
V. Collateral reading.
Philipson : The Jew in English Fiction.
Spedding : The Story of the Merchant of Venice,
Cornhill^ 1880; ibid. Library Magazine^ 1880, Vol. III.
TOPIC XVII.
Macbeth, Act I.
I. Scotland in the Eleventh Century.
Consider the subject with special regard to the state
of Scottish civilization ; the laws which governed the
succession to the throne; the historic incidents which
furnish the basis of the play. This preliminary study
is not because of any historical interest in the play,
but because of its value in furnishing the proper atmos¬
phere and setting.
Keferences :
Rolfe: Macbeth, pp. 131-150, and pp. 14, 15.
Guizot : Shakespeare and His Times. Chapter,
Macbeth.
II. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
I. Explain the two closing lines of this scene.
3. 53, 139. Meaning of fantastical " ? Whence grew
its modern and more restricted meaning ?
72
THE STUDY CLASS
Scene. Line
3. 88. Explain the "insane root" and the use of
" on " before it.
7. 65-67. Explain "That memory, the warder of the
brain^ shall be a fumef etc.
III. Topics for discussion.
1. What sort of a character does the second scene of
Act I. lead us to expect in the unseen Macbeth ?
2. Account for the difference between the two men,
Banquo and Macbeth, during and after the interview
with the Weird Sisters.
3. Did Macbeth speak the truth probably in saying,
"My dull brain was wrought with things forgotten"
(Act I. sc. 3, 1. 150) ?
4. Why is Malcolm's appointment as Prince of
Cumberland fatal to all hope of Macbeth's lawful
succession Do you consider this the birth-moment
of guilty purpose in Macbeth's mind, or had it existed
already ?
5. Lady Macbeth's soliloquies (Act I. sc. 5) are to be
studied carefully. In the first, judge how far her descrip¬
tion of her husband is trustworthy ; that is, how far we
can depend upon it as true to the real Macbeth and how
far it is likely to be only Macbeth as seen through her
eyes. What light does she throw on her own character
in describing his, although she does not speak of self ?
Do you discover any wifely traits ?
In the second soliloquy, compare her words with
those of Macbeth in Scene 3, while the same ambition
was working in his mind. Compare her invocation to
" thick night " with his milder, " Stars, hide your fires,"
etc. What significance as character interpreters ?
6. Contrast Banquo's and Duncan's words (Act I.
sc. 6), in approaching the castle, with Lady Macbeth's
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 73
words in the preceding scene, "The raven himself is
hoarse," etc. Explain the reason for the diverse images
in describing the same time and scene.
7. Study the dialogue (Act I. sc. 7), and say with whom
rests the main responsibility for the act about to be per¬
formed. The plan and details originate with the wife
(11. 60-70) ; other lines (11. 47-49) seem to place the
first conception of the " enterprise " with Macbeth.
Note also that the same facts which with Macbeth
had urged " strong against the deed " are, in the
woman^s mind, the strongest arguments for present
action, having " made themselves."
TOPIC XVIII.
Macbeth, Act II.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
I. 8. Explain Banquo's allusion to "cursed
thoughts."
I. 25. Explain " If you shall cleave to my consent."
4. 7. Explain " travelling lamp."
4. 15. Meaning of "minions" here and elsewhere
in Shakespeare.
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Was the dagger which appeared as soon as Macbeth
was alone and the lights carried out a part of the super¬
natural machinery of temptation, or was it a " false
creation " of the " heat-oppressed brain " ? Can you
offer any scientific explanation of the appearance }
2. Had Lady Macbeth herself taken wine, or was she
simply "made bold" by the knowledge that the groom's
74
THE STUDY CLASS.
sleep is drugged ? Why is she nervous and startled now
that the deed is actually doing or done ?
3. When Macbeth confesses that he could not say
"Amen" (Sc. 2), do you think him only a conscious
hypocrite; or does this mark a point in his spir¬
itual history, — one more conflict between light and
darkness ?
4. Give your impression of the whole scene and the
effect of the knocking.
5. Would you think the play improved by the
omission of this low soliloquy of the Porter (Sc. 3)?
Does this bit of comedy, coming in the midst of such
tragic scenes, find a parallel in others of Shakespeare's
plays}
6. How do you reconcile Macbeth's prompt murder
of the grooms with his horror at the mere thought of
killing Duncan, and his refusal to carry the bloody
daggers back to the chamber ?
7. Is Lady Macbeth's swoon real or feigned}
8. What use of popular superstitions is made in
Scene 4 ?
TOPIC XIX.
Macbeth, Act III.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line
4. 61. Modernize "This is the very painting of your
fear." Trace the meaning from the deri¬
vation and also our modern use in such
phrases as " His very faults are dear
to me."
4. 64. Explain " impostors to true fear."
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 75
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Compare Macbeth^s soliloquy (Act III. sc. i) with
the one preceding Duncan's murder (Act I. sc. 7).
What do you infer from the absence of all scruples
now? What state of mind is revealed by such ex¬
pressions as "fruitless crown," "barren sceptre," and
" unlineal hand " ? What evidence of moral deterio¬
ration in the different nature of the impelling motive
to crime now? Why does he seek to set aside the
weird prophesies in Banquo's case, when in his own
he had held them as words he was bound to see
fulfilled ? What is the meaning of " champion me to
the utterance," and what derivation ?
2. What do you think of Macbeth's justification of
his present methods, as it comes out in his talk with the
murderers ; and of the nature of his appeal to them ?
3. Can you explain the little touch of feeling, almost
tenderness, in Macbeth's closing lines of this scene ?
4. Illustrate the character of Lady Macbeth from
her words before and after the entrance of her hus¬
band. (Sc. 2.)
5. Meaning of " Nature's copy's not eterne." (Sc. 2,
1. 38). Do you infer from this, or from anything, that
Lady Macbeth knew or suspected her husband's design
against Banquo ?
6. What contrast of disposition and purpose appears
in the dialogue between husband and wife (Sc. 2).
In tenderness, how does it compare with former
occasions ?
7. What do you learn of Macbeth through his ag¬
grieved speech (Sc. 4, 11. 75-80), because of the ghost's
appearance at the banquet ? Is there any sign of true
repulsion for his acts ?
8. How do you explain the difference in Lady
Macbeth's manner toward Macbeth when they are
76
THE STUDY CLASS.
alone after the banqnet as compared with her conduct
after the murder of Duncan (Act II. sc. 2) ?
9. What interval of time do you suppose to have
elapsed between Acts II. and III. ?
TOPIC XX.
Macbeth, Act IV.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
I, 121. Explain the allusion to ''two-fold balls and
treble sceptres."
1. 123. Explain "blood-bolter'd Banquo."
2. 19. Explain " when we hold rumour," etc.
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Macbeth has been assured of the absence of danger
from everything except that which seems the impossible.
Why then does he not rest secure in the sense of prac¬
tical impregnability, and embrace the chance to desist
from further bloodshed ? What does he mean by " take
a bond of fate " ?
2. Did Shakespeare invent these stories of Macduif^s
birfh and the moving forest ?
3. Compare
** The flighty purpose never is o'ertook
Unless the deed go with it.'*
with lines in preceding scenes that express so nearly
the same thought ^ to furnish strong evidence of
Macbeth's nature;^
4. Where, in the scale of Macbeth's guilt, do you rank
the murders in the castle of the absent Macduff ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE, 77
5. What reason had Macbeth to distrust Macduff, as
shown in Macduff's words on two occasions earlier in
the play?
6. How do you understand "He has no children"
(Sc. 3,1. 216) ?
7. What clew is given (Sc. 3 1. 160), to the time that
has elapsed since Malcolm's flight ?
8. What do you learn in Scene 3 concerning the
general character of Macbeth's reign, outside of the
specific acts already known to us?
9. What important difference between this and all
preceding scenes of the play, in respect to the people
and the thoughts which engage them ? In fine passages
and forcible lines how does it compare ?
10. At what moment does the possibility of revenge
on Macbeth first enter the mind of Macduff ?
TOPIC XXL
Macbeth, Act V.
Scene. Line.
2. 3-5. Explain —
" For their dear causes
Would to the bleeding and the grim alarm
Excite the mortified manfi
2. 23. Meaning of pestePd senses " ?
2. 27. Meaning of " medicine " here ?
3. 8. What is implied by "epicure" here, and
what similar allusions in the Waver ley
Novels ?
3. 11-17. Trace these words of reproach to their
origin.
78
THE STUDY CLASS.
Macbeth uses sometimes "you/* sometimes "thou/*
in addressing the Doctor; the Doctor uses "you** in
replying. Explain the Elizabethan distinction between
these pronouns.
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Do you find it easy to understand the sleep-walking
scene, in view of your previous acquaintance with Lady
Macbeth ? Can you connect it with anything that has
gone before ? Consider present conditions — her proba¬
ble isolation " since his majesty went into the field/*
and hence the inability to speak their "free hearts
each to other ** — do these alone furnish adequate
explanation ?
2. Are her words indicative of her actual state of
mind when awake ? Can you trace in them her pre¬
vailing tendencies as seen in her waking hours ? What
words of former scenes, by their repetition, but with
changed meaning, give an invaluable clew here ?
3. From all that you have seen of Lady Macbeth,
what do you consider her ruling passion ?
4. Did Lady Macbeth commit suicide ? Or what do
you consider the causes of her death ?
5. What effect does it have on Macbeth and on our
feeling toward him ?
6. Which is the more guilty, — Macbeth or Lady
Macbeth ?
7. Artistic and dramatic value of the play ; what saves
it from being a mere accumulation of horrors ?
8. How does " Macbeth '* compare with " Hamlet **
in the quantity of its psychological matter? Reasons
for the difference ?
9. Character of Macduff in brief.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 79
TOPIC XXIL
Macbeth.
I. The supernatural scenes.
The supernatural portions of the play having thus far
been but slightly noticed, the student will now turn back
and group together the four scenes marked by the ap¬
pearance of the Weird Sisters, for the sake of consider¬
ing the following points ; —
1. Why was any supernatural agency employed }
2. Why was it necessary to put it into shapes that
would be visible to audience as well as to hero ?
3. Is the human responsibility lessened by the use of
supernatural instigation ?
4. Why does Shakespeare make the witches speak in
a different metre from the rest of the play }
5. Does any difference appear in the respective
characters of the " sisters " ?
6. What justification for witch-scenes had Shake¬
speare in popular beliefs ? Study the witch terms for
many superstitions of the time.
References :
Dyer: Folk-Lore of Shakespeare, pp. 27-31.
Lecky: Rise of Rationalism, Vol. I., pp. 61 and 224.
Scott: Demonology and Witchcraft, Letter VIII.
II. With the critics.
1. Coleridge: Works, Harper's Edition, Vol. IV.
pp. 164 fol.
2. Dowden : Shakspere, His Mind and Art, pp.
217-228.
8o
THE STUDY CLASS.
3. Hudson : Shakespeare's Life, Art, and Characters,
Vol. II. pp. 3^3-349-
4. Hazlitt, Characters of Shakespear's Plays, Bohn
Library Edition, pp. 11-23.
5. Snider : The Shakespearian Drama, Tragedies,
pp. 210-285.
6. Taine : English Literature, Book II. chap. 4,
7. De Quincey ; On the Knocking at the Gate in
Macbeth. Miscellaneous Essays, pp. 9-15.
8. Irving's Interpretation of Shakespeare, by Edward
R. Russell, in The Fortnightly Review of 1883 ; reprinted
in Choice Literature^ November, 1883.
9. Salvini: Impressions of some Shaksperean char¬
acters. The Centttry^ November, 1881.
This list may be extended, shortened, or otherwise
altered at the convenience or pleasure of students. It
is offered as fairly representative of leading opinions.
In general, the consideration of two or three names
would furnish material enough for one lesson, and the
number of lessons should be arranged accordingly, and
not as here indicated.
TOPIC XXIII.
Macbeth. Summary.
I. Historical and bibliographical.
1. Whence did Shakespeare get the materials for
" Macbeth," and what points of resemblance and differ¬
ence between the history and the tragedy ?
2. What incident may have suggested the subject to
Shakespeare ?
3. What was the probable date of composition, judg¬
ing from (a) certain lines in the play; (¿>) general style
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 81
and characteristics of verse; (c) contemporaneous men¬
tion by other writers ?
4. When was it first published, and in what form ?
5. What passages are regarded by some as interpo¬
lations, and on what internal evidence ?
6. What external reasons for supposing the play has
been greatly altered since Shakespeare's death ?
II. The Weird Sisters,
The study of the critics will reveal a great diversity
of views concerning the poet's intention with respect to
nature of these beings. Discuss the four interpretations
represented respectively by
1. Dr. Johnson, Voltaire.
2. Schlegel, Dowden.
3. Coleridge, Lamb.
4. Hudson, Gervinus.
III. Character studies.
I. Macbeth. 2. Lady Macbeth.
IV. Collateral Reading.
Herford : Literary Relations of England and Germany
in the i6th Century, pp. 231-238.
Hudson : Preface to School edition of " Macbeth."
TOPIC XXIV.
Hamlet, Act I.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
I. 13. Meaning of rivals of my watch." Give
the derivation of the word and show how
it came to have its present meaning.
6
82
THE STUDY CLASS.
Scene. Line.
1. 154. Meaning of "extravagant*' and "erring";
how differing from present usage.
2. 65. Comment on " A little more than kin," etc.
4. 36. Explain the " dram of eale."
4. 85. Explain " I '11 make a ghost of him that
iets me."
II. Topics for discussion.
1. Point out the passages in Scene i embodying old
and popular superstitions.
2. "The imperial jointress of this warlike state"
(Sc. 2, 1. 9). What rules governed the succession of
the Danish crown, and by what tenure did Claudius
reign ?
3. Hamlet's first two speeches are made up of plays
upon words. Does this indicate a light-hearted dispo¬
sition, a trifling mood ; or may his punning be as¬
signed to other tendencies, not uncommon to humanity,
under strong tension? Note, in this connection, his
silence after the King's long speech, his brief but re¬
spectful answers to his mother, his outburst after the
departure of the others.
4. What manner of man do you judge this "young
Hamlet" to be, — judging from this first introduction,
especially from this soliloquy ?
5. Give your opinion of Polonius's precepts in his
farewell to Laertes (Sc. 3). Is it an ideal parental
benediction ? What manner of man does it indicate
the speaker to be ?
6. Horatio implored Hamlet not to follow the Ghost,
lest it should deprive his " sovereignty of reason "
(Sc. 4), — in allusion to the old ghost-lore, that one who
talked with a ghost was either mad already or made
mad: does his later conduct, when rejoined by his
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 83
friends, indicate that this result had happened, or is his
wildness half-feigned, a reaction from the stress of feeling
after the overwhelming and supernatural revelation ?
TOPIC XXV.
Hamlet, Act II.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line
I. 38. Explain "fetch of warrant."
1. 65. Explain "windlasses and assays of bias."
2. 317. Explain " tickle of the sere."
2. 370. Explain "I am but mad north northwest ;
when the wind is southerly I know a
hawk from a hand-saw."
2. 395, 396. Hamlet here quotes a scrap of an old
song. (See Percy's "Reliques of An¬
cient Poetry.")
II. Topics for discussion.
1. How do you understand Polonius's parting instruc¬
tion to Reynaldo (Sc. i, 11. 71-73), to " observe his in¬
clination in yourself " and to " let him ply his music " ?
2. In the interview between Ophelia and her father,
what do you learn of Ophelia's own mind ? Do you
regard her silence with respect to her own feelings,
and her obedience to parental authority, as due to lack
of deep feeling, or does her very silence indicate depth
of feeling ?
3. "Jig" (Sc. 2, 1. 486). Was this anything more
than a dance in Shakespeare's day?
4. All that we now hear about Hamlet, and all that
we see of him ourselves, show that a tremendous
change has come over him since we saw him last.
84
THE STUDY CLASS.
We know the cause, which however was unknown to
the court. Recall the fact that Hamlet alone knew
of the Ghost's revelations ; that even he himself dare
not fully trust to them ; that he has been enjoined to
"revenge this foul and most unnatural murder," but
also not to " taint his mind in so doing ; " that what¬
ever he does he has to answer for before the loyal
court and people of King Claudius. Study his soliloquy
and say whether his own self-disparagement is justified.
Is it really because he is " pigeon-livered " that he fails
to take the law in his own hands and murder the King,
or does he show a higher kind of courage by refraining}
5. What do you infer from the words, " Now I am
alone," (Sc. 2,1. 533), with which the soliloquy begins ?
TOPIC XXVI.
Hamlet, Act III.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
1. 144. Derivation of " nickname" ?
2. 10. Explain "to split the ears of the ground¬
lings."
2. 12,13. Explain these allusions to the old Mystery
plays, and put into modern speech the
idea conveyed in " o'erdoing Termagant "
and " out-herods Herod."
2. 264. Meaning of "pajock"? Why did not Ham¬
let rhyme ?
II. Topics for discussion.
I. In the last soliloquy of Hamlet (close of Act II.),
it was personal desire for revenge that was uppermost.
OUTLINE-STUDY OP SHAKESPEARE. 85
Now his thoughts seem mainly concerned with a
general and impersonal philosophy of a pessimistic
kind. Account for this.
2. What do you think of Hamlet^s treatment of
Ophelia in the first scene of this act?
3. The expression " take arms against a sea of trou¬
bles" (Sc. i, 1. 59) has been much criticised, but it is
as old as literature. Find instances from the old Greek
dramatists.
4. In Hamlet's instruction to the players (Sc. 2), what
do you think of the exposition of the purpose and ideals
of the drama ? What would it lead one to infer con¬
cerning the author and the actor Shakespeare ?
5. Compare Hamlet's tone and manner in converse
with Horatio with his tone and manner toward others.
Your inferences.
6. What do you understand to be the source of
Hamlet's evident spite toward Polonius ?
7. Do you think King Claudius a criminal by instinct
and by habit, or a criminal by " chance " ?
8. Was the Queen accessory to her husband's mur¬
der ? If not, was she even aware of it ?
9. Was the exclamation, "iVs kill a king!" (Sc. 5,
1. 29), one of true innocence and amazement, or the
startled outcry of conscious guilt?
TOPIC XXVII.
Hamlet, Act IV.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line-
3. 30. Explain *'go a progress."
5. 41. Explain the allusion in ''the owl was a
baker's daughter."
86
THE STUDY CLASS.
Scene. Line.
7, 83. Explain " they can well on horseback."
7. 121. Explain a "spendthrift sigh that hurts by
easing."
II. Topics for discussion.
1. From the King's soliloquy (Sc. 3), it is plain that
England paid some sort of homage to the Danish
crown ; what would this indicate with respect to the
date of the story ?
2. What state of society does the whole course of the
play indicate ?
3. Explain Hamlet's continual lapse into irony. Does
it seem to you like a mask, or like a part of his real
nature, proceeding from his lack of any purpose beyond
the moment }
4. Study the soliloquy (Sc. 4), where again we have
an opportunity of seeing Hamlet's inmost thought of
the moment. Are his scruples mere pretexts to cover
his want of determination ? Does his aversion to action
in fact proceed from a disproportionate activity in ideas ?
Is he the victim of feebleness of will, or is it the exer¬
cise of a large discourse looking before and after that
restrains him}
5. How long an interval do you suppose to have
elapsed between Scenes 4 and 5.?
6. Why does the King take pains to remind Gertrude
that Hamlet is the " most violent author of his own just
remove ".?
7. Laertes, unlike Hamlet, has no thought of delaying
revenge for the murder of his father. Why }
8. What lines furnish an instance of Shakespeare's
exact observation of nature }
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 87
TOPIC XXVIIL
Hamlet, Act V.
I. Difficult or doubtful passages.
Scene. Line.
I. 266. Explain " woo't drink up eisel ?
1. 277. Explain when that her golden couplets
are disclosed.'*
2. 6. Explain "worse than the mutines in the
bilboes."
2. 7-10. Paraphrase this passage according to your
understanding of it.
2. 275. Stage reasons for the introduction of the
description of Hamlet as "fat and scant
of breath."
II. Topics for discussion.
1. What do you infer of Shakespeare's opinion of
politicians, from his use of the word (vSc. i, 1. 77)?
2. What grammatical usage of Elizabethan and Early
English authors justified Shakespeare's use of the com¬
plete present infinitive, in a manner not now allowed
(Sc. 1,11. 233, 234) t
3. Do you think the play better or worse for the grave-
diggers' scene} Probable reasons for its introduction
by Shakespeare ?
4. Do you believe that Hamlet did truly love Ophelia
to the extent of his professions (Sc. i) ?
5. What do you think of Hamlet's conduct with
respect to Guildenstern and Rosencrantz, and of his
justification of it ?
6. Do you find any evidence indicating that perhaps
he would have himself cancelled his own letter, had
not his capture by the pirates prevented }
88
THE STUDY CLASS.
7. " The interim is mine " (Sc. 2,1. 73). What does
this reveal of Hamlet's purposes ?
8. Which one of the Greek tragedies resembles
Hamlet in its leading motive ?
9. What is your opinion of the play as a work of art ?
Of its fitness for the stage ?
10. Has the play any moral lessons ? If so, what ?
TOPIC XXIX.
Hamlet. General Resume.
I. Historical and bibliographical.
1. On what story is Shakespeare's tragedy of " Hamlet "
founded ?
2. Did Shakespeare get it from the Danish historian }
3. What is the date of the earliest edition } Of the
second edition ?
4. What differences between the two, both in bulk
and in the nature and names of the characters ?
5. When was the first edition said to have been
acted, and on what occasion ?
6. How was the copy of the first edition probably
obtained for the printer.?
7. How many original copies are now extant, and by
whom owned ?
8. Is there any contemporaneous play of " Hamlet "
in any other language than English .?
9. From what sources is the present standard text of
" Hamlet " chiefly derived.?
II. With the critics.
Goethe : Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, Book IV.
Chap. 13.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE. 89
Coleridge : Works, Vol. IV. pp. 145 fol. in Harper's
edition.
Taine : English Literature, Book II. chap. 4.
Hudson : Life, Art, and Characters of Shakespeare,
Vol. H pp. 263 fol.
Dowden; Shakspere's Mind and Art, pp. m fol.
Lowell : Shakespeare Once More, in " Among My
Books."
Lamb : Shakespeare's Tragedies : their Fitness for
Stage Representation.
III. With the actors.
Phelps : Hamlet from the Actor's Standpoint.
IV. Character studies.
TOPIC XXX.
Shakespeare's Art and Place in Literature.
I. Generalizations as to Shakespeare's con¬
struction.
1. Consider the opening scenes of "Merchant of
Venice," " Macbeth," " Hamlet," and other plays :
what general rule do you note with respect to their
relation to the whole tone and atmosphere of the re¬
maining scenes ? What general rule also with respect
to the important characters ?
2. Note the turning-point of the plot in " Macbeth,"
in " Merchant of Venice," in " Julius Csesar " : what
general rule obtains with respect to its position in
each?
1. Hamlet.
2. Ophelia.
3. Gertrude.
4. Claudius.
90
THE STUDY CLASS.
3. In the selection of subjects, do you discover any
particular preference by Shakespeare for any special
period of time or for any geographical locality?
4. The secondary characters : what importance have
they in relation to the leading ones ? Illustrate by
the rôles of Lorenzo and Jessica in " Merchant of
Venice."
5. What governs Shakespeare's use of rhyme occa¬
sionally; of prose, introduced in the midst of his verse ?
II. Generalizations as to Shakespeare's plots.
1. Did Shakespeare seek originality in his stories?
Name any plays whose sources are unknown.
2. An imaginative writer may pick up a story that
pleases him, working in the characters to fit it; or he
may begin with moods, thoughts, passions, and invent
the story for the sake of these. Which was Shake¬
speare's method ?
3. In plays based on history, what regard has Shake¬
speare to historical accuracy ?
III. Generalizations as to Shakespeare's char¬
acters.
1. Is Shakespeare himself probably portrayed in any
of his characters ?
2. Are Shakespeare's characters marked by similarity ?
3. Whence the likeness between the humanity in
Shakespeare, and the living humanity of to-day ?
4. Wherein does Shakespeare chiefly repay study, —
for construction, plot, or character ?
IV. Biography and bibliography.
i. Leading incidents in Shakespeare's life. Probable
reasons influencing his choice of the profession of play¬
wright. His record as a citizen ; his family relations.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE, 91
■z. History of the Shakespeare Text from 1623 to the
present time.
3. Concerning Richard Burbage, the earliest actor of
Shakespeare's leading rôles.
Beferences :
Halliwell-Phillips : Outlines of the Life of Shake¬
speare.
William Black; Judith wShakespeare.
Hudson ; Preface to " Harvard Edition."
Rolfe ; Introduction to " Merchant of Venice."
VII.
INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY OF
THE ENGLISH DRAMA.
HE student of Shakespeare cannot
long be content without seeking to
know something of other writers in
Shakespeare's chosen field of com¬
position. Looking backward over the history of
dramatic literature in England, he discovers a
strange anomaly. Formerly " the drama " was
held in high esteem and " the stage " in an
equal contempt. For two hundred years, with¬
out fear of contradiction, we pointed to Shake¬
speare, writer of plays, as the greatest of all
writers ; on our literature of the stage we based
our claim to ownership of the world's greatest
literature, while, at the same time, the stage
itself was shunned by pious folk, repeatedly con¬
demned by church and council, and the poor
players placed under social ostracism, sometimes
INTRODUCTORY TO ENGLISH DRAMA. 93
even denied sacraments, funeral rites, and mar¬
riage by the clergy. Within the last decade a
very marked change appears. Stage and actor
are now honored, but the drama, as a form of
literary expression, is out of repute. The most
eminent of living English actors, Mr. Irving, is
invited to lecture at the high seats of learning
both in England and America, and chooses for
his theme the praise of his art ; an English
clergyman not long ago dedicated a memorial
window to Shakespeare in a London church,
and still more recently an American minister
delivered the address at the opening of a new
theatre ; play-houses multiply rapidly ; the week¬
day audience at a first-class theatre is as intelli¬
gent, as well-mannered and probably as virtuous
as the Sunday audience at the church ; — but
no writer of genius enriches contemporaneous
dramatic literature.
Now, if the final cause of the existence of the
drama be pleasure, serving only for the adorn¬
ment and amusement of life ; if the stage be in¬
dependent of literature and can thrive without
it, — the consideration of the drama would have
no place in a work of this kind. But history
teaches a different lesson. From its rude begin¬
nings as a part of the most solemn religious rites
of Paganism, through its term of service as
a teacher of Christian doctrine and religious
94
THE STUDY CLASS.
dogma, down to its present mission of furnish¬
ing pictures of actual human life, the drama has
ever been a powerful force in education. Wher¬
ever there has been a truly national stage, — that
is, a stage fed from the rich harvest of the
national literature, 7— there the theatre has played
a large part in the development of national life.
Nor is this surprising when we consider how
many faculties and needs of human nature are
met and answered by the drama in its best
estate. Actual life, for the majority of mankind,
passes in attention to little cares, little duties,
little thoughts, — is, in fact, an immersion in
littlenesses. Opportunities for the exercise of
the heroic virtues are rare, daily walks seldom
lead among stirring examples of worth and
beauty. To lift whole masses of men from their
dreary or commonplace surroundings into higher
planes of thought and feeling by the sight of that
ideal nature which threatens to be lost in the
stress of every-day life, — this is the true purpose
of the drama, and for this it addresses the whole
nature of man, his taste, mind, heart, conscience,
and imagination. It is scarcely necessary to dwell
upon its appeals to taste, since this far-stretching
art calls into its service all other arts, — elo¬
quence, poetry, music, painting, even sculpture,
by setting the living body into poses and statues.
Nor can any doubt its quickening effect on the
INTRODUCTORY TO ENGLISH DRAMA. 95
mind, acting, as Lecky has said "with equal
power upon the opposite extremes of intellect."
That its mission in the world's mental culture
is not yet ended seems to be the belief of Pro¬
fessor Palgrave in his recent address at Oxford
in praise of poetry ; " The drama stands in a
peculiar region midway between prose and verse.
But when it is either poetry pure, as at Athens,
or mixed, as in the England of Elizabeth and
James, whilst the dramatist is faithful to the
higher traditions of his art, it yet fulfils its old
Aristotelian office of purifying the passions,
whilst it brings the past or present before us in
an enchanted world of its own, and adds a
charm to poetry itself.^''
Also, the drama is capable of being a great
factor in morality.
*T have heard
That guilty creatures sitting at a play
Have by the very cunning of the scene
Been struck so to the soul that presently
They have proclaim'd their malefactions,"
says Hamlet. Who can doubt that such things
have been or may be ? I know that moral pur-
pose is sometimes denied to the drama, as to all
art ; but what drama that has met the approval
of men and stood the test of time has not been
full of morality as certain and implacable as
Nature herself ? It is by this that it has gained
96
THE STUDY CLASS.
and kept its hold, albeit virtue be not always
rewarded and vice punished with strict statute
regularity.
Again, the drama brings rich stores to the
imagination. There is probably no faculty in
which people differ in degree more than in this
indefinable somewhat that we call imagination,—
a noble and precious power, which yet ever
seems to fiee from men and from races as they
increase in knowledge. As nations advance in
civilization they find they must fan the spark to
keep it from dying out altogether. Libraries,
art-galleries, and parks are opened for the
people, because it is recognized that intercourse
with Nature, with good books, with great pic¬
tures, stimulates the imagination, makes life
brighter by contact with the ideal, and thus
elevates national character. But a well-acted
play wields a quicker and more universal power
than any of these. Lecky is doubtless right in
his assertion that it has probably done more
than any other single agent to produce that
craving for the ideal, that enthusiasm of intellect
out of which all great works of imagination
have sprung."
Since, then, any survey of literature tends to
show the lofty sphere of the drama, the student
will wish to study its curious career and the
characteristics of its principal writers. He will
INTRODUCTORY TO ENGLISH DRAMA. 97
wish to explore that wondrous epoch in which
" the men and the moment " combined as never
before or since, producing a body of literature
the like of which is not to be found elsewhere
in the world ; will wish to judge for himself
whether Shakespeare was the only great man of
this time, or whether he was only facile princeps
among his fellows ; will scan the works of the
next one hundred years, seeking among the
hosts of playwrights for one genuine dramatist ;
will reach our own time and find our best poets
conspicuously unsuccessful in the writing of the
stage, but capable of producing a new species
called by courtesy dramas," but more aptly
named " dramatic poems." Possessed of great
beauty in their kind, they differ so far from the
old kind that we must apply new canons of judg¬
ment, new methods of interpretation, — hence
involving some general survey of the evolution
of the drama, its principles of composition, the
conditions requisite to a national drama, the
causes of decline in the English drama.
7
VIII.
OUTLINES OF THE STUDY OF THE
ENGLISH DRAMA.
IVE of the principal Elizabethan
dramas, — namely, "Jew of Malta,"
" The Alchemist," " Philaster, " The
Two Noble Kinsmen," "The Duch¬
ess of Malfi," — may be had in a single volume, —
Thayer's "Best Elizabethan Plays." In other
cases the small-type references following the sub¬
ject indicate such editions as are cheapest or most
readily obtainable. In the selection of books of
reference care has been taken to avoid all books
out of print or difficult of access. Lessons XIV.
and XV. may well be omitted by classes ; their
unsavory, not to say disgusting, character would
have excluded them entirely except that they
were necessary as history in a course designed
to present specimens of each period of the
drama. Students will use their pleasure about
close contact with them.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA.
TOPICS.
I. Social History of the Early English Drama.
II. Christopher Marlowe.
III. Ben Jonson.
IV. Beaumont and Fletcher.
V. The Two Noble Kinsmen.
VI. Thomas Middleton and William Rowley.
VII. John Webster.
VIII. Philip Massinger.
IX. The Elizabethan Drama. General Résumé.
X. John Milton.
XI. John Milton.
XII. Historical Survey of the English Drama in its Se
Period.
XIII. John Dryden.
XIV. William Wycherley.
XV. William Congreve.
XVI. Oliver Goldsmith.
XVII. Richard Brinsley Sheridan.
XVIII. Sir E. Bulwer Lytton.
XIX. Alfred Tennyson.
XX. Robert Browning.
XXI. Robert Browning.
XXII. Robert Browning.
XXIII. Robert Browning.
XXIV. Robert Browning.
XXV. Browning as a Dramatist.
XXVI. The Place of the Drama in Literature.
XXVII. The Evolution of the Drama.
XXVIII. Principles of Dramatic Composition.
XXIX. Conditions Requisite to a National Drama.
XXX. Causes of Decline in the English Drama.
loo
THE STUDY CLASS,
TOPIC I.
Social History of the Early English
Drama.
I. Importance of the theatre as a factor in
civilization.
References :
Schlegel : Dramatic Literature, pp. 41, 42.
Lecky: Rationalism in Europe, Vol. II., pp. 285-311.
II. Influences shaping the development of the
drama.
1. Didactic efforts of the clergy. Result, Mysteries.
Method of their representation.
2. Mediseval philosophy. Result, Moralities and In¬
terludes. Method of representation. Versification.
3. Revival of ancient learning. Result, the first Eng¬
lish Comedy; the first English Tragedy. Their subject
matter and form. Where and by whom performed.
4. Feeling of nationality. Result, English Historical
plays, as " The Troublesome Reign of King John," " The
Chronical History of Leir, King of England," etc.
5. Study of Continental Literature. Result, real
beginnings of English Drama under Queen Elizabeth.
Opening of the first London theatres (1576). Descrip¬
tion of buildings, scenery, audience, etc. Popularity of
the Drama. Rise of acting as a profession.
References :
Goadby : The England of Shakespeare, Chap. X.
Dowden : Shakspere Primer, Chap. I.
Symonds ; Introduction to " Marlowe " in '^The Mer¬
maid Series."
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA. loi
»
Doran : Annals of the English Stage, Chaps. I., II., III.
Hudson : Life, Art, and Characters of Shakespeare,
Vol. I.
III. Language. Elizabethan English, its merits
and defects as a medium of expression.
Abbott : Shakespearian Grammar, Introduction.
IV. Morals and intellect of the earliest Eng¬
lish dramatists, peele, Green, Nash, and
Lodge.
Saintsbury : History of Elizabethan Literature,
Chap. HI.
TOPIC IL
Christopher Marlowe.
I. Direct study: the jew of malta.
1. Read the play, noting the most impressive and
beautiful passages. In the number and frequency of
these, do you notice any difference between the earlier
and later scenes }
2. What are the principal emotions excited by your
reading ?
3. Your opinion of the plot and catastrophe ?
4. As poetry, do you share Jonson's enthusiasm about
"Marlowe's mighty line" 1 If so, justify it by citations
from the play. How does Marlowe's verse compare
with anything preceding ? Explain his allusion to
" jigging veins of rhyming mother wits " in prologue
to "Tamburlaine thé Great," his first play.
5. Why does not Parabas, like Shylock, survive as a
familiar figure in the conversation of educated people ?
I02
THE STUDY CLASS.
Does he, or does any other character in this play seem
to you a distinct personality, easily recreated by your
imagination ? If not, can you tell why ? Do you accept
the judgment of Barabas on himself (Act I. sc. 2) and
think him framed of finer mould than common men " ?
6. Marlowe's plays are universally acknowledged to
have been epoch-making tragedies. Judging from this
play, should you think this because of powerful single
scenes, of sweetness of verse, of skill in construction of
plot, of power in character-drawing, or because of some
special originality of his own ?
7. *'■ .¿ï^schylus of the English stage," " the elder
Shelley" are titles given to Marlowe by the critics.
Why?
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Condition of the English Jew in Marlowe's time.
Probable reasons for choice of subject ? Story original,
or probably borrowed ? Marlowe's custom in this
respect ?
2. Some account of Edward Alleyn, the famous actor
in Marlowe's leading rôles.
3. Marlowe's short life and its probable relation to
his genius.
4. Where does the allusion in prologue to "Jew of
Malta," " now the Guise is dead," fix the date of
composition ?
5. Leading events in Marlowe's life.
III. General literary estimate.
Symonds : Shakspere's Predecessors in the English
Drama.
Ellis : Preface and Appendix to " Marlowe " in " The
Mermaid Series."
Philipson : The Jew in English Fiction.
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH DP AMA, 103
TOPIC III.
Ben Jonson.
I. Direct study.
1. Read the prologues to Jonson's plays, especially
those prefixed to ''Every Man in his Humour," "Every
Man out of his Humour," " The Alchemist," and " Vol-
pone," and say what you gather from these concerning
a. The author's primary purpose in writing plays.
b. His ideals of the mission of comedy.
c. His opinions of the methods of contemporary
writers and managers.
d. His methods of composition.
2. Read" The Alchemist;" judging it from the
author's own point of view, what do you think of it ?
Is it successful in presenting humours according to the
meaning of the word humour in ancient dramatic lan¬
guage In the management and progress of the story ?
3. Probable reasons for Jonson's choice of subject.
Is there any place for similar satire in present habits
of mind ?
4. What important differences separate this from all
foregoing plays on our list thus far What reasons
inherent in Jonson's manner and matter, and in his
ideals and methods generally, prevent his plays from
holding a place on the modern stage.?
5. Read the fragment " The Sad Shepherd," and state
any new traits it may give you in estimating Jonson's
powers. Cite any passages of marked beauty.
6. In either of these, or in any of Jonson's plays, is
there any temptation to character-study ? If not, why
not.? In general, what can you judge from the mere
reading of the names of his dramatis personce ?
104
THE STUDY CLASS.
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Classification of Jonson's dramatic writings. In
which class is his chief distinction ? In what respect
is he more original than any other English dramatist
2. Circumstances in Jonson's life indicating that prob¬
ably neither choice nor conduct of subject was commonly
optional with himself ?
3. Jonson's education as compared with his fellow
playwrights. Advantages and disadvantages of this
as affecting his composition.
4. Relations of Jonson and Shakespeare during their
lives as fellow-craftsmen. " The Mermaid Club ; "
Shakespeare's part in Jonson's plays, etc.
5. History of the stage representation of Jonson's
plays. His popularity as compared with Shakespeare
during the hundred years succeeding their deaths.
References ;
Saintsbury : Elizabethan Literature, pp. 174-184.
Various passages in Pepys' Diary.
Dryden : Essay of Dramatic Poesy.
III. General literary estimate.
Gifford : Memoir prefixed to Jonson's Works.
Symonds: Ben Jonson, in " English Writers Series."
Swinburne ; A Study of Ben Jonson.
TOPIC IV.
Beaumont and Fletcher.
I. Direct study: Philaster.
I. What traces of ancestral grammar in such lines as
His tender eyes upon 'em he would weep,
As if he meant to make 'em grow again.
IL 2, 142, 143.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA. 105
2. What is your judgment of. Philaster's ready belief
in the Princess' guilt ? of his wounding of Bellario and
Arethusa in the woods ? How do these affect your esti¬
mate of the " brave prince Philaster," and of the play
as a whole ?
3. The character of Bellario was very popular in its
day and served as a model for numbers of women-
pages in subsequent plays. Do you find it pathetic
or irritating? Compare with Viola in Shakespeare's
''Twelfth Night."
4. Cite the fine passages in the play relating to —
a. Love.
b. Death.
c. Faithfulness to a trust.
d. Slander.
e. Royalty.
f. Sacredness of human life.
5. Coleridge called Beaumont and Fletcher "the most
lyrical of our dramatists." Cite passages in illustration.
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Literary relations of Beaumont and Fletcher, and
leading incidents of their lives ?
2. What inducements to writing plays were lacking
with them, although existing in the case of most of
their contemporaries ?
3. In respect to volume and variety of production,
how do these men compare with others of their time ?
4. How did contemporary critics rank these writers,
and how does it compare with the verdict of posterity ?
5. Why were their plays easier to place on the stage
than Shakespeare's ? What would be necessary in order
to fit them for the stage in our day ?
6. What modern play has been written out of " Rule
a Wife and Have a Wife " ?
I06 THE STUDY CLASS.
III. General literary estimate.
Darley: Memoir prefixed to Works of Beaumont an
Fletcher.
J. St. Leo Strachey: Beaumont and Fletcher, in
" Mermaid Series."
Dryden; Essay of Dramatic Poesy, ed. Arnold, pp.
68, 69.
Leigh Hunt : Introduction to " Selections " in Bohn's
Standard Library.
TOPIC V.
The Two Noble Kinsmen.
1. In respect to dramatic execution, do you notice any
differences between the first and the last portions ?
2. Do you find any signs of Shakespeare in this play ?
If so, in what respects, — plot, character-drawing, gen.
eral tone, versification, or dialogue ?
3. What features in the play recall " A Midsummer-
Night's Dream " ? " Macbeth " ? " Cymbeline " ?
4. Do you attribute these resemblances to Shakespeare
repeating himself, or to imitations of his work by another
hand ?
5. Coleridge says, " There is no finer or more
characteristic dramatic writing than some scenes in
'The Two Noble Kinsmen.'" Cite passages in illus¬
tration.
6. Read other forms of this story: "The Knighte's
Tale" in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales; Dryden's Poem,
Palamon and Arcite." Is the play in any respect in¬
ferior to the original Chaucer story.? If so, at what
point ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA. 107
7. Reasons for assigning this play to the joint author¬
ship of Fletcher and Shakespeare :
a. External evidences.
b. Internal evidences.
General literary estimate.
Dowden: Shakspere Primer, pp. 156, 157.
Schlegel: Dramatic Literature, pp. 471,472.
Hallam : Literary History, Vol. III.
TOPIC VI.
Thomas Middleton and William Rowley.
[Thomas Middleton. Ed. Ellis.]
I. Direct study: The Changeling.
1. Meaning of **changeling" to Elizabethans; of
** wench ; " of find," in Beatrice's " Pray, let me find
you, sir" (Act II. sc. 2) ?
2. What do such expressive, but now obsolete or rare
words as "scrutinous," "exceptions," "opportuneful,"
and many others used in this play show with respect
to versatility of inflection in the Elizabethan speech in
comparison with modern English t
3. Meaning of "He speaks homecite a similar
usage from " Macbeth."
4. Explain the classical allusions, •— as " orchard of
th' Hesperides ; " " Tiresias ; " " Lacedaemonian," ap¬
plied to Isabella.
5. Meaning of Euphuism, and its influence at this
period ? Traces of it in this play ?
6. What connection between the two plots in this
play? Can you not conceive them as originally de¬
signed for two distinct plays, and afterwards somewhat
clumsily welded together ?
io8
THE STUDY CLASS.
7. Discuss the characters of Beatrice and De Flores.
Of De Flores, Leigh Hunt said, " For effect at once
tragical, probable, and poetical, it surpasses anything I
know of in the drama of domestic life.^' Do you agree ?
8. Note the finest passages, both for poetry and for
sentiment. If Swinburne be right in assigning the first
and the last scenes to Rowley, and the intermediate
tragic action to Middleton, how do you rate the respec¬
tive writers thereof ?
9. Why is the play partly in prose and partly in
verse ?
II. Historical and bibliographical.
1. Joint authorship : is this play an exceptional case ?
Name other instances of the practice, either habitual or
occasional, among dramatic writers of this period.
2. What explanations are offered for the strong re¬
semblance between Middleton's "The Witch" and
Shakespeare's " Macbeth " ?
3. Besides these plays of Middleton and Shakespeare,
name other instances of the English witch-drama.
What was the ultimate (German) source of the tra¬
ditions respecting witches, and through what English
book did these become known to English dramatists}
Hudson : Preface to School edition of " Macbeth."
Herford : Literary Relations of England and Germany
in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 231-238.
HI. General literary estimate.
Swinburne : Introduction to Middleton, in "Mermaid
Series;" ibid. Nineteenth Century^ January, 1886.
Lamb : Characters of Dramatic Writers.
Saintsbury : Elizabethan Literature, pp. 266-272.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA. 109
TOPIC VII.
John Webster.
I. Direct study: Duchess of Malfi.
1. Discuss the character of the Duchess. Does she
seem to you an entirely virtuous woman ?
2. Discuss the scene between Antonio and the Duchess
(Act I. sc. i). Do you agree with Thayer that " neither
in the English Drama nor in English Fiction shall we
find a scene in which womanly dignity and womanly
love are exhibited more naturally than in this "}
3. Discuss the character of Antonio. Do you dis¬
cover anything in him to justify the Duchess' devotion ?
4. Discuss Act IV. sc. 2 ; point out any single lines
of striking dramatic force ; also the means used for
giving extraordinary force and beauty to the whole
scene.
5. Discuss the character of Bosola. Do you consider
him a successful or a conceivable study
6. Are the minor characters well-drawn ?
7. " The Duchess of Malfi" has been called " superior
to every other Elizabethan tragedy except the best of
Shakespeare's." Give your own opinion.
II. Biographical and Bibliographical.
1. Sources of the play. Date of its first publication,
and of its first representation on the stage.
2. Names of other plays of which Webster was author
either in part or in whole ?
3. What indications that his merits were appreciated
by contemporaneous critics ?
4. Webster and Tourneur have been called " artists in
the Tragedy of Blood " : who was the originator of this
type of writing ; is it ever employed by Shakespeare ?
no THE STUDY CLASS.
III. General literary estimate.
Symonds: Introduction to Webster in "Mermaid
Series."
Swinburne : Webster in TÀe Nineteenth Ceiitury^
June, 1886.
Lamb : Characters of Dramatic Writers.
TOPIC VIII.
Philip Massinger.
[Philip Massinger. Ed. Symons.]
I. Direct study : A new Way to pay old Debts.
1. Note in the first act how much of the story comes
to our knowledge by means of 7tarrativef instead of
through action. Is this a merit or a fault in Massinger's
art as dramatist ?
2. Explain, from your own feeling during the reading
of this play, the probable reason why it still holds the
stage.
3. Who is supposed to have been the original from
whom the character of Overreach is drawn }
4. Discuss Massinger's blank verse; also Coleridge's
statement that " the styles of Massinger's plays and the
'Samson Agonistes' are the two extremes of the arc
within which the diction of dramatic poetry may
oscillate."
5. Sir Giles as played by Edmund Kean shocked Mrs.
Piozzi, and sent Lord Byron into hysterics. How much
credit for the effect should you think due to actor ; how
much to writer ?
II. Historical and bibliographical.
I. Effect of the change of dynasty on the spirit of the
nation and consequently on the spirit of dramatic art in
the time of Massinger ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA, in
2. With what others did Massinger join as collaborator ?
3. Reason for the small remainder of the many plays
written by Massinger ?
III. General literary estimate.
S. T. Coleridge : Shakespeare and other English Poets,
Bohn Library ed. pp. 403-407, 534.
Hazlitt: Elizabethan Literature, Bohn Library ed.
pp. 131-136.
Hartley Coleridge : Introduction to Massinger's Plays.
Leslie Stephen : Hours in a Library. Third Series.
TOPIC IX.
The Elizabethan Drama. General Résumé.
1. By common consent the Elizabethan drama stands
alone in the history of the world's literature. Is your
appreciation of Shakespeare heightened or lessened by
this study of his contemporaries ? Do you find in the
others somewhat of the same qualities, or does he seem
to you quite alone and beyond comparison }
2. It has been said (Gifford in Introduction to " Mas-
singer's Works") that Shakespeare's superiority to his
contemporaries rests on his wit alone, while in the higher
excellencies of character, pathos, depth of thought, etc.,
he is equalled by Beaumont and Fletcher, Ben Jonson,
and Massinger. Discuss that statement.
3. Which of the foregoing dramatists seems to you
most to resemble Shakespeare ?
4. Shylock, Barabas, Sir Giles Overreach, — three
miser studies by three nearly contemporaneous repre¬
sentative writers. Write a comparative study.
5. Consider the three characters from an artistic and
dramatic point of view. Note the mixed motives shaping
112
THE STUDY CLASS.
the acts of Shylock, and, to a degree, Barabas, in contrast
to the single passion of Sir Giles,—in this respect rather
resembling the " Harpagon " of Molière, and the
"Grandet'' of Balzac. Which do you consider the
finest and truest art ?
6. Is the miser passion as popular in the fiction of
modern times as formerlyHas the now habitual use
of paper money, checks, etc., as a medium of exchange
any influence on the suitableness of this subject for
imaginative treatment ?
TOPIC X.
John Milton.
[Comus, Ed. Browne.]
I. Direct study: Comus.
1. What conception of the universe is implied in the
expressions "insphered " (1. 3), "'twixt high and nether
Jove " (1. 20), "starry quire" (1. 112), " Indian steep"
(1. 139), "sphery chime" (1. 1021)?
2. Note the passages that recall "The Tempest,"
" Twelfth Night," Fletcher's " Faithful Shepherdess."
3. Of what qualities do you consider the characters of
the Lady and the two Brothers respectively the personi¬
fication ?
4. In what lines do you find the central thought of the
poem ?
5. Note the lines which illustrate Milton's character ;
those which express his own philosophical sentiments.
6. Explain the mythological allusions, and note any
points of departure from the original legends.
7. Discuss the lyrical portions of this drama ; point
out the passages of greatest charm, judged as poetry.
8. Has your study of the drama thus far disclosed any
songs of equal beauty with these ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA. 113
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Signification of the word Comus and its personh
fication by Greek art ?
2. Earlier plays similar in plot or in name to Milton's
" Comus " ?
3. Give some account of the occasion for the writing
of " Comus ; " the circumstances that suggested choice
of subject; the first presentation; manner and date of
publication.
4. The first edition was called on its title-page, "A
Maske." Give some account of this kind of entertain¬
ment, and of the causes which brought about its decline.
(See Symonds' " Ben Jonson," Chap. V. in "English
Writers Series.")
5. "It was one of the caprices of fortune that madè
the future poet of the great Puritan epic the last composer
of a cavalier mask." Explain the nature of that " caprice
of fortune."
III. General literary estimate.
Macaulay: Essay on Milton.
Saintsbury : Elizabethan Literature, p. 32T'.
Hallam: Literary History, Vol. III.
TOPIC XL
John Milton.
[Samson Agonistes. Ed. Collins.]
I. Direct Study: Samson Agonistes.
i. In the preface, what evidences of Milton^s feeling
toward the romantic drama in general and the tragi¬
comedies of his contemporaries in particular What
evidence of a wish to conciliate the Puritans ?
8
THE STUDY CLASS.
2. What is the leading motive of this drama? In what
lines do you find it ?
3. Discuss the poem with reference to its historical
importance, being the first of English tragedies based on
classical models. Compare it with the Sophoclean drama
in respect to —
a. Structure.
b. The three unities.
€. Ethical purpose.
d. Metaphysical conditions.
4. Discuss this drama for its evidences of the poet's
own feelings and point out the passages which seem to
bear upon his personal history and the events of the
times in the following particulars: —
a. His blindness and sense of impending death.
b. His marriage relations.
c. His opinion of womankind in general.
d. Fate of the Regicides.
e. Cromwell.
IT. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Compare the tragedy with the Bible story, and note
the points of departure from it.
2. At what age did Milton conceive the intention of
dramatizing some portion of the " Samson " story ; pro¬
bable reasons for the final choice of these last days of
the hero, rather than the equally dramatic scenes of
Samson's early life ?
3. The political situation in England at this time ;
Milton's relation to it ?
4. Personal surroundings at this time, home-life,
physical state, financial condition ?
5. " Samson Agonistes " arranged toa musical setting ;
date and author ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA, 115
III. General literary estimate.
Pattison: Milton, in English Men of Letters Series."
Johnson : Milton, in " Lives of the English Poets."
Hazlitt: Shakespeare and Milton, in " English Poets."
TOPIC XII.
Historical Survey of the English Drama
in its Second Period.
1. Condition of the English theatre under Charles I.
Names of the chief dramatists ; their ideals ; decline of
Shakespeare's popularity, and reasons for the greater
attractiveness of certain other dramatists. The king's
appreciation of Shakespeare.
2. Closing of the theatres ; relation of the players to
the king ; performances in private houses ; oppression of
all forms of mental entertainment, even of church music,
by the Puritans.
3. The Restoration ; re-opening of the theatres ; re¬
action against republican principles and religious zeal ;
immorality of the times ; imitation of the French ; new
appliances for external decoration j decline of real merit
in the drama.
4. Sir William Davenant ; his services to the newly
organized institution. Improvements " on Shakespeare
by Davenant, Dryden, and others. Players' quartos.
5. Heroic plays.
6. Comedy of Manners.
7. Morals and intellect of the dramatists of this period,
Etheredge, Otway, Lee, Vanbrugh, etc.
Eeferences i
Gosse : Eighteenth Century Literature, Chap. II.
Thackeray; English Humorists, Chap. II.
THE STUDY CLASS.
General literary estimate.
Schlegel : Dramatic Literature, Lecture XXVIII.
Hazlitt: Lectures on the English Comic Writers.
Lamb: Artificial Comedy of the Last Century.
Dowden: Shakspere Primer, pp. 159, 160.
TOPIC XIII.
John Dryden.
[Select Dramatic Works of Dryden. Ed. Seton.]
I. Direct study : All for Love.
1. Compare the play with its original, Shakespeare's
" Antony and Cleopatra." Taking these two as typical
respectively of the tragic manner of the Restoration and
of the Elizabethan period, what is your opinion }
2. Compare "All for Love " (Act III. sc. i) with
" Antony and Cleopatra " (Act II. sc. 2), and note the
differences with respect to delicacy in the handling of the
subject.
3. In Dryden's play, what lack do you feel chiefly ?
Can you suggest any remedy; or is there inherent defect
in the nature of the man ?
4. Dryden's theories of dramatic composition as shown
in his many prologues and epilogues ; also in his " Essay
of Dramatic Poesy " }
5. Point out the passages of high poetic beauty in this
play.
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Number and classification of Dryden's plays.
2. Besides "Antony and Cleopatra," what other of
Shakespeare's plays did Dryden imitate
3. Reasons which led Dryden to play-writing ; had
he any spontaneous attraction in that direction "i
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA, 117
4. Two periods of dramatic activity ; characteristics of
each ?
5. Influence of the king's taste on Dryden's plays ?
6. Dryden compared with his fellow-playwrights in
respect to literary merit.
7. Contemporary opinion of his plays; their stage-
history.
III. General literary estimate.
Saintsbury : Dryden, Chaps. III. and VI., " English
Men of Letters Series."
Lowell : Dryden, in " Among My Books," Vol. I.
Macaulay : John Dryden, in " Essays."
TOPIC XIV.
William Wycherley.
[Wycherley. Ed. Ward.]
I. Direct study: The Plain Dealer.
1. Wycherley's chief claim to distinction rests upon
the fact that he was the first to transfer the language of
daily life to the stage, thus becoming the pioneer of our
modern comedy. Discuss the dialogue. Does it seem
to be a means of developing the characterization, or do
the characters seem created for the sake of the dialogue
2. The Widow Blackacre has been called (by Vol¬
taire) the most comical character that was ever brought
on the stage." Discuss that statement.
3. Wycherley undoubtedly painted the life of his time
accurately ; do you judge that he sympathized with the
low morality of his time, or did he write with the object
of rebuking it ?
4. Both as to subject and style, " The Plain Dealer "
is typical of the drama of this period, which turned
ii8
THE STUDY CLASS.
usually on love-suits and raillery. Even allowing for
the coarseness of the age, what is your opinion of
Wycherley's handling of his subject ?
5. Hazlitt said, " The truth of feeling and the force
of interest prevail over every objection;" and Lamb
affirmed, I feel the better for the perusal of one of
these comedies." Discuss these statements.
6. What features recall portions of " Twelfth Night " }
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Give some account of the relations between Pope
and Wycherley.
2. Describe Wycherley's contemporary reputation as
shown by Dryden's praise of him, and by Evelyn's
prophecy, —
" As long as men are false, and women vain,
While gold continues to be virtue's bane,
In pointed satire Wycherley shall reign,"
III. General literary estimate.
Chas. Lamb: The Artificial Comedy of the Last
Century.
Macaulay : Comic Dramatists of the Restoration.
Hazlitt: Lectures on the English Comic Writers.
TOPIC XV.
William Congreve.
[Congreve. Ed. Ewald.]
I. Direct study: Love for Love.
1. Discuss the sentiment of this play. Is it genuine
or superficial ?
2. Discuss the wit of the play, and Macaulay's state¬
ment (1841) that "the wit of Congreve far outshines
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA. 119
that of every comic writer, except Sheridan, that has
arisen within the last two centuries."
3. Discuss the plot. Is it interesting in itself ? natural
in its development ?
4. Discuss the characterization. Does this play
justify the statement that "the persons of Congreve's
stage are too uniformly brilliant for credence " ?
5. This is the only one of Congreve's plays that held
its place on the stage for any considerable time. What
are the secrets of its popularity }
6. Discuss Macaulay's comparison of Congreve with
Wycherley, in his essay " Comic Dramatists of the
Restoration."
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
I Give some account of the reception of " Love for
Love," and its effect on Congreve's future prospects.
2. Congreve's relations with Dryden, Pope, Voltaire,
and other distinguished contemporaries ?
3. Publication of Collier's " Short View of the Pro-
faneness and Immorality of the English Stage ; "
Congreve's defence of himself and his fellow-play¬
wrights ; effect of the discussion on Congreve's later
pursuits, and on the tone of dramatic writing in general?
4. Influence of Moliere on this type of plays ?
5. State of English drama for the ensuing century ?
III. General literary estimate.
Macaulay : Comic Dramatists of the Restoration.
Thackeray r English Humorists.
Leigh Hunt: Introduction to Congreve's Works.
120
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XVI.
Oliver Goldsmith.
[She Stoops to Conquer. Ed. Morley.]
I, Direct study: She Stoops to Conquer,
1. After the Restoration period and before Goldsmith,
the drama degenerated into the " sentimental comedy," of
no value as literature. What new element appears in
this play, as distinguished from both the sentimental
comedy and the comedy of manners ?
2. What scenes in the play indicate Goldsmith's own
opinion, of the sentimentalists and their dread of any¬
thing " low " }
3. What qualities in Goldsmith's style enabled him to
carry out his purpose " to raise a hearty laugh," while
refraining from coarseness on the one hand and prudery
on the other ?
4. Had any similiar character to Tony Lumpkin
appeared in comedy-writing.? Do you trace any re¬
semblance to a certain character of Wycherley's?
5. Scarcely any other comedy retains its hold on
popularity like this, notwithstanding that its construc¬
tion is less artistic than many others. Analyze the
elements that contribute to this result.
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. What considerations turned Goldsmith toward
dramatic writing, and what play had he written previous
to " She Stoops to Conquer " ?
2. Goldsmith's habit of turning his own experiences to
literary account as illustrated by the subject of this play ?
3. Goldsmith's struggles to secure its presentation on
the stage ; the co-operation of his friends ; reception by
the public ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH DRAMA. I2I
4. Give some account of the personal controversies
and professional jealousies arising from the success of
She Stoops to Conquer."
5. Effect of the success of this play on " Sentimental
Comedy " ?
III. General literary estimate.
Black ; Goldsmith, in " English Men of Letters Series."
Thackeray : English Humorists.
Masson: Introduction to Goldsmith's Works.
TOPIC XVII.
Richard Brinsley Sheridan.
[Sheridan's Plays. Ed. Dircks.]
I. Direct study : A School for Scandal.
1. Study the dialogue of this play : applying to it that
rule of dramatic composition which requires the omission
of everything which does not help on the action, how
does it stand the test ?
2. Can you cite any instances from other dramatists
where epigram and jest seem to grow so naturally out
of the circumstances ?
3. Discuss the plot, or rather the plots of the play ;
do the scandal scenes seem to you unimportant to the
main interest.?
4. Sheridan possessed an unusual instinct for a strik¬
ing situation. Point out any scenes, which, even de¬
tached from their setting, would still hold their interest.
5. Discuss Act IV., sc. i. Why is such a character
as Charles Surface so great a favorite on the stage, and
why does it command a sympathy that would be with¬
held in actual life .?
6. Discuss Act IV., sc. 3, and the high art with
which its successive disclosures are managed.
122
THE STUDY CLASS,
7. Do you consider Act V. inferior to the rest of the
play ; or would Act IV. form a more fitting conclusion ?
8. Sheridan's humor contrasted with the humor of
" She Stoops to Conquer " ?
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Give some account of Sheridan's indebtedness to
his predecessors, both French and English, for the
characters in his plays. Does this impair his claim to
be considered a truly original writer ?
2. Explain Sheridan's relations to Drury Lane Theatre ;
circumstances attending the writing and j)roduction of
the " School for Scandal ; " reception by the public.
3. Early termination of Sheridan's career as dramatist.
Give some account of his methods of composition ; of
his ambitions, literary and otherwise.
III. General literary estimate.
Whipple ; Sheridan, in " Essays and Reviews," Vol. II.
Mrs. Oliphant : Sheridan, in " English Men of Letters
Series."
Sanders: Sheridan, in "Great Writers Series."
TOPIC XVIIL
Sir E. Bulwer Lytton.
[Dramas and Poems.]
I. Direct study: Richelieu.
1. Discuss Act I. ; is it well managed to secure the
desired effect at the opening of a play ; i.e., do the
characters and the situation disclose themselves through
the dialogue ?
2. Note the fine passages relating to —
a. Love.
b. Patriotism.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DE AMA. 123
3. Act IL; discuss the art with which the author has
selected those aspects of Cardinal Richelieu's career
and character which could be made most effective for
dramatic treatment, while still adhering to historic truth.
4. Act III. ; does its conclusion seem satisfactory to
you ? Do you think a band of conspirators likely to be
satisfied with no better evidence of the actual death of
Richelieu ?
5. In the two closing acts, do you feel that the play
loses somewhat of its charm by reason of the fact that
the fortunes of Richelieu occupy so much larger space
than the fortunes of the lovers ?
6. Would the play have been improved by making
the final victory for Richelieu depend more upon the
success of his own unerring machinations, and less upon
the humble devices of the young François ?
7. Tf'iscuss the poetical qualities of the play; what is
your opinion of the versification ?
8. No modern play ranks with " Richelieu " as a stage
classic. Is this because of the poetical wording, of the
variety and individuality of the characterization, of the
theatrical interest of the story ?
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Give some account of Macready's co-operation with
Bulwer in the writing of this play.
2. Private readings of " Richelieu ; " stage presenta¬
tion ; reception by the public.
■ Beferences :
Earl of Lytton : The Stage in Relation to Literature,
Fortnightly Review, 1885.
Archer : Macready, in " Famous Actors Series."
Macready : Reminiscences.
124
THE STUDY CLASS,
TOPIC XIX.
Alfred Tennyson.
I. Direct study: Queen Mary.
1. Discuss Tennyson's characterization of illustrious
historical personages : —
a. Queen Mary. — In general, the historians have
awakened very little sympathy for this charac¬
ter. Is the same thing true of her as heroine
of this play? If not, by what means has
Tennyson aroused our interest without de¬
parting from historical data?
â. King Philip. — What are the predominant traits
of this character ? Note the means taken to
disclose these, and say whether they furnish
evidence of dramatic genius in Tennyson.
c. Reginald Pole. — The character of a suave and
selfish ecclesiastic has been frequently chosen
by the dramatists. Has Tennyson been suc¬
cessful in his portraiture ?
2. Motive of the play. — State what you find to be the
main motive. Has this sufficient tragic dignity and in¬
terest for dramatic purposes ?
3. Point out any scenes in the play which seem to
show an instinct for " situations."
4. The highest triumph of the historic dramatist con¬
sists in setting us amid the life of the times he repre¬
sents and in making us see its people " in their habits
as they lived." Is "Queen Mary" successful in this
respect ?
5. It has been said that "taken altogether as an
historic drama, 'Queen Mary' must rank not below.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA. 125
perhaps even above, Shakespeare's * Henry VIII.
Discuss that statement.
6. Would " Queen Mary " make a good acting drama ?
If not, why not ?
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Date of the writing of this play ? Probable reasons
why Tennyson made this new departure in form of
poetry at so late a period in his life ?
2. Give some account of Tennyson's other dramatic
writing; instances of stage presentation.
III. General literary estimate.
Van Dyke: The Poetry of Tennyson.
Cooke : Poets and Problems.
TOPIC XX.
Robert Browning.
[A Blot in the 'Scutcheon. Ed. Rolfe.]
I. Direct study: A Blot in the 'Scutcheon.
1. Aristotle (Poetics, Chap. VI.) speaks of the effect
of tragedy in purifying through terror and pity. Make
the application in the present instance.
2. In the conflicting passions of this play, what ele¬
ment of the treatment warrants the description applied
to Mildred, " depth of purity immovable " .?
3. Does a sin always argue moral depravity ? If not,
why ? Do you make any distinction between ignorance
of evil and conscious virtue ? From which state did
Mildred lapse ? Compare her in this respect with
Margaret in " Faust." Compare Mildred's " I was so
young. I had no mother," with Margaret's " I'm still
so young " in the dungeon scene of Faust."
126
THE STUDY CLASS.
4. Have you any criticisms relating to style and lan¬
guage in the opening scene ?
5. What do you think of Mertoun's dying speech
(Act III. sc. 1) ? Is such an overwhelming love and
reverence common or easily understood ?
6. What is the leading motive of the play ? Single
or complex in the means of developing the tragedy ?
7. Dickens declared he would rather have written " A
Blot in the 'Scutcheon " than any other work of modern
times. Do you sympathize with this enthusiasm ?
8. History of the stage presentation of this play in
England ; of its stage adaptation and performance by
Lawrence Barrett in America.
References :
Cooke : Browning Guide-Book, pp. 61-67.
Gosse : Browning Personalia, pp. 59-69.
Rolfe : A Blot in the 'Scutcheon and other Dramas.
Introduction and Notes.
TOPIC XXI.
Robert Browning.
[A Blot in the 'Scutcheon. Ed. Rolfe-]
I. Direct study: Colombe's Birthday.
1. Significance of the motto from Hanmer, on title-
page ?
2. Leading idea of the play ?
3. Was love or was patriotism the ruling motive in
the mind of Valence ?
4. Was Colombe "in love" with Valence from the
start; or did this feeling grow upon her gradually or
even unconsciously ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH DRAMA. 127
5. In the questions and reflections of Colombe follow¬
ing Valence's speech I love and know " to the close
of Act IV. what successive feelings do you trace ?
6. Do you accept the courtier's view of the impossi¬
bility of restoring lost confidence (Act IV.) ?
7. Explain the speech of Valence " All done was done
for her — To humble me ! "
8. Could Berthold — can any one — " reason himself
into a rapture " (Act V.) ?
9. Does Colombe's character develop in the course
of the play ? Is it an uncommon experience for " hours
to do the work of years " in a life ?
10. In what essential respect does the motive of this
play differ from motives usual in the drama ?
11. It has been said that " if this play be too fine for
the stage, the fault is that our actors are too coarse."
Discuss that statement.
12. History of the stage presentation of this play.
References :
Cooke : Browning Guide-Book, pp. 101-103.
Gosse : Browning Personalia, pp. 69-73.
Rolfe : Select Dramas, Introduction and Notes.
TOPIC XXII.
Robert Browning,
I. Direct study: Luria.
1. The character of Luria. Trace the influence of
nationality, education, and circumstances in producing
the divided sympathies of which he is himself conscious.
2. Compare Luria with Othello, both as to resem¬
blances and differences.
128
THE STUDY CLASS.
3. Discuss Braccio's theory of the growth of a State
and the subserviency of individuals,— "Florence exists
because these pass away," etc. (Act III.) What modern
thinkers share this view ?
4. Discuss Tiburzio's doctrine of the superiority of
the individual over the State, — "A people is but the
attempt of many,'' etc. (Act V.). What moderns are
expounders of this position ?
5. What fine tribute to the unconsciousness of true
greatness ? Compare the thought with the opening
pages of Carlyle's essay, "Characteristics."
6. What testimony to the respective values of the
rewards attendant upon success ?
II. Historical.
1. Give some account of the struggle between Florence
and Pisa in 1406 which furnishes the historical setting
of this play.
2. In what respects does the play depart from
history ?
3. In what respects is it true to the political life of
the period ?
References :
Cooke : Browning Guide-Book, pp. 198, 199.
Symons : Introduction to the Study of Browning.
TOPIC XXIII.
Robert Browning.
I. Direct study: In a Balcony.
1. Outline the story of the play.
2. Which character most interests you ? Why ?
3. Which is the truest ¡over ? Discuss the matter of
true and false tests of love.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA. 129
4. Is love transferable according to the plan of
Constance ?
5. Would Constance herself have followed the course
she recommended to Norbert ? Do not women some¬
times accept a lower standard for men than for
themselves ?
6. Does the end of the play satisfy you ?
7. Fate of the characters according to your own
fancy ?
8. What features of the writing atone for the narrow¬
ness of its balcony-stage with its critical moments for
each of the characters ? Quote the passages of beauti¬
ful description of Nature.
9. Notable thoughts and epigrammatic utterances.
10. Do you agree with Constance that women hate
a debt as men a gift " ?
11. Discuss the character of the Queen, and explain
the elements which justify Symons's description of her
part in the play as among the great situations in
literature."
12. Moral lessons of " In a Balcony
TOPIC XXIV.
Robert Browning.
I. Direct study: In a Ba.lcony; character of
Constance.
1. Does Constance's proposal to relinquish Norbert
show her to have been lacking in love for him ?
2. Was that act noble and magnanimous, or does it
prove an insincere and inconstant nature ?
3. Was her love true and intense up to the measure
of her capacity ; or was the quality defective I
9
THE STUDY CLASS.
4. Can you extenuate Constance for insulting the
man she meant to honor, and for wronging the woman
to whom she owed everything ?
5. Did Norbert read her aright in saying " Was this
your love's mad trial to o'ertop mine," etc. ?
6. How could Constance be so mistaken in both the
Queen and Norbert as events proved her to have
been ?
7. Does Constance's willingness to resign Norbert
come from cowardice, or from a self-denying nature
equal to any demand made upon it ?
8. Is it femininely, or even humanly, possible that
pity for the Queen could outweigh love, if really loz/e ?
9. Do Browning's women, especially Mildred, Con¬
stance, and the Queen, seem to you any less real than
Shakespeare's women ?
10. This was the last of Browning's works written in
dialogue, and has the appearance of beginning in the
middle of the plot. Compare its verse with the more
formal dramas and give your opinion.
TOPIC XXV.
Browning as a Dramatist.
1. Are the subjects of the five foregoing studies dramas
in the ordinary acceptation of the term , that is, have
they power to represent action, passion, and character
on the stage ?
2. Browning's own statement of his dramatic purpose
is — " to reverse the method usually adopted ... by
the operation of persons a7td eveiits ; instead of having
recourse to the external machinery of incidents . . .
I have ventured to display somewhat minutely the
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DE AMA. 131
mood itself in its rise and progress^ Is he successful
in his own aim ? Is he or is he not faithful in portrayal
of the inner workings of mind ?
3. Do such ideals come within the scope of stage
presentation ? Are the material means of the actual
theatre competent to deal with such purposes ?
4. It has been said that " all of Browning's characters
are but different mouthpieces of the poet himself."
Discuss that statement, and compare Browning with
Shakespeare in respect to impersonality.
5. Compare Browning with Shakespeare with respect
to the power to concentrate action on a few salient points,
and.to develop a "situation " or a scenic catastrophe.
6. Compare Browning with Shakespeare with re¬
spect to artistic selectiveness ;—the power to determine
the relative importance of events by the manner in
which they impress the imagination and bear on the
catastrophe.
7. Does Browning's failure to produce plays that
have held the stage deprive him of the right to be
ranked among the great dramatic writers.^
8. Dramatic power distinguished from play-writing
power. Can you cite any instances of successful acting-
plays unless written either by those having direct per¬
sonal knowledge of the stage or else in collaboration
with some one who had such knowledge ?
TOPIC XXVI.
The Place of the Drama in Literature.
i. Noted definitions of Drama :
a, Aristotle (Poetics, Chap. VI.)
h. Shakespeare (Hamlet, Act III. sc. 2.)
c. Dryden (Essay of Dramatic Poesy).
132
THE STUDY CLASS.
2. Tragedy and Comedy defined in their original
signification. Gradual change of meaning. Beginning
of tragi-comedy. Restricted use of the word comedy
dating from the seventeenth century. Origin of farce in
the eighteenth century.
3. Advantages of the dramatic form over other forms
of literary expression. Compare with —
a. Epic poetry.
A Lyric Poetry.
4. Is the drama more subject than other branches of
literature to the influence of fashion t
5. Is there any correspondence between a flourishing
drama and a prosperous social life "ï •
References :
Schlegel : Dramatic Literature, Lectures II. III.
XIIL
Shelley : Defence of Poetry.
Dryden ; Heads of an Answer to Rymer.
TOPIC XXVII.
The Evolution of the Drama.
I. The classic drama.
1. The worship of Bacchus the germ of drama.
2. Influence of lyric poetry upon tragedy, as intro¬
duced by Arion (b.c. 600).
3. Influence of epic poetry on tragedy as introduced
by Thespis (b.c. 535).
4. Introduction of the actor and the stage.
5. Blank verse and influence of satire in the drama.
6. Completion of the process ; characterization of the
chorus.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH DRAMA, 133
II. The romantic drama.
1. Story supercedes drama in popular interest during
the Middle Ages.
2. Popular mediaeval drama as acted story.
3. The Renaissance ; rise of romantic out of popular
drama, by the application of classical form to romance
matter.
4. Value of the romance element to the romantic
drama of the classic element.
5. Struggle of the romantic drama against classic
criticism.
III. Comparison of these leading types of dra¬
matic art with respect to —
1. Ideals; classic drama aims at an ideal picture;
romantic drama aims to depict real life.
2. Methods; compare the differences as to scenery,
costumes, actors, dialogue.
3. Structure ; divisions of the classic drama compared
with those of the romantic drama.
4. Rules ; The Three Unities. Classic drama strives
to reduce all to singleness ; romantic drama delights in
multiplicity of matter and interest.
Beferences :
Moulton : The Ancient Classical Drama, Chaps. I.
and XII.
Hazlitt : Elizabethan Literature, ed. Bohn, pp. 243 fol.
Coppleston: Introduction to .¿Eschylus in "Ancient
Classics."
Schlegel •. Dramatic Literature, Chaps. IV. V. VI.
134
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XXVIII.
Principles of Dramatic Composition.
I. Conditions requisite to a successful acting
drama with respect to —
1. Choice of subject; should concern objects of more
than ordinary interest, and tend toward and terminate
in some striking result, " The upper air of poetry is the
atmosphere of sorrow." Discuss that statement.
2. Knowledge of the stage. Brander Matthews says ;
"For a poetic play to have a success, it must be the
work of one who is both poet and playwright ; who is,
in fact, playwright first and poet after." Cite illus¬
trations in proof of this.
3. Self-effacement of the writer. The dramatist must
often put into the mouths of his characters sentiments
distasteful to himself; his own sentiments must be
judged by the spirit of the whole.
4. Development and inter-action of characters ; they
must be real human beings, not puppets pulled by a
single wire.
5. Style and language of characters ; must be varied
to suit every change of character and situation. Ex¬
amples of success or failure in this respect.
II. Relation of the historic drama to authentic
history. Truth of character more im¬
portant than truth of fact.
References :
Schlegel : Dramatic Literature, Lecture II.
Macaulay : Essay on Dryden.
Lessing: Dramatic Notes, Nos. 19, 32, 33.
Reed : English History Illustrated by Shakespeare,
Chap. I.
Fitzgerald : The Art of the Stage.
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH DRAMA. 13^
TOPIC XXIX.
Conditions Requisite to a National Drama.
I. General conditions with respect to —
1. The nation at large, the social and political atmos¬
phere.
2. The policy of rulers.
3. Actors.
4. Dramatic genius among writers.
5. Nature and intellect of audiences.
II. Application of the foregoing principles to
notable examples of flourishing national
dramas.
1. Greece in the fifth century, b.c.
2. England in the sixteenth century, a.d. Minute
examination of the history of the period with reference
to all the foregoing requisites.
References :
Symonds: Studies of the Greek Poets, Vol. II., pp.
11-15.
Grimm : Life and Times of Goethe, pp. 96, 97.
Guizot: Shakespeare and his Times, pp. 9-24,124-157.
Taine : English Literature, Vol. I. Bk. ii.
Hazlitt : Elizabethan Literature, Lecture I.
TOPIC XXX.
Causes of Decline in the English Drama.
I. In the seventeenth centuxly.
1. Coarse frivolity of the times.
2. Action of the Puritan rulers.
3. Reaction against Puritanism.
136
THE STUDY CLASS.
References :
Taine : English Literature, Vol. II. Bk. iii.
Ward : History of the Drama, Vol. II. Chap. ix.
II. In the present time.
1. Neglect of dramatic composition by the best
writers.
2. Neglect of national subjects in favor of foreign
imitations.
3. Costliness of modern stage-mounting.
4. Conditions of modern life whereby the novel now
partially fills the place once supplied by the play.
References ;
The Earl of Lytton: The Stage in Relation to
Literature, Fortnightly Review, i 885.
Matthew Arnold ; The French Play in London, in
*Hrish Essays and Others."
Quilter : The Decline of the Drama, Contemporary
Review, April, 1887.
Mowbray Morris : Essays in Dramatic Criticism.
III. Reasons for the cultivation of the dramatic
poem rather than the acting drama by
living writers of distinction.
IX.
INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY OF
POETRY.
OETRY, as the subject of class study,
is likely to meet with two classes of
objectors : first, those who main¬
tain that the chief mission of poetry
is to please the ear, and who consider life too
short to spend many of its precious hours with
the poets ; and second, those who insist that
poetry is essentially a mystery, that its charm
can no more be analyzed than it can be created
again at pleasure, that the attempt simply robs
poetry of its bloom, and places those who under¬
take it in the ranks of those that would " peep
and botanize upon a mother's grave."
In order to meet the first objection, let us
consider briefly the nature and function of
poetry in general, and its place in education and
life. Attempts at a definition of poetry abound
THE STUDY CLASS.
during all the ages from Aristotle to Matthew
Arnold, offering sufficient variety and unlimited
freedom of choice. But, at present, we shall be
concerned less to find some exact phrase which
shall include all the elements that go to make up
a perfect poem than to find whether we can
afford to leave it out of our daily lives. We
have to consider such questions as these : —
By what spell has it been that, beginning with
the earliest dawn of historic thought, poetry has
held the highest post of honor? Why were
songs sung before books were written? Why
did the cadence of the bard, mournful or exul¬
tant, have power to sustain and inspire humanity
in its fierce struggle for existence? Why do
some languages, as that of the early Hebrews,
furnish but one word for both poet and prophet ?
Why is it that no one can read any noble poem
without an elevation of all his faculties, without
feeling that the whole universe " grows life, grows
love ?
Of all attempts to answer these and such like
questions, none seem to me to go nearer the
root of the matter than a sentence I remember
to have seen somewhere : " The poet is one
who sees the Infinite in things." True, not the
poet alone, but the great artist of any kind —
the painter, sculptor, architect, musician — also
sees the Infinite in things ; but the poet uses a
INTRODUCTORY TO POETRY. I 39
more universal language than the others, and
therefore appeals to more persons, and more
directly. Great thoughts insure musical ex¬
pressions,'^ says Emerson. " I advise any one
who can speak his thought 7iot to sing it," says
Carlyle ; implying that there are some thoughts
too high to be uttered in prose.
Taking poetry in this high sense, not as a
word descriptive of metrical composition, but as
the utterance of those who see things "more
clearly, widely, and fully than they are seen by
the common eye," and who, seeing, are so
enraptured with the vision that the words pour
forth, sometimes in regularly measured speech,
sometimes with a force so fiery as to melt all
moulds into which the poet would fain run
them, as was the case with the old Hebrew
prophets, — then poetry is to be counted not as
a pleasant pastime for moments of leisure, but
as ranking very high in the list of serious studies.
According to Sainte-Beuve, " In every man there
is a poet who dies young." I suppose he would
account for this devastating mortality by such
causes as the influence of early education, of
artificial and conventional life, of worldly business
demands. It behooves us who have, to a degree,
lost our visions of the Infinite, to hold fast to
those who with more penetrating and finer
minds can give us the advantage of their divina-
140
THE STUDY CLASS.
tion or insight into the deep things of life, its
mysteries of feeling, motive, and thought. If
we have eyes that see not and ears that hear not
the things that are before and around us, if life
seem to us weary and commonplace, our daily
associations trivial and unimportant, let us listen
to the poets and learn of the ideal that lurks in
even the homeliest forms, learn that nothing is
trivial that increases our acquaintance with the
human heart, nothing unimportant that reveals
to us the dignity and divinity in which all our
affectionate relations to life are enshrined. He
who opens our eyes to the fair and goodly
possibilities in human life, and especially he who
finds them in what we are accustomed to call
our prosaic age, is a prophet and a benefactor,
deserving immortally our homage and our thanks.
This, then, is my apprehension of the proper
place of poetry in education and life. So long
as we have souls, so long as we live in a universe
of beauty and majesty, and have power to feel,
so long shall we need the poets. Life without
poetry is not life, for it has no soul.
We have next to meet the objection which
rests on the indefinable quality of poetry; the
claim that if its properties could be gauged and
named by its admirers it would prove it to be
no poetry at all. This plea is strongest in the
case of lyric poetry, or as a good friend once
INTRODUCTORY TO POETRY. 141
said to me, "To call upon a class to examine one
of Shelley's lyrics is like organizing a class to hear
a thrush sing." This would have more weight
if the gift of natural sensitiveness were more
common ; or if, where it is ample in some direc¬
tions, it were also more extended in range.
" O lyric song, there will be few, think I,
Who may thy import understand aright,
Thou art for them^ so arduous and so high."
says Dante.
Moreover, this objection assumes that poetical
effects are due more to accident, less to studied
devices on the poet's part than facts go to prove.
One has only to examine the original manu¬
scripts of the great poets, to be found in some
of the old libraries, in order to discover the
severe processes which have produced these
perfect results. In some of them every line is
slashed and scarred with endless corrections.
Five, six, seven stories high, qualifying adjectives
are piled up, one on top of another, simply to
be remorselessly sacrificed in order to make
way for the one faultless epithet, whose fitness
and beauty will make it live forever.
Also it needs to be shown that every poem
worthy of the name has its motive, either
simple, as in the lyric usually, or complex, as in
the drama almost always. Coleridge must be
granted as pretty high authority in such a matter,
142
THE STUDY CLASS.
and in enumerating the chief items of his in¬
debtedness to his beloved master at Christ's
Hospital, James Bowyer, he says : I learned
from him that poetry, even that of the loftiest
and, seemingly, that of the wildest odes has a
logic of its own, as severe as that of science :
and more difficult, because more subtle, more
complex, and dependent on more and more
fugitive causes. ^In the truly great poets,' he
would say, ^ there is a reason assignable not only
for every word but for the position of every
word.' " To find this logic of its own " is what
must chiefiy concern the student of poetry.
Often this is a very simple matter, but much
more often it is one to tax all our powers. As
Dowden has said, "To study any great author
is to traverse a difficult mountain range ; or if he
be an author of vast width, as Goethe was, it
is to traverse a series of mountain-ranges. A
modest pedestrian, if he desire before nightfall
to reach some definite point (and the night at
farthest is not far off), may rejoice to be saved
from objectless wanderings, or to be turned aside
from entering a cul-de-sac.^^
I am aware of the dangers attending those
who offer themselves as guides. Too often is
the charge of Swinburne justified: "The great
poets of England are now constantly served up
in text-books, in order that boys may win prizes
INTRODUCTORY TO POETRY. 143
and students pass examinations. Every allusion
is explained, every sentence has to be parsed,
every grammatical peculiarity studied ; and the
result of all this discipline is to make our English
poets as much hated by the average student as
Horace was hated by Lord Byron." Yet is
not a golden mean possible between a method
which produces such sad results, and one which
declares that poetry is above and beyond all
approach by the critical faculty? May it not
be true that what the poet has done by a
special, splendid, incommunicable instinct may
not always be apparent at the first glance ; that
the longer we gaze at it, and the more closely
we inquire into its inner nature, the more shall
its superiority become apparent ; and that only
thus can we share in that nearer vision of the
Infinite which it is the special mission of poetry
to reveal.
X.
OUTLINES OF THE STUDY OF
ENGLISH POETRY.
E most valuable of the books for
general use throughout this course is
Ward's "English Poets." A smaller
work, containing a very large number
of the poems included in the following study, is
Hales's " Longer English Poems." In the choice
of writings below, complete works have been pre¬
ferred to disjointed fragments, except in such
cases as " The Faërie Queene " and " The
Task," where the author's best work has also
been his longest, — and too long for this scheme
of study. The small type references following
the subject indicate the most desirable editions
for the student's use ; these have been omitted
in the case of the modern poets, since their
works are generally accessible and to be found
in almost any library. Minto's " English Poets "
furnishes valuable commentary on the period
between Chaucer and Shelley.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH POETRY, 145
TOPICS.
I,
Geoffrey Chaucer.
II.
Edmund Spenser.
III.
Edmund Spenser.
IV.
William Shakespeare
V.
William Shakespeare.
VI.
Robert Herrick.
VII.
George Herbert.
VIII.
John Milton.
IX.
John Milton.
X.
General Survey of Seventeenth Century Poetry.
XI.
John Dryden.
XII.
Alexander Pope.
XIII.
Alexander Pope.
XIV.
Samuel Johnson.
XV.
William Collins.
XVI.
Thomas Gray-
XVII.
Oliver Goldsmith.
XVIII.
Robert Burns.
XIX.
William Cowper.
XX.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
XXI.
William Wordsworth^
XXII.
William Wordsworth.
XXIII.
Sir Walter Scott.
XXIV.
Lord Byron.
XXV.
John Keats.
XXVI.
Percy B. Shelley.
XXVII.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning.
XXVIII.
Alfred Tennyson.
XXIX.
Alfred Tennyson.
XXX.
Alfred Tennyson.
10
146
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC I.
Geoffrey Chaucer.
[Prologue to Canterbury Tales. Ed. Skeat.]
I. Direct study : Prologue to Canterbury Tales.
1. What constitutes the chief charm of this prologue, —
the story itself and the manner in which it is unfolded ;
or the style, language, and peculiar humor of the author ;
or the picture of contemporary aspects and classes of
English society.?
2. What evidence do you find in it of Chaucer's
broad range of human sympathies ?
3. Taking these portraits severally, what insight do
they give concerning —
a. The religious life of the times, and the direction
of Chaucer's own sympathies ?
b. The English yeomen and their new importance
in the State.?
c. The knighthood of the Middle Ages ?
d. The fashionable manners .?
e. Characteristics of the begging friars ?
f. Characteristics of the student-class ?
g. The typical country squire ?
h. The landlord and his importance in the com¬
munity ?
4. Cite the evidences of Chaucer's responsiveness to
the influences of external nature.
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Source of Chaucer's conception of the plan of
Canterbury Tales ?
2. Appropriateness of the description of Chaucer's
language as " well of English undefiled " ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH POETRY. 147
3. Name the leading authors earlier than Chaucer,
and explain why their writings are interesting rather to
the philologist than to the student of English literature.
4. Mention some of the most important of the num¬
erous imitations and adaptations of Chaucer by later
authors.
5. Describe the " Chaucerian stanza " as used by
Chaucer in " The Man of Lawe's Tale." In what
notable poems has it been employed by later writers }
III. General literary estimate.
Lowell; Chaucer, in " My Study Windows."
Ward; Chaucer, in " The English Poets."
Matthew Browne : Chaucer's England.
TOPIC II.
Edmund Spenser.
[The Faërie Queene. Ed. Kitchin.]
I. Direct study: The Faërie Queene, Book I.
Cantos 1-6.
1. State briefly in prose the argument of the first six
cantos of " The Faërie Queene."
2. The moral reflections heading each canto; what
Italian models did Spenser follow in this ?
3. Spenser was one of the most learned of all English
poets. Cite the passages which show his familiarity
with ancient and modern literature.
4. Spenser has been called an " epicure in language ; "
cite passages in evidence, and also others that show he
had not quite shaken off the bluntness of phrase of the
preceding generation.
5. Spenser wrote for an age that scorned poetry.
What features of the poem are probably due to a wish
to recommend it to the Court and to the Queen ?
148
THE STUDY CLASS.
6. What features are due to a more weighty and en¬
during purpose, as expressed in his dedicatory letter
to Sir Walter Raleigh?
7. As a narrative, what merits or defects do you find
in these cantos ?
8. The account of the " battels end promised at the
close of Canto VI. was never resumed, though it prob¬
ably would have been had the work been finished.
Discuss the defects of such a method in narrative, from
the point of view of litérary art.
9. Give the explanation of the double allegory and the
signification, religious, political, moral, or personal, of
the leading characters thus far, — Faërie Queene, Red
Cross Knight, Una, Duessa, Corceca, etc.
10. What are the highest qualities of an allegorical
poem? Does '*The Faerie Queene" stand this test?
Can you name other poems more successful from this
point of view?
11. Spenser was fond of expanding simple thoughts
and images. Cite some notable instances from these
cantos.
TOPIC III.
Edmund Spenser.
I. Direct study: The Faërie Queene, Book I.,
Cantos 7-12.
1. State briefly in prose the argument of these cantos.
2. In what stanza do you find the central thought of
the poem expressed ?
3. Reasons for Spenser's choice of King Arthur as
the person most fit for the perfecting in the twelve
morall virtues"^(see introductory letter to Raleigh).
4. Compare Spenser's classification with Aristotle's
classification (see Aristotle's Ethics).
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH POETRY. 149
5. Do you consider the allegory a merit or a defect in
the poem?
6. Study the metrical form, invented by Spenser for
this poem and known thenceforward as the " Spenserian
stanza." Describe its metrical arrangement as to feet,
lines, rhyme, etc. Advantages of this form, in a long
poem, over blank verse or the rhymed couplet or
quatrain.
7. Note the language of the poem, more archaic than
any other verse or prose-writing of the period. Probable
reasons ? Fitness of this dialect to the subject and the
verse-form ? Had Spenser any standard of authority
corresponding to what we now call the " Queen's
English " ?
8. Spenser has been long known as the poet's poet."
Reasons for this appellation ?
9. It has been said that ' The Faërie Queene ' is the
only long poem that a lover of poetry can wish longer."
Do you agree ?
II. Bibliographical and historical.
1. Give some account of the general scheme of "The
Faërie Queene," both in its finished and unfinished
portions.
2. Effect of the publication of this poem on English
poetry in general? (See Green's Short History of the
English People, p. 424.)
III. General literary estimate.
Church : Spenser, in " English Men of Letters Series,"
Taine: English Literature, Book HI., Chap. 2, pp.
203-226.
Lowell: Spenser, in "Among my Books," Vol. II.
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC IV.
William Shakespeare.
I. Direct study: The Sonnets, I.-CXXVI.
1. Quote the sonnets which reveal the writer's con¬
sciousness of his own power, and his belief in the
immortality of his lines.
2. Quote those which indicate his scorn of the pro¬
fession of actor.
3. Quote those which disclose his ideals of love, its
undying quality, its superiority to all accidents of time
or fortune.
4. Quote those which seem inspired by a sensitive
observation of nature ; by a love of music.
5. In the consecutive reading of these sonnets, do
they impress you as a connected narrative of one man's
emotions ; if so, do these emotions belong to the writer,
or is he simply telling the story of another ? Are they
addressed to one person or to different persons ?
6. If the "begetter of these sonnets, Mr. W. H."
means the person to whom they are addressed, as is
commonly supposed, how do you explain the extremely
ardent tone as the expression of one man to another ?
7. Discuss the form of these sonnets, which has been
described as " three four-fold strands of poesy, caught
up and dexterously wound into a perfect circle by two
shining threads of gold." At what date and by whom
was the sonnet introduced into England ; how does the
Shakespearian sonnet differ from the Italian sonnet ?
IT. Bibliographical.
i. When is the first contemporaneous mention of
these sonnets ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH POETRY. 151
2. At what date was the present collection of one hun¬
dred and fifty-four sonnets first printed and by whom ?
3. What reasons are there for supposing that their
publication was not sanctioned by the author ?
Beferences :
Dowden : Shakespeare, His Mind and Art.
Rolfe : The Sonnets, Shakespearianay March, 1889.
TOPIC V.
William Shakespeare.
I. Direct study: The Sonnets, CXXVI.-CLIV.
There is no more voluminous controversy in literature
than the one that has grown up around these sonnets.
Discuss, giving your own impressions from the evidence
offered, the leading opinions as follows : —
1. That Shakespeare is relating his own experience,
though without intending it for publication.
2. That the sonnets were composed in an assumed
character, on different subjects, at different times, for
the amusement of the author^s intimate associates, and
perhaps at their suggestion.
3. That Shakespeare intended to parody the fashion¬
able love-philosophy of the day.
4. That they are mere exercises of the fancy, the free
outcome of a poetic imagination.''
5. That the sonnets could only have come from a man
deeply in love, and in love with a woman.
6. That " Mr. W. H." is Henry Wriothesley, Earl of
Southampton, with initial letters reversed; that he is
William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke ; that he is Shake¬
speare's nephew ; that Queen Elizabeth is celebrated
152
THE STUDY CLASS.
in this guise ; that the " Dark Woman " is Mary Fitten,
and can be traced through all the early plays; that
the rival poet is Chapman ; that some of the sonnets are
addressed to Ann Hathaway.
7. That the sonnets, except for their autobiographical
interest, are wearisome and uninteresting.
8. That the sonnets represent the high-water mark of
English poetry, and that all autobiographical inquiry is
profitless.
References :
Furness: The Study of Shakespeare, Poet Lore,
March, 1889.
Brown : The Sonnets of Shakespeare Solved.
Mackay: The Mystery of Shakespeare's Sonnets,
Library Magazine, Vol. VI., 1885.
TOPIC VI.
Robert Herrick.
I. Direct study.
Selections from "Hesperides" and "Noble Num¬
bers ; " — The Mad Maid's Song ; To Anthea ; Corinna's
Going a-Maying; The Litany ; A Thanksgiving to God.
i. Gosse says that Herrick was "a Pagan and a
hedonist," and, as a writer of sacred poems, " an alien
in the choir of divine singers which the seventeenth
century produced." Mr. Saintsbury denies that Herrick
was in any sense a Pagan, and claims that " the secular
vigor of the ' Hesperides ' and the spiritual vigor of the
'Noble Numbers ' has rarely been equalled and never
surpassed by any other writer." From the foregoing
selections, what is your own view t
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH POETRY, 153
2. Describe Herrick's " environment," and show in
what respects it was more favorable to poetic produc¬
tion than that of any of his contemporaries.
3. What rank should you assign to Herrick, tested
by the thought contained in his poetry ?
4. What rank, tested by expression? What was
the prevailing fashion of the day with respect to verse-
forms, and by whom was it set ?
5. What place does Herrick hold among English
pastoral poets, both with respect to the amount and the
character of his lyrical poetry ?
6. Reasons why Herrick fails to attain a place
among the English poets of the first class ?
II. Générai, literary estimate.
Gosse: Herrick, in Ward's "English Poets;" also
article in Littel?s Living Age, Oct. 30, 1875.
Saintsbury: Elizabethan Literature, pp. 354-359.
TOPIC VII.
George Herbert.
I. Direct study.
Selections from "The Temple," — The Church-
Porch ; Virtue ; Man ; The Pilgrimage ; The Pulley ;
The Elixir.
1. Judging from these or other selections from Her¬
bert's most famous volume, what do you consider his
distinguishing merit, — is it one rather of thought or of
expression ?
2. It is noticeable that the critics in general make
but little account of Herbert's verse, some historians of
English literature making but a bare mention of his
154
THE STUDY CLASS.
name, others omitting it altogether ; yet he has always
been a favorite with readers, many short passages are
familiar to every one, while his contemporary reputation
was greater than Milton's ; probable reasons ?
3. Aside from its own merits, mention any circum¬
stances in English ecclesiastical history of the last half-
century that may have helped to give " The Temple " its
hold on popular esteem.
4. Herbert in " The Church-Porch " has been called a
precocious Folonius, framing a rule of life for himself
and other pious courtiers, but without consecration ; "
others have recommended the poem as " worthy to be
learned by heart by every young man." Which seems to
you the juster judgment ?
5. Of what later and more famous work is " The
Pilgrimage " suggestive ?
6. Herbert, among sacred poets, ' ^s been likened to
Longfellow among the profane poets. Why ?
H. General literary estimate.
Simcox: Herbert, in Ward's "English Poets."
Saintsbury : Elizabethan Literature, pp. 372, 373.
TOPIC VIII.
John Milton.
[Paradise Lost. Books I. and II. Ed. Sprague.]
I. Direct study: Paradise Lost, Book I.
1. Meaning of "rime" as used by Milton in his prose
introduction ; distinguished from " rhyme " as used by
him in line 16, Book I.
2. Is Milton's seeming claim to entire originality
(1. 16) strictly true ? Previous writers, foreign and
English, on the same subject}
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH POETRY, 155
3. Cosmography of the universe according to this
book? {This however differs from that of some of the
later books.)
4. Point out the passages which reveal Milton's in¬
dividuality with respect to —
a. Puritanical attitude toward courts and palaces.
b. Dislike of city life.
c. Musical sensibilities.
d. Fondness for sonorous lists of proper names.
e. Inexactness in descriptions of external nature.
5. Quote the lines giving the central thought of the
poem.
II. Milton's choice of subject.
1. Do you agree with Coleridge and Addison, who
commend this choice because of its importance and
general interest ; or with Dryden, who condemns it
because " the event is not prosperous, . . . his heavenly
machines are many, and human persons but two " ?
2. According to Aristotle's principles for the epic
(Poetics VI.) demanding complex action^ how does
Milton's subject compare with the subjects chosen by
other great epic writers, Homer, Virgil, Tasso ?
3. Nature of Milton's source of material compared
with the sources of other great epic poets ? Reasons
why he could not indulge in the amplification and
expansion allowable in other cases ?
4. Means by which he has avoided inventing any
new incident, and its effect on the poem as a work
of art ?
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC IX.
John Milton.
I. Direct study: Paradise Lost, Book II.
1. It has been often said that Satan is the hero of
Paradise Lost." Cite the passages which compel
your sympathy with Satan and his followers.
2. In what respects does Milton's Satan differ from
the scriptural type of Satan ?
3. Discuss the significance of the allegory of Sin and
Death; might not some of its repulsive features have
been spared with advantage }
II. Paradise Lost considered as the realization
of a life purpose.
1. Milton's early resolve ; a national epic based upon
the legends of prehistoric England.
2. Postponement of his designs, and considerations
leading to the abandonment of his original subject.
3. Hesitation between the epic and dramatic forms
of treatment.
4. Hesitation between the English and the Latin
languages. Reasons for deciding to write in English.
5. Style of the poem ; possible influence of the
writer's blindness. Do you accept Macaulay's opinion
(in essay on Dryden) that "the imagination is most
active when the external world is shut out " ?
6. Reception of " Paradise Lost " by the public ; the
political circumstances that delayed its cordial recog¬
nition ; the means by which attention was first claimed
for it as a classic. (See Addison's Spectator^ No. 267
and seventeen Saturdays following.)
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH POETRY. 157
III. Bibliography of epic poetry,
1. English literature possesses but this one great epic
poem. Mention some attempts and failures by later
writers.
2. Does the fact that the epics of the world are so
few in number prove this to be the most difficult
species of composition ?
3. Do you agree with the statement that "the epic
poem is, in its nature, the most noble of all poetic
performances " ?
IV. General literary estimate
Garnett : Milton, in " Great Writers Series."
Pattison ; Milton, in " English Men of Letters Series."
Cbanning : Essay on Milton.
Johnson ; Milton, in " Lives of the Poets."
Coleridge : Lectures on Shakespeare and Milton.
TOPIC X.
General Survey of Seventeenth Century
Poetry.
[The English Poets. Ed. Ward, Vol. II,]
Direct study.
1. Lovelace's To Althea, and Going to the Wars;
Ben Jonson's To Celia; Waller's Go, Lovely Rose;
Carew's He that Loves a Rosy Cheek; Cowley's A
Wish.
a. What pre-eminence is given to love as a theme
by poets of the early half of the seventeenth
century, and what general characteristic per¬
vades their handling of it ?
2. Read selections from Cowley's " The Mistress "
and discuss Johnson's statement that "they might have
THE STUDY CLASS.
been written for penance by a hermit, or for hire by
a philosophical rhymer who had only heard of another
sex/'
3. Relation of these amatory poems to an illustrious
Italian precedent.
4. Give some notable examples of poems of revelry,
dating from this period.
5. Examples of poems of patriotism; assign some
reasons in the social and political conditions of the
times for their popularity.
6. Various distinctive names have been applied to
this group of poets. Explain the following : —
a. The Metaphysical School.
b. The Fantastic School.
c. The Tribe of Ben.
d. Cavalier Lyrists.
References :
Johnson: Cowley, in " Lives of the Poets."
Saintsbury : Elizabethan Literature, Chap. X.
T. Arnold: English Literature, pp. 159-176.
TOPIC XL
John Dryden.
[Select Poems of Dryden, Ed. Christie.]
I. Absalom and Achitophel, Part I.
I. This is not only Dryden's most important satirical
poem, but probably also the most perfect and powerful
specimen of this kind of writing in the language. Ex¬
plain the political situation which furnished the occasion
for this satire, and study it for its admirably drawn
characters of the principal public men, its skill in
moral portrait-painting, its famous lines, etc.
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH POETRY, 159
2. It has been said that " Dryden succeeds better in
his portraits of enemies than of friends." Discuss
that statement and give some explanation.
II. Religio Laici.
This is one of the few of Dryden's poems neither
written professionally, nor dedicated to a patron, nor
suggested by one. Describe the state of religious con¬
troversy in England at this time, and Dryden^s attitude
toward it, as revealed in this poem. As a specimen of
the " art of reasoning in verse " how do you rank this
poem}
III. The Hind and the Panther.
This is the earliest regular didactic poem in the
language, and a remarkable specimen of metrical dia¬
lectics. Can it properly be called an allegory ? If
not, why not} Explain the motive of the work, and
the change in Dry den's religious opinions with which
it was coincident.
IV. Alexander's Feast.
This ode has been compared to some ''grand and
elaborate concerto of Beethoven." In what respects
does it justify the comparison, and how do you rank
it as a specimen of versification î
V. Near the close of his life, Dryden wrote of himself
as " one who had done his best to improve the language
and especially the poetry " of his native country. In
what respects, and especially in his handling of the
heroic metre, was he entitled to make this claim í
VI. General literary estimate
Johnson : Dryden, in " Lives of the Poets."
Macaulay : Essay on Dryden.
i6o
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XII.
Alexander Pope.
[Essay on Man. Ed. Pattison.]
I. Direct study.
Essay on Man. No English poem contains a greater
number of lines that have passed into proverbs. Give
some reasons for this, and discuss the poem from the
following points of view : —
1. As philosophy. Dugald Stewart called it "the
noblest specimen of poetry which our language affords,"
and for many years this was the universal verdict. In
later times it has been called, by De Quincey, "the
realization of anarchy ; " by Lowell, " a droll medley
of inconsistent opinions ; " while Leslie Stephens says,
" Pope had never studied any philosophy or theology
whatever, and he accepts with perfect unconsciousness
fragments of the most heterogeneous systems." What
is your opinion ? Do you find any central thesis to the
poem ? If so, what ?
2. As Argument. Does the poem seem to you to be
a successful achievement of its avowed purpose to
" vindicate the ways of God to man " ?
3. As Poetry. Point out the high qualities of expres¬
sion, the evidences of generous sympathy for humanity,
of righteous indignation against bigots ; the qualities
poetical, in distinction from philosophical or logical.
Are these sufficient to entitle Pope to be counted as a
great poet, or as some insist, only " an artist in verse " ?
4. As a classic. It has been said of this poem "The
young scholar cannot propose to himself a more in¬
structive model to dwell upon and to analyze." For
what reasons ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH POETRY. lól
II, Bibliographical and Biographical.
1. Give some account of the circumstances that de¬
termined Pope's choice of subject.
2. Discuss Pope's fitness to deal with this theme, tak¬
ing into consideration his temperament and education.
TOPIC XIII.
Alexander Pope.
[Satires and Epistles. Ed. Pattison.]
I. Direct study: Satires and Epistles.
In the reign of George II. satire was as fashionable
as the drama in the reign of James I. Discuss Pope's
merits and defects as a satirist in the following
respects : —
1. Sincerity; was his indignation real or assumed?
2. Justice ; compare the reports of history with his
portraits of
a, Lord Hervey.
b, Addison.
c, Mary Wortley Montagu.
3. Bias; how far do Pope's utterances seem dictated
by rules of social conduct and principles of literary taste,
and how far by personal spite and party zeal ?
4. Discuss Pope's distinction between satire and libel
(in "Advertisement" to Imitation of Horace, 2 Sat. i),
and say which title he himself deserves in the verses
following.
5. Discuss the manners of the age and the taste for
personalities in literature, as shown by the character
of these writings.
6. Congeniality of this class of composition to Pope's
personal temperament.
II
102
THE STUDY CLASS.
II. Improvement in the literary market, as indicated
by the sums received respectively by Pope for his trans¬
lation of Homer, and by Milton, sixty years earlier, for
" Paradise Lost."
III. Influence of Pope on his age. Contemporary
judgments compared with present judgments.
IV. General literary estimate.
Leslie Stephen: Pope, in "English Men of Letters
Series."
Lowell: Pope, in My Study Windows."
De Quíncey: Pope, in De Quincey's Works,
TOPIC XIV.
Samuel Johnson.
I. Direct study: London.
1. What evidence does the poem furnish of Johnson's
personal feelings and experiences in the following
respects : —
a. The penalties of poverty.
b. Antipathy to Whigs.
€. Dislike of foreigners,
2. Compared with the satires of Pope, what differences
do you observe with respect to the personal element ?
Reasons for this difference in the nature and circum¬
stances of the two writers ? Which manifests the most
genuine public spirit ?
3. In what line of the poem do you find its central
thought ?
4. What evidences of the literary fashions of the
times, both with respect to its sentiments and their
expression in rhymed couplets ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH POETRY, 163
5. This poem became at once very popular, and was
the means of making Johnson generally known. Does
it impress you as bearing the signs of inspiration, or
rather like the utterance of one using an uncongenial
form of expression ?
II. Direct Study: Vanity of Human Wishes.
1. What differences both of style and of thought
between this poem and " London," written ten years
earlier ?
2. Although both poems are professed imitations,
they are both extremely characteristic of the writer.
Reasons why the themes and method of Juvenal would
furnish a congenial model for Johnson.
3. Discuss this poem as a solution of the mystery of
life. Which of the successive pictures of the favorite
" vanities " of men do you consider the most vigorous and
effective ? Do you regard the conclusion as adequate ?
4. A very small portion of Johnson's writing was in
verse. From these examples, do you think this to be
regretted ?
III. One of Johnson's greatest services* to literature
was in releasing it from the bondage of the patron.
Give an account of how this was accomplished, and
some of his own painful experiences on this account.
TOPIC XV.
William Collins.
I. Direct study: The Passions.
i. Discuss the conception of this poem ; the lyric
spirit of its several personifications.
164
THE STUDY CLASS,
2. Discuss the execution; the changes of imitative
harmony whereby the appropriate music of each passion
is both described and illustrated.
3. Does the poem seem to you to lack anything of
lyric perfection. If so, what }
4. What evidences in the poem of Collins^ personal
tastes and feelings, in respect to —
a. Love of Greece and Grecian effects.
b. Refinement and spirituality of nature.
c. Spontaneity of expression and intense suscepti¬
bility to beauty.
XL Direct study; Ode to Evening.
1. Analyze the means whereby these thirteen qua¬
trains, without rhyme, yet produce the desired effect.
2. Significance of Swinburne's statement that " Corot
on canvas might have signed this ' Ode to Evening ' ? "
III. Direct study ; How sleep the Brave, etc.
1. Can you find in literature any lines to equal the
first two in this ode, as a memorial inscription for the
soldier's burial-place ? (See Atlantic Monthly, 1890).
2. Define lyric poetry according to its most essential
quality. Does Collins possess it ?
IV. Collins was contemporary with Pope and Johnson.
Does his poetry have any kinship with theirs ?
V. What quality appears in Collins to justify Hazlitt's
statement that "Collins is the only one of the minor
poets of whom, if he had lived, it cannot be said that
he might not have done the greatest things."
VI. Give some account of the difficulties in Collins's
life which suppressed, and later terminated his poetical
production.
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH POETRY, j 65
VII. General literary estimate.
Johnson : Collins, in " Lives of the Poets."
Swinburne : Collins, in Ward's English Poets."
Hazlitt: English Poets.
TOPIC XVI.
Thomas Gray.
I. Direct study; Elegy in a Country Church-
Yard.
1. For what qualities has this poem gained its great
celebrity ?
2. Enumerate its leading thoughts, grouping its stanzas
accordingly.
3. Would the Elegy gain or lose by a more lofty or
philosophical treatment ?
4. What poets before Gray had used this same metre,
and why is it specially adapted to convey a series of
solemn reflections ?
5. Do you think Gosse claims too high a place for the
Elegy in saying " it may almost be looked upon as the
typical piece of English verse, our poem of poems " ?
6. Elegies and epitaphs were a favorite form of com¬
position in Gray's time. Mention some notable ones,
and read Gray's own dainty trifling with the fashion in
" Ode on the Death of Mr. Walpole's Cat."
II. Direct study: The Progress of Poesy and
The Bard.
I. The verse-construction of these poems was a puzzle
to Gray's friends because of its novelty in English
literature. This verse-form is to be studied, not only
because it was the first successful attempt in English to
i66
THE STUDY CLASS.
comprehend and follow the method of Pindar, but
because, in departing from what has come to be known
as " Augustan versification," it prepared the way for
Shelley and the modern lyrists.
2. Reasons why these odes have never become
" popular''?
3. Compare the Progress of Poesy" with similar
historical sketches; for example, Collins's "Ode to
Simplicity," Keats' Sleep and Poetry."
4. Contemporary estimate of these poems. Do you
see any force in the criticism which expressed itself in
such parodies as Odes to Obscurity and Oblivion ?
III. Gray said, " The style I have aimed at is extreme
conciseness of expression, yet pure, perspicuous, and
musical." Your opinion of his success? What is his
chief lack as poet ?
IV. Give some explanation of the very small amount
of Gray's poetry, considering the high quality of his
writing and his life of leisure. Is it an evidence of
deficiency of inspiration in the man himself, or of de¬
ficiency of another sort in the age in which he lived ?
V. Give some account of Gray's friendships with
Horace Walpole, Richard West, and others.
VI. General literary estimate.
Gosse : Gray, in " English Men of Letters Series,"
M. Arnold ; Essays in Criticism. Second Series.
Lowell : Essay on Gray.
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH POETRY, 167
TOPIC XVII.
Oliver Goldsmith.
I. Direct study; The Traveller.
1. What is the leading motive of this poem?
2. Do you accept its theory that there is no relation
between the government of a country and the happiness
of its inhabitants ?
3. Does the charm of'The Traveller" depend upon
its theories ? If not, on what ?
4. Can you find anything in Goldsmith's own experi¬
ences that would seem to fit him for painting this
picture of ideal England?
5. Johnson declared " The Traveller " to be the finest
poem published since Pope. Do you agree with that
judgment ?
6. Give some account of the growth and develop¬
ment of " The Traveller ; " of Johnson's share in its
completion and publication.
7. In what respect is the plan of this poem entitled to
be considered original ?
II. Direct study; The Deserted Village.
1, Whether the "Sweet Auburn" be an English
village or the Irish village of Lissoy, ^—Goldsmith's
childhood home ; whether the political economy of the
poem be solid or simply sentimental, are much discussed
questions in connection with this poem. Does your
estimate of " The Deserted Village " depend upon your
answer to these questions, or upon considerations
entirely apart?
2. By reason of what quality have so many couplets
from this poem passed into our familiar speech ?
i68
THE STUDY CLASS.
3. Point out any errors in the poem, either as to fact
or to interpretation of fact.
4. Goldsmith was a firm believer in the didactic
mission of poetry. Is his own poetry more attractive
for its didactic features ?
III. Give some account of the state of English poetry
and reasons why the time was particularly propitious
for poems of Goldsmith's kind.
IV. General literary estimate.
Irving : Life of Goldsmith.
Black : Goldsmith, in " English Men of Letters Series."
Macaulay : Essay on Goldsmith.
Thackeray : English Humorists.
TOPIC XVIII.
Robert Burns.
I. Direct study: Tam O'Shanter.
Thomas Carlyle says of this poem, " It is not so much
a poem as a piece of sparkling rhetoric ; the heart of the
story still lies hard and dead." Sir Walter Scott, on
the other hand, speaks of it as the inimitable tale," and
says that ''no poet except Shakespeare ever possessed
the power of exciting the most varied and discordant
emotions with such rapid transitions." With which
verdict do you agree ?
II. The Cotter's Saturday Night; The Twa Dogs;
Hallowe'en ; A Man's a Man for a' That,
Discuss these poems, and the explanation they offer
for the love in which Burns is held by the Scottish
peasant,— a love exceeding that of any other people for
any other poet, probably.
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH POETRY. 169
III. Baiinockburn ; Caledonia ¿ Author's Farewell to
his Native Country.
These and similar poems came from the pen of Burns
at a time when the feeling of nationality in Scotland was
at a very low ebb ; when Englishmen despised Scotch¬
men, and Scotchmen seemed ashamed of themselves and
of their country. Effect of poems with such themes and
in this vernacular upon the sense of Scottish nationality
IV. To a Mouse; Lines on Scaring some Water-
Fowl; The Auld Farmer to his Mare; Verses on a
Wounded Hare; Poor Maille.
Discuss these poems in evidence of Burns's sympathy
with the brute creation as " fellow-creatures." Had this
been common in the poetry of his predecessors ?
V. Mary Morison ; My Nanie O ; The Birks of
Aber-Feldy ; Of a' the Airts the Winds can Blaw; John
Anderson, my Jo; To Mary in Heaven; Highland
Mary; O Wert thou in the Cauld Blast?
1. The fame of Burns rests chiefly on songs such as
these, and his place as first of song-writers is hardly
questioned. The words were made to fit existing tunes,
instead of being composed and set to music afterward.
Give some account of this body of national melody, the
character of the verse which was sung to it, and the ser¬
vice Burns rendered to Scottish song by supplanting
this verse with his own.
2. Apart from their singing quality, what main charac¬
teristic makes them beloved for all time and by all
peoples ?
VI. General literary estimate.
Carlyle : Essay on Burns.
Shairp : Burns, in " English Men of Letters Series."
Hazlitt : English Poets.
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XIX.
William Cowper.
I. Direct study : The Task, Books I. II. IV.
1. In this poem which, with so little apparent con¬
nection, deals with such a variety of subjects, religious,
political, social, philosophical, horticultural, do you rec¬
ognize any one pervading tendency or purpose through¬
out ? If so, what 1 Quote to prove.
2. Judging from this poem, should you call Cowper
an original writer ? If so, in what respect ?
3. It was " The Task that made Cowper famous, and
many of its passages have become commonplaces of
conversation. If it were a new poem to-day, would it
make a like impression ? If not, why not ?
4. Give some account of the circumstances which
determined the title of the poem, " The Task, " and of
the first book, " The Sofa; " also explain the allusion in
line 7, Book I.
5. This poem has been called the poem of a sect."
Explain what sect, and the attitude of its worshippers
whereby "The Task " was regarded by them somewhat
in the same light as " Paradise Lost " was regarded by
the Puritans.
6. A modern critic says that Cowper*s work derives a
special interest from " the pathos of his life and his
position in our poetical history." Explain the first
part of this statement by a study of his biography, and
the last part by comparing "The Task " with previous
poems. Do you find in it any new " note " in respect to
human nature, to sympathy with animals, to descriptions
»of natural scenery }
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH POETRY, 171
II. General literary estimate.
T. H. Ward: Cowper, in Ward's "English Poets "
Goldwin Smith : Cowper, in " English Men of Letters
Series."
E. B. Browning: Poem on Cowper's Grave.
TOPIC XX.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
I. Direct study : The Ancient Mariner.
1. Do you consider this poem as solely a free and
picturesque outcome of the poetic imagination, or do
you prefer to treat it as addressed to the conscience and
understanding also ?
2. Discuss some of the leading theories that have been
offered, as follows : —
a. " Its religion is all contained in the phrase, ' He
prayeth well who loveth well, both man, and
bird, and beast.'" (Stopford Brooke.)
b. " This sweet little childish moral at the end is
merely a device to bring the reader back to
the world of sense. . . . The underlying mo¬
tive is the unity of life, . . . the mystical
brotherhood between the brute creation and
the human race and the higher intelligences."
(Chas. F. Johnson.)
c. " The moral is the love of all creatures as a sort
of religious duty." ( W. H. Pater.)
d. " The soul makes its own world, and in the living
spirit of love is the only life of man." (Kath¬
erine Lee Bates.)
3. It has been said that " there is nothing comparable
to the effect of ' The Ancient Mariner,' unless it be the
172
THE STUDY CLASS.
terror induced by certain strains of music." Consider
the cumulative touches which produce this effect.
4. In its ballad characteristics, compare The Ancient
Mariner " with other sea ballads, especially " Sir Patrick
Spence." (See Percy's " Reliques of Ancient Poetry.")
What element does Coleridge add to the simplicity of
the old ballads ?
5. If the creation of a new thing be the highest mani¬
festation of the poetic genius, where shall we place " The
Ancient Mariner " ?
II. Biographical.
1. Give some account of the strange compact between
Wordsworth and Coleridge that led to the production of
'^The Ancient Mariner." (See Coleridge's Biographia
Literaria, Chap. XIV.)
2. Publication of the poem ; contemporaneous criti¬
cism. (See Wordsworth in second edition of "Lyrical
Ballads;" quoted by Lowell in essay on Wordsworth
in "Among my Books," Vol. II.)
TOPIC XXI.
William Wordsworth.
I. Direct study; Lines composed a few miles
above tintern abbey.
Ï. Quote the lines which embody the leading thoughts
of the poem.
2. The banks of the Wye furnished the occasion and
the theme for this poem, but what larger title might
be given to it? Can you name any other poem in the
language entitled to an equally high rank as a Hymn to
Nature ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH POETRY. 173
3. What evidences in the poem that, great as was
Nature's power over the poet's mind, it nevertheless
takes a second place, and is important chiefly as a
stage for the actions of man ?
4. By reason of what qualities does this poem attract
minds of almost every shade of religious conviction, all
being able to turn to it for an expression of their feelings
about Nature ?
5. It has been said that " the essential spirit of the
* Lines near Lintern Abbey ' was, for practical pur¬
poses, as new to mankind as the essential spirit of
the Sermon on the Mount." What was this new spirit ?
6. Point out the single lines and passages that serve to
justify Coleridge's phrase of the curiosa felicitas*'' of
Wordsworth's diction.
II. Direct study: Ode on the Intimations of
Immortality.
1. Do you consider that Wordsworth means to avow
himself a believer in the old Oriental doctrine of an ante¬
natal existence, an exponent of the doctrine of metem¬
psychosis ? If not, express your interpretation of his
meaning.
2. Do you think the instinct of delight in Nature and
her beauty is so common in childhood as seems to be
implied by this poem ?
3. Do you find any lack of connection between the
first four stanzas and the remaining portion ?
4. Cite passages from the poem illustrative of the
purity and power of Wordsworth's inspiration.
5. Cite passages indicative of the unequal and partial
nature of Wordsworth's genius.
174
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XXII.
William Wordsworth.
I. Direct study : The Sonnets.
1. Describe Wordsworth's own attitudes toward this
form of poetical composition as described in the sonnet
beginning, " Scorn not the Sonnet, Critic ! "
2. Lowell says, " The law of the sonnet tempers
monologue with mercy." Give some reasons in the
nature of Wordsworth's mental constitution why the
restraints imposed by the sonnet-form were particularly
needful in his case.
3. The sonnets number over four hundred, yet are
connected by a predominant thought or tone. Read
those beginning, " The world is too much with us ; "
" Brook ! whose society the poet seeks ; " " Pelion and
Ossa flourish side by side," and explain Wordsworth's
attitude toward the idealization of Nature.
4. Read some of the " Sonnets dedicated to Liberty,"
and describe how Wordsworth's poetry and his idea
of the offlce of poetry was affected by the French
Revolution.
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Give some account of the derision with which
Wordsworth's early poetry was received; Jeffrey's
review of " The Excursion " in the Edinburgh Review.
2. Describe Wordsworth's theory of poetic diction
(see Myers's "Wordsworth," Chap IX. "English Men
of Letters Series.") Is Wordsworth's best poetry that
which conforms most nearly to his own doctrines ?
3. What effect had this manifesto — which has been
called " as famous in its way as the Declaration of
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH POETRY. 175
Independence — on the public mind, and what excuse
did it furnish the reviewers for ridiculing the poems,
with which it was bound ?
4. Reception of the later poems ; modern judgments ;
reasons why Wordsworth is by common consent counted
as fifth of the great English poets.
III. General literary estimate.
Coleridge; Biographia Literaria, Chaps. XIV-XXII.
M. Arnold; Essays in Criticism. Second Series.
Wordsworthiana. Edited by William Knight.
TOPIC XXIII.
Sir Walter Scott.
I, Direct study ; Marmion.
1. Although Scott disavowed any intention to write
an epic poem, in what respects does Marmion fulfil
the accepted definition of epic poetry? (See Aristotle's
" Poetics ; or the summary of that definition in
Arnold's "English Literature," p. 343.)
2. Discuss the six introductory epistles. Do they
seem out of place by reason of their interruption of
the story, or do they enhance your interest by revealing
the relation of the poet to his theme ?
3. The Battle of Flodden and its relation to Scottish
history ; what gave it peculiar fitness for poetical
treatment ?
4. Does the character of Marmion come within the
range of probability ?
176
THE STUDY CLASS,
5. Is the expedient that produces the catastrophe in
harmony with the setting of the poem ?
6. Does the charm of the poem depend upon the
characters or the action ?
7. Illustrate by citations from this poem Scott's
acknowledged power in dealing with —
a. Natural scenery.
b. Chivalrous and romantic life.
c. Interesting historic personages.
d. Battle scenes.
8. Taine calls Scott *'the Homer of modern citizen
life." Appropriateness of that title ?
9. Shairp says, " Scott came at the latest hour when
it was possible for a great epic minstrel to be born, and
the altered conditions of the world will not admit of
another." Why ?
II. Biographical.
1. Consider the circumstances of Scott's early years,
and their probable effect in directing his genius.
2. Give some reasons why Scott ceased to write
poetry and began to write novels.
III. General literary estimate.
Shairp : Aspects of Poetry.
Hutton : Scott, in " English Men of Letters Series."
Shaw : English Literature, Chap. XVII.
TOPIC XXIV.
Lord Byron.
1. Direct study: Childe Harold, Canto HI.
I. In what do you find the chief charm of this poem;
in its description of external scenes, or in its analysis
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH POETRY. 177
and exposition of the writer's feelings, reflections, and
states of mind ?
2. An interval of four years had elapsed since the
publication of Cantos I. and IL Notwithstanding the
author's protestations to the contrary, no one can fail
to regard Canto III. as in a large measure autobio¬
graphical. Discuss the opening lines and the four
closing stanzas, in connection with the events that
had just taken place (1816) in his private life.
3. Discuss stanzas III.-XVI. for evidence of Byron's
attitude toward the world and society.
4. Discuss stanzas XXI.-XXVIII. Scott said of
these (and most generously said, since this was his
own particular field of writing), " I am not sure that
any verses in our language surpass in vigor and in
feeling this most beautiful description." Do you think
this praise excessive ?
5. Discuss stanzas LXXXV.-XCV. Although not
faultless, what notably fine poetic qualities mark this
passage ?
6. Byron's prevailing note, as in this poem, was his
own misery and despair. Why did this touch such a
sympathetic chord among his contemporaries ?
II. Historical and bibliographical.
1. Give some account of the history of Byron's poeti¬
cal reputation; some reasons for its lack of perpetuity,
especially among his own countrymen.
2. Byron is rated much higher by foreign critics, like
Mazzini, Goethe, etc., than by Englishmen generally
Reasons ?
3. Thackeray said of Byron, " That man never wrote
from his heart ; he got up rapture and enthusiasm with
an eye to the public." Does this assertion seem too
sweeping ?
12
178
THE STUDY CLASS.
Ill, General literary estimate.
John Morley : Byron, in " Miscellanies," VoL I.
Matthew Arnold : Byron, in " Essays in Criticism.''
Second Series.
Macaulay : Byron, in " Essays,"
TOPIC XXV.
John Keats.
I. Direct study : The Eve of St. Agnes.
1. Keats owed to the reading of Spenser his first
impulse toward writing poetry. What traces of that
influence do you discover, both in the character of the
poem and its versification ?
2. The chief incident of the poem is founded on a
popular superstition ; what features of the story re¬
call "Romeo and Juliet"? Chaucer's " Troilus and
Cressida " ?
3. It has been said that " Keats had an instinct for
fine words, which are in themselves pictures, and had
more of the power of poetic expression than any
modern English poet." Illustrate this by citations
from the poem.
4. What evidences in this poem of the penetrative
and sympathetic imagination to a degree which belongs
only to poets of the first rank ?
5. The chief charge against Keats is his over exuber¬
ance. Is this an uncommon or even a discouraging
defect in a poet as young as Keats?
6. Can you name any narrative poem surpassing
this in its power to carry the reader into the Land of
Faery ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH POETRY. 179
II. Direct study: The Sonnets.
On first looking into Chapman's Homer " and others.
Compare these sonnets with the best sonnets of
other writers,— Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth,—
and discuss Lowell's statement that "taking all qualities
into consideration, some of Keats's sonnets are the most
perfect in our language."
III. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Note the hampering conditions of Keats with
respect to birth, surroundings, and lack of education ;
his early death. Compare the amount and quality of
his production with that of other poets at the age of
twenty-five.
2. Keats's reception by the reviewers ; history of his
later reputation.
IV. General literary estimate.
M. Arnold : Keats, in " Essays in Criticism." Second
Series.
Lowell : Keats, in " Among my Books," Vol. II.
Colvin : Keats, in " English Men of Letters Series."
TOPIC XXVI.
Percy Bysshe Shelley.
I. Direct study*. Alastor.
1. Alastor is not the name of the hero of the poem,
but is a word derived from the Greek, and signifying an
" evil genius." It was suggested as a title by one of
Shelley's friends. What evil genius is depicted in the
poem ?
2. Significance of the Latin motto from Saint Augus¬
tine, as expressive of deeper meanings of the poem ?
3. This poem is the first as well as the most pathetic
i8o
THE STUDY CLASS.
of Shelley's self-revelations, conveyed amid great ideality
of treatment. Consider its expressions in the following
particulars : —
a. Religious belief. What theory of the universe is
implied by the Invocation to Earth, Ocean, and
Air, as his "beloved brethren," with a common
" Mother of this unfathomable World " ? Com¬
pare his letter to Miss Hitchener (Jan. 2, 1812),
" I believe that ' God * is another signification
for *the Universe.'" Discuss such utterances as
evidence against the charges of " atheism," not
yet wholly obsolete.
b. Impressions of the supernatural. Compare the
thought of stanza 2 with Wordsworth's phrase
" obstinate questionings of sense and outward
things." Do these "incommunicable dreams"
furnish any clew to the spiritual insight possessed
by Shelley and other great poets ?
c. Love. Note the qualities of the vision of Ideal
Love in stanza 7, — "a voice heard in the calm
of thought ; " knowledge and truth and virtue
were her theme ; " " the solemn mood of a pure
mind," etc. Contrast this longing for thought,
companionship with the accusations often made
against Shelley's affairs of the heart.
d. Immortality. Does the poem seem to imply dis.
belief in a future life ? Compare Shelley's lines
in " The Sensitive Plant : " —
" For love and beauty and delight,
There is no death nor change," etc.
e. Note certain evidences of Shelley's likings and theo¬
ries implied in such expressions as " bloodless
food •, " " one living man over the world wanders
forever," etc.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH POETRY. i8l
II. General literary estimate.
Symonds : Shelley, in " English Men of Letters Series.^*
Stopford Brooke : Introduction to Selections from
Shelley.
Rossetti : Memoir prefixed to Shelley's Poems.
TOPIC XXVII.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning.
1. Direct study : Aurora Leigh.
1. What principles of reform and what social phi¬
losophy does this poem inculcate ?
2. Do you sympathize with this philosophy, or do you
think the poem exaggerates the effect of Art and of
mental culture in elevating the condition of the masses ?
3. In Book I., note the passage relating to English
scenery; in Book VII., the one relating to Italy. What
are Mrs. Browning's gifts as a descriptive poet ?
4. In Book IL, are your sympathies with Aurora or
with Romney ? Do you feel any lack in Romney, not¬
withstanding his noble purposes and his love for his
cousin ?
5. Book III. Discuss the new characters now intro¬
duced.
6. Book IV. Discuss the character of Romney Leigh.
Does his intended marriage seem to you somewhat
fanatical for one who has heretofore seemed so practical,
or do you sympathize with it ?
7. Books V. and VI. Would these gain by conden¬
sation ?
8. In the concluding portions of the poem do you think
the story well contrived and the events happily chosen
In which of the two heroines do you feel the greater
interest ?
i82
THE STUDY CLASS.
9. Even granting the impracticability of Romney's
schemes, do not his failures seem excessive as punish¬
ment, both as to kind and amount ?
10. Aurora Leigh was one of the earliest attempts
at novel-writing in verse. Do you find that it some¬
times ceases to be a poem in order to become a story ?
11. In what respects, if any, do you think the poem
may be regarded as autobiographical ?
12. Ruskin called Aurora Leigh the greatest poem
of the century. Do you share that opinion ? Y our
reasons, either for assent or dissent.
II. General literary estimate.
Article in Contemporary Review^ 1S73.
W. T. Arnold: Mrs. Browning, in "Ward's English
Poets."
TOPIC XXVIII.
Alfred Tennyson.
Direct study: Idylls of the King.
1. Read the address to the Queen (originally printed
as "Epilogue,") and give your understanding of the
poet's statement of his purpose. Is his aim to produce
an historical poem t an allegory ? a story of human life t
a parable told with a purpose ?
2. Read " The Coming of Arthur." Explain the alle¬
gorical figures and passages. What personification
is intended by the Lady of the Lake 1 by the sword
Excalibur ? by its respective inscriptions, one in ancient,
one in modern language ?
3. Explain Merlin's oracular triplets beginning, " Rain,
rain and sun," etc., — an expression of a modern philo¬
sophical attitude in the mouth of a sixth century bard.
Is this admissible in a poem of this kind t
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH POETRY. 183
4. What is the task which Arthur sets for himself,
and what expression do you find here of the ever-
recurring problem of civilization ?
5. In what lines do you find the secret of the pros¬
perity with which King Arthur begins his reign ?
6. Read " Gareth and Lynette." This is one of the
most simple and straightforward of the Idylls ; do you
consider it simply a fairy romance, or has it a human
interest also ?
7. Are the different conceptions of nobility as exem¬
plified in Gareth and in Lynette, respectively, yet extinct ?
8. Read " Merlin and Vivien." This story is a de¬
cided departure from the old legends, the character of
Vivien being created by Tennyson, and her influence
being one of the chief causes of the corruption of the
court at a later time. Does it seem to you wholly in
keeping with the general tone of this fairy epic? Is
it somewhat too coarse and graphic for the occasion ?
9. Parallelisms between this " Vivien" idyll and one of
the old Bible stories.
References :
Van Dyke : The Poetry of Tennyson.
Articles in Contemporary Review, 1S73 ; Spectator,
January, 1870.
TOPIC XXIX.
Alfred Tennyson.
Direct study ; Idylls of the King.
I. Read the " Holy Grail." What idea do you con¬
sider that Tennyson intended to symbolize by the Holy
Grail and the quest for it ?
184
THE STUDY CLASS,
2. Why does Arthur, the ideal man, discourage that
quest ? Does his deprecation extend to the religious life
in itself, or only when it is disjoined from human service ?
3. How do you understand the different fates attend*
ing the various knights, both those who " followed
wandering fires " and those who, like Percivale, Galahad,
and Launcelot, attained unto the vision under circum¬
stances of varying difficulty and peril ?
4. Who is the real hero of this idyll ? Why ?
5. In what ways does Arthur^s speech to the knights
after their return from the quest embody the modern
rather than the.ancient conception of public office?
6. Read "Guinevere." Tennyson departs from the
old legends in making the meeting of Launcelot and
Guinevere occur previous to the meeting of Arthur and
Guinevere. Does not this fact somewhat affect our
judgment concerning the later relations of the lovers ?
7. In the parting interview between the King and
Queen, do you think a little less self-righteousness
would be more becoming on the part of Arthur ?
8. Does the character of Arthur throughout the poem
lack somewhat of the qualities essential either to great¬
ness or lovableness ?
9. Which seems to you the central figure of the
Idylls, Arthur or Launcelot ?
10. Read "The Passing of Arthur." Has it any
spiritual significance ?
11. Do the picturesque and scenic qualities of the
Idylls obscure their human interest ?
12. In representing the Queen's transgression as
responsible for the ruin of the realm and the failure
of Arthur's humane life-purposes, does the conse¬
quence appear too large for the cause ?
13. Discuss the rhythm, diction, and gnomic sayings
scattered throughout the epic.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGL/SN POETRY. 185
TOPIC XXX.
Alfred Tennyson.
I, Direct study : In Memoriam.
1. Read The Invocation. As the deepest and most
personal expression of the poet's own religious feeling
and of his philosophy of the universe, what do you find
to be its teaching on the following points ?
a. The efficient cause of the universe, and our
reasons for trusting it.
b. Human systems, and their relation to the divine
government of the universe.
c. The freedom of the human will ; how secured ?
d. The conscious immortality of the individual.
e. Faith. Its relation to our convictions ; its author¬
ity in matters inaccessible to understanding
and knowledge. The decay and revival of
faith.
2. Read I.-VIII. What do these lyrics answer to
such questions as these 1
a. Which is better, a world in which love is
alloyed with grief, or a world without love ?
b. Resignation. Is the fact that " loss is common
to our race" any consolation to the bereaved ?
c. Reasons for seeking verse-expression and for con¬
secrating it to the memory of the departed.
3. Read IX.-XXI. Compare this portion of the
poem with the incidents on which it is based, — the
death of Arthur Hallam, and the friendship of Tennyson
and Hallam. The poet's answer to the practical minds
who deplore the writing of In Memoriam " as wasted
energy ?
i86
THE STUDY CLASS,
4. Read XXVIII.-XXXVI. Turning from the past
to the future, the old but ever-new question of the
immortality of the soul arises. What is the poet's
conclusion on the following points ?
a. Ought it to require any revealed, supernatural
proof to convince us of the soul's immortality ?
d. If death ends all, would life still be worth
living ?
c. The value of the Christian revelation as a sup¬
plement to the reasoning faculties, especially
to some minds ?
II. General literary estimate.
Stedman : Victorian Poets.
Noel : Co7ttemporary Review^ February, 1885.
Cooke •. Poets and Problems.
XI.
INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY OF
BROWNING.
HE collected works of Robert Brown¬
ing form the largest body of poetry
produced by any one poet in Eng¬
lish literature ; but, in such a mat¬
ter, mere quantity is no test of value. Whether
we are willing to bestow on Browning more
prolonged study than in the case of any other
poet, except Shakespeare, will depend very
largely on our ideals of what constitutes high
excellence in poetry. Many and differing views
prevail : —
I. There are persons who say that the poet's
chief office is to please. They insist upon " art
for art's sake," and urge that in poetry the moral,
the motive, is nothing compared with smooth¬
ness and beauty. This theory of poetry would
i88
THE STUDY CLASS.
place musical Swinburne and Rossetti in the
very front rank of poets, while it would almost
entirely exclude Robert Browning, thinker and
seer, but whose verse, as even his warmest
admirers admit, is frequently rugged and irregu¬
lar, whose diction is involved and elliptical, and
whose subjects are peculiar. And yet as I make
this charge of roughness in versification, many
melodious lines ring in my ears, and, seem to
ask for a chance to be heard here in their own
defence. For pure sweetness, what can surpass
this?
Such a starved bank of moss
Till, that May-rnorn,
Blue ran the flash across :
Violets were born !
; Sky — what a scowl of cloud
Till, near and far,
Ray on ray split the shroud ;
Splendid ! a star !
"World — how it walled about
Life with disgrace,
Till God's own smile came out ;
That was thy face !
Delicacy and grace are desirable, but to rate
these higher than thought is to establish a false
scale of values. If we cannot have both music
and thought in poetry, by all means let us have
the thought.
INTRODUCTORY TO BROWNING. 189
2. There are others who think that a love of
Nature is the chief poetic qualification, — that
the sights and sounds,' the shapes and colors of
the visible world, form the true themes for a
poet. Tried by this test. Browning will hardly
satisfy. Nature interests Browning chiefly as a
background for his pictures of men and women.
But is not this also true of Homer, Shakespeare,
Dante, — all the world's greatest poets ? Are
they not as notably deficient in descriptions of
scenery, for the sake of the scene merely, as
Browning himself ? I believe the notion that
a susceptibility to natural scenery is the first
requisite of a great poet is simply another pop¬
ular fallacy, and that the whole history of litera¬
ture does not furnish an instance of a poem of
the first rank whose subject is a description of
Nature.
Even Wordsworth, who at first thought would
seem to furnish an instance of a great poet find¬
ing his themes in the visible world, does, in fact,
deal less with elaborate physical descriptions of
the scenes of Nature as they appear to the out¬
ward eye than with the feeling and thought
which natural beauty awakens in the soul of
the sensitive beholder. On revisiting the banks
of the Wye after a five years' absence, he
says : —
THE STUDY CLASS.
" I have learned
To look on nature, not as in the hour
Of thoughtless youth, but-hearing oftentimes
The still, sad music of humanity,
Nor harsh nor grating, though of ample power
To chasten and subdue. And I have felt
A presence that disturbs me with the joy
Of elevated thoughts, a sense sublime
Of something far more deeply interfused.
Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns,
And the round ocean and the living air.
And the blue sky, and in the mind of man, —
A motion and a spirit that impels
All thinking things, all objects of all thought.
And rolls through all things. Therefore^ am I still
A lover of the meadows and the woods
And mountains."
This passage is aptly descriptive of the spirit of
all of Wordsworth's best descriptions of Nature, so
called. Nature is to him a grand, spiritual sym¬
bol, moving him to meditative rapture. The
outward spectacle is, indeed, reproduced ; but it
is rather through the emotions enkindled in him
than through the landscape-painter's art that we
know the streams and woods and mountains that
he loved.
3. A third conception of poetry says that its
office is to deal with the world of man, that the
great poet is he who gives us, as Emerson said
Shakespeare did, '^his recorded convictions on
those questions which knock for answer at every
INTRODUCTORY TO BROWNING. 191
heart, ^— on life and death, on love, on wealth and
poverty, on the prizes of life and the ways where¬
by we come at them, on the characters of men and
the influences occult and open which affect their
fortunes, and those mysterious and demoniacal
powers which defy our science and which yet
interweave their malice and their gift in our
brightest hours."
Truly, this is a far higher and grander work
than any other which ever has been, or ever can
be, proposed by poet. It is this precisely at
which all the loftiest poets aim. Homer in his
pagan fashion, Dante in his mediaeval fashion,
Shakespeare and Browning after their more modern
way. Browning says, My stress lay on the
incidents in the development of a soul. Little
else is worth study."
Thus he stated his own purpose and ideals in
the preface to one of his early poems Bordello") ;
and thus we find him ever since, intent on explor¬
ing the mysteries of human life and character,
sympathetic with all the great movements of
intellectual and spiritual life in the world at large.
It is true that he has chosen few English themes,
has written little about contemporary men and
manners, nothing that has appealed to statesmen,
like Mrs. Browning's poems in behalf of Italy's
freedom ; nor to reformers like her Cry of the
Children," or like Hood's Song of the Shirt."
192
THE STUDY CLASS.
Neither has he, like Tennyson, sung welcome
songs to royalty or sonnets on political events.
But the questions uppermost with him are the
thought questions that belong to this living, mov¬
ing, breathing nineteenth century,— questions that
have only come to the front in our own time, and
are so peculiarly the product of contemporary
thought that it is not too much to prophesy that
the future student will find in these poems some
of the best commentary and illustration of the
great movements of mind in the present day;
and that by reason of this fact he will continue
to hold his present place as the poet most prized
by many thoughtful and earnest people.
XII.
OUTLINES OF THE STUDY OF
BROWNING.
HE best edition of Browning's Com¬
plete Works is the Riverside edi¬
tion, seven vols. Cooke's " Browning
Guide-Book," uniform in style with
the foregoing, converts this edition into an anno¬
tated Browning, and is the most valuable of any of
the helps for the elucidation of the poems. Mrs.
Orr's Hand-book "and Symons's " Introduction
to the Study of Browning " offer interpretations
of all the poems, and may often be consulted to
advantage. Corson's, Fotheringham's, and Alex¬
ander's works deal with selected poems, and are
valuable within their limits. The publications of
the London Browning Society, in ten volumes,
contain many interesting studies, but being quite
expensive, and not easily obtainable, have not
been included among the references in the fol¬
lowing course of study : —
13
194
THE STUDY CLASS,
TOPICS.
I.
Browning's Ideals of Poetry,
II.
Browning's Philosophy of Life.
III.
Art Poems.
IV.
Spiritual Aspiration.
V.
Poems of Jewish Life and Thought.
VI.
Ivàn Ivànovitch.
VII.
Tragedy in Marriage.
VIII.
Love, in respect to Constancy.
IX.
Caliban.
X.
Cleon.
XI.
Modern Religious Thought.
XII.
The Ring and the Book, Book I.
XIII.
The Ring and the Book, Books II. III. IV.
XIV.
The Ring and the Book, Book V.
XV.
The Ring and the Book, Book VI.
XVI.
The Ring and the Book, Book VII.
XVII.
The Ring and the Book, Book X.
XVIII.
The Ring and the Book, Book XI.
XIX.
The Ring and the Book, Book XII. and Summary.
XX.
Paracelsus, Act I.
XXI.
Paracelsus, Act II.
XXII.
Paracelsus, Act III.
XXIII.
Paracelsus, Act IV.
XXIV.
Paracelsus, Act V.
XXV.
Ferishtah's Fancies, Nos. i, 2, 3,4.
XXVI.
Ferishtah's Fancies, Nos. 5, 6, 7.
XXVII.
Ferishtah's Fancies, Nos. 8, 9, 10, 11.
XXVIII.
Ferishtah's Fancies, No. 12 and Epilogue.
XXIX.
General Survey of Browning's Poetry.
XXX.
Comparative Study.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING, 195
TOPIC I.
Browning's Ideals of Poetry.
I. How it strikes a contemporary.
1. Underneath the Spanish dress and humorous treat¬
ment, what distinct and individual theory of the mission
of poetry do you read in this poem ?
2. What criticism of popular standards ? Show the
correspondence between the situation of the poet in this
poem with respect to popular imagination and the his¬
tory of poetical reputations in the case of such men as
Shelley, Keats, etc.
II. At the Mermaid.
1. Underneath the mask of Shakespeare, what answer
do you get to the following questions : —
a. Do the writings of a dramatic poet reveal the
man himself ?
b. Are melancholy and the Byronic tone the fittest
for poetic utterance ?
2. Explain title, obscure allusions, and give the true
form of the quotation adapted from Ben Jonson. To
what celebrated work do these lines of Jonson's serve as
introduction ?
III. Epilogue to Pacchiarotto.
I. From this direct personal utterance give Browning's
opinion on —
a. The possibility of combining strength and sweet¬
ness in poetry.
b. His own choice of subjects-
c. How much persons read of the poets they profess
most to admire.
196
THE STUDY CLASS.
d. His conception of his own task, and his deter¬
mination concerning it.
2. Who is the " dearest poet " of the second line, and
in what poem does the quotation of the first line occur ?
IV. If possible, read Browning's Introductory Essay
to the "Shelley Letters" (reprinted m "Browning
Society Papers," Vol. I.), and make an analysis of the
same.
TOPIC II.
Browning's Philosophy of Life,
I. Rabbi ben Ezra.
1. Make an analysis of this poem, indicating its great
leading thoughts, and referring to the stanzas in which
they are developed respectively.
2. Does the order of the stanzas follow the order of
the thought ? Would the poem be improved by a different
arrangement, thus adding unity of effect to its other
merits ?
3. What do you consider the most striking feature of
the philosophy of this poem ? Do you agree with it ?
4. Compare stanzas 26-32 with Longfellow's " Kera-
mos " and the " Rubiayat " of Omar Khayam.
5. It has been said, " What the ' Psalm of Life ' is to
the people who do not think, Rabbi ben Ezra might,
and should be, to those who do. ... It is one of those
poems that mould character." Discuss that statement.
6. Although the dramatic significance of the poem is
not of great importance, read, if possible, some account
of Rabbi ben Ezra. (See Abenezra in Encyclopaedia
Britannica; or " Browning Guide-Book," pp. 308-315.)
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING, 197
II. The Grammarian's Funeral.
1. What do you consider the leading motive of this
poem ?
2. Which most ennobles the character, — a great work
pursued for inferior ends, or insignificant labors pur¬
sued with high aims
3. Does this figure of the old grammarian seem to you
heroic, or simply pedantic and quibbling?
4. The date of this poem is fixed as shortly after the
revival of learning in Europe " In what respects is it
true to the life of that time, and what signification had
the word " grammarian " then ?
TOPIC III.
Art Poems.
I. pictor Ignotus.
1. Express, in a sub-title, the motive of this poem,
2. Discuss the characteristics of the art temperament
as portrayed here. Do the words, "till it reached
home," convey a hint concerning the kind of praise most
valued in general by mankind ?
3. Has the time and place as indicated beneath the
title any special bearing upon the interpretation of the
poem ?
II. Andrea del Sarto.
1. Discuss the value of love as a stimulus to genius.
Judging from Andrea's own account of himself, do you
rank him as equal to Raphael and the rest, if under
happier conditions, or was he shut out from this high
company by inherent limitations ?
2. Dr. Furnivall prophesies that Andrea will live as
long as Hamlet, " because it is the failures of life that
198
THE STUDY CLASS.
interest people." Do you agree with the statement or
with the reason ?
3. In what lines do you find a principle applicable to
all high ideals, whether in art or in life ?
4. Give an historical account of Andrea del Sarto, and
of the picture which furnished Browning the suggestion
for this poem. (See "Browning Guide-Book," pp. 8-15.)
III. Gerard de Lairesse, in " Parleyings."
1. State the difference between the modern and the
ancient habit in respect to the artistic interpretation of
Nature. Compare the sentiment in this poem with Mrs.
Browning's " The Dead Pan ; " also with Wordsworth
in sonnet beginning " Brook ! whose society the poet
seeks," etc.
2. This poem contains perhaps the longest of any of
Browning's nature-descriptions; discuss this beautiful
picture of morning, noon, and night, and its spiritual
significance.
TOPIC IV.
Spiritual Aspiration.
I. Saul.
1. Quote the lines which, in your mind, furnish the
leading idea of the poem.
2. Do the characters seem to you to correspond to the
historic David and Saul, or do they seem rather like
modern men wrestling with modern problems ? Is that
of consequence to the poem as a work of imagination ?
3. Saul has been called " a very Jacob's ladder of
song." Outline the separate songs, and show the con¬
nection between them from each lower to higher step.
4. At what point of the Bible narrative does the poem
open ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING. 199
5. The original form of the poem, published in 1845,
closed with the ninth stanza. Ten years later it ap¬
peared in its present form, with the additional stanzas.
What do these additions signify in the interpretation of
the poem.?
6. Compare this poem with Matthew Arnold's '^Em-
pedocles on Etna," for the description of music on
disordered mental conditions.
II. Abt Vogler,
1. Explain the allusion to Solomon ; also the under¬
lying thought of the musician's comparison of his music
to a palace.
2. How do you understand stanzas 4 and 5 ?
3. Discuss the relation of music to the other arts, as
dealt with in stanzas 6 and 7.
4. By what transition does the musician pass from
thoughts of his art to the religious aspiration and high
philosophy of its latter portion ?
5. Do you prefer to consider this as chiefly a music
poem," like Milton's " Lines on a Solemn Music," or
to class it with poems of a high spiritual order, like
Wordsworth's Ode on Immortality" ?
6. Paraphrase stanza 9, of which it has been said,
" No other words in the English language compress into
so small a compass such a body of high and inclusive
thought."
TOPIC V.
Poems of Jewish Life and Thought.
I. Holy-Cross Day.
i. In what respects does this poem penetrate into the
national consciousness of the Jewish race.?
200
THE STUDY CLASS.
2. In what respects does it seem like Robert Browning
wearing, for the time, the Jewish gaberdine ?
3. The sudden transition from coarse realism to the
sublime and steadfast Song of Death has been called
an effect worthy of Heine." Do such " effects " come
within the province of poetry ?
XL Filippo Baldinucci.
1. Is the Jew's contempt of the Christian's delight in
the jumble of pagan and Christian art well-founded?
2. Mosques and synagogues compared with Christian
churches in respect to pictorial art ; the relation of art
to religion, — does it foster or debase ?
III. Browning's Jews compared to Shakespeare's Jew
(Merchant of Venice) in respect to —
1. Public opinion in Venice and Florence respectively.
2. Morality as compared with their persecutors.
3. Kin-affection in the race.
4. Patience and courtesy.
5. Methods adopted for their conversion.
IV. As interpreters of the spiritual life of the Jewish
nation, in which do you find the highest reach, Shakes¬
peare or Browning ?
V. Comparative study. Note the differences between
the portraitures of the Jew in modern fiction (as in
"Daniel Deronda," etc.) and earlier types.
Reference :
Philipson : The Jew in Fiction.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING. 201
TOPIC VI.
IVÀN IVÀNOVITCH.
I. Study this poem as a masterpiece in the art of story¬
telling. Point out the means by which Browning has
raised the mother's act out of the sphere of vulgar
crime; the manner in which the scene is represented
with the vividness of a picture ; the touches by which
character is revealed.
II. Concerning Louscha.
1. From the evidence, do you think that Louscha
flung one, or all, or none of her children to the wolves ?
2. Do you think she truly did her poor best to save
them ?
3. In such an extremity, even with a weak woman,
which instinct should you expect to be strongest,
motherhood or self-preservation 1
4. Granting that Louscha's aim was to save her chil¬
dren, would she have shown a truer instinct by
sacrificing herself to the wolves, thus leaving the chil¬
dren to the uncertainties of the sledge in its flight}
5. Note the testimony of the regard in which she is
held by her lifetime neighbors.
III. Concerning Ivàn.
1. Do you agree with the pope " and with the village
crowd in justifying Ivàn }
2. Louscha's guilt being a question of evidence, what
can be said for this action without evidence ? Was the
pope not bound to refrain from lynch law, at least until
the husband's return "i
IV. Basis of the poem. Consult " Browning Guide-
Book," pp. 177-180, for the story as it is related in Russia ;
also for explanation of Russian names and features.
202
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC VII.
Tragedy in Marriage.
I. A Forgiveness.
1. Discuss the character of the wife in this story, as
shown by the nature of her jealousy ; her method of
attempting to absorb her husband's entire interest, and
her actions following.
2. Is jealousy, m one form or another^ inseparable
from a passionate love ?
3. Is love weakened by the certainty of possession ?
Compare Campbell's "Freedom and Love;" Keats's
Realm of Fancy."
4. Discuss the character of the husband as shown by
his quiet, utterly unemotional manner of telling the
story, even in the closing passage disclosing his know¬
ledge of the monk's identity,
5. Discuss the statement, " blood-warmth never yet
betokened strong will." Which are the more venial,
sins of impulse or sins of deliberation?
II. James Lee's Wife.
1. Comment on the different divisions of the poem,
noting the moods and the respective adaptations of the
metre thereto, this being almost the only instance in
Browning where the metre changes during the course of
the poem. (The first six cantos of Section VI. were
written in 1836, twenty-eight years earlier than the other
portions of the poem.)
2. Discuss the " doctrine " of VII. 2. Can one con¬
tinue to love after the loss of respect and approbation,
without debasing one's own nature ?
3. When it proves impossible to " make the low
nature better by your throes," is it then a duty to repress
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING. 203
one's intellectual and moral self in the hope of holding
on to love by dwelling on the same low plane ?
4. Describe the character of James Lee's wife.
5. Do you approve or disapprove of her final action }
To what motives do you ascribe it 1
III. This poem was originally called James Lee."
Which title seems to you the better ?
TOPIC VIII.
Love, in respect to Constancy.
I. By the Fireside.
1. Give your interpretation of this poem. Do you
regard it as a personal record, or as dramatic and
imaginary or as partly both?
2. What do you understand by " the path " of stanzas
21 and 25 ? What is our life's safe hem " (49) ?
3. Does the emphasis on the " moment one and
infinite," so common in Browning, seem exaggerated ?
4. What lines give Browning's view of the force of
love as a stimulus ?
5. What part does natural scenery play in this poem,
compared with Browning's poems in general ?
II. Two IN the CaMPAGNA.
1. Give your interpretation of this poem. In what
lines do you find its key-note ?
2. What reason inherent in the nature of things
explains this complaint against human love ?
3. Explain the evanescence of the " good minute "
and " the old trick," as parts of human experience
in the presence of high thoughts.
204
THE STUDY CLASS.
III. Any Wife to any Husband.
Do you accept this as expressive of the general
situation in love, as it belongs to men and women
respectively}
IV. Daniel Bartoli, in " Parleyings."
1. Discuss this story. Do you agree that "man's
best and woman's worst amount so nearly to the same
thing," etc. 1
2. Read the historical basis of this story as told by
Mrs. Orr and quoted by Cooke in Browning Guide-
Book."
TOPIC IX
Caliban.
1. Make an analysis of the chain of thought as
expressed here.
2. What is the chief attribute of Caliban's Deity}
Quote two lines to prove.
3. Why does Caliban, speaking of himself, use the
third person ?
4. Why is "talk safer than in winter-time" (st. i) ;
and why " this safe summer-time " (st. 11) }
5. Explain " dwelleth in the cold of the moon."
6. Why did the " stars come otherwise " }
7. How does Caliban derive his theory of creation }
8. How does Caliban's creed differ from his mother's,
and in what respect is hers the higher ?
9. Caliban's theories of prayer and sacrifice ; on what
were they based ?
10. What place has Caliban's idea of Deity (st. 6) held
in the world's history ; what causes have modified it ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING. 205
11. Do you attribute any ulterior purpose to this
poem ? or do you simply count it a representation of
the religious attitude of primitive man ?
12. Does the text Thou thoughtest," etc., imply
Browning's condemnation of anthropomorphism
13. Is it desirable, or even possible, for man to cease
to make God in his own image t Is any religious system
free from anthropomorphism }
14. Except the name of Caliban, do you think
Browning borrows anything from "The Tempest".?
15. The poem has been criticised because Caliban
describes his own thoughts as a savage mind could
not do. Is this a fair literary criticism for dramatic
poetry or fiction.?
16. Do you consider this a dramatic poem, or a
satire, or both ?
TOPIC X.
Cleon.
1. Give a sub-title to this poem which shall be
expressive of the subject-matter, and say from what
lines you derive it.
2. Make an analysis of the poem showing the progress
of its thought.
3. What advance in the God-idea from Caliban to
Cleon ? What one word expresses Cleon's idea, as
Power expressed Caliban's.?
4. Explain " the daily building of thy tower," in
stanza 3. Does this stanza seem to you to prefigure
the subject-matter of Cleoids letter.?
5. " Most progress is most failure " (st. 7), a favorite
thought with Browning. Quote similar expressions
from the Christian Abt Vogler and the Jew Rabbi
2o6
THE STUDY CLASS.
ben Ezra, and explain, in contrast with these, the
" profound discouragement " of the Greek.
6. What tribute does the poem offer to the place of
poetry in life ? What to the mission of pain ?
7. Comparative study. In connection with Cleon,^^
read " Karshish and the Prologue to " Pacchiarotto,"
and say what answers they seem to yield to the follow¬
ing questions : —
a. According to Browning, is absolute knowledge of
the future state of man desirable ?
d. Would such knowledge help a man to perform
better man's duties in man's life here ?
c. What evidence in the first two poems concerning
the effect of Christ's teaching on the intellect
and culture of his time }
d. Compare the '^Karshish" epistle with Tennyson's
allusion to the Lazarus story. (In Memoriam,
XXXI. and XXXII.)
e. Do you regard the Prologue to " Pacchiarotto " as
having any place in this group ? If not, give
your own interpretation of the poem.
TOPIC XI.
Poems relating to Modern Religious
Thought.
I. A Death in the Desert.
i. Although the dramatic framework of this poem is
laid in a remote age, it is yet plainly Browning's con¬
tribution to the Strauss and Renan arguments against
the supernatural origin of. Christianity, then (1864)
recently published. Discuss the poem in its several
important divisions, as follows : —
a. John's prophetic vision of self-consciousness
(st. 15-18).
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING, 207
b. The argument of fancied objectors (st. i8)e
c. John's answer (st. 19-24).
d. Second class of future objectors (st. 24).
e. John's further answer (st. 25-27).
2. What is the central thought of the poem ? Summed
up in what lines } Any secondary thought of almost
equal importance ?
3. Caliban says, for God, Power j Cleon says Justice ;
John says — ?
4. Give the historical setting of the poem, and explain
the allusions in such cases as " the decree was out ; "
"Ebion and Cerinthus."
5. Do you consider it a serious objection to the poem
that the dying Saint John should be made to discuss
these attitudes of modern thinkers ?
II. Epilogue to Dramatis Personne.
1. Discuss these three poems, and state what answers
you find to the following doctrines : —
a. That revelation was limited to a given place and
time, and that it will never be repeated.
b. That with a decline of belief in the supernatural
all belief in God must suffer.
c. That God is incarnate in faith and love now as
fully as in any age of the past.
2. Which do you consider to express Browning's own
position ? Compare with poem Fears and Scruples."
TOPIC XII.
The Ring and the Book. Book L
i. This Book I. is really the poet's analysis of the
whole work, and its history, beginning with its earliest
germ in his own mind. Reduce this poetical analysis to
2o8
THE STUDY CLASS.
plain, brief prose, expressing each part in one sentence,
after the manner of heads of a discourse.
2. Make Table of Contents of the " square, old,
yellow book," as it fell into Browning's hands.
3. Make Table of Contents of "The Ring and the Book"
as it is to follow, according to the author's own outline.
4. What insight do you get into the workings of the
poetic imagination from Browning's account of what
took place when "the book was shut and done with,"
as contained in lines 457-697.
5. Browning's idea of the place of fiction in life.
Quote to prove. Your own idea.
6. Compare 11. 825-942 with 1366-1378 ; also with
Prelude to " Dramatic Idylls," Second Series, as evidence
of Browning's opinion of Mrs. Grundy's judgments.
7. Explain line 1390, its allusion to an ancient custom,
and its connecting office here. Compare with " Merchant
of Venice," V. i, 148.
8. Lines 1403 to the close contain some of the most
obscure of all Browning's constructions. Express in
your clearest English prose.
9. For details helpful to an understanding of the
poem, see " Browning Guide-Book," p. 326 ; or Mrs.
Orr's "Handbook," p. 74.
TOPIC XIII.
The Ring and the Book. Books II. III. IV.
These three books are recommended for consideration
at a single lesson, the class being divided into three
sections, each member undertaking to read one of the
books with special thoroughness, and with reference to
making a half-hour's report at next meeting on some one
of the books. This report should embrace, —
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING. 209
1. A description of the character of the speaker as
gathered from his view of the facts, since these look to
the eye as the eye likes the look/'
2. The speaker's story told briefly, calling attention
to the new elements introduced.
3. Citation of the notable lines, and comparison of
them with similar lines, either in Browning or elsewhere.
4. Criticisms either of matter or style. Your own
attitude toward the question, and toward the person
speaking.
5. Explanations of allusions, classical, historical, or
obscure.
TOPIC XIV.
The Ring and the Book. Book V.
1. In what respects is this monologue probably in¬
fluenced by the character of the judges to whom it is
addressed ?
2. It has been said of this book, that " no keener,
subtler piece of special pleading has ever been written,
— in poetry certainly, possibly in lawyer's prose." Note
the passages wherein Guido, —
a. Slurs over inconvenient facts.
b. Distorts facts for the sake of self-justification.
c. Acknowledges facts, but contrives to shift the
blame.
3. Character-study of Count Guido, which shall in¬
clude your own opinion on points as follows: —
a. Was his deference for religion and the law real
or feigned}
b. His paternal sentiments genuine or the reverse ?
c. His eloquence due to natural feeling, or carefully
calculated for effect ?
14
2IO
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XV.
The Ring and the Book. Book VI.
1. This is perhaps the mostof all the mono¬
logues in the volume. It has been said that "such
fire, such pathos, such splendor of human speech, has
never been heard or seen since Shakespeare and Web¬
ster." Does this seem to you an over-estimate }
2. Describe the conflicting emotions of the speaker,
and quote passages showing the art with which the
rhythm is employed to correspond with feeling.
3. Character study of Caponsacchi, including a con¬
sideration of the historical conditions and their in¬
fluence.
4. What name do you give to Caponsacchi's feeling
for Pompilia, — " this new thing that had been struck
into me by the look o' the lady."
5. Caponsacchi defied all the conventionalities of life ;
does the heroic light in which he is made to appear
show a lack of moral sense in Browning, or do you share
his judgment of the possibility of a morality higher than
accepted standards ?
6. Quote passages relating to the following subjects. —
a. The use of pain in the world.
b. The meaning of death.
c. Man^s strength, —has it any " drawbacks " ?
d. The need of experience for those who would
serve others.
7. How do you account for the great nobility of
which Caponsacchi shows himself capable, considering
the vanity and frivolity of his previous life
8. Caponsacchi's action was noble and disinterested.
Was it also heroic in the highest dramatic sense ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING, 211
TOPIC XVI.
The Ring and the Book. Book VII.
1. Make a character-study of Pompilia, and account
for our interest in a heroine so ignorant that she can
neither read nor write. Compare book-knowledge and
life-knowledge as factors in development.
2. Compare Pompilia with Mildred Tresham (in A
Blot in the 'Scutcheon What similarities in their
conditions, and whence the differences in their ways of
meeting their respective ordeals ?
3. Aside from the general fact recognized by Pompilia
in 11. 345-355, explain her gentleness of judgment toward
all, even Guido. What overmastering emotion filled
her whole being ?
4. Does Browning's ability to depict this emotion add
anything to your estimate of his powers ?
5. What do you call Pompilia's feeling for Capon-
sacchi ? How could a single look across a crowded
theatre reveal so much ?
6. Discuss Pompilia's opinions on the following
points ; —
a. A conventional marriage and its rights.
b. The continuity of earthly feeling and earthly
work after death.
c. The evil of falsehood even for the sake of good.
7. Given the facts of Pompilia's birth, her ignorance,
her extreme youth, is her development into the " perfect
soul " consistent ?
8. What heroic traits do you discover in Pompilia,
notwithstanding her gentleness and long-suffering ?
9. What evidences of high spiritual insight, notwith¬
standing her untrained intellect?
■ 10. Browning's indirect descriptions of the personality
of his characters. Was Pompilia beautiful ?
212
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XVIL
The Ring and the Book. Book X.
%
(Books VIII. and IX. are purposely omitted from
special study, but should be read in this connection.)
1. Analyze the Pope's monologue, with reference to
the successive stages of his mental processes rather
than with respect to the Franceschini story.
2. In this book we are shown the spiritual signifi¬
cance of the poem. Do you think it also stands for
Browning's philosophy of life If so, your evidence ?
3. Express in brief prose the thought of 11. 271-275,
and compare with other Browning lines expressing a
similar thought.
4. Browning's theory of the inadequacy of words to
express truth. Quote to prove.
5. What effect has a man's belief on a man's charac¬
ter ? Quote from the Pope's survey of Guido.
6. What line recalls the old Latin proverb, " I know
the better, I follow the worse " ? Applied to Guido, how
does it affect his responsibility in the Pope's mind ?
7. What do you consider the central thought of this
monologue ?
8. What other Browning poems contain similar teach¬
ing to that of the passages relating to Caponsacchi
(11. 1094-1211) }
9. Give the Pope's argument in proof of Jhe love of
God. How does it connect itself with such poems
as " Caliban," Cleon," " A Death in the Desert " ?
10. Quote the, passages dealing with faith in an
immortal life.
11. Do you consider gratitude a remarkably rare
virtue (see 1. 1121) ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING, 213
12. Where, in the Pope's purgatory, would he place
Avarice ? Compare with Dante.
13. Compare the thunder-storm (11. 2118-2125) with
the storm in " Pippa Passes ; " also with the one in
" Caliban." Which is finest ?
TOPIC XVIII.
The Ring and the Book. Book XI.
1. Contrast this monologue with the preceding one
from the same speaker (Book V.), and explain reasons
for the difference, by reference to —
a. The changed situation.
b. The persons before whom spoken.
c. Impelling motives in the nature of the man.
2. Was love oi posing especially prominent in Guido,
or is this a very common trait in human beings generally,
as well as in condemned criminals t
3. Discuss Guide's views and fallacies, if any,
concerning, —
a* Definition of law, and relation borne to it by
religion.
b. Faith. The inconsistency of Christians.
c. The grievance dwelling va accumulation of little
injuries.
4. Interpret the two closing lines. Dramatically, how
do you rank them, and what revelation do they furnish
of the real mind of the speaker t
TOPIC XIX.
The Ring and the Book. Book XII. and
Summary.
i. What is the chief " lesson " of " The Ring and the
Book " } Quote to prove.
214
THE STUDY CLASS,
2. Does this lesson stand in any vital relation to the
intellectual movement of our century ?
3. Is it helped or marred by so many repetitions of
the same story ?
4. Browning's idea of the mission of art, and of its
method and power ? Quote to prove.
5. Browning said to Helen Faucit, "Could I have
had you for Pompilia, I should have written ' The Ring
and the Book ' as a drama." Do you wish he had ?
6. The great fault charged against the work is that
all its characters talk " Browningese." Do you agree
with this criticism ?
7. Is the subject too unlovely and too morally lacking
for a poem, or does its conception and treatment justify
Browning's choice ?
8. Does the early disclosure of the whole plot and
plan mar its artistic merit ?
9. Notwithstanding its verbal perversities, does the
work convey that impression of unity which is needful
to an artistic whole ?
id. Explain the allusion of the closing lines, " the
poet praised," and connect the thought here with the
" ring " simile at the close of Book I.
ii. This is the longest poetical work of our century.
Is it also the greatest ?
With the critics.
Richard Holt Hutton : Literary Essays, pp. 226-236.
Arthur Symons : Introduction to the Study of
Browning, pp. 131-149.
Robert Buchanan : Master Spirits, pp. 89-109.
John Morley : Studies in Literature.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING. 215
TOPIC XX.
Paracelsus, Act I.
1. Read the note at the end of the poem, also
articles on Paracelsus " and " Alchemy " in Ency¬
clopaedia Britannica ; or Erdmann's History of Phil¬
osophy," for the historical setting.
2. Do you accept or doubt Paracelsus' statement
about himself, that he " spurns all empty praise and
love's award " ? Quote to prove.
3. Discuss the quality of Paracelsus' ambition as
shown in the passage beginning, " I seemed to long
at once to trample on yet serve mankind." Is the
unwillingness to be served mark of a noble or an inferior
character ?
4. This opening act gives poetical exposition of a
certain philosophical school, which of late years has
come into a new prominence. Name that philosophy,
and give its principles a prose expression as you gather
them from the various passages uttered by Paracelsus.
5. Explain the allusion to the " mad attempt to build
a world apart from His."
6. General Gordon's favorite passage in all Browning
occurs in this act. Find it, on internal evidence.
7. What rare evidence of friendship is given by
Festus in this act}
8. Describe the character of Festus.
9. Describe Michal. What evidence of "woman's
intuition " does she exhibit t
10. Discuss the strictly poetical qualities of this act.
Quote the lines of marked beauty or strength.
2i6
THE STUDY CLASS,
TOPIC XXI.
Paracelsus, Act IL
I Consider the opening monologue of Paracelsus.
What are his chief emotions in the survey of his past
life ?
2. What new purpose and wish is born in him as a
result of this self-examination ?
3. Compare this monologue with Shelley's Alastor."
Any parallelisms ?
4. Compare the mood of Paracelsus with that of
Faust in the first scene of Goethe's drama. What
common impulse moves them at first.?
5. What special feature in the contrast of Paracelsus
with Aprile which is lacking in the contrast made by
Goethe between Faust and either Mephistopheles on
the one hand or Margaret on the other ?
6. Y our interpretation of the character of Aprile ?
Discuss his views on the following points : —
a. Music, in relation to other arts.
b. Human life, as material for poetry.
€, The importance of seizing passing opportunity.
7. The epochal nature of certain hours and moments,
as recognized by the writer preceding Paracelsus in the
conjuror's book, is a favorite subject with Browning
Compare with Caponsacchi in " The Ring and the Book,"
also with the thought in " By the Fireside," etc.
8. Motive for the introduction of Aprile.? Compare
with the motive in " Saul."
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING. 217
TOPIC XXIL
Paracelsus, Act III.
1. How do you explain the curious mixture of self-
scorn and self-belief developed in this act ?
2. What do you think of the logic by which he
attempts to justify his assumption of magical powers?
3. Discuss the following ethical questions^ quoting
from the poem passages bearing upon them ; —
a. Fitness of him who perfects any woik to judge
of his own labor.
b. Whether love is blind.
c. Limitations attendant upon study in certain lines
alone. Compare with Darwin's confession that
he "had become a machine for generalizing
facts."
d. Nature of temptation, and man*s liability to it.
e. Mission of great men in the world ; — to " procure
a wider range of thought.'*
4. Discuss Paracelsus' theory of life and of the uni.
verse as revealed in such passages as where he discusses
" the will of God " and man's ignorance of it, " God's
intimations rather fail in clearness than in energy," etc.
5. Historical setting of this scene as suggested by the
allusions to Luther, Münzer and others.
6. Hutton criticises this poem because " it wants the
local color peculiar to the life of the Middle Ages."
Does this seem to you a fair criticism for a work of
this character ?
7. Explain the sources of Paracelsus' dissatisfaction
with his outward and supposed success. Is this true
to human nature ? Are happiness and success likely
to be companions ?
2i8
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XXIII.
Paracelsus, Act IV.
1. Discuss the " plan " of Paracelsus as laid down in the
passage beginning " I will accept all helps." Its fallacies,
as a philosophy of life ?
2. Y our interpretation of " mind is nothing but disease,
and natural health is ignorance.^'
3. Explain Paracelsus aspires," at the beginning of
this act. Do not the two men seem to have changed
places with respect to aspiration}
4. Friendship as a factor in life, as illustrated in this
scene.
5. Discuss the value of " old rules, made long e'er we
were born," — the established things.
6. As poetry, what rank do you give to Paracelsus'
two songs ?
7. Do you discover any evidence of Paracelsus' having
been in love with Michal ? In any case does it affect the
meaning of the poem ?
8. Describe the succession of Paracelsus' emotions as
shown by his account of affairs to Festus.
9. Do you discover any signs of Browning's own in¬
terest in the form of thought represented by Paracelsus ?
TOPIC XXIV.
Paracelsus, Act V.
1. What is the morale of this poem? Taking into
consideration Browning's age (twenty-three) at the date
of writing, is it a remarkable treatment of the subject ?
2. What now almost universally accepted scientific
theory receives poetical exposition in the closing so-
OUTLINE-STUDY OP BROWNING. 219
liloquy ? Compare the date of its promulgation by the
scientists with the date of the writing of this poem.
3. Quote any passages which recall similar thoughts
in Wordsworth's " Ode on Immortality."
4. In his humble, dying mood, Paracelsus accepts the
contempt " of men which has, in truth, been accorded
him until recently. Reasons for this depreciation ?
5. The fulfilment of Paracelsus' prophecy of a coming
time when they will know me," has doubtless been much
assisted by this poem. Which judgment is probably the
truer ?
6. Discuss the thought in I would have sinned had
I been strong enough." Do we sometimes sin from
strength as well as from weakness
7. Compare " Paracelsus" with Mrs. Browning's The
Poet's Vow."
8. " Paracelsus " was written in 1835 ; The Ring and
the Book" in 1868, Compare the two, both in respect
to art and to amount in thought.
Collateral readings.
Paracelsus and The Data of Ethics, by Helen A.
Clarke, in PoetLore^ i : 117.
Outline-study of Browning's Paracelsus, by Mrs.
Fanny Holy.
TOPIC XXV.
Ferishtah's Fancies, Nos. i, 2, 3, 4.
1. Discuss the tendency of such a fancy-freak " as
the Prologue, as an introduction to poems dealing with
high themes
2. Give a sub-title to " The Eagle," expressive of its
moral purpose. Its practical application in the daily
life ; alms-giving compared with " soul-helps."
220
THE STUDY CLASS,
3. Describe the three types of love-life presented in
the lyric following. For which does Browning's own
experience serve as illustration ? Discuss the effect on
love of a united pursuit of high aims.
4. Discuss the Hebrew text in " The Melon-Seller," —
" Shall we receive good at the hands of God, and shall
we not receive evil ? " Is there any such thing as an
" unmixed evil " ?
5. Discuss the principle asserted in the lyric as applied
to human love.
6. In what poems of your previous study do you find
the same thought as in " Shah Abbas " ?
7. Express in one sentence the thought of the lyric
following.
8. " The Family. " Discuss the question of prayer as a
" means of grace." Is the world any less prayerful than
formerly ?
TOPIC XXVI.
Ferishtah's Fancies, Nos. 5, 6, 7.
1. "The Sun." Give the theological argument,
stripped of the story, and express the subject of the
fable as a sub-title.
2. Is it possible for a man to conceive of a god without
anthropomorphism ? Compare Fiske's " Idea of God."
3. In what other Browning poems have you found
this same plea for toleration ?
4. What historical phase of Persian religion is
described in the third paragraph ?
5. Interpret the symbolism of the lyric following.
6. " Mihrab-Shah." Does this offer any adequate solu¬
tion of the old problem, or answer the old question äs
to why a particularly unpleasant process should be ne-
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING. 221
cessary to evoke good ? Compare with John Stuart
Mill's reason for the existence of pain and evil in the
world.
7. Explain the allusion to "Firdusi's tale" What
place did it occupy in Persian literature, and why should
its truth be questioned ?
8. Give a sub-title to the lyric, expressive of its
motive.
9. " A Camel Driver " What is the general purport
of this fable ? Do you accept its doctrine ?
10. As a life-experience, does the lyric appeal to you
as likely to be true, and of frequent occurrence }
TOPIC XXVII.
Ferishtah's Fancies, Nos. 8, 9, 10, 11.
1. Do you regard the " Two Camels " as an argument
for Egoism or for Altruism, or for both ?
2. Emerson says, " Only so much do I know as I have
lived." Would Browning assent.? Do you ?
3. Compare the lyric (8) with the last stanza of " The
Last Ride Together," and state Browning's idea of
heaven.
4. The Cherries." Does this fable recall any similar
thought in " The Ring and the Book " ? What relation
does the lyric bear to the fable, if any ?
5. "Plot-Culture." What is the theological purport
here ? Or is it chiefly a contribution to the " philosophy
of privacy ".?
6. Compare the lyric (10) with a passage relating to
"flesh" and " soul " in "Rabbi ben Ezra," and deduce
Browning's general view of these matters.
7. "A Pillar at Sebzevah." Do you accept the teach-
222
THE STUDY CLASS.
ings here in regard to the respective values of know-
ledge " and "love " ?
8. Is the doctrine of " actions speak louder than words "
a safe one to follow in life, especially in the love-life ?
9. Does this group of fables seem toyôu to teach that
the great object of life is to attain moral growth and
strength even though the means be immoral ? Do you
accept that as a safe principle ?
TOPIC XXVIII.
Ferishtah's Fancies, No. 12 and Epilogue.
1. Analyze this " fancy," giving to it a sub-title, and
stating the successive ethical problems
2. Discuss the doctrine that it is " myself that makes
the good, the bad, of life's environment."
3. Compare the thought beginning, " Will of man
create ? " with a similar thought in Book I. of " The
Ring and the Book."
4. Discuss the question of the seeming inconsistencies
of life, and the manner in which they should be met.
5. Discuss the question of authority In a search for
truth.
6. Discuss the sentiment of the lyric (12).
7. Interpret the Epilogue. How do you understand
the opening words, "Oh, Love — no. Love ! " in this con¬
nection ? Does it seem to you to sum up the thought
of the book in any special manner, or rather to be only
another evidence of his faithfulness to his resolve to
"never conclude his song " without the recognition of
his " lyric Love."
8. This volume has been called "Browning's West-
Easterly Divan." Explain the significance of this
comparison with Goethe's work.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF BROWNING. 223
9. Why do you suppose Browning chose Persian
garments " (see motto at beginning) for this book of
modern thought ?
10. What thought recurs so frequently that we may
perhaps call it the key-note of the book ?
11. Consult Cooke's Browning Guide-Book" for an
account of the sources from which Browning drew his
material for " Ferishtah's Fancies. '
TOPIC XXIX.
General Survey of Browning's Poetry.
1. Criticise or defend Browning's fondness for dia¬
lectics. Are dialectics and poetry entirely compatible
2. Do you count it a merit or a defect in a poet, when
differing minds can gather differing meanings from the
same poem ? Illustrations from the poets who are, and
from those who are not thus susceptible of interpretation.
3. Matthew Arnold says, " More and more mankind
will discover that we have to turn to poetry to interpret
life for us, to console and sustain us." Discuss this
statement. Are there any present signs indicative of
the nature of the " poetry of the future " }
4. Do you consider Browning's genius chiefly lyrical
or analytic or dramatic or philosophic?
5. What class of subjects do you regard as furnishing
his best inspiration, — his reflections on religious and
philosophical themes, or his sympathy with men and with
life as a scope for their powers ?
6. In a brief critical paper, discuss some different
phases of Browning's genius, based on the three
masterpieces of the three different periods of his life,—
224 STUDY CLASS.
" Paracelsus,'' written in youth, " The Ring and the
Book," in middle life, " Ferishtah's Fancies," in old
age.
7. Biographical. Consider some of the leading events
in Browning's life, and show what effect these had on
his poetry.
a. Early parental sympathy and confidence.
b. Reading of Shelley's poems.
c. Paracelsus " criticised for verbosity ; effect on
Browning's style as seen in " Bordello " and
writings of that period.
d. Marriage to Elizabeth Barrett.
e. Life in London.
References :
Mrs. Orr: Life and Letters of Robert Browning.
Gosse : Browning Personalia.
Cooke : Poets and Problems, Part IV.
TOPIC XXX.
I. Comparative study:
Browning's Popularity."
Tennyson's " The Flower."
George Eliot's " Legend of Jubal."
1. What central thought is common to these poems?
2. Reasons why poets of the original and creative
order are met by indifference or contempt from contem¬
poraries? (Compare Shelley's Defence of Poetry.")
3. From your foregoing Browning study do you expect
Browning to be among those who will hold the future
fast," and, if so, by what special and distinctive claims ?
4. It has been said that "Wordsworth, Byron, Shelley,
Keats, and Coleridge made such a protest against
OUTLINE-STUDY OP BROWNING. 225
authority in poetry as had been made in the sixteenth
century against authority in religion." What have they
and other modern poets offered m its place ?
5. It has been said that " Mr. Browning's poems have
become famous as much for the curiosity they excite as
for the enjoyment they bestow." Do you agree}
6. Nearly all of the poets,— for example, Wordsworth,
Shelley, etc., — furnish numerous examples of " juvenile
poems," which commonly show distinct signs of youth-
Do you find anything corresponding to these in the
history of Browning's poetical production ?
7. Do you regard Browning as purposely or unneces¬
sarily obscure ; or is some obscurity inseparable from the
strength of his thought, vividness of his imagination, and
novelty of his conceptions ?
8. In the history of English literature, do you think
our present age will hold any notable place ? If so, by
what claims ?
II. With the Critics.
Nettleship : Essays and Thoughts of Browning.
Berdoe : Browning's Message to his Time.
Burt: Browning's Women.
15
XIIL
INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY OF
THE ENGLISH ESSAY.
HE essay is the latest born of all forms
of literary expression; and, partly
owing to the prevalence of periodical
literature, it has also come to be the
most popular of all forms. An essay being an
" attempt," an endeavor," implies a somewhat
limited scope, and therefore is peculiarly con¬
genial to an age of specialism like our own.
Formerly, it was not too much for a man to
expect to master the whole field of learning and
become a great scholar ; now, all that even the
most industrious student can hope to achieve in
a lifetime is the command of some special de¬
partment, and he is content if he can add some¬
what to the already enormous stock of particular
knowledge. An independent thinker who wishes
INTRODUCTORY TO ENGLISH ESSAY 227
to offer a new theory or present a new observa¬
tion, whether in art, in science, in literature,
generally seeks his first audience through the
means of a monograph, a report, or paper ; the
big octavos are, in general, only expansions of
the previously published essay or magazine article.
Such has been the history of most of our great
books of recent times, as for example, Darwin's
Origin of Species ; " and Herbert Spencer's
volumes of The Synthetic Philosophy."
Thus the essay, by reason of its wide diversity
of topics, exhibits a great diversity of type ; in
our present study it will be necessary to exclude
such as deal with technical, political, or scientific
themes, and restrict ourselves mainly to such as deal
with questions of life or manners, and to essays in
literary criticism. A few topics of historical and
bibliographical matter are introduced as a help to
the understanding of the special conditions and
occasions that are brought under review by the
critics.
We are accustomed to hearing our present
literary period slightingly rated; we are told that
it is merely a time of criticism, and therefore not
at all to be compared with some other times that
have shown greater creative activity. Undoubt¬
edly, invention is a higher exercise of mind than
interpretation ; yet criticism has a high value for
the world's good, if we take a fair, wide, noble
228
THE STUDY CLASS.
view of the critical art. Its present prominence
in letters is sure to increase rather than diminish.
Owing to the vast multiplication of books, even
the most industrious reader must ask help in
selection. More and more as new subjects
appear and old subjects enlarge into new depart¬
ments will specialty-critics be needful. We shall
find it interesting to inquire into the history and
evolution of a kind of writing which is coming to
fill so large a place in letters ; to examine some
of its specimens at various periods ; and to deter¬
mine what are the chief qualifications demanded
of the literary critic of the first rank to-day.
The critic as a guardian of taste, as a restrainer
of mannerisms, as an authority on style, language,
and reputable usage, as an expounder of great
works, as a guide to the reader, holds a place
which no one questions, and does a work which
deserves gratitude. In what forms of riot and
ruin might not the wilful and exuberant genius of
Lord Byron have lost itself but for the fierce
check of Brougham's famous critique of the
Hours of Idleness " ? On the other hand, how
many beautiful and wise creations have addressed
themselves to a public blind and deaf until its
eyes were opened and its ears unstopped by the
hand of some skilful and discerning critic, — as
when John Stuart Mill interposed, and saved
Carlyle's " French Revolution " from impending
INTRODUCTORY TO ENGLISH ESSAY. 229
failure. It is no mean power and service thus to
reveal to others the recondite or mysterious
beauties of a great work of art.
As a guide in any unknown field also, what an
inestimable friend is the competent critic ! To
the student about to undertake the study of the
Greek civilization, for example, what a priceless
advantage to find at the outset that one so well
fitted to judge as Emerson has pointed out, from
his own vast reading of the old Greek literature,
the indispensable books, narrowing the number to
five ! That these may serve their best purpose
and appear in their just relations to their times,
he smooths the way still further by enumerating
a list of historical works for collateral reading.
So has he done with other times and people.
Emerson's creative and original work has been
great and even epoch-making ; yet perhaps his
advisory and critical chapter on Books " has
done, in its way, quite as much service as any of
his writings, since it has been read and acted
upon with profit by many to whom his philosophy
would be incomprehensible or repugnant.
But these points, as I have said, are both ob¬
vious and secondary. The important truth is,
that in dealing with criticism as interpreter and
guide, useful as we find its service to be in these
ways, we are still looking only at its simplest and
humblest offices. For criticism feels as well as
230
THE STUDY CLASS.
thinks and knows : it stands for life-knowledge,
heart-knowledge, world-knowledge, as well as
book-knowledge. ^'The finest poetry was first
experience," says Emerson. And so was the
finest criticism first experience. The man who
has lived most, who has felt the most in his own
fibres, is always the man who is both most just
and most tender to his fellows ; and the justice
and tenderness which mark the truly great critic
have been purchased at the same price. It is
thus that he has won the delicate sensibility
which fits him to see things as wholes and not as
parts, so that he dwells not upon this little surface-
point or that, but is able to set forth the sub¬
ject in its inner meaning, to enter into the mystery
of its being, to see what causes near and remote
have shaped it, what is its relative place in the
world, and what the future is likely to have in
store for it. He groups and generalizes things
which were before isolated and unrelated. Men
and ages pass before him in masses, so to speak ;
and he tells us what have been the great move¬
ments of the race, what are the laws of human
progress. Thus, the great critic is always some¬
what of a seer, because he is in harmony with
" the divine idea of the world, which lies at the
bottom of appearance."
To utter this idea to the world, not in the vague
and hidden speech of the early oracles, but in
INTRODUCTORY TO ENGLISH ESSAY, 231
such clear and plain words that every man may
understand, is the high calling of criticism. It is
when we consider it in this light, and when we
see how often among living writers it has done
and still continues to do just this work, that the
line between criticism and creation seems almost
to disappear. Then it is that we are not jealous
of any other time or people whatsoever. For,
though we may have written no Bibles nor songs
to stand with theirs, we know their Bibles and
songs as they never knew them. Our sight is
all-embracing, while theirs was but partial ; and
the words Life, Creation, God, are transfigured
into a new meaning by the light of our new and
larger comprehension, our ability to solve both
the past and present by the universal.
XIV.
OUTLINES OF THE STUDY OF THE
ENGLISH ESSAY.
HE absence of any single volume of
selections adapted to this course, and
fitted to represent the rise and de¬
velopment of literary criticism as
expressed in the essay, is to be regretted ; but
this deficiency has been met, whenever possible,
by selecting as representative of each writer such
of his writings as may have been issued in an
inexpensive or easily accessible form. In such
cases the edition is indicated in the small type
references following the topic.
In respect to comment and analysis a similar
lack prevails. Nearly all the manuals of English
literature bestow far more attention on the poets
than on the prose writers. The rising impor¬
tance of the essay seems scarcely to be sus¬
pected ; the succession of critical literature
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY. 233
concerning poetry, from the times of Elizabeth
until the present, is matched by no similar
attention "to English prose.
The following books may be named as prob¬
ably the most useful in their several ways : for
the direct study, Garnett's " English Prose from
Elizabeth to Victoria;" for analysis of style
and expression, Minto's " Manual of English
Prose Literature ; " for the historical and biblio¬
graphical surveys, Arnold's Manual of English
Literature ; " for critical and scholarly com¬
ment, Saintsbury's Elizabethan Literature "
and Gosse's Literature of the Eighteenth
Century."
234
THE STUDY CLASS,
TOPICS.
I.
Sir Philip Sidney.
II.
Sir Philip Sidney.
III.
Francis Bacon.
IV.
Francis Bacon.
V.
Francis Bacon.
VI.
Francis Bacon.
VII.
Forerunners of the Modern Newspaper-
VIII.
Bibliographical Survey of English Literature from
1500 to 1625
IX.
Social History of the Elizabethan Age.
X.
John Milton.
XI.
John Dryden.
XII.
John Dryden
XIII.
Historical Survey of England during the Seventeenth
Century.
XIV.
Richard Steele, and the Rise of the Periodical
Miscellany
XV.
Joseph Addison and the Spectator.
XVI.
Samuel Johnson
XVII.
Oliver Goldsmith.
XVIII.
Literary Survey of the Eighteenth Century.
XIX.
The Rise of Book-Reviewing.
XX.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
XXI.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
XXII.
William Hazlitt.
XXIII.
Thomas De Quincey.
XXIV.
Thomas Macaulay.
XXV.
Thomas Carlyle.
XXVI.
Thomas Carlyle.
XXVII.
Thomas Carlyle.
XXVIII.
Matthew Arnold.
XXIX.
Matthew Arnold.
XXX.
Essentials of Literary Criticism.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY. 235
TOPIC I.
Sir Philip Sidney.
[Defense of Poesy. Ed. A, S, Cook.]
1. Direct study: Defense of Poesy.
1. Make an analysis of this essay: what important aid
to this undertaking is furnished by Sidney himself
through his method of treatment.»^
2. Do the facts adduced concerning the prevalence
of poetry among primitive peoples serve to prove that
learning and civilization are unfavorable to the culture
of the poetic faculty ?
3. Discuss Sidney's definition of poetry Offer a
better one, if possible, either original or quoted.
4. Do you agree with Sidney in his judgment concern¬
ing the relative values of philosophy, history, and poetry ?
5. Is there any other branch of literature that might
fitly be included in this comparison of values } If so, what?,
6. Sidney and other early writers classify poetry
according to the mould into which it is cast, as
heroic, lyric, dramatic, etc., — a classification seldom
mentioned by later writers. Reasons ?
7. Do you sympathize with Sidney's enthusiasm for
ballad poetry ?
8. Discuss Sidney's canons of dramatic composition ;
also his picture of the state of the English drama and
English poetry. The great writers immediately fol¬
lowing Sidney made an entire departure from these
canons ; what effect was produced on the development
of these two branches of literature ?
9. With respect to the usefulness and supremacy of
poetry, has Sidney's argument been impaired by the lapse
of three centuries ?
236 THE STUDY CLASS.
II. Bibliographical.
1. Date of composition and the occasion which called
it forth.
2. Date of publication; differences between the two
editions as to title, etc.
TOPIC IL
Sir Philip Sidney.
Comparative study.
Compare Sidney's theory of poetry with —
I. His predecessors.
1. Aristotle's theory of poetry; what additional ele¬
ments does Sidney contribute to the premises of
Aristotle ?
2. Dante's defence of his mother-tongue. Compare
with Sidney's.
3. Scaliger's three-fold division of poetry. Compare
with Sidney.
Beference :
Introduction to Cook's edition of Sidney's " Defense of
Poesy."
II. His contemporaries.
Compare with respect both to style and matter.
Reasons for their failure to attain the perpetuity of
Sidney's Defense.
Readings ;
Webbe: Discourse of English Poetry. Ed. Arber.
Pattenham : Art of English Poesy. Ed. Arber.
III. His successors.
It has been said that " the ' Defense of Poesy ' has
formed the staple of all the thousand and one des-
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH ESSAY. 237
sertations on that art with which our magazines and
reviews have teemed during the last twenty years.''
Read Shelley and Emerson on this subject, and state
how they differ or agree in respect to —
1. The nature of the poetic faculty.
2. Definition of poetry.
3. Rhyme or melody as a factor in poetry.
4. Moral purpose in relation to art.
5. Poetry as a guide to virtuous action.
Beferences ;
Shelley : Defence of Poetry.
Emerson : Poetry and Imagination, in " Letters and
Social Aims."
IV. Sidney's style.
Sidney's prose was a great advance upon that of any
earlier writer. Do you notice any important differences
from modern writing in the following particulars: —
1. Vocabulary.
2. Sentences.
3. Paragraphs.
4. Figures of speech.
TOPIC III.
Francis Bacon.
[Bacon's Essays. Ed. Anderson ]
I. Verbal study: Of Riches (No. XXXIV )
I. Explain Bacon's use of the following words,
and the difference between their Elizabethan and
present meanings ; " conceit," " fruition," " dona¬
tive," " proud riches," abstract," " friarly," audits,"
338
THE STUDY CLASS.
"mainly broke," "chopping of bargains," "value."
" humors/'
2. Compare the passage relating to usury with Bacon's
own essay on the subject. (No. XLI.)
3. Explain the allusions to monopolies and their legal
status under Elizabeth and James
4. Verify from Ecclesiastes and Proverbs, the quota¬
tions from Solomon.
II. Topics for discussion
1. " Of great riches there is no real use except in the
distribution." Effect on society of vast accumulations
in the hands of a few ^
2. Great riches have "no solid use to the owner,"
The right view of wealth as a trust for the good of
mankind t
3. "To guard adventures with certainties that may
uphold losses " Illustration of this policy by one of
Shakespeare's characters }
4. "Defer not charities till death." Wisdom of this
advice, taking into consideration the ease with which
wills are often broken t
TOPIC IV.
Francis Bacon.
I. Of Youth and Age (No. XLII.)
1. Compare the Elizabethan and modern use of the
following words*, "composition," "turned," "tract of
years."
2. Study the phraseology and arrangement of sentences
in this essay with a view to discovering the secret of its
compactness and clearness of statement.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY. 239
II. Of Beauty (No XLIII.)
1. Meaning of " almost seen/' " favor," " color," " de¬
cent and gracious," " if it light well."
2. Point out any instances where the extreme concise¬
ness of the writing causes obscurity.
III. Topics for discussion.
1. "Virtue is like a rich stone, best plain set." Your
opinion of the truthfulness of the simile ^
2. "Beauty is as summer fruits." Is this necessarily
true, and if so, why }
3. Is the tendency to a dissolute youth and a premature
old age greater among the beautiful than among the ill-
favored }
TOPIC V.
Francis Bacon.
I. Of Vicissitudes of Things. (No. LVIII.)
1. Meaning of "superior globe," "fume," "toy/'
"fetching," "arietations," "philology" (as here used.)
2. Explain the allusions to " the three years' drought
in the time of Elias," " the observation that Machiaeval
hath," " Plato's great year."
3. Can you harmonize Bacon's statement concerning
comets with his own system of induction }
4. Do you note any indications of a belief in astrology
by Bacon ?
5 Give illustrations of religions founded respectively,
in the three manners described by Bacon.
II. Of Studies (No. L.)
i. Give your interpretation of the following passages
and discuss their principles. " to spend too much time
in studies is sloth," " to use them too much for ornament
240
THE STUDY CLASS,
is affectation," studies give forth directions too much
at large."
2. Cymini sectores (dividers of cummin seeds) Mod¬
ern equivalent of this phrase ?
3. For wise advice to the student, can you find, in
literature, ancient or modern, a better guide than this
essay ?
TOPIC VI.
Francis Bacon.
I. Bibliographical.
1. Bacon's only predecessor in the writing of essays
was the Frenchman, Montaigne (1533-1592). Read
some of Montaigne's essays, and say what effect, if any,
the French writer may have had on Bacon
2. Discuss Bacon's views of love, as given in his
essay (No. X.) on that subject. Can you conceive that
essay and the Shakespearian plays to have had a common
authorship}
3. Bibliography of Bacon's essays during his lifetime
4. Give some account of Bacon's other principal
works.
5. Bacon's rank in the following directions: —
a. As an author,— powers and limitations.
b. As a scientist,— his attitude toward contem¬
porary science.
c. As a philosopher.
d. As a statesman.
e. As a writer on religious subjects.
II. Biographical.
1. There is no evidence of any acquaintance between
the two great contemporaries, Bacon and Shakespeare.
Probable explanation ?
2. Sketch of Bacon's life and character.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF EN G LIS H ESSAY, 241
Referénces :
Church: Bacon, m " English Men of Letters Series."
Macaulay : Essay on Bacon.
Shaw: English Literature, pp. 77-95»
Whipple : Literature of the Age of Elizabeth.
TOPIC VIL
Forerunners of the Modern Newspaper.
I. The Pamphlets.
1. Narratives and euphuist tract-romances ; Green,
Lodge, etc.
2. Personal and controversial tracts ; Nash, Harvey,
etc.
3. Social and religious documents; Dekker, Breton.
4. Criticism on governmental measures in political
and ecclesiastical matters ; the Martin Marprelate con¬
troversy.
II. The News-Letters, — their writers and the nature
of the contents ; method of circulation.
III. Newspapers supersede pamphlets and news¬
letters. Give some account of the first English weekly
newspaper (1622) and its editor.
References :
Saintsbury ; Elizabethan Literature, pp. 223-253.
Pebody: English Journalism, Chapter III.
Macaulay; History of England, Vol. I. Chap. III.
Chambers : Cyclopaedia of English Literature, Vol. I.
pp. 310, 311.
16
242
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC VIII.
Bibliographical Survey of English
Literature from 1500 to 1625.
By common consent this period is recognized as the
most brilliant in our literature. Besides its remarkable
achievements in the drama, and in the works already
studied, give some account of notable writers and writings
in other departments as follows : —
1. Philology. Cheke.
2. Artistic theory and criticism. Ascham.
3. Narratives of travel and adventure. Hakluyt,
Purchas.
4. History. Holinshed, More, Raleigh.
5. Theology. Hooker, Andrewes.
6. Romantic and fanciful fiction. Lyly, Sidney.
7. Poetry. Daniel, Drayton, Donne, Chapman.
8. Political Science. Buchanan, Raleigh, Elyot.
9. Giordano Bruno. His visit to England and his
influence on the minds of the Fulke-Greville circle.
10. The authorized version of the Bible. This version
and the plays of Shakespeare have been called " twin
monuments, not merely of their own period, but of the
perfection of English." Discuss that statement, and show
how " the men and the moment combined " in the pro¬
duction of these works.
References :
Saintsbury ; Elizabethan Literature, Chaps. H. IV. VI.
Thos. Arnold; English Literature, Chapter IV.
Minto : Manual of English Prose.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY. 243
TOPIC IX.
Social History of the Elizabethan Age.
I. Foreign Influences.
I. Previous to the accession of Elizabeth, the language
had assumed no definiteness of form. Various influences
now began to tell in fixing its idioms and construction.
Discuss the respective force of these, as follows : —
a. Latin. As a subject of scholarly study ; its
colloquial and familiar use.
Ô, Italy. The resort of travelled Englishmen, and its
service in furnishing models both in prose and
verse.
c. Spain. Political causes which tended to bring
about familiarity with its language and litera¬
ture.
ä. Germany. Subject-matter furnished by Ger¬
many, as the Faust-legend, etc. (See Herford's
Literary Relations of England and Germany in
the Sixteenth Century.)
II. Domestic Influences.
1. Transition from Catholicism to Protestantism;
effect of the new freedom from ecclesiastical control and
from rigid scholasticism on the progress of thought.
2. Introduction of the printing-press, and the effect on
the masses of the cheapening and multiplying of books.
3. Peace policy of Elizabeth; effect of the firmly
settled state of the country on literary production.
4. New outlets of commerce ; increase of wealth and
leisure in its relation to both readers and writers.
5. Rise of the " Fourth Estate."
244
THE STUDY CLASS,
References :
Green: Short History of the English People, Chapter
VII. Sec. 5.
Goadby : The England of Shakespeare.
Saintsbury : Elizabethan Literature, pp. 445-450.
TOPIC X.
John Milton.
[Areopagitica, Ed. Hales.]
I. Direct study: Areopagitica.
i Significance of the title and motto from Euripides.
2. Make a topical analysis of the main lines of Milton's
discussion and the arguments in support of each.
3. What distinguishes this so-called "speech," de¬
signed to be read, from one intended to be delivered
personally to those to whom it is addressed}
4. Do you discover any more inclusive purpose than
merely to discuss the direct question in hand ?
5. Note the allusions and illustrations which reveal
Milton's personal traits ; —
a. His intensity of feeling on the question of human
liberty in all directions.
â. His vast knowledge, winning for him the title of
" learned " in an age of learned men.
c. His fondness for Greece and Greek literature.
d. His delight in mythology.
6. Discuss Milton's statement that " the knowledge
and survey of vice is in this world necessary to the con¬
stituting human virtue." Can you offer arguments to
the contrary.?
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH ESSAY. 245
7. Milton has been called " the last great writer in the
old periodic style." Describe the characteristics of this
" periodic style." Do you find it obscure ?
8. Reasons for the greater hold of this essay on
posterity than is the case with the numerous other prose
writings of Milton.
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Date of the publication of the Areopagitica," and
history of parliamentary action preceding it.
2. Milton's personal reasons for coming forward as the
champion of Unlicensed Printing.
3. Influence of the "Areopagitica " on —
a. The printing-press and its history.
b. Public sentiment.
c. Later writers.
d. Free thought.
TOPIC XL
John Dryden.
[Essay of Dramatic Poesy, Ed. Thos. Arnold.]
Direct study: Essay of Dramatic Poesy
1. This was the first attempt in English to lay down
any canons of dramatic writing. Make a summary of
the five critical questions herein discussed, and the argu¬
ments advanced by the different speakers in support of
their respective opinions.
2. Discuss these points in the light of nineteenth cen¬
tury practices and opinions, especially with regard to —
a. The value of rhyme in dramatic poetry ; is its
absence from the ancient drama an adequate
reason for its disuse by moderns ?
246
THE STUDY CLASS.
b. Blank verse; does its employment by Shakes¬
peare prove its superior fitness for dramatic
purposes ? Can you cite any facts that would
indicate that he succeeded in spite blank
verse, rather than because of it ?
c. Aristotle's judgment that the proper instrument
for tragedy is that " nearest to common dis¬
course." Effect of the application of this
theory in the absence of striking story and
lofty thoughts. Exclusive of Shakespeare's
plays, can you name any notable instances of
plays in blank verse that hold the modern
stage ?
d. French plays on the English stage. How
do present facts correspond with Dryden's
prophesy t
3. Do you accept Dryden's opinion that "not only
shall we never equal them [the sixteenth century drama¬
tists], but they could never equal themselves were they
to rise and write again " ?
4. Arnold calls this Essay the first piece of good
modern English prose on which our literature can pride
itself." Discuss that statement, and compare this writ¬
ing with your preceding studies in this course. What
new traits appear in this ?
TOPIC XII
John Dryden.
[Essays of Dryden. Ed. Y enge.]
I
I. Direct study: Essay on Satire.
i. Most of Dryden's prose was written by way of
preface to his plays or poems. Notwithstanding, these
prefaces were —
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY. 247
" Merely writ at first for filling,
To raise the volume's price a shilling,"
they were pioneers in the art of literary criticism ; what
rank do you give to this Essay on Satire,'* considering
that it is the earliest discussion of the subject in English ?
2. Discuss the fulsome strain of adulation which in¬
troduces and pervades this Essay, in common with most
of Dry den's writing. What does it indicate with re¬
ference to the social position of men of letters in general,
and Dryden's relations to the Earl of Dorset in particular?
3. Compare Dryden's remarks on Shakespeare, both
here and in the Essay of Dramatic Poesy," with the
general opinion at that time, and say what evidence they
furnish of his superior critical sense.
4. Discuss his opinions concerning —
a. Milton ; that his subject is not that of an heroic
poem, properly so-called ; " that rhyme was
not his talent.**
d. The Old Testament as an unworked quarry of
material for heroic poetry.
c. The qualifications necessary to the epic poet.
d. The superiority of epic to dramatic poetry.
5. Make a brief summary of Dryden's principles for
the composition of the satire.
6. What state of society furnishes the most congenial
field for satire ?
II. Biographical.
1. Dryden's position among his contemporaries; the
group at Will's Coffee-House.
2. Dryden's indebtedness to Archbishop Tillotson,
according to his own confession.
3* Dryden's indebtedness to the French, and especially
to Corneille, in his manner of analysis as a critic. A new
feature in English literature.
248
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XIII.
Historical Survey of England during
the Seventeenth Century.
I. Ecclesiastical Situation.
1. Demands for reform ; the Puritans.
2. Archbishop Laud and the High Commission Court.
3. The Star Chamber, and its decrees in relation to all
opponents of church liturgy and ceremonies.
II. Political Situation.
1. Levies of ship-money; stretches of the royal pre¬
rogative.
2. Meeting of the Long Parliament.
3. Civil War; the Independents and their doctrine of
toleration. General attitude of the poets and men of
letters in the early part of the struggle, with the one
notable exception among the poets.
4. Milton's services " overplied In liberty's defense."
5. The Restoration (1660); return of the courtiers,
wits, and poets, from exile abroad ; the Puritans silenced ;
re-opening of the theatres.
6. James II. ; the Revolution.
7. The Toleration Act.
III. Relation of the course of events to the develop¬
ment of ideas as expressed in literature during the same
period, whether as studied in the foregoing lessons or in
other less notable names.
References :
Green: Short History of the English People, Chapter
VIII.
Taine: English Literature, Book III., Chaps, i, 2, 3.
Macaulay; Closing pages of "Essay on Milton."
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY. 249
TOPIC XIV.
Richard Steele, and the Rise of the
Periodical Miscellany.
[The Tatler. Ed. The British Essayists.]
I. Steele has been called the originator of the social
element in English literature. Read Tatler, No. i, for
an account of the design of the new journal. In what
respects does it differ from any predecessor.'* (Com¬
pare Topic VII.)
IL Give an account of some conditions of English
society particularly favorable to the success of the new
venture ; fitness of its projector, Richard Steele, for the
work ; source of the nom de plume, Isaac Bickerstaff.
Read Tatler, No. 181, for its autobiographic interest.
III. The Tatler as a critic of contemporary manners
and taste ; —
1. Nos. 81, 99,182. Dramatic taste and customs.
2. Nos. 25, 26, 28, 29, 38, 39. Duelling.
3. Nos. 169, 240. Drinking.
IV. The Tatler as a literary critic. Nos. 6, 47, 98,
106, 137, 177, 178.
V. For what reasons ought women to hold Steele in
special remembrance,— not only of his general attitude
compared with previous writers, but because of that
finest of all tributes to one woman. (See Tatler, No. 49.)
VI. Recently there is a notable tendency toward
greater appreciation of Steele, for it has been proved
that both Macaulay (Essay on Addison), and Thackeray
(English Humorists) have exaggerated the extent of
Addison's patronage. Your own opinion of the TatleTs
place in literature, taking into account the large share
the periodical has come to take in modern literature ?
250
THE STUDY CLASS.
VII. General literary estimate.
Thackeray; English Humorists.
Tuckerman: Essay on Steele in Characteristics of
Literature." Second Series.
Courthope: Chapter V. of Addison, in "English Men
of Letters Series."
TOPIC XV.
Joseph Addison and the Spectator.
[The Spectator, Ed. The British Essayists.]
I. The Spectator as a social reformer, in a time when
" wit had been led astray by profligacy and virtue by
fanaticism " .• —
1. Nos. 201, 207. On Devotion.
2. No. 391. On Prayer.
3. No. 465. On Faith.
4. No. 575. On Temporal and Eternal Happiness.
II. The Spectator as a political reformer : —
1. No. 125. Evils of party system.
2. No. 507. Foolishness of party-writing.
HI. Addison as a literary critic ; —
1. Nos. 58, 63 inclusive. Difference between true
and false wit.
2. Nos. 411,421, inclusive. Pleasures of the imagi¬
nation.
3. Nos. 267 and seventeen Saturdays following.
Milton.
IV. Do you agree with Macaulay that "the least
valuable of Addison's contributions to the Spectator are
his critical papers " 1
V. Comparing the essays of Addison and Steele,
associates in both the Tatler and the Spectator^ do you
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH ESSAY. 251
agree with Macaulay that " Addison's worst essay is as
good as the best essay of any of his coadjutors " ?
VI. Do you think Addison entitled to the reputation
he coveted (No. 10), and that we can say truly that "he
brought Philosophy out of closets and libraries, schools
and colleges, to dwell at clubs, tea-tables," etc. í
VII. General literary estimate.
Courthope : Addison, in " English Men of Letters
Series."
Macaulay : Essay on Addison.
Johnson ; Life of Addison.
TOPIC XVI.
Samuel Johnson.
[Essays of Dr. Johnson, Ed. Hill.]
I. Direct study; The "Rambler."
1. After the death of Addison, the daily miscellany
passed by degrees into inferior hands, became insuffer¬
ably dull, and finally died altogether. The most success¬
ful revival was made in 1752, by Dr. Johnson in the
Rambler. Read any half dozen numbers (for example,
Nos. 9, 47, 58, 68, 121, 137), and give your opinion of Dr.
Johnson as an essayist and moral teacher in comparison
with either Steele or Addison.
2. It is to be remembered that Johnson was compiling
his dictionary during these years of the appearance of
the Rambler. What effect may this task have had on
the style of these papers ?
3. Read the last Rambler (208) for än account of his
own ideals and methods, and say how far he was successful
in his own ambition as therein stated.
252 THE STUDY CLASS,
IL Direct study: The Lives of the Poets.
[The Six Chief Lives. Ed. M. Arnold,]
1. What opinion do these give you of Johnson's
critical powers ? A modern critic praising this work, in
parts, for its " ingenious, solid, and acute observation,"
" noble moral lessons," " manly tone of writing and
thinking," yet adds, that, in other parts, Johnson is
like a deaf man seated at a symphony of Beethoven,—
a sense is wanting in him." Do you discover any such
lack ; if so, what ?
2. What differences in style do you note between this
work and the Rambler ? Which do you prefer 1
3. Professor Earle says, Of all models from which the
spirit of genuine true and wholesome dictiori is to be im¬
bibed, Samuel Johnson is the one author unapproachably
and incomparably the best." Your own impressions.^
III. The time when Johnson began writing in London
has been aptly compared to " a dark night between two
sunny days." Describe the literary situation from
which this figure derives its force.
IV. It has been said of Johnson that " the memory
of other authors is kept alive by their works ; but the
memory of Johnson keeps many of his works alive."
Explain this anomaly. (See Boswell's Life of Johnson.)
V. General literary estimate.
Carlyle: Essay on Boswell's Life of Johnson ; also.
The Hero as Man of Letters.
Macaulay: Essay on Johnson; also on Croker's
edition of Boswell's Life.
Leslie Stephen : Johnson, in " English Men of Letters
Series."
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY, 253
TOPIC XVII.
Oliver Goldsmith.
[Essays of Goldsmith. Ed. Yonge,]
I. Direct study : On the Origin of Poetry.
Poetry Distinguished from other Writings.
1. Discuss Goldsmith's antithesis between poetry and
eloquence.
2. Enumerate the several points of Goldsmith's differ¬
entiation of poetry from other writings.
3. Do any or all of these succeed in explaining the
indefinable somewhat known as the poetic imagination ?
4. Do you agree with Goldsmith in justifying a trans¬
lator for deviating from the original, providing it be " at
the same time an improvement " ?
5. How do these essays compare, both as to matter
and style, with preceding critical essays on the poetic
art ?
II. Direct study: The Chinese Letters.
1. What characteristics of these letters entitle them
to the place they have taken among the classics of the
century ?
2. Can you name any other satirical compositions so
free from bitterness and ill-nature as these ?
3. Resemblances between the "Man in Black "and
Goldsmith himself?
4. Previous conceptions similar to the " Chinese
philosopher " among foreign writers ?
III. Compare the Eé-e with the Rambler for literary
style, and as representatives of different types of periodi¬
cal essay writing.
254
THE STUDY CLASS.
IV. What do you consider the leading characteristics
of Goldsmith's prose style ? Does Johnson's epitaph,
" He touched nothing which he did not adorn," seem
excessive praise ?
V. Biographical and bibliographical.
1. Thackeray speaks of Goldsmith as " the most
beloved of English writers." Some reasons for such a
place in men's hearts ?
2. Give some account of " The Club" (still flourishing
as "The Literary Club") of which Johnson and Gold¬
smith were such noted members.
VI. General literary estimate.
Macaulay: Essay on Goldsmith.
Thackeray : English Humorists.
Stanhope : History of England, VI. 478.
TOPIC XVIII.
General Literary Survey of the Eighteenth
Century.
I. From the foregoing studies (XIV. et seq.),what
basis do you find for the titles "the Augustan age,"
" classic age," etc., as applied to this period ?
H. What basis for the phrase " eighteenth century
reserve " ?
HI. Describe the social atmosphere which constituted
Tàe Town., and its effect upon literature.
IV. Discuss some of the most notable features of
eighteenth century literature, as : —
i. Continuity of metaphysical speculation from Locke
onward.
2. Rise of journalism as a literary profession.
3. Evolution of the modern novel from the expiring
schools of comedy.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY, 255
4. Gradual return to an observation of Nature.
5; Dawning of a taste for Gothic romance.
6. New mastery of prose as a medium of expression,
and cultivation of prose writing by literary leaders.
Keferences :
Gosse : Concluding Chapter of Eighteenth Century
Literature.
Shaw ; English Literature, p. 209.
Thackeray: English Humorists.
TOPIC XIX.
The Rise of Book-Reviewing.
The beginning of our modern system of book-
reviewing dates from the establishment of the Edinburgh
Review (1802). Give some account of the three men
by whom it was established : —
I. Francis Jeffrey.
1. Read his reviews of Wordsworth's "Excursion,"
" The White Doe of Rylstone," since Jeffrey's name
is chiefly perpetuated by these and other "master¬
pieces of impertinence." What do these criticisms
reveal of his own character, and of his lack of sympathetic
insight into a mind of a different order ?
2. What does his biography reveal concerning his
personal traits, and are these of a kind that would fit
him to judge of such contemporaries as Wordsworth,
Coleridge, and Lamb ?
3. He was a master of the arts of ridicule, as seen by
consultation with the original articles in the Edinburgh
Review, (He refused, however, to include the most
striking specimens when republished in book form.)
Is ridicule one of the higher critical weapons }
256 THE STUDY CLASS,
4. Reading these productions after the lapse of three-
quarters of a century, what impresses you as the object
of Jeffrey's reviews, — to give a fair estimate of the
author in hand, or to make a striking exhibition of his
own brilliancy and acuteness ?
II. Sydney Smith.
1. Read some of his essays and say how they compare
for weight and permanence with Jeffrey's writing.
2. Sydney Smith was the most aggressive and the most
personal of these early reviewers. Instead of following
the example of Goldsmith and Addison by ridiculing
imaginary types, he held up to scorn living men and
assailed existing institutions. What place ought per¬
sonalities to hold in criticism }
III. Lord Brougham.
Give some account of his part in the new enterprise.
References :
Leslie Stephen : The First Edinburgh Reviewers, in
" Hours in a Library." Third Series.
Whipple : British Critics, in " Essays and Reviews,"
Vol. IL
Bagehot : The First Edinburgh Reviewers, in ''Literary
Studies," Vol. I.
Coleridge: Biographia Literaria, Chapter XXI.
TOPIC XX.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
Biographia Literaria, Chapters XIV. XV. XVI
This work forms an epoch in the history of criticism,
being the first serious attempt in the language to estab-
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY. 257
lish some fixed canons based on the principles of human
nature, in distinction from the criticism of arbitrary
dictation and individual authority as practised by the
Edinburgh Review.
I. Chapter XIV.
I. Discuss this chapter and give your opinion on the
following points ; —
a. The definition of a poem. Does this in truth dis¬
criminate the poem from all other species of
composition,— fiction for example } On the
other hand, can you cite instances of poems
which would be excluded from the list by the
requirements here laid down
¿.No poem either can or ought to be all poetry.
Is the reason therefor valid ?
c. The nature of the poetic imagination and its
fusing power. Do you accept the relations
here assigned to Good Sense, Fancy, Motion,
and Imagination.?
II. Chapter XV.
I. Discuss the distinctions here made between the
specific symptoms of poetic power and general talent
turned to poetical composition by accidental motives.
a. The sense of music in the soul. Do you agree
that this may be cultivated but never can be
learned ? Mention any great poets not uniform¬
ly distinguished for melody.
b. Aloofness from the poet's own personal sensations
and experiences. Exclusive of dramatic poetry,
do you regard self-revelation as a defect in
poetry.?
c. Poetical methods of dealing with Nature. Com¬
pare with Ruskin's " pathetic fallacy."
17
258
THE STUDY CLASS.
d. The intimate relations of philosophy and poetry.
Do you accept the statement that "no man
was ever yet a great poet without being at the
same time a profound philosopher " ?
III. Chapter XVI.
Give a summary of the striking points of difference
here enumerated between the poets of Coleridge's time
and those of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
TOPIC XXI.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
Biographia Literaria, Chapters XVII., XVIII.
I. Chapter XVII.
If possible, Wordsworth's Preface to the "Lyrical
Ballads" (ed. 1800) should be read in connection with
this chapter. Unfortunately, it is seldom included in
modern editions of the poet, although from it dates the
whole of that still unsettled controversy respecting the
relations of prose and poetry. If this preface is not
obtainable, state its principal tenets, as here summarized
by Coleridge.
II. Chapter XVIII.
Discuss Coleridge's arguments for the essential differ¬
ences between prose and poetry in the following
respects : —
1. The origin of metre ; reasons inherent therein for
the employment of picturesque language.
2. The effects of metre ; demand for a correspondence
between matter and form.
3. The strong mental excitement attendant upon
poetical composition.
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH ESSAY. 259
4. The impulse toward unity attendant upon the high
spiritual instinct of humanity.
5. The practice of the best poets in all countries.
Cite instances in illustration of this point.
III. Surveying the question, after this consideration
of the arguments on both sides, with which do you
agree, — Wordsworth or Coleridge ?
IV. Comparative study.
Give any notable expressions from modern writers on
this question,—whether the difference between prose
and poetry is one of ¡o^ü, or is merely an accidental
difference of form.
References :
M. Arnold : Preface to his edition of Johnson's " Lives
of the Poets.."
Earle: English Prose, Chapter V-
Masson : Introduction to De Quincey's " English
Mail Coach," in Select Essays of De Quincey.
V. Biographical.
Give some account of the strange change in Cole¬
ridge's powers of mind, which took place between 1798
and 1804, and which turned him from poetry to philos¬
ophy and criticism. Do you accept Lowell's explanation
that " his critical sense rose like a forbidding apparition
in the path of his poetic production " } Does not Cole¬
ridge's ode " Dejection," carry within itself its own
contradiction as a dirge over his dead imagination ?
Reference :
Traill : Coleridge, in " English Men of Letters Series."
26o
THE STUDY CLASS,
TOPIC XXII.
William Hazlitt.
[Hazlitt, Essayist and Critic. Ed. Ireland.]
I. Direct study : Literature of the Age of
Elizabeth.
1. Make an analysis of this essay. In orderliness and
directness of outline how does it compare with Cole¬
ridge's writing}
2. All of the prose writers of this period, Lamb,
Hazlitt, De Quincey, and others, regarded Coleridge as
their master. What traces of Coleridge's principles of
criticism mark Hazlitt's treatment of this subject ?
3. Hazlitt's discussions of " causes " as an interpreta¬
tion of an intellectual situation was quite new in
literature. What features of modern knowledge have
tended to increase the popularity of the discussion of
environment " as a factor in literary development ?
4. Point out the passages which indicate Hazlitt's
possession of two of the most desirable critical quali¬
ties,— sympathetic insight and philosophic grasp.
II. Direct study: My First Acquaintance with
Poets ; Charles Lamb's Evenings ; A Fare¬
well to Essay Writing; On Living to
Oneself.
1. Hazlitt, though shy with his friends, is one of the
most autobiographical of writers. In these essays, what
insight do you get into his own individual experiences,
hopes, aspirations, and disappointments }
2. Discuss Hazlitt's literary style. Does it hold your
attention If so, analyze the sources of its power.
OUTLINE-STUDY OP ENGLISH ESSAY. 261
3. Do you consider Hazlitt's fondness for quotation
carried to such an extent as to be objectionable ; or do
you regard it as a merit, by reason of the skill with
which it is employed ?
4. Talfourd said of Hazlitt, " He had as passionate a
desire for truth as others have for wealth or power or
fame.*' What evidences of this in his analytic and
searching discussions of his friends as well as his
enemies ?
HI. Biographical and bibliographical.
The writings of Hazlitt fill thirty-five volumes, and
deal with a very wide range of subjects, — painting,
poetry, prose, plays, politics, parliamentary speeches,
books, men and things. Give some account of his
education and habits of life that fitted him to deal with
such various themes.
References :
Patmore : Personal Recollections of Hazlitt and
Others.
Tuckerman; Characteristics of Literature. Second
Series.
Lord Lytton : Introduction to " Hazlitt's Literary
Remains."
TOPIC XXIII.
Thomas De Quincey.
I. Direct study: Shakespeare.
I. Thought.
a. Make an analysis of this essay, and say what
rank you give to it for the importance of its
topics and its progression of ideas.
202
THE STUDY CLASS.
b. Masson speaks of this essay as " somewhat thin,
but deserving notice for the perfection of its
proportions, as a summary of what is essential
to our information respecting Shakespeare's
life/' Do you consider that the noteworthy
qualities of this essay are rightly indicated in
this verdict ? If not, name others.
c. Cite the evidences of De Quincey's wide knowl¬
edge of books and men.
d. Discuss his appraisal of the respective merits of
Shakespeare and the Greek dramatists. What
qualifications had De Quincey for this under¬
taking, entitling him to our deference ?
e. Cite the evidences of De Quincey's sense of
humor.
/. Cite the evidences of his sensibility to the sub¬
lime ; of his interest in the characters, thoughts,
and affections of human nature.
2. Style.
a. De Quincey is generally recognized as the most
eminent of modern masters of what is known
as the " periodic style " of writing. Define
the characteristics of this style, and discuss its
merits and defects as a form of expression.
(Consult Campbell, Bain, Minto, and other
writers on rhetoric.) Select examples from
the present essay.
b. Discuss the long sentence beginning, " After this
review of Shakespeare's life," etc. Can you
re-cast this to make it more simple, without
any loss of eloquence or dignity }
II. Biographical and bibliographical.
I. All the important writings of De Quincey made
their first appearance in magazines or serial publications
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY. 263
What relation may this fact be supposed to have had
both upon the kind and the amount of his literary pro¬
duction ?
2. Give some account of De Quincey's life and of his
equipment both by Nature and by education for the
literary calling.
III. General literary estimate.
Masson : Da Quincey, in " English men of Letters
Series/'
Minto : Manual of English Prose, pp. 31-76.
Harriet Martineau : Biographical Sketches.
y
TOPIC XXIV.
Thomas Macaulay.
I. Direct study: Essay on Lord Clive.
1. Thottght. Make an analysis, showing the main
outlines of the essay, the logical connection of the state¬
ments, and the object in view.
2. Illustrations and Allusions. Make a note of the
most striking examples of Macaulay's use of these ele¬
ments, and show what evidence these give of the quality
of his mind and the range of his reading.
3. Style. Of all modern writers, Macaulay is the one
commonly preferred by teachers of the art of composi¬
tion for the illustration of desirable qualities of style.
Note his characteristics in the following respects; —
a. Vocabulary. Cite passages to show his com¬
mand of expression, and his power of repeating
a thought in several different forms.
b. Use of antithesis in the structure of his sentences.
Do you discover any tendency to sacrifice
truth for the sake of a telling antithesis 1
204
THE STUDY CLASS.
c. Paragraphs. Earle says, In the grouping and
melodious run of his paragraphs, Macaulay
seems to me facile princeps of all modern
English writers." Do you agree with that
statement, or does his occasional abruptness
of transition from one subject to another
detract from his merits in this respect?
d. By common consent, Macaulay is rated as a
master of the art of story-telling. Note the
passages which show his power in this way.
e. Macaulay's style approached much more nearly
to spoken oratory than anything that had
preceded it in essay-writing. Cite passages in
illustration.
4. Suggestiveness. This is rightly ranked as the highest
possible quality of an essay. Judging from this exam¬
ple, how would you rank Macaulay in this respect ? Do
you recall any original theory or delicate analysis
associated with the name of Macaulay ?
II. Collateral Reading.
I. Browning's poem, "Clive," deals with an episode
alluded to in this essay. How do you rank the poem as
to suggestiveness, compared with the essay ?
TOPIC XXV.
Thomas Carlyle.
I. Direct study; Heroes and Hero-Worship,
Lecture I.
1. Make an analysis of this essay, showing its progress
of thought.
2. Discuss Carlyle's definition of great men : —
" leaders of men . . . creators of whatsoever the general
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY, 265
mass of men contrived to do or attain." Does this
imply that success is a chief element in greatness ? Can
an unsuccessful man be also a great man, in your
opinion ?
3. Discuss the explanation which such a conception of
greatness offers for some of Carlyle's favorite themes, —
as Frederick the Great, the embodiment of mere per¬
sonal force of will and genius ; also his attitude toward
America during the Civil War.?
4. Discuss Carlyle's conception of the nature of
History as thrice expressed here, — " History is the
biography of great men." Compare with Herbert
Spencer (" Progress, its Law and Cause ") ; with Lecky
(" Rise of Rationalism," II. 384) *, with Guizot (" Shakes¬
peare and his Times," p. 328).
II. Comparative study.
1. Read Emerson's chapter, " Uses of Great Men " in
Representative Men. What essential differences in the
two writers with respect to definition,— Emerson placing
the stress on the thought of the man, rather than his
qualities as leader. Which seems to you to be most
adequate ?
2. Respective opinions of the two writers with regard
to the masses. Relative importance of "energy" and
" capacity " in your own judgment. Will any amount
of industry or striving develop powers of creation ?
3. In the scale of great men, what class is placed
highest by both writers ?
4. Comparing the two essays as a whole, which takes
the wider range of thought.? Which excels in illustra¬
tion ? Which is to you the more suggestive and
stimulating ?
5. Both agree as to the value of hero-worship to the
human race. Is its force overstated by either ?
206
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XXVI.
Thomas Carlyle.
I. Direct study: Heroes and Herq-Worship,
Lecture III.
1. Although Carlyle has denied (Lecture I.) that the
time " calls forth " greatness, he is forced to admit that
the great man derives his ascendency from the fact that
ke belongs to his time. Do you accept this doctrine ? Is
there a basis of truth in the saying " born an age too
soon " 1
2. Do you accept the foundation idea here, — that the
difference in men is more in degree than in kind } Does
it seem inconsistent with previous utterances by Carlyle ?
3. Do you accept Carlyle's statement concerning the
Poet, that his first gift is " that he have intellect enough,"
and that having it, "he will be a Poet."
4. Discuss the theory that poetry comes only through
experience, and especially through experiences of sorrow ;
that the poetic power avails to transmute the reverses
and sorrows of life into a "joyful tranquillity."
II. Comparative study:
1. Read Emerson's chapter, "Shakespeare; or the
Poet," in Representative Men, Why do both take
Shakespeare as the type of Poet ?
2. Why do both dwell so little on the form of Shake¬
speare's literary utterance ?
3. Shakespeare's perception of relativity, according to
both writers. What rank do you give to this quality of
mind, in life, as well as in art 1
4. Granting that Shakespeare " only half uttered him¬
self," was it because of the external reasons given by
Carlyle, or the internal, given by Emerson ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY, 267
5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of having
no " importunate topic." Is it not this that often con¬
verts an ordinary intellect into a great man, especially
when it is some mighty moral thought ?
6. Do you accept the statement that Shakespeare was
" master of the revels to mankind," and that " the world
still wants its poet-priest ? "
TOPIC XXVII.
Thomas Carlyle.
I. Direct study: Heroes and Hero-Worship,
Lecture V.
1. Make a topical analysis of this lecture.
2. Discuss Carlyle's choice of Johnson, Rousseau, and
Burns, as types of men of letters. Do they not seem
chosen rather because they possess his cardinal virtues,
— industry, veracity, etc., — than because of their literary
power ?
3. Do these men seem to you heroes in any large
sense of the word ?
4. Do you agree with Carlyle in placing the responsi¬
bility of a writer's contemporary reputation on the age,
rather than on the writer himself ?
5. Does Carlyle seem to you to exaggerate the in¬
fluence of his chosen heroes, and to suppress and under¬
rate the influence of their coadjutors ?
6. In what qualities do you find the chief excellence
of these lectures as essays on the subject of heroes, —
in their power to analyze the elements of greatness, in
their array of achievements in proof of greatness, or in
their ingenuity in representing greatness under endless
varieties of striking images ?
268
THE STUDY CLASS.
II. Direct study: Heroes and Hero-Worship
Lecture VI.
1. Make a topical analysis of this lecture.
2. Discuss Carlyle's ideal of Government, — an " able
man " at the head of affairs, and capable, obedient
officials under him through all degrees of importance.
Is there anything in this plan that has not already been
tried and found wanting ? What uncontrollable forces
make the realization impossible ?
3. Do you agree with Carlyle that man's misery always
comes from greatness ?
4. In the matter of literary style is Carlyle a good
model ? Do you enjoy his coinage of new words ? his
nicknaming ? his application of old terms to new situa¬
tions ? hyperbole ? habit of interrogation, of apostrophe ?
irony ?
5. What do you consider the most amiable feature of
his preaching.?
6. It has been said, " It is bad to be with Carlyle
habitually ; " on the other hand, many persons find in
him their most satisfying mental food. Your own
opinion ?
TOPIC XXVIII.
Matthew Arnold.
[Essays in Criticism.]
I. Direct study: The Function of Criticism.
1. Make an analysis of this essay, showing its leading
points and the progress of its thought.
2. Discuss certain of its propositions as follows : —
a. That for a master-work of literature two powers
must concur, — the power of the man and the
power of the moment. Cite any instances in
proof either of the truth or the falsity of this.
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY. 269
b. That a poet is great just in proportion as he is
wise in a knowledge of life and the world. If
this be true, how shall we account for Burns ?
for Cowper.?
c. That the one thing lacking to make Wordsworth
an even greater poet than he was, lay in the
fact that he did not know books well enough.
Have not some poets been injured by too great
knowledge of books ?
d. That a time of true creative activity must in¬
evitably be preceded by a time of criticism.
Do you assent to this, or to Principal Shairp's
opinion that " criticism may stifle but cannot
evoke creation".^
e. That knowledge accompanied with his own judg¬
ment as companion and clew, must be the
critic's great concern for himself. Matthew
Arnold himself furnishes the best illustration
of this principle, and by precept and practice
may be said to have created a new epoch in
criticism. Consult any of his essays in this
volume as evidence.
/. Discuss the definition of criticism, — "a disinter
ested endeavor to learn and propagate the
best that is known and thought in the world."
Can you offer a better, either original or
quoted }
3. Cite the instances of felicity of expression,—phrases
which have realized Mr. Arnold's ideal in " making the
tour of the world."
II. Comparative study.
1. Matthew Arnold is the recognized leader of a more
scientific method than any that had preceded him in
English criticism. What evidences of it in this essay ?
2. What advance do you note on the " impressionist
school " of Coleridge, Hazlitt, and De Quincey t
270
THE STUDY CLASS.
TOPIC XXIX.
Matthew Arnold.
[Essays in Criticism. Second Series.]
I. Direct study; Wordsworth.
1. Make an analysis of this essay by topics, with
reference to the critic's canons of poetry rather than
to their present application.
2. Discuss certain of its statements as follows : —
<3!. That poetry is nothing less than the most perfect
speech of man,— the speech in which he comes
nearest to being able to utter the truth.
Ô. That we cannot improve upon the Greeks in their
classification of poetry.
c. That ballad poetry and didactic poetry are of the
inferior orders.
d. That poetry is at bottom a criticism of life, and
that Wordsworth's dealings with life mark his
superiority.
e. That we demand something in our poetry which
the ancient poets can never give.
II. .Direct study.* Byron.
I Do the reasons given here seem adequate for the
statement that hereafter Wordsworth and Byron will
stand out by themselves " ?
2. In another essay (on Heine), Mr. Arnold has said,
"To ascertain the master-current in the literature of an
epoch, and to distinguish this from all minor currents, is
one of the critic's highest functions." What " master-
current " does he detect in this epoch, and are Words¬
worth and Byron truly the best types of it ?
OUTLINE-STUDY OF ENGLISH ESSAY. 271
3 In another essay (on Pagan and Mediaeval Religious
Sentiment), Mr. Arnold has said, " The great art of criti¬
cism is to get oneself out of the way and let humanity
decide." Has he wholly avoided the personal equation
in these essays, especially in his judgment of Shelley ?
4. It was these two essays ("Wordsworth" and
" Byron ") written in his later years, that so aroused Mr.
Swinburne's ire, and caused him to say, "It is annually
becoming more difficult for the most devoted and sin¬
cere good-will to regard Mr Arnold as a serious judge
on questions of literature." Do you feel any loss of
balance or calmness compared with the essay of the
earlier time? (Topic XXVIII.)
TOPIC XXX.
Essentials of Literary Criticism.
I. The history of the essay has shown a marked
growth in literary criticism, both as to amount and
merit. Discuss some of the requirements demanded of
writers in this field, with illustrations chosen from those
who have been best equipped in these several ways ;
1. Learning, Importance of a knowledge of what has
been previously done in a given field. Which class
of writers, critical or creative, can best dispense with
search and knowledge ?
2. Picturesqueness, A man of information, however
great, will fail as a critic unless he be also master of the
arts of perspective, with power to exhibit "the quality
of a man's mind and the amount of his literary perform¬
ance." Effect of writing for periodicals on this power ?
3. Freedom from bias^ Compare present conditions
with the days when it was said truthfully of the
Edinburgh Review^ that it was " prone to decide upon
272
THE STUDY CLASS,
the excellencies of a poet's images, or a rhetorician's
style by the opinion he entertained of Mr. Pitt and the
French Revolution."
4. Insight. A genuine literary critic will lead public
opinion rather than follow it. Give some noted instances
of discerning critics who have recognized young genius,
and have compelled the appreciation of contemporaries ;
also instances of great blunders, and of the reversal of
critical verdicts by the judgments of posterity.
5. Sympathy. Give the reasons why a quick sympathy
and an active imagination are indispensable to the high¬
est work in criticism, especially if dealing with a past
age or a foreign language.
II. The future of literary criticism. What do you
consider the most favorable signs of the times for the
future ? What the greatest obstacles toward the further
improvement of this kind of writing t
AN AFTER WORD
HE author's experience with private
classes has shown that one of the
first inquiries of those about to enter
upon a course of study, especially
when the student is without access to any large
library, relates to the number and cost of the
required books. To meet this want, the follow¬
ing Bibliography has been prepared, showing
the price of volume and name of publisher of
the principal works recommended in the fore¬
going pages. The object being to exhibit at a
glance the few books which are most indispen¬
sable in each course of study, the list deals
mainly with works which furnish the most con¬
veniently accessible text of the writings, or with
those which have special value as handbooks
throughout the course. The books suggested
under " References " or " General Literary Es¬
timate " are not included, since others dealing
i8
274
THE STUDY CLASS.
with similar facts or opinions may often be sub¬
stituted for these with greater convenience and
equal advantage to the student.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Shakespeare.
Shakespeare's Plays,
Ed. Rolfe, one play in each volume. Cloth, 56 cents,
neT' paper, 40 cents, neC (Harper.)
Ed. Hudson, one play in each volume Cloth, 45
cents, nei; paper, 30 cents, (Ginn.)
Ed. Furness. Variorum Edition, ^4.00 per volume.
(Lippincott.)
Dowden's Shakespere Primer, 35 cents, ne^. (Am.
Book Co.)
Fleay's Shakespeare Manual, ^1.25. (Macmillan.)
The English Drama.
The Best Elizabethan Plays.
Ed. Thayer, $1.25, 77eC (Ginn.)
Thomas Middle ton.
Ed. Ellis. The Mermaid Series, $1,00. (Vizitelly,
London.)
Philip Massinger.
Ed. Symms. The Mermaid Series, $i.oo. (Vizitelly,
London.)
John Milton.
CoTnus. Ed. Browne, 12 cents, 7tet. (Clarendon Press.)
SaTnsoTi Ago7tistes. Ed. Collins, 25 cents, 7tet. Clar¬
endon Press Series. (Macmillan.)
AN AFTER WORD,
John Dryden,
Select Dramatic Works. Ed. Seton. (Hamilton,
Adams & Co., London.)
William Wycherley.
Ed. Ward. The Mermaid Series, $i.oo. (Vizitelly
London.)
William Congreve.
Ed. Ewald. The Mermaid Series, $i.oo. (Vizitelly,
London. )
Oliver Goldsmith.
Ske Stoops to Conqtter. Ed. Morley, îo cents, net.
(Cassell's National Library.)
Eichard Brinsley Sheridan.
Ed. Dircks. Camelot Series, 40 cents. (Scott,
London.) Ed. Morley, 10 cents, net. (Cassell's
National Library.)
Sir E. Bulwer Lytton.
Dramas and Poems, $1.00. (Roberts.)
Eobert Browning.
A Blot in the '^Scutcheon, etc. Ed. Rolfe. Cloth,
56 cents, net ; paper, 40 cents, net. (Harper.)
Schlegel's Dramatic Literature, $1.00, net. (Bohn's
Standard Library.)
English Poetry.
The English Poets. Ed. Ward, 4 vols., $1.00 each.
(Macmillan.)
Longer English Poems. Ed. Hales, $1.10, net. (Mac¬
millan.)
Geoffrey Chaucer.
Prologue to Canterbury Tales. Ed. Morris, 60 cents,
net. Clarendon Press Series. (Macmillan.)
Ed. Skeat, 25 cents, net. (Macmillan.)
276 THE STUDY CLASS.
Edmund Spenser.
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278
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