MANUAL FOR LEADERS OF FOREMANSHIP CONFERENCES
together with
DISCUSSION OUTLINES
i !j
Reviied October 1, 1937
WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION
Engineering Division
Washington, D. C.
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FOREWORD
The employment of more than a million persons on work projects in
a wide range of occupations makes desirable the giving of more or less formal
attention to the problem of improving the job skills of foremen and workers.
When it is recalled that under the Emergency Relief Appropriation
Acts it is contemplated that once employables are removed from the relief
rolls the Works Program should be so managed as to keep them continuously
occupied at work in which they may or may not have had experience, the need
for training and retraining as a fundamental part of the program becomes
apparent. The increasing turnover of WPA workers and foremen as many of them,
particularly the more highly skilled, are absorbed in private employment also
lends importance to a training program.
The advantages of formal training to the Works Progress Administra¬
tion will be substantial,but are relatively less important than the possible
benefits to the workers themselves. The maintenance of a satisfactorily high,
level of efficiency in the operation of work projects is obviously imperative
in order to expedite the program and to prevent criticism of the operation of
projects. Recognition of the training need and its importance in maintaining
the interest of the workers, will serve to improve the administration of the
entire program. Specifically, the inauguration of a training program for
workers and foremen will assist the Works Progress Administration in (l)
maintaining project production schedules and keeping labor operating costs
at a minimum, (2) improving the quality and increasing the quantity of work
turned out, and (3) maintaining the interest and cooperation of supervisors
and workers in their assignments.
The most important phase of the WPA work training program, in the
light of the foreman's "key position", is a foremanship training program.
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This program is designed to aid individuals employed as foremen to discharge
their training, supervisory, and managerial responsibilities more effectively,
and also to prepare others for prospective foremanship.
Of particular significance in the WPA program are the human relation¬
ships between foremen and workers. In order to secure loyalty, team work, and
service, the foreman must prove by words and actions that he understands and
believes in his men. To assist WPA foremen in discharging their responsibili¬
ties in the field of human relations, an "organized conference" plan of fore¬
manship training has been inaugurated. Such training will give the foreman a
broader view of his responsibilities, will assist him in developing qualities
of leadership, stimulate pride in his job, enable him to earn the confidence of
his subordinates, place before him the principles of management, and go far
toward promoting better human relations in the conduct of the Works Program .
Furthermore, it will fit him better for future opportunities.
This manual for the guidance of leaders of discussion groups of WPA
foremen and supervisors, together with the twenty-two discussion outlines
here presented, was prepared for use in conducting a foremanship training
course in such state administrations as may be interested. It is printed for
easy reference in a ring binder.
The outlines have been prepared for the use of discussion leaders
who have received preliminary training in the conference technique involved.
They will not achieve satisfactory results when used by untrained persons.
When used by competent leaders, the outlines can readily be adapted for use
with supervisory groups engaged in diverse occupations.
The material contained herein was developed during experimental
work in several states conducted by the Washington administration, under the
direction of R, 0. Beckman, in charge of training and retraining.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
MANUAL FOR LEADERS OF W.P.A. FOREMANSHIP CONFERENCES
Page
Sec, 1, Introductory Statement.,,,«••••• 7
Sec, 2, The Conference Method,, 7
Sec, 3, Distinction Between Teaching and Conference
Procedures S
Sec. 4, Steps in Conference Work 8
Sec, 5. Discussion Topics.,..*., 9
Sec, 6, Physical Arrangements for Meetings,., 10
Sec. 7, Useful Headings for Qharts.... 10
Sec, 8, The Need for Talking the Foreman's Language........,,,, 12
Sec, 9, Charting Difficulties. 13
Sec, 10, Winning the Confidence of the Group...,, 13
Sec, 11, Holding the Interest of the Group.,.,........,. 14
Sec# 12, Securing Participation hy all Members of the Group...., 15
Sec. 13. Common Errors in Conference Leading,,,...... 17
Sec, 14. Ethics of the Conference Leader, 18
Sec, 15, Check List for Evaluating Success of Meetings.. 18
Sec, 16. The Steps in a Typical Meeting............... 18
Sec. 17, Reviewing the Discussion Topics................ 19
Sec, 18, Need for Advance Study of Outlines by Leaders.......... 20
Sec, 19, Reports and Recommendations to the Administration...... 20
Sec, 20. Individual Attention for Certain Group Members......... 21
Sec. 21, Maintaining Attendance at Meetings. 21
Sec. 22, Bibliography on Foremanship,.., 21
Sec, 23. A Final Su^estion on Conference Leading, , 22
Self Rating Chart for Conference Leaders.23
Analysis of Conference Leader's Job, 23a
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(Table of Contents — Continued)
DISCUSSION OUTLINES FOR FOREMANSHEP CONFERENCES
Page
1. Responsibilities of W.P.A. Foremen 25
Chart I - Why Should a Supervisor Study his
Responsibilities?. 28
Chart II - List of Responsibilities . 28
2. Broader Aspects of the Foreman's Job.... 29
Chart I- Main Types of Responsibility.... 32
Chart II- Principles of Management Affecting
Responsibility... 33
Chart III- How Can a Foreman's Accomplishment be
Measured? 33
Chart IV- What is the Foreman's Four-way Responsibility?.... 34
3. Avoiding Idle Time on the Job.... 35
Effects of Loafing 35
How to Prevent Idle Time on the Job. 36
Chart I - Effects of Idle Time,... 38
Chart II- Ways of Preventing Idle Time. 38
4. Carelessness...... 39
Chart I - Results of Carelessness, 43
Chart II- Overcoming Carelessness..... 43
5. Maintaining Discipline 44
What Good Discipline Should Accomplish 44
Evidences of Lack of Discipline 45
Various Means of Maintaining Discipline. 45
Reprimanding Workers 46
Adapting Discipline to the Individual Case 47
Chart I - Actions which Require Discipline, 48
Chart II- Various Methods of Disciplining Workers 48
Chart III- How to Reprimand,................................ 49
Chart IV- What to Avoid in Reprimanding. 49
Chart V - Various Problem Types of Workers 49
6. Putting the Right Worker on the Right Job., 50
Why is Proper Placement Important? 50
Fits, Misfits, and Unfits. 51
How to Determine Appropriate Placement... 51
Reclassification and Reassignment Procedure 52
Chart I - Questions to be Considered in Placement.,.,,,,,,,, 54
7. Giving Orders. 55
Errors in Order Giving...,,.......,, 55
High Points in Giving Orders 56
Four Ways of Giving Orders. 56
When to Use Detailed and Written Orders,, 57
Chart I - Important Points in Giving Orders,.,,.....,.....,. 58
Chart II- When to Use Various Types of Orders..... 58
Chart III- Detailed Orders 59
Oliai t Shen to Use Written Orders... 59
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(Table of Contents — Continued)
Page
8. Safety and Accident Prevention 60
Procedure J 60
The Foreman's Part in the Safety Program 61
Causes of Accidents * ....... • . • 61
Chart I - Foreman's Responsibilities in Safety Work.. 63
Chart II - The Causes of Accidents 63
9. Specific Accident Hazards. • • • • ? V 66
Precautions in Undertaking Special Types of Work..... 66
First-Aid 67a
Contents and Use of First-Aid Kit. 67a
Safety Equipment and Materials. 67a
Making Accident Reports. 67a
10. Planning the Work of the Project... 68
The Heed for Planning 68
Planning a Works Job. 69
Routing 71
Scheduling 72
Dispatching. 72
Chart I - Results of Poor Planning ;..... 74
Chart II - Production Planning Deals With; 74
Chart III - The Foreman's Part in Planning 74
Chart IV - Day-by-Day Planning. 74
Chart V - The Scope of Routing. 74a
Chart VI - The Scope of Scheduling ♦. 74a
Chart VII - The Scope of Dispatching 74a
11* What Hinders Effective Cooperation?. 75
Chart I - Evidences of Poor Cooperation 78
Chart II - What Hinders Good Cooperation? 78
Chart III - Ways to Increase Cooperation 79
12* The Foreman as Instructor 80
Why Workers Need Training 80
Who Should Do the Training? 81
How Should an Operation be Taught? 81
Instruction Differs from Production 82
Right and Wrong Ways to Teach a Job 82
Planning Demonstrations 84
Chart I - Why Train Workers? 85
Chart II - Various Teaching Methods in Common Use.... 85
Chart III - Differences between Production and
Instruction..... 86
13. How to Demonstrate and Teach a Job 87
The Basic Steps Involved in Teaching. 87
Teaching Demonstrations by Group Members...; 87
Requirements of a Demonstration 88
An Example of Good Demonstration Practice 89
Chart I - The Steps Involved in Teaching 91
Chart II - Requirements of a Successful Job
Demonstration...... 92
■» 5 •»
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(Table of Contents — Continued)
Page
14. Problems Confronting the Instructor 93
Practical Training Situations 93
When is Formal Training Desirable? 94
In What Should Workers be Trained? 94
The Use of Questions 94
Chart I - When is Formal or Organized Training
Profitable? ,. 96
Chart II - In What Can Workers be Trained? 96
15. Additional Instructor Problems , 97
Common Mistakes in Teaching.. ^ 97
Difficulties of the Learner, 98
Qualifications of an Instructor 98
Chart I - Difficulties of Learners...... 100
Chart II - Qualifications of a Good Instructor....... 100
Chart III - The Successive Levels of Training 101
16. Setting Up a Systematic Lesson Plan 102
Skills Automatic with Workers Must be Taught Learners 102
Analyzing an Occupation for Teaching Purposes..i..... 103
Practice in Analyzing a Task 104
How to Build a Berm (Chart) 105
Teaching Order May Differ from Operating Order 105
Setting up a Formal Lesson Plan 106
Useful Teaching Devices 106
Chart I - Outline of a Lesson Plan 108
Chart II - Samples of Job Sheets 108
Chart III - Samples of an Instruction Sheet 109
17. Understudies 110
Why Provide Understudies? 110
Selection of Understudies Ill
Training of Understudies Ill
Chart I - Advantages of Developing Understudies...... 112
Chart II - The Selection of Understudies 112
Chart III - How May Understudies be Trained?.. 112
18. The Dissatisfied Worker 113
What Are the Evidences of Dissatisfaction? 113
The Fundamental Heeds of Workers 114
What Can Be Done to Overcome Dissatisfaction? 114
Chart I - Evidences of Dissatisfaction 117
Chart II - Basic Needs or Desires Which Influence
Human Conduct 117
Chart III - How to Overcome Job Dissatisfaction...... 118
19. The Care of Materials and Equipment 120
The Need for Good Housekeeping....... 121
What Materials and Equipment are Used? ,,,,,,,, 121
Negligence in the Care of Specified Equipment........ 121
Proper Care of Cement (Chart) 122
Chart I - Poor Housekeeping on the Job. 123
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(Table of Contents — Continued)
Pa fie
20* Heading Off Labor Disturbances# . ••*••••• 124
What are the Causes of.D^bpr Disturbances?•••...«. • #• 125
How Can the Foreman Avoid Labor Disturbances?........ 126
f.P.A. Labor Policies 127
Chart I - Causes.of.Group,Dissatisfaction#•........■ • 129
Chart II- What Can Foreman Do to Head Off Labor
Trouble? 130
21# Horseplay on the Job# » 131
Chart I - Horseplay#•«••••»••••••#••••••r•*•••••••••• 133
Review Questions# 134
22# Leadership.. • 137
Chart I «• Poor Leadership.. 139
Chart II- What Makes,a Leader?.141
Bibliography on Foremanship# 142
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MAMTIAT, FOR T/EATTCBS QF W.P.A. FOREMANSHIP CONFERENCES
Section 1. Introductory Statement; This manual is designed to
assist discussion leaders in conducting conferences of W.P.A. foremen and
supervisors. Considerations relative to the organization and administra¬
tion of foremanship training "by state and district offices are taken up in
a separate Operating Procedure.
Among the purposes of the training program here outlined are the
following:
To give the foreman a more complete conception of his responsi¬
bilities;
To help him develop his natural ability to handle men and win
their confidence;
To give him a better understanding of W.P.A. and its operation
and of his relationship to the rest of the organization;
To present the foreman with simple principles effective in train¬
ing workers on the job.
To prepare him for promotion and greater responsibility, either
with W.P.A, or in private industry.
Under the procedure here outlined, groups of foremen or supervisors
will meet for an hour and a half or two hours once or twice a week after work,
for sixteen sessions. Additional conferences may then be held as deemed nec¬
essary. The meetings will be guided by standard discussion outlines provided
by the Engineering Division of the Works Progress Administration in Washing¬
ton.
Section 2. The Conference Method: The meetings are conducted to
some extent along the lines of the "organized conference" procedure developed
by the Federal Board for Vocational Education for use in industry during the
past twenty years. They differ, however, in being "controlled" conferences
which follow a definite plan rather than permit an unorganized type of dis¬
cussion.
The conference plan is used for the following reasons: (l) it per¬
mits a pooling of experience to solve supervisory problems; (2) it stimulates
an individual desire to think, talk, and discuss problems common to the group;
(3) it involves an active and contributing rather than a receptive attitude
on the part of those present; (4) it provides means for better interpreting
the policies and procedures of the W.P.A. to the "key persons" in the program;
(5) it presents a cooperative opportunity for promoting and developing the
common interests of foremen and management; (6) it tends to develop uni¬
fied thought from hazy, diverse ideas. In case of additional conferences
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held without the guidance of the systematic outlines contained in this manual,
the conference method "becomes a "trouble shooting" procedure, enabling the
group to consult and deal with any problem confronting its members.
A conference attempts to give all the foremen information of which
each already has a part and to guide and direct discussion to bring out their
own experience. Its true objective is to develop more intelligent thinking
on the part of the individuals present so that when confronted with a sim¬
ilar situation in the future, they can think their problem through and arrive
at a better decision. The conference leader should constantly bear in mind
that his major responsibility is that of drawing out discussion, not of making
a speech.
Section 3. Distinction Between Teaching and Conference Procedures!
The organized conference differs from standard teaching procedure.
This distinction is summarized below:
A. Steps in Instruction (The Teaching Procedure)
1. Preparation - Preparing the mind of the learner for the new
material,
2. Presentation - Demonstrating or presenting the new material.
Trial - Having the learner try out the new material with the
instructor standing near to coach.
4. Application - Doing without supervision.
B. Steps in Constructive Thinking (The Conference Procedure)
1.v Assembly of experience from the group,
2. Selection of those experiences, data, or facts, which function
directly on the problem.
3. Evaluation and interpretation of experience.
4. Conclusion or decision.
Section 4. Steps in Conference Work;
In some conferences, the four steps previously mentioned — i.e.,
(l) assembling facts, (2) selection of functioning data, (3) evaluation of
functioning data, and (4) reaching a conclusion, may be augmented by (5) plan¬
ning to make the decision effective, and (6) carrying out the plan. This is
generally not the case with the "controlled type" of conference with which we
are here concerned.
The first four steps should always be completed if possible. Fail¬
ure to conclude Step 3 may lead certain group members to reach a false con¬
clusion. The decisions or conclusions reached under Step 4 will seldom
be unanimous in all particulars, but in any case it is important that
each member of the group be given an opportunity of expressing himself
in the evaluation process and either arrive at a decision similar to
that of the majority or bo willing subsequently to try out the ideas
involved in that decision in the course of actual experience on the
job. When men have thought a problem through and completed the first
12131
four steps listed, they will naturally do a "bettor job of carrying out the
responsibility which that decision involves than when their thinking is done
for them.
In some cases it may bo appropriate for the group, unless ad¬
ministrative policies are involved, to follow through with steps five and
six. In many situations, however, the conference suggestions for correcting
a situation discussed must first be transmitted to the management, which will
indicate its policy and take steps to carry out the proposals.
In conducting the controlled conference with which we arc here
concerned the first four general steps outlined above are followed for
each different phase or objective of the discussion rather than for the
topic as a whole. The discussion leader opens the meeting with a brief
announcement of the topic and indicates the purposes of the day's discus¬
sion, with more or less of an introductory statement regarding the subject
matter. He then guides the group in a systematic logical series of steps,
summarizing the discussion as he goes by means of wall charts. At the
close of the session, he briefly summarizes the important conclusions at
which the group has arrived.
Section 5. Discussion Topics: A definite subject is selected
for discussion for each conference. This is as specific and concrete as
possible, since a broad topic cannot be adequately dealt with in the course
of a short session. Twenty-two outlines for the guidance of conference
leaders are transmitted herewith. These have been prepared from the ex¬
perience of W.P.A." foremen's groups in discussing such topics.
The entire series of subjects should constitute a progressive pro¬
gram. After the groups have become familiar with the conference procedure,
a further program can be set up for group instruction on the basis of the
groups1 own analyses of their problems. Subsequent topics (after the in¬
itial series) are most easily obtained by having the foremen agree on their
major difficulties. Such a plan for determining discussion topics for sub¬
sequent meetings, frequently referred to as a "trouble shooting" method, is
entirely flexible and is directly based upon the theory that any group of
foremen are their own best judges of what should be discussed in order to
meet their needs.
For the mqet part, the W.P.A. foremanship series is devoted to
consideration of the human factor in management rather than with techni¬
cal, engineering, or production problems. Restriction of the conference
topics to general problems of supervision and employee-employer relations
will provide a community of interest for foremen and supervisors engaged
in a wide range of both construction and white collar projects. Among such
topics which provide a common interest are questions of cooperation, of'
handling and training men, of attendance control, of morale, of transmitting
orders, and of interpreting regulations.
It should be remembered that the organized conference is of no
value in imparting technical information unless it be from one member of
the group to another. Its primary use is in enabling the foremen to think
through a problem for which there is no standard answer.
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Section 6. Physical Arrangements for Meetings; The meeting
rooms will be equipped with tables and chairs. An informal atmosphere
should be encouraged and smoking should be allowed. If three tables are
available, they should be arranged in the shape of a "TJ"» with the foreman
sitting around the outside edge of the letter, and the leader taking his
place at the opening at the top. Behind him is the wall with its charts.
When only a single long table is available for use, the foremen
should be grouped aroung it leaving a small clear space at the middle of
one side for the leader. Chairs of all the men present will face him,the
men in the front of the tabic sitting siaewise. The leader should not
attempt to use the end of the table since some of the men will be too far
away.
In discussion groups of this kind thore is a constant tendency
for members to sit in tho back of the room or, if a wall is adjacent, to
lean their chairs against it. From the very start of the meeting series,
the discussion leader should firmly but courteously request the foremen to
group themselves closely around the tables so that each may hear what every
other man present has to say.
To emphasise the informality of the meetings said place the men at
their ease, they should be encouraged to attend in work clothes if they
so desire and to remove their coats if they wish. At the outset there may
be a disposition on the part of some men present to stand up when they
have something to say. This should be discouraged.
The meeting room is equipped with large sheets of paper mounted
in a frame for the use of the leader in working out charts which summarize
the discussions. The best device is to provide large sheets (48 x 40) of
white or manilla wrapping paper which is fastened between sticks. This
may be hung on the wall with wire as a picture is hung, tho sheets being
turned back as they are used up. A black crayon or china marking pencil
is usee* for writing and lettering.
Section 7. Useful Headings for Charts: The successful conference
has been found to involve the use of chart headings. These are needed to
organize and direct discussion into profitable channels and to center at¬
tention on the topic under discussion. Reference to the charts which
follow each of the discussion outlines herein presented will illustrate
simple chart headings useful in conference work. The conference leader
also meets with situations in which it is doisrable for tho group to under¬
take specialized or more detailed analyses. In this case, the necessary
headings may be adapted from the following:
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Situation Positive Effects Negative Effects What to do
(C)
What is wrong.?
What is to he done?
(E)
What is wrong?
Who or what is
Effects
Ways and Means -
responsible?
Remedies
(F)
Errors
Cause s
Remedies
(G)
Elements break into
Effect
Solution
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Above these headings is lettered the title, problem or name of
the topic under discussion. The charts for a given meeting should be head¬
ed up by the leader in advance of the meeting. This saves time and permits
a better appearing chart.
Graphs, charts, and diagrams are extremely useful in conference
work and the conference leader should be familiar with ordinary methods of
graphic presentation. Reference handbooks dealing with graphs are usually
available in local libraries and should be consulted.
Section 8. The Need for Talking the Foreman's Language: Among
the most important factors to be considered in leading conferences of WFA
foremen is tho need "to talk the foreman's language". There is always danger
that the leader may "shoot over the heads" of his group, particularly when
dealing with foremen of foreign extraction or little education. The more
simple the language used, the bettor.
Involved academic discussion of subject matter is never grasped
by practical workmen who think in terms of concrete, specific application.
When the discussion leader, who is probably college trained, comes before
a group of practical trained men, he will make no progress if he meets
them on theoretical grounds.
The group discussion will succeed in direct proportion to the
extent to which the leader keeps it on a concrete rather than an abstract
basis. Whenever the discussion becomes vague or philosophical, it loses its
effect. Generalities should be shunned and every effort made to drive tho
discussion through to practical conclusions and applications. If the leader
permits the group to wander off and discuss generalities or matters of opinion,
the group, which is accustomed to thinking largely in terms of practical ex¬
perience, will have difficulty in remembering and applying the conclusions
derived.
If, on the- other hand, the leader constantly strives to pull out
specific illustrations, cases, and applications of the topic under discus¬
sion from the members of the group, and makes his own contributions in con¬
crete terms, the meetings will provide a genuine training opportunity.
The conference leader must endeavor to think a little ahead of
his group. He should anticipate the trend which the discussion is taking
and try to keep it from being sidetracked from its main objective. On the
other hand, the leader should avoid short-circuiting the thinking of the
group. The leader's mind may be so active that he assumes that the members
of the group have arrived at the same conclusion as himself. At other times
he may be tempted to give his own interpretation of the facts or wind up
the discussion with relation to a specific point, rather than to have the
men work out the problem for themselves; this should, of course, be avoided.
Other important considerations in conference leading are discussed in the
sections which follow.
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12131
Section 9. Charting Difficulties: Some conference leaders are
apt to be too slow in writing or lettering on a chart. In consequence,
valuable discussion time is lost and the attention of the group lags. The
leader must develop the knack of lettering fast and legibly.
Difficulty is sometimes experienced in keeping the discussion mov¬
ing while the leader is charting. If too much time is spent in entering a
length point on the wall cahrt, the group will sit back and wait in silence.
This may result in a break in its thought and attention. If the leader is
able to do so, he should go ahead and talk while lettering. He may» for
example, elaborate on the point he is listing. If the item to be entered
is a very long one, he may suggest to the group members that they continue
their discussion while he enters the point in question, or he may suggest
that thoy be thinking of other items next to be listed on the chart.
Whenever a suggestion is expressed in too many words or in awkward
terms, the leader should boil it down or render it more concisely and ask
approval for writing down the revised rather than the original words. He
can thus save time and greatly clarify and interpret the trend of the dis¬
cussion, directing it along its logical path. Such procedure is especially
desirable when standardized discussion outlines are being used as a pattern,
similar to those following this manual, and an effort is being made to
develop the points shown on the charts.
The leader should always endeavor to epitomize the essence of
the suggestion made and enter it on the board in as concise form as possible.
By studying the typical charts in advance, he will be able to remember
general phrases which can be used to summarize an experience recounted by
a member of the group. He may select a popular or a slangy phrase which
expresses the idea. For example, he may use phrases like "clock-watcher",
"beefer", "passing the buck", or "lay down the law".
He should avoid writing long and involved sentences which make the
wall chart difficult to read. He should not quibble nor allow the members
of the group to get into an argument over the precise word to be used as
long as it gives a reasonably clear-cut indication of the thought of the
group.
When suggestions are made which are definitely beside the point
under discussion, the leader may tactfully question whether it is germane
and have it withdrawn or he may say: "That's a good point, but does it fit
in with what we arc discussing right now? Let's make a note of it for
future reference." He may then make a notation at the bottom or side of the
board rather than running the item in the chart which is being developed.
Section 10. Winning the Confidence of the Group: Confidence is
not a fact but an attitude of mind. It is built up slowly as a result of a
series of experiences. In order to secure the most beneficial results,
however, confidence in the conference leader must be developed as quickly
as possible.
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12131
As a matter of operating tactics, the only thing that a conference
leader can do is to so conduct himself that his group "believes in him. If any
initial distrust is apparent, and this may be perfectly natural when the lead¬
er meets for the first time with a group of foremen, he must appear to be
totally unaware of any distrust, and simply go at his job. It is imperative
that the leader does not appear in any way different from what he actually is.
The leader's attitude should not be superior, paternal, or patron¬
izing: he must be one of the group. He should not appear to dominate the
meeting and should refrain from taking the attitude of the school teacher who
has a lesson to put over.
In addressing foremen present, he should avoid the salutation
"friend". In referring to an individual it is better to refer to him as
"Mr. Jones", "Jones", or "Charlie". In asking a general question of the
entire group he may at times use the expression "group". "Men" is generally
to be preferred, however.
The leader should avoid the use of the pronoun "I", and in refer¬
ring to conclusions arrived at, even though he may have contributed a great
deal to them, he should use the pronoun "we". Above all, expressions such
as "class, lesson, training, teacher, and text" should not be used under
any circumstances.
Section 11. Holding the Interest of the Group: The successful
meeting depends upon the interest of a group being secured and maintained.
The problem of interest manifests itself early in a conference series.
There are, of course, definite evidences of lack of interest such as the
group persisting in talking about something else rather than the subject
under discussion, the men talking about all sorts of things and starting
in to "kid" each other and laughing and joking, or nobody saying anything.
Such lack of interest nay be caused because the subject has no real appeal,
because it does not meet the practical needs of the.group, or because they
have had so little experience with the subject that they hesitate to discuss
it.
In maintaining interest or in diverting the discussion back to its
proper channel, various serviceable devices have been developed. Among
these are the following:
1. Statement of actual or hypothetical cases by conference leader.
2. Statement of actual experiences by group members.
3. Suggestive questions by conference leader.
4. Calling for direct statements or opinions by group members.
5. Bringing the attention of the group back to the list of functioning
facts on a chart.
6. Pro and con analysis.
7. Direct statement by leader.
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12171
Changing the immediate trend of the topic is obviously necessary
when the point has been exhausted, when the group begins to deal in personal¬
ities, or the matter discussed may for one reason or another be regarded. as
undesirable. Under these conditions, it is usually necessary to substitute
some subsequent aspect of the subject. The conference leader should not
"stand pat" on a topic too long in the face of opposition. This is a common
tendency on the part of an inexperienced leader. He should never force tnc
discussion beyond the point where it is evident that the foremen are interested.
The important thing is to start a new point as soon as possible. Sometimes
it may be possible to swing back to the original discussion topic after a
"side-track" discussion.
In this connection, the leader should maintain a notebook, pre¬
ferably arranged by topics, in which he jots down interesting discussion
subjects suggested by his groups. It is also invaluable for him to note
specific cases or stories which group members have cited, and which he can
use to good advantage in his work.
Invaluable and timely references may also be kept to newspaper or
magazine items, or to citations from books on human relations, the science
of management, or economics. The wide awake leader will find it necessary
to keep abreast of current events and to do considerable serious reading on
the side to keep from being a "routineer".
When a topic dealing in criticism of persons or outside the proper
province of the group arises in the course of discussion, the leader must
face it and decide whether or not it is to be allowed to continue. If it
is inadvisable to proceed, he can simply state that he feels it beyond the
limits of appropriate discussion in that particular group. If he goes ahead-,
he must be absolutely square to all concerned.
Section 12. Securing General Participation by All Members of the
ftroup: Several situations may interfere with having all members of the
group participate. One or more individuals may seek to dominate the dis¬
cussion and "run the whole show". At times the members of the group are
just sitting around and responses cannot be obtained. There may be certain
individuals who hesitate to express themselves. Other situations also need
to be met.
Having determined the causes of the situation, the conference lead¬
er may be able to throw out a case or question which he knows is of particu¬
lar interest to those members who are not participating, he may be able to
get an individual to express an opinion contrary to the opinion of the group,
or he may use direct questions addressed to those members who are not parti¬
cipating.
When one or two men seek to dominate the meeting, this may be due
to the fact that they have a particular problem which is so important to them
that they can think of nothing else. In this situation, it may be best to
stop the conference on the particular point under discussion and get the
group to help the men in question to work out their special problem.
At times it is possible to ignore the glib talker or force him to
justify his statements if they are far fetched. Other conference devices
- 15 -
12131
which aid in keeping the conference moving and in preventing discussion
that leads nowhere are suggested in the following paragraphs. Many others
occur to the leader as he gains experience,
A very simple but useful device is for the leader to sit down
while the discussion is going on and later to stand up to start or stop it.
His act of standing up when contributions begin to lag will either close
the discussion or will start it again with added vigor.
Throwing the question back to the group: One very important thing
to remember when conducting a conference is the absolute necessity of throwing
back to the group any questions which are put directly to the leader. It is
an invariable rule of conference procedure that the leader's responsibility
is not to express his own thoughts but to stimulate the thinking of those
before him. This may be difficult for the nervous or dominating type of
leader, especially if he thinks much more rapidly than the group can follow.
But just as soon as he begins to answer questions himself, he has ceased to
be the leader of a conference and has turned "professor". It will be well
to repeat here that the instruction method is for presenting entirely new
material to people who are unfamiliar with it. The conference method is for
obtaining from the group members experiences which are already their own,
and then helping them to organize those experiences into a form which will
enable them to think more intelligently and to arrive at reasonable conclu¬
sions.
The leader's use of questions: The inexperienced leader may have
difficulty in getting responses from the group when he asks for suggestions
to be listed on a wall chart, since the group may not understand just what is
sought. He should first address a general question or two to the group as a
whole to see who volunteers. If no response is forthcoming after a moment's
pause, he should rephrase his question using different language or elaborating
on it so that it may be more fully understood. If the response is still slow,
he may then throw in a suggestive question or give an illustration of the
point he is trying to develop. If these expedients fail, he may then address
direct questions to, or obtain opinions from, individual members, designating
them by name. To avoid "yes" or "no " answers which curtail full discussion,
questions to the group should invariably be prefaced with "who, when, why,
what, or how".
As the various suggestions are listed on the wall chart, the leader
should throw in a word of acknowledgment such as "good", "O.K.", "splended",
"that's certainly to the point", etc. His language should be varied and he
should avoid the monotonous uniformity of invariably saying, for example, "all
right, what next?" As the listing proceeds, it is important for the discussion
leader, in requesting further suggestions, to tie in his questions with the
immediate topic under discussion and prevent it from being sidetracked.
Asking for a majority opinion: This device has been much over¬
worked. It rarely settles anything, There are occasionally specific instances
when its use is justifiable. For example, if a majority opinion is called for,
it may cause further discussion by the conscientious objector. Its use, then,
is to start discussion. If use<? for any other purpose, it may have a tendency
to antagonize the man who disagrees.
Taking up negative side firsti This is a useful device based on a
- 16 -
12131
psychological trait of the human mind. It is much easier to think of things
that are wroiig than things that are right« To illustrate the point; refer¬
ence may he made to the subject of "Cooperation". A leader of a foreman's
group tried to conduct a conference on this subject# He introduced the
question "How can we cooperate with other foremen?" Few comments were of¬
fered. The conference leader then suggested that the subject be approached
from the negative side, "What hinders good cooperation?" This question
brought splendid results. Human beings can pick out individual, specific
reasons which prevent cooperation, while they are able to develop the con¬
structive factors less easily. But a leader, after getting the "ball to
roll" by means of a negative approach, must work through to the positive
point of view.
Requesting; a member of group to assume a certain attitude: If the
leader anticipates particular difficulty in starting a conference, he may go
to a certain member and request that he pretend to take a certain attitude
on a subject, or ask a question, or cite a case at the coming meeting. Ee
must be careful in using this device in order that his motive may not be
misunderstood.
The conference leader will find a brief summary of the various
functions he performs in conducting a discussion in the "Analysis of the
Conference Leader's Job", shown at the close of this manual on page 23A.
This analysis will repay careful study, and Will be useful for reference
purposes from time to time as he gains actual experience with conference groups.
Section 13. Common Errors in Conference Leading: Some of the
more common difficulties encountered by discussion leaders may be briefly
pointed out.
Men who have been in executive positions and are accustomed to
commanding may dominate a meeting if they express their own opinions too
freely, twist or turn the discussion into channels representing their own
ideas rather than those of the group, and try to tell members of the group
what to do. The leader should not tell the groups "You ought to do" a
certain thing. Instead of saying "don't you think?", the leader should say
"do you think?" or "have you ever thought about —?".
The leader may be too strenuous in his leadership and may take
the attitude of a high pressure salesman trying to force the group to sign
on the dotted line. Far better results are achieved when the leader appears
to take it easy and allows the group to stand on its own feet. Changes in
the tone or modulation of tho leader's voice are definitely helpful in
guiding the discussion. When the leader constantly talks in a loud voice
or in a dominating manner, the group is soon bored.
Under no circumstances should the leader argue or even by his
manner appear to be arguing with a member of the group, He must also be
cautious not to ridicule or appear sarcastic towards any of its members.
When he has any occasion to questioh any member's opinion, he should first
inject a friendly word of commendation.
- 17 -
12131
Another difficulty experienced by certain leaders who have followed
the teaching profession is by pointed finger, ruler, persistent questioning of
individuals by name, or other teaching mannerisms, to inject the atmosphere of
the school room into the foremen's meeting.
Section 14. Ethics pf the Conference Leader; As a leader gains ex¬
perience he builds for himself a code of ethics to meet the demands of the many
situations which confront him. Items in this code of ethics may be noted as
follows:
1. A leader must be absolutely square and fair minded.
2. A leader should emphasize that conference discussion is "privileged"
so far as both lie and the group members are concerned.
3. A leader must have a "convenient forgetfulness" with reference to names
of critical members.
4. Legitimate requests for information should be satisfied, if possible,
at proper time and in proper manner,
5. Grievances may be thrashed out thoroughly in the conference and possibly
settled there, but the details of discussion should not be revealed
outside.
6. A leader should guard against being "pumped" as to "privileged" details
of discussion, individuals, etc.
7. A leader should not give advice as to relative standing or ability of
the men on the basis of their performance in a conference. His view¬
point is too inadequate for determining their possible qualifications
for promotion or dismissal.
8. Discussion should not be permitted to run along lines which will tend
to set foremen at variance with those directing their work.
Section 15, Check List for Evaluating Success of Meetings: The con¬
ference leader will find it of value to check the results of his meetings on the
self-rating chart shown on page 23.
Section 16. Progressive Steps in a Typical Conference: Although a
"purpose" section heads each discussion outline so that the leader may know what
each contains, he needs first to introduce the topic in a manner which will in¬
terest the group, to "set the stage" so to speak. This is done in five minutes
or so through the telling of a live incident or illustration, through thought-
provoking questions, or by restating the points in the "Introductory Comment"
in plain, everyday language. The introduction should be tied in with earlier
discussions in order that the topic may appear to be a natural and logical one
for the meeting in question.
After the group shows itself definitely interested and ready to go into
detail, the leader may suggest that some logical plan of discussion will be help¬
ful and indicate to the group what that path or plan may appropriately be. At
this point, he may revert to the list of "purposes" since this usually summarizes
the intent of the steps to be developed and suggests a logical pathway or plan
of approach. The purposes should not be read or copied on the wall chart, but
should be stated in simple language the foremen can understand.
In his preliminary statement, the leader must be sure that the group
fully understands the meaning of various terms which he uses and which may well
be used in the course of the discussion. It may be necessary to spend a few
minutes in getting a general agreement as to the meaning of words which may seem
elementary to the leader, for example, to define such simple terms ar cause,
effect, cooperation as distinguished from coordination, etc. After an appro¬
priate introduction, the "Discussion Plan" is then developed.
- 18 -
12131
In developing each chart, th© leader should hear in mind the four
steps in the conference procedure -- the assembly, selection, and evaluation of
experience and the conclusion, all four of which are gone through in the devel¬
opment of most charts. In the case of a chart having more than one column, he
should endeavor to obtain a quick but fairly complete listing in column one in
order to convey an over-all picture of the problem and then drive home on con¬
crete illustrations or cases in the second or third columns.
Before going on to another chart, the leader should briefly summarize
the high points brought out in developing the first chart and effect a smooth
and graceful transition and introduction to the second chart. This introduction
should bring out the logical sequence between the two charts in question.
In conducting the standard conferences included herein, an effort
should be made to cover the points listed and to follow the sequence of the
discussion plan, questions, and charts. If the discussion lags and there is
evidence of lack of interest, a shift in the emphasis of the discussion should
be considered as is suggested in an earlier section.
About five minutes before the close of each meeting, the leader should
summarize or draw conclusions which will suggest to the foremen that they have,
through their own discussion, developed ideas which will be of practical value.
Just before the meeting disbands, the leader passes out the appropriate mimeo¬
graphed charts which appear in this manual behind each of the discussion out¬
lines. The leader should tell the group that these charts have been developed
as a result of meetings of other foremen groups, and are therefore not identical
with the charts which the group itself has developed. In rare instances, when a
topic is developed with difficulty, the leader may see fit to pass a chart out
before the close of the session and compare the wall chart with the mimeographed
chart.
In the early stages of a conference, the leader must take a principal
part in setting up the problem, stating the case, and stimulating interest. As
it proceeds, the leader's part grows smaller. The members then take hold of the
problem, discuss it, and present cases. It is the leader's .job to guide this
discussion in order to select the important facts and to evaluate them by list-'
ing, charting, and analyzing. Finally, the leader must strike directly to a
conclusion.
Section 17. Reviewing the Discussion Topics: No formal tests or
examinations are desirable in connection with the training program. However,
after every four or five meetings, it is helpful, if time permits, for the leader
to devote fifteen minutes to asking general questions for the purpose of review¬
ing what has been covered. If arrangements are made by the district training
supervisor, superintendents and other operative executives may be asked to sit in
on occasional meetings specially devoted to general review discussion and to
other operating problems. These may be in addition to the regular series. The
only extensive period otherwise definitely set aside for a more systematic review
is the latter part of the meeting which is devoted to the shortest topic in the
series -- the one concerned with "Horseplay." Review questions which-can be used
at any time will be found following the discussion outline for that subject.
It is always helpful to allow time in any meeting for brief comments or
problems by a foreman who wishes to revert to a former topic. The group may be
able to assist him. Whenever the foreman has tried out or proposes to try out an
idea he obtained from the conference series, the leader should make a point of
calling attention to this fact and ask the man to report on his experience. This
helps to make the group feel that thoy are definitely profiting by the program.
- 19 -
12131
Section 18. Need for Advance Study of Outlines by Leaders - Before
meeting with a foremen's group on a new topic it is necessary for the leader
to "become thoroughly conversant with: (l) its objectives, (2) the several phases
or parts of the topic, (3) the sequence of thought flowing through and connecting
these phases, and (4) the important points to be developed in each phase. Prom
two to four hours of advance preparation and rehearsing is ordinarily required.
Supplemental reading may be necessary.
To insure that the important points will be developed suggestive or
leading questions or illustrative cases should be planned and rehearsed and
written out in the form of a skeleton outline or work sheet. While the charts,
as shown in the manual, give a fairly inclusive list of responses, they do not
indicate the details of the discussion nor the relative importance of the variouf
chart items.
Only by his complete command of the discussion topic will the leader
be able to recognize possible variations, and judge the merit of responses dif¬
fering from those shown in the manual.
After the meeting is underway, the leader may find it necessary to tak<
an occasional glance at the mimeographed charts which are to be distributed, in
order to make sure that important points have not been overlooked by the group.
He should not refer to the "discussion plan." He may, of course, find it desir¬
able to refer to his typewritten or pencil outline or work sheet.
It is particularly important for him not to copy the mimeographed
charts on the wall chart because this destroys the effect of spontaneity on
which the interest of the foremen in the meetings depends. When a leader does
that, he gives the men the impression that they are being led by the nose rather
than boing allowed to contribute their own ideas.
Section 19. Reports and Recommendations to the Administration: Aside
from routine or special reports of attendance, the discussion leader is expected
to prepare memoranda for operating officials whenever important facts or expres¬
sions of opinion of value are developed by the conference groups. This should
only be done when the group formally expresses willingness to pass along its
recommendations or suggestions. Considerable information may be developed in
this way which is of value in improving administrative procedures. The report
should be submitted by the training supervisor to the executives concerned.
Names of individuals will not be mentioned.
In the case of groups made u*o of other than outside construction fore¬
men, such as recreation or white collar supervisors, warehouse supervisors or
those on women's projects, some of the standard discussion outlines may not be
considered appropriate for use; on such occasions specialized topics may be
developed. A recreation group, for example, may discuss the problem of main¬
taining attendance in the case of voluntary groups. A group of women sewing
supervisors may discuss problems of production.
- 20 -
12131
Section 20. Individual Attention for Certain Grout) Members: The
discussion leader should give special attention to those members of his group
who appear to be particularly slow, backward, or inexperienced. He may be
able to suggest special reading or study for such individuals or to talk
over some of their problems outside of the meetings in a friendly, personal
way.
Other persons requiring special attention are the shy or reticent
members of the group. Efforts should bo made to bring them more actively into
the discussion.
As time permits, the leader should visit the various projects which
are represented by members of his groups, study the nature of the work and
conditions prevailing, and become better acquainted with the group members,
The more he knows about project operations and the foreman's problems the
more successfully will he draw out the discussion in conference.
Section 21. Maintaining Attendance at Meetings! The discussion
leader checks the attendance sheet at each meeting at the beginning of the
session and notifies the area training supervisor of absentees after each
meeting. Letters are sent out from area headquarters whenever a foreman is
absent without reason, calling his attention to this fact. The only absences
which should be considered justifiable are for serious illness or other im¬
portant reasons. Social affairs, other meetings, visiting friends, etc.,
should not be regarded as appropriate reasons, Whenever a foreman is absent
for two or three successive meetings the leader should take immediate steps
to ascertain the reason.
Since the keeping of a record of attendance and letters sent to
absentees are the only form of compulsion used to maintain attendance at the
meetings, it will be apparent to the discussion leaders that their success
depends upon their maintaining sufficient interest to accomplish the end in
view. Success or failure as measured in terms of attendance is directly up
to them.
Members of the groups should be urged to be on hand promptly at
the time for starting the meetings. Those should be started promptly and
closed promptly. If the leader and a number of the foremen arrive early, the
time may be effectively spent by starting an informal discussion following tip
the topic discussed at the previous meeting.
Section 22, Bibliography ouJ'oremanship: At the end of this manual
will be found a bibliography on fore»ans!hip. This should be made available
to members of the conference groups upon request, Midway during the conference
series, the discussion leader should tell the foremen that such a publication
has been prepared in response to requests for information from men who were
interested in additional study and self-development. He will state that he
has copies for those who may wish to use them. They should not be passed out
to everyone but only to those who personally request them from the leader at
the close of the meeting.
- 21 -
12131
Section 23. A Final Suggestion on Conference Leading: After
examining the preceding pages, the man or woman who is preparing for con¬
ference leadership may possibly feel that such an assignment is not a very
difficult one as long as the general points set forth are observed. It is
true that the leading of a conference appears, superficially, to be rather
an easy task. Appearances are deceptive, however. The very fact that a
conference appears to be a simple affair is an indication of the subtlety
and ingenuity involved in conducting it successfully. It requires a high
degree of intelligence plus training. The controlled conference gives its
members an impression that they are contributing nearly all of the ideas
which grow out of the discussion when as a matter of fact it is the leader's
direction which is responsible for intelligent results.
The successful conference leader learns and profits by experience.
No two conference situations are ever identical and the leader needs to be
constantly on the alert to meet the many different kinds of situations
which arise. The points discussed in this manual are but clues and sugges¬
tions for handling some of the problems in conference leading. Both the
art and the technique of successful group leadership must be mastered by
the conference leader through constant efforts to improve himself.
- 22 -
12131
SELF-BATING- CHART FOR CONFERENCE LEADERS
Date
RAT
1.
2,
How well was the discussion distributed?
of the group members participate?
Did most
Did I avoid confusion in thinking by stating
the problem clearly and by restating, crystalliz¬
ing, and or^xiizing the points in the discussion?
Did I seem to know where I was going?
DoorIFair
NG
Good Excel.
3. To what extent did I hold the discussion to the
main topic by preventing side-tracking and by get¬
ting it back after side-tracking?
4. How well did I let the group do its own thinking
without dominating the situation, talking too much,
or constantly forcing my own ideas?
5. How well did I accelerate the discussion by re¬
turning questions to the group, asking overhead
and direct questions, citing cases or otherwise
sustaining interest in a resourceful manner?
6. How successfully did I deal with individuals when
faced with difficult situations - efforts to monopo¬
lize the floor, offensive argument, or the introduc¬
tion of dangerous topics?
7. How well were off-side or private conversations
controlled and everyone's attention centered on
the points made to the group as a whole?
8. Was the blackboard work clear, neat, and fast?
Did it clarify the thinking? Did I list all the
essential facts?
9. Did I maintain a friendly, easy-going, and helpful
manner which commanded the confidence and respect
of the group?
10. Did the discussion cover as much ground as possible
in the time available, in a thoroughgoing manner so
that the group really absorbed it?
- 23 -
12131
ANALYSIS OF CONFERENCE LEADER'S JOB
WHAT THE LEADER DOES
DEVICES HE MAY USE
Presents the problem
or topic
1. Place general purpose of the discussion before the group#
2. Suggest importance of the problem -
(a) By reference to previous discussion.
(b) By examples if possible.
3. Define terms used so that there may be no confusion
or misunderstanding - Avoid use of terms not in general
use by foremen.
Starts discussion of
topic
1. Ask overhead questions- Ex. - How many of you have had
more than 5 yr. experience
as foremen?
2. Raise debatable questions.
3. Cite a specific case for illustration.
4. Misstate opinions to provoke opposition.
Develops charts
1. Enter appropriate headings.
2. Changing headings to expand discussion.
3. Adding columns when needed (in an emergency)
sinters selected points
on charts
1. Select essential points or facts brought out in discussior.
- interpret when needed.
2. Summarize or brief them for chart entry.
3. Eliminate non-essential data.
4. Getting general group agreement before entering a chart
item.
Guides the discussion
1. Keep the discussion concrete - insist on specific cases
- avoid philosophy.
2. Use overhead questions (to the group)
3. Use leading questions.
4. Use direct questions (to an individual)
5. Illustrate points with sketches, diagrams, or stories.
6. Assist members in expressing themselves.
Controls the
discussion
1. Accelerate discussion:
(a) Bring out specific cases to provoke interest.
(b) Make negative statements.
(c) Start a friendly argument between two group members.
(d) Lead an individual into a trap by asking him leading
questions.
(e) Encourage some member of the group with known opin¬
ions to take issue with previous statements.
(f) Take up interesting side problem to revive interest.
(g) Call attention to short time remaining.
(h) Stand up if seated.
| - 23a -
12131
WHAT THE LEADER DOES
DEVICES HE MAY USE
2. Slow up discussion.
(a) Cite cases illustrating viewpoints which have not
been suggested.
(b) Tell stories.
(c) Ask whether the group has considered all sides of
the question.
(d) Sum up opinions.
Prevents "side¬
tracking"
1. Restate original problem.
2. Ask what the point has to do with the problem,
3. Ask questions to bring the discussion back.
4. Silently point to the item on the chart.
5. Secure a statement from a level headed thinker to head
off the "rambler"-
6. Request individuals to postpone side issues until the
main point has been settled.
?akes a "side-track"
deliberately
a. When needed
to revive
interest
b. When topic
has been ex¬
hausted
1. Recognize worth-while side issues brought up.
2. Bring up live topics suggested at earlier sessions.
3. Control side-issue discussions to maintain relationship
to original problem.
4. Return to main problem after "side-tracking".
5. Compliment individual who caused "side-track" and
asking "Where do we go from hero?"
landles individual
members of group
1. Restraining the talkative person
(a) Lead into trap and have group set on him.
(b) If bluffing, put him on the spot by asking
questions that will show up his weakness - but
do not comment on them.
(c) Politely ask him to give others a chance to express
their views.
(d) Disregard - recognize another person.
2. Encouraging the silent friendly person:
(a) Lead into discussion by coaxing questions.
(b) Build confidence by protecting him through
interpreting his statement so others will appreci¬
ate his opinion.
(c) Visit him on the side.
3. Breaking the silence of the "1 am against " person:
(a) Find out what he is interested in.
(b) Get some member to pick on him.
(c) Cross him by a positive statement.
- 2,7b -
12131
WHAT THE LEADER DOES
DEVICES HE MAY USE
4. Using the persons who actually know and realize he is
the "last word":
(a) Give him chances to show his knowledge to keep
him interested in giving to the group.
(b) Steal his thunder and give the credit to other
members of the group. This shuts him up when he
becomes too dominating.
(c) In some cases it may be necessary to trap him by
some technical questions.
5. Tempering down the high strung or touchy person:
(a) Display a helpful attitude.
(b) Come to his rescue in critical situations until
he learns to give and take in a discussion.
(c) In some cases it may be necessary to have a pri¬
vate conference to get him to see it is a game
of "give and take".
(d) Turn the situation into good fun.
Summarizes the
discussion
1. Review the high spots of the discussion, emphasizing
those points in which the group members expressed par¬
ticular interest.
2. Pass out standard charts for the conference.
3. Announce topic of next meeting.
- 23c -
DISCUSSION OUTLINES FOR FOREMANSHIP CONFERENCES
The following pages contain twenty-two
outlines for the guidance of conference discussions.
Each topic is self-contained and is designed for use
at one meeting "but may "be extended to another session
if the group is sufficiently interested in developing
the subject in considerable detail and the time schedule
of the conference series permits.
For the most part, the discussion outlines
should "be followed in the order in which they appear.
Their sequence has bean somewhat arbitrarily determined
but with several factors in mind. The "Responsibilities
of W. P. A. Foremen" provide a natural introduction to
the series. Then follow several discussions which are*
rather easy for the inexperienced leader and the group.
Later on in the series an effort has been made to provide
variety and to avoid discussing closely related topics
at consecutive meetings. The topic of leadership at
the close serves to review many of the high points in
the earlier discussions and to wind up a series which
is essentially one in developing leadership.
The selection of topics will depend in
part on the needs of the foremen taking part in the
conferences. If the schedule is limited to sixteen
sessions it is suggested that consideration be given
to eliminating six outlines chosen from among the
following:
Nos. 2, 4, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20 and 21
12131
OUTLINE NO. 1
RESPONSIBILITIES OP W.P.A. FOREMEN
Purpose of the Conference
1. To develop a complete list of foreman's responsibilities
2. To stress the importance of the foreman recognizing and carry¬
ing out his various responsibilities
3. To arrive at an agreement as to which duties are of greatest
importance and which can be delegated and which cannot.
Opening a Conference Series
After the District Director or some other higher official has brief¬
ly announced the nature of the conference series, the leader should sug¬
gest that the first step is logically that of having the members of the
group become acquainted with each other. He will set up a chart with the
following headings:
Name Years as Foreman Line of Business or Trade
Each member then quickly reports the number of years he has been em¬
ployed as a supervisor in any field and without reference to W.P.A. The
leader then adds up the total years spent by the group, pointing out that
such a pooling of varied experience is invaluable in making foremanship
meetings worthwhile. The total suggests to the group that it has a res¬
ervoir of information, and ideas on which to draw.
Introductory Comment
Since the group of foremen is meeting to discuss various responsibil¬
ities with which they are charged, the leader may preface the discussion
for the day by suggesting that they first look at the foreman's job as a
whole. They should recognize major duties and responsibilities and group
them properly. Many supervisors give too much attention to some duties
and not enough to others. In some situations the foreman may be in doubt
whether certain activities are part of his job or not. If he breaks his
job into separate parts, this will give biro a better understanding of the
job as a whole and suggest duties for discussion in greater detail later
on in the series.
Discussion Plan
The leader may then ask the questions: "What are some of the reasons
why the foreman should study or analyze his job and responsibilities?"
"Why is xt helpful to take one' s job to pxeces, to breojc xt down xnto xts
parts?" Chart I indicates the more common responses to such questions,
which are listed on the chart as suggested by group members.
In introducing the next phase of the discussion, that of listing the
foremen's responsibilities, a leader may ask: "With what does a foreman
deal in getting his job done? Who does the actual work? (Men) With what
are they supplied in order to do their work? (Tools and equipment) What
- 25 -
12131
NOTES
do they work on? (Materials) What happens if he wastes any of these?
(Gets in trouble) Why? (Because of the cost, involving money) A .
skilled mechanic has certain definite ways or rules for doing his work;
in the case of a foreman, what would you call the rules or devices he
uses, the thing that brings men, equipment, materials and money together?
(Management methods-— supervision, reports, records, requisitions, etc.)
This analysis will establish an understanding on the part of the foremen
that they are concerned with five elements. Written on the chart by the
leader, these points will be helpful in developing Chart II.
Proceeding now to the foreman's responsibilities in detail, the
leader lists (see Chart II) the suggestions made by the group in answer
to questions such as theses
. "What are some of the detailed responsibilities of a W.P.A. foreman?"
"Just what is a foreman paid to do?" "Just what do you do in your daily
work?"
The suggestions are written on the chart in the order in which they
are made, an effort being made to bring out all important points and list
at least 20 items.
The leader may then ask the group to indicate which of the responsi¬
bilities are most important, which are ma.ior and which are minor. The
group may not feel that this designation is of particular value, however,
since as each duty comes up, it is 100 percent important.
At this point the leader should digress for a few minutes to have the
group discuss the difference between the foreman's job with W.P.A. and a
foreman's job in private industry, unless this has already come out in the
discussion. The list of responsibilities appears to apply to both. In
what respects then do they differ? The point which should be forcefully
developed as a result of discussion, is that the W.P.A. foreman is a public
sei^vant. responsible to the puolic which in the final analysis employs him.
Good public relations are therefore of primary importance. Furthermore,
since the object of the works program is to provide employment for the job¬
less and maintain their morale, the W.P.A. foreman is as much concerned
with sustaining the spirit of his men and rehabilitating them for private
employment as he is with production. In carrying out his responsibilities
the foreman must approach them from the social point of view.
The leader may next ask the group to distinguish between those duties
and responsibilities which only the foreman can handle and those which he
can usually delegate to or share with a subordinate. Duties are of all
kinds. Some require little of the foreman's time since he can turn many
details over to a responsible assistant. When the responsibility involves
planning and analyzing a situation or directing a major task, it cannot be
delegated. Records and routine reports may be delegated.
Therefore it is in order to ask;' "HThat and how much of his job shall
a foreman delegate?" "Which of the duties we have listed is delegable and
which is non-delegable?" "Which can be shared?" As each item on the black¬
board list is taken up, the leader indicates the opinion of the group by
- 26 -
12131
NOTES
writing D (delegable), N (non-delegable) or S (shared) op¬
posite it.
An example of the chart which may develop from the fore¬
going discussion is shown in Chart II.
The discussion may be continued by considering the fol¬
lowing questions:
"Do any of the duties take an excessive amount of time?"
"Do any of these responsibilities take up more time than would
seem necessary?" "Which give you the greatest trouble?"
"Which items would you particularly like to have this group
discuss?" These should be noted by the leader for future use.
When this is done, a number of topics will be suggested which
can later be stressed in the discussions. Any conference
series can thus be made directly applicable to the needs of
the particular group.
It will be of interest for the group to consider the two
ways in which responsibilities may be executed—either by an
action of some kind or by reporting the facts for possible
action on the part of a superior. This point may be developed
by the leader as follows:
"How does a foreman discharge his responsibilities? If
foreman running a sewer job has no material for shoring, for
example, comes to a place that should be shored, and has no
authority to order material, what can he do?" (Report the
need) "On the same job he finds a man loafing, what can he
do?" (Discipline or warn - take action) "In the first case
he reports so that someone else may act and in the second he
acts directly himself. In the second case he has all the
necessary information and the authority. In the first.he has
the information but another must act. What, therefore, is his
responsibility to his superior?" (To give complete information)
The leader then summarizes the discussion for the session
by reviewing the points on which the group has placed the most
emphasis.
- 27 -
12131
CHART I -
RESPONSIBILITIES OF W.P.A. FOREMEN
- TOY SHOULD A SUPERVISOR STUDY HIS RESPONSIBILITIES?
1. Gains "better understanding of duties.
2. Locates neglected duties.
3. Coordinates and plans various activities more effectively.
4. Locates duties which have "been overemphasized.
5. Determines whether his job is properly handled.
6. Finds out if men and equipment are used to best advantage,
7. Distinguishes between duties which can be delegated and those
which cannot.
CHART II — LIST OF RESPONSIBILITIES
N. Gotting right man on right job
D Economical use and placement of materials
N Attendance control: keeping the men on the job
D Accident prevention
N Morale: koeping the men satisfied
N Maintaining discipline
D Keeping records and making reports
D Health and sanitation
D Handling workmen's compensation matters
S Maintaining quantity of production
S Maintaining quality of production
N Improving work or production methods
S Keeping costs down
N Planning and scheduling production
S Training workers
N Requisitioning tools and equipment
D Inspection and care of tools and equipment
N Cooperating with other foremen and units
D Checking and inspecting raw material
N Settling differences among the workers
S Promoting teamwork and cooperation
D Keeping men's time
D Providing first aid
N Keeping workers informed
N Eliminating false rumors
N Reporting conditions needing attention to operating officials
D Maintaining good housekeeping on the #ob
N Maintaining an adequate work force
N Taking an interest in the men
N Carrying out instructions
N Maintaining good public contacts— to improve public sentiment
D — Can be delegated. N — Can not be delegated.
S — May be shared.
28 -
12131
OUTLINE NO. 2
BROADER ASPECTS OF THE FOREMAN'S JOB
Purpose of the Conference;
1. To consider the foreman's responsibilities in terms of
management, of supervision, and of training.
2. To consider certain general principles of management
which affect the foreman's responsibilities,
3. To discuss ways of measuring a foreman's accomplishment.
4. To discuss the question of where or to whom the fore¬
man' s responsibility lies.
Introductory Comment:
The analysis of a foreman's responsibilities undertaken by
the group at its first session has shown that the foreman's job
is many-sided. Some of his numerous duties are all important,
others are concerned with routine details. The more responsible
a foreman's job, the more he is concerned with broader questions
of management and administration. At the lowest level; and per¬
haps unavoidably so, he may be merely a rubber stamp who takes
orders and passes them on to his men. In positions in which he
is entrusted with a lot of responsibility, he must decide what
needs to be done and plan ways of doing the job as well as seeing
that it is done.
In considering the foreman's responsibilities, various ques¬
tions arise: "To whom is he responsible? How can the manner in
which the foreman discharges his responsibilities be measured?
What are some of the points to be considered when responsibility
is delegated to a subordinate?" These are considerations which
will suggest that the foreman, by better understanding his
responsibility and authority, can develop into more than a mere
order taker. Considerations of this kind will be discussed in
this conference.
Discussion Flan:
Looking at the foreman's responsibilities from a different
angle than that of breaking them into a list - that of the nature
or the degree of authority involved - under what three main div¬
isions can the foreman's responsibilities be classified? "For
example, what could be call the duty or function which he exer¬
cises when he plans his work ahead, so that he may use tools,
men, and materials to the best advantage? (Management) What
does he do when he gives an order to get work done? (Exercises
supervision) What about the time he spends instructing his men
in ways of doing a bettor job? (Training)" Questions of this
- 29 -
12131
NOTES
kind will serve to bring out the fact that nearly everyone respon¬
sible for the work of others is concerned with management, with
supervision, and with training. Responses developed from the
group should be charted by the leader as sub—heads for Chart I.
The leader next has the group suggest points which will break
down the three main headings and provide a better definition of
which each consists. A discussion which will bring out material
similar to that contained in Chart I may be as follows:
"On what basis do we make a distinction between management
and supervision? We have said that planning, using men, mater¬
ials, and equipment to best advantage was managerial, that giv¬
ing a specific order and checking to see that it was carried out
was supervisory. Could the average strawboss or pusher whose ex¬
perience had been limited to one type of work, plan for a whole
project? Why not? (Because of limited knowledge and experience)
What then is the real difference between managing and supervis¬
ing? (Scope of knowledge and judgment) With this in mind, and
recognizing that they may overlap or merge together in a single
responsibility, what can we list as the main job of management?
Of supervision? Of training?"
At this point the leader may refer to Chart II of the pre¬
vious topic and ask under which heading certain responsibilities
could be classified. Some will be easily classified. For ex¬
ample, planning is almost wholly managerial. Others could be
listed under one or all. This discussion can thus be used to
develop a more detailed consideration of a few typical respon¬
sibilities than was done in discussion Outline No. 1.
The group may then consider some of the general principles
of management which affect responsibility with particular refer¬
ence to the delegation of responsibility and authority. The
group should develop the thought that management responsibility
cannot be delegated but that certain supervisory and training
responsibilities may be delegated. Reference can again be made
at this point to Chart II developed at the previous session to
refer to detailed jobs which may or may not be delegated. The
general principles set forth in "Chart II of the present outline
should be developed from the group as far as possible but it may
be necessary for the discussion leader to supply a number of sug¬
gestions ^n this connection. The following questions may be help¬
ful:
"If a foreman delegates the job of putting in some shoring,
does this relieve him of final responsibility? Why not? What is
the difference between responsibility and authority? If you ac¬
cept authority and responsibility to do a job what do you have
to supply? (Knowledge of what is expected and how to do it)
When a foreman gives definite orders to a strawboss to dig a trench
of a certain width and depth from one point to another to carry
off drainage water, who is responsible? (Foreman) On the other
hand if he tells the strawboss to provide some way to carry off
- 30 -
12131
NOTES
the drainage water, then who is responsible? (Strawboss) How
can we describe some of the general rules relating to responsib¬
ility? What of the three major kinds of responsibility of a
foreman can he delegate to a subordinate?"
In holding subordinates to their responsibilities and in his
capacity as a manager, the foreman is concerned with setting
standards of performance for the men under him. A "standard"
is a degree of quality and quantity expected of a product or of
an individual. A standard day's work is the amount of work which
an individual is expected to accomplish in a day. It should be
measurable as to quantity and quality. Similarly, the Works Prog-
ess Administration - the foreman's employer - is concerned with
knowing how well the foreman does his job. It will, therefore,
be of interest to the group to consider some of the ways in
which the success or failure of a foreman may be measured.
"What should an engineer or other executive take into considera¬
tion when he is asked to give an opinion relative to the work
done by a foreman? What definite, measurable factors suggest
superior, average, or poor foremanship? How would you as fore¬
man want to be judged? What points would you want considered?
Which of the responsibilities we listed at our first meeting
would it be fair to use as a measure of accomplishment?
Which could a superintendent measure accurately?"
Some of the answers which may be suggested by the group are
shown in Chart III attached. It is important to note that in¬
tangible factors which cannot be measured, such as loyalty,
initiative, etc., should not be included in the list.
In considering the foreman's responsibility in its broader
aspect, it will next be of interest to consider to whom the
foreman is responsible for doing a satisfactory job. "Who or
what is affected if the foreman falls down on his job? Who is
likely to call him to account? Is he responsible only to his
employer? Who suffers if he loses his job? The development of
this discussion angle will result in a chart similar to Chart IV
in which the foreman's four-way responsibility, to his em-plover,
to his men.to himself and his family, and to society, are in¬
dicated.
The leader will then summarize the discussion and emphasize
the point which has been developed that a foreman's future will
be routine or managerial, depending upon his knowledge and capa¬
city and upon his willingness to assume responsibility and author¬
ity and to display initiative.
- 31 -
12131
BROADER ASPECTS OF THE FOREMAN'S JOB
CHART I - MAIN TYPES OF RESPONSIBILITY
MANAGEMENT INVOLVES
Over-seeing in the broad sense
Administration or general direction
Knowing the situation on the project at all times
Planning for the future and anticipating
Breakdowns
Shortage of men or materials
Mistakes of subordinates
Thinking out ways of
Improving production
Reducing costs
Maintaining morale
Reducing accidents
Eliminating waste
SUPERVISION INVOLVES
Actually getting the work done by
Issuing orders
Delegating responsibility
Handling complaints
Making adjustments
Enforcing discipline
Inspecting details of work underway
Placing workers effectively
TRAINING INVOLVES
Increasing the skills of workers
Setting up a systematic training plan
Developing understudies
Checking up to see that training is effective
- 32
12131
flTTART TT „ PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT AFFECTING
RESPONSIBILITY
1. Final responsibility cannot be divided.
2. It must be accepted fully or not at all
3. It may be delegated but not relinquished
4. It should always be accompanied by full authority
5. The man who assumes responsibility should know what is
expected and is alone accountable for results
6. In delegating responsibility give it in terms of results
exroected
7. Leave the method of carrying it out to the person who as¬
sumes it if he knows how
CHART III - HOW CAN A FOREMAN* S ACCOMPLISHMENT
BE MEASURED?
1. Quantity of production
2. Quality of production
3. Completion time, or maintenance of wpjdc schedules
4. Costs of production
5. Labor turnover - ability to keep his men
6. Number of reprimands or disciplinary actions
7. Amount of material wasted
8. Number of "seconds" produced (manufacturing)
9. Man hours lost or wasted - idle time
10. Machine or equipment hours lost - idle time
11, Safety; man hours lost due to accidents
(These factors should be stated in terms of units or percentages)
- 33 -
CHART IV - WHAT IS THE FOREMAN1 S FOUR*WAY
RESPONSIBILITY?
To his employer (whom he represents), He nrust:
Identify himself with the management
Understand the limits of his responsibility dnd
authority
Be able to cooperate with superiors
Look out for the interest of the administration
Enforce discipline
Understand and interpret W.P.A. policies
Seek to improve the work of the project
Maintain production
To his workers (whom he leads, guides, and directs). He
needs to:
Place them effectively
Treat them fairly
Keep them interested
Know and understand them
Instruct them
Stand up for them when necessary
To himself and his family. He should:
Understand his abilities and limitations
Endeavor to improve hiS knowledge and skill
Seek to sell his ability to the best advantage
Maintain wholesome personal habits
As a citizen. He needs to:
Know something of economics and his government
Take part in public affairs
Contribute to the improvement of human welfare
34 -
12131
Outlirle ftd. 3
AVOIDING IDLE TIME ON THE JOB
Purpose of the Conference;
1, To discuss the effects of loafing and idlo time on the
job.
2. To consider definite instances or causes which lead to
the wasting of time and to determine ways and means of
correcting them.
Introductory Comment:
The leader may state that the W.P.A. and earlier works pro¬
grams have been subject to criticism on various grounds but of
all the attacks none has been more common than that based on al¬
leged "boondoggling" and wasted time. He may then ask how the
foremen feel about such criticism. Their replies will enable
him to suggest that it is nevertheless of the highest importance
for the foreman and supervisor to do everything possible to keep
the working force busy at all times and thus eliminate public
criticism caused by an appearance of idleness. Extensive
evidence of loafing on the job may do much to endanger the jobs
of unemployed workers on works projects. It might even bring
about a return to home relief or the dole.
The leader may then ask, "What happens to the man who keeps
on loafing and gets away with it?" He may then point out that
of greater importance than the effect on the works program is the
effect of idleness upon the -project worker himself. There is
truth in the old saying that idle hands breed mischief. Idle¬
ness demoralizes the individual. His mind stagnates and the
resulting indifference and laziness are reflected not only in
the success of the work project but are carried into the worker's
private life. Loafing spreads to others like an epidemic. It
is contagious and gradually infects even the most conscientious
worker#
Discussion Plant
Effects of Loafing? After an introduction of this kind,
the leader may suggest that the group go at the problem system¬
atically and start with brief consideration of the results of
extensive loafing on the job. "First, what are the evidences
or results of having a number of men constantly killing time
on a works project?" "How does idleness affect the project?"
"How does it affect the individual?" The responses of the group
are listed along the lines of Chart I. Not more than fifteen
minutes need be spent on this chart.
There have been instances of workers who have engaged in
drinking, gambling, and fighting on projects, not only as a
- 35 -
12131
NOTES
result of a lade of discipline in general but because they had
so much free time on their hands. Specific Instances of this
kind may be discussed out of the experience of the group as well
as more general results expressed in terms of higher costs,
wasted material, etc., in developing this chart.
How to Prevent Idle Time on the Job: Chart II lists many
of the immediate causes of job idleness and suggests ways and
means of overcoming them. The left hand column showing various
causes in the worker and in the job should first be developed
by group discussion, after which the right hand column should be
prepared. Items to the left should first be quickly listed after
which each should be more fully discussed in turn, when the group
considers and suggests the remedies in terms of concrete cases
from its experience.
It should be pointed out that idle time may be due to
either of two factors; it may be caused (l) by the worker who
chooses to loaf on the job or (2) by conditions which lio in the
way the project is organized or supervised. The foreman is
responsible for both but the worker may not be concerned with
the latter. The group should understand that the discussion is
concerned only with idle time that can be prevented and not that
which is unavoidable, such as that due to bad weather.
The discussion for Chart II may be introduced by the leader
as follows: "We have listed some of the effects of lost time and
you men seem to agree that idleness is something we ought to pre¬
vent. Let*s see if we can discover some of the ways of prevent¬
ing it. First we might list some of the causes and then get down
to what we can do about each." He then uncovers the chart which
has been headed up in advance and proceeds to suggest appropriate
questions for developing the discussion. For example: "In every
foreman*s gang there are usually a few men who just don't hit the
ball. What*s usually the matter with them?" Replies may be:
"Lazy - dumb - shiftless." This provides suggestions which the
leader may develop and interpret. It gives him a start on the
chart by listing "laziness" or a similar expression.
As far as possible each item on Chart II should be discussed
in terms of definite concrete examples drawn from the experience
of the foremen in the group. Thus in discussing overmanning one
of the foremen may point out that in an effort to assign large
numbers of workers, far more men were sent him than he could
properly use, a condition which had not been corrected. The
obvious remedy is to take the matter up with the employment
division and arrange for the transfer of a part of the force
to other projects. In discussing personal habits as a cause of
loafing, a case may be cited of a young man who was a typical
"spoiled child," who had never had any previous work experience
- 36 -
12131
and always "been allowed to do much as he pleased. He had never
been subjected to any discipline nor developed sound work habits.
He needs to receive individual friendly assistance from the fore¬
man in order to know what work means.
The third item in the chart is probably the most important.
The "Live wire" foreman, always on the job and hitting the ball
enthusiastically day after day, has more to do with the work
attitude of his men than any other single factor.
In winding up the discussion, the leader may briefly go over
the more important points to observe in eliminating idle time on
f.P.A. projects which have been brought out in the discussion.
12131
AVOIDING IDLE TIME ON THE JOB
CHART I — EFFECTS OF IDLE TIME
High operating costs
Breaks down morale
Waste through negligence
Hampers effective cooperation among fellow workers
Bad effect on other W.P.A. workers or groups
Bad effect on public opinion and sponsor
Causes foreman endless trouble
Induces horseplay, gossip, drinking, gambling, fighting
Disrespect for program
CHART II — WAYS OF PEEVENTING IDLE TIME
Causes
What to do abcr.t it
In the Worker
Shirking — natural laziness
Place in job where pace set by
others- Place with hard workers
Discipline
Poor personal work habits of inexperience
Investigate, advise, discipline,
train.
Foreman loafing or off the job
"Stand in4 with higher-ups
Foreman to set good example
"Stimulate inerest in job
Arrange for transfer
Discuss with employment division
Distracted mind (worry, day-dreaming)
Talk it over — clear it up
Work fatiguing (or ill health)
Provide "leaving periods" or rest
pauses. Medical attention
Lack of interest or incentive
Stimulate through
Job pride - Explain purpose and
aims- Chart daily progress -
Competition
In the Job
Lack of proper supervision
Tighten up inspection and super-
vision- Lay out day's work for eadi
worker
Not enough work
Additional work
Uneven flow of work
Improve planning, rearrange flow
Better coordination with other groups
or agencies-* Get after stock chaser
Improper tools or equipment
■Poor lighting, ventilation or working"
conditions
Provide proper ones
Correct the conditions
.Overmanning
Reduce force
Improper Work layout
Rearrange
12131
OUTLINE NO. 4
CARELESSNESS
Purpose of Conferences
1. To consider the nature and results of carelessness on
work projects.
2. To indicate the common causes of carelessness and how
careless habits may be overcome.
3. To emphasize the foreman's responsibility for doing
what he can to eliminate careless work habits on the
part of his workers.
Introductory Comment;
Carelessness is a broad general term indicating negligence.
In its application in our discussion it refers to any action
which is caused by negligence, indifference, or oversight and
leads to an undesirable end-result for the project or the work¬
er. Carelessness is essentially a personal matter; we are there¬
fore particularly concerned with action in which the worker
himself is at fault.
The most striking aspect or consequence of carelessness is
injury. This is tcsually given most attention since other re¬
sults are far less dramatic, though they may be quite as im¬
portant. Safety and accident prevention are significant topics
but they should not be discussed at this session. At this time
we are concerned with a broader field involving negligence work
habits and slipshod workmanship. The topic thus also embraces
such matters as leaving materials and equipment lying around,
using dull or dirty tools, and skipping over details in one's
daily work.
Discussion Plan:
The group should start listing the possible results of
carelessness, the evidences of careless work habits. These
may be summarized in a chart similar to Chart I. "What are
the results or evidences of carelessness? What happens when
workers are negligent? What is the effect on the job? On the
worker?"
A chart should next be worked up to show the various causes
of carelessness and the possible ways and means of overcoming
them, similar to Chart II, This chart deals particularly with
situations for which the worker himself is responsible. One
or a number of the causes may enter into any given situation.
The left side of the chart should be developed first in re-
WW ^ M
12131
NOTES
sponse to questions such as these: "What are some of the
things which cause a man to be careless in his work habits?
What are the reasons for negligence? Why are workers care-
less? What characteristics or traits do individuals have
which cause them to produce indifferent work? For example,
what may be the matter with a man who can't keep his mind
on his work?"
After the listing has been completed, the group should
be asked to give specific examples of careless workers under
each item out of their own experience. The possible remedies
for each situation are then entered in the right hand column
of the chart as the" discussion proceeds.
The leader should lead the group to elaborate on the
following points in discussing the "remedy" column of Chart II,
Some of the causes for negligent workmanship can be remedied
far more easily than others.
1, Some persons are born with an inability to concentrate
their attention on anything but that in which they are tremen¬
dously interested. This disposition may be improved on by
some individuals in the course of self-training. Careless¬
ness due to distraction can frequently be overcome after
study of the situation and its causes by the foreman.
2, One of the most difficult problems which frequently
confronts a foreman is that of a worker who is naturally •
slipshod and indifferent in everything that he does, both
at and away from work. An example of such a worker is a
man who went with others to a tool box to get an axe. He
threw the axe over his shoulder without paying attention
to other workmen crowding about and cut another worker on
the jaw. Sometimes the foreman can assist a slipshod man
in developing good work habits but the task requires a great
deal of patience. Carelessness attributable to the fact that
the worker has no natural aptitude for the work to which he
is assigned may, of course, be met by reassignment. This does
not present as serious a problem for the foreman as that
involving the rebuilding of a man's character. Very often
this is precisely the problem which the W.P.A. foreman must
face. The easy way is to "pass the buck" by having the
worker transferred but this does not solve the problem.
3, Certain careless acts on the part of workers may,
of course, be laid at the foreman's own door. Of first
importance therefore is the need far liaving the foreman
set a good example by precise, careful workmanship. Other¬
wise indifferent shiftless work will soon be apparent on
the part of his crew. Lack of proper supervision will
- 40 -
12131
NOTES
also encourage carelessness. Frequently too much
pressure on the foreman's part for production or fa«t
completion of a job may result in careless work. The
foreman needs to inspect the work of his gang regularly
and supply such discipline and training as are needed
in order to eliminate the development of slipshod work
habits on the part of his men.
4. Carelessness may "be attributed to a combination
of two or three causes. An old school building which
was being reconstructed by W.P.A. was very nearly
burned down, for example, because of the negligence
of painters and the absence of proper discipline.
The painters insisted on smoking despite the rules
of the Board of Education and the foreman was not en¬
forcing discipline.
5. A lack of understanding of what is expected is
a frequent cause of carelessness. Ignorance on the work¬
er's part is entirely the fault of the foreman, who should
provide fully adequate instruction and training. The lathe
hand who turns out several hundred pieces whose diameter
is too small may be less giilty of carelessness than the
foreman.
6. The placement of workers is important in prevent¬
ing carelessness. Whenever the foreman perceives an indi¬
cation of careless habits on the part of a workman he should
make sure that the individual is not placed on a job where
the work must be done without close supervision, or frequent
inspection. Many engineering and office operations involve
the possibility of errors which may not be detected for
a long time afterwards. The inaccuracy of a file clerk
is not discovered until the correspondence is wanted later
on. The draftsman or engineer may make miscalculations
which are not disclosed until a building construction job
is nearly finished.
After Chart II has been developed the leader should
point out that the causes listed serve to provide a useful
breakdown of the factors which should be considered in
analyzing a careless act — it is not at all adequate to
characterize such an act by the use of such a loose term
as carelessness. If "Poor Supervision" is suggested by
the group as one of the causes this should be broken down
- 41 -
12131
and the idea developed that poor supervision is itself due
to indifference, inattention, haste, etc., on the part of
the foreman.
The discussion leader may find it worthwhile to suggest to the
group that the elimination of carelessness results in efficiency,
which depends upon a combination of personal traits. It involves
not merely a desire to do careful and accurate work but may require
improvement in the worker's ability to observe, to concentrate and
to porservere in what he is doing. The habit of observing things
closely can be developed to some extent by forcing one's attention
and the habits of concentration can also be developed with the ex¬
ercise of will-power. Persistence and concentration will usually
enable a person to undertake any task systematically and carefully
if given the necessary time.
The discussion is followed by a brief synopsis of the dis¬
cussion by the group leader.
42 -
12131
CARELESSNESS
CHART I — RESULTS OF CARELESSNESS
Loss of life or limb
Injuries
Loss or waste of materials
Damage to tools and equipment
Delay: loss of productive time
Spoiled output
Discipline for careless worker
Lowered respect of workers for W.P.A.
Public Disfavor
More work for foreman
CHART II — OVERCOMING CARELESSNESS
Cause
Inattentiveness, inability to con¬
centrate
Remedy
Caution or warn
Assign to other job
Self-improvement
Di stTactions
Horseplay
Worry (personal troubles)
Noise or disturbance
Closer supervision
Talk it over and help
Improve work conditions
Thoughtlessness, day dreaming
Caution, train, create interest
Slipshod work habits
Discipline; train in precision
Indifference or lack of interest
caused by
Laziness; shiftlessness; lack
of conscience
Absence of cooperation or sup¬
port
Routine or monotonous job
Frank talk or discipline
Better team work and leadership
Reassign or rotate jobs
Lack of understanding of work re-
requirements — inexperience
Training; explanation
Haste; impulsiveness; hurry in
quitting
Caution; discipline
Worker not adapted for job
Assign appropriate work
Improve assignment procedure
Physical condition
Illness; undernourishment
Fatigue
Lack of sleep
Liquor or hangover
Medical care
Provide rest
Send home
Discipline
Poor supervision; foreman off the
job
Better supervision; close
observation
- 43 -
12131
OUTLINE NO. 5
MAINTAINING DISCIPLINE
Purpose of Conference:
1. To consider the foreman's responsibility for maintain¬
ing discipline.
2. To determine some of the actions requiring discipline and
establish an agreement as to the best methods of getting
and keeping effective discipline.
3. To discuss the reprimand; how to use it properly.
4. To emphasize the importance of disciplining each worker
in the light of his own individual traits.
Introductory Comment:
By discipline we here refer to the means of keeping order and
good conduct on the part of a group of workers. Its extreme ap¬
plication may involve punishment.
The problem of discipline among relief workers employed by
W.P.A. is a much different matter than in a business firm or manu¬
facturing plant. Here the factor of fear is largely eliminated.
In private industry severe penalties may be provided for in¬
discipline and employees may be summarily discharged,
In the case of the works program, however, workers may not be
handled with such arbitrary methods. It is true they may be dis¬
missed from the project but under some circumstances they may be
eligible for reinstatement and the importance of fear is greatly
reduced.
Discussion Plan:
What Good pisp^pline Should Accomplish: It is worthwhile for
the leader to spend a few minutes in obtaining the opinion of the
group as to the results which should be obtained through the exer¬
cise of effective discipline. "Why do we need discipline? What do
we gain?"
In this connection the following points should be brought out.
Discipline gets the job done well. It gains the respect of the work¬
ers for the foreman. It keeps the good will of the crew. It estab¬
lishes an understanding between the foreman and his men and results
in better cooperation.
- 44 -
12131
NOTES
Evidences of Lack of Disciplines The group should then con¬
sider the more important evidences indicating a lack of discipline
on the part of workers in the crew. In this connection a chart
(combining both Charts I and II shown on a subsequent page) should
be developed as follows:
The leader first obtains suggestions for filling in the left hand
column of the chart, listing actions which require discipline. A
considerable number of these arc shown in Chart I which follows.
Questions which will bring out these items are these: "What are
some of the things which happen when discipline is at a low ebb?
What are your workers apt to do for which you have to call them to
account? In other words, just what acta require disciplinary act-
Yarious Means of Maintaining Discipline: The ri^it hand col¬
umn of the chart, showing ways and means of meeting various dis¬
ciplinary situations, is then developed by the group, "Just
what are the various ways of disciplining workers? What do you
do to enforce good conduct?" The items in the chart shown here
are arranged for the most part in increasing order of severity.
As they are.developed in the discussion, however, they may be
listed in any order in which suggestions are made, but it will
be clearer if the leader suggests that the group begin with the
milder measures and wind up with the more severe. Not all of the
suggestions in Chart II may be in use by the group but may offer
possibilities. Each item listed should be numbered.
A fairly complete listing and discussion of the various meth¬
ods of discipling workers is then followed by turning back to the
left hand column of the chart and having members of the group
suggest the appropriate disciplinary methods for each action
listed. This may be more easily done by writing in the appro¬
priate item numbers as they appear on the right, thus avoiding
the need to rewrite the remedies on the left. In general it will
be found that the oftener the offense is repeated, the more serious
will need to be the penalties. It is desirable to confine the j
discussion to those situations in which offenses have been repeated
for a certain number of times and may thus he considered to be
"habitual."
Each of the items on Chart I and its appropriate solution
should be separately considered in the light of a specific or
concrete illustration drawn from the experience of some of the
members of tho group. This pins the discussion down and makes
it more valuable.
MAINTAINING DISCIPLINE
Actions Requiring Discipline
(Develop points in Chart I)
Methods ot Disciplining
(Develop points in Chart II)
ion? "
- 45 -
12131
For example* as an illustration of carelossness one of the
foremen may cite the case of a worker who heedlessly mixes the wrong
proportions in making up a hatch of concrete, A fellow worker passes
on the information to the foreman. The careless workman starts a
fight with the second worker. What should he done about itt
As another illustration, what should he done with the workman
who insists on building a bonfire on a very cold day on property
on which the building of fires is absolutely prohibited? What
should be done with the worker who is constantly tardy and makes
numerous excuses which are discovered to be out-and-out lies?
Drinking on the job is a common occurrence necessitating
discipline. In an Indiana district during the spring of 1936
more than twenty-five per cent of all dismissals were attributed
to liquor. The following case illustrates how such a situation
was disciplined without recourse to dismissal. A worker was per¬
suaded during the lunch hour to join another in a bottle of whis¬
key. Both indulged in two or three drinks but did not become in¬
toxicated. The first worker, who had never been guilty of drink¬
ing on the job before, was caught with the bottle in his possess¬
ion. The foreman thereupon sent him home for the rest of the day
and the next morning had a frank talk with him in which an effort
was made to stimulate his pride in the program and to point out
why drinking could not be tolerated on a W.P.A. project. This
warning sufficed. The worker went back to his gang and announced
to them: "The first guy that brings liquor on this job is going
to have to whip me."
Here is another case illustrating what can be done with the
man who talks too much. Jimmy worked on a road gang and talked
so much and so well that he disrupted the work of his fellows.
The foreman warned him repeatedly in a friendly manner but this
did not correct the situation. Finally the foreman placed him
at work by himself about 300 feet away from the rest of the gang,
and around a bend in the road where the foremai could see him but
he could not see the gang. After two days Jimmy came to the fore¬
man and asked to be prut back with the group. He learned his lesson
and ever since then he has talked no more than is proper.
Such examples will serve to bring the discussion down to
earth, A live discussion of Charts I and II may take most of the
period.
RQ.ur intending Workers: The group should then take up the
question of how workers should be called down or reprimanded, A
number of basic points have been found to be most important in rep¬
rimanding a worker, "What points should be observed in calling a
man to tine? How should a worker be reprimanded? How can you best
call a man down?" Those should be brought out in the course of
discussion, as a result of which a chart similar to Chart III is
drawn up by the discussion leader
The related considerations or "don'ts" in administering a rep¬
rimand may then be put up to the meeting. As a result of this
discussion, Chart IV, "What to Avoid in Reprimanding,"
- 46 -
NOTES
12131
NOTES
will "be developed. If time does not farmit, Charts III* IV,
and V may he reserved for a "filler-in" at some subsequent
session.
Adapting Discipline to the Individual Case; Administering
discipline is an individual matter which must vary from one man
to another; this should be drawn out by the leader. Every
worker is made up of an individual and different combination
of personal characteristics or traits. This makes up his per¬
sonality. The number of possible combinations of likes and
dislikes, feelings, emotions, moods, habits, interests, atti¬
tudes and opinions which may be found in the personality of a
given worker is infinite. The foreman needs to study these
individual differences in the men under him so that he may
deal with each one as may be required. Some workers need a
sterner hand than others. Some will respond to praise, others
not. Some will assume responsibility and others will not.
We usually assume that most of our relations with others,
the manner in which we react to others, are largely based
upon thought or reason. We may think that much of our action
is based on reasoning but it is, in fact, based upon feelings
and emotions. The foreman should recognize this factor and
the importance of avoiding any standard or "canned" method of
administering discipline. When this is recognized it will be
seen that discipline becomes one thing in the case of an in¬
telligent, enthusiastic worker who has made a mistake because
of ignorance and quite another thing with a surly, obstinate
workman who goes out of his way to disobey deliberately. To
some workers a suggestion is all that is needed to improve
their conduct, to others firm instructions or some penalty
may be needed.
The leader should therefore interest the group in a dis¬
cussion of the more important character types found among their
workers. Some of the problem types may be listed in a chart
similar to that shown in Chart V.
Before the discussion on discipline is concluded the leader
should make sure that the group has convinced itself that dis¬
cipline must be developed in a constructive way that will build
morale within the work group rather than maintain itself solely
on a basis of fear. The foreman should appreciate that he must
rely upon interesting his men and on getting cooperation. He
must make the most of the workers that are assigned him. He
must be tolerant and patient. Such a foreman must be a leader
and not a driver. Discipline must be obtained by means of fair
dealing and helpful suggestions and direction rather than through
fear.
Before dismissing the group, the discussion leader should
review the high points of the discussion as it has been developed
and charted.
- 47 -
12131
DISCIPLINE AMD REPRIMANDS
CHART I - ACTIONS WHICH REQUIRE DISCIPLINE
Tardiness
Quitting early
Washing up "before quitting time
Absence from assigned place of work
Reading papers or magazines on working time
Wasting time "by excessive talking or joking
Absence, failure to report for work
Excessive horseplay or fooling
Misleading new employees
Spreading disloyalty or rumors, gossiping
Agitating or stirring up trouble
Fighting on the job
Deliberate loafing, clock watching
Spoiling of work
Wasting materials
Intoxication or drinking
Refusal to obey orders
Careless handling of tools or equipment
Taking chances creating accident hazards
Trespassing on private property
Stealing
Abuse of privileges
Using foul language
CHART II — VARIOUS METHODS OF DISCIPLINING WORKERS
1. Heart-to-heart talk (firm appeal to sense of duty)
2. Group warning or bulletin
3. Warning of consequences for repeated offense
4. Demerit on employee's record (report)
5. Place on probation
6. Take away privileges or leave
7. Separate or isolated job
8. Send home for the day
9. Less desirable work assignment or temporary demotion
10. Temporary lay-off or suspension without pay
11. Restrict chances of promotion
12. Transfer to other project
13. Deduction in pay (private industry)
14. Demotion in rank
15. Public reprimand before group
16. Recommend dismissal or "turn the man in"
- 48 -
12131
CHART 111 — HOW TO REPRIMAND
1. Investigate, get all the facts
2. Make sure a reprimand is deserved
3. Reprimand in private
4. Never humiliate the worker
5. Be tactful
6. Be frank — talk straight in
making accusation
7. Size up the individual — vary
interview accordingly
8. Show the worker how to avoid
future offenses
CHART IV — WHAT TO AVOID IN REPRIMANDING
1. Losing temper
2. Idle threats or bluffing
3. Using profanity or abuse
4. Being sarcastic
5. Scolding a worker piblicly
6. Showing favoritism
7. Being apologetic or too familiar
8. Striking a worker
9. Delegating job to someone else
10. Nagging — repeatedly rubbing it in
CHART V — VARIOUS PROBLEM TYPES OF WORKERS
(Each needs different treatment)
Indifferent, disinterested
Lazy, clock watchers
Nervous, irritable
Stubborn, obstinate
Conceited, 11 stuck up"
Hot tempered
Shy, retiring, lacking confidence
Cranks, fanatics, suspicious
Thoughtless
Rash, careless, impatient
Slow, dull, stupid
Undernourished, ill
Troubled with domestic difficulties
Workers with a "pull"
- 49 -
12131
Outline Nq« 6
PUTTING THE RIGHT WORKER ON THE RIGHT JOB
Purpose of the Conference:
1, To call attention to the importance of having every
employee assigned to the work for which he is "best
qualified and in which he will he most efficient
and contented.
2, To discuss the procedure involved in reclassifying
workers for other lines of work.
3, To develop a plan for foremen to follow in reassign¬
ing workers on the same project when no change of
vocation is involved.
Introductory Comment;
Careless or inappropriate assignments of men to work for
which they are not fitted is just as inefficient as using
tools or equipment which are not adapted to the joh to he
done. You can eat honey with a fork hut the result is not
especially satisfactory. Training as a painter does not
qualify a man to lay tiles. Just as the foreman himself is
selected because he can produce results on the joh to which
he is assigned, so it is up to the foreman to look around
and put his men on the johs in which they can produce results.
In the case of the W.P.A. it is more important to give
thought to the matter of proper placement because the supply
of available skills is often limited. Workers are sometimes
assigned of necessity without consideration of their fitness
for the work to he done. The foreman must therefore assign
his men to the particular joh they can do best among those
which he has and train them in the work involved.
Discussion Pi ply
Why is Proper Placement Important? The discussion should
open with a brief consideration of the reasons why a man should
he properly placed. "What happens when a worker's skills are
not properly used? What are the results of inappropriate as¬
signment?" This may, if desired, he summarised in a chart en¬
titled "Results of Bad Placement."
In this connection the group should discuss the following
points, after each is introduced in turn by the leader:
1* As a matter of economy and efficiency the foreman
should use the talents of his men effectively.
2. Every effort should he made to satisfy the worker by
placing him so that he uses his abilities to the full¬
est extent and works in a congenial position.
- 50 -
12131
NOTES
3. Workers wrongly placed, particularly in jobs involv¬
ing use of special tools or equipment, create an
accident hazard. Injuries may result.
4. Supervision is rendered more easy when workers are
doing work for which they are qualified and the fore¬
man does not have to spend a great deal of time in
inspection and training.
5. Since training is costly and time-consuming, workers
should be assigned such jobs as come natural and easy
to them. Their aptitudes and interests should be
considered. Some men cannot be taught certain op¬
erations. A man without a good sense of aim and dis¬
tance cannot operate a steam shovel, A color-blind
man makes a poor painter.
Fits. Misfits, and Unfits; The leader may next introduce
the idea that a foreman may have three kinds of workers assigned
him - fits, misfits, and unfits.
The "fit" employees are those who are properly placed, pro¬
duce a maximum amount of good work, are interested in their jobs,
and contented. The "misfits" are those who were improperly clas¬
sified by the Employment Division or improperly assigned by the
foreman. They may be trying hard but do not seem to get anywhere.
The "misfit" should be reclassified or reassigned into a job where
he can do his best.
There are few real "unfits". Such workers are chronically
lazy employees, disturbers or troublesome persons, or those men¬
tally irresponsible. To condemn any worker forever because he
failed on one job is serious business; it hurts; it costs money.
The "unfit" should be given careful study and attention and
only released as a last resort when all else has failed.
At this point the discussion loader should point out the
natural inclination of most foremen to "turn in" the misfit
worker, or one who may at first glance appear to be unfit, to
the employment office for transfer to another project. This
should be done only after the foreman has made every effort to
find the proper assignment on ih# project for the worker. The
next step is to confer with the superintendent to see whether
he has a place on another project. If this cannot be arranged,
the foreman should prepare a detailed report and recommendation
for the employment division, stating specifically why the worker
cannot be properly placed on the project in question.
How to Determine Appropriate Placement: At this point the
leader should develop a chart similar to Chart I which shows some
of the qualifications of jobs and men which need to be considered
in placement, either in requisitioning a worker from the Employ¬
ment Division or in placing him on a project. Only the main head¬
ings, education, special training, etc., need be drawn from the I
- 51 - '
12131
NOTES
group and listed in response to such questions as: "What quali¬
fications may you need to consider in placing a man properly?
What facts do you need to know ah out the worker? About the
job?"
For certain jobs, even of an unskilled classification, more
education and intelligence are required than for others: workers
having these assets should be assigned. In other jobs reliability
or physique may be of primary importance. The major qualification
on most jobs is that of past occupational experience in the partic-
lar work involved.
When employees are reasonably well placed as far as their
job classification goes, there is still the matter of placing
them in appropriate work locations. The short, stubby worker
should not be assigned to stacking supplies on high shelves which
he can hardly reach. The tall, awkward man is not adapted for
a cleaning job which involves a lot of floor work. The fat woman
ought not to be assigned to bending over a cutting table. The
absent-minded dreamer cannot be used as a flagman or in dangerous
blasting. Many workers are disconcerted by too much noise and
bustle and should be placed in quieter spots.
In developing Chart I, each qualification or trait should be
discussed in terms of concrete examples out of the experience of
the members of the group.
There is a good way for a foreman to check up on the way in
which his men are assigned which should be outlined to the group
by the leader. This is to list the .jobs on the project, list the
men assigned, and compare the qualifications needed for each job
with the individual qualifications of each worker. It may take
a little time to make the comparison but the results are well
worthwhile. This can be done by making up an analysis sheet for
any job which is to be filled. To the left may be shown the
characteristics or qualities needed, education, experience, etc.
To the right'may be entered the amount of each characteristic
possessed by each worker being considered. The worker who
seems to possess the highest qualifications may then be selected
for the job.
An interesting discussion can frequently be held with a
foreman group by analyzing on the chart the qualities needed
for a number of typical positions. What are the qualifications
needed for various types of workers needed in laying drain tile,
for example? In building a fence? In a woman's sewing room?
In clearing land? The leader should guide the group through such
an analysis as a part of the day's discussion, charting the sched¬
ule as he goes.
Eeclassification and Reassignment Procedure: The foreman
is concerned with two different kinds of assignment situations.
The first is that involving a reclaaalf qp to another line
of work, which must be approved by the W.P.A. Employment Division.
- 52 -
12131
The second (discussed ahove) is a reaaaignrnflnt to a position in
the same trade or vocation "but one in which the worker can do
"better work. Reclassification and reassignment should be promptly
handled if the morale of the worker concerned is to be maintained.
There is a natural tendency to forget the misplaced man under the
pressure of other activities. The "forgotten man" soon goes sour.
The leader should ascertain that all members of the group
are acquainted with the use of the various employment forms, in¬
cluding W.P.A. Form 404, the Reclassification Slip. This slip
is used when there is a change in the duties or responsibilities
of a worker such that changes in the occupational classification
and/or in the rate of pay are necessary. This form is used only
whon a worker remains on the same project.
After all five copies of W.P.A. Form 404 are prepared and
Copy 1 signed, if the project is operated by W.P.A., all five
are submitted to the project superintendent, engineer, or other
executive. If the latter approves, he signs his initials after
the signature of the foreman on Copy 1 aid forwards the copies
to the labor assignment office. Approval or disapproval on the
part of the labor assignment office indicated on Copy 5 which is
returned to the project foreman, and by him to the worker.
The return of the approved Copy 5 constitutes the authority
to make the necessary change on the time report.
When transferred to another project, the notice to report
for work on project, W.P.A. Form 402, is used. Copies of Forms
402. 403. and 404 should be provided bv the leader for each fore¬
man anrl Passed around in dismissing their use. The leader should
see that questions are raised and that every foreman fully under¬
stands just what items are called, for and filled in by him on
W.P.A. Forms 403 and 404. Details regarding the use of the various
employment forms may be found in chapter XIII Sections 1 and 2 and
Chapter XIV, Sections 5 and 10 of the W.P.A. Handbook of Procedures,
as revised.
53 -
12131
PUTTING THE RIGHT WORKER ON THE RIGHT JOB
Questions to be Considered In Placement
Education
How much schooling does the job require?
How far did the worker go in school?
Is his schooling adequate for the job?
Special Training
Is a trade school training course required?
Is apprenticeship training necessary?
Is a license or certificate required?
Experience
Just what kind of practical work experience does the job need?
How long must a man have worked at such a job?
Will a beginner, a helper, an apprentice, or a journeyman do the job?
Work Skill or Ability
Just how expert a workman is needed?
Can an average worker do the job?
Is unusual skill needed? Does worker have his own tools?
Special Skills
Does the job require specialized abilities?
Does it need a man who can read blue prints?
Does it require familiarity with special tools or equipment?
Intelligence
How much brain work is needed to do the job?
Does it take a man much keener or more alert than the average?
How much judgment or common sense is required?
Ability to Get Along with Others
Does the job require a lot of cooperation with others?
Are there many contacts with other workers or with the public?
How well does the worker need to keep bis temper, keep cool, and
control his feelings?
Does he need tact and must he "wear well" with others?
Reliability; Dependability
Does the job need someone you can trust to the limit because valuable
property is involved?
What is the dependability record of the worker whom you are
considering for the job? Should his references be checked?
Initiative: Resourcefulness
Is the job closely supervised and only a routine one?
Or doos it require an energetic "self-starter" who will work on his own?
Physical Condition
Can the job be well done by a worker who is
Weak or frail?
Overweight?
Crippled?
Hard of hearing?
Very short or very tall?
Awkward, clumsy?
Color blind or has poor eyesight?
- 54 -
12131
OUTLINE NO. 7
GIVING ORDERS
Purpose of the Conference?
1. To discuss the general principles involved in giving orders
that will "be properly carried out.
2. To consider the manner in which orders can best be conveyed
to various types of workers.
3. To determine when detailed or written orders should be used
in place of general oral directions.
Introductory Comment:
In getting his work done, the foreman constantly needs to give
orders. His success therefore depends in part on the way in which
his orders are given in order to be effective. Carelesness in giv¬
ing orders results in confusion and misunderstanding and may result
in loss of time, spoiled work, injury to workers, or even loss of
life.
In his relations with others, the average person takes far too
much for granted and assumes that the persons to whom he is speak¬
ing understand him when that may not be the case.
In giving instructions there is a wide range of possible pro¬
cedure, the choice depending upon the worker receiving them. : Some
workers merely need a brief word of comment or suggestion as to
what is required. Others require a painstaking explanation of just
how to proceed.
The giving of orders is related to a part of the teaching pro¬
cess, the presentation of what is to be done. Some of the princip¬
les involved in training which will be discussed in other foremen
meetings are therefore to the point in this connection and the
leader should read Discussion Outline No, 12 before presenting the
topic of giving orders.
Discussion Plan;
Errors in Order Giving: The discussion may start with ques¬
tions such as these: "Why do we sometimes have trouble in getting
our orders across? In our experience, what were some of the occa¬
sions in which we did not convey the idea we had in mind? What
mistakes do we make in issuing directions?" This discussion should
bring out a number of mistakes frequently made by supervisors in
issuing instructions, for example; (l) A foreman may speak in¬
distinctly, mumble his words, or may not select them carefully
enough to convey his meaning. (2) He moy not arrange his instruc¬
tions in logical order, as a result of which they are confusing.
Lengthy and involved directions should be carefully organized in
advance. (3) Frequently the foreman may wrongly assume that the
worker understands just what he is talking about when this is
not the case.
- 55 -
12131
NOTES
(4) He may take it for granted that the worker has the skill to
do a given job when he has never done it before. (5) When an
order has "been given and is understood, it is had practice for
the supervisor to stand over the worker and give him detailed
suggestions on each and every point; the worker should he given
a feeling of responsibility by being allowed to work on his own
until he runs into difficulties.
It is especially important indbalihg with more intelligent
workers, in order to arouse their interest and maintain their coop¬
eration, to explain the why and wherefore, of a given order and dis¬
cuss the best methods of carrying it out in such a way as to have
them feel that they have had a part in planning the job.
High Points in Giving Orders! The leader will then follow up
the negative aspect by asking fo'r constructive suggestions related
to the general principles or points to be observed in giving orders.
These are listed on a chart in response to such questions as: "What
general rules or principles can we set down for giving orders? What
do you take into consideration? In your experience what are the
more important points to be observed when you give an order? What
have you found necessary to get results? How elaborate should an
order be? When should an order be repeated? To what extent should
the individuality of the person on the 'receiving end' be consider¬
ed in giving orders? How much will the particular situation affect
the manner of giving orders?"
The suggestions developed are listed along the lines of Chart
I which may be compared with the chart to insure completeness.
Four Wavs of Giving Orders: The manner in which instructions
are delivered may be classified under a variety of headings. Four
main types of delivery are discussed below. The leader should first
endeavor to get his group to suggest these four types and if he
does not succeed, then supply them himself. Examples of the language
used in each should be supplied by the group. The four types should
be written on the chart to serve as a base for developing Chart II.
1. The direct method of command is by straightforward,
positive statement - "Do this" or "Do that;" this should
not be too harshly delivered or it may be resented. Its
use places the entire blame for the outcome on the foreman
if the job miscarries. The manner of the direct order may
be modified to a friendlier form: "let's do this or that."
2. To those workers who are "touchy" or sensitive or who
need special consideration, the order may need to be
couched in the form of a request - "Will you do this or
that?" Sometimes an assignment may be best presented
as a challenge to the worker's ability and ingenuity:
"I wish you would see what you can do with this."
- 56 -
12131
. - A milder form of order-giving may involve practically no
directions whatever. This is the form of suggestion.
Here the supervisor merely needs to talk over the job to
be done with the worker and the latter goes ahead on his
own initiative and does what is needed. Such an arrange¬
ment approaches that of a partnership.. It should be noted
that the term * suggest ion* as used here does not mean that
the foreman suggests how the job shall be done. He merely
suggests that it needs doings This "point should be made
clear to the group.
4. A final type of instruction is rarely "used but is some¬
times necessary. This is the call for volunteers- usually
used only when disagreeable or dangerous work is involved.
The foreman will usually get the best results if he is
ready and willing to help in the work for which volunteers
are requested.
A chart similar to Chart II should now be worked out by list¬
ing various types of workers or situations under the various ways
in which instructions may be given. A chart of this kind will he
valuable and interesting if members of the group are asked to cite
specific individual cases of giving orders from their own exper¬
ience.-
Suggestive questions for developing Chart II are as follows^
"When do you have occasion to give a direct order or command? What
type of worker do you usually request to do something? What would
you call the kind of workman who needs but a suggestion in order
to get a job done? Under what circumstances would you call for
volunteers?" As various types of workers and work situations in¬
volving order-giving are suggested by members of the group, the
leader lists them after discussion, under "the appropriate class¬
ification.
There are many variations and modifications of the three gen¬
eral types of order-giving. The important thing is to select the
right method of approach, one which will match the individual work¬
er's own particular temperament and the immediate situation.
When to Use Detailed and Written Orders: A brief discussion
may then follow concerning the situations or circumstances in which
it is desirable to go into extensive detail in issuing orders.
Some instructions may be brief and others extensive. "When
should orders be elaborated? What are the advantages and disad¬
vantages of giving detailed instructions in which every item is
fully covered?" Data similar to that contained in Chart III should
fee developed, from the group and shown on the blackboard by the
leader, thus enabling the group to agree as to the occasions on
vhich detailed orders a.re needed.
Although written orders are less common on W-P^A- projects,
it will be worthwhile to spend a few minutes in discussing the oc¬
casions on which such orders should be used in place of oral instruc
tions. A chart along the lines of Chart IV will result. Charts III
and IV may be reserved for future use if time does not peTmit their
completion.
- 57 -
12131
GIVING ORDERS
CHART I — IMPORTANT POINTS IN GIVING ORDERS
Inform yourself before giving orders
Assign work in the light of what the worker can do
Give precise yet brief instructions, distinctly spoken
Repeat if not understood
Don't take understpriding for granted
Ask if orders are clear — have worker repeat
Control temper; avoid profanity, abuse, sarcasm
Demonstrate operations when necessary
Adopt a manner suitable to the individual worker
Adopt a manner suitable to the situation
Do not give too many orders at one time
Do not assign more work than can be done
Put difficult or complex orders in writing
Explain purpose if necessary
Check up and correct what the worker does
After an order is given, don't nag or stand over the worker
CHART II — WHEN TO USE VARIOUS TYPES OF ORDERS
A. Direct Orders (the command)
1. In case of danger
2. For the lazy or indifferent worker
3. To the careless man
4. When the workman refuses to obey safety rules
5. To workman who refuses to do the work as he is told
6. To the' chronic objector or "talker"
7. To stop waste or delay
8. To the disobedient worker
B. Request Orders
1.
To
the touchy or sensitive worker
2.
To
the untrained worker
3.
To
the nervous, irritable worker
4.
To
get a little more'work done
5.
To
the man who is interested in his work
6.
To
a person of equal footing
7.
To
avoid making a man sore
8.
To
an older man
9.
To
the "hard boiled" man
10.
To
do a. difficult job in a particular way
C. Suggestive Orders (for fully experienced workers)
1. When improved methods a.re sought
2. To the man who assumes responsibility
3. To the man who is trying to get ahead
4. Try it out with a new group of experienced workmen
5. Use it to develop initiative
D. Calls for Volunteers
1. Dangerous jobs or accidents
2. Disagro eable j ob s
3. Extra heavy work
4. Working over time
5. For a. skilled worker to do a special job
- 58 -
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9...
10..
11.
12.
13..
14.
15.
16.
12131
CHART III DETAILED ORDERS
Disadvantages
Advantage s
Re co mme nd.a t i o ns
Imagined insult to intelli¬
gence
Not flexible enough
Discourages initiative
Puts damper on man1s
ambition
Takes more time
Hard to cover all situations
Removes sense of responsi¬
bility from the workers
Curtails suggestions
Makes operation appear com¬
plicated
Reduces job pride
Discourages new man
Htt&gonizes old man
r
Dispels doubt
Standardizes procedure
Tends to eliminate acci¬
dents
No chance to "pass buck"
Eliminates bad operating
practices
Protects foreman and ad¬
ministration
Facilitates training
Less follow-up required
Promotes supervisor1s
peace of mind
Use detailed orders:-
a. When hazards exist
b. On a special job
c. On infrequent jobs
d. For men with limited
experience
e. Where standard pro¬
cedure is desirable
f. When process or equip¬
ment is changed
g. Where willingness is
lacking
h. In teaching
Consult with practical
workers in formulating
rules
CHART IV — WHEN TO USE WRITTEN ORDERS
When worker is slow of understanding or forgetful
When precise figures or complicated details are involved
When it is desired to hole' the worker strictly accountable
When the order of operations is important and needs to be
followed exactly
- 59 -
12131
OUTLINE NO. 8
SAFETY AND ACCIDENT PREVENTION
Purpose of Conference:
NOTES
1. To discuss the responsibilities of foremen in safety activities
2. To consider the various possible causes of accidents, concrete
cases attributable to these causes, and how the causes may be
minimized.
Introductory Comment:
The prevention of accidents on a work project is an important re¬
sponsibility of every W.P.A. foreman. Accident prevention is largely a
matter of vigilance, education, and cooperation. Continuous and careful
attention on the part of supervisors and foremen can be made to produce
a perfect safety record.
Accidental injury or death is particularly tragic in the case of a
worker on relief. The W.P.A. foreman's responsibility in the field is
therefore increased. He must show his men the correct and safe way to do
their work instead of merely hoping that everything will be O.K. He
needs to cooperate closely with the safety inspector on his project.
Safety inspectors are employed to help the foreman and not to run his job.
Discussion Plan*
Procedure: Discussion topics at meetings devoted to safety and ac¬
cident prevention may be of two kinds, the first dealing with general ques¬
tions of ways by which the foreman may assist the safety program and the
second concerned with more specific or technical facts relating to ac¬
cident prevention and first aid. General discussions on safety can be
led by any trained conference leader who knows something of safety work,
but technical information relating to safety precautions and devices
must be supplied by technically trained safety personnel. Any number
of conferences may be held on various aspects of the safety program.
They should be attended by someone designated by the safety division
competent to supply technical facts. The leader should, however,
definitely conduct the meetings and not turn them over to a safety
representative who will follow the lecture rather than the conference
method.
The following outlined wnay be modified or expanded, depending
upon local demand. The discussion leaders may adapt each outline
to specific local safety needs. In those districts in which an exten¬
sive safety program or training course has been undertaken, the two dis¬
cussion outlines here presented may be omitted from the series.
12131
The Foreman's Fart In the Safety Program: W.P.A. executives,
the foreman, and the workers are all concerned in accident pre¬
vention. The management through the safety division must ini¬
tiate accident prevention programs and safe practices and pro¬
vide safe equipment and working conditions. The workers must
learn to work efficiently and safely, cooperate with their
fellow workers, instruct them in safe practices, and assist the
foreman in locating work hazards. Since the timekeeper frequent¬
ly serves as a general assistant to the foreman, he has a spe¬
cial opportunity to interest himself in accident prevention when
so instructed by his foreman.
The group should first be asked to list the responsibilities
of the foreman in a safety program? "What is he expected to do
to prevent accidents? How can he reduce their number? What
are his duties in the safety program?" The responses develop-?*
ed from group discussion are then listed in a chart similar to
Chart I. Not more than 10-15 minutes need be spent on this.
At this point it is of value to spend a few minutes in de¬
termining the exact relationship of the foreman and a specially
appointed safety inspector who may be on the project, "Is the
safety inspector responsible to the regular work foreman? Does
he report only to the District safety division? Does the pres¬
ence of a safety inspector reduce the work foreman's responsi¬
bilities for the safety of his crew? Are there any indications
of overlapping?" The poliey of the district safety division on
these points should be briefly discussed by the safety repre¬
sentative present, who should endeavor to iron out any mis¬
understandings which may be apparent. 1
Causes of Accidents: Accidents are usually•attributable
to some shortcoming on the part of the worker or his foreman.
In discussing the causes of accidents, a blackboard chart should
be worked up listing causes such as qj*e shown in Chart II, Only
the titles and not the definitions need be shown.
Each of these causes should then be thoroughly discussed by
the group in terms of a concrete example or two out of their
experience. For each such situation, the facts of the case
should be stated and the group should discuss what happened and
what can be done to reduce the hazard. Useful chart headings
are "Cause", and "How correct".
As an example of such discussion, in the case of an acci¬
dent happening to a worker who is inexperienced or improperly
placed, the following may be cited. An office clerk is assign¬
ed to shoveling dirt. In consequence he. is awkward and strains
his muscles, The remedy is, of course, to change him to other
work or, if' that cannot be done, to start him on easier labor
and encourage him to have patience.
Another case to illustrate the lack of adequate instruc-
- 61 -
12131
tion is that of a group of* men loading rock into a truck from
both sides. When the truck was being loaded, a worker threw a
rock onto the load which bounced off on the other side hitting
another worker on the head. This case naturally opens up a
discussion of the proper method to be followed in loading a
truck with rock# This may bring up the whole question of
truck loading and make it necessary, to consider (l) what is
to be loaded, (2) the conditions tinder which loading takes
place, and (3) how it is to be done. Specific accident hazards
of concern to the foreman group should for the most part be
reserved for the second of the meetings on safety.
Discussion of this kind is worthwhile as it invariably
fixes responsibility upon the foreman for the whole job under
him and everything that happens on it. If this procedure is
followed, more than one meeting may be required to complete
this outline.
- 62 -
12131
SAFETY AND ACCIDENT PREVENTION
CHART I - FOREMAN'S RESPONSIBILITIES IN SAFETY WORK
Observe and correct hazardous conditions or unsafe practices
Instruct workers in safe working procedures
Maintain good housekeeping on the job
Place men to best advantage for safety
See that safety posters and first-aid kits are on the project and that
safety equipment is used when necessary
Provide a safety bulletin board
Prepare accident and compensation reports
Assist in first-aid (if properly trained)
CHART II - THE CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
LACK OF CONCENTRATION - This is a prime cause of accidents. It means a lack
of concern on the workman's part. His mind is not on what he is dbing* On
account of his lack of attention he is not aware of the hazards that may be
present and therefore does not avoid them. It is a source of danger not only
to the particular worker but also to those with whom he is in contact.
INEXPERIENCE - A "green" worker is not familiar with the hazards accom¬
panying a piece of worl$ and consequently does not know what to look out for.
Also, he is apt to be so concerned with the particular thing he is doing that
he fails to notice surrounding hazards. It is necessary for the foreman to
give the new man extra attention.
DULLNESS - A man may be ignorant regarding kind of work to which he has
been assigned, or he may be lacking in intelligence. If a man is ignorant
of the work, he can be instructed, but if he is incapable of receiving
instructions, he is a misfit* In other words, a man should have sufficient
intelligence to handle the work that is assigned to him - otherwise, it is
not safe to have him around.
UNSAFE METHODS AND PRACTICES - This means wrong methods and practices -
wrong operations - wrong ways of doing the work - and anything that is
wrong is unsafe, hazardour, and apt to result in accident and injury.
Any improper use of a tool is unsafe, is apt to cause damage to the tool,
and also result in inefficient work.
POOR INSTRUCTIONS - This is the opposite of good instruction. It may mean
insufficient directions as well as no directions. If a workman does not
fully understand how to do a piece of work, there is danger of accident -
something going \7rong. .When a foreman gives a man an order to do some¬
thing, he has the responsibility to explain it and show him how to do it
if the man doesn't know.
POOR SUPERVISION - No job will run itself and a foreman is on the job to see
to it that everything goes along as it should. If a foreman is lax in
his supervision, irregularities are sure to develop, resulting in possible
accidents as well as other waste.
- 63 -
12131
DEFECTIVE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT - Bad or dofective tools and equipment
handicap the workers, cause indifference, and create hazards that are
inexcusable. The foreman should see to it that all tools and equipment
in his charge are kept in good repair at all times.
LACK OF SAFETY DEVICES - Although safety devices, such as goggles, proper
clothing, guards, shoring, etc., do not eliminate accidents and injuries,
such devices do materially lessen the danger of injury, and, above, all,
they tend to make the men more safety conscious, more attentive to their
work, and better workmen.
TAKING CHANCES - This is a sporting tendency of some men who prefer to
take a chance rather than play safe. A man may like to show off. It
gives him a thrill. "Taking a chance" invariably increases the danger
of accident and should not be permitted. If such a man cannot be
corrected through proper discipline, he should be reassigned, because
he is a hazard.
HANDLING MATERIALS - This results in many accidents and possible injuries,
such as smashed fingers and toes caused by dropping things, bruises due to
falling, etc. This is one kind of work where it is particularly necessary
for a man to watch what he is doing and the slogan "Watch your Step!" should
be impressed on men handling materials.
BAD WORKING CONDITIONS - If men are made to work in bad conditions, due
to the weather or improper work surroundings, or to lack of proper safety
precautions, then indifference, bad morale and friction are likely to re¬
sult, in addition to making the work more hazardous.
WORRY - When a man worries about conditions that are foreign to the job,
such as sickness at home, financial affairs, or his own health, he can¬
not do his best work. His susceptibility to accident is increased since
his mind is not on his work. This condition can often be helped by in¬
creased interest on the part of the foremen in the man and his affairs.
BAD JUDGMENT - Many men, either through lack of experience, training, or
interest, have never developed what might be termed good judgment. This
is a failure to take into consideration all of the conditions and require¬
ments of the work. Bad judgment causes many accidents.
LACK OF CO-OPERATION - A balky horse is a source of trouble, and a balky
man who won't pull with the gang, who is unwilling to do his part and
cooperate with others to put over the job, is a detriment and a hazard.
Sometimes such a worker can be made to see his error. Disobedience, or
bull-headedness, if it is willful and chronic, does not often yield to
treatment on the part of the foreman.
WRONG ORDERS - These are directly chcorge.able to the foremen. Some of
the most serious accidents are due to wrong orders. Anything wrong is
■unsafe. A foreman should carefully check his orders to be sure they are
right before giving them.
- 64 -
12131
POOR PLACEMENT - A foreman takes a chance when he places a man on a piece
of work that he is not qualified to do. A misfit of any kind, or a man
with a physical handicap is a risk, whether in machinery or with men. A
foreman should know his men and know the jobs and endeavor to fit the one
to the other.
BUILDING FAILURE - When a building is not used for the purpose for which
it was designed, or is improperly built or constructed of defective
material, or is old, or its floors are overloaded, there is danger of
failure, with possible injury to the men working in the building and
loss of equipment. Care should be taken in the inspection arid use of
buildings.
HORSE-PLAY - This is the desire for play. There is no place for it on
any job. Some men seem to be more interested in the jovial side of the
job than in the results obtained. Such men can become nuisances to an
organization and cause some very serious accidents to happen.
FATIGUE - Accidents due to "man-failure" are sometimes caused by fatigue.
Fatigue may be caused by the demands of the job being too heavy, the man
not being suited for the particular work,over-anxiety to do good work,
lack of proper rest periods, etc. A man who is fatigued becomes dull
and accidents are apt to result. It is a foreman's duty to watch the
men for signs of overdoing as well as loafing.
HASTE - There is the old saying that "haste makes waste." A man may work
too slowly and not be sufficiently alert to avoid danger, but on the other
hand he may be in too big a hurry and not be able to do properly the thing
assigned to him, with the chance of making a slip, He should adopt a speed
that will enable him to do a job safely and well.
IMPROPER CLOTHING - This is one of the prevalent causes of accidents.
Foremen should see to it that men wear clothing suitable for the work
to be done - clothing that will minimize the chance of injury to the
workers.
INTOXICATION - This is no doubt self-explanatory. When a man is intox¬
icated he has no control of himself or anything else, and may be help¬
less. There is no place on any job for an intoxicated man - he is a
risk,
POOR HOUSEKEEPING — Careless storage of supplies or equipment and negli¬
gence in leaving tools or machinery lying around have caused many accidents.
Insistence should be made upon good housekeeping on the project.
- 65 -
12131
OUTLINE NO. 9
SPECIFIC ACCIDENT HAZARDS
NOTES
Purpose of the Conference;
1. To discuss specific accident hazards with which the foremen
in the group are particularly concerned, and the ways and
means of eliminating or reducing them.
2. To call attention to the importance of first-aid training
and to acquaint the foremen with the contents of the first-
aid kit and the use of safety equipment.
3. Tq discuss the preparation of accident and compensation re¬
ports.
Introductory Comment:
The leader should briefly review the outstanding points devel¬
oped by the group in the first meeting on safety and then outline the
topics to be taken up in the present session. He will probably wish
to rely materially on a representative of the safety division for
technical points, particularly in discussing work hazards. A compen¬
sation clerk may also prove of help in discussing the reports re¬
quired for employee's compensation.
Discussion Plan:
Precautions in Undertaking Special Types of Work; The atten¬
tion of the group should first be directed to the more important
hazards against which precautions should be considered, in the light
of the projects represented by the foremen in the group. Suggestions
from the group can be brought out by questions such as these: "What
are the more dangerous types of work on which you are engaged? On
which do you have the most accidents? Which jobs involve special pre¬
cautions or special care to avoid accidents?"
With the approval of the group, r few of the major hazards
should be selected for intensive discussion. These may be such
items as trenches, tunnels, excavating embankments (with danger of
undermining), power machinery, trucks (driving or loading), hand¬
ling of materials, explosives, falling trees, electricity, etc. If
the group is not concerned with nay occupational hazards, this out¬
line should be omitted, or, if desired, safety in the home, accidents
in traffic and on the highways, Scanite.tion, or the falling of per¬
sons may be taken up for discussion.
For the types of work selected, a. separate chart should then be
worked up with a main heading indicating the type of work. Under this
should be shown "Hazards," and "Precautions." For example, painting j
may be discussed,. The "hazards" may be listed as danger of explosion,
danger of spontaneous combustion of rags, lead poisoning, insecure
scaffolding, carelessness in leaving pails standing around, etc.
Under "precautions" to be observed would be listed such items as
keeping paints and oils at cool temperature, proper care of waste,
ventilation, etc. - 66 -
12131
NOTES
In discussing truck operation there may be discussed the pre¬
cautions to be used when cranking, the importance of seeing that
tires are in good shape, that end gates are closed, that gas should
not be put in truck with motor running, that cab is not overloaded,
that operator is out of cab when loading with a power shovel, etc.
for open excavating jobs with power equipment, the hazards dis¬
cussed may include such items as cave-ins, overhanging ledges,
slides, bad cable, broken sheaves or boom, and poor sheeting.
The leader should close this part of the discussion with a
reference to a recent analysis made by the Safety Division in Wash¬
ington of accidents on the work program from January to June, 1937.
The Division concludes that the foreman was responsible for 30 per
cent of them, or could have seen that they were avoided. In order
of their importance, the main types of accidents which the foreman
can prevent, according to this analysis, are as follows:
1. Accidents that could have been prevented by the ob¬
servance of good housekeeping. Such accidents were
the result of careless piling of materials; permitting
planks with nails, debris, and tools not in use to be
strewn about projects; not affording secure footing to
workers when necessary; and not removing stones, materials
and tools from the edges of ditches, quarries, and other
excavations.
2. Accidents caused by failure to correct unsafe practices
and procedures generally accepted as hazardous. Such
accidents occurred because trenches were not shored,
or inadequately shored; quarry banks were not properly
sloped; undermining of banks was permitted; men were al¬
lowed to work under crews trimming banks; elderly men
were worked in insecure positions on elevations; protec¬
tion was not afforded against the possibility of injur¬
ies from flying chips; trucks wore overloaded; proper
spacing of workers was not observed; and an effective
signal system for trucks was not installed,
3. Accidents that resulted from a failure to correct mechani¬
cal or material defects., or to see that equipment was in
shape for safe use. Such accidents included those caused
by a failure to guard machines; to see that machines were
regularly inspected; to provide properly built scaffolds,
staging, or runways and safe ladders; and to have defective
tools promptly repaired or replaced.
4. Accidents that could have been prevented by the use of pro¬
tective equipment, such as goggles, safety bolts, etc.
5. Accidents because foremen failed to give certain jobs the
direct and constant supervision required. Such accidents
occurred on demolition and tree-felling projects, blasting
operations, and while moving, loading or unloading machines,
shacks, etc.
- 67 -
12131
First-Aid: Members of the training group may be sufficiently
interested to devote additional time to learning first aid proced¬
ures under qualified instruction and obtain "first-aid certific¬
ates" issued by the American Red Cross. How this may be done should
next be explained by the leader, who should obtain a list of local
first-aid classes from the W.P.A. Education Division.
Contents and Use of First Aid-Kit; Brief attention shoiild then
be called to the content, maintenance and use of the standard first-
aid kit supplied on W.P.A. projects. The safety representative
should be asked to bring along a typical kit and show its contents.
Safety Equipment and Materials; The importance of maintaining
necessary safety equipment end materials such as goggles, gloves,
fire extinguishers, life belts, ropes, "hard hats," boots, warn¬
ing signs, red flags, flares, shoring and scaffolding materials
and barricades, should next be emphasized in the discussion. These
are supplied by the snonsor for the most part. The foreman should
see that they are used and understand their use.
Making Accident Reports: Project foremen are required to
furnish the District Safety Inspector with a detailed report on
Foremen's Accident Report, W.P.A. Form 351, revised, of every ac¬
cident occurring on W.P.A. projects. The leader should ask the
group why certain questions arc included in the form in order that
they may better understand its use. Serious accidents must be re¬
ported by telephone or telegraph to the District compensation of¬
fice at once, and deaths to the State Office. Other reports on
the compensation of injured workers are prepared for the District
compensation office.
Copies of standard accident and compensation renort forms
should be passed out by the discussion leader, who may rely on
a safety representative and compensation officer or clerk to com¬
ment on the items frequently filled out incorrectly. Even though
many foremen are not required to fill cut compensation reports, it
should he called to their attention that they are responsible for
them and should know just what items of information are called for-
Note — No summary charts ape distributed to the foremen at
the close of this meeting.
- 67a -
12131
NOTES
OUTLINE NO. 10
PLANNING THE WORK OF THE PROJECT
Purpose of this Conference!
1. To discuss some of the aspects of production planning as
applied to the foreman's job.
2. To consider some of the common interruptions in work
schedules.
3. To develop suggestions which will assist the foremen in
systematically planning, organizing, and scheduling the
work of their projects.
(Note — before presenting this topic, the leader should visit
a local library and become familiar with the principles of pro¬
duction planning)
Introductory Comment:
The discussion at this meeting will be concerned with produc¬
tion planning and production control, with the steps involved in
completing a given works project economically, efficiently, and on
time.
The foreman's responsibility for planning the work of his pro¬
ject varies with the state and district in which he works. In
some states the engineers and superintendents do most of the plan¬
ning; in others the foreman has considerable of this responsibility
especially after men and materials have been supplied. To the ex¬
tent in which the foreman becomes acquainted with the principles
by which production is scheduled and controlled is he enabled to
assume increasing responsibility for his project and relieve his
superiors of details in this connection. The discussion set forth
here is also intended to broaden the foreman's viewpoint and in¬
formation about planning as applied in priv.ate industry (part¬
icularly manufacturing) so that he may be better prepared for
private employment. It therefore introduces the three aspects
into which planning is usually divided: routing, scheduling, and
dispatching; this may be done in a second session.
If, in an earlier conference, it has been established that the
foreman has some responsibility for planning, the leader may open
this discussion by referring to that fact. If not, he should secure
acceptance of the idea, by such questions as J ''What do you as fore¬
men have to do in the way of planning, organizing, or laying out
the work on your project. Even if men and materials are supplied
as you need them, do you still havo t£ think ahead about how you
are going to use them?"
Discussion Plan:
The Need for Planning: The discussion may proceed with a brief
consideration of concrete experiences from members of the group
dealing with occasions on which work schedules have broken down.
The lea.der should restrict the instances of breakdown of work
schedules to those which might have been avoided. Delays or
- 68 -
12131
NOTES
difficulties due to bad weather conditions should not be considered
because nothing can be done about them. The discussion should also
center around the breakdowns for which the foreman was responsible.
Otherwise the group may insist on discussing the failure of "higher-
ups" to supply men, materials, or equipment when it was needed.
Questions such as these can be used to develop a chart similar
to Chart I: "What happens when the work of a project is not planned
in advance, when operations are not thought out beforehand? What axe
the results or effects of careless preparation - on the project, and
on the workers?"
After the group has reached an agreement that a failure to plan
properly may seriously interfere with a project, the leader should
swing the group into a discussion of what planning involves. "If the
foreman has to think ahead, Just what does he have to think about?
What are the factors which must be considered in any planning?
You are told that you are to start a new job; what must you know
before you start it? What is meant by planning? What does it in¬
volve? Let's set down some simple points - for example, may we
say that the first thing is to know what is to be done? The group
should here develop the six general points shown in Chart II with as
much assistance from the leader as may be necessary.
Planning a Works Job: After the elementary principles of
planning have been discussed as above, the leader should have the
group map out an estimate or plan for a small works job, taking
an illustration from their own experience. Figures for amounts of
materials needed and man-hours required will of course he approxi¬
mations. The job may be laying a small concrete pipe culvert,
clearing an acre of underbrush, covering an area with top soil and
seeding it, digging a basement, putting in cement sidewalk, build¬
ing a board fence, laying a length of sewer, or some similar ex¬
ample of relatively simple nature. For a women's group, sewing
a certain lot of garments or canning a certain quantity of vegetables
may be appropriate. Before starting this discussion, the leader
will have to set forth certain definite specifications for the
job.
For this analysis, the leader has already headed up two charts,
hung side by side. The first bears the headings:
Order or
Workers Required
Man
Seauence
Operations
No. Classif'n.
Hours
The second may be headed:
Tools and Equipment
Materials
Needed
Needed
Start
Finish
- 69 -
12131
NOTES
The column headed "Order or Sequence" is used to indicate the
sequence of the operations said is filled in last. The "Start" and
"Finish" columns may be omitted since they would be used to enter
the appropriate <lates. From such a listing, the group will more
readily appreciate the need for doing precise paper work in laying
out a job.
This kind of a practical introduction will give the group an
idea of what is meant by planning and suggest its importance in
the industrial world. Such planning lays out a more efficient path¬
way for work to follow on a project, figures out ways and means
for accomplishing the journey, and provides a guide to see that
the project sticks to its path and arrives on scheduled time.
At this point the discussion leader may suggest that while at
first the more involved aspects of planning may not seem applic¬
able to them and to the type of construction projects on which they
are employed, the fact is that planning is very much to the point.
He may point out. that large manufacturing and construction firms
have done precise planning for years and that it is to the advant¬
age of the W.P.A. foreman to know considerable of the subject in
order to improve himself for private employment. He may also sug¬
gest that a large per cent of failures on the part of small build¬
ing contractors in the past has been due entirely to their fail¬
ure to plan, schedule, and determine their costs in advance. The
further application of basic principles of management in W.P.A.
will greatly improve and expedite project operations.
Going further into the basic principles of production planning,
the group next considers how its general purpose can be met. The
general or basic problem is to plan all work so that employees,
tools, equipment, and materials are profitably employed. "But just
how can this be done? What detailed steps, operations, or activi¬
ties are involved? How can these be set down? Which come first?
Just what does planning have to do with materials, man-power, and
time? What does a foreman have to consider when a superintendent
turns a job over to him?" Discussion of these questions should
bring out suggestions which can be summarized in terms similar to
the principles set forth in Chart III.
After Chart III has been developed, the leader may profit¬
ably guide the thinking of the group to the steps involved in
day-by-day planning, with such-questions as: "Does the planning
which you do every day differ from the long-time advance plan¬
ning? How? Just what do you do in planning from day to day?
To what extent and just how does the long time plan have to be
changed or modified? " The discussion can be used to develop a
chart along the lines of Chart IV.
A few minutes may then be devoted to the question of who is
responsible for production planning. The group should develop the
fact that such responsibility varies with the size and nature of
a project, just as the amount of planning necessary will vary among
projects. On a small project or in a small work shop, little plan-
- 70 -
12131
NOTES
ning is needed except that done "by the foreman who is in close
enough touch with the work to push it through. On a simple grub¬
bing and clearing project it is an easy Job to assign workers
and keep them busy.
On a very large building construction job where the work of
floor layers, tile workers, plumbers, electricians, painters, and
other craftsmen must be dovetailed systematically and materials
and equipment brought together at the right times, far more plan¬
ning is involved by the engineer or superintendent. In the case
of a large factory or an extensive works project, it may be neces¬
sary to set up a distinct department with the sole function of
planning. The planning department may also prescribe how the work
shall be done and what procedure shall be followed, thus becoming
an important factor in supervision.
On W.P.A. projects, the engineers and general superintendents
are generally responsible for planning work. The leaders should
point out that when they do not do so, or the scheduled plans dp
not work out, the foreman has a unique opportunity to organize and
control the progress of the work. This he should be prepared to do.
Even though he may not have full responsibility, he can go a long
way in improving efficiency by carefully planning all details.
In place of developing Cha?t IV, with a group in a factory town
interested in industrial planning practice the group may consider
the various aspects of planning, especially as it is conducted in
large enterprises. The leader will state that there are three main
points or divisions of planning involved in maintaining work
schedules. These are arbitrarily termed routing, scheduling, and
dispatching. Routing deals with where, how, and by whom. Sched¬
uling deals with when and how much. Dispatching gives the word to
go. In discussing three points, the group may need considerable
prompting from the leader, who may in fact turn the conference into
a lecture type of discussion at this point.
Routing: The first step in planning is to determine the nature
of the work to be done, and where, how., and by whom work is to be
done. "What does routing involve? What axe some of the decisions
to be made in determining the pathway of materials to be worked on,
or the sequence of operations?" Although there are many variations
in the details, the general principles of routing should now be
brought out at least in part through group discussion and listed
along the lines of Chart V.
The group may then consider various devices or forms which may
be used in routing. If some oif the members have had factory ex¬
perience, they will be better able to discuss the topic. The
leader should obtain samples of production control forms used by
large manufacturing firms in the district and use them for illus¬
tration. The discussion may bring out the use of a route sheet
(one for each lot of material) which lists the operations required,
tools needed, and time estimates.
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12131
In showing just what information needs to he set down on
paper in routing and scheduling a project, the following chart
should he entered in advance of the meeting hy the leader and used
to illustrate this point.
Route Sheet or Operation Analysis may Contain
Name of joh or product and number of units to he produced
Names of operations involved:
For each successive operation:
Materials required
Equipment or tools to he used
Number of man-hours needed
Types of workers required
Drawings, blue prints, or instructions needed
Time of starting and completion (or pieces per hour
to he produced)
Order or sequence in which operations and inspections are to
he handled.
NOTES
Scheduling: The scheduling of work includes setting the time
for starting and completing a joh and the time sequence which
parts of the project shall follow. Routing decides the pathway
while scheduling determines the volume of flow.
Scheduling work on a project and more particularly in manu¬
facturing, is like scheduling trains on a railroad. The number
of tracks is limited and the movement of trains must be care¬
fully planned. On a work project the equipment and space is
limited. The sequence of operations must he planned. For ex¬
ample, it would he foolish to send for pipe layers before a trench
is dug. When the foreman knows just what and how much work is to
he done and knows how long the various steps will take, it is
possible to predetermine the time of conqpletion of each part
of the project.
At this point, the leader should sketch the high points of
Chart VI on the hoard.
Dispatching: With the order of work properly scheduled, ef¬
fective dispatching makes possible the completion of the work on
schedule time. Dispatching orders the work done in accordance
with the routing and scheduling previously determined.
- 72 -
12131
NOTES
The group should next consider just what dispatching in¬
volves * in more specific fashion. "Hbw do we dispatch? What
must we consider in ordering the work done and keeping it moving?
What are the devices involved? What is their form and how do thoy
work?n The result of such a discussion, largely handled hy the
leader, will result in a chart like Chart VII which should be
shown on the board.
It may be possible for the group (if drawn from a factory
town) to discuss in greater detail the various devices or
mechanisms used in dispatching, although they are ordinarily
only found in large manufacturing plants. In simple terms,
dispatch control involves a control board or chart, a route
file, and a time clock or time stamp. Control boards may be
very elaborate* In certain plants all dispatching may be
done from a central dispatch booth along the lines of a
railway station signal tower.
In dispatching, or ordering work done, the leader should
bring out that the foreman wherever possible should set a stand¬
ard task for the day's work by any gang working on a uniform
job. A tremendous impetus is given the crew when this is done;
in the morning, the foreman in charge of a trench digging job,
or road job, for example, may say: "Well, men, today we are
going this far." A daily stint can also be applied with suc¬
cess to many individual workers. When two crews working side
by side on identical work can be brou^it into competition, the
results are even better.__ This is the same principal as the
quota in piecework manufacturing or in a sales campaign. The
daily task should not of course be stepped up beyond what is
fair and reasonable.
If time permits, or if interest has lagged in the course
of the discussion on planning, necessitating a change of
objective, the leader may direct the thinking of the group
into ways and means of increasing one's own personal effi¬
ciency or systematizing personal wofrk habits. A useful device
in this connection is for the foreman to prepare a work plan
on paper for each day in the week showing his regular and
special or occasional jobs.
Charts V, VI, and VII may be developed in a second meeting
devoted to planning, if the members of the group comprise a num¬
ber of foremen drawn from factory employment who expect to re¬
turn to manufacturing when employment opportunities offer.
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12131
PLANNING THE WORK OF THfl FROJICT
CSART T RggUIiZa QF ^OR PLAMING
Hi^tief costs
Lower production
Dissatisfaction - Lowered morale
Reprimands ffora higher ups
Overtime
Lack or shortage of material
Lack or shortage of equipment
Lack or shortage of raei?
Poor quality of work
Accidents
Idle time
Inferior material
Public criticism
Workers badly assigned
Misunderstanding - confusion
CHART II - PRODUCTION PLANNING DEALS WITH:
1. What is to be done.
2. When it is to be done.
3. Where it is to be done.
4. How much is to be done.
5. How rapidly it is to be done.
6. How much it will cost.
CHART III - THE FOREMAN'S PART IN PLANNING
(Start to Finish of Pro.iect)
Make personal inspection of site.
Get all details complete in mind and on paper.
Determine classification or skills and number
of men needed
Determine kind and amount of tools and equip¬
ment needed.
Determine kind and amount of materials needed.
Plan necessary records for purpose of:
Charting daily progress
Determining costs of job.
Keeping mens1 time, equipment inventory, etc.
Determine steps and order in which they shall come.
Find out amount of money availaboe for job.
Determine starting and finish time.
Get safety precautions well in mind.
Indicate when and where inspections shall be made.
CHART IV - DAY-BY-DAY PLANTOG
Check all phases of jobs against master progress schedule
on chart.
Check up on all unfinished work.
Check tools and materials.
Check with timekeeper for absentees and additions.
Fit new or returning workers into proper work places.
Designate distribution of tools and materials for the
day1s work.
Check for safety of job.
Plan devices to speed up lagging units to meet planned
schedule.
- 74
12131
Plan necessary changes to be made in case of rain Or other
weather conditions.
Plan approach to and method of dealing with any disciplinary
cases which may develop. (Planned tactful handling often¬
times avoids a major break.)
Set standard or progress point to be reached in each phase
of the project that day.
There are three main divisions of planning to maintain work
schedules. These are routing, scheduling, and dispatching. Routing
deals with where, how and by whom. Scheduling deals with when and
how much. Dispatching gives the word to go.
CHART V - THE SCOPE OF ROUTING
Determining which operations are involved.
Fixing their order and sequence.
Deciding on tools or equipment to be used.
Deciding on kinds of trade or skills and number of men needed.
Indicating when and where inspections shall be made.
Determining the units, parts, or manufacturing lots into which
the project is to bo divided.
Providing whatever instructions, route sheets, forms, or records
may be needed.
CHART VI -THE SCOPE OF SCHEDULING
Determining the time factors involved (time needed to get
equipment, materials, and men; weather conditions, etc.)
Setting the time for starting and completing the project.
Setting the time required for each operating step or part of
the project.
CHART VII - THE SCOPE OF DISPATCHING
Assigning work to workmen and equipment or machines.
Reassigning such work to meet changing conditions.
Sending tool and material lists to tool shed or supply
room in advance of need.
Moving materials from one operating or inspection point
to the next as needed.
Keeping a time record of the start and completion of each
part of the job.
Recording spoiled or defective work and having it replaced.
Recording idle time of workers and equipment and eliminating
it in the future.
- 74a
12131
OUTLINE NO. 11
WHAT HINDERS EFFECTIVE COOPERATION?
NOTES
Purpose of the Conference!
1. To develop an understanding of the meaning and the
value of cooperation.
2. To determine, by analysis, what hinders effective
cooperation on W.P.A. projects.
3. To agree on ways by which a foreman may improve the
cooperation he extends to others and obtain better
cooperation from others.
Introductory Commenti
Cooperation is a much overworked word:. Many persons
talk about it but restrict its meaning to what they expect
the other fellow to do. They forget that cooperation is a
two-way process and involves them also.
The word not only means "getting along together" but
"working together" to common advantage, for the best interests
of all concerned. There is a big difference between getting
along together and working together.
Men are made for cooperation, like hands, like feet,
like eyelids and the rows of the upper and lower teeth. No
organization, in industry, business, or government, can con¬
tinue to operate successfully with sand in the gear box, when
there is a lack of cooperation among its individuals or its
departments and divisions. In the last analysis, cooperation
is an individual matter; where it does not exist, the fault
lies with the- individuals involved; something is wrong in
their personal relations. Fairness and loyalty are the two
most important factors in winning cooperation.
This discussion can be made a live one but must be kept on solid
ground by the leader who should insist at all times on concrete ex¬
amples of points made.
Discussion Plant
The leader may very properly follow tip his introductory remarks
by making sure that the foreman group is definitely agreed as to the
need for cooperation. "Just what do we mean by cooperation - can you
give some definite examples of wholehearted cooperation?" "What are
some of the reasons why we should seek cooperation?" "Is there any
question in your minds as to the need for cooperating?"
After this point the leader should bring out emphatically that
it is necessary for a foreman to cooperate with his workers and sup¬
eriors before he in turn can hope to gain their cooperation. He
should also point out that cooperation may exist on different levels
of authority. It may be extended upward, downward, or on the same
plane. Cooperation may, therefore, be lacking between:
- 75 -
12X31
1* Workers on a project.
2. The supervisor and ills men.
3. The supervisor and his superiors.
4. Supervisors on different projects (or departments).
However, when the effects, causes, and remedies for lack
of cooperation on any level are analysed, they will be found
to be very similar and can generally bo considered at the
same time.
Turning to the effects or results of the lack of coopera¬
tion, it will be desirable to spend a few minptes in emphof
sizing how serious such a situation can be by making a
partial list of specific evidences or results. "How can we
spot evidences of poor cooperation?" "What happens?"
"What are specific effects of the lack of cooperation?"
"What occurs when there is disagreement or inability to
get along with others?" The responses from the group
are listed. They will resemble the items shown in
Chart I. This can be developed in ten or fifteen minutes.
The major chart for this meeting should then be developed
along the lines of Chart II, an effort being made to bring
out as many of the points shown in that chart as possible.
The column to the left should first be developed in answer
to questions such as? "What hinders good cooperation?"
"Just what are the causes of lack of cooperation?" "What
are the rer.sons cooperation does not exist in a given situation?"
The leader should point out that in this chart the group is
particularly concerned with causes rather than effects but
that some items, such as "lack of interest" may both cause
a lack of cooperation and at the same time result from its
absence. .After a good list of causes has been quickly listed,
each should then be discussed by getting specific cases from
the group.
e>
The right hand column is then filled out by the leader,
obtaining the data from questions such as "For each of these
causes or situations which hinder cooperation, what can be
done to eliminate it?" "How can we remedy each of these
conditions?" Each cause should be successively numbered so
that the corresponding remedy can be identified in the parallel
column.
The development of this chart should bring up situations
out of the experience of members of tfce group and should, deal
with actual problems of cooperation which they are facing.
The following situations are typical of such discussion topics:
1. A W.P.A. foreman on his way home passes another street
repair project and sees a workman about to spoil a
piece of curbing on which he is working. The foreman
of the project does not seem to be on hand. What
should the first foreman do under the circumstances?
- 76 -
12131
NOTES
2. A conscientious but rather stubborn worker has been
placed in charge of tools and supplies on a project*
His foreman has told him not to give out anything
except that which is requisitioned by the foreman*
An emergency requires a certain costly tool in the
absence of the foreman* One of the workmencbmands
the tool from the storekeeper and when it is refused
without a requisition, gets into a fist fight with
him. The project engineer appears on the scene and
is also refusod the tool. The engineer "fires" the
storekeeper who denies the engineer's right to dis¬
charge him and claims he was merely following the
foreman's orders* Who and what are to blame? What
is wrong?
3* A foreman leaves and his place is taken by a young
man from another gang* He has considerable experi¬
ence but.the'gang is sour because they believe that
some older man from their own group should have been
promoted. They carry out orders, but indifferently.
They never do any more than is asked, never use
initiative or their own judgment. It is hard to
determine whether the men who hoped to be promoted
are themselves stirring up trouble or not. This
situation goes on for a month. What can be done
about it? How can the foreman meet the situation?
After the major points in Chart II have been brought
out, basic principles of improving cooperation — with the
workers, with superiors, and with other foremen or depart¬
mental representatives — may then be developed as shown in
Chart III. This chart lists ways and means of remedying a
lack of cooperation in more general terms than Chart II. It
really sets forth broad principles that may require con¬
siderably more suggestion and direction on the part of
the discussion leader to develop its content* It may,,
therfore, be necessary for him to summarize the discussion
by reading the chart items to the group or passing out
mimeographed sheets for discussion.
Before closing, the leader should summarize the high
spots of the discussion, re-emphasizing the importance of
thoroughgoing cooperation*
- 77 -
12131
COOPERATION
CHART I -- EVIDENCES OF POOR COOPERATION
Poor work.
Work schedule delayed
Low production
Sour or surly workers
Loafing on the job
Friction or fighting
Increased accidents
Disrespect for authority
Many absences
Tardiness
Poor housekeeping
High costs
Failure to obtain materials
"Passing the buck"
Interrupted service
Lack of interest
Labor agitation
Numerous "kicks" or complaints
CAUSE
CHART II — WHAT HINDERS GOOD COOPERATION?
REMEDY
1,
Delays in pay check
1.
Foreman report facts; manage¬
ment out red tape
2,
Conflicting orders
2.
Define lines of authority
3.
Ignorance of the facts
3.
Better understanding
4.
Broken promises
4.
Make them good or explain
5.
Lack of recognition
5.
C-ive proper credit
6.
Jealousy, envy, selfishness
6.
Sepa.rate jealous workers
7.
Misunderstanding
7.
Training; clean-cut orders
8.
Disrespect for authority
8.
Better discipline
9.
Stubbornness; "big head"
9.
Heart-to-heart talk; warning
10.
Unreasonable demands-
10.
Understanding; consideration
11.
Poor health
11.
Medical attention
12.
Poor or insanitary working
12.
Improve them
conditions
13.
False rumors
13.
Squelch them; be frank
14.
Favoritism, discrimination
14.
Play no favorites
15.
Work too monotonous
15.
Vary assignments
16.
Improper work assignment
16.
Reassign or rotate
17.
"Butting in"
17.
Mind own business
18.
Inadequate equipment
18.
Arrange for more
19.
Duplication of effort
19.
Improve organization
20.
Low wages
20,
Social service assistance
Reclassify if possible
Develop supplemental rewards
21.
Lone-star worker or trouble¬
21 .
Isolate
maker
22.
Indifference, thoughtlessness
22,
Determine the reason; correct
personal talk
23.
Hard-boiled supervision
23,
Substitute humane supervision
24.
Poor planning or scheduling
24,
Plan in advance
25.
Favoritism or "pull"
25..
Don't play favorites
26.
Nagging the workers
26,
Provide proper supervision
- 78 -
12131
CHART III - VAYS TO INCREASE COOPERATION
In general:
1. Definitely delegate and assume responsibility.
2. Maintain plenty of energy, good health, and good humor.
3. Plan ahead to avoid a jam.
4. Make no promises you can't carry out
5. Maintain a proper balance between zeal for your job and
group, and the interests of W.P.A. as a whole.
With Superiors:
1. Make sure you understand what 'the boss wants.
2. Do not bother him with details or for advice unless you have to.
3. Make all reports promptly and accurately.
4. If you lack confidence in those over ycu, resign.
5. Put up with inconvenience or overtime when an emergency
requires.
With Subordinates:
1. Issue clear and precise orders; make sure the/ are understood.
2. Let your workers know you have confidence in them.
3. Do not overload them with work or responsibility.
4. Assign only such duties as ca-n be c'one well.
5. Ask for no work you would not be willing to do yourself.
6. Provide adequate equipment and good working conditions.
7. Make no promises you cannot carry out.
8. Encourage workers to improve their skills and opportunities.
9. Plan, organize, and schedule job operations precisely.
- 79 -
12131
OUTLINE NO. 12
NOTES
THE FOREMAN AS INSTRUCTOR
jPuroose of the Conference;
1, To consider the general value of employee training.
2, To stress the importance of having the foreman quali¬
fy as an instructor,
3, To suggest the need for a precise and systematic plan
and procedure in giving instruction.
Introductory Commentt
One of the foreman's major functions is his work as an
instructor. Every foreman should strive to be a good instruc¬
tor, In the majority of manufacturing plants all of the job
training is done by foremen and even in those in which traim-
ing departments are maintained they are by no means relieved
of all training responsibilities. Similarly in the works
program most of the responsibility of training workers to do
better work in their trades or of retraining them along other
lines rests on the foreman.
Such training provides workers with an opportunity for
developing their skills and for increasing their efficiency.
Training greatly increases the prospect of a successful works
program by supplying more efficient workmen, thereby increas¬
ing production, building morale, and reducing accidents.
Teaching is a trade in itself and skill in teaching must
be acquired in order to produce trained workers. Teaching an
occupation is quite a different undertaking from doing it.
This the average foreman does not realize. Far more is in¬
volved in training than appears at first glance. Numerous
points must be considered if effective instruction is to be
had, In view of the many facts to be considered, the discus¬
sion outlines on training are divided into five parts, for
each of which at least one meeting will be required.
Discussion Flan:
Why Workers Need Training: The desirability of train¬
ing is generally admitted but it will be well at the outset
of this meeting to spend about twenty minutes in bringing out
the desirability of training in general, with special refer¬
ence to the npeds of W.P.A. The common reason for training
in industry is the cost of breaking in new employees -•»
estimates of the cost range from five dollars to two hundred
and fifty dollars or more per worker. This argument is less
significant with the W.P.A. where training is, however,
nevertheless most important.
— 80 —
12131
At this point the leader should develop an outline on the
blackboard along the lines of Chart I by listing responses in
reply to suoh questions as these: "What are the advantages of
training workers? What are the disadvantages? What benefits
result to the management? Why are the workers benefited?"
Afber the advantages and disadvantages have been listed on
the board it may be worthwhile to discuss the question as to
which are the most important advantages and. number them 1,
2, 3, etc., on the board in order of importance. A column
for disadvantages to the worker may be included but is usually
unnecessary since no disadvantages are apparent with a sound
training plan.
Who Should Do the Training?: A few minutes may then be
spent in discussing the various methods by which instruction
my be imparted. "Should the foremen do all the training?
Should a straw-boss be entrusted with it? Should an exper¬
ienced man be assigned to breaking in green hands? If so,
should tho best, the fastest, or the oldest worker be assigned?
Should a central training staff give the training and make
uso of special instructors? Is there apt to be confusion of
authority when instructors rather than foremen do the training?"
No chart need necessarily be developed in connection with these
questions.
In discussing tho question of who should dc the training,
the leader should head off any conclusion to tho effect that
training should be entrusted to the best worker or to a straw
boss by pointing out that neither may bo able tc impart the
necessary information to the learner. Furthermore, many good
workmen are unwilling to disclose what they know. If there
is any general conclusion possible with reference to W.P.A.
it should be that for the most part the foreman himself can¬
not dodge his responsibility for training his men.
How Should an Operation be Taught?: The group should then
be asked to consider the various means, methods, or mechanics
of teaching any operation. Since its members have probably not
given muoh thought to the ways and means of setting up a formal
training program, the responses to the problem will vary widely.
Some may be beside the point but, in order to bring out differ¬
ences of opinion and give consideration to any and all possible
methods of teaching, a chart should be developed by the leader.
Responses similar to those contained in Chart II will be obtained
from leading questions: "What are some of the ways in which you
go about training a worker? Just what do you do in teaching a
man to do his job? Do you explain it? Do you do tho job? What
ore the various stops of procedure? Is it enough to show a man
how?" Tho purpose of this chart is to suggest that the group
has no well defined plan or notion of training. Each foreman
may have different ideas.
The leader should then comment on the differences of opinion
and the number of methods recommended and suggest that these
- 81 -
facts suggest a need for getting a better agreement and learning
more about the mechanics of training# He may ask: "Are we up
against a different kind of a job when we train a man than we
are when we're supervising a production job? If so, let's com¬
pare the two."
Instruction Differs from Production: The leader then steers
the group into a discussion of the differences .and similarities
between what the skilled worker and supervisor do in the ordinary
course of production as compared to what the foreman-teacher does
when he instructs. The foreman needs first of all to be an ex¬
perienced worker and on top of that to know something of the trade
of teaching so that he may carry over his skill to the workers
under him. A comparative chart on production and instruction
should be developed with as much assistance as can be obtained
from the group. The leader will need to study this chart and
line up his approach carefully in order to get the appropriate
responses. This can be more readily done in advance if the left-
hand column of Chart III is filled in by the leader and the
headings "production" and "instruction" are entered over the
second and third columns. The group then supplies information
for the second and third columns.
The chart filled in, the discussion leader should go through
it pointing out the items in which the two jobs are alike (they
both produce something), but in particular emphasizing how they
differ. Such emphasis will help sell the foremen on the need
to know something of teaching methods.
Right and Wrong Ways to Teach a Job: In order to sell a
group on the all important idea that there are excellent and
successful methods of teaching as well as poor and inefficient
methods, the leader at this point should be prepared to give a
few demonstrations. The group will find this of keen interest.
At the outset the leader says: "Someone here give an
order", without announcing his purpose or designating any one
person. Someone in the group will then tell another to close
the door, open a window, move a chair, or give some similar
instruction. Fault can.then invariably be found with the way
in which the instructionswas given and this is pointed out to
the group by the leader- Loose orders, including the original
one given by the leader when he asked someone to give an order,
frequently omit the who, the how, the when, and the why.
The leader next tells a member of the group to "go and
lift ", pointing to one of the heaviest men present. The
man giving the order attempts to lift the individual designated
with more or less success. Someone in the group will usually
suggest that he needs more help. (This is usually the way of
meeting any difficult situation out on a project, by placing
more men on it.) The leader then tells three more men to join
— 82 -
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the first and. lift the heavy man as he sits in his chair. He
should make sure that they do not lift him too high or so care¬
lessly that an accident results.
The unorganized manner in which the foremen do the lifting
job should be pointed out by the leader who suggests that a system¬
atic plan must be followod in giving instructions or in training.
He then places the four, one at each leg of the chair, and shows
them how to take hold, making sure that the lifting strength of
the four is properly distributed. He says: "Now follow my
directions closely. I want you to exhale and inhale with me.
I am going to count three and when I come to four I will say
'lift'. All ready. Now, one — exhale, two — inhale etc."
When this is done the man will be lifted up smoothly and easily
without danger of accident or of strain to those who lift. This
demonstration is ur.ed to emphasize the need for precise directions
and for organizing any steps in training a group of workers
before they undertake a given job.
The leader next passes out two-foot pieces of cord or
twine to five or six members of the group and ask them to watch
him closely while he ties a bowline knot. He makos sure that
none of those selected already knows how. Facing the group, he
then quickly goes through the tying of the knot \7ith a larger
rope which can be easily seen find then asks them to tie a simi¬
lar one with the cord. None of the men will be able to do so.
The leader n.sks what is wrong with his demonstration. After a
brief discussion the leader then turns sidewiso so that the
group may see him from the performing point of view and again
gives his demonstration. He first ties tho knot quickly, then
goes through the operations again slowly, step by step, ex¬
plaining each a„s he goes.
Instead of a bowline knot, the leader may use umer simple
illustrations, such as how to tie and underwriter1s knot used in
electrical work* The lifting demonstration can also be varied:
a women's group may lift a table instead.
^Phe leader then emphasizes that illustrations of this kind
suggest that teaching is not as simple as it appears on the sur¬
face, that mere telling is not enough , and that demonstration
must be properly done in order to be effective. He tells the
group that these "stunts" have been brought in at this time to
prove that certain basic principles are involved in training —
that it is not a hit-or-miss method. The basic steps in teaching
will be discussed at the next session; members of the group should
be asked to give some thought to what they are before that meeting.
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12131
The leader will then spend a few minutes in reviewing the
high spots of the discussion and pass out the mimeographed
chart s.
Planning Demonstrations: Before adjournment he will ask
members of the group — four or five will suffice if each as¬
signment is well planned — to come in at the next session pre¬
pared to conduct a demonstration of just how each would tench
a simple operation to one or more members of the group. They
should be told that the demonstration which the leader staged
is only one part of the teaching process and that they are
expected to go through whatever further explanations and
demonstrations are necessary in order to do a thorough teach¬
ing job, including the step of having a learner try out the
job in question.
The leader will find it necessary to suggest the kinds of
operations they will undertake to teach and the tools or equip¬
ment they will require. He should list the operations and the
names of the volunteers. Among the simple tasks which may be
used are the following:
Bandaging a hand (by a first aid man)
Using a crowbar to lift a hea/vy object (object should
be determined in advance; blocks needed)
Proper way to hold a long-handle shovel
Using a carpenter's square to determine an angle
Sawing a„ board (using a square and saw)
Tieing a package with string, using a bundler's knot
Making a wire connection in a utility plug
Using an exterminator gun
Sweeping with broom
Cleaning a window
Assembling a mechanical rat-trap or clothes pin
Bisecting a right angle on blackboard with compass
Assembling a bicycle bell
Sharpening the blade of a plane
Using a mop and wringer
Laying out a right angle with a ruler
(the 6 jf 8 - 10 triangle ivhich can be used on street
work)
Sewing on a, button
HoldingNa chisel bar in cutting off a rivet (or nail)
Demonstrations of an involved nature or those which cannot
be undertaken in the classroom should be discouraged. It may,
however, be of interest to have one presentation of a lecture-
blackboard type; how to saw off a tree limb, for example, to
illustrate what can be done to prepare the way for practical
field try-outs later on,
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THE FOREMAN AS INSTRUCTOR
CHART 1 -- WHY TRAIN WORKERS?
Advan tage a
To Workers
To Management
Disadvantages
To Management
Improved skills
New skills
Increased earning power
Increased prospects of
private employment
Expanded trade
knowledge
More satisfaction and
"better morale
Less effort needed
Fewer accidents
Standardized methods
Better judgment
Better understanding of
job
More systematic work
habits
Better production
Lower operating costs
Means for interpreting
WPA policies
Less supervision
More timber for.new
foremen
Time saved in developing
men
Fewer misfits
Improved administration
Less labor trouble
Costs money
Good instructors must be
trained or employed
Takes time of foremen
May slow up production at
outset
May be opposed by organized
labor
Frequent labor turnover
requires continuous
training
rrURf TT ,, VARIOUS TEACHING METHODS IN COMMON USE
^not necessarily desirable ones)
Find out what learner knows — start there
Teach easy jobs first
.Explain the job — tell the worker what to do
Give a "pep" talk or lecture
"Experience is best teacher"
Put him to work — "pick up" method
Show or demonstrate just how work is done
Observe others working
Place beginner with experienced man
Assign teaching to straw boss or "pusher"
Show finished job or product, charts, or pictures
Trial under close supervision and check-up
Group discussion and questions
Written instructions — text book
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12131
CHART III — DIFFERENCES MM PttnmCTTniJ_AH11JLHSIRHCTI0E
PRODUCTION
INSTRUCTION
Purpose or Aim
Output or finished articles
for consumer
Skill or knowledge for
learner
Man involved
Workman
Instructor (foreman)
Material
worked upon
Stock, new or partially
worked up
Learner, green or partly
trained
Procedure
followed
Successive production
steps in regular order
Successive training steps
in selected order
Equipment used
Tools, machines
Suitable instruction
methods and devices
Result tested "by
Inspection of finished
product
3hock up on learner's
ability
86 -
12131
OUTLINE NO. 13
HOW TO DEMONSTRATE AND TEACH A JOB*
Purpose of the Conference:
NOTES
1.
2.
3.
To set forth the basic steps involved in teaching any
job.
To provide practice experience in the mechanics of
demonstrating the teaching of a job.
To discuss in further, detail some of the important
points necessary for effective teaching, particularly
the need for adequate demonstration.
Introductory Comment:
The discussion of the topic "The Foreman as Instructor"
has by now suggested that there is an art and a science of
teaching which needs careful attention if a foreman, no matter
how great his trade skill, is to become a competent instructor.
Recognizing the importance of planning, organizing, and properly
demonstrating the necessary facts involved in teaching any trade
or job, the present session will be devoted to some of the diffi¬
culties and problems involved in doing this. First of all the
basic steps in teaching a job will be considered.
Discussion Plan:
The group leader should briefly review the high spots of,the
previous meeting on training and touch particularly on the .con¬
tent of Chart III for that session which distinguishes between
production and instruction.
The Basic Steps Involved in Teaching: The leader may suggest
to his group that there has been sufficient discussion of the train¬
ing problem to indicate the existence of some kind of a standard
pattern or blue print of just what is involved in teaching a green
worker a new job# Long experience on the part of vocational in¬
structors in school and factories has shown that certain definite
steps are needed: these are summarized in Chart I attached. This
chart should be lettered up in advance by the loader or he may pass
out the chart sheet at this time, since it cannot be worked up
satisfactorily by most'/discussion groups. He then goes over it
.Step bv step, giving illustrations of what is meant under each of
the steps, and asks questions tg piake sure the group understands
the chart.
Teaching Demonstrations by Croup Members: The leader next
calls on one of the foremen-who has offered to demonstrate how a
teaching job should be done, reminding this man and the group
that he is expected to go through the first four steps shown on
Chart I, and not merely the demonstration called for as part of
the presentation step, number (2). He should make sure that the
operation chosen is simple enough for the use here desired. One
or two of the foremen present who do not know the operation should
act as learners.
- 87 -
12131
UQTES
The loader instructs the group to act as a jury to dctormino
just how good a teaching job is dono in thoso practice demonstra¬
tions, and that it will be expected to criticize and comment on
the instruction given after oach is finished. It is a natural
tendency for the group mombors to watch and criticizo tho manner
in which it is taught, and this must be forcefully emphasized by
tho leader# He should stato that it makes no difforonco whothcr
the job is done differontly from the way they would do it. It
may in fact be dono wrong: that is not tho point. They are to
concentrate on how well tho demonstrator teaches it.
In order to assist the group in evaluating tho success of
each teaching demonstration, tho leader should list the following
checking points on a chart in advance of the meeting which can be
referred to as tho demonstrations are undertaken:
1. Had tho instructor determined just what ho was going to
put over?
2. Was there any evidence of advance planning and preparation?
3. Did he attempt to put over too much at one time?
4. Did ho put it over point by point and make sure each point
was clearly understood before starting the next one?
5. Did the instructor cover all essential points?
6. Did he use the first three standard teaching steps?
7. In checking up, did he make sure the lesson was clearly
understood by asking the proper questions?
8. Did he use methods in oach step suited to tho lesson and
the learner?
9. Did the instructor hold to his subject or "scatter?"
10, Did the instructor show ability to set the learner at
case and hold his interest?
11. On completion, did the learner do the job unaided and
have the essential facts?
After a demonstration,tho leader says: "Well,what do you think
of it? Was it a good job of teaching? What was omitted? How could
it be improved?" or uses other questions to stimulate discussion.
He should head off irrelevant questions relating to tho subject mat¬
ter of the operation, and confine the group to teaching criticisms.
Requirements of a Demonstration: After the first or second i
teaching demonstration the leader should proceed to develop Chart II,
which summarizes the requirements of a successful demonstration (the
word is used in its narrow sense as a part of the presentation pro¬
cess). He tells the group that after observing his own demonstra*
tion of knot-ticing and tho demonstrations of its members, they
should bo able to identify some of <the important points to bo con¬
sidered. He then draws out and'lists the suggestions. This chart
- 88 -
12131
is then used as a second check list to evaluate additional denon-
strations which are now made by group members•
Two or three other teaching demonstrations are then tried out,
the members of the group discussing and criticising each,. If com¬
ments arc slow in coming, the leador may run down the two charts on
tho wall - the chock list on teaching and the list of demonstration
requirements and ask: "How about this point? Was it met?" etc*
The lists should not be used after each demonstration or this pro¬
cedure becomes tiresome. The more numerous the demonstrations, the
more practice is had by group members. In many situations where
effective worker training is badly nooded, a spocial mooting on
teaching demonstrations is well worthwhile.
An,Example of Good Demonstration Practice: An examplo of the
manner in which an instructor should convey information to a worker
when demonstrating an operation is next presonted by the loader,
draining information should be presented in a concise, businesslike,
and enthusiastic fashion. In some situations it is, of course, un¬
wise to do much talking; this is the case when learners need to
observe manual operations very carefully and receive necessary ex¬
planations later on.
The example below, showing how to teach the narking of a board
prior to sav/ing off an end should bo thoroughly rchoarscd before be¬
ing presented by him before the group. The loader should supply him¬
self with a board, try square and pencil and select one of the group
as a learner.
(Step I) Instructor (holding try square)"What is this?"
Learner - "Square"
Inst. "What is it used for?"
L. "To square With."
Inst. "Goodj I want to teach you to use it."
(By these questions the Instructor has centered the Learner's
attention and knows he is thinking about the square and its use.)
II) Inst. "We must first select the straightost edge of the
board and mark it with an "x". Then we select the best
surface and indicate that face by marking it with an "f".
T7e want to cut tho board here (puts mark near edge of
board). Now hold tho head of the square firmly against
edge "x" with tho blade across the face marked "f" at the
mark. Draw pencil along blade, marking line on face - be¬
ing sure pencil is kept against blade. Now hold the head
of the square against the face with the blade across edge
"x" and in line with the mark on face* Draw the pencil
along edge of blade and mark a line on edge "x".
- 89 -
12131
NOTES
(Step III)Inst. "Now you take the square and mark the board
here" (putting mark on board). The loarncr takos square
and pencil and tries out the operations listed undor
Stop II as demonstrated by the instructor with instruc¬
tor observing him closely. If ho has failed to "get"
any point, the instructor corrects him cither by point¬
ing out error or redemonstrating that particular point.
Steps IV and V of the lesson plan are omitted from the leader's
presentation, but he should point out that in them the learner would
repeat the operations until he had acquired the skill and facility to
do them quickly and that his work would be checked and inspected by
the instructor as he proceeded.
After going through the foregoing demonstration, the leader
should ask whether all of the details ho mentioned are necessary
in the case of such a simple teaching operation as this. Although
some in the group may feel that there have been too many, a careful
discussion will bring out that even the simplest task needs to bo
clearly explained in tho simplest of terms.
The meeting is closed with a summary by the loader. If tho
demonstrations staged have not boon satisfactory in driving homo
the proper way of teaching a job, others should bo arranged for
the following session.
90 -
12131
HOW TO DEMONSTRATE AND TEACH A JOB
OHABT I — THE STEPS INVOLVED IN TEACHING
Steps
Purpose
How Accomplished
Preparation
(1)
To prepare the learner
for new facts.
To establish a teaching
base.
(1)For a series of lessons:
By pointing out the need
for self-improvement.
By indicating the advan¬
tages of organized
training.
(2)Por each lesson:
By getting attention and
interest.
By planning and organis¬
ing the lesson.
By asking questions to
determine just how much
instruction is actually
needed.
Presentation
(al
To present new ideas
or facts or show
new manipulations.
By lecture or explanation.
By illustration or diagram.
By demonstration and explan¬
ation, showing how
By an experiment.
Combinations of the above.
Trial
(3)
To start the learner in
applying the information
or necessary action
under the observation of
the foreman
By requiring the learner to
proceed with the operation,
tinder close supervision.
By having him participate in
a discussion where he must
use the facts presented
By having him make a sketch
or illustration to explain
the method.
Application
(4)
To enable the learner to
operate under his own
power withputr assist¬
ance.
This is the pupil's step.
He must work without the
assistance of the instruc¬
tor.
Testing
(5)
To test the learner's
skill and knowledge.
Foreman inspects, checks up,
or tests the work done.
- 91 -
12131
CHART II - RTftUIREMENTS OF A SUCCESSFUL JOB DEMONSTRATION
1« Be sure the learner can see every part of the demonstration from the
performing point of viev-
2. Give the group a quick preliminary demonstration and an idea of the joh.
3. Repeat the demonstration slowly*
4. Break the operation into small •units of instruction made up of not more
than four or five operating points.
5. Use very simple language in explaining the joh.
6. Use special trade terms only after the demonstration.
7. Postpone "reasons why" until after the learner has accomplished the tank.
8. Emphasize the importance of repetition in developing skill.
9. Always stress the safe way of doing a joh.
10. Donft emphasize how not to do the joh.
- 92 -
12131
OUTLINE NO. 14
PROBLEMS CONFRONTING THE INSTRUCTOR
Purpose of the Conference:
1. To consider some of the problems v/hich confront the foreman
in connection with training, such a3:
When is job training practicable?
When should a formal or organized training plan be set up?
In what should workers be trained?
When and what kind of questions are useful in giving in¬
struction?
NOTES
Introductory Comment:
The foreman who desires to do a thorough and systematic job of
training his men to increase their skill and knowledge and to further
the works program needs considerable information. He needs to know
how to teach; to know the mechanics of teaching. He needs to know
when and what kind of training is practicable and worthwhile. He
should be able to ask questions properly in the conduct of a discus ¬
sion with learners.
The day's discussion will center around some of these questions.
Discussion Plan:
The leader should just briefly review the fundamental teaching
steps as set forth in Chart I and the requirements of a successful
job demonstration as contained in Chart II of the previous session.
If any demonstrations still remain to be staged, this should next be
done.
Practical Training Situations: The leader may next suggest some
of the practical difficulties with which the foreman may be faced in
initiating training for the men Under him, and develop group discus¬
sion around questions such as these: "What if the superintendent is
not particularly sold on the need for systematic training? When can
training best be undertaken - at what time of day - for how long a
period - how often? For what kinds of operations does training need
to be a.n individual matter? What operations can be handled with a
group? What if there are no proper facilities for training? What
kind of a place, location, or layout is needed for training in the
different operations involved in any work project? What if skilled
workers are needed and must be trained but there is opposition on
the part of the skilled men already working?"
Some of these questions should be discussed, the emphasis being
placed at all times on concrete training situations with which mem¬
bers of the group are confronted. Members of the group should be
asked to bring out their own specific training problems and have the
group assist in working them out.
- 93 -
12131
NOTES
ffhon is Formal Training Desirable? The leader now asks the con¬
ference to consider the related question of just when it is worth¬
while to set up a formal or organized training plan for teaching a
worker to do a job. Attention should be called to the toro main ways
of learining to do a job: (l) by the "pick-up" method and (2) by fol¬
lowing a definite, organized plan. Formal training involves the
breaking down of a job into its parts and the working up of a def¬
inite teaching plan for each operation in accordance with a stand¬
ard procedure.
The opinion of the group should be obtained as to when it is
desirable to set up a formal training procedure. "Under what con¬
ditions or situations is organized training worthwhile? When should
a definite outline or a standard procedure be laid down for teaching?"
The responses of the foremen should be listed in a chart which will
resemble the material in Chart I.
In What Should Workers be Trained? It will be of interest, on
the assumption that some kind of organized training is to be under¬
taken in a given situation, for the group to consider just in what
the workers could be trained. Effective instruction requires care¬
ful consideration of numerous points that might be included in the
subject matter. In developing Chart II, the leader may ask:
"If we propose to teach a worker how to do a job, just what
should he be taught aside from the work motions he is expected to
go through? Does he need to know anything else? If so,-, what?
What other related information would be of value to a new employee,
for example? Are there some things that cannot be taught but in
which workers could be trained? What, for example?"
The Use of Qnegt.inws - In introducing the topic of using the
right kind of questions as a part of the teaching process, the
leader may say: "All of us'ask questions many times a day. Us¬
ually we ask because we are seeking information, What kind of
information would the foreman want when he is instructing a worker?
If we called that kind of a question a 'test question', what other
types of questions could we suggest as being of value in teaching
work?" This discussion should bring out that there are three main
types of questions which may be used:
1. Test questions for the purpose of checking up on what
dihe worker has learned,
2. Suggestive or leading questions gov the purpose of
directing thoughts, clarifying ideas, or developing
information
3. Questions which stimulate thinking, create interest,
develop appreciation, change a point of view, or aid
in understanding.
94 -
12131
NOTES
The leader should prepare good illustrations of each of the
kinds of questions in advance of the meeting to illustrate his
point.
As to the occasions on which questions should he used, he may
hring out the following points in informal discussion or, if de-
siredjk hy means of a formal chart developed by the members of the
group.
1. To find out what the worker knows, provided he is able
to express himself adequately in words.
2. To lead the worker to a greater understanding of the
operation or its meaning.
3. To suggest a new point of view or a new method of
attack on a problem.
4. To stimulate thought, challenge the worker's ideas,
or direct his attention to unnoticed facts.
5. To promote group discussion.
A few suggestions which may be helpful to the foreman in
showing him how questions should be asked in order to obtain the
desired results are as follows:
1. Word the question so that it calls for a very brief
yet specific answer. In other words, it should not
pave the way for a long-winded discussion of a broad
topic on various points.
2. Word the question so it cannot be answered by a mere
"Yes" or "No." It is better to ask "Who, when, why,
.what," or "how."
3. Word the question In such a way that its meaning is
absolutely clear,.
4. Word the question in such a wa;/ that it in no way
suggests the answer unless it be a leading or a sug¬
gestive question intended to assist the respondent
in answering.
5. Be brief and to the point in asking the question.
6. Avoid why questions unless they are intended to
provoke thought.
- 95 -
12131
PROBLEMS CONERONTING THE INSTRUCTOR
CHART I- WHEN IS FORMAL OR ORGANIZED TRAINING- PROFITABLE?
When any of the following points are involved:
1, "Pick-up" method is too slow
2. Production needs improvement
3« Many different operations need to "bo learned
4, Much technical knowledge is required
5. Danger or accident hazard
6# Possible damage to tools and equipment
7. Dangor of spoiling output
CHART II~ IN WHAT CAN WORKERS BE TRAINED?
Various steps or work operations involved
Improved or additional skills
Properties and use of materials
Handling and care of tools and equipment
Common-sense facts about the job
Accident hazards of the job
Effect of the job on health
Amount of production expocted and
how to achiove it
Quality of work expocted
Ways in which to avoid waste
Short—cuts or time savers
Good work habits
W.P.A. policies relating to workers
Rules and regulations and the reasons for them
- 96 -
12131
OUTLINE NO. 13
ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTOR PROBLEMS
PURPOSE OF THE CONFERENCE
1. To discuss mistakes whioh are frequently
made in teaching.
2. To determine some of the difficulties ex¬
perienced by those who are being taught.
3. To review the qualifications which should be
developed by a competent instructor.
INTRODUCTORY COMMENT
This session will be devoted to a few other consider¬
ations involved in improving the foroman's skill as a job
instructor. In addition to knowing how to demonstrate and
teach a job and to knowing when and what to teach, he may
be expected to profit by tinder standing what may hinder a
learner from absorbing the instruction offered and what
qualifications are expected of him if he is to be a success¬
ful trainer of men.
DISCUSSION PLAN
Common Mistakes in Teachingt Among the mistakes the fore¬
man is most "'likely to make 'when he becomes an instructor are the
following,' whioh should be developed from the group and if
necessary elaborated by the leader.
1. Most instructors take too much for granted. They as¬
sume the learner knows much more than he actually does.
2. Many try to teach too much at one time. Instead of an¬
alyzing the job and breaking it up into small parts,
teaching one part at a time, they teach so much at once
that the learner forgets a groat deal of it before ho
aotually starts to work.
3. A common fault of instructors is to talk too much.
They should resort to demonstration or showing how more
often th^n thoy do.
- 97 -
12131
NOTES
4. Frequently an effort Is made to teach the beginner jobs
which are too difficult so early in the teaching process.
The worker should be introduced to the simpler tasks
first.
5. The worker may be easily confused with too many directions
concerning exceptional situations which may come up. Ex¬
ceptions to the rule and variations found on the job
should be taught aftef the worker is able to perform the
work in the usual way.
6. A preparatory talk or introduction should not be too
long and should not involve explanations of the "whys and
wherefores"; these should be reserved to the last.
7. The instructor may be apt to talk in terms of the occupa¬
tion or trade which are new to the learner. He may make
use of many expressions which have a technical or special¬
ized meaning and should therefore introduce them gradually
into the discussion. Whenever a new trade term is used,
it should be fully explained so that the worker knows what
th^ instructor is talking about. Many such terms can be
explained later on.
Difficulties of the Learner;' In contrast to the mistakes in
teaching procedures mentioned above which will prevent any learner
from understanding what is being taught, there may be certain short¬
comings or handicaps on the part of the workers which prevent them
from concentrating their attention on the teaching process.
Material such as that contained in Chart I should be developed on
the blackboard by the leader at this point in answer to questions
such as these': "What are some of the reasons individuals find it
hard to learn readily? What kind of difficulties distract the
learner? Why does teaching fail to take hold? Why is it some
men are not interested in learning? This chart should be devel¬
oped by first listing the possible causes suggested in the first
column and then having the group suggest the solution in the
second column. Concrete illustrations from the experience of
the group should be asked for.
Qualifications of an Instructor; It will be found worth¬
while to develop a chart showing the qualifications which the
group considers to be important for a successful foreman as
teacher. The points suggested should exclude those general
character traits or responsibilities which the foreman requires
in his general supervisory duties. If any of the items listed
in the chart are overlooked, the leader should see that the
omission is repaired through the use of leading questions.
Chart II suggests the desirable content of a chart of this kind.
- 98 -
12131
NOTES
The session should be wound up by dieousaing Chart III-
"The Successive Levels of Training." The leader may tell
the foremen that they have considered the various aspeots
of the foreman as an instructor in the course of several
meetings. Chart III shows in graphio form the results
accomplished by training and thus serves to summarize
much of the earlier discussion. Light penoil lines drawn
on the chart in advance of the meeting will enable the
leader to traoe over them with orayon and develop a well
proportioned chart.
- 99 -
12131
ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTOR PROBLEMS
CHART I - DIFFICULTIES OF LEARNERS
CAUSE OE DIFFICULTY''
SUGGESTED REMEDY
Nervousness - ".iuirrpyness'
Place learner at ease
Timidity, lack of confidence
Sense of inferiority
Give friendly encouragement
Show hirn his improvement
Stubbornness
Win confidence and friendship
Outside distractions
Talk over and point out effects
Family troubles
Give tactful counsel
Laziness
Be firm - arouse interest and
compare his results in other
fields where he does well
Fear of job hazards
Explain how dangers may be avoided
Teach caution
Develop confidence
Transfer to other work if unsuccess¬
ful
Carelessness
Point out results
Make man do job over
Be firm
Awkwardness
Physical handicap
Help develop accuracy and dex-
terity
Place on other job
Provide special training
Mentally dull
Make sure job is not beyond
capacity
If not, train slowly. Be patient
CHART II - QUALIFICATIONS OF A GOOD INSTRUCTOR
1. Thorough knowledge of subject
2. Interest in teaching - sympathetic attitude to learners
3. Infinite patience and tact
4. Fairness and impartiality
5. Knowledge of teaching procedures and devices
6. Skill in understanding people and their learning difficulties
7. Ability to lead rather than drive
8. Cheerful disposition radiating confidence and encouragement
9. Systematic habit of thought in-planning and teaching
10. Ability to command respect and confidence
- 100 -
CHART III
THE SUCCESSIVE LEVELS °F TRAINING
(
SKILLED WORKER LEVEL
ACHIEVED IN THE COURSE
OF PRODUCTION; ACTUAL
OPERATIONS WITH UTTLE
SUPERVISION
^JUNIOR DOING ABILITY LEVEL
ACHIEVED THROUGH THE
"APPLICATION" STEP
DOING UNDER CLOSE
SUPERVISION
^ AMATEUR OR APPRENTICESHIP LEVEL
ACHIEVED BYTRYING OUT" VARIOUS
OPERATIONS; PRACTICING UNDER
CAREFUL INSTRUCTION AND
SUPERVISION
(
APPRECIATION OF JOB LEVEL
ACHIEVED BY ACQUIRING INFORMATION;
THE"PREPARATION** AND
"PRESENTATION" STEPS
WORKER UNTRAINED; LACKS KNOWLEDGE; UNSETTLED;
AFRAID TO ASK QUESTIONS; NEEDS ENCOURAGEMENT
M-964
12131
OUTLINE NO. 16
SETTING UP A SYSTEMATIC LESSON PLAN
Purpose of the Conference;
1. To suggest the importance of setting up a well organized
and systematic plan in advance of giving ihstruction tb
workers.
2. To discuss the method of analyzing an occupation and the
steps or operations involved, in order to lay a foundation
for the teaching process.
3, To consider devices useful in instruction, such as job or
instruction sheets.
Introductory Comment:
Any discussion of the various points involved in effective job
training is not complete without consideration of the ways and means
of determining just what is to be taught. One may know how to teach,
fully understand the various steps in the teaching process, etc.,
but it is first necessary to decide what needs to be taught. In
ordinary schoolroom teaching the teacher has standard instruction
outlines and the pupils are provided with textbooks. In teaching
a trade, however, little material of this kind is available and the
foreman must himself prepare his own text, so to speak.
No decision can be arrived at in deciding what and how much is
to be taught at any one time by the foreman unless attention has
been given to a study of what is done on the job and how it is done.
This involves an analysis of the job and the setting up of a lesson
plan. The better organized and the more complete the lesson plan,
the better the instruction that results.
Since the average foreman group has no knowledge of the proce¬
dure in alalyzing a job for teaching purposes, the conference lead¬
er, in conducting this meeting, may have to step from his role of
discussion guide and take a nruch larger part in directing the dis¬
cussion than he otherwise would.
Discussion Plan;
Skills Automatic with Workers Must 3e Taught Learners: At the
outset it is desirable for the leader to illustrate the fact that
many operations become automatic habits which do not require much
thinking, by having the group analyze some simple task. To illus¬
trate this important point the leader may refer to the simple
operation of removing a coat from the back of a chair and putting
it on. He hangs his coat on a chair. He calls the group's atten- j
tion to the fact that every member of it can do this simple job
but a Fiji Islander who has never worn a coat would have to be I
taught each successive step.
- 102 -
12131
NOTES
He then invites the group to give him detailed directions,
step by step, which must be followed in taking the coat off
the chair and putting it on, The coat is left on the chair
and the leader does not go through any of the motions, He
lists the suggestions as they are made on the blackboard,
The leader then takes up the coat and endeavors to follow
the steps listed and actually put on the coat. He will find
himself unable to do so because the steps are not detailed
enough, and may in fact find himself stopped in a ludicrous
position. He points.-out that "arm chair analysis" of this
kind will not do and then asks one of the foreman to go
through the steps involved very slowly, more deliberately in
fact than slow motion pictures are shown. The foreman should
be coached in advance to do this very carefully.
As the foreman proceeds,- the leader checks with the wall
chart and corrects it. The list on the board is found to be
only partially complete for when a careful analysis is made
it will be seen there are actually 18 or more distinct opera¬
tions involved in the. process.
The study of a simple operation of this kind will show the
group that any simple appearing task is in reality broken up
into a large -number of steps, most of which have become second
nature in the course of familiarity with the task. This should
be emphatically brought out l>y the discussion leader, stressing
the fact that the highly skilled worker does his work without
thinking about its details. This should not be overlooked by
the foreman to whom a given operation has become second nature.
In consequence, he often assumes that the things he himself
does so easily need not be taught the learners. This procedure
will also illustrate the manner in which any operation needs to
be analyzed before it can be taught.
Analyzing an Occupation for Teaching Purposes: Any occupa¬
tion must first be taken apart or broken down. Then these
parts or units may be arranged in usable order for effective
teaching. In the discussion the first breakdown should be
referred to as * tasks". These may then be broken down into
"operations". Simple tasks must be taught first and only a
small amount of material should be presented at one time.
- 103 -
12131
NOTES
The first steo in job analysis is the listing of all im¬
portant jobs or tasks which go to make up the occupation.
It is usually not necessary to consider each and every
specialized task of a minor nature. Certain typical or v
representative tasks are adequate for a training program.
Each of the tasks selected represents a group of related
operations. By selecting typical tasks for the instruction
plan, the total number needed to cover the essentials of an
occupation is greatly reduced.
A practical way of starting an analysis is to list the
typical tasks in the occupation which is to be trained. From
such a list should then be eliminated those tasks which for
various reasons cannot or need not be included in the train¬
ing program. This results in a final list of typical tasks
which will make up the content of the training plan.
Each task in which training is to be given should next be
broken down into its detailed work operations. Each task is
considered separately and analyzed. This resembles the
breaking up of a "slow motion" film into a number of "still"
snapshots. For this purpose a chart with two columns may be
used, one headed "What the Worker Does" and the other "What
the Worker Needs to Know". In the first column are listed
all the detailed steps which a worker on the job usually
goes through in the performance of a task. The information
which he needs to have to perform the various operations is
set down in the second column. With this information listed,
the instructor is in a position to organize his teaching job.
Practice in Analyzing a Task: The members of the group
should then be required to go through the steps involved in
breaking down a simple task into the necessary operations
and teaching steps. Only in this way will they realize that
they must force themselves to think through every minute de¬
tail of what to do, step by step, and how they should teach
this to a learner. Simple operations with which a number of
members of the group are acquainted should be used in this
connection. If the group is composed of foremen engaged in
the same trade, a simple example may be selected from that
trade. The fiijal product developed by the group will re¬
semble the examples contained in Chart I.
The conference group should take one or two simple tasks
in a field of wbrk with which they are acquainted and break
them down into their elements, listing the steps on the wall
char£. An example of this procedure is shown below. Before
starting an analysis, the necessary specifications must be
set down by the leader. Thus in building a berm or shoulder
adjoining a road, it should be understood that the job is to
be done by one man, that its width is to be say 10 feet,
that the soil is of a certain type, etc.
- 104 -
12131
HOW TO BUILD A 3ERM
OPERATIONS
TOOLS
WHAT WORKER NEEDS TO KNOW
Put lines on grade stakes
Lines - line level
Just where to fasten them
Get tools
.See below
Use of various tools
Loosen surface of proper
area
Pick
Shovel
Mattox
Which end of pick to use
How deep to cut
When to use each tool
How to scoop, skim, and
scrape with shovel
Shift material between
high and low places
Shovel
Mattox
Wheelbarrow
Truck?
•
Break up large clods
Tamp
Rake
Shovel
How to strike object square
with vertical motion
Make finished surface
Rake
Tamp
How to use rake with pull
and push motion
How to use back of rake to
shift fine material
Remove undesirable
material
Rake
Shovel
Wheelbarrow
How to use teeth of rake
Clean up tools
How to clean them
Other examples of this type of analysis are loading a dump truck
with dirt, laying a square of cement sidewalk or curbing, building a
wire fence, etc. Simple examples may be chosen from other lines of
work, such as cleaning a window or starting and driving an automobile.
The leader should tell the group that they may not have occasion
to write out detailed breakdowns of such relatively simple jobs as
building a berm. but that they should know the procedure and that prac¬
tice is required. Members of the group will have to use such a plan
of analysis in preparing to teach new or involved operations, particu¬
larly in private industry. Detailed paper work then becomes a necessity.
Teaching Order May Differ From Operating Order: The operations in¬
volved In a tdsk are frequently listed without any attention to the
order in which they are listed. Before going ahead with actual in¬
struction, however, the worker's duties must be arranged in orderly
fashion fox teaching. This arrangement will place the easier opera¬
tions first before introducing the more difficult. The instruction or-
- 105 -
12131
NOTES
der may be altogether different from the order of operation or
production. As an illustration of this difference the group
may be asked to compare the ordefr of operations an experienced
driver uses in starting and driving his automobile and the
order an instructor might use in teaching a beginner to drive.
A chart may be developed in this connection.
Setting Up a Formal Lesson Plan; At this point it will be
desirable for the leader to-point out that in advance of any
sizeable training plan undertaken by a foreman or special in¬
structor it is usually necessary to prepare a formal lesson
plan on paper. Such a plan serves as a blueprint of the teach¬
ing gob to be done and is for the foreman-instructor's own use.
A suggested outline is shown in Chart I, the headings of which
should be jotted on the wall chart by the discussion leader for
information and discussion.
Useful Training Devices: By a training device is meant any
contrivance, plan, or scheme used by the foreman to assist the
work demonstration and the learning process. It may be necessary
tools and equipment and may range from a demonstration model to
an article in a trade journal.
In many teaching situations the learners may be asked to look
up descriptive references in textbooks or trade publications or
may be assigned to prepare a report for presentation to the group.
It may also be possible to arrange for individual or group visits
to other projects or individual plants for the purpose of getting
an understanding of the way an occupation is practiced in industry,
or a particular process is carried on.
In addition to standard handbooks or texts dealing with various
occupations, job sheets, instruction sheets, and planning sheets
may be of value on a project necessitating considerable training.
This will usually not be the case with W.P.A. projects, however-
A job sheet tells the learner what to do in any given operation.
It sets up the steps or sequences in which any given operation is
to be performed. Examples are shown in Chart II. In a large train¬
ing program such job sheets can be advantageously mimeographed and
distributed to the workers in training.
An instruction sheet is more complete than a job sheet and
usually tells what to do and how to do it - both "what" and "how".
Instruction sheets for workers will be infrequently used in the
WPA program because- of the amount of work involved in their prepa¬
ration. Typical instruction sheets are the circulars furnished
with a new automobile, a radio, sewing machine, or electric re¬
frigerator. Similar material will be found available from the
manufacturers of certain equipment, road building equipment, for
example, used by WPA.
An example of an instruction sheet will be found in Chart III.
- 106 -
12131
NOTES
The planning sheet is a device similar to the job sheet.
However, instead of ha.nding the learner a list of the things
he is to do, he is asked to fill out a planning sheet showing
exactly step by step how he will proceed. When the planning
sheet is completed, it is turned over to the foreman, who
checks it and makes corrections. After the foreman approves
it, the learner proceeds with the job as he has planned it.
The leader finally summarizes the discussion, again em¬
phasizing the need for slow and painstaking analysis of an
operation before teaching it.
- 107 -
12131
SETTING UP A SYSTEMATIC LESSON FLAN
CHART I - OUTLINE OF A LESSON PLAN
I. Objects of this lesson. (Statement of tho purpose of the instruction
to be given,)
II. Teaching devices. (A list of the needed tools, equipment, materials,
etc,)
III, Procedure (teaching points). (A summary of the explanation, demonstra¬
tion, trial practice, and application by the learner.)
IV. Questions. (Used in the test or check up.)
V. Assignments. (Specific special study or work assignments to be given
members of the learner group.)
VI. References. (Notes regarding pages or chapters of textbooks or printed
articles dealing with the work in question,)
VII, Comments. (Other notes relating to the training to be undertaken.)
ANALYZING AN OPERATION FOR INSTRUCTION PURPOSES
CHART II - SAMPLES OP J03 SHEETS
TASK - SQUARING UP END OF A BOARD
Equipment Needed - Try square, pencil or knife, crosscut saw, saw horses
or trestles, and a board.
1. Select straightest edge and best face of board. Mark straighest edge
with an "x" and face with an "f".
2. Hold head of square firmly against edge marked "x" with blade lying
across face at point to be cut.
3. Draw pencil or knife across board, keeping point against edge of blade.
4. Hold head of square against face marked "f" with blade across edge of
board marked "x" at point to be cut.
5. Mark as on face.
6. Hold board firmly on horse, by putting left knee on board or trcsltc
with point to be cut extending over horse.
7. Hold thumb of left hand at point to be cut, holding saw in right hand,
and starting at heel of saw, draw up to start out. do this gently to
prevent the saw from "Jumping" and cutting left thumb. Sight the saw
with the pencil lines so that lino of sight is perpendicular to board.
Have hand, elbow, and shoulder in line with markings. When saw has been
drawn nearly to its point and the cut is well started, reverse motion,
and still pressing gently, push saw in downward stroke. As soon as
cut is well started, left thumb may be removed and pressure may be in¬
creased on down strokes. Ease pressure at end of each down stroke to
avoid sticking. As cutting progresses, watch closely and if cut leaves
line, twist saw gently to bring it back in line. When board is nearly
cut through, support piece being cut off with left hand and reduce pres¬
sure qf saw so that last stroke does not tear off a large sliver,
- 108 -
12131
CLEANING A WINDOW
1, Get water in a bucket,
2, Get rag,
3, Get a cake of Bon Ami or other cleaner,
4, Wet the rag,
5, Rub rag on the Bon Ami,
6, With a circular motion of the wrist and elbow, apply the Bon Ami
on the rag to the window pane, (Demonstrate)
7, Let the window dry,
8, Using a clean, dry-rag, start rubbing the Bon Ami off the glass,
shaking rag out when necessary. (Demonstrate)
9, Remove any Bon Ami on the wood frame work with a clean wet rag,
10, Repeat operations on outside of pane,
11. Replace all equipment in proper place and condition when through,
CHANGING AN AUTOMOBILE TIRE
Operations!
1, Set the brake,
2, Remove the spare tire from the carrier.
3, Jack up the car,
4, Remove the hub cap.
5, Remove the wheel and the flat tire,
6, Put on the spare tire.
7, Put on the hub cap,
8, Let the car down.
9, Mount the puncture tire and wheel on the carrier,
CHART III - SAMPLE OP AN INSTRUCTION SHEET
HOW TO MAKE A WESTERN UNION SPLICE
1. Examine samples of finished splices. (in this splice, two wires
are twisted, one around the other,)
2. If the wire is insulated remove about 3 inches of the insula¬
tion from the end of each wire. To do this grasp the wire be¬
tween the sid.e of the thumb and the blad.e of a strong knife and
while holding the wire with the other hand take a slice off of
the insulation. Then turn the wire and make other similar cuts
until the insulation is removed. Always cut towards the end of
the wire as you do when sharpening a pencil and be sure not to
nick the wire with the knife.
3. Scrape the ends of the wire with a knife until they are bright.
4. Cross the wire ends as swords would be crossed.
5. Give each wire one complete twist around the other in the middle
of the scraped off section so that the ends point in the same
direction.
6. Take one bare end at a time and make at. least four complete turns
around the body of the wire, keeping the turns close together.
7. Tighten the turns with a pliers, clip off any surplus wire and
press the ends down smooth.
8. Sclder or tape, etc., for finishing,
NOTE * Pictures or samples are essential in getting this lesson
over effectively,
- 109 -
12131
OUTLINE NO. 17
NOTES
UNDERSTUDIES
Purpose nf the £aa£fi£saaa?
1. To emphasize the need for understudies, "both for foremen and
for other "key men",
2. To bring out some of the advantages to the foremen, to the
understudy, and to the WPA,
3. To discuss desirable qualifications for persons selected as
understudies and the method of choosing understudies,
4. To consider methods by which understudies may be trained.
Introductory Comment;
An understudy is a worker who is preparing or being prepared to
fill a more responsible position and act for his superior during
the latter's absence. The foreman's understudy is usually termed
an "assistant foreman". The term "understudy" in a broad sense
may properly include apprentices, if such employees are genuinely
interested in improving themselves and are not merely killing time
until they arrive at the rank of journeyman.
Business and industry definitely recognize the importance of
training understudies for key positions. This policy should also
be followed by the W.P.A. Competent understudies prevent tie-ups
and forestall serious complications in the event of absence,
resignation, or promotion of employees holding positions requiring
special training or experience. They also give the foreman
further opportunities for study and growth. One of the foreman's
first responsibilities should be to select and train a competent
assistant. The presence of understudies in any organization,
even in a small gang, is an indication of good management.
Discussion Plan:
Why Provide Understudies? At the outset the leader may
properly develop the ideas of members of the group with ref¬
erence to the need and importance of understudies. He should
bring out the discussion by means of such questions as these:
"What are some of the reasons why a foreman should develop
understudies? That are the advantages of an understudy system
- to the individual understudied, to the understudy, and to the
organization?" The discussion should be summarized on a chart
along the lines of Chart I.
A few minutes may profitably be devoted to considering why
the development of understudies is sometimes neglected. "Why
are key positions sometimes left unprotected?" Many organiza¬
tions have gone to pieces after tne death or separation of a
principal. In the course of this discussion it should be point¬
ed out that the supervisor who has no one to take his place
usually finds that his job goes haywire during his absence.
Only a selfish, jealous type of man keeps everything to him¬
self and refuses to train an able assistant. A really high-
grade man seeks to surround himself with competent assistants
and these are more loyal to him because of the special train¬
ing they receive,
- 110 -
-She Selection of Understudies: The leader should next steer the
discussion into the question of selecting men for positions as under¬
studies. This will involve such questions as these: "On what "basis
should an understudy be picked? Should the foreman have sole respon¬
sibility and select the man whom he happens to like best personally?
Who else should be consulted? If there is an employment or assign¬
ment office which can help, is it appropriate to have it nominate
candidates on the basis of. its information? To what extent would
intelligence or other tost scores, records of performance on the job,
and references of previous employers be useful in certain situations?
How can intangible factors such as leadership and reliability be
estimated? What can a foreman do to determine the competence of an
understudy?"
This discussion as developed in a chart like Chart II, should
bring out the need for careful rather than hit-or-miss methods of
selection. A good plan is to have the foreman nominate two or three
likely candidates and have them investigated or otherwise checked
up by the employment division. The best man should be agreed on
by the foreman and the employment office. The latter should also
be in a position to suggest good men from other projects but should
not place an understudy or assistant foreman without the approval
of the foreman under whom he is to work.
As an instance of what may happen when the foreman is not con¬
sulted, the following case may be cited, A new man sent by the
employment office had ideas which were entirely different from the
foreman's. He gave orders to the men which conflicted with what
they had been told. The foreman talked with the assistant but the
latter did not change his ways. So the foreman allowed him to go
ahead; in a few days he went too far, made a serious mistake and
was "turned in" in consequence. Similar cases should be related
by members of the conference.
The Training of Understudies? The group may then turn to ways
and means of training and developing understudies. "What should an
understudy know? How much responsibility should he be given at the
outset? How should he be trained?" Consideration may be given to
the information, subjects, or topics with which an understudy
should be acquainted. The discussion may then turn to the means
by which he may absorb such information and skill. A chart fol¬
lowing the lines cf Chart III may be prepared in this connection
or, better still, may be broken up into two columns, the first
showing the things in which an understudy should be trained and
the second indicating how he can obtain such training. Live il¬
lustrations should be called for from the group.
In this connection it should be brought out that an understudy's
relationship to his superior must be intimate and confidential. All
the important problems and situations with which the superior is
faced should be freely discussed with the assistant, The understudy
should be given a variety of experience on other 7/orkcrs' jobs since
this gives him an opportunity for growth. If possible, he should be
given a chance to sit in on foremanship meetings and to act as a
working assistant, perhaps helping to break in new employees.
The leader closes the meeting by summarizing the hig^h points of
the discussion,
- Ill -
12131
UNDERSTUDIES
CHART I - ADVANTAGES OF DEVELOPING UNDERSTUDIES
To the Foreman
To the Understudy
To. W.P.»A.
Freedom for own develop¬
Opportunity for special
Uninterrupted flow of
ment for jobs ahead
training
work
More time for planning
Placed in line for pro¬
Less loss of time
and study of present
motion
job
Less spoilage of mate¬
Recognition as a "comer"
rials
Eetter chance for vaca¬
• - prestige
tion
Reputation for good
Chance for supervisory
management
Satisfaction of helping
experience
others
Better morale
Lends variety to job
Less worry and nerve
No need to recruit
strain
from outside
Reputation as good or¬
ganizer
Increased loyalty from
his force
CHART II - THE SELECTION OR UNDERSTUDIES
Traits Desired
How Determine?
Intelligence
Initiative
Leadership qualities
Trade knowledge
Reliability
Standard test by personnel office
Interest in job; ideas and suggestions
His reputation among fellow workers; past re¬
cord; popularity
Length of service; trade tests
References; past performance
CHART III - HOW MAY UNDERSTUDIES RE TRAINED?
1. Trade information systematically imparted by foreman.
2. Personal coaching and supervision of work by foreman.
3. Principles and policies of management considered in group dis¬
cussion.
4. Outside (own-time) study of textbooks, trade papers, etc.
5. Practice experience during foreman's absence.
6. Systematic check-up and rating on improvement in knowledge and skill.
7. Opportunity to rotate in various jobs.
- 112 -
12131
Outline No. 18
THE DISSATISFIED WORKER
Purpose of the Conference:
1. To discuss the evidences or indications of lack of interes
or satisfaction on the part of the project worker-
2. To consider the basic needs and motives of human beings
which must be met if individual satisfaction is to result.
3. To interpret the failure to satisfy these needs in terms
of specific causes of dissatisfaction on the job.
4. To consider possible ways and means of meeting the various
possible causes of dissatisfaction.
Introductory Comment:
Few conditions interfere more with a man's daily work than
dissatisfaction and lack of interest. Such a condition need not
be taken for granted. It can and should be overcome as far as
possible. In the duscussion today we are concerned with the prob¬
lem of stimulating the members of the crew with a desire to be ef¬
fective producers on the team and more particularly to remove
those conditions which prevent workers from being satisfied and
content with their work and working conditions.
The topic is related to the discussion of "Cooperation" and
to group dissatisfaction as discussed under "Labor Disturbance".
Cooperation, however, is a broader subject, a problem of organiza¬
tion and of relations with others. At this time we arc especially
interested in trying to solve questions of maintaining the interest
of any particular worker. The emphasis is on the individual.
The W.P.A. is likely to be affected by dissatisfaction be¬
cause of the fact that workers drawn from relief rolls may have
lost much Of their morale. They cannot easily overlook the fact
that they have seen better days and that their present employment
is only temporary in its nature. In such a group it is most im¬
portant (and more difficult) to develop morale and remedy dissatis¬
faction.
Discussion Plan:
Wftat Are the Evidences of Dissatisfaction? The discussion
should start with suggestions as to the ways in which dissatis¬
faction on the part of" a work group or an individual may be de¬
tected. "What are the conditions or actions which indicate a
dissatisfied worker? How can you tell when a man loses interest
in his work? What happens? What does he do or fail to do? How
does his discontent make itself known?" Responses of the group
are listed by the leader in the manner they are shown in Chart I.
- 113 -
Not more than ton minutes should bo devoted to such a listing
since it is or_iy intended to suggest to the group that dissatis¬
faction is a condition frequently net with in variou.3 forms.
This should be pointed out by the leader.
The Fundamental Needs of Workers A better understanding of
the ways in which dissatisfaction may be overcome will be obtained
if the group is encouraged by the leader to make a careful analy¬
sis of the things which most of us need for happiness and content¬
ment. Such a discussion must find the answer to such questions
as these: "What are the basic needs of human beings? What are
we after? What are the motives, the drives, the urges or in¬
stincts possessed by most of us which must be satisfied? Why
do we act as we do? What drives us to do what we do? What do
some folks need more than others in order to be happy and do good
work?"
The responses should be discussed, classified or interpreted
along the lines of the terms used in Chart II, and listed on the
blackboard. By way of illustration, a basic requirement for every
human being is, of course, his need for food, shelter, and clothing
In the case of those very low in the intelligence scale this may
be the only need of real consequence. Other persons may require
much more in order to be satisfied with their working existence.
One man may attach importance to the right kind of companionship
or to the respect of his fellow workers. Another worker may be
interested primarily in getting ahead, while a third needs some
kind of power or authority over others in order to be satisfied.
Every nan's requirements'*are somewhat different: again we face
the need for dealing with each person according to his personality,
as was discussed in considering discipline and- giving orders.
The discussion should bring out a fairly complete listing of
needs, some of which are important to one individual and others
to others. Chart II shows most all the basic needs of the indivi¬
dual in relation to his work. Purely personal satisfactions such
as love, sex, and. the desire for reproduction may be omitted since
they do not enter d.irectly into a man's oaily work.
The discussion in developing this chart is concerned with
basic factors rather than with specific cases, which should be
reserved for Chart III. It may be somewhat abstract or philosophi¬
cal but should stimulate the group in its thinking. The leader
should refer to a reliable text on psychology and review chapters
dealing with drives, instincts, and behavior traits before nre-
senting this topic. Fisher and Banna's "The Dissatisfied Worker"
is also interesting in this connection but deals more particularly
with mentally abnormal cases.
What Can Be Done is. Over-gome Dissatisfaction? In meeting
individual cases of dissatisfaction and endeavoring to overcome
a lack of interest the leader should point out two steps, similar
to those which a doctor takes with his patient. First, the fore¬
man must find out the cause of the trouble or, as the doctor would
say, make a diagnosis. Second, he must take the necessary steps
to improve the condition or apply the necessary remedy or treat¬
ment. Experiments may "be needed before the remedy is found.
The difficulty may lie with the policies of the management,
may be the fault of the job or the work assignment, may be the
fault of the foreman, or may lie with the worker himself. No
matter by what the basic trouble.may be caused, it is up to the
foreman to do what he can to overcome it. This thought will
serve to introduce Chart III,
After the group has debated the broader question of what
human beings require in order to be happy and contented, it will
be easier for its members to take these basic human needs one by
one and determine how they show themselves in concrete cases of
dissatisfaction. The general needs listed should now be inter¬
preted one by one in terms of causes of dissatisfaction, and dis¬
cussed in terras of concrete illustrations or case histories
within the experience of the group. If the need for an adequate
income for food and shelter is not met, what if anything can
be done about low wages? If the worker has no opportunity to
produce anything which satisfies him as being worth while, what
can be done about it? What if he lacks interest because his
work is too monotonous or too dangerous?
Concrete illustrations of the type which.should be developed
by the group, illustrative of the need for personal job satisfac¬
tion as brought out in Chart III are as follows:
This story illustrates the need for companionship. A woman
talked incessantly to workers who sat near her. The supervisor
asked her to refrain from conversation during working hours—
but she continued to chatter. Next the supervisor had a con¬
fidential talk with the offender and this was the explanation
she gave: The worker is a widow. She lives alone and because
of financial conditions dropped all old friends and made no
new ones. When she came to the W.P.A. Sewing project all her
old desires and longings for friendship crowded into her being
until she was "giddy" with happiness. She "simply could not
keep from talking" because she had been starved for companion¬
ship — but, if the supervisor could be patient she would soon
have it "oiit of her system". Her talking then gradually sub¬
sided until she became one of the best workers and her behavior
excellent.
The desire for acquisition, for something one can call one's
own, even in connection with a works project, is brought home
by the frequency with which even laborers seek to have their
own shovels or picks. Many times they will mark them with string
or notches so that they may use the same tool every day. The
same point is illustrated by the stenographer who insists on
having a certain typewriter, pencils, erasers, etc. This element
in satisfaction should be recognized by the supervisor and effort
made to provide individuality for each job and as far as possi¬
ble to supply tools which may be identified as "mine".
12131
NOTES
In Chart III then, will be found a listing of important causes
of dissatisfaction and their possible solution. The items have
been arranged in general in the same order in which basic needs of
workers are listed in Chart II. By using Chart II as a guide, a
chart similar to Chart III can be worked out by the discussion
group. Considerable direction from the leader may of course be
needed for a slow-thinking group.
In the course of the discussion, the leader should make sure
that the foremen understand the function of the social worker in
assisting persons on relief in adjusting themselves to their sit¬
uations. Many of the difficulties making for dissatisfaction may
be discovered by the foreman but not necessarily remedied by him.
In many situations it may be necessary for the foreman to report
home conditions he discovers -to the WPA employment division, which
can arrange to have a social worker assist in their improvement.
The leader concludes the discussion with a summary reemphasiz-
ing the need for individual study by the foreman to locate the
cause of dissatisfaction and determine the appropriate remedy.
- 116 -
12131
THE DISSATISFIED WORKER
CHART I --EVIDENCES OF DISSATISFACTION
Indifference
Gossiping
Surliness, bitterness
Tardiness
Absenteeism
Increased labor turnover
Lowered production
Poor workmanship
Loafing
Carelessness
Jealousy
Poor housekeeping
CHART II — BASIC NEEDS OR DESIRES WHICH MAY INFLUENCE HUMAN CONDUCT
Pood, shelter, clothing — the physical needs
Job security — regular employment — independence in old age
Service — doing something worth while for others
Production — creating something tangible
Acquisition — having something of one's own
Happiness — peace of mind
Companionship — sociability, friendship
Recreation — leisure time interests — play
Power, influence — the desire to dominate or lead
Respect — of one's fellows
Understanding by others — sympathy for work or self
Encouragement — appreciation or recognition
Loyalty — person or cause to which to tie
Curiosity — a variety of interesting experience
Activity — the need for keeping busy at something
Advancement — progress toward improved conditions
Self—protection — safeguards for survival
Health — protection against sickness
117 -
12131
CHAiyr III HOW TO OVERCOME JOB DISSATISFACTION
CAUSE
Low wages
Temporary work - "uncertain future
Selfishness; lack of interest in
teamwork
Improper tools
No opportunity to produce anything
seemingly worth while
Wrong assignment; no chance to
use talents
No specific or individual job or
tools worker can call "mine"
Bad working conditions
Ugly appearance of joh
Unpleasant associates
Poor housekeeping
No opportunity for outside
social activities
J ealousy
Foreman does not delegate enough
responsibilities
Too much supervision
No chance for using leadership
traits
Sense of inferiority and sub¬
ordination
Slave driving
REMEDY
Discuss limitations of W.P.A. program
Adjust wages if possible
Reclassify if qualified
Assist in developing for and in find¬
ing permanent j-ob
Place on job with men who cooperate
Place on isolated job with individual
responsibility
Provide adequate tools
Explain importance of present work
Assign more tangible work
Reassign in light of skills
Provide more individuality for the
job
Improve working conditions
Make environment attractive
Transfer to more agreeable group
Better housekeeping
Give assistance in making contacts
Separate jealous workers; discipline
Delegate authority where it can be
assumed
Ease up on detailed direction
Promote to straw boss or higher job
Afford chance for more participation
in project; obtain workerrs ideo,s
Try to develop competition among
workers
Foreman to correct himself
- 118 ~
12131
Partiality shown certain workers
Too many bosses
Fellow.workers or foreman
"butting in"
False rumors or talk about a
worker
Lack of recognition or failure
to receive credit
Lack of loyalty — indifference
Work too monotonous
Lack of understanding of sig¬
nificance of work
Not enough work to keep busy
No future; slow promotion
Work too dangerous
Insanitary work conditions
Sickness
Cut out favoritism
Define lines of authority
Correct conditions
Squelch them; let gang know where
worker stands with foreman
Give credit when due; encourage
good work
Educate workers in purposes and objec¬
tives of W.P.A.; let them know what
goes on
Vary assignments
Explain importance of work or job
Assign more work or different job
Promote where possible; time off
to look for better job; education
Safety education
Transfer to other work
Clean up
Medical attention
- 119 -
12131
Outline No. 19
THE CAKE OF MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
Purpose of the Conference:
1, To emphasize the importance of maintaining "good
housekeeping" on a project, with particular reference to
the proper care of materials, tools, and equipment.
2, To consider the more important acts of negligence
on work projects which result in waste, spoilage, or loss
of materials and equipment.
3, To agree on the best ways of reducing or elimi¬
nating the possibility of such negligence.
Introductory Comment;
In as huge a program as the W.P.A. is undertaking,
there is danger that sizeable losses may occur in connec¬
tion with the use and storage of materials, tools, sup¬
plies, and equipment. These may be lost or wasted or ex¬
travagantly used. Unless proper safeguards are provided
and necessary caution observed, the net loss to the gov¬
ernment might prove enormous. In the conservation of
materials and equipment, no one person has as great a
responsibility (and an opportunity) as the project fore¬
men.
W.P.A. workers may feel that the government can well
afford to be liberal in purchasing materials and equipment.
They do not realize that when money is wasted on materials
it may reduce the funds available for wages and keep unem¬
ployed persons out of a job. Such an attitude makes for
carelessness in handling materials and tools. It is some¬
what difficult to combat because W.P.A. workers have not
the incentive to economize which workers in private indus¬
try frequently have. Extravagant use of materials and
equipment also tends to breed disrespect on the part of
the workers for the Federal government as an employer.
Wastage of supplies and material creates severe
criticism from the public when it observes such a con¬
dition on a work project.
One of the ways of assuring better care for govern¬
ment supplies and equipment, although not necessarily the
best way, is for the foreman to emphasize the fact that
"government property" is involved. This is particularly
the solution when theft is a problem, since the penalties
for stealing government property are well-known to the
average citizen.
12131
NOTfiS
The "basic method of safeguarding the use of materials
and equipment is for the foreman to provide a systematic
orderly procedure in connection with receipt, storage, is¬
suance, and use of all supplies and equipment used on the
project. This means an application of "good housekeeping"
in the sense of maintaining order and "being thrifty.
Discussion Plan:
The Meed for Good Housekeeping: In starting the group
discussion it will be helpful if the leader spends about
fifteen minutes on developing a chart on "Poor Housekeeping'1 .
A chart along the lines of Chart I can be developed in res¬
ponse to questions such as these: "What results when tools
and materials are not properly cared for? What are the ef¬
fects of careless housekeeping? Just what happens when ma¬
terials and equipment are entrusted to irresponsible per¬
sons? What can be done about it?"
As far as possible, as each effect or result of poor
housekeeping is listed, the group members should be asked
to cite specific examples of the point in question. The
remedies may then be listed in a second column but without
specific reference to or without matching them with the
items in the left-hand column.
What Materials and Equipment are Used? After the im¬
portance of "good housekeeping" has been brought out in the
development of Chart I, the leader should obtain from the
group a listing of the more important materials, tools, sup¬
plies, and equipment used on the projects represented at the
meeting. This will serve as a basis for futher discussion
of individual items. The list developed on the wall chart
by the leader may possibly read somewhat as follows:
Negligence in the Care of Specified Equipment: The
group will then be asked to select from the list two or
three items in connection with which a troublesome house¬
keeping problem exists. Each item selected is then dis¬
cussed in some detail and charts developed relative to
its use. An illustration of this type of analysis is
shown below in a chart which brings out the important
points to be observed in the use of cement.
Cement
Sand and gravel
Shovels
Wheelbarrows
Pumps
Rubber boots
Barricades
Grade stakes
Lumber
Sod, trees, shrubs
Axes
Tractors
Sledge hammers
Red lanterns
Concrete forms
Goggle s
- 121 -
12131
Proper Care of Cement
ACTS OF NEGLIGENCE
WHAT HAPPENS '
WHAT TO DO
Careless unloading
(breaking bags)
Waste
Entrust job to reliable
man
Bags improperly emptied
Cement sets
No re fland on bags
Collect bags on raised
platform or wheelbarrows
Placing in ret spot
or on ground
Cement sets
Foreman to direct
placing—on platform
Cement unprotected in rair
Sets
Provide suitable covers
Sacks used by workers
Loss—no refund
Bundle them promptly
Mixing too large a quan¬
tity
Waste
Entrust supervision
to reliable man
Delay in using—stored
too long
Gets lumpy
Goes dead
Arrange for transfer
to other project
Don't stock too much
Careless stacking in
storage
Breakage when
moved
Stack or tie bags
properly
NOTES
Similar charts can be worked up by the leader and the
group for any important material or equipment item. In the
case of shovels, for example, the group may list the abuses
to which they are often put, such as using them for pinch
bars, etc.; may then discuss the results in terms of split
points, broken handles, etc.; and finally take up ways and
means of overcoming the druses in question by providing prop¬
er inspection, cleaning and oiling, welding and sharpening,
and locking up or chaining the shovels together when not in
use.
As a result of practical job discussion of this kind
resulting in the exchange of experience and ideas on the
part of the foremen present, definite improvement in the
care of materials and equipment can be effected on works
projects.
In making his summary, the leader should review the
suggestions which have been made for the maintenance of
good housekeeping and the care of specified government
property and stress the foreman's opportunity to improve
any existing conditions which may be unsatisfactory.
- 122 -
12131
THE CABS OF MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
r.HAPT I — POOR HOUSEKEEPING ON THE JOB
Effects
TOiat to Do
Loss of tools
Train reliable men to care for
Increased, scrap or breakage
materials and tools
Hiding good tools
Make regular inspections
Misplaced articles delay work
Clean up after each job
Encourages disorderly habits
Train men to cooperate with tool
Damaged or wasted material or
equipment
Too much space used for storage
and stock men
Dispose of scrap promptly
Creates accident hazards
Increase personal attention on
Loss of time
part of foreman
Insanitary conditions
Provide proper storage facilities
Poor inventories
Clean up and paint up
Bad iiqoression on public
Supply necessary equipment for
Encourages theft
good housekeeping
Loss of respect for foreman
Stimulate pride in orderly methods
- 123 -
12131
Outline No» 20
HEADING OFF LABOR DISTURBANCES
NOTES
Purpose of the Conference;
1. To determine the mqre important circumstances which
may arise on a project and lead to group labor disturbances.
2.f To emphasize the need for prompt action in correct¬
ing causes of group dissatisfaction in order that more seri¬
ous trouble may be averted.
3. To discuss specific ways and means by which the
foreman may avoid group disturbances or keep them from com¬
ing to a head.
4. To give the foreman a better idea of the labor re¬
lations policies of W.P.A.
Introductory Comment!
Labor unrest has been increasing in intensity and vio¬
lence throughout the United States and other parts of the
world during the past few years. From coast to coast, in
private industry, there have been strikes, walkouts, and
lockouts. Organized labor has been engaged in vigorous
efforts to unionize many industries.
An analysis of the causes of strikes since the World
War shows that their main objective has not been higher
wages or shorter hours. These aims have been subordinate
to those of improved working conditions, and particularly
for the right to organize.
In a majority of strikes in private industry, the
workers have gained more ground than the employers. It is
important to realize, however, that strikes and agitation
do not pay in the long run. Both the management and the
workers lose. For the employer, experience shows that seri¬
ous losses result from the interruption of work and ulti¬
mately higher wages or operating costs. For the workers,
prolonged idleness and possible loss of employment cause
needless expense.
The nation—wide unrest on the part of industrial work¬
ers is reflected in the W.P.A. where workers dissatisfied
with relief wages, with hours, or with working conditions,
have increasingly turned to group rather than individual
action in settling their grievances. Disturbances on W.P.A.
projects are by no means as serious as they are in industry
"but they have been of frequent occurrence.
- 124 -
12131
Since trouble starts among the men with whom the W.P.A.
foreman deals, it should be of interest and of value to him
to inquire into the causes of labor disturbances. He must
know-what to do in order to prevent them from arising. The
discussion should be of value to members of the group not
only in its application to W.P.A. but in connection with
private industrial employment later on.
In the discussion the term "disturbance" should be used
to mean conditions which result in shutting down a project,
in interrupting the normal flow of work, or in open conflict,
between the management and the workers.
The problems arising in connection with labor disturb¬
ances are closely related to the factors considered in dis¬
cussing the topic of "The Dissatisfied Worker". Here, how¬
ever, we are concerned with grout) rather than with individual
dissatisfaction.
Discussion Plan:
What Are the Causes of Labor Disturbance?? At the
outset of the group discussion it is of value to consider
the circumstances or conditions existing in any work situa¬
tion which may result in serious disturbance. "What are the
conditions which may cause a group of workers to take part
in an organized demonstration or disturbance? "/hat leads
to conflict between the men and the management?"
A chart similar to Chart I should be developed in
group discussion. Its upper part should embrace the vari¬
ous causes which may occur in the W.P.A. program. At the
bottom the leader may list suggestions relative to causes
v/hich are frequently found in private employment rather
than in W.P.A.
In developing Chart I, typical cases should be of¬
fered by members of the group. In discussing wage disputes,
for example, a situation may be cited where workers struck
~* 125 ~
12131
NOTES
for higher wages which prevailed in an adjoining county.
In discussing lay-offs and dismissals, cases may be brought
out to show how entire work groups protested against what
they thought to be arbitrary dismassals of deserving workers.
Although the leader should ask for concrete illustrations in
developing this chart, his entries on the chart should be in
broader terms, so that general principles may be laid before
the group.
A common tendency on the part of foremen is to lay much
dissatisfaction to the "agitator". This is a loose term and
the leader sho\ild discourage its use. The term "agitator"
means nothing in the present discussion since the problem is
that of finding out why a man is agitating and just what he
is seeking.
Upon concluding the discussion of causes it will be of
interest to compare the lists developed by the group with the
causes of strikes and other grievances on W.P.A. projects
throughout the country as reported to Washington.
The more important reasons behind labor grievances in
the W.P.A. as a whole (including strikes and individual
protests) are as follows:
Arbitrary suspension, dis¬
missals, and transfers
Wages
Observance of union regu¬
lations
Making up lost time
Foreman's treatment of men
Classification of jobs
Transportation
Pay-roll delays
Poor working conditions
Working hours or sched¬
ules
The first four items are the most common. At the
outset of the program much trouble resulted from delays
in pay-rolls, nearly all of which has been eliminated.
Some time later, dissatisfaction with the foreman on the
job became the most important cause of labor trouble.
Transfers and dismissals and wages continue to be important
items.
How Can the Foreman Avoid Labor Disturbances?: By refer¬
ring to Chart I showing the causes of labor disturbances, the
group can then develop a second chart listing the various
methods of avoiding them. "What can be done to eliminate the
various causes of group dissatisfaction? What steps can the
foreman take?" Chart I will be helpful in suggesting ideas
for Chart II but the remedies cannot be developed item for
item in relation to the causes.
A chart similar to Chart II is developed by the leader.
As far as possible, the points listed should be illustrated
by actual situations with which members of the group are ac-
- 126 -
12131
NOTES
quainted. Again the leader's entries are in terras of general
principles.
The leader should discuss the importance of being willing
to meet with and talk oVefr grievances with any dissatisfied
workers and should point out the tendency* particularly in
private industry, for the management to assume a defensive
and a resentful attitude whenever it is approached by a group
of workers. There is no point in tesenting the action of any
organized group in presenting grievances or demands. Any su-
pervisor should be willing to meet with a ebramittee of work¬
ers. Organized representation in fact often provides h prac¬
tical method for bringing such matters to the attention of
the management. The very existence of an organized body of
representatives is an indication of the fact that the manage¬
ment has not provided satisfactory adjustments of individual
grievances. Had these been adjusted in the first place, there
might have been no need for organization.
In summarizing, the leader may again properly stress the
responsibility of the foreman as the "key-man" in daily touch
with the workers, in the best of all positions to prevent any
kind of labor disturbance.
In this connection he should emphasize that any in¬
dividual grievance may spread to others and result in an
open conflict. This emphasizes the need for prompt and in¬
telligent action in investigating and remedying unsatisfac¬
tory conditions. Labor relations is a field in which an
ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. An individual
grievance should be adjusted in the early stages before the
emotions of an entire work group close the door to the pos¬
sibility of a peaceful settlement. "Heading off labor dis¬
turbances" at the outset does not mean that the foreman can
settle early differences by merely "soft-soaping" the dis¬
satisfied workers. A sincere effort must be made to get to
the heart of the difficulty.
W.g^A. Labor Policies: The conference leader should
next make. sure that the foremen fully understand the points
brought out in the following section. This can be done
through discussion in the course of which the leader ques¬
tions the group and in which, if the foremen cannot supply
the correct information, the leader (or a representative
of the labor relations division) does so.
General responsibility for satisfactory labor relations
rests with the Labor Relations Section and the Labor Policies
Board in Washington. State and district organizations also
have labor relations representatives attached to their Em¬
ployment Divisions.
Whenever grievances or complaints cannot be satisfac¬
torily adjusted locally, they may be appealed. Every foreman
127 -
12131
should know (and so advise his workers) that they have the
right of appeal from district officials to stato officials
and from state officials to the W.P.A, at Washington, It is
not necessary to engage counsel for such appeals nor to in¬
cur any expense for their presentation, (
Other rights of workers include that of membership, if
desired, in any labor union or in a league, council, or as¬
sociation of the unemployed. Wo worker may be discharged be¬
cause of his belief or affiliations,
W.P.A. workers have a right to organize as long as
their collective activities do not interfere with the ef
ficiency of the project. Workers may be represented by
leaders of their own choosing and have a right to present
grievances or submit protests.
District and state offices have no authority to spy
upon workers. Special investigations are hand-led by a di¬
vision in Washington but this unit will not concern itself
with legitimate organized activities of W.P.A. workers.
The use of a "black list" or any lists that may serve to
discriminate against individual workers or groups is pro¬
hibited by an order from the administrator.
A frequent nisundcrstanding on the part of workers is
in relation to their claim to continued employment during
the life of s. project. Workers on W.P.A. are expected to
rend.er as conscientious service as they would a regular
government department or private employer. Habitual and in¬
tentional shirking will not be tolerated and when demonstra¬
ted, the employees involved may be suspended without pay for
periods not exceeding one month or they may be discharged.
Since foremen and supervisors are responsible for employees
under their jurisdiction those who habitually tolerate
shirking by workers under their direction may similarly be
suspended or discharged. Employees thus discharged will
not again be employed by W.P.A.
Foremen should also be in a position to advise their
workers that they may be subject to dismissal upon refusal
to accept proper private employment of a permanent or tem¬
porary nature, provided however:
1. That the temporary or permanent work shall be a
full time job;
2. That such work shall be at a standard or going
rate of wages;
3. That such work shall not be in conflict with es¬
tablished union relationships; and
4. That workers shall be offered an opportunity to
return to the Works Progress Administration upon
completion of temporary jobs.
— 128 •—
12131
HEADING- OFF LAgQH. DISTURBANCES
CHART I - CAUSES OF GROUP DISSATISFACTION
WITH III W.P.A.
Ignorance or misunderstanding of W.P.A. policies
Mismanagement (largely "foreman trouble")
Arbitrary supervision
Tactless discipline
Unjust treatment of an individual
Work too hard
Favoritism or discrimination
Disregard of workers' rights.
Individual rights
Union rules
Lack of recognition or representation:
No machinery to convey workers' ideas to executive officials.
Working conditions:
Unfavorable by comparison
Unsatisfactory
Inadequate or inferior equipment or tools
Unsafe work practices or conditions
Transportation
Agitation by outside labor organizer
Payroll delayed
Wage rates pr wage plan -unsatisfactory
Hours of work unsatisfactory
Arbitrary lay-offs or dismissals—force reduced
IN PRIVATE INDUSTRY ONLY
Exploitation or paternalism (company stores, camps, or houses)
Overtime excessive
Spies or spotters
Speeding up production
Failure to recognize union
Demands for "closed shop"
Outside vs. company unions
- 129 -
12131
CHART II. WHAT CAN FOREMAN DO TO HEAD OFF LABOR TROUBLE?
Keep workers informedJ
Through proper introduction to job
In the course of employment
Organized training
Discussion meetings
Individual contact
Give information as to rights
Squelch false rumors
Recognize workers' representatives:
Formal or elected committees or council
Informal committees
Union representatives
Use a suggestion system
Promptly report and, if possible correct, conditions making
for dissatisfaction
Advise workers of what can be done
Keep them advised of what is being done
Know each worker and his individual needs
Home life
Work abilities
Physical aptitude
Personality, temperament
Respect each worker as a human being
Maintain proper and safe working conditions and equipment
Avoid favoritism - be frank and impartial
Command worker's confidence
Encourage -discussion of individual troubles
Give credit for good work and loyalty
Keep workers busy - prevent idleness
Avoid espionage or gumshoeing
Know union rules and do not flagrantly violate them
Take no arbitrary stand toward organizers
Assist in correcting unjust wages or hours
Isolate individual constant trouble-makers
- 130 -
12131
OUTLINE NO. 21
HORSE PLAY ON THE JOB
Purpose of the Conference;
To discuss various kinds of horseplay in which project
workers may engage, to consider the reasons for such conduct,
its effects, and the ways and means of eliminating it.
Introductory Comment:
On certain projects operated by W.P.A., in the absence
of the normal discipline and incentives which are found in
private employment, workers may be inclined to waste con¬
siderable time in what is usually termed "horseplay". This
may involve time spent in clowning or practical joking on
the part of any individual or it may involve a considerable
number of workers'in games or gambling during working hours,
in the hazing of certain workers, particularly newcomers or
those disliked, or in other activities which divert the at¬
tention of the group from its customary work.
Horseplay, aside from the bad impression it makes unon
the outside observer and its lowering of work output, usually
destroys the spirit of cooperation and makes teamwork impos¬
sible. The foreman should take steps to keep it at a minimum.
Discussion Plan:
The leader will open discussion on the topic by asking
for specific examples of various kinds of horseplay which the
foremen in the group have observed. He may inquire how serious
this practice is among the projects represented in the group.
The various "playboy" stunts should be listed on a chart by the
leader.
After this the reasons for the existence of horseplay on
the job should be considered and listed at the left of a chart
similar to Chart I. The results or effects of horseplay may
then be discussed and entered on the chart and finally various
methods of eliminating or minimizing the practice may bo con¬
sidered and entered. This chart cannot be read horizontally.
Efforts should be made to keep each discussion item live¬
ly by consideration of specific instances from the group's
experience.
Not more than half an hour should be spent on the discussion
topic, the rest of the period being reserved for a review of
earlier topics. This discussion outline may be used as a "filler-
in".for part of a period during the training course if a full
period is desired for review questions.
- 131 -
12131
NOTES
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Review of Earlier Discussion Topicsi The review questions
which will be found following the chart used in this meeting
can be answered by any foreman who has taken the time to study
over the charts passed out at the close of the meeting. They
are very general in their nature and merely serve to introduce
a topic which may then be discussed by the individual to whom
the question is addressed, for a period of four or five
minutes. The discussion leader should select those which he
considers most important to the group with which he is dealing,
choosing points in which he believes the foremen most need de¬
velopment .
At the conclusion of the session the leader should
announce that he has copies of the bibliography on foremanship
available for those group members desiring one. This will be
found following Outline No. 22 in this text. The distribution
of this bibliography is further discussed in the manual for
conference leaders.
The leader may suggest to a number of foremen interested
in specific topics contained in the bibliography that home-
study or discussion groups could be formed to good advantage
for considering them. One member of such a group, for example,
could read up on a certain aspect of the topic and report on
his reading at a meeting of the group; this will serve as a
basis for round-table discussion.
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flHAHT I - HORSEPLAY ON THE JOB
Causes Results What to do?
Poor discipline
Accidents
Develop job interest
Distorted humor
Bad public impression
Tighten supervision
Too little work
Lowers production
Warn worker
Inadequate supervision
Bad example by foreman
Ringleader
Irresponsibility
Thoughtle s sne s s
Dislike of certain
workers
Hard feelings
Fighting
Destroys job interest
Wastes time
Raises costs
Explain seriousness
of consequences
Assign more work
Place on probation
Give more responsibility
Transfer to less de¬
sirable job
Temporary lay-off
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KBVIBW QUESTIONS
1. Why is it of value to a foreman to list, study, or analyze his respon¬
sibilities?
2. What are some of the principles of management relative to responsibility?
Can responsibility be divided? Delegated? Discuss the questions.
3. Give several definite measures which may serve as a yardstick in check¬
ing up on the results accomplished by a foreman.
4. What are a number of important reasons-why men loaf on the job? How can
they be met and the loafing eliminated?
5. Which of you has had recent experience in dealing with any lazy workers?
Just what did you do to shake them out of it?
6. What are several good ways for the foremsn to increase his cooperation
with has superiors? With his workers?
7. What is W.P.A. form 404? Should it be used when a laborer is transferred
to another project as a carpenter?
8. What are several important qualifications or traits which may need to
be considered in properly placing a man in the right job?
9. What should good discipline accomplish?
10. What are various ways or devices for maintaining discipline, arranged
in order from least to most severe?
11. Specify several types of workers who need to be disciplined in different
ways.
12. What are the more important "don'ts" in reprimanding a worker?
13. What are the different types of orders or ways of delivering instructions?
14. Discuss the uses and advantages of detailed orders as compared with orders
general in their type.
15. When should written orders be used?
16. Routing is one of the subdivisions of production planning. What are the
other two? How would you explain what the three involve?
17. Name several causes of carelessness-on the part of workers and state
what you would do to overcome each.
18. What are the basic needs of every human being which need to be met if he
is to be satisfied with his job? Who can suggest others?
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19- Discuss the way in which the urge to produce something worthwhile may
be a cause of dissatisfaction on the Job and how such a situation can
be met. How can dissatisfaction due to a failure to meet the desire
for job security bo mot by the foreman? How about companionship, power,
loyalty?
20. In simple terms, what does production planning deal with?
21. Discuss some of the evidences of poor leadership in terms of actual situ¬
ations, point out the effects and indicate how the particular situations
were or could be improved.
32. What are qualities or characteristics needed by any man who aspires to a
position of leadership?
23. What are the more important advantages of a systematic plan of job train¬
ing for workers, both to the worker and the management?
24. Under what circumstances is an organized job training plan to be pre¬
ferred to the "pick-up" method?
25. Why is an experienced foreman sometimes a poor instructor? Discuss brief¬
ly.
26. Should the foreman delegate the job of training workers to some one else?
If so, to whom?
27. Wtjat are the main steps involved in the teaching process? Define or ex¬
plain each.
28. What are the^important points to observe in conducting an actual demon¬
stration of how a job should be done?
29. What are various uses to which questions may be put in teaching a man to
do a job?
30. What are common mistakes made by foremen when engaged in instruction?
31. Discuss several reasons why learners have difficulty in absorbing in¬
structions.
33. What do you consider to be among the most important qualifications which
a foreman who wishes to do a good teaching job should possess?
33. Why is it necessary to break down a job into its operation before teach¬
ing it? Discuss briefly.
34. What are some of the advantages of developing understudies, to the fore¬
man and the understudy?
35. Discuss how successful understudies may best be selected and trained.
36. What are the main responsibilities of the foreman in safety and accident
prevention?
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37. Name and illustrate several causes of accidents and suggest how they may
b® eliminated.
38. Which is the more important in the W.P.A. — production or providing use¬
ful work and training for the unemployed? Give your reasons.
39. For what offenses and under what conditions do you believe a man should
be "turned in"?
40. Has the morale of your workers been improving? If so, discuss just what
you have done to improve it.
41. What are the major steps in a systematic lesson plan?
42. What should a foreman do when the W.P.A. district announces a policy
that he knows won't work because it will be unfavorably received by
the workers, whose attitude he knows well?
43. Why is the foreman's job an excellent training ground for higher super¬
visory or executive positions?
44. From your observation, do you believe the average foreman is rather self-
satisfied with the position he has reached when he lands a foremanship
job? Does such an attitude tend to close his mind to new ideas?
45. What may happen when the foreman does not represent the management accu¬
rately to the men?
46. Is the desire to be of service to one's fellow men of any importance as
a qualification for a foreman?
47. If. you were a superintendent, would you rather have a foreman who knew
every detail of doing the job or one who had ability to handle men and
get others to do the work?
48. How can the foreman prevent waste of material? Discuss in terms of one
or two specific items of material.
49. What are the results that may come when a foreman "hangs out" too much
with his men outside of working hours?
50. What could a foreman do to improve his ability to instruct his workers?
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OUTLINE NO. 22
LEADERSHIP
Purposepf the Conference:
1. To arrive at a better understanding of what leadership
consists.
2. To indicate why good leadership is a decisive factor
in modern supervision.
3. To assist supervisors to become leaders in the full
sense of the word rather than mere drivers or task¬
masters .
Introductory Comment:
The days of the old-time 'hard-boiled' foreman are passing.
Good supervision today involves leading, stimulating, vitalizing,
and educating the work group. This is particularly true in super¬
vising relief workers on a security wage. Most anyone can "boss"
a gang of workers but the foreman who aspires to becoming an ex¬
ecutive in the fullest sense of the word must become a leader of
men.
Leadership qualities are not necessarily all inborn and may
in many instances be developed through practice. Self-analysis,
observation of other foremen and supervisors, end the study of
successful leaders are helpful in obtaining ideas for personal
development, (The foregoing may be elaborated.)
Leadership is the activity of influencing people to cooper¬
ate toward some goal which they come to find desirable. Emphasis
must today be placed upon the satisfaction and sense of self-ful¬
fillment obtained by the followers of the true leader. Many so-
called leaders have, of course, succeeded in driving their fol¬
lowers toward the achievement of their own ends without reference
to the desires or welfare of those followers. This is true of
many famous warriors and rulers of history.
Discussion Plant
The leader should obtain suggestions from the group relative
to specific evidences of poor leadership on the part of super¬
visors with whom they are acquainted or under whom they may have
worked. "What specific cases or instances do you think of which
illustrate why supervisors fail to get results from their crew?
What are some of the ear-marks, traits, or short-comings of the
foreman who fails to lead his men? Why do foremen lose the
respect and confidence of their men? What actions give them
away?" As points are brought out in the discussion, the leader
should list them in the left-hand column of a chart as suggested
in Chart I. One of the group may cite the case of a foreman who
played favorites and assigned the more desirable tasks to his
personal friends. This is classified by the leader as "unfair¬
ness and partiality" and shown on the chart. Another may tell
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12131
a story 0f a foreman who starts the day with one set of orders
and then changes his orders twice more during the day instead
of planning the job properly in tho first place. The leader
lists this as "inconsistent".. It should be noted that the
"evidences" called for are personal shortcomings on the part
of.the so-called leader. Such factors as low production, high
costs, poor housekeeping, etc., should therefore not be in¬
cluded.
As each evidence of poor leadership is brought up, specific
cases or illustrations of the point are called for. For each
indication of poor leadership the group should then be asked to
suggest its effects or results on the work situation and ways
and means of overcoming the difficulty or problem created. Ef¬
fects on the workers should be called for and such general ef¬
fects as lowered production, idle time or higher costs which
apply to all items should be omitted. This involves filling in
the second and third columns of Chart I. The listing should
thus be horizontal rather than vertical.
Having discussed the specific shortcomings of persons who
failed to win cooperation from their subordinates, the leader
may then start a discussion of the important characteristics
or traits of the successful leader. This is reserved for the
last because it is easier to bring out the negative side of
leadership by pointing out the shortcomings of individuals
rather than to begin the discussion by considering the ab¬
stract qualities possessed by successful leaders.
In response to questions such as "What are some of the
qualities of a good leader foreman?" the leader should develop
on the blackboard a list something along the lines shown on the
left side of Chart II. If any important traits are overlooked,
the leader should throw out leading questions until they are
suggested. Other traits may be added but such general quali¬
ties as "efficiency, personality, concentration, sobriety, etc."
which apply to success in any field should be ruled out and an
effort made to center on those traits which distinguish the
leader from the follower.
The right half of Chart II should then be filled out in
the course of the discussion in response to a question such as:
"Just what can a man do to improve or develop his qualities of
leadership?"
In summarizing the day's discussion, the conference leader
should drive home the point that modern, 20th century supervis¬
ion succeeds to the extent that it relies on true leadership.
W.P.A. workers cannot be driven. The W.3?fA. foreman must com¬
bine the qualifications of an efficient "boss" with something
of the viewpoint of the social worker and with a desire to
lead his men toward better things. If he aims to succeed in
larger fields of supervision, he will do well to study himself
and develop those tratis which will make him a leader of men.
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leadership
citta-rt i — poor LEADERSHIP
Evidences of Poor
Leadership
Effects
»
jSuggestions for
improving
Unfairness
Partiality
Will lose respect of favor¬
ed one. Arouses resentment
of others. Slack work.
Give square deal. Put
yourself in other's
shoes. Treat every man
fairly. Play no
favorites
Not practicing what
you preach
Contagious. Others will try
to get away with it. Dis¬
rupts discipline.
Watch your step. Set
only good example.
Shirking responsi¬
bility.
"Passing the buck"
Loses respect of superiors
and followers. Others begin
passing buck. Active dis¬
satisfaction. Disrupts
morale.
Shoulder own responsi¬
bilities. Take the
blame if due. Don't
pass the buck.
Not interested in work
Lack of interest on part of
men. Poor results.
Get interested or get
out!
Over-bearing
"High hat"
Unapp r o ac habl e
Men become "jumpy". Kills
initiative. Uneasiness and
uncertainty, resentment.
Put yourself in other's
shoes. Be human and
reasonable.
Quick tempered
"Going off
half-cocked."
Same as for "over-bearing."
Take time to cool off.
Look into various
angles before making
decision.
Lack of patience
Can't get results. Dis¬
courages the men. Afraid to
admit they don't understand.
Self-analysis. Work on
self-control. Put your¬
self in others' place.
Take time to do job well.
Inconsistent
Men uneasy and unsettled.
Hesitate to go ahead. Kills
initiative.
Self-analysis. Adopt
a uniform policy, and
hold to it,
Leader ignorant of
job.
Bluffing
No respect or confidence.
Men won't follow lead. Will
short-circuit and go to
higher-up for orders.
Apply yourself to
actually learn what you
don't know.
Continually finding
fault. Nagging.
Kills initiative. Creates
ill will.
Be fair. Remember every¬
one makes mistakes*
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Evidences of Poor
Leadership
Effects
Suggestions for
Improving
Leader failure
as instructor
Men not properly instructed.
Can't perform work properly.
Loss of production or prop¬
erty and even life.
Plan your work in ad¬
vance, Change your
methods. Study how to
teach.
Unwilling to take
suggestions. Won't
admi t li s take s. Bui 1-
headedness. Conceited.
Jills initiative. Lose
benefit of valuable sugges¬
tions. Kills cooperation.
Men may "frame" leader.
Be open to suggestions
at proper time and place.
Admit mistakes if oc¬
casion arises.
Failure to give credit
Grabbing credit where
not due
Lack of credit. Resentment.
Kills initiative. Stops co¬
operation.
Put yourself in others'
place. Give credit
when due.
Lack of consideration
for, or interest in,
his men
Crew will lie down on job
wttenever his back is turned.
Men try to put him in hole.
Put yourself in others'
place. Be human.
Snooping — "Gum¬
shoeing"
Loss of respect. Creates
suspicion. Arouses resent¬
ment.
Don't do it. Discourage
in others.
Too familiar with men
Loss of respect. Loss of
team-work. Loss of dis¬
cipline.
Maintain a certain re¬
serve befitting position
as leader.
Lax discipline
Crew will lie down on job.
tfo teamwork. Loss of re¬
spect.
Tighten up gradually
but firmly and hold for
results.
Men lack confidence
in him.
Ifon't follow his lead will
wait for orders from higher
up. No team work.
Self-analysis. Under
certain conditions do job
yourself. Actually lead
group. Make no promises
you can't fill.
Dislike of group for
leader
Men will only carry out
direct orders. No team¬
work. Unpleasant feeling.
Check up on self instead.
Lead instead of drive.
Put self in others' place
Talk over on man-to-man.
basis. Be courteous and
human.
Lack of self-confi¬
dence
Men lose confidence in
foreman and project
Aspert self. Know what
is to be done - and act!
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CHART II — WHAT MAKES A LEADER?
.Qualities Needed by Leaden
How to Develop or Improve Them
Physical and Nervous Energy
Keep fit
Conserve your energy
Direct it properly
Sense of Purpose and Direction
Self-examination:
Just where am I headed?
What are we trying to do?
Enthusiasm
Maintain vigorous interest
Be human - he yourself
Friendliness and Understanding
Know subordinates personally
Be considerate and cordial
Develop personality
Integrity
Be loyal to yourself and your
subordinates
Technical skill
Constant study, training, and
improvement
Decisiveness
Get all the facts
Make a decision - and act!
Be willing to experiment
Intelligence
Don't overestimate your intelligence
Obtain the advice of others
Teaching skill
Study teaching methods. Practice
teaching.
Faith
Do work you can believe in
Overcome pessimism
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12131
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON FOREMANSHIP
Books Dealing with the Handling of Men:
1. Personal Leadership in Industry. 2. R, Craig and W. W. Charters# McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, 1925.
A very readable volume which gives a complete and practical discussion
of how the.successful foreman gets work done with the least disturb¬
ance and friction. It is based on the experience of 110 successful
executives.
2. The Art of Leadership, Ordway Tead. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1935#
A book of an inspirational nature but thoroughly practical in its appli¬
cation. It.emphasizes the need for leading rather than driving work¬
ers. Of value to the foreman who aspires to a position of leadership
in business.
3. Human Nature and Management. Ordway Tead. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
1929.
This book tells how to use practical psychology in managerial work
and is of help to the reader in organizing his own mental life
and in dealing with people.
4. How to Win Friends and Influence People. Dale Carnegie. Simon & Schuster,
N. Y.
A "best seller" containing interesting incidents about successful men,
with inspirational suggestions to those who have the determination to
try them out.
5. Getting Along with People. Milton Wright. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
1936.
Practical suggestions for dealing with others in business and social con¬
tacts. The book gives suggestions for obtaining the liking, respect
and cooperation of others, for expressing one's self effectively and
for establishing right relationships.
6., Human Relations in Changing Industry. H. W. Hepner. Prentice-Eall Inc.,
New York, 1934.
A readable volume offered for use by those who wish to know how rela?-
tions with employees can be conducted in a more intelligent manner.
A thought-provoking book written by a psychologist.
7. Strategy in Handling People. E. T, Webb and J. J. B. Morgan, Boulton, Pierce
& Co., Chicago, 1931.
An interesting volume describing the manner in which outstanding busi¬
ness executives won success, but not directly applicable to the fore-
nan's situation.
8. Psychology of Human Relations for Executives. J. L. Rosenstein. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York, 1936.
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12131
Per s°nal__gpvoi onment;
1. How to Develop Your Personality. Sadie M. Shellow. Harper & Bros,, New York
1932.
A handbook in practical psychology on ways and means of determining one's
points of strength and weakness and of improving one's personal char¬
acteristics for success in the world of affairs,
2. Administrative. Proficiency in Business. E. H, Schell. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1935 (Revised).
A book dealing with the administrator who undertakes the responsibility
of a going business. Of value to younger men of promise who have
determined to prepare themselves for future positions of larger
responsibility.
3. Increasing Personal Efficiency, D.A. Laird. Harper & Bros., New York, 1929.
A psychologist's suggestions for the development of improved work habits
and personal characteristics, containing practical applications.
4. The Wholesome Personality. W. H. Burnham. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1932.
A rather long but readable study of the various traits which go to make
up a well balanced personality, particularly concerned with persons
who may be emotionally maladjusted.
5. Psychology for Executives. E. D. Smith. Harper & Bros., New York, 1934.
A psychologist's effort to aid executives in understanding the human
aspects of his problems so that he may more effectively solve prob¬
lems of human management.
6. Developing Executive Ability, E. B. Gowin. Ronald Press. New York, 1919,
An older volume containing practical suggestions for organizing oneJs
daily work for greater effectiveness.
?. Personal Achievement.J. C. Roberts. McGraw-Hill Book Company, N.Y., 1937.
Suggestions for success through "planned action" with interesting facts
relating to men who have become great; also includes a discussion of
how to develop imagination, judgment, memory, etc.
Business and Factory Management:
1. Handbook of Business Administration. American Management Association.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1931.
A book giving a complete picture of modern management methods and a source
book for all business managers. It covers all aspects of administration
including production, control, motion study, training and rating, ac¬
cident prevention, personnel, etc. A symposium by many contributors.
2. Scientific Management in American Industry. Taylor Society. Harper & Bros.,
New York, 1929.
A comprehensive picture of the principles and procedures involved in the
application of the principles of scientific management. A description
of present day developments in the movement originated by Frederick W.
Taylor. Of value to students of management,
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12131
3. Factory Organization and Administration, Hugo Diemer. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York. Revised 1935,
An exhaustive explanation of modern factory practice, of interest to the
works manager and industrial executive. Covers every phase of fac¬
tory administration,
4. Management in the Factory, G, L, Gardner, (University of Wisconsin Exten¬
sion Text). McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1925,
An extension course prepared for the University of Wisconsin to present
the elementary principles of management in the factory to foremen and
executives.
5. Organization and Management in Industry and Business, W.B. Cornell, Roland
Press. New York, 1936 (Revised).
A comprehensive textbook describing the organization and operation of
large business enterprises; valuable for the student of management.
6. Business Administration. Willis Wissler. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1931.
A textbook used in universities which goes into great detail in describ¬
ing the principles of business administration.
7. Elements of Industrial Engineering, George H. Shepard. Ginn & Company,
New York.
A Standard school text of value to beginners desiring a general picture
of production planning, production control, factory operation, etc.
Personnel Administration and Training:
1, Personnel Administration. Ordway Tead and H. C. Metcalf. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York, 1933 (Revised).
Basic principles involved in recruiting, training, rating and com?-
pensating employees as developed by progressive personnel depart¬
ments. A standard textbook on personnel.
2, Personnel Management. Scott, Clothier and Mathewson. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., 1931, (Revised).
An alternate text on personnel. Of interest to the student of person¬
nel administration.
3, The Psychology of Selecting Men. D« A. Laird. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1927.
An interesting introduction to the psychological and statistical
methods involved in selecting employees as used in larger business
organizations.
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12131
U. Organized Training in Business. J. H. Greene. Harper & Bros.* New York,
1928.
The only general handbook on methods of training employees in
business and industry.
5» Foremanship and Supervision. Frank Cushman. John Wiley & Sons. New York,
1927.
This book deals with the operation and management of conferences as
applied to specific vocational lines. It contains information for
foremen conference leaders.
6. Foromanship Training. Hugo Diemer. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1927
A book describing the purposes sought through better foremanship
and the place of various programs of foremanship training. It
points out the essential features involved in successful operation
of foremanship training.
7. Foreman Conferences. Sadie W. Shellow and Glenn Harmon. Harper & Bros.,
New York, 1936
Discussion and outlines of a series of foremanship conferences
for industrial use. Adapted from the experience of a Milwaukee
utility.
8. How to be a Good Foreman. Charles E. Reitell. Ronald, Now York, 1937«
An interesting book concerned with ways and means by which a foreman
may improve his work and further develop himself.
9. Educational Experiments in Industry, Nathaniel Peffer. Maomillan, New
York, 1932.
A readable discussion of various employee training programs used
in a number of larger industrial firms.
10, Employee Representation. E. R. Burton. Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore
1926.
A standard text on the theory and procedures involved in setting
up employees representation plans.
Social Welfare;
1. Theory of Social Work. F. J. Bruno. "D. C.-Heath & Co., New York, 1932.
A college text outlining the approach to social work from the
angle of individual behavior and of social and economic
environment.
2. Human Aspects of Unemployment and Relief. J. M. Williams. Univ. of N.C.,
Chapel Hill, 1932.
An interesting discussion of the effects of unemployment on the
individual and a discussion of welfare agencies in action.
_ il.c _
12131
3« Family Welfare Association of America, 13^ E. 22nd St.# New York.
Pamphlets dealing with sooial work# among others:
Lay Participation in Sooial Work, 100
Procedures in Giving Relief to Families of Unemployed# 15$■
Practices and Principles in Giving Relief, 15^
Methods of Family Social Work# 10^
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