LícvHAHY _
OF RAlLwkv êgomomics
, 'P 'í O O'
NOTES ON THE RAILWAYS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
iirom my records of the inspection which, for certain scientific purposes, I recently made of the British
Bailway system. These notes do not pretend to be in any sense a complete or exhaustive report on
the subject. They simply embody as briefly as possible some of the results of my investigations,
selected largely with a view to their interest in New Zealand, where many of the railway officers
have not had an opportunity of personally studying the numerous improvements lately carried out,
and the various experiments and schemes as to further developments.
I feel bound to acknowledge the courtesy I received from the Agent-General and his Secretary,
who did all in their power to facilitate my communications with the Home railway authorities. I
have also to express my most cordial acknowledgments of the courteous treatment I received from
those authorities, who did everything that could possibly be done toward furthering my objects,
inviting me to travel finely over their lines, and to inspect their works and stations, and instructing all
their officers to afford me any assistance I should need.
The railways which received my most careful examination were : the Great Northern (G.N.) ;
Midland; London and North Western (L.N.W.) ; Great Western (G.W.); Great Eastern (G.E.) ;
London, Brighton and South Coast (L.B.S.C,) ; South Eastern (S.E.) ; London and South Western
(L.S.W.) ; and Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire (M.S.L.) : and the officers of all these lines
extended to me the utmost attention and consideration. I may specially mention Mr. Gockshott,
Mr. Fitch, and Mr, Stirling (the Superintendent, Secretary, and Locomotive Engineer) of the Great
Northern ; Mr. Noble (Manager), Mr. Barlow (Consulting Engineer), and Mr. Johnson (Locomotive
Engineer), of the Midland ; Mr. Pindlay and Mr, Webb (General Manager and Locomotive Engineer),
of the North Western ; Mr. Birt and Mr. Worsdell (Manager and Locomotive Engineer), of the Great
Eastern ; Mr, Saunders (Secretary) and Mr. Dean (Locomotive Engineer), of the Gjeat Western ;
Mr. Scott (Manager) and Mr. Adams (Locomotive Engineer), of the London and South-Western ; Mr.
Sarle (Secretary) and Mr. Stroudley (Locomotive Engineer), of the Brighton; Mr. Fenton of the
South Eastern ; and Mr. Scotter (Assistant-Manager) and Mr. Sacré (Engineer), of the Manchester,
Sheffield, and Lincolnshire lines. But I also inspected pretty fully the London, Chatham, and Dover
(L.C.D.), the Tilbury and Southend, the ÎJorth London, the Metropolitan, the North-Eastern (N.E.),
the North British (N.B.), the Caledonian, and the Glasgow and South-Western (G.S.W.) railways,
and devoted some, but less, attention to the Lancashire and Yorkshire, and the North Staffordshire
lines.
I travelled frequently over the whole extent of the railways mentioned, which, in point of fact,
comprise all of importance in the kingdom. My trips included several journeys to and fro between
London and Edinburgh, and London and Glasgow, by each of the three routes—East Coast, Midland,
and West Coast ; also between London and Falmouth, in the west, by both the Great Western and
South-Western routes : London to and from Brighton, Portsmouth, and Eastbourne, in the south : Dover
and Folkestone, in the south-east ; Yarmouth and Lincoln, in the east ; Scarborough, in the north¬
east : Wales, in the west : Liverpool, Manchester, and Holyhead, in the north-west; and the High¬
lands, in the north—extending in the whole to nearly 40,000 miles. I examined the working of all the
chief stations and termini, my visits embracing the whole of the great London stations and all the
principal junctions in the kingdom, including Swindon, Bristol, Birmingham, Chester, Manchester,
Liverpool, Carlisle, Leeds, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Derby, York, Newcastle, Grantham, Peterborough,
Eugby, Crewe, Preston, Normanton, Leicester, Nottingham, Sheffield, Cambridge, Stratford, Brighton,
Ashford, Clapham, Willesden, &c. Further, I visited most of the locomotive and chief carriage
workshops, and, by invitation, thoroughly inspected the celebrated works at Crewe, Doncaster, Derby,
Swindon, Stratford, and Brighton. I was also present at numerous important engineering experiments
with modern types of engines. From the above experiences, I need hardly say I have accumulated a
large quantity of useful and interesting information, a record of which cannot be found in any existing
publication, and which has never yet been collected as a whole in any published work. The present
notes, of course, form but a fraction of this accumulation.
I should mention, at starting, that my notes do not deal in this instance with the financial or
accounts branch of the system but with the engineering and practical working of the lines.
For the sake of greater brevity, and to avoid wearisome repetition of names, I use simply the
initial letters of the titles of the respective railways.
BY CHAELES EOÜS MAETEN, F.E.G.S., F.E.Met.Soc., &c.
:E>S.I0E OISTE S^IXXjEIIiTG-.
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I.—EAILWAY CONSTKUCTION.
Under this heading I purpose to notice briefly four subjects—(a.) Gauges ; (Z>.) Gradients ; (c.)
Curves ; (d.) Permanent Way.
(a.) Gauges.—So many regrets have been expressed that the 3ft. Gin. gauge was adopted as
the New Zealand standai'd, and that to avoid break of gauge" the 6ft. Sin, and 4ft, 8Jin. widths,
originally in use in Canterbury and Southland respectively, were done away with, that I thought it
worth while to compare the working of the two different gauges still used on English main lines—
viz., the broad," or 7ft., and the narrow," or 4ft. 8Jin. I am, of course, aware that a eomparison
between 7ft. and 4ft. 8 i in. gauges is not necessarily analogous to that between 5ft. 3iu. (or 4ft. 8 Jin.)
and 3ft. 6in. There must be a minimum width below which it is impracticable, or at least
inexpedient, to go, with lines intended for passenger traffic : still, a rough comparison may be
instituted with interest, and perhaps with advantage. 1 made a number of experimental trips and
observations with this view. The broad, or 7ft., gauge is still laid the whole way from, London to
Penzance on the G.W., a distance of 326 miles ; also on numerous branches : but the narrow gauge
is laid with it as far as Exeter (194 miles), and has entix'ely superseded the broad on the lengths
extending to Chester, Wales, &c. So there is an abundant field for comparative tests.
I had a clear recollection of the smooth and steady running on the broad gauge in former
years, as contrasted with the uneasy travelling on some narrow-gauge lines. But I found all this quite
changed in 1885. It is true that the broad-gauge running at ordinary express speeds, such as 50 to 60
miles an hour, is as perfect as ever in respect of steadiness and absence of oscillation, but the travelling
is equally perfect on all the great narrow-gauge lines. But at the very high speed of 70 miles an hour
and upward, now compulsorily run daily by scores of English expresses even to keep bare time, the broad
gauge exhibited no superiority to the narrow ; indeed, on several occasions displayed distinctly inferior
steadiness. For instance,running at 76 miles an hour on the broad gauge down the Whiteballlncline
on the G.W. line, near Taunton, the oscillation was far more severe than in the G.N. and Midland trains,
travelling down similar gradients at a like rate of speed. On the two last-named railways I frequently
timed the speed at 72 to 75 miles an hour without any material oscillation being perceptible ; and on
most of the other narrow-gauge lines I occasionally travelled at speeds of 70 miles an hour and
upward with remarkable steadiness. On only three occasions did I record any excessive oscillation
on the narrow gauge. One was on the L.N.W., in descending the Shap Incline at over 70 miles
an hour ; the second was on the Midland, running at a like speed down the Peak Forest bank
approaching Manchester ; the third instance was on the L.C.D., with the Continental mail, going a
little over 65 miles an hour down 1 in 100. On the other hand, I on several occasions timed the
broad-gauge trains down inclines at 73 to 75 miles an hour when there was entire steadiness. Thus,
the net result of the comparison is to leave the two gauges almost equal, with a slight advantage on
the side of the narrow with reference to this one question of steady running, of which much has been
made—that is to say, other things being equal, the 4ft. 8^in. gauge is capable of everything that the
7ft. can offer in the way of speed and steadiness.
From these experiments in England, and from others in New Zealand, I am satisfied that
the capacities of the narrower gauges are far greater than people generally believe. I have two or three
times recorded on the New Zealand 8ft. Bin, gauge, speeds of 50 to 53 miles an hour with the locomotives
at present in use, having driving-wheels only 4ft., or even 3ft., in diameter, therefore having excessive
piston-speed. On the L. and N.W., speeds of 55 to 60 miles an hour are occasionally run down-hill
with Mr. Webb's tank-engine, having wheels only 4ft. Gin. in diameter. Place on our New Zealand lines
engines designed for more speed, with 5ft. Gin. or 6ft. driving-wheels and suitable cylinder-power, and
there will be no difficulty or danger in travelling at a maximum speed of 60 miles an hour on favour¬
able parts of the liues, so soon as it shall be financially justifiable to run at such speed. The relative
narrowness of the gauge will, at all events, prove no impediment.
(è.) Gradients.—But although a narrow gauge is no hindrance to high speed, steep
gradients, sharp curves, and light rails form very serious obstacles. Nothing can exhibit wider
variety and contrast tban the British practice in respect of gradients, not merely as between one line
and another, but also among different sections of the same line. The G.W. has a ruling grade of
only 1 in 1320 from London to Didcot, (53 miles,) thence about 1 in 700 to Swindon (77 miles) ;
subsequently there are two descents of 1 in 100, each extending about a couple of miles, the second
being through the famous Box Tunnel, which, by the way, is only 11 mile in length (much the
same as the Lyttelton Tunnel), instead of 4 or 5 miles as often erroneously asserted; and later,
some short banks of 1 in 200, and one (the Whitehall Incline) of 1 in 89, for nearly 8 miles
approachiug the Wliiteball Tunnel. West of Exeter the gradients are very severe, almost equal to
those on the Wellington and Masterton line (excluding the Fell Incline), banks of 1 in 40 extending
for some miles, especially toward Plymouth, while 1 in GO and 1 in 70 is frequently met with. The
L.S.W. has easy grades to Basingstoke (48 miles), but there are some very severe pulls" of
1 in 100 or steeper for over 60 miles on the Exeter main line, and even 1 in 80 on the direct
Portsmouth branch. The L.B.S.C. has one 2J-mile rise of 1 in 100, beginning 3 miles from London,
and some long grades of 1 in 264 both ways approaching the Merstham, Balcombe, and Clayton
Tunnels. It has also, like the S.W., some much sharper ascents on its direct Portsmouth line. The
S.E. has an ascent averaging about 1 in 130, for nearly 20 miles out of London toward Sevenoaks,
and a similar descent toward Tunbridge, but afterward is nearly level. There are, however^
some stiff "pinches" on the Hastings branch, one being as steep as 1 in 58. The L.C.D. has a
ruling grade of 1 in 100, three-fourths of the line being sharper than 1 in 140. The G.E. has
generally easy gradients, but has a severe bit of 1 in 84 to 1 in 93 near Brentwood, and
1 in 107 at Elsenliam ; also some short two-mile or three-mile lengths of 1 in 130 both ways,
and little stretches of 1 in 100 or more on the Yarmouth section. The G.N. main line
starts out of London with ascents of 1 in 105 and 110 for 2 miles, and then, after a level
interval, 1 in 200 up continuously to about the 13th mile ; subsequently banks of 1 in 178, and
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1 in 200 occur, extending respectively for 5, 4, 15, and 6 miles, with generally corresponding
descents ; also some steeper grades of 1 in 150, 1 in 100, 1 in 70, and even 1 in 56, on the Leeds and
Bradfoid branches. The L.N.W. has easy gradients from London to Crewe (158 miles), none being
\^rse than 1 in 300 on the main line, excepting on the last 12 miles towards Crewe, where there is a
short rise, and then a fall of 1 in 177 to 1 in 250 for about 10 miles. On the Northampton loop,
however, 1 in 200 is the ruling grade ; but north of Preston the gradients are far heavier, banks of
1 in 125 extending for many miles both ways, and a 4-mile length (the Shap Incline) being 1 in 75.
There is also a heavy road between Manchester and Leeds, especially on both sides of the Standedge
Tunnel (3 miles 1 yard), the second longest in Great Britain. The original main line of the Midland
was a very level and easy one, but the three chief extensions more recently completed—those from
Leicester to St. Paneras, and from Settle to Carlisle, and from Derby to Manchester and Liverpool, and
the Sheffield loop lüt the Bradway Tunnel—have some very severe banks. In the first 25 miles out
of St. Paneras there are 10 miles rising 1 in 176. Between Bedford and Leicester there are three
banks, each about 4 miles long, of 1 in 120 (Sharnbrook), 1 in 132 (Desborougb), and 1 in 165 (Kib-
worth) respectively. Approaching Bedford there is a 16-mile descent into the Ouse Valley, mostly
1 in 200, and subsequently descents of 1 in 120 (Irchester), 1 in 132 (Desborougb), and 1 in 165
(Kibworth). On the Settle-Carlisle section there is a l5-mile ascent of 1 in 100, and several shorter
but almost equally steep rises ; a descent of 11 miles at 1 in 100, with some minor falls. On the
Manchester extension there are two banks of 1 in 90 for 6 and 10 miles respectively, and many miles
of 1 in 150 and 1 in 200. On the Sheffield loop there is an ascent and descent of 1 in 100 for several
miles continuously. The M.S.L. line has constant trying gradients, only about a tenth of its whole
length between Manchester and Betford being easier than 1 in 200, while 1 in 125 is the prevailing
grade. There is a continuous rise of 18^ miles at 1 in 125 to the Woodhead Tunnel (3 miles 16 yards
long, the longest in Great Britain), and a descent of 22^ miles at 1 in 110 on the other side. The
N.E. is generally level on its main line, but has banks of 1 in 65 and 1 in 75 on its branches. The N.B.
line has banks of 1 in 70 and 1 in 75 for 8, 9, and 10 miles respectively on its Waverley main line, and
fully 50 miles of 1 in 100 to 1 in 150. On its East Coast main line it has an incline of 1 in 96 for
4^ miles near Grant's House, The Caledonian has a 10-mile bank of 1 in 75 and 1 in 80 near Beattock,
and long distances of 1 in 100 down continuously approaching Edinburgh and Glasgow. The G.S.W.
has a long rise of 85 miles up Nithsdale, with a ruling grade of 1 in 150, and a similar descent for
18 miles toward Kilmarnock. On the Barrhead loop, (used by the chief expresses,) there is a bank of
1 in 69 to 1 in 75 for about 6 miles each way. There is one 2-mile length of 1 in 37—the famous Lickey
Incline—near Bromsgrove, on the Bristol and Derby section of the Midland Bailway. This is worked
with special engines, and involves a stoppage at top and bottom, causing much delay.
Such is the general character of the gradients on which the British locomotive work has to
be done. As compared with the New Zealand Eailways, the ascents which in Great Britain are
deemed excessively steep will not appear very formidable. But there is another consideration to be
taken into account—the higher speed at which heavy passenger trains have to be run in England.
The modern association of three sources of resistance to be overcome by locomotive power—viz., severe
gradients, heavy loads, and high speeds—is constantly taxing the ingenuity of engineers to provide
means of grappling with this triple resistance. The result is that new locomotive types are continually
appearing, and even now the engine-power is by no means equal to the daily demand upon its capacity ;
consequently, that costly and inconvenient expedient, the employment—at a cost of about Is. per
mile—of assistant (or pilot") engines, is in daily use on some of the leading lines.
So keenly has this difficulty been felt on the Midland line, that a very expensive work has
been undertaken for the purpose of lessening the tax on engine-power and coal-c msumption by
diminishing one source of resistance. By the comparatively new loop-hne, through Melton Mowbray
and Nottingham, it is possible to avoid almost all the severe gradients north of Kettering and as far
as Leeds. But south of Kettering there are, as already shown, some very stiff " pinches" to be
surmounted before London can be reached. The heavy traffic necessitates duplication of the main
line, giving four lines of rails throughout ; and this was being steadily carried out while I was in
England. It is now finibhed over the greater part of that distance. But the point to which I wish
specially to direct attention is this : The main line, as I have already explained, has between Bedford
and Kettering an ascent and descent of 10 and 6 miles respectively, to and from Sharnbrook Summit,
the greater part being at the rate of 1 in 120, This is found a most formidable obstacle to traffic—both
passenger and goods. It frequently involves taking a " pilot " on express trains for 50 or 100 miles,
owing to the inconvenience of stopping an express to take on or put off the pilot between the x'egular
stopping places. Thus, I have often known a second engine to be run all the way between
London and Leicester (99 miles) on trains which, but for that pinch of a few miles, woull have been
easily run by one engine. The goods trains suffer similarly, and either have to travel all the way with a
load reduced to what can be taken over the Sharnbrook hill, or else to be divided and luu in two parts,
both veiy troublesome makeshifts. To get rid of this auuoyauce, it was determined by Mr. Barlow,
the eminent Engineer of the Company, that the new relief line—like the Melton Nottingham loop
should nowhere be steeper than 1 in 200. It is curious when travelling along the mam line t x see the
" relief" line, after running by its side lor many miles, begin to dip down and down, until at length it
disappears in a long tunnel many feet below tlie older line, which climbs sturdily over the top of the hill
and descends on the other side—soon to find the relief line emerging far away down in a hollow from
the other end of the tunnel—and still descends rapidly until the two are once more on the same level.
It is estimated that on this relief line eight additional waggons can be taken on every coal train, a
great saving of expense where there is such an enormous niiueral tiaffic. This experience of one of
the best-managed lines in the world coutams a useful lesson in railway construction. The banks of
1 in 70 or 75, which are met with on the Caledonian, on the North British, and for 4 miles on the North
Western, are found a perpetual obstacle and inconvenience ; but it is not economically practicable to
avoid them, and engines oí special strength and weight have had to be built to surmount them. As a
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rule, however, the policy of reducing first-cost and distance by adopting steep gradients is deemed
of doubtful wisdom, where there is large traffic at high speed, in view of the perpetual extra expense
entailed in working. i • n
(c,) Curves.—The curves on the English lines are generally very easy. Anything under 20
chains radius is looked on as exceedingly sharp, but curves of 15 and even 10 chains are occasionally
met with. The sharpest curve on any main line that came under my notice was that by which the
M.S.L. joins the G.N. at Eetford Junction, and that is 7 chains radius, or half a chain sharper than
any curve on the main line in the South Island of New Zealand, It is never rounded at a higher
speed than 10 miles an hour, and usually at a slower rate.
(d.) Permanent Way.—Formidable as are the obstacles to high speed presented by severe
gradients and curves, light rails constitute a still more severe impediment. No sane engineer wou d
approve a rate of 60 miles an hour on 40lb. iron rails, which, until a comparatively recent period, were
almost exclusively used on the New Zealand lines. The rails in use on most of the British main lines
are of steel, of the " double-headed" pattern, weighing from 801bs. to BSlbs. per lineal yard, chaired
on creosoted transverse sleepers lOin. x Sin. in section, and placed 3ft. apart on 2ft. of ballast. On the
G.W. broad-gauge system, bridge-rails weighing only 621bs. to 681bs. per yard are employed, but they are
placed on longitudinal sleepers about 12in. x 6in. in section, which afford a continuous bearing surface
and give improved firmness, but in some degree at the expense of elasticity. An improved plan of
permanent-way has lately been introduced by Mr. Webb, the Chief Mechanical Engineer of the
L.N.W., in which the rails, chairs, and sleepers are all of steel. The initial cost of construction
under this system is somewhat larger, but there is said to be greatly increased durability, with a
consequent reduction in the expense of maintenance. The permanent-way question is one of growing
importance, owing to the enorfliously increased weights that are now being placed on the driving-wheels
of engines—very nearly if not quite 20 tons in some cases, a point to which I shall have to refer later.
Comparing the two ordinary systems with timber sleepers, it may be observed that the longitudinal
plan has the advantage of permitting lighter rails to be used, and of giving enhanced safety in case of
accidental derailment, as in such a case the wheels after leaving the rails run along the longitudinal
sleepers, often without serious damage resulting ; whereas with transverse sleepers they have to
encounter a constant series of obstacles and dangerous shocks. But, on the other hand, the longi¬
tudinal sleepers take much more timber, are more troublesome to lay in the first instance and to
repair afterwards, and involve increased difficulty in draining the road. Consequently the transverse
plan is—outside of the limited broad-gauge system—almost exclusively adopted. A suggestion has
recently been put forth that old rails should be utilised as sleepers, by being cut into suitable lengths
and coupled together in pairs by bolts. It is contended that large economy could be effected by this
device, and the proposal is now under consideration. The plan has already been successfully tried
on some Continental lines. A new departure in one seemingly trivial but really important detail has
lately been taken by the Midland Eailway. Hitherto the wooden keys by which the rails are held
firmly within the chairs have been driven on the inside, in order that the gauge should not be
altered by the accidental loss of the key, while the condition of the line can be more surely and
expeditiously examined, because platelayers could see both rows of keys at the same time. It was
thought that this, although making a very good and strong road, gave that advantage at the cost of
too great rigidity, producing increased wear and tear and less comfortable travelling. The Midland
authorities have therefore decided to place the keys in future outside the rails, with the view of giving
improved elasticity by interposing wood between the steel rail and the iron chair, where the chief
pressure exists. At the same time the ballast, which on that line was not previously allowed to cover
the sleepers, is being raised so as to be above them. The chairs, under the new system, are roughened
on the side in contact with the key, so as to minimise the risk of the latter slipping out. The weight
of engineering opinion seems against placing the sleepers under the joint of the rails, as that plan is
found to give less elasticity.
II.—LOCOMOTIVE PEACTICE.
Generae.—I now come to the subject which received my chief attention—the different systems
adopted by the locomotive engineers for carrying on the traffic on their respective lines ; in other
words, their locomotive practice.
I may observe in limine that there is no nearer approach to uniformity in this respect than there
ever was. There still exists the widest divergence of practice among the chief locomotive engineers,
and it is extremely rare to find a close resemblance between the engines used upon any two lines.
This divergence is being exaggerated, rather than diminished, in the newer type of locomotives that
are now making their appearance. These observations, however, apply chiefly to the engines used on
the express trains, which at present constitute the largest and most important section of the passenger
traffic. For ''short," "branch," and "suburban" woik there is a tolerable uniformity among
the locomotives employed. So, also, with goods engines. But among the express engines the
diversity is quite remarkable. Even on such primary points as "coupled" or "single" driving-
wheels, inside or outside cylinders, single or double framing, and inside or outside bearings, bogies,
or radial axles, &c., locomotive engineers are all at variance. ' '
The Practice on Particular Lines.—I shall first describe as briefly as possible the salient
features of each line's general practice.
The G.W., for its broad-gauge traffic between London, Bristol, and Exeter, still adheres to
the old class of engine, introduced in 1846, of which "Lord of the Isles," shown in the Great Exhibi¬
tion of 1851, is the type : 8ft. " single " diaving-wheels ; cylinders, 18in, x 24in. ; six carrying wheels
4ft. Bin.; heating surface, 1,952 square feet; weight (as rebuilt), 41 tons. Of these there are
25 in use, 19 of which were built in 1847 55 and 6 built in 1880, exact reproductions of as many
which had been broken up as worn out. There are also three bogie-engines, taken over from the old
Bristol and Exeter line, formerly ten-wheeled double-bogie tanks with "single" driving-wheels
5
no less than 9ft. in diameter, but now altered in conformity with the G.W. engines and the wheels
reduced to 8ft. ; and eight other Bristol and Exeter engines resembling " Lord of the Isles," save
in haying 7ft. 6in. wheels. Further, there are several coupled-engines with 6ft. Bin. wheels, but these
are little used. The South Devon and Cornwall traffic, beyond Newton Abbot, is worked by
saddle-tank bogie-engines, with 5ft. 9in, wheels and 17in. x 24in. cylinders, suitable to the sharp
curves and severe gradients.
The G.W. narrow-g^ige engines generally are either 7ft. "single," with IBin. x 24in.
cylinders, or Bit. Bin. coupled, with cylinders 17in. x 24in. Some of the engines with 17in. x 24in.
cylinders have coupled wheels of only 6ft. diameter, for use on the steeper sections in Wales and the
West of England, A new express engine has just been built by Mr. Dean as an experiment, but no
records of its work are as yet available. The design is in several respects novel and interesting. It
has "single" driving-wheels, 7ft. Sin. diameter, with inside cylinder IBin. x 26in. These are
unprecedented dimensions for an inside cylinder engine ; and the effect of the large diameter of the
wheels and the great lengtli of stroke has been to raise the boiler to an unusually high pitch above
the rails. The eccentrics are outside, another novel arrangement. The driving-wheels have inside
bearings only.
On the L.S.W., ^Ir. W. Adams has adopted a uniform pattern of express engines of great
size and weight (46^ tons), having outside cylinders IBin. x 24in., four coupled driving-wheels,
6ft. Bin., and leading bogie. A variation wab introduced in ten of his engines (the ''445" class),
which were given 7ft. wheels, with a view to faster running, but experience has shown that those
with 6ft. Bin. wheels answer equally well at high speed, while, of course, possessing greater tractive
force, and so the latter size has been reverted to in the latest ("470") class. The late Locomotive
Superintendent, Mr. Beattie, adopted in the last engines he built, cylinders of 18Jm. diameter, with
26in. stroke, the coupled wheels being Gft. Gin. ; but the boiler failed to supply sufficient steam to
these large cylinders, which have since been lined up by Mr. Adams to 17in., and the engines as thus
altered do very good work. The 26in. stroke has not been employed in the later engines built. For
the immense suburban traffic on the line, Mr. Adams has built some of the most powerful tank-
engines in England, having outside cylinders IBin. x 24m., 5ft. Bin. four-coupled wheels, a leading
four-wheeled bogie, and radial trailing axles, and weighing no less than 57 tons. These are
exceedingly efficient. A large number of Mr. Beattie's old engines of various classes are still at work,
hut no " single" engines are used on the line.
On the L.B.S.C. Mr, W. Stroudley's practice differs wholly from that of Mr. Adams,
excepting as to the diameter of the driving - wheels, which, as in the case of the L.S.W., is
6ft. Bin. Mr. Stroudley invariably uses inside cylinders instead of outside, and couples his leading and
driving wheels instead of the driving and trailing. He also employs a number of " single " engines.
Mr. Stroudley informed me that when he joined the railway he found no fewer than 72 different classes
of engine in use. These are being gradually alimiuated, and in building new locomotives Mr.
Stroudley adheres rigidly to a very few classes, many of the parts of which are interchangeable. There
are two types of express engines—-the large Bft. Bin. coupled, or "Gladstone" class, which have
cylinders 18Jin, x 26in. (consequently a tractive force of llllbs. per lb. of effective pressure in
cylinders), with very large boiler (heating surface = 1485 sq. ft.), and are used on the heavy expresses
between London and Brighton; and the " Imberhorne " (or " G ") class, which have 6ft. Bin.
" single " driving-wheels, and cylinders 17in. x 24in.—therefore a tractive force of 8B*9Ibs,, the
latter being allotted to the lighter expresses on the Hastings and Eastbourne and Portsmouth
lines. The "Gladstone" engines were preceded by a very similar class known as the "Devon¬
shire" (or " D 3 ") class, which had cylinders lin. smaller, and also less boiler power. Both
the " Gladstone" and the "Devonshire" types are noteworthy for the high pitch of their boilers,
which is not wholly necessitated by the long stroke, but is deliberately adopted by Mix Stroudley
with a view to improved steadiness. This is directly contrary to the opinions of many engineers ;
but little doubt now remains that well-built high-pitched engines are the steadiest in swiit running.
Another peculiarity about the L.B.S.C. coupled engines is the short stroke of their coupling-rods,
which is only IBin., as against a 26in. piston-stroke. This is intended to give greater ease and
smoothness in working, with no material loss of power, A third type, not deemed strictly
"express," but occasionally used on heavy fast trains, is the "Lyons" (or " D 2") class, which
has 5ft. 0m. coupled wheels and 17in. x 24in, cylinders. The L.B.S.C., like the L.S.W,, has
a vast suburban traffic. This is worked by two classes of tank-engines. The " D " class are
practically the " D 2 " with rather smaller boilers and without tenders. The " A " class, or
"Terriers," are admhable little engines, not unlike the New Zealand "F" class on a casual
glance, although having inside cylinders and wing- (instead of saddle-) tanks. They run
on six wheels, all coupled, 3ft. 11 Jin. diameter, and have cylinders 13in. x 20in. They perform
wonderfully good and economical work on the South London lines, including the length which passes
through the Thames Tunnel and under the East London Dock. The other tank-engines are capable
of running express trains if required. Bogies are not used at all on this line.
The S.E. line worked its main through and stopping traffic for more than twenty years
almost exclusively with two classes of engines, brought out about 1860 by Mr. Ciidworth, and these
are still largely in use. Both had outside bearings and IBin. cylinders ; but one had a 22in. stroke
and 7ft. " single" driving-wheels, the other a 24in. stroke and 6ft. coupled-wheels. The former ran
the Continental mails, the latter mostly stopping-trains ; but they were interchanged as required, and
both were useful engines. Mr. Watkin introduced a few Bft. Bin. coupled, with 17in. x 24in. cylinders,
(very similar to the L. and N.W. " Precedent," to be noticed later,) hut these have long been relegated to
slow trains. When Mr. James Stirling came from the G.S.W., he designed an engine resembling
those which he had built for that line, but having coupled wheels 12m. smaller, viz., 6ft., with inside
bearings. The cylinders being IBin. x 26in., it will be seen that this is a very powerful type. Mr.
Stirling also introduced the bogie with these engines, and it has since been supplied to all passenger
6
locomotives. In 1884» Mr. Stirling built at Ashford several new express engines, which are among
the finest and most successful in England, having 19in. cylinders, 26in. stroke, and 7ft. wheels, four-
coupled. These are doing excellent work on the Continental expresses, and some other main-line
trains, taking loads of 22 to 26 coaches with ease up the banks of 1 in 120 ; but owing to the generally
low rate of speed on that line, they are seldom enabled to display their full capacities as to velocity.
The L.G.D. is also a comparatively slow line, with steep gradients and heavy suburban
traffic, for which latter are provided exceptionally powerful tank-#figines, ^ designed by Mr.
Kirtley, having cylinders ITam* x 26in., with 5ft. 3in. four-coupled wheels. The main-line express work
is divided between some older engines with outside driving-bearings and cranks, cylinders 17in. x 24in.,
and four-coupled 6ft. 6in. wheels ("Asia" class), and the newer bogie-engines, with wheels of the
same size, but cylinders 17.^in. x 26in., larger boilers, and inside bearings.
On the G.E. an extraordinary variety of locomotive classes still prevails : but the late Super¬
intendent (Mr. Worsdell) reduced all the new types of passenger engines to four—viz., the latest
single-wheel bogie express engines of his predecessor, Mr, M. Bromley (cylinders 18in. x 24in., driving-
wheels 7ft, 6in.), 20 in number ; his own expresses, having cylinders 18in. x 24in. and 7ft. driving-
wheels, four-conpled, with radial leading-axles, his more recent compound variety of the same class ;
and his eight-wheeled tank-engines, with cylinders 18in. x 24in., four-coupled 5ft. 4in. wheels, and
leading and trailing radial axles, for the suburban traffic, which is extremely heavy.
The Great Northern, always famed for high speed, has seen a steady development of its^ loco¬
motive power from the Hawthorns and Cramptons, with lOin. x 22in. cylinders and Gft. Gin. "single"
driving-wheels, which did such good service from 1850 to 1870, through Mr. Sturrock's 7ft. singles,
(cylinders 17in. x 22in.,) which came in in 18G2, and are still running (with a piston-stroke lengthened by
2in.), and Mr. P. Stirling's earliest engines, 7ft. single wheels, and 172hi- x 24in. cylinders, to the superb
eight-wheeled engines, with 8ft. lin. " single" driving-wheels, outside cylinders 18in. x 28in., and leading
bogie, that now perform the lion's share of the express work on that line, and which stand quite
unsurpassed for their high average and maximum speeds. The new inside cylinder engines, with
cylinders ISJiii - x 2Gin., and 7ft. Gin. single drivers, are still scarcely beyond the experimental stage. Some
of the heaA^y express work is done by very fine " coupled" engines, with 6ft. Gin. wheels, and cylinders
171m. X 26in. ; and a type with leading and driving wheels coupled, 5ft. Gin. diameter, cylinders
17Jin. X 24in., is employed for slew and occasionally for fast traffic. The tank-engines are of similar
dimensions to these last, but have trailing bogies.
The L.N.W. for many years ran its expresses with two classses of "single" engines—
Eamsbottom's " Problem" class (cylinders IGin. x 24in. ; 7ft. Gin. wheel) on the Northern division, and
McConnell's " Bloomers" (cylinders IGin. x 22in. ; 7ft. Avheel) on the Southern. Both did good service,
but most of the latter have recently been condemned, as lacking sufficient power for modern trains.
The former are still kept up for the light fast expresses running hourly between Manchester and
Liverpool, for Avhich they are admirably suited. TlieA are also much used in " piloting " heavy
expresses. Mr. Eamsbottom's latest express engines, however, had 6ft. Gin. coupled Avheels, with
cylinders 17in. x 24in. ; and on Mr. \\ ebb, the pre.-^ent Mechanical Engineer, taking charge, he retained
those dimensions, Avith a larger boiler, forming the Avell-known "Precedent" class, Avhich certainly
have done heavier Avork in proportion to their Aveight (33 tons) than any other English engines, the
same duty being on other lines given to engines from 7 to 14 tons heavier. Before deciding on this
type Mr. Webb tried some experiments to determine the most useful size of diiving-wheel. Taking the
leading side rods off a goods engine, Avith 5ft. 2in. Avheels and cylinders 17in. x 24iu., he thus produced
a four-coupled engine, which he tried on many heavy main line expresses. The engine kept time
fairly, hut the wheels were deemed too small for the highest speeds (although as large as those of
many locomotives used on express work in America), and a diameter of 5ft. Gin. was adopted for a
new type of express engine (40 in number) known as the " Precursor " class. These were and are
employed largely on the heavier sections—viz., Preston to Carlisle and Manchester to Leeds ; but
ultimately it was decided that a 5ft. Gin. wheel was too small for very fast express AVork, and 6ft. Gin.
was the diameter adopted for the " Precedent " class. By the time, however, that 70 of the
" Precedents" had been built, the " Compound " type was devised by Mr. Webb, and this has since
been exclusively maintained. I sliall deal with this system separately. The tank-engines run on
eight wheels, have four-coupled Avheels only 4ft. Gin. in diameter, and cylinders 17in. x 20in., Avith
radial axles to the leading and trailing wheels. The latest of these are compounded.
The history of locomotive development on the Midland line has been very interesting and
characteristic. Without going back to the fine " single" and " coupled" engines, successively built by
the late Mr. Kirtley, each having Gft. 8in. wheels—the former IGin., the latter 17in. cylinders—I may
take as a starting-point the year 1875, when Mr. S. W. Johnson, the present Superintendent, brought
out his first express engines. These had 6ft. Bin. coupled wheels, with cylinders 17in. x 24in., like the
latest of his predecessor's types, and, like them, did admirable AVork. But soon the weight of the
trains increased, and increased power was needed to avoid excessive " piloting," so the diameter of
the driving-AAdieels Avere reduced Gin. in the next locomotive built, i.e., to Gft. 2in., thus increasing the
tractive force to 98*71bs. But next the speed increased, and a hesli type was introduced with
larger wheels (Gft. Gin.) and cylinders (17|in. x 26in). Forty of these Avere built, and ten had bogies,
the first instance of their use on that line for express engines. Development of speed continued, and in
the nc^:t thirty locomotives bnilt the wheels were enlarged to 7ft. diameter, with cylinders ISin. x 26in.
Ihes ffiiave never been surpassed, and are still doing splendid work. But the trains persistently
greAv in weight, and additional tractive force was found necessary. Again the plan of reducing the
Avheel-diameter was adopted, in consequence of the admirable results obtained by rebuilding some of Mr.
Kirtley's engines Avith Gft. Bin. Avlieels, giving them larger boilers, and cylinders 18in. x 26in. These
Í >rm Avhat is knoAvn as the " 800 class," and are among the most successful express engines in the
kingdom. Bo the new engines AA^ere given like dimensions, and differed only in having inside instead
oi outside driving-bearings. Oí these no fewer than 100 were built in 1880-88, thirty having bogies.
7
All are doing capital work. In 1884, however, the great increase in speed on the Manchester and
Leeds service necessitated still greater power, and a new class was brought out, and their driving-
wheels were again enlarged to 7ft., while cylinders 19in, in diameter with 26in. stroke, were used, giving
consequently a tractive force of llllbs. These have been accused of bad steaming, owing to alleged
deficient heating-surface (1,121 square feet), but my own experience of them was exceedingly favour¬
able. They are, however, to be rebuilt, with larger boilers. A new and enormously powerful type of
** single" engine, with outside cylinders and 8ft. wheels, has been designed by Mr. Johnson, but not yet
built. The Midland tank-engines have 5ft. 6in, wheels, coupled in front, and a trailing bogie. The
suburban traffic is large.
The N.E. has for some years adhered mainly to one type of six-wheeled express engines, with
17in. X 24in. cylinders and 7it. driving-wheels, four-coupled. Several outside-cylinder bogie-engines,
remarkable for their extraordinary length of stroke, viz. 30in., were tried experimentally, but have been
condemned and rebuilt with inside cylinders and shorter stroke. A few inside-cylinder bogie-engines
with 6ft. 7in. coupled wheels were built during Mr. M'Donnell's brief tenure of office, but have not
been perpetuated. The newest type have 18in. cylinders, and some of the older engines have had
their cylinders enlarged to 174in. or 18in.
The M.S.L., which has severe and long-continued gradients to contend with, employ two
singularly dissimilar types of express locomotives, both designed by Mr. C. Sacré, the able Engi¬
neer of that line. One has an inside cylinder 17iin. x 26in., four-coupled 6ft, 3in. wheels, with
outside bearings, flush boiler, and leading bogie. The other has outside cylinders, 18in. x 26in.,
single" 7ft. 6in. wheels, with inside bearings, raised fire-box, and no bogie. Both are used on very
similar work, and each does its work to admiration.
The L. and Y. has very little express-work, but carries on a vast " local " traffic over a rather
heavy road, for which powerful tank-engines are used, some having four-coupled wheels 5ft. 8in.
in diameter, and cylinders 17in. x 26in. ; others having six-coupled wheels 4ft. 6in. in diameter.
There are a few express bogie-engines, and these have 6ft. coupled wheels, and cylinders 17in. x 26in,
The N.B., during Mr. Drummond's superintendency, adopted an exceptionally powerful stan¬
dard express type, with 6ft. Bin. wheels, and cylinders 18in. x 26in., to grapple with the long bank
of 1 in 70. Two singles" were built by Mr. Drummond for lighter fast work, with 7ft. wheels, and
cylinders 17in. x 24in., but these have not been multiplied. His successor, Mr. Holmes, at first
adopted cyfinders an inch smaller, but his newest class has 7ft. coupled wheels, and ISin. x 26in.
cylinders ; all have bogies.
On the G.S.W., Mr. J. Stirling was the first to adopt the dimensions—7ft. coupled wheels,
cylinders 18in. x 26in., and bogie, since so popular. His successor, Mr. Smellie, discarded the bogie,
and reduced the wheel-diameter to 6ft. 8in., with advantage in point of power.
The Caledonian Eailway is another instance of multifarious types, but the express work was
for many years divided among three classes: —(1) Single " driving-wheels, 8ft. 2in. diameter, and
cylinders 17iin. x 24in. ; (2) similar engines with wheels a foot smaller ; and (3) with 7ft. 2in coupled
wheels. Since Mr. Drummond has assumed charge, however, all these classes have been virtually
superseded by two new types. First, some old four-coupled goods engines, with 6ft. 2in. wheels and
cylinders 18in. x 24in., have been rebuilt as express passenger engines, with dubious advantage ; and
secondly, his N.B. type has been introduced with good results. Two newer classes are being pre¬
pared, one having 19in. cylinders with 6ft. 6in. wheels, the other IBin. cylindei's and 26in. stroke,
with 7ft. " single " wheels, and a sand-blast (to which I shall make later reference) for diminishing
slipping, the chief drawback of " single " engines.
Some Details of Practice.
So much for the general features of the practice on the leading fines. I will now touch on a few
of the more important details of difference.
Boilers.—Necessarily the boiler is the most important part of a steam-engine, and suitable
boiler-proportions are among the most prominent conditions of good performance ; yet in this parti¬
cular I found just as much variety of treatment as in other respects of locomotive practice. The
length of the boiler barrel varies from about 10ft. 2in. to lift. Bin., its diameter from 4ft. to 4fb. 6in.,
the number of tubes from 200 to 270, and their diameter from Ifin. to 2in., If in. being the most
common size. The heating-surface ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 square feet, about 1,200ft. being the
usual area. No attempt is being made to reproduce in modern engines the excessive heating-surface
of the G.W. " Lord of the Isles " class (1,952 sq. ft.) and of the L. and N.W. " Liverpool " (2,290) ;
but in two of the newest classes, Mr. Webb's Dreadnought " and Mr. Stroudley's " Gladstone," the
area exceeds 1,400ft. Among the chief classes of express engines the following areas of heating-
surface have been adopted :—G.W., 1,278 sq. ft. ; L.S.W., 1,216 sq. ft. ; L.B.S.G., 1,284 and
1,485 sq. ft.; G.E., 1,200 sq.ft.; G.N., 1,021 and 1,165 sq, ft.; L.N.W., 1,074 and 1,450 sq. ft. ;
Midland, 1,121 and 1,318 sq. ft. ; M.S.L., 1,144 sq. ft. ; N.E., 1,208 sq. ft. ; Caledonian, 1,208 sq. ft.
The standard pressure has for some years been 140 lbs., but 150 lbs. and 160 lbs. are now very
commonly employed, and Mr. Webb has adopted even 175 lbs. in his new compound engines. The
higher pressure is found to give far better and more economical results, and is likely to be generally
accepted. Steel is coming largely into use for boilers ; and, although opinions are still somewhat
divided as to its superiority, I gather that the weight of experience is in its favour. Eamsbottom's
duplex safety-valves are in almost universal use. On the G.N. and L.N.W. the two valves are enclosed
within a single column.
Cyliîîders.—I have dwelt on the singular variance among the systems adopted by the
respective engineers, and the absence of any prospect of uniformity. But it cannot be denied that
there is a tendency to fusion on some points. For instance, with respect to the question of inside
and outside cylinders. A few years ago the latter were very largely used—as they still are almost
8
universally in Araeiáca and on the European Continent. In Great Britain, the G.E., L.S.W., ^d
Caledonian employed them on their passenger engines almost without exception. The G.N., L.N.W.,
and M.Ö.L. used them on some express engines with large single driving-wheels.^ But this is
nearly all changed now. The G.E., L.N.W., and Caledonian have entirely ceased building engines
with outside cylinders (although keeping up those previously constructed), and now put inside cylinders
to all new engines. I do not refer to the L.N.W. compounds in this connection, but treat them as a
class distinct from either. The Caledonian stuck faithfully to outside cylinders until the present
Locomotive Engineer, Mr. Drummond, took charge, but now only inside cylinders are applied. The
G.E. built hundreds of engines with outside cylinders before Mr. Worsdell assumed control, but now
only inside cylinders are used, bis successor, Mr. Holden, following in the same course. The L.S.W. is
the only English main line that now uses outside cylinders for all its passenger engines. Mr. Adams
was good enough to explam to me very fully his reasons for this course ; but he is almost alone in
adhering to the plan. His chief inducements were that he dispensed with the dangerous crank-axles,
and that he secured greater accessibility of the working parts. Nevertheless,^ he admitted that there
were the drawbacks of (1) a "pull" too far removed from the middle line of motion, involving
additional strain on the framing ; (2) the exposure of the cylinders to the cold air, with the chilling
effect of its rush past ; and (3) the greater weight necessitated by the outside cylinder-fittings.^ But
he held that, on the whole, the balance of advantage lay Avitli the outside method. Mr. J. Stirling,
on the other hand, who has employed outside cylinders solely with his large express engines having
8ft. " single " driving-wheels, informed me that he only used them to avoid an unduly high-pitched
boiler, wliicli he would have had with his 8ft. wheel and 28in. piston-stroke ; but in spite of the signal
success of these engines, he had determined to try the exj^eriment of building express locomotives
with " single" 7ft. 6in. wheels and IBMn. inside cylinders (i.e., |in. diameter more than the outsiders)
and 26in. stroke (2íd. less). These would avoid both the outside cylinder and the bogie, which latter
Mr. Stirling stated that he was obliged to use in order to admit the outside cylinder, but which he
would otherwise dispense with. A few engines of this class have since been tried with success. On
the opposite side, however, may be instanced the contemplated proceeding of the Midland Locomotive
Engineer, Mr. Johnson, who, after building several hundreds of splendid express engines with inside
cylinders and "coupled" wheels, tells me he has prepared designs for new engines, having " single"
driving-wheels, outside cylinders (of very large size), and a bogie. The construction of these engines
has not yet been sanctioned by the Directors, cuing, I believe, to the great weight proposed to be placed
on the one pair of driving wheels. From a conversation which I had, however, just before I left
England, wdth the General Manager (Mr. Noble), I anticipate that the engines will yet be tried, and,
if so, I am convinced that they will give some remarkable results.
Framing. Little need be said on this point. Although double frames are still used in some
cases, single framing is generally adopted, and the slab system of construction is universal, the
American plan of bar-framing finding little favour among English engineers. Composite or "sand¬
wich" framing is still maintained in some classes on the G.W.
Bearings.—With regard to inside or outside bearings, I may remark that the latter are
seldom used now for the coupled wFeels of new engines. Mr. Sacré, on the M.S.L., has been
among the last to build coupled express engines with outside bearings and cranks, as was Mr.
Armstrong on the G.W. in respect to goods engines ; but inside bearings for coupled wheels are now
all but universal. At the same time, some of the older locomotives with outside bearings, such as
the " 800" class on the M.R., are recognized as among the best and most useful in the country. In
the most recent types of engine, however, designed by Mr. Dean on the G.W., he has reverted to
outside bearings, but be is, I believe, the sole English engineer who em^doys that plan at the present
time. Outside bearings are nevertheless still sometimes used in the rare instances of " single" wdieel
engines with inside cylinders being constructed, but the latest types of this class have inside bearings.
Mr. Ötroudley's newest " singles" on the L.B.S.C. have inside driving-bearings, as also have the latest
inside cylinder "singles" on the G.N. and Caledonian. The carrying-wheels, excepting in the case
of the L.B.S.C., have almost invariably outside bearings.
The Bogie.—Opinions are much divided on the bogie question. The G.W., L.N.W., and
L.B.S-C. reject the bogie altogether, even for their tank-engines, and substitute radial axle-boxes.
The G.N., as I have before said, accepts the bogie reluctantly for one class of express engines, but
uses it freely on tank-eugines. The G.E. dispenses wfith bogies, save on the compound engines. The
Midland uses it for all tank-engines, but of the new express engines there are more without than
wfith it. The L.S.W. uses it on all new passenger engines. So does the S.E,, since Mr. J. Stirling
took charge, and the L.C.D, since Mr. Kirtley came. The M.S.L. uses it with the coupled engines
but not wdth the " singles," thus reversing the G.N. practice. The N.E, does not use it on express
engines. The G.S.W. waivers between the tw^o systems, which seem to be adopted in turn. The N.B.
and Caledonian now^ build all passenger engines with bogies. Cf the 14 principal lines it may be said
that five (L.S.W,, S.E., L.C.D., N.B., and Caledonian) now use the bogie invariably; five (G.W,,
L.B.S.C., G.E., L.N.W., and N.E.) do not use the bogie at all on new engines, but prefer radial
axles ; and the remaining four (G.N., Midland, M.S.L., and G.S.W.) sometimes use bogies and some¬
times radial axles, witliout apparently haying any fixed rule in the matter. Cn the Midland, indeed,
the comparative experiments between the two systems failed to show the slightest advantage in favour
of either. Engines of the " 1282 " and " 1312 " classes—which only differed in being with and without
bogies—and of the " 1327 " and " 101 " classes—which were of larger dimensions, but also had only
that one point of difference—were tried on similar w^ork for 100,000 miles each, the result being, as Ï
have said, that no superiority was found in the bogie-engines, while they were necessarily more
costly. But on lines where there are sharp curves it seems generally agreed by engineers that the
bogie is useful. Cn our New Zealand lines, with curves of 1\ and even 5 chains radius, there might
be thouglit to be little doubt on this head ; yet it must not be forgotten that some of our best work is
done wuth six wheel-coupled engines of the " F" class, which have not bogies. The plain fact is that
the question is still a moot one.
9
Steam Domes,—Anotlier point on wbicli the practice of locomotive engineers is curiously
divergent is the use of domes. On some lines the engines have always taken steam from a dome ;
others have preferred the perforated pipe. The G.W. has dispensed with the dome until lately, but
Mr. Dean, the present Locomotive Engineer, has adopted it. The L.S.W., L.O.D., L.B.S.C., G.E.,
L.N.W., Midland, M.S.L., N.E., N.B., and Caledonian have constantly used the dome for many
years past. The S.E. used it until the advent of Mr, J. Stirling, who discarded it in favour of
the perforated pipe. The G.N,, and G.S.W., have generally dispensed with the dome. Its use is
advocated as a preventive of priming, but the same merit is also claimed for the perforated pipe.
An incident came under my notice at Doncaster, Since the opening of the joint line vià March
and Lincoln, the G.E. engines have run to Doncaster and taken water there. Mr, Worsdell, the
G.E. Engineer, complained to Mr. Stirling of the G.N,, that the G.E. engines (which have domes)
primed badly with Doncaster water ; but Mr. Stirling stated that the G.N. engines (which have not
domes) never primed with that water. This is a common illustration of the contradictory testimony
that investigation elicits on such points. The prevalent opinion, however, is undoubtedly in favour
of the dome, and preferably placed on the middle of the boiler barrel.
Single" and Coupled" Driving-wheels,—It will be seen from my summary of general
practice that the final settlement of the moot question whether a single pair of driving-wheels should
be employed with express engines, or whether the driving-wheels should be coupled to a second pair,
is no nearer than ever. A few years ago it seemed as if there was to be a concensus of opinion in
favour of ^'coupled " engines, for, with the exception of the G.N,, no railway was building " single "
engines, and even on that line a large number of " coupled" express engines were being constructed.
But very soon a reaction set in. Mr. Stroudley, on theL.B.S.C., brought out his " Imberhorne" class,
with 6ft. Gin. single " wheels ; Mr. Sacré, on the M.S.L., his fine 7ft. Gin. singles" of the 399 "
class ; Mr. Bromley, on the G.E., his 7ft. Gin. " singles" of the 215 " class. Mr. Stirling, on the
G.N., built a number of 8ft. singles, and finally introduced bis latest class of 7ft. Gin. singles with
inside cylinders ; Mr. Dean, on the G.W., brought out the rebuilds" ('' 157" class, 7ft. single), and
still later his 7ft. Sin. singles with inside cylinders ; while many of the old 8ft. singles (broad-gauge) on
the G.W. were rebuilt as virtually new engines. And now a fresh type of single-wheel engine has
been turned out by Mr, Drummond on the Caledonian, having 7ft. 2in. single driving wheels, with a
sand-blast to improve adhesion and check slipping ; while on the Midland a similar engine is in
contemplation, as the result of lengthened experiments with a coupled engine from which the side-rods
had been removed. It is, of course, manifest that an engine with a single j^air of driving wheels will,
ceteris paribus, run with greater smoothness and freedom than one with two or more pairs of wheels
coupled together. The drawback is that, without placing an excessive weight on the driving-wheels,
it is difficult to prevent slipping. On the G.N. and M.B.L. the weight has been increased confessedly
to 172 on the driving-axle, and really, I believe, to nearly, if not quite, 20 tons—altliough this is
not generally admitted. Necessarily such a heavy load on one pair of wheels is injurious to the
permanent-way ; and it is much desired to devise some means of rendering the engines equally
powerful without this drawback. The device employed experimentally is Mr. Adams' sand-blast,
which directs a small jet of fine sand exactly under the tread of the driving wheels. This would
only he used when a tendency to slipping should be noticed, and particularly in ascending steep
gradients. On the level, or down-hill, the single" engine does its work perfectly without needing
such aid ; it is only up inclines that the coupled engine in some cases beats it. But when no slipping
takes place the single " engine holds its own excellently, and, if this could always be ensured, the
disadvantage of placing 32 tons on four coupled wheels would be obviated, and superior freedom of
running would be obtained. No finer work is done in England than by the G.N. 8ft. and the M.S.L.
7ft. Gin. singles ; and they are also asserted to be economical in coal consumption. On the other
hand, equally good work appears to he done by such engines as the Midland 6ft. Bin. and 7ft. coupled,
the L.ts.W. 6ft. Gin. coupled, and others of that class; but it is said that their consumption of coal
is greater. On this point I can give no definite information. Nothing is more difficult than to
ascertain satisfactorily and authoritatively the coal consumxition of rival classes of engines. To give
one illustration : A certain class (A) was said to burn 29ibs. per mile, as against the 331bs. of
another class (B) on a different line. But a new ty^ie (0) was brought out on the former railway, and
then the coal consum2)tion of (A) was put at 3Ilbs., as contrasted with (C s) 30Ibs. This causes one
to accex^t all rex)orts of comx^arative coal cousumx:)tion with a good deal of caution. But there is no
doubt that the express engines on all the leading lines are doing admirable work on a relatively small
consumption of fuel ; and, after a year's careful comx^arison of the re^^ult, I find it almost impossible
to award the palm of siqieriority conclusively to any one type, or even to x^i'onouuce decisively in
favour of either " single" or " coupled" wheels ; I can only say that both perform their work superbly.
All coupled wheels larger than 5ft. Gin. arc coupled behind, excepting on the L.B.S.C., vliere Mr.
Stroudlev couples his leading and driving wheels, altliough Gft. Gin. diameter, holding that he can thus
get in a larger boiler than if the wheels were behind ; and as a result he has an engine weighing only
38 tons, of coiibiderahly moie boiler-x^ower and tractive force than many others w^eighing five to nine
tons more, because the lighter part of the engine is carried on the small trailing-wheslb, and the hulk
of the engine's weight is utilized for purposes of adhesion.
Weights. The present tendency is to increase the weight of locomotives. The most
common weight of new engines is from II to 43 tons, but on the Caledonian, N.B., and L.B.W. it
rises to 45, 40, and even 47 tons. The lightest modern express engines are the G.AV. 7it. singles
and the L.N.W. Oft. Gin. coupliid, both of which weigh almost exactly 33 tons. The weights placed
on the dri\iug-wheels for adhesion purposes have been noticed in the x'>revious section. The tenders,
loaded, weigh from 25 to 30 tons, carrying 3 to 3J tons of coal and 3,000 to 3,200 gallons of water.
All run on six wheels.
Water-Supply,—The necessity of carrying over 3,000 gallons of water in order that the long
runs of 90 to 105 miles may be made without stojiping to replenish, is felt as a great burden, bemg
10
equivalent (including tlie extra weight of tanks, &c.) to an extra vehicle on the load ; but on only one
line is any plan adopted for obviating it. On all parts of the L.N.W. the scoop and trough apparatus
invented by Mr. Ramsbottom for picking up water without stopping is in successful use. A shallow
trough, about 400 yards in length, is laid between the rails in such a position that it shall be approached
from each end by a slight descent. The tender has a pendent hinged pipe terminating in a " scoop,'
which on being lowered enters the trough, and, encountering the water with a velocity which must
not be less than about 25 miles an hour, and which often exceeds GO, causes the water to rush through
the scoop up the pipe into the tender-tank. Owing to the short incline by which the level trough is
approached at each end, the lowered end of the scoop is carried over the end of the trough without
coming into contact with it. These troughs are placed at numerous points along the line, and this
frequency of available supply enables the engines to can^y only 1,500 to 1,800 gallons instead of 3,200,
and so, taking into account also the reduced weight of the receptacle, a saving in load of fully one
vehicle is estimated to be effected. It is a little curious that this plan should not have been brought
into use on other lines. I may mention that 1 have been on the engine when water has been picked
up while travelling at a speed of 70 miles an hour.
Compound Engines.—The various schemes in the direction of compounding locomotives, with
the object of securing the great economical advantage obtained by the application of the com¬
pound principle to marine engines, received much of my attention. Three systems are being tried,
but only two can be said to have passed as yet beyond the preliminary experimental stage, while
they are still the subject of heated controversy and much misrepresentation in the public Press.
They comprise (1.) the two-cylinder plan, which is no novelty, but has been adopted and improved by
Mr. Worsdell, first on the G-.E., and now on the N.E ; (2.) the three-cylinder type, invented by Mr.
Webb of the L.N.W. ; and (3.) the four-cylinder tandem system, now under experiment on the
G.W. and N.B. lines, Mr. Worsdell frankly admits that he claims no inventive credit as to his plan.
The idea of having one high-pressure and one low-pressure cylinder, the latter taking steam from the
former, is a very old one, but has not hitherto been brought into practical use. Mr. Worsdell has
greatly simplified the appliances necessary for enabling the steam to be used twice over, and his
engines are working very successfully. He places his cylinders inside, the high-pressure being 18in.,
and the low-pressure 2Gin. in diameter, making room by employing the Joy valve-gear ; admits the
steam to the high pressure cylinder at IGOlbs. pressure, and then discharges it into the low-pressure
at 801bs. To prevent difficulty at starting, through the high-pressure rod getting on dead centres, he
provides for the direct admission of steam with the low-pressure cylinder, which has a valve set to
blow ofi' at BOlbs., and so enables that to be used at the start. When the engine is well
under way, the admission-valve is closed, and all steam must pass through the high-pressure
cylinder. There are four 7ft. coupled driving-wheels ; and the liability to breakage or bending
of the side-rods is minimized by running a deep flute along the faces of the rods, thus obtaining
larger sectional area and consequently increased strength and stifihess—without increased weight.
Mr. Worsdell informs me that he has had no side-rods broken since the adoption of this
plan ; and as the accident is cue of a very dangerous character at high speed, the improvement is a
valuable one. The double-cranked axle is, of course, necessarily retained. Eleven of these engines
have been built for the G.E., and one more recently for the N.E., since Mr. Worsdell took charge on
the latter line. They are doing most satisfactory work. From observation on the foot-plate, with
express trains, I am able to say that they run well and smoothly at high speeds, pull heavy loads with
ease, and start promptly, even on gradients of 1 in 84 and 1 in 93. I made a special observation to
this effect with No. 230, on the G.E., which, with a train of 160 tons (exclusive of engine), started
readily from Brentwood on the grade of 1 in 84, pulled quickly away to the summit, and then, in
descending the bank toward Chelmsford, attained a speed of 70 to 72 miles an hour with thorough
steadiness. Mr. Worsdell estimates the saving in coal consumption at 4Uhs. per mile, or nearly
15 per cent., an important saving with a yearly mileage of some 25,000 miles per engine. Mr. Webb's
three-cylinder compound is an entirely new departure. He drives each pair of wheels separately, the
trailing pair by two high-pressure cylinders placed outside, and the front pair by one larger low-
pressure cylinder inside. Consequently the axle of the latter has only one crank, the webs of which
are very long and disposed at an obtuse angle, so as to get rid of the sharp bends of the right-angled
crank. He is thus able also to dispense with the coupling-rods. The apparatus by which the steam
is taken from the two high-pressure cylinders and sent into the low-pressure cylinder is by no means
complicated, and works with great ease and simplicity. The first 30 engines built on this plan had
two high-pressure cylinders 13in. diameter, and one low-pressure 2Gin,, the piston-stroke being in
each case 24in., and Gft. Gin. driving-wheels. The 30 more recent compound engines have two 14in.
high-pressure cylinders, one 30in. low-pressure, and Gft. driving-wheels, with much larger boilers ; the
whole weighing 42 tons, against the smaller compounds' 36. A test of 80,000 miles with the first of
these engines showed the large saving of 25 per cent., or 81bs. per mile, in coal. It has been disputed
whether the average consumption of the 60 compounds shows any large saving, and some coal-sheeta
have been adduced in disproof. I find, however, on analysis that no account has been taken of the
fact that the compounds are employed on the heaviest express work, and I believe that when all the
sources oí resistance-—weight, speed, gradients, curves, and weather—are taken into account, the
results obtained from the compounds are found to be very favourable. The Directors of the L.N.W.,
the most important railway in the Kingdom, have at any rate indicated their satisfaction by authorizing
the construction of GO engines on this principle, at a total cost of about £150,000. I made a large
number of observations on their working, and was present, by Mr. Webb's invitation, at some
interesting experiments. I found their work to be almost invariably good. It was freely alleged in
the engineering papem that they could not keep time with fast trains. My experience entirely
contradicts this assertion. On only one occasion did I record any serious loss of time—viz., lOmin. on
the Scotch exjiress between Nuneaton and Willesden; hut that was caused by a slight mishap to the
machinery. In other cases time was gained with heavy loads. Ascending gradients, they performed.
11
very well and steadily. Descending, they certainly appeared to me to run with less freedom and
speed than the coupled class of similar nominal power; but I timed the smaller class at 65 miles an hour
down a bank with a load of 145 tons, and the larger class with a similar load at 67 miles an
hour down the Madeley bank of 1 in 177 and 1 in 250. This is very good work. I was also on the
foot-plate of No. 503 when, in one experiment, she took at slow speed twenty-five coaches, averaging
12 tons weight (or 300 tons, exclusive of engine and tender,) up a g;adieiit of 1 in 75, with sharp
curves ; and I have the diagram of a trip with No. 508, when she took an ijrdinary train of 256 tons
weight up the Shap Incline. These are very creditable performances for any engine. Lastly, I come
to the four-cylinder tandem system, in which the cylinders are grouped in pairs, one in front of the
other. This is being tried by Mr. Holmes on the N.B. with the very engine that fell into the Tay
when the old Tay Bridge was blown down. It has not got beyond experiment, however, on that line.
On the G.W,, Mr, Dean has built two new compounds on this plan, wdth 7ft. coupled wheels, but
with these also it is too soon to express any opinion as to the value of the system. More will doubt¬
less be known after the engines have had a few mouths' trial. On the whole, it will be seen that the
compound idea is having a full and careful test in England. It is being tried on a N.E. goods engine
also, and Mr. Webb has built some compound engines for a South American railway, of only 2ft. 4in.
gauge, which are stated to he showing excellent results. If it could be applied to the New Zealand loco¬
motives and should give the great economy claimed, the saving on 250 engines, averaging 20,000 miles
each, would be equivalent to a substantial dividend. I may add that Mr. Webb has tried it on two
tank-engines engaged in suburban work on slow stopping trains, more resembling the New Zealand
services, and the saving of coal is reported to be as in the case of the express engine, almost 25 per
cent. The experiment is well worth trying in this colony.
Goods Engines,—There is so much similarity among the goods engines of the various lines,
and so little change in their type during the last 20 years, that I need not devote much space to this
branch of my subject. Goods engines may be averaged as having six-coupled 5ft. wheels, and cylinders
I7in. X 24in. Tiae wheels seldom vary more than from 4ft. lOin. to 5ft. 2in., and the cylinders
rank from 17in. x 24in. to 18in. x 26in., the engines weighing about 40 tons. The mineral engines on
the L.N.W. have 4ft. 8in. wheels, and some shunting engines 4ft. 6in., but the usual dimensions are
as above. Some years ago, more powerful types were tried on the G.N. and G.E., both having lOin,
cylinders, the latter being built on the so-called "Mogul" pattern, similar to the New Zealand engine
of " J " class, only of course very much larger. These drew far heavier trains ; but practical experience
proved that it was not convenient or economical to haul trains of more than 40 waggons loaded or 50
empty, and that trains of greater length were awkward and troublesome to deal with, especially in
view of siding accommodation and the requirements of shunting. So the G.N. has reverted to
17Jm. X 26in. cylinders, and the G.E. to 17-^in. x 24in,, and these, with 5ft. or 4ft. lOin. wheels, are
found to constitute the most useful dimensions for goods engines. On the N.B., 18in. x 26in. cylinders
are used, owing to the long banks of 1 in 70 which have to be ascended ; but in ordinary circumstances
such great power is not required.
Painting.—The question of an engine's colour may seem a very trivial one, but scarcely so
when it is mentioned that, by a change in the colour adopted for paintiug the engines, the Midland
Company is said to be saving £5,000 a year. This may be an exaggeration, but I am assured that
the saving is very substantial, owing to the greater covering and preservative and lasting qualities of
the new paint used. Some years ago green, dark or light, was the almost universal colour chosen,
but now it seems fast dying out. It is still used on the G.W. (bluish), G.N. (light), M.S.L. (olive),
G.S.W. (dark) ; but the L.N.W,, S.E., and L.C.D. have ado}ded black ; the L.B.S.C., and N.B.,
yellow; the L.S.W., and N.E., brown; the Caledonian and G.E., blue; and the Midland red, all
being picked out with lines of different colours. Polished brass-work is rapidly disappearing, the
plan being to paint over everything. The Russian iron jacketing so much seen on American engines
is not used in England.
Coaches. So vast and various are the changes and improvements in the passenger carriages—
or "coaches " as they are technically called—that I can only deal with them very cursorily within the
limits of my present space. The advantages of the bogie—disputed with regard to engines seem
almost universally admitted in the case of carriages, the only important lines that still decline to
adopt it being the L.N.W. andL.B.S.C., a system of radial axles being preferred. Perhaps the two
most prominent departures from former practice are the improvement of the third-class carriages and
the introduction of Pulman's day-and-night cars. For both of these the English railway world is
indebted to the Midland line ; but the movement, once started, rapidly spread, and it is now only on
Buch non-progressive lines as the S.E. and L.C.D,, which, moreover, have a virtual monopoly of the
districts served, that the wretched old uncomfortable third-class vehicles are still to be found in use
on main-line services ; and even they are gradually changing for the better. The third-class carriages
used on the Midland, G.N., L.N.W., G.E., and G.W. main trains are quite as comfortable as the
first-class some years ago. They have ample space, comfortable padded seats and backs, parcel-nets,
foot-warmers in cold weather, and practically every comfort of tlie first-class excepting arms to the
seats, which are not indispensable to travelling happiness. And, further, they are run on nearly all
the express trains on all but three lines. The only exceptions are the fast Exeter broad-gauge
expresses on the G.W., the Irish mails on the L.N.W., and the " Flying Scotchman" express on the
G.N. But all the other expresses on those lines, and all the Midland, G.E., and L.S.W.
expresses, carry third-class passeiigers. None of the expresses on the S.E., L.O.D., and
L.B.S.C. carry them ; indeed, the last-named line does not carry even second-class on its
principal expresses, and (like the S.E., L.C.D., and the L.N.W. on its Irish mails) continued
until lately the antiquated plan of charging extra fares by express train. This has recently been
abolished on the L.B.H.O. through the advocacy of its new Manager (formerly Secretary), Mr. Allen
Barle. But, on the other hand, it is only fair to remember that the Brighton, Dover, and Folkestone
expresses are already so heavy, although carrying only first, or first and second-class passengers
12
at increased fares, that to add third-class would probably involve running the trains in duplicate. As
it is, they frequently have 22 to 26 coaches—even the Brighton special, which only takes first-class ;
and Mr. Stroudley's " Gladstone" type, and Mr. J. Stirling's 19in. cylinder engines, were built on
purpose to haul these heavy loads in time. The speed, however, is not very high, and bears no
comparison to that of the Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Birmingham, and Scotch expresses. Ther
Pulman cars enjoy only a moderate popularity, the standard English coach with transverse compart¬
ments being generally preferred. The Pulman drawing-room cars for day service are models of comfort,
and must not be confounded with the ordinary American carriages erroneously called Pulmans" in
New Zealand, which resemble them only in skeleton. True Pulmans have a swivel easy-chair for every
passenger, afiording a comfortable rest for the head, while a full view is obtained of the passing scenery
through the large low windows along both sides of the car. There are also foot-stools and tables for the
passengers' use, and a chefibnier, on which a supply of papers and periodicals is kept. A luxurious
smoking-cabin " is partitioned off for those who love the fragrant weed ; and there is also a private
apartment for a small party desiring to travel separately. Lavatory and other accommodation is
Xirovided ; the car is well warmed with hot-water pipes ; and in a small cabin an attendant is
stationed, who supplies hot coffee, &c., as required. The dining-cars are fitted with every convenience
for meals, and the cuisine is very compiehonsive. The Pulman sleeping-cars are the perfection of
travelling comfort. The beds are made on buuks along each side of the car, separated one from the
other by curtains. A wide, soft, and luxurious bed, with spring-mattrass, and scrupulously clean
sheets, pillows, and blankets, is provided. An attendant takes charge of the tickets, calls the
passenger when desired, brushes his clothes, cleans his boots, and has biscuits and a cup of hot coffee
ready for him when he rises in the morning ; while the provisions for ablution are all that could be
desired. I have never slept in more comfortable beds than those in the English Pulman cars. The
ordinary sleeping-cars may be somewhat less cosy, but are by no means bad. It is, how¬
ever, a grave defect in the British arrangements that no sleeping-cars are provided for
the third-class passengers, who are the mainstay of the railways. The ordinary first-class
carriages have movable arms to seats, which fold back if wanted, so that a passenger can lie
at full length. The second-class coaches differ so little from the third that they call for no
separate notice. They have long been abolished altogether on the Midland line, and, more
recently, to a partial extent on the G.N. Their ultimate extinction on the main through trains is
only a matter of time, for two classes suffice for all requirements. On the suburban traffic, however,
it may probably be necessary to retain them. The means of communication between passengers and
guard are still of a somewhat crude type, consisting generally of a cord run along one side of the
carriage, and connected with a bell in the guard's van. This on long trams involves the necessity of
hauling in a considerable length of slack," as allo^vance has to be made for the compression and
extension of the buffers. An electric mode of intercommunication has been introduced on some lines
with fair success, and this doubtless will ultimately become general. The w^arming of the ordinary
carriages in cold weather is still very defective, metal foot-warmer s changed at long intervals being
the only provision ; but several plans are under consideration for improvement. The lighting
question is also one on which wide diversity of opinion aud practice exists. Compressed gas is now
very largely used, and gives an excellent light. Electricity is regularly employed on the Brighton
express, and on the Liverpool-Manchester local expresses, but it is not yet in general adoption. When
I was in England, experiments were being made on the G.N. Avith a new petroleum lamp, which bade
fair to prove the most suitable and economical of all, throwing a splendid light downward, and costing
little either to procure or maintain, being not liable to injury, Avhile the oil can be obtained at a very
low price.
Brakes.—The "battle of the brakes" has assumed a magnitude Avhich completely dwarfs the
old " battle of the gauges," and the literature of the subject is enormously voluminous. I shall
not attempt to enter into any details in this paper. Continuous brakes are in almost universal use on
the main lines, and in some cases on suburban lines also. My own preference goes with the
Westingliouse SAstein, with which I witnessed many remarkable stops made from high speeds wdth
heavy trains. But the vacuum-brake also gave excellent results, so far as my experience went, and
many of the raihvay engineers declare emphatically in its favour as against the other. I cannot help
suspecting, ho\\ ever, that a prejudice against the Westinghouse has been excited in the minds of some
railway authorities by the injudicious means adopted for pushing it. It is within my own absolute
knoAvledge that this has been the case in one or two instances. The Westinghouse brake is adopted
on the G.E., L.B.S.C., N.E,, the Midland Scotch trains, and on the Scottish railways generally; the
other lines use the vacuum. The L.N.W. long adhered to the chain-brake, which has latterly been
relegated to obscure branches. A new air-brake, by Mr. Webb, is noAv under trial. It has been
demonstrated that in favourable circumstances the Westinghouse brake has pulled up a train Aveighing
203 tons (including engine and tender) from a speed of 52 miles an hour in Ibsecs., and in a distance
of only 805 yards. So far as I am aAvare, no other l)rake has yet gLen equal authentic results.
Signals.—The semnphore is now almost exclusively employed for daylight signalling. A new
pattern of semaphore has been adopted by the G.N., in Avhich the signal-arm, instead of being
piA^led to the post, is attached at right angles to a lever fixed crank fashion, so that when the arm is
loAA^ered it stands out clear of the post aud parallel to the latter. The danger-signal is in all cases the
horizontal position of the arm ; but the safety-signal is on some lines a A^ertical position, and on some
an angle of 45 degrees. In the former case the angle of 45 deg. is sometimes used as a " caution"
signal, but this is generally condemned ; and with the block system, now commonly adopted, only the
two signals "Stop" and "Goon" are required. There is a similar variety in the night signals.
Bed always means " Danger "or " Stop but green means " Caution " (or " Slacken ") on some lines,
and on others " All right " or " Go on." Again, in some cases a white light is the " All right " signal,
and in others a white light is to be deemed "danger," as implying that the red glass is broken.
A purple light is occasionally used at large terminal stations (as at Lime-street, Liverpool,)
13
for a danger-signal, and it is here and there similarly employed on ''distant" signals. The
variety of practice on this important point is distinctly objectionable, and a source of peril. Several
devices have been tried for giving a direct warning to the engine-driver, as is done by the detonating
fog-signals, but hitherto the only plan that has come into practical use is one devised by Mr. Webb
on the L.N.W. for use in foggy weather. The wheel of the engine depresses a spring lever that
forces down a bellows, which, on being released, blows a small French h >rn, and thus warns both the
driver that he is passing a signal-box, and tlie signalman that a train is passing on that line. The
effect of a number of these little horns sounding at a large terminal station in foggy weather is very
curious. The plan appeals to answer well. The practice of interlocking signals and points is in use
at all important junctions, and is absolutely indispensable to safety.
Miscellaneous. All modern engines are fitted with iron " cabs," of a simple but adequate
character. Speed-gauges are but little used, save on the L.B.S.C., where a very efficient device is
employed. Pacing-points are carefully avoided on all main lines, and are hardly ever to be met with
except at large junctions, where they are inevitable ; in other cases back-shunts are adopted. Slip-
carriages are much used on some lines, and stations are thus served without stoj^ping the trains, I
have known as many as eleven slip-coaches to be attached to a G.W. train, but this is manifestly
excessive. On that line, too, no fewer than three sets of slip-carriages, each with its own guard and
brake, are sometimes taken by one train. This also is objectionable. On the O.N. and G.W. the
slip-coaches are detached at full speed ; on most other lines there is a slack for the purpose of detach¬
ment. Among the station appliances for passengers' convenience may be specially noticed the ample
lavatories, where, at a nominal charge, comfortable ablution can be enjoyed, the clothes be brushed,
boots cleaned, &c. They are usually managed by railway servants who have been partially disabled
by accident, and thus incapacitated for more active service. The refreshment arrangements are
generally excellent. The Scotch express dining-rooms at York, ISTormanton, and Preston, where a
half-hour's pause is made, and a most excellent dinner of seveial courses is supplied for 2s. bd., are
worthy of the highest praise ; and all the great stations are ^vell provided in this respect. Further, on
every refreshment counter a row of plates is placed, each containing a capital "stand-up " cold luncheon
of meat or eggs for Is. ; and sandwiches of the best quality, as also tea and coffee, can always be
obtained at very moderate prices. But perhaps the best feature of all in this particular is the luncheon
basket, which can be procured at any leading station by merely giving an order to a porter, the empty
baskets being collected by the train guard when done with. These baskets contain half a cold chicken,
some ham or tongue, salad, a small loaf, butter, cheese, salt and mustard, a bottle of beer or claret,
tin plates, knives and forks, tumbler, corkscrew, and table napkin, and the charge is only 3s., or,
without wine or beer, 2s. 6d. A similar basket, but containing a hot steak or chop, can be ordered
of the guard, who telegraphs to the next refreshment station ahead. These methods might well be
tried in New Zealand.
Among the points in English railway management calling for condemnation are—first of all,
the neglect on the part of some companies to fit their trains with efficient automatic continiums brakes,
and this in spite of the reiterated exhortations of the Board of Trade Inspectors, and the terrible
warnings conveyed by disastrous accidents, which might have been averted or mitigated in severity and
fatality had adequate brake power been available. Another shortcoming is the failure to provide
couplings which can be manipulated without imminent danger to the railway servants. Even New
Zealand is ahead in this respect, through the use of central buffers, which at least diminish the risk.
Another defect is the practice relating to smoking carriages. On some lines any first-class carriage is
allowed to be turned into a " smoker," if required, by the clumsy process of pasting a label on the
window. The result is that many carriages are rendered horribly foul by the stale tobacco fumes ; and,
as no spittoons are provided, this neglect adds dihgustiugly to the general otfensiveness. I was surprised
to find that the simple plan employed in New Zealand smoking carriages was not adopted in England
—namely, a countersunk aperture in the floor.
I have not left myself space to deal in this paper with station management, although I devoted
considerable time to its inspection, armed with the courteous authority from the managers to obtain
full information. I can only record my admiration for the thorough efficiency and simplicity of the
systems generally adopted. I may treat this point more fully in a future paper. Nor can I now
enter at length into the working of the goods and mineral traffic, which has attained such vast
proportions in Great Britain. That, too, must be left to a future occasion.
III.—LOCOMOTIVE WORK.
General.—The best idea of the work required from modern engines may be gathered from
the respective working-tables, copies of which were courteously placed at my disposal. These show
that there are in the summer no fewer than 105 runs timed to be made daily, from start to stop, at
an average speed of 50 miles an hour and upward. In the winter this list only falls to about 95.
The highest average speed at which a train is timed from start to stop is just 51 miles an hour.
It is run by the Manchester up special express, on the G.N. line, whicli also performs the longest
run in the world without a stop, 105 miles 2G chains, timed to be done in 1 h. 57 min. Some
apparently longer runs, shown by "Bradshaw's Guide " and " Whitaker's Almanac," are not genuine,
an intermediate stop being made m each case either for water or for mail purposes. Another G.N.
train comes next, the Leeds express, which has one run at 53J miles an hour. The G.W. Exeter
expresses (absurdly called "Flying Dutchman" and "Zulu,") stand third with 5B| miles an hour.
Over the first 77 miles out of London, twm "down" trains, and one "up," are timed at this speed.
The G.N. has no fewer than seven trains, and the G.W. three, timed at an average running speed of
over 53 miles an hour between stopping stations. No other lines quite reach this average rate ; but
there are 25 trains at 52 to 53 miles an hour (these being found on the G.N,, G.W., L.N.W., Midland,
and M.S.L.) ; 27, at 51 to 52 ; and 40, at 50 to 51 miles an hour. The G.N. alone runs 40 trains
daily, at average speeds of 50 miles an hour and upward between stations. This line indisputably
carries off the palm for speed from the whole railway world.
14
The rate at which complete journeys are performed is very remarkable. The East Coast expresses
("Flying Bcotchman," G.N. and N.E.,) run between London and Edinburgh, 392 miles, m nine hours,
with only four stops, (but one is of 30 minutes' duration, for dinner at York), an average speed of 44
miles an hour, including stoppages and several slackenings to 10 miles an hour for junctions and large
stations. The actual running time is 8^ hours ; thus the running speed averages 46*8 miles an hour.
The West Coast route (L.N.W. and Caledonian) is only 8 miles longer, but an additional hour is occupied
on the journey, although the stay for dinner (at Preston) is shorter by five minutes. The Midland
route (Midland and N.B.) is 8 miles longer than the West Coast, but the time is the same, although
the road is by far the heaviest of the three. The lengtli of the runs without stop on all three routes
are noteworthy. On the East Coast, the first three are 105, 83, and 80 miles respectively ; on the
West Coast there are runs of 77, 75, 90, and 84 miles ; on the Midland route there.are three runs of
99, 95, and 98 miles. Taking the three great routes together, there are no fewer than nineteen daily
expresses between London and Edinburgh, averaging about 9|- hours, which represents a mean speed of
41^ miles an hour, including all stoppages, over a 400 mile journey, much of it being on steep» gradients;
while the trains average from 150 to 200 tons in weight, exclusive of engine and tender. The Anglo-
Scottish service is the longest in Great Britain, the service to Ireland having the sea break of 64 miles,
and the railway speed on the latter is not so fast as on the London-Scotland route. Far quicker than
either of these are the London-Leeds services, on the G.N. and Midland. The former (distance 186 miles)
runs in 3hrs. 55 min., averaging 46J miles an hour, including stoppages; and the latter (198 or 204
miles, according to route,) in 4 h. 25 min., averaging 45 miles an hour. In this service the G.N. runs
from London to Doncaster (156 miles), stopping once, in 2h. 58 min. travelling time, or over 52 miles
an hour average. The Midland runs from Kentish Town (London) to Nottingham (1221 miles), also
stopping once, in 2 h. 21 min., equivalent to a like rate of speed. These are among the swiftest trains
in the world. They are only surpassed by one service—the London and Manchester—which is the
fastest of all. The L.N.W. has the shortest route (183 miles) and most level ; the G.N. and M.S.L.
route is 20 miles longer (203 miles) and a much harder one ; the Midland (191 miles) is the hardest
of all, and 8 miles longer than the L.N.W., though 17 miles shorter than the G.N. ; yet all three per¬
form that journey in the same time, 4J hours ; the average speed including stoppages being ; L.N.W.
431 miles an hour, Midland 45, and G.N. 471. The travelling speed, excluding stoppages, is 50 miles
on G.N. and M.S.L., 47 on Midland, and 46^ on L.N.W. The service between Loudon and the West
of England is fast as far as Exeter ; but the severe gradients and curves cause the Devonshire a
Cornwall continuation to be relatively slow. The services between London and the East, South-east,
and South of England are only moderately rapid, the quickest trains averaging from 40 to 47 miles
an hour.
Of the " local" services between large towns situated near together, the one which eclipses every
other of this kind in the whole world is that between Manchester and Liverpool. Every half-hour an
express runs each way from one city to the other in 45 minutes, including one, two, or three stops of
two minutes each. The distance is 31^ miles by the L.N.W., 34 by the Cheshire line. The latter,
which is worked by the M.S.L., has also four trains performing the journey "without stop in 40 minutes
each way. Allowing for the delays of starting, slackening, and stopping, a speed of 60 to 70 miles
an hour has to be kept up most of the way by all these trains. There is no similar service in England
or elsewhere. The suburban services are in most cases comparatively slow, owing to the crowded
condition of the lines, and average from 25 to 35 miles an hour. Heavy tank-engines unsuitable to
high velocities are chiefly employed. Once, how^ever, I found one of these tank-engines, on the G.W.,
attain a speed of 70 miles an hour down the Gresford incline, in Wales ; but this was a very unusual
performance for such an engine.
The Vahious Lines Compaeed.—The G.W. still has, as already mentioned, two distinct services,
broad-gauge and narrow-gauge, each equipped throughout with its own special rolling-stock. The
general average of the speed is low, but it has six very fine trains : the four broad-gauge expresses
to and from Exeter, and the two narrow-gauge, respectively to and from Birkenhead. These are much
of equal merit. The broad-gauge trains are a little quicker (452 miles an hour gross, as against 441
on the narrow) ; but they have an easier road, stop more seldom, and do not carry third-class
passengers. Making allowance for these conditions the narrow gauge trains show the better lesults.
Excluding these six trains, the G.W. speed even on its so called expresses is but mediocre, and its
services to Wales and the West Midlands are very slow indeed. The four Exeter fast trains, the
"Flying Dutchman " and " Zulu," are often, although erroneously, believed to be the swiftest in the
world. This misconception is due to the fact that the first length of 77 miles out of London (to
Swindon) is timed to be done in 87 minutes, or at an average rate of 53^- miles an hour, owing to the
line being nearly dead level all the way, so that the time is kept by maintaining an even rate of
moderate speed throughout ; whereas on the G.N. and Midland runs timed at an approximate rate,
adverse gradients bring down the speed to 40, or even 30 miles an hour, so that 70 or even 75
miles an hour has to be run when favourable descending grades occur. The speed rarely exceeds 60
miles an hour on this first length of the G.W. with the down trains; whereas on the following run, to
Bath, although the train is timed only at 47 miles an hour, it usually rises to 70 and upward down the
Wootton-Bassett and Box banks. There is a similar contrast between the level Bristol Taunton and
the hilly Taunton-Exeter runs of the same trains. The Birkenhead express averages 49^ miles an
hour between London and Birmingham (with one stop), but falls off to about 45 over the rest of the
distance. A travelling rate of 50 to 55 miles is as a rule steadily maintained, but 60 to 70 is run down
the banks which occur here and there. No trains on the G.W. are timed in tlie present day so fast as
they were 38 years ago, when the rate between London and Swindon was 56 miles an hour. Those
trains were run with the same engines that are now used on that service, but the loads were then
very light—only 40 or 50 tons, as against 150 to 180. The L.S.W. is a comparatively slow line, with
very heavy traffic. The average to Exeter, owing to G.W. competition, is fair, nr., 42 miles an hour
gross, and 45 net, which involves some fast running downhill, as the greater part of the road is
exceedingly heavy ; but where no competition exists there is really no express-running at all. The
15
quickest timed single runs are Basingstoke to Woking, 23^ miles, in 28 minutes, or 50 miles an
hour ; and Basingstoke to Yauxhall, 46J- miles, in one hour. On the Portsmouth direct branch the
average is low, on account of adverse gradients, but the descending speed is often high. The L.B.S.G.
having no competition does not trouble itself to do anything wonderful in the way of speed ; but it
has some very fair trains, the best being the celebrated express, for first-class passengers exclusive y
which leaves London daily at 5 p.m., and reaches Brighton (50^ miles) in Ih, 5min., or at 46-|
miles an hour. ^ This is an extremely heavy train. There is also an express from Eastbourne to
London (65.2 miles) in Ih. 27min., equal to 45 miles an hour. The Pullman-car expresses are only
timed at a little over 40 miles an hour, and the general speed of the trains is moderate. The S.E. and
L.C.D. have each some fair expresses between London and Dover for the Continental mail service.
The best runs are :—S.E., Cannon-street to Dover, 74.J miles in Ih. 37min. ; L.C.D., Herne Hill to
Dover, 74 miles in Ih. 36min., each being about 46 miles an hour. The other trains on both railways are
mostly slow. The best trains on the G.E, main line are those from Tottenham to Cambridge
(49J miles) in Ih. 3min., or nearly 48 miles an hour ; and to Ipswich (68^ miles) in Ih. 37min., or
42J- miles an hour. On the March and Lincoln line, however, which belongs jointly to the G.N. and
G.E., but is worked by the latter, the run between Spalding and Lincoln (381 miles) is timed both
ways in 47min., or at nearly 49 miles an hour. The timing on the G.E. is generally at moderate
speed, it having little competition to contend against. The G.N. expresses have already been referred
to as the fastest and by far the most numerous on any line in the world. The best runs are Grantham
to London (105^ miles) in Ih. 57min., equal to 54 miles an hour ; Huntingdon to Einsbury (56¿
miles) in Ih. 3miu., equal to 53*6 miles an hour ; Hitchin to Huntingdon (20J miles) in 30min.,
equal to 53*5 miles an hour; Hitchin to Peterborough (44^ miles) in 50min., equal to 53*1 miles an
hour. Equally good work is represented by the 1.30 down express to York and Leeds, wdiich runs
first from London to Peterborough (76-J miles) in 87 min., and then on to Doncaster (792 miles) in
91min., or at the rate of 52*6 miles an hour throughout, with several slackenings. Idiis train,
although a very heavy one, and having two extra stops, reaches York in the same time as the so-called
" Flying Scotchman." The latter, by the way, is much slower than most other G.N. expresses, being
timed at under 49 miles an hour between London and Grantham, and a little over 49 between
Grantham and York. But it has often an exceeding heavy load, and is timed considerably faster than
the Scotch expresses on the rival lines. The G.N, has a fast service to and from Cambridge (58 miles)
in Ih. 17min., wdth two stops, equal to 48*4 miles an hour. The L.N.W., like the G.W., endeavours
as a rule to keep down the speed, but is forced by competition to run faster than otheiwise wejuld be
done. The beot trains when I was in England w^ere the Älanchester expresses, re->pectiveJy leaving
and reaching London at noon. Of these, the former ran from Willesdcn to Pugby (774 miles) in
111. 28min., and the latter from Blisworth to Willesden (574 ipiles) in Ih. 5min., the speel in each case
being 52*8 miles an hour. There was also a light train from Manchester to Edge Hill (Liverpool),
304 miles, in 34min., equal to 53-3 miles an hour. All these have since been retarded, and no L.N.W.
train is now timed faster than 52 miles an hour. The "Limited Mail," and " Irisli Mail (or " Wild
Irishman ") about which much enthusiastic nonsense has been ignorantlv talked and written, are much
/ o '
slow*er than most of the L.N.W. expresses, and are timed below 48 miles an hour. The trains
between London and Scotland and London and Lancashire are usually very heavy. The Midland
stands next to the G.N. in high speed, and is unique in canying third-class passengers by all its
trains, however swiftly timed. The best trains are the Leeds expresses, which run between Kentish
Town and Kettering (70^ miles) in Ih. 21miii., equal to 52*4 miles an hour, and between Kettering
and Nottingham (511 miles) in an hour exactly, the road being somewhat steep throughout. The
night Scotch express runs between London and Leicester (994 miles), both ways, in 2h. 2min.
without stop, equal to 49 miles an hour over steep gradients. The Manchester and Liverpool expresses
are also very good. The N.E. has one train from York to Darlington, 444 miles, in 53min., equal to
50*1 miles an hour, but otherwise no train is timed at 48 miles an hour, the inspiring element of
competition being absent. The M.S.L. does its quickest work on the Cheshire Lines expresses
between Manchester and Liverpool, already referred to, which average nearly 53 miles an hour ; and
on its share of the joint service with the G.N. between Manchester and Loudon, the Grantham-
Sheffield, runs 564 miles in Ih. 8min., or equal to 50 miles an hour. The N.B. quickest timing is
Polmont to Cowlairs (23J miles) in 29min., equal to 48-6 miles an hour ; but its best ^vork is Carlisle
to Portobello, 954 miles without stop, over the heaviest main line in the kingdom, there being long
banks of 1 in 70 and 1 in 75, in 2h. lOmin., or nearly 44 miles an hour. The fastest timing on the G.S.W.
is Dumfries to Carlisle (33 miles) in 41min., equal to 48*3 miles an hour. The Caledonian's best run
is Carstairs to Carlisle, 73J miles, in Ih. 32min., very nearly 48 miles an hour. Such is the work
prescribed on paper for the engines of the leading lines in Great Britain. The next thing is to see
how that work is accomplished in practice.
Actual Work Done.—The grand aim of English railway engineers in the present is high
speed combined with weight-pulling. Speed alone is not sufficient. Forty years ago as high speeds
were attained as can be reached by the finest modern engines ; indeed, as already remarked, the
engines then used for the fastest travelling (the " Great Britain " class on the G.W.) are still employed
for some of the quickest trains running. But then they had to pull only two or three small first- or
first- and second-class carriages, such heavy, extra "express fares " being charged as to be prohibitive
80 far as the bulk of the travelling public was concerned. Noxv, however, they have to haul trains
of 12 to 20 coaches, averaging 10 to 13 tons each, or aggregate loads of 120 to 250 tons. Indeed, the
standard work for a modern express engine is to attain and maintain a rate of 60 miles an hour on
the level with a load of 150 tons. [Note. In all cases the loads mentioned are exclusive of engine
and tender.] Thus mere swiftness would be of little value with the expresses of the present day.
Nor is mere weight-pulling alone enough. Tlie engines now used are capable of hauling almost
in definite weight at a slow speed. Indeed, in the case of goods-engines, the maximum limit of profit¬
able hauling-power is considered to have been not only reached but exceeded. The G.N. and G.E.
19in. cylinder goods engines were found to have an excess of power, because it is not convenient to
16
run trains nearly so heavy as they are capable of hauling, and, therefore, as a maximum of 40 loaded
wagons has been adopted, the newer engines are built of power adequate to manage that load in all
weathers and on all gradients. Speed and weight-pulling power must be combined in the main-line
engine of the present day, and to this end all the ingenuity of the locomotive designers is directed.
I have already described the various methods by which they are seeking to gain this object. Of
course, economy of coal consumption is also an important desideratum, but it is not of first importance,
because manifestly the work must be done at whatever cost of coal. The cheaper it can be done the
better, but done it must be. No railway can afford to be beaten by a rival, and the competition is so
keen that not a point can be safely neglected.
Touching the quehtion of maximum speed attainable, it may be as well to say 2fiainly at the
outset, that all the wonderful stories circulated in newspapers and books—especially in America—of
80, 90, and even 100 miles an hour being run, are pure myths. Even some eminent engineering
writers have alleged or im2)lied that 100 miles an hour has been reached ; and while I Avas in England,
one of the first engineering journals asserted that the Gl. \V. Exeter express ran at more than 80 miles
an hour on level parts of the road. If this be not a misprint for " GO," it is a gross exaggeration. It
is very rarely indeed that trains reach GO miles an hour on the level, still more rare for them to
exceed that b})eGd. By very light trains, Avith 2)0Averful engines, G5 miles an hour or a little over may
sometimes he reached, but this is rare ; and, as a rule, it may be stated that, when 60 miles an hour
or upward is run, it is almost invariably downhill. Even tlie slight gradient of 1 in 1820 up between
London and SAvindon makes a surprising difference to the engines ; and with a moderate load I have
knoAvn the s^Aeed which had been G5 descending that grade fall off' at once to 53 when a rise at the
same rate Avas encountered. The ordinary limit of attainable velocity with regular trains seems to be
somewhere about 75 miles an hour, and this is not commonly attained, still more seldom exceeded.
On the other hand, 70 to 73 miles an hour is compulsorily run doAvnhill by many trains daily to keep
bare time. There is no authentic information as to the highest velocity ever reached by a locomotive.
No trustAvorthy record exists of any other engine achieving such results in the way of swiftness as the
10-wheeled tank-engines with 9ft. single " driving-wheels, built for the Bristol and Exeter line in
1852 (noAV converted into 8-wheeled tender-engines, with 8ft. wheels), which actually did just touch
80 miles an hour, with no load, down a gradient of 1 in 89, and 78 miles an hour with one vehicle
attached, also ran 70 miles an hour on the level with tAVO coaches. The G.W. 8ft. engines, without
load, when specially tried down the Wootton-Bassett Incline of 1 in 100, with every device that could
be contrived for increasing the speed, could not get beyond 78 miles an hour, owing to back 2)ressure
of steam in the cylinders ; and this obstacle to higher velocity has never since been appreciably
mitigated. A distinguished engineer who was present with Mr. Brunei and Sir D, Gooch at the trial
last mentioned was good enough to place at my disposal his notes made on that occasion. No modern
engines have shown quite equal speed-values, because they are designed with reference to weight-
pulling as well. For instance, the G.N. 8ft. engines have a 4m. longer stroke, which increases
tractive power but involves greater pro2)ortionate piston speed. Again, the Midland 7ft. engines have
their driving-wheels couiDled to trailing-wheels of equal size, with the same object. As illustrating the
effect of back-pressure, I may mention one instance which came under my notice. The driver of a
Midland express which Avas late in starting used every effort to run at the highest possible speed until
the lost time was made up, when, intending to ease down " a little, he shifted the lever a notch ;
but the result of curtailing the steam supply was to hiaease the speed instead of diminishing it, thus
proving that too much had been admitted^ before, and that the, excess was sim2)ly in the way, by
increasing the back pressure. This being more and more recognized by drivers, the expansive plan
of working is carried to the utmost point of feasibility on fast expresses with very favourable results as
to coal consumption ; but so far engineers cannot get much beyond 75 miles an hour under the most
propitious conditions. On three different occasions, all of a someAvhat special character, I registered
a speed of 7G*28 miles an hour, with light loads, down gradients of 1 in 89 to 1 in 200 ; once with a
G.W. 8ft. " single," once Avith a G.N. 8ft. ''single," and once with a Midland 7ft. "coupled " having
19in. cylinders : in each case the engine was pressed to its utmost capacity. The size of Avheels
exercised only a minor inffuence on the speed. With Midland engines, having 6ft. 8in. wheels, I
recorded 75 miles an hour ; with L.N.W. and Caledonian 6ft. Bin. engines, 74 miles an hour was
reached down the Bliap and Beattock banks respectively ; Avith a L.N.W. 5ft. Gin. wheel, nearly 72
down the former bank, and 60 with a 4ft. Giu. wheel tank-engine, on the same railway. The large
wlieel gives much smoother running and, all other things being equal, more speed, but at the cost of
haulage-power ; the smaller wheel gives greater haulage-power at the expense of largely increased
friction and wear-and-tear at high speeds. As the tendency of the ^Aresent day is to run very heavy
loads on the fastest trains, mere velocity unaccompanied by great tractive power is not studied.
With the locomotive noAv in use, designed to pull heavy loads as well as to run fast, and having wheels
of 6ft. 6in. to 7ft. in diameter—generally conjíled—it may be taken as an axiom that the maximum
speed is about 75 miles an hour, which will never be reached except down a considerable gradient,
and rarely then save with light trains, while it will still more rarely be exceeded even to a slight
extent.
Owing to the influence of adverse gradients, junctions, and large stations, causing temporary
slackenings, the distances that can be run within a given time are necessarily limited. Tlaus, I never
found even a light train able to get over more than 62 miles of ground actually in the hour ; and to
accomplish this, the engine had to run ab the rate of 70 to 75 miles an hour wherever the gradients
permitted it. I recorded this achievement on three different occasions, with ordinary express trams ;
twice with the G.N. Manchester express—once each way—between London and Grantham ; and once
with the up Exeter express on the G.W., between Swindon and London : the engine in each case was
an 8ft. " single." Among very long runs at sustained high speed, I may mention two with the G.N.
Manchester up express, 100 miles in 103 min., and one of 72 miles in 71 min. on the G.W. On thé
Midland, with one of the 7ft. coupled engines, having 19in. cylinders, 58 miles were covered in an
hour ; and a like distance in the same time was done on the L.N.W., by one of the 6ft. Gin. coupled
17
type, " Precedent" class. All these are, however, exceptional ; and as a rule, I seldom found a longer
distance than 55 or 56 miles actually covered within an hour, while 48 to 53 miles formed a much
more common length for heavy fast trains, and even this involved very rapid travelling downhill.
It is extremely rare to find a train performing a journey at the even rate of " a mile a minute," from start
to stop. I have known a G.N. 8ft. " single" engine, with moderate load, stop at Peterborough in exactly
29 minutes from Grantham (29 miles), having run 23 miles of the distance in 19.1 minutes. I have Imown
a G.W. 8ft. " single," with a light train, complete a level run of 17 J miles in 17 minutes ; a M.S.L.
7ft. Gin. "single" slacken to 7 miles an hour at Eetford, in 33 minutes after starting from Grantham
(33^ miles); and an engine of the same class stop at Warrington in just 16 minutes after leaving Man¬
chester (16 miles). But all these are somewhat exceptional. There is no doubt that the present
timing of the quickest trains taxes the most powerful engines of the present day to very nearly the
limit of their capacity when the trains are heavy. At the same time, it must be added that admirable
punctuality is commonly observed, especially if that be deemed to apply to the running between
stations, which very rarely indeed exceeds the allotted time. Unless there should have been special
delays by signal or otherwise, time is seldom lost in the actual running ; and when trains are late, it
is usually through detention at stations, which sometimes is carried to an excessive extent. Expresses
are never allowed to have more than 25 or (on two lines) 26 vehicles, and such a load is exceptional.
Indeed, on some of the railways, the fast trains are run in duplicate if the load exceeds 16 or 18.
Double engine running is discouraged more and more ; and on some lines, the G.N. for instance, it is
absolutely prohibited. If a train is too heavy for one locomotive, it is divided. On other lines, again,
"pilots" are a great deal used, notably on the Midland and L.S.W. This was the case also until
lately on the L.N.W., but it has been much diminished by the introduction of the large compound
engines.
The old (rebuilt) broad-gauge engines on the G.W. seemed to me to do remarkably good work,
considering their relatively low tractive force (811bs, per lb. of effective pressure in cylinders), but
they are rather severely strained by the increasing loads they have to draw. It is the fast-timed nearly
level run from London to Swindon that tries them most ; and my experience is that they have all they
can do to keep time in average weather with the ordinary load of about 125 tons ; while a head or cross
wind, or an increased load, almost always causes loss of time. On one occasion, with the normal load,
two minutes were gained, but with an extra coach and a head wind there was a loss of no less than
eight minutes in the 77 miles ; and another time, in favourable weather, but with a load of 170 tons,
the loss was 71 minutes. Over the rest of the journey, however, time was almost always gained, by
the help of falling gradients. On the " up" journey from Swindon, which is timed at the same rate as
the "down" run, time was almost always made up, and the trains not unfrequently arrived in
London three or four minutes early, or else slowed down over the last few miles. I have known the
run from Swindon to London to be done in 10 minutes under time, it being slightly downhill nearly
all the way. On no occasion was time lost on the up journey unless through accidental delays by
signal; and with loads of even 148 and 167 tons respectively, both the 8ft. and the 7ft. 6iu. " singles"
performed the run in three to four minutes under time. These engines also managed the ascent
of the Box and Wootton-Bassett banks very effectively. It has been stated by one authority that the
speed falls to 15 miles an hour at the top of these ascents. That was not my experience, however.
A number of trials failed to show any reduction of speed below 30 miles an hour in climbing
those gradients of 1 in 100 even with trains of 150 to 170 tons; and the longest time taken to clear
Box Tunnel (which is 1 mile 1467 yards long, and on an ascending grade of 1 in 100,) was 3 min. 25 sec.,
while on one occasion it was passed in 2 min. 56 sec. with a load of 167 tons. Down these inclines,
as already mentioned, the speed is always very high. The G.W. narrow-gauge trains are generally
timed at a low rate of speed, and therefore afford little scope for remarkable locomotive work. On the
Birkenhead express, however, and the two or three other fast trains, Swindon Beading, 41J
miles in 50 min. each way ; Swindon-London, 77 miles in 95 min. ; and Didcot-Westbourne Park,
52 miles in 63 min. ;) the 7ft. "singles" do admirable work. All the express duty on the G.W. is
performed by " single" engines, and with excellent efficiency. The down Birkenhead express with a
load of 166 tons reached Oxford (631 miles) in 74 minutes ffom London, maintaining a very even
velocity all the way, and with 145 tons ran thence to Birmingham (66 miles) in 75 minutes,
ascending the Hatton bank (1 in 107 for 4 miles) in 5 J minutes, and attaining a speed of over 70 miles
an hour downhill. Another time, one of these engines took a load of 260 tons from Oxford to London
in 82 minutes. The 6ft. and 6ft. 6in. " coupled" engines appeared to do their work very favourably on
the more hilly roads to which their duties are almost exclusively confined. The L.S.W. is noteworthy
as using the heaviest express engines in the kingdom, their weight being nearly 47 tons, of which over
30 tons is available for adhesion. The loads are mostly heavy, but as the time-table speed is not
high, the engines are seldom severely taxed, except on the steep gradients which abound on the
western section. The frequent use of "pilots" rather surprised me, consideiing the great power of
the engines, an assistant engine being often employed with only 15 vehicles, even on the easy
length between London and Basingstoke. I found, moreover, a good deal of unpunctuality, this
being mainly due to delays at stations, and to frequent signal stops, owing to the crowded condition
of th'e line tow^ards London. Many runs which promised well were spoiled in this way. Among the
best work I recorded were : London to Basingstoke (472 ipilesj in 602 imnutes, with a Git. Gin. coupled
engine (470 class), and load of 120 tons ; London to Salisbury (83 J miles) in Ih. 51min. running time,
with two stops and a load of 165 tons, drawn by one 7ft. coupled engine (450 class) in wet weather;
also, with engine of same class, Basingstoke to Vauxhall (46J miles) in 55J min. running time, with
two'stops, the load being 140 tons. In all these cases very high speeds, 65 to 70 miles an hour, were
run downhill ; and I recorded similar speeds with 6ft. 6in. engines of the 350 class, down the
Easlemere bank on the Portsmouth line, and down the Dartmoor grades approaching Tavistock.
The last 162 miles from Honiton to Exeter, stopping at the latter place, were run in 16| minutes,
and from Yeovil to Exeter (48J miles), including starting and stopping and ascending the heavy
18
ßteep gradients approaching Chard and Honiton, in 62 minutes. Owing to lack of competition there is
no great speed on the Southampton, Bournemouth and Weymouth lengths, and older patterns of
engines are much employed. Like the L.S.W., the L.B.S.C. does not aim at extreme speeds, it
being understood that 60 miles an hour is not to be exceeded unless in special circumstances.
All classes of engines do their work as well as possible, and the punctuality even with heavy
trains is very commendable, notwithstanding that here, too, the adverse element of a crowded
suburban traffic has to be encountered on the first 20 miles out of the metropolis. The three chief
trains are the Brighton first class expresses from London Bridge, always taken by the 6ft, 6in. coupled
** Gladstone " engines, already described ; the Pulman car expresses from Victoria; and the Eastbourne
expresses, the two latter being worked by the 6ft. Gin. " singles " of the " Imberhorne " class. As
specimens of the respective performances I may instance the following : London Bridge to Brighton
{602 miles) in 62 mins., with 174 tons, and Brighton to Croydon (40J miles—signal stop) in 50 mine.,
with 199 tons, both with "Gladstone" type; Victoria to Brighton (SOf miles—heavier road) in
69 mins., with 107 tons, the engine being a Oft. 6in. " single." The speed rarely exceeded 65 miles
an hour, but now and then was a little over 70, in each instance with single-wheel engines. The speed
of the " Gladstone" class engines did not fall below 35 miles an hour, after 2| miles oí 1 in 100 up, with
a load of 174 tons. The 5ft. Gin, coupled and the older " singles" also do well in the particular work
to which they are applied. On the S.E. the old 7ft. " singles" are still doing very fair work ; and on
one occasion an engine of this class took the Continental day mail, consisting of 15 coaches, from
Cannon-street to Dover (75J miles) in 95 mins,, ascending the 12-mile bank of 1 in 120 to 1 in 140
to Halstead in 21 mins. A 6ft. coupled bogie took 16 coaches from Chislehurst to Tunbridge (19 miles)
in 29 mins., including 11 miles of steep ascent. One of the new 7ft. bogies, with 18in, cylinders, drew
a heavy " Tidal Express " from London to Folkestone (71 miles) in 87 mins., climbing the Halstead
bank in the same time as the " single" above mentioned. A new 7ft. coupled bogie with 19in. cylinders
—drew 22 coaches up the 12-mile Halstead bank in 21J mins. Lastly, one of the 7ft. coupled bogies
took the afternoon up express (17 coaches) from Dover to Cannon-street in 93 mins. In all these
cases a speed of 65 miles an hour, or a little over, was reached downhill, and this rate is not supposed
to be exceeded on that line. The L.C.D. uses its old 6ft. Gin. coupled engines, with cylinders 17 x 24in.
and outside bearings, on its best trains, the Continental expresses. The travelling is, as a rule, not
remarkable for speed or punctuality, the deficiency in these respects being, however, largely due to
steep gradients and crowded lines, for the suburban traffic is enormous. As a specimen of work I may
quote a run with the morning express (10 coaches) from Herne Hill to Dover (74 miles) in 91 mins.
The more powerful bogie engines are not u^ed^for the fastest expresses but for the heavier trains,
which take the bulk of the seaside traffic. With both classes of engines good speed was maintained up
the long banks of 1 in 100 and 1 in 132, and 65 miles an hour downhill. The engines, like those of
the S.E., are capable of much faster work if required. On the G.E. the expresses, though much
hindered by the immense suburban traffic which crowds the first 17 miles, keep excellent time between
stations. A practice obtains of drawing a number of slip-carriages by the fastest expresses, and
detaching them 17 miles from town. Seven or eight slip-coaches are often thus taken, and the
trains are thus rendered very heavy over a part of the way. The fast trains consequently occupy
50 to 55 mins. in covering the first 36 miles, including the ascent of the Elsenham bank ; but the next
20 miles to Cambridge, being mostly level or downhill, are run very fast. I have known one of the
7ft. 6in. " single " engines run from London to Cambridge (SSI miles) in 72 mins., the last 20 miles
being done in 21 mins., including a 3-mile ascent. There wnre 17 vehicles on the first part of the
run, some being slipped at 17 miles. An engine of the same class also took 12 coaches on the level
run from Lincoln to Spalding (38| miles) in 44 mins., and another drew 16 from Ipswich to London
(68| miles) in 90 mins., including a long ascent, a maximum rate of 70 miles an hour being attained
downhill. A very fast run with a light load w^as made by an older 7ft. " single " from Spalding
to Lincoln (88|; miles) in 40 mins., a speed of 60 to 65 miles an hour being evenly maintained.
One of the new 7ft. coupled took 20 coaches from Colchester to London (511 miles) in 72 mins.,
attaining 65 miles an hour downhill ; and the first of Mr. Worsdell's new compound engines, among
other fine performances, drew 18 coaches up the Brentwood bank of 1 in 84, starting on that grade, and
took 12 coaches from títiatford to Brentwood (14 miles) up an ascent all the way (the last three miles
being 1 in 84 to 1 in 93) in 19 mins., while going down a moderate gradient it exceeded 70 miles an
hour. With the older Gft. coupled engines, the run from St. Paneras to Cambridge (56-|- miles)
occupied 74 mins., and Ely to Trowse (53 miles) 63 mins.
I now come to the most brilliant performances of all, those on the three great lines from London
to Scotland, and to the manufacturing districts in the Midland Counties and North of England. First
stands the G.N., which, as already shown, has by far the swiftest services in the world " on paper,"
and which, m the actual wc rk doue, more than fulfils that paper promise. My records show a long
and immterrupted series of superb performances. The cream of these is given by the celebrated 8ft.
" singles," wljich take all the swiftest and heaviest traffic. I have known one of these run with a light
train from^ London to Peterborough (7G| miles) iii 78 minutes, and to Giantham (105 J miles) in 112}¿
minutes, including respectively 30 and 50 miles uphill, long banks of 1 in 178 and 1 in 200, and
sLmter ascents of 1 in 100, 1 in 105, and 1 in 110 ; also from Grantham to London in 110 minutes,
more than 40 miles being on rising gradients. The maximum speeds of these engines have already
been referred to. Tliey run at the highest speeds with marvellous steadiness, pull loads of 200 to 240
tons up the two-mile bank of 1 in 105 to 1 in 110, at starting from London, without assistance, and
maintain a very fair rate up long inclines with heavy trains. For insíauce, the ascent of the Potter's
Bar bank, 8 miles of 1 in 200 continuously, never occupied more than 12b minutes with the heaviest
load ; with 170 to 200 tons, it was mounted in 111 to 12 minutes ; and with 100 tons or less, in 9| to
10 minutes. Again, the 15-mile incline from Tallington to Stoke Box, (including 8 miles of 1 in 178
to 1 in 200,) was mounted with 156 tons in 20 minutes, and with 180 tons in 21 minutes. The
"Flying Scotchman" express gained 6 minutes between Grantham and London with 160 tons, and
19
7 minutes with 150 tons ; the Sunday express ran from Hitchin to Peterborough (44J miles) in 47f
minutes, with 175 tons ; and another train of 180 tons ran from Grantham to Peterborough (29 miles)
in 82J- minutes, although starting with a continuous bank of 1 in 200 for 5| miles. All these are from
start to stop. On another occasion the engine covered 61J miles in an hour, with a load of 160 tons.
Better work could not be performed by any engines at present in existence. Comparing the duty done
by the 8ft. " singles" and the 6ft. 6in. coupled, I found that, with equal loads (15 coaches in each
case), the former ascended the incline from Tallington to Stoke (15} miles) in 21 minutes, and the
latter in 22i minutes, notwithstanding that the coupled engine had 61bs. extra tractive force for every
pound of pressure in cylinders, and much larger adhesion weight, it being distributed on two pairs of
wheels. At the same time these coupled engines do excellent work both with light and heavy trains.
I may instance Cambridge to London (58 miles) in 66 minutes running time, with two stoppages, a
speed of 78 miles an hour being attained down 1 in 200 ; also Grantham to Newark (14^ miles) in 16
minutes, start to stop, with a load of 15 coaches. The 7ft. singles" (both of Mr. Sturrock's and of
Mr. Stirling's design,) also are excellent engines, but are hardly powerful enough for modern loads
and speed combined ; still I have known them run at 75 miles an hour downhill, with a light train,
and gain two minutes between York and Grantham, with a Scotch express of 150 tons ; while on the
fast Leeds train, one took 159 tons from London to Peterborough (76| miles) in 88 minutes, ascending
the 13-mile bank at starting in 19 minutes, and covering 57 miles in an hour; another engine took 16
coaches from Huntingdon to Finsbury Park (56| miles) in 66 minutes ; and one engine of the same
class, but having 7ft, 6in. wheels, attained 74 miles an hour down 1 in 200 with a load of 140 tons.
All these are most creditable feats.
The L.N.W. as a principle discourages high speed, but as competition enforces it, their railway
affords some very fine specimens of its capabilities in that direction. One of Mr. Webb's 6ft. 6in.
coupled engines took a 100-ton train from Willesden to Eugby (77} miles) in 85 minutes, half the
distance being up-hill, mostly 1 in 330 ; and with 130 tons in 88 minutes, the return journey being
accomplished with 20 coaches (weighing nearly 240 tons,) in 93 minutes. This last is one of the best
pieces of work that came under my notice, considering the comparative lightness of the engine (33 tons)
and its small tractive force (88-9 lbs). Another, with 145 tons, ran from Shap Summit 36 miles in
88J min., and 58 miles in an hour, attaining a maximum of 74 miles an hour down 1 in 75 ; another
ran from Willesden to Bletchley (41| miles) in 46 min. (including ascent of Tring bank), and from
Willesden to Northampton (60J miles) in 68 min., with one stop, load 120 tons; and the celebrated
engine Charles Dickens," of the same class, ran with 90 tons from Blisworth to Willesden (571 uiiles)
in 62 min. Mr, Webb's 5ft. 6in. coupled engines also did .remarkably well, attaining 72 miles an hour
downhill, in spite of their small wheels, and ascending the Shap bank (5.} miles—4 of 1 in 75) with
100 tons in 91 min. The work of the new compounds has already been dealt with under their
special section. I may add, however, the following samples of tJieir performances : Large compound,
Eugby to Crewe (75^ miles) in 1 h. 31^ min. : Smaller compounds, Bletchley to Eugby (36 miles) in
44 min. ; Nuneaton to Willesden (91J miles) in 1 h. 56 min. ; Holyhead to Chester (84| miles, with
three stops) in 1 h. 53min.—each of these being with loads of 145 to 150 tons; also, with lighter
loads, Crewe to Chester (211 miles) in 25 min, ; Chester to Holyhead (84J miles) in 1 h. 42 min. Ail
the above were from start to stop. Some older engines, built respectively by Messrs. McConnell and
Eamsbottom, were still doing some smart running. One of the former, a so called " Bloomer " (7ft.
" single "), took the Birmingham express (85 tons) from Eugby to Bletchley (36 miles) in 40 min., and
Bletchley to Willesden (411 miles) in 47 min., each run being about half uphill, and a maximum of 73
miles an hour was reached down 1 in 250 on the Northampton loop. Mr. Eamsbottom's 7ft. 6in.
singles " have been rebuilt, and are still kept up for fast light work as between Manchester and Liver¬
pool—which they perform to admiration. I may instance runs between Manchester and Edge Hill
(30|- miles) in 32| min. each way (78 miles an hour downhill) ; and Crewe to Nuneaton (61 miles) in
72 min,, with 110 tons, including the ascent of a 10-mile bank (1 in 177 to 1 in 250) at starting. Also,
my L.N.W. notes would be incomplete without a reference to some achievements of Mr. Trevithick's
old engine " Cornwall," built in 1847, and shown in the Great Exhibition of 1851, when the boiler
was below the driving-axle. The engine was rebuilt by Mr. Eamsbottom in the ordinary style. " Corn¬
wall " has 8ft. 6in, single" driving-wheels—now the largest in the world—cylinders 17iin, x 24in,,
and 1,070ft. of heating surface. It took a light express from Stafford to Crew^e (24 J miles) in 29 min,,
the first 18 being all up-hill, and descended the next 10 miles into Crewe in 9^ min., stopping there,
and attaining a rate of 75 miles an hour for two miles down 1 in 177 and 1 in 250. It also ran from
Crewe to Alderley (17J miles) in 19^ min,, starting and stopping, reaching within a fraction of
70 miles an hour on the level, with a load of 50 tons. Mr. Eamsbottom's 6ft. Oin. coupled engines as
rebuilt by Mr. Webb do capital work on trains of every class.
The Midland line stands second to the G.N. in respect of speed, and may be deemed to tie"
that line in point of locomotive work, considering the stee[)er gradients with which the Midland
engines have to contend. Among the work done I may mtniion the following, selected from a long
list oí splendid runs :—(a.) 800 class (6ft, 8in. coupled, cylinders 18in. x 26in.), Leicester to St. Paneras
(99i miles) in 2 hours with 16 coaches (including ascent of the Kibwoith, Desborough, Irchester,
and Ampthill banks) ; Normanton to Leicester, one kept time on Scotch express, once with
20 and once with 19 coaches; Kentish Town to Kettering (70J inileo) in 79 minutes with 10 coaches,
attaining 74 miles an hour downhill; Bedford to St. Pai eras (49^ mihs) in exactly 1 hour with
165 tons. (5.) 1282 and 1312 class (6ft. 6in. coupled, cylinders 17iin. x 26in,), one kept time with
Scotch express of 20 coaches from Bkipton to Normanton, and am tlitr took 145 tons from Marple to
Derby (482 uiiles) in 64 minutes, including ascent of Peak Forest bank of 1 in 90 and 1 in 100 for 10
miles ; also 156 tons from Derby to Stockport (53| milet^, including long up-hill stretch, and one
ascent of 1 in 90 for 6 miles,) in 73 minutes; while with 7 coaches one ran from Liverpool to
Stockport (37f miles) in 42 minutes, attaining 73 miles an hour downhill, (c.) 1327 class (7ft.
coupled cylinder, 18in. x 26m.), Kettering to Kentish Town (70^ miles) in 76 minutes (maximum 75 miles
20
an hour) ; and Leicester to Bedford (49^ miles, including three long ascents of 1 in 120, 1 in 132, and
1 in 165,) in 66|- minutes (maximum 74 miles an hour), the latter with 12 coaches, (d.) 1400 and.
1662 class (6ít. Din. coupled, cylinders 18in. x 26in.), St. IPancras to Leicester (99 J miles), with one stop,
in 1 h. 58 min., and to Bedford (49J miles) in 56 minutes ; also St. Paneras to Bedford, with 180-ton
load, in exactly 1 hour ; Skipton to Carlisle (86f miles, long steep banks, including one of 1 in 100
for 15 miles continuously,) in 1 h. 49 min. ; and Aisgill to Skipton (38J miles), with 20 coaches (one
engine), in 43 minutes, including 5 miles of about 1 in 200 up ; Kettering to Nottingham (51f miles)
in 56^ minutes ; Leicester and Manchester (90 miles) both ways, without stop, in 1 h. 55 min. (ö.)
1667 class (7ft. coupled, cylinder 19in. x 26in.), Kentish Town to Kettering (70J miles) in 77 minutes
(maximum 76J miles an hour) ; Kettering to Nottingham (51f miles) in 55 minutes, with 9 coaches
in each case ; St. Paneras to Leicester, with 142 tons, in 2 h. 4 min. With two engines on, some very
rapid running was done, among which I may mention Leicester to St. Paneras in 1 h. 52 min., with
17 coaches, engines of 800 and 1400 classes ; and Leicester to Trent (20|- miles) in 22 minutes, by two
engines of 800 class, with 16 coaches. With one of the old Midland single" engines (wheels 6ft.
8in., cylinder 16im x 22in.), and 15 coaches, a speed of 60 miles an hour was attained, but these are
seldom used now on main line trains.
With the remainder of the lines I must deal very briefly. On the N.E., one of the 7ft. coupled
engines (cylinders 17in. x 24in.) took the " Fh^ng Scotchman" from Newcastle to York (BOJ miles) in
92 min. running time, with one stop, gaining ten minutes with a load of 15 coaches, weighing in all
nearly 180 tons ; and from Darlington to York (44^ miles) in 48 min., with the same load, or at an
average of over 55 miles an hour ; another of these engines attained 74 miles an hour down the Grant's
House Incline. On the M.S.L., one of Mr. Sucre's 7it. Gin. "singles" took a moderate train ñ'om
Manchester to Sheffield (41J miles) in 55 min,, the first 22 miles being on a continuous ascent of
about 1 in 140, which was mounted in 83 min. Other runs with engines of the same class were :
Manchester and Liverpool (34 miles), with 110 tons, in 37 min. ; Manchester to Warrington (16
miles) in 16 min. ; Grantham to Sheffield (56f miles) in 63 min., including several steep banks ; all
these are from start to stop. The engine also started from Grantham, and passed Ketford (33^ miles),
slackening to 7 miles an hour, in 88 min. I several times recorded 75 miles an hour downhill with
them on light trains. The other class of express engines (6ft. Sin. coupled, cylinders I74in. x 26in.) ran
from Liverpool to Manchester (34 miles) in 37 min., reaching (72 miles an hour. On the N.B., one of Mr.
Drummond's 6ft. Gin. coupled engines (cylinders 18in. x 26in.) took the " Tourist" express from Carlisle
to Portobello (95J miles), without stop, up long banks of 1 in 70, the hardest main-line run in the
kingdom, in 2h. lOmin. On the Caledonian, one of Mr. Drummond's new 6ft. 6in. coupled bogie
engines, 60-75 class (cylinders 18in. x 26in.), ran with 150 tons from Carstairs to Carlisle (73-|- miles) in
87 min., of which the 49f miles from Beattock Summit occupied only 58 min., and 74 miles an hour
was attained down the Beattock bank. With one of the rebuilt 6ft. 2in, coupled engines (outside
cylinders 18in. x 24in.), 420 class, the run from Carlisle to Edinburgh (101 miles) occupied 2h. lOmin.
travelling time, with three stops, the Beattock bank (10 miles of 1 in 75 and 1 in 80) being
ascended with a load of 120 tons, in 18^ minutes from the start at Beattock Station. The speed
downhill did not exceed 65 miles an hour. The old 8ft. " singles" (one of which was in the Inter¬
national Exhibition of 1862) are not now used on main line expresses, but have done excellent
servicu in their day. My best run on the G.S.W. was with the up Scotch express from Glasgow to
Carlisle, which gained 6 minutes, although the load was 15 to Kilmarnock, 19 thence to Dumfries,
and afterward 20, the average weight being about 12 tons per vehicle, A pilot engine, however, had
to be taken part of the way, but the train engine, one of Mr. Smellie's 6ft. Bin. coupled (cylinders
18in. X 26in.) ran it unaided from New Cumnock to Dumfries (37 miles), start to stop, in 40 minutes,
attaining 72 miles an hour down 1 in 150, with 19 coaches.
Such is a brief sketch of the actual work performed in daily oi'dinary service by that most
admirable result of human ingenuity, the modern English locomotive. I regret that the limits of my
space preclude my adding many other illustrations, and treating more fully numerous points of
interest. These " notes," however, do not profess to be more than mere notes, and I hope to
supplement them on a future occasion.
I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
CHALLES ROUS MARTEN.
Wellington, N.Z., September, 1887.
Lyon & Blair, Printers, &c,, Lambton Quay, Wellington.—1887,
3 5bb6 038 773792
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