W.P.Ao TECHNICAL SERIES
Public acti"vtties Circular Nd» 1Q
Education Circular No.6
July 11, 19M
_£EDERAL WORKS AGENCY
yjGRK PROJECTS ADMINISTRATION
Division of Community Service
Programs
Washington, D« C.
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Education Circular No. 6
Eoreword
POKEWOHD
This manual is offered as a guide for the pre-service and
in-service training of teachers who are preparing to teach Spanish
to the Army Air Corps. It is designed primarily to accompany the
Spanish test prepared for the instruction of the Army Air Corps "by-
project technicians of the Nation-wide Spanish Project of the Work
Projects Administration, "but it is adaptable for use on other lan¬
guage courses being conducted by the Work Projects Administration.
This procedure relates only to the technique of project
operation. Nothing contained herein is to be construed as affecting
or modifying in any way administrative procedures of the Work Pro¬
jects Administration.
Howard Hunter
Commissioner of Work Projects
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PREFACE Education Circular 11 o. 6
Preface
Page 1
Rece it national and international developments are making
us daily more cc iscious of the growing identification of interests
of the two Ameri ;an continents and the common problems which "both
are facing. In the course of meeting these problems, particularly
that of defense of the Western Hemisphere, officers of the Army Air
Corps and of oth er branches of the armed forces of the United States
are coming more and more into contact with the Spanish-speaking
people of Latin America. An understanding of the language of these
people by the o: ficers would prove of great value in cementing friend¬
ly relations be ;woen the two American continents. These Army Air
Corps officers will, perhaps more than any other group, be making
these contacts and developing these relations. Acknowledging that it
would take ye trs to understand fully the details, structure, end the
use of the S; -ar.ish language, just as it does to understand any other
language, tl is course aims to start such a study in a very simple and
practical w ay, and to stimulate enough interest in the language to
encourage ,'urther study after the course is completed.
The functional approach is pursued as the method best suited
to our pr .sent needs. Progressive educators, sometimes in college,
and more particularly in adult classes where no attendance is required
or presc: ibed and where conversational skill is the chief objective,
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Education Circular No. 6
Preface
Page 2
have discovered that more satisfactory language learning and more
rapid acquisition of conversational skill can be obtained by a direct
rather than an indirect method of approach. The teacher begins by
speaking only the language to be taught. Students respond in the
new language and practice simple words and phrases beginning with the
first lessons. Phonetic shadings are explained only as obey occur in
the conversation. Grammatical concepts are introduced only as they
are needed. Language is learned thus through function rather than
rule.
In offering instruction in this Spanish course to the Air
Corps, an adequate number of teachers may not always be immediately
available in the areas where the air bases arc located. Of those
available, some vail be bilingual Americans who have been trained as
teachers but who need further training in the skill of language
teaching and perhaps also in the philosophy and principles of adult
education. Others will be natives of Latin America who speak Spanish
with facility, but who lack training in pedagogy and/or familiarity
with our psychology and ways of thought. Both groups will need in¬
tensive training keyed to the specific course and its purposes. This
training may be provided by a formal induction training course set up
in each State or group of States whore there arc enough teachers to
warrant it, or by informal training of individuals in isolated areas.
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Education Circular No. 6
Preface
Page 3
This induction or pre-service training will be followed by regular
in-service training based on careful and close supervision of the
Army classes. Courses may be set up by the State supervisor desig¬
nated for this work, with the advice and assistance of the Washington
staff. In most cases the State supervisor of adult education, the
State training supervisor, or the State supervisor of literacy train¬
ing will be the individual selected.
This manual has been prepared to meet this training need by
Nellie M. Seeds, Specialist, Curriculum and Teacher Education, Work
Projects Administration.
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Education Circular No. 6
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section 1. Specific Purposes of the Spanish Course
Section 2. Description of Spanish Course
Section 3. Organization of Instruction
A. Integration of the group
B. Selection of subject matter
C. Instruction Approaches
Section 4. Teaching Devices and Aids
A. Types of Aids
B. Sources for Obtaining Visual Aids
C. Criteria for Selection of Visual Aids
Section 5.. Class Management
A. Classroom Arrangement
B. Procedure
C. Class Atmosphere
D. Student Participation
Section 6. Teaching Methods
A. Interest Motivation
B. Employment of Variety of Methods
C. Direct Method of Language Teaching
D. Lesson Theme Approach
E. Specific Aids in Theme Development
F. Specific Teaching Techniques
Section 7. Lesson Planning
A. Principles of Lesson Planning
B. Practices Included in Lesson Planning
C. Use and Evaluation of Lesson Plans
D. Sample Lesson Plan
Section 8. Follow-up Supervision
Bibliography
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 1
Page 1
Section 1. Specific Pur-poses of the Spanish Course. The specific
purpose of the units of instruction for which this manual is prepared
can "be stated "briefly. They are designed to enable the student:
1. To -understand the Spanish language as it is
currently spoken in Spanish America.
2. So speak Spanish with sufficient intelligibility to
engage in such simple conversation as might occur in
everyday civil or military life, bearing in mind
that an aviator in a foreign country would need to
ask not only for technical information but for ordin¬
ary life necessities such as food, shelter, clothing,
medical care, and the like,
3. To read simple signs, notices, orders, instructions,
reports and news items, the comprehension of which '
would be essential for a member of the Air Corps or
for any transient visitor during a short sojourn in
Spanish America. (Instruction in the skill of writing
will be deferred to later units.)
4. To acquire functional mastery of a large enough
vocabulary to meet the above-stated purposes.
An over-all objective which is of profound importance is to impart
to the students a sympathetic understanding of Hispanic culture. In
furtherance of this end, an earnest effort has been made to introduce
into the content of the various lessons social and psychological
implications from which the teacher will be able to develop informal
discussions of the Spanish American way of life and living, manners and
customs, differences of pronunciation, their observance of social
amenities, and the like. Where the teacher himself is a native of Spanish
America, he will personify to the class the culture of Spanish America
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 1
Page 3
as well as the language of his country and should for that reason he
sure that no act or word will reflect adversely upon the culture which
he represents.
The objectives above stated can only be attained by the develop¬
ment of specific skills. The ear needs training for auick comprehen¬
sion of the spoken language. It must become attuned to a phonetic
inflection, a tempo, and a manner of speech which is different from our
own. The tongue needs training and practice in speaking the new
language intelligibly and idiomatically. The eye. and the mind need
training in order to be able to recognize and comprehend the written
work and to associate each object with the appropriate verbal symbol.
In the light of these objectives, the approach will be a functional
one with emphasis on the relationship and development of ]eas for whose
expression words are merely the tools, rather than through analytical
study of grammar and language stricture.
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 2
Page 1
Section 2. Description of Spanish Course. The first unit of the
Spanish Header which this manual is designed to accompany consists of
a series of approximately 40 lessons which will include a "basic
vocabulary of about 800 words. Each lesson will be based on an inter¬
est theme which will be developed through various techniaues—nuestion
and answer, dialogue, narrative exercises ana drill, etc.—intended to
give the pupil functional mastery of the vocabulary and knowledge of
structural language forms included in the lesson.
Not only will each lesson constitute a unit of interest, but
successive lessons will show progressive development of this interest
through the most likely activities and situations which would face an
aviator visiting South or Central America. Beginning with geographic
orientation and personal identification data, the lessons progress to
such topics as a "Forced Landing," "The Search for Necessities," "On
Leave," "Daily Activities" and "Reporting for Duty," The various lessons
in each of these fields of interest will include sufficient vocabulary
and language drill for the development of both conversational skill
and reading ability. Visitors in a foreign land must be able to
identify place and time; to make social contacts; to obtain food;
to rent rooms, exchange money,, and make purchases; to read street signs
and find the post-office, government buildings, churches, and theaters
and other places of amusements; to order taxis and board streetcars;
and to secure medical assistance. Aviators, in addition to the
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 2
Page 2
above, must acquire a large enough technical vocabulary to meet custom¬
ary military needs, locate airports, and get mechanical assistance for
plane maintenance and repair; read newspapers, signs, and ""dens; and
communicate by letter, wire, and radio.
Throughout the course the emphais will be laid on a conventional¬
ized Spanish American pronunciation, rather than the Castilian pronuncia¬
tion. This is mainly marked by the use of the voiceless sibilant (s)
rather than the voiceless dental fricative sound (th) for c before e_
or JL,and jb, and the use of Y for the palatalized 1, (ll). It should
not be confused with the slurring or loss of some of the consonant
sounds or the substitution of a "Breathing" or "aspiration" for final
.s or s. before consonants, which occurs in some areas of the Spanish-
speaking world. '
It is hoped that teachers will give full explanation of the
characteristic differences between the two types of pronunciation and
the reason for preferring the conventionalized Spanish American system
of pronuciation for this course.
In the course of lesson development, an effort has bee., made to
suggest and describe Spanish American customs and ways of life. Stress
is laid on their politeness, on the formality of their social inter¬
course, and on the characteristically slower tempo than that of typical
city dwellers of the United States, especially in the northern cities.
Reference is made to the Spanish American flair for art and enjoyment
of music. Native dishes and foods are described. Vocabulary differences
as between one country and another will be explained as the need arises.
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 2
Fage 3
In other words, an attempt is made to suggest outstanding Qualities
of Latin American culture which each teacher can develop through all
the channels at his disposal. A knowledge of Spanish hased thus on
cultural appeciation can truly "become a tool for mutual understanding.
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 3
Page 1
Section 3. Organization of Instruction. The logical organiza¬
tion of instruction is the key to successful teaching. If education
is conceived of as training in relationship thinking or as the relat¬
ing of one subject to another, it becomes clear that language instruc¬
tion, as all other instruction, must utilize every possible relationship
in building up a framework or a formula upon which teaching is to be
based. The process of analysis or separating into parts must precede
the synthesis or building up of the whole. In the case of the Spanish
classes under discussion, there are four constituent factors to be
considered;
First and most important are the students.
Second is the subject matter considered in its
broadest terms, including the basic objectives
of the course.
The third factor is the teacher.
When the organization of instruction is effective,
and the whole class is functioning in a learning
situation as an integrated unit, there results a
fourth factor which is the sum of the other con¬
stituent units. All four factors must be con¬
sidered in organizing instructions.
A. Integration of the Group. The first job facing the teacher
is the integration of the group as a functioning unit. Since all of the
students in these classes will be officers of the Army Air Corps, it should
not be difficult to achieve this. They have presumably come to class with
unity of purpose, a similarity in academic background and experience, and
a common occupational interest. Even within so closely compact a group,
however, there are individual differences of temperament, age, and family
background. Some individuals are quick to react to a stimulus, highly
geared so to speak, and are lacking in inhibitions which impede easy response.
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 3
Page 2
Others have a slower tempo, less of a flair for langauge learning and
respond with more hesitation. Such individual differences must he
noted "by the teacher and an approach developed which permits an easy
relationship, eliminates strain or tension, and "builds up an integrated
group which participates freely and naturally in all class activities.
If a uniform agreement can he made with the class as a whole
as to the amount and type of preparation to he assigned, the class
will keep fairly well together, hut the teacher must anticipate the
possible development within the class of a rapid advance group. If
this happens, the splitting up of the class into two groups may he
desirable.
In any case, the teacher is continually conscious of the
importance of social integration of the group to whom it is his job
to impart language facility as a tool for social growth, for job
proficiency, and a more cordial understanding of our Spanish American
neighbors.
3. Selection of Sub.iect Matter. The subject matter for the
course, as has been stated, has been selected in terms of the interests
and activities of the pupils. Each lesson in the series has been
arranged as a unit of interest which is developed in terms of concrete
activities. It has been demonstrated repeatedly that the mind moves
with greater facility from the concrete to the abstract, rather than in
reverse motion. The wise teacher therefore conceives of the highly vivid
activities depicted, the forced landing, the search for food, etc., as
the legitimate instructional material out of which to weave the lesson.
This concept of instructional material differs widely from
that based on a framework of grammar, phonetics, spelling, and the like.
A verb, a conjugation, is a something removed from life, hard to
visualize. If the pupils can repeat, in unison and individually "el
aeroplano vuela" in response to the teacher's clearly articulated
utterance of the phrase as he guides a small airplane in his hand from
right to left, the phrase becomes an experience which they can relate
to a similar activity already a part of their daily lives. With a
little drill, the phrase becomes unforgettable. The ear has caught
the correct pronunciation and made it a part of the phrase, integrated
with the meaning.
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Education Circular Ho. 6
Section 3
Page 3
Any part of the life activity of the learners, any aspect of
the environment in which they live, of the skills which they practice,
of the purpose to which they are devoting their lives, becomes legitimate
instructional material which can be associated with the lessons of the
prepared reader. For this reader has been designed specifically and
purposely to follow through with any pilot or air officer the probable
needs and emergencies which he would face in a planned visit or forced
landing in Spanish America. In addition to covering all likely situations,
such as the need for food, clothing, shelter, money exchange, counting,
identification of time and place, and the like, an effort has been made
wherever possible to point out racial and temperamental characteristics
which we can commend, such as Spanish courtesy, and to explain differences
in their practices which might otherwise act as a barrier to social
understanding. These, the teacher who is skillful can develop and expand
in the course content.
In organizing this material for instructional purposes, the
teacher will not forget that the basic objective of the whole course
is to equip our air officers to establish a unified and effective defense
of the Western hemisphere. The effectiveness of such defense is modified
in no small degree by the social and cultural understanding which promotes
it. With this concept in mind, the teacher is on the alert to promote
a sympathetic understanding of Spanish America. If he himself is a Spanish
American he becomes, for the moment, in the eyes of the officers in the
class, the embodiment of everything that Spanish America represents. It
behooves him to do them 'credit on his bearing and conduct. While this
larger purpose must not be forgotten, the Spanish language is his immediate
vehicle of approach; his immediate concern is to perfect and polish the
tools which are needed for its instruction.
C. Instruction Approaches. What are these tools which are not the
end but the means of instruction, with whose use pupils must become
familiar if they are to gain conversational facility and fuctional
mastery of the Spanish language? To understand these tools we must
go back to the aims of instruction, not in terms of the teacher, but
in the terms of the pupils. The first aim is comprehension of the
language; understanding of the meaning of the spoken word. They will
need to understand verbal communications and instructions, read
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 3
Page 4
common street signs and notices, and; comprehend formal army commands. The
approaches which the teacher must use to meet this first aim are, first,
simple conversation; then reading, both silent and oral; and later pos¬
sibly some phonetic rules, grammar, and spelling.
The second aim of the student is to express his own thoughts and
ideas simply and appropriately, to ask for information and directions,
and to make reports both orally and in writing. In the preliminary
course, because of the pressure of fine, the main emphasis will be laid
on oral expression, and little time will be given to the art of writing
per se. The tools which the teacher will employ here again include
conversation; vocabulary study,' with more drill on phonetics; and if
there is time,some grammar, reading, writing, and spelling. Choral
response and oral reading will supplement conversation as effective
tools in pronunciation drill.
The above phases of language ability may be listed simply as follows:
1. Comprehension of the spoken word.
2. Oral expression in intelligible language.
3. Understanding of the written word.
4. Written expression in proper language form.
(For this course, this fourth objective will
(receive least stress.)
However, expressed, the essential tools for the teacher are conversa¬
tion. question and answer and choral response, reading, phonetics,
gra.TnTTia.-r, spelling, and some memorization. In the learning of an exten¬
sive vocabulary, particularly of a technical vocabulary, memorization will
be important. One other tool which deserves mention as an effective
teaching device will be discussed Jfcore fully in section 4; namely, visual
and audio-visual aids, sometimes called realia, which are as important for
adequate language instruction as are books, desks, pencils and papers.
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 4
Page 1
Section 4. Teaching Devices and Aids. Although it is one of
the fundamental principles of modern language teaching that a new
/
language comes via the ear first and then via the eye, the teacher
may, "by utilizing the coordination of the five senses rather than
any one or two, increase the intensity of sense impressions and the
likelihood of their retention. The teacher who fails to relate the
visual impression to the corresponding sound, not only the word to
the pronounced word, hut the object itself to the verbalization, will
lose the signal help which can be derived from the power of association.
None of the other senses has been so extensively developed as has been
the sense of sight. Probably more than three-quarters of the im¬
pressions which an average individual receives come through the visual
organs. Tho development of the other senses for daily practical use
has been slight. Pew human beings except the blind have the sense
of hearing developed to capacity. However, they have demonstrated the
possibilities.
In other words, man relies largely upon his eyes for information
about the surrounding world. When the teacher in the classroom, there¬
fore, expects students to absorb and assimilate information received
solely through their ears, he is apt to be sadly disappointed in the
results obtained. If, however, the spoken word can be accompanied by
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Education Circular Ho. 6
Section 4
Page 2
appropriate and comprehensive visual aids which not only explain and
illustrate "but help to build up an association of eye and ear pic¬
tures, the chance of its being remembered is far greater. Similarly,
an audio-visual aid, as for example the moving picture, the radio, or a
phonographic recording of a lesson, intensifies the totality of sense
impression by providing further repetitive drill.
ffypes of Aids. Visual aids in language classes can be divid¬
ed into several classes. Under the heading of reading matter may be
included books, pamphlets, magazines, flash cards, posters, signs,
charts, and the like. Pictures, maps, paintings, cartoons, graphs,
photographs, and illustrative materials, both in color and black and
white, aro available on paper, cloth, and cardboard, as well as on films,
reels, and slides. Pictures and prints may be combined in varied and
attractive forms, such as scrap books and posters. Under the general
heading of realia may be included coins, jewelry, tools, fabrics, dolls,
figurines, costumes, maps, designs, etc. Blocks and models of wood,
metal, rubber, plaster, or clay and various synthetic and plastic mate¬
rials are used extensively. In the teaching of the first lesson, for
example, a map of the Western Hemisphere and a model of an airplane
would be essential.
B. Sources for Obtaining Visual Aids. Hot the least effective aids
are those which the teacher makes himself, either individually or in the
workshop. It does not require an artist or a draftsman to cut advertise¬
ments from magazines, add appropriate captions and paste thsm on cards
or in an album.
Public agencies, both Federal, State, and city, produce a multi¬
plicity of materials which are free or inexpensive. Each Federal agency
issues a list of its own publications. Commercial concerns also issue
advertising material which teachers can utilize in the classroom. In¬
surance companies, transportation agencies, travel promotion organiza¬
tions, telephone and telegraph companies, manufacturers of planes find
motor cars, make their appeals to the public in dignified and authentic
brochures, illustrating various facts concerning transportation and
communication.
Other sources are numerous. There are available a great variety
of small manufactured articles which can be cheaply obtained and effec¬
tively utilized as visual aids. Personal possessions, heirlooms, or
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Education Circular Ko. 6
Section pi¬
page 3
other articles of little intrinsic value but possessing historical
significance may frequently be exhibited by the teacher. If it is
desired to supplement classroom instruction with courses taught by
phonographic recordings, several well-prepared sets are available
from commercial concerns.
C* Criteria for Select''on of Visual Aids. In the choice of
visual aids, it is important to develop criteria which will enable the
teacher to select and utilize the best aids available. Pirst and per¬
haps most important, either the aid itself or the explanation which
accompanies it should make clear the purpose for which it is introduced.
Otherwise, it may serve only to confuse the minds of the students as
they try to puzzle out unaided the point which it was intended to illus¬
trate.
It is important to make suro, also, that while the aid illus¬
trates and emphasizes the point intended, it does not overshadow it in
importance and draw attention rather to itself. For example, pictures
or photographs which attract more attention to themselves than to the
activity which thoy are explaining should be used guardedly and with
reservations.
Visual aids should tie in with previous experience, so that a
minimum of explanation is needed. They should also tie in with other
aids, so that there is progression and sequence from one aid to another.
Visual aids are effective when they are appealing and attractive and
stir up some emotional reaction. They are especially valuable when
timeliness is an outstanding factor in their presentation. Visual aids
should be convenient to handle, transportable if possible, big enough
to be readily seen, and not too bulky for easy manipulation. When
necessary, arrangements must be made to put them on tables or on the
wall, so that they are visible to all In the room. All other things
being equal, that visual aid is the most effective which illustrates
and emphasizes one point at a time rather than a combination of several.
It creates a clearer and more distinctive impression, eliminates chance
of confusion as to purpose, and is more apt to become a permanent part
of the mental equipment of the learner.
Visual aids must meet the test of authenticity and of a reason¬
able degree of techical excellence. An aid which requires an apology
because it is soiled, ragged, or untidy had better not be shown.
Finally, teaching aids should be in accord with the best principles of
pedagogy. In selecting phonographic recordings, several points should
be considered. The most important are the clarity of tone, the purity
of accent, the rate of progression, and the provision for repetition.
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 5
Page 1
Section 5. Class Management.
A. Classroom Arrangement. The mechanics of the classroom setup
must he satisfactorily adjusted if creditable educational results are
to he achieved. A well-prepared lesson plan may he ruined hy an unhappy
seating arrangement or indadequate lighting. Movable chairs with arm
rests are satisfactory (especially if there are some left-handed chairs)
hut chairs and tables are preferred. An atmosphere of informality can
he secured in discussion periods if chairs can he arranged in a semi¬
circle so that students may look: into the faces rather than at the backs
of their fellow students.
An equable temperature with proper heat and ventilation is
desirable. Adequate lighting is always necessary, for it is particularly
important that students he able to see the lesson sheets clearly.
When chairs and desks are movable, it is important that they be
arranged as desired before the class opens. If each student on arrival
must push his own chair and desk into positions, it creates a disturbance.
Important also is a clean board with erasers in place and an adequate
supply of chalk. If the teacher provides pencils, blank paper, or assign¬
ment sheets, these also should be ready for easy distribution. The
learning capacity of any group is stimulated if the whole classroom is
orderly, attractive and free from confusion or the litter of a previous
activity. Flowers, colored posters, and exhibits of educational aids
are all contributing factors toward this end.
To secure these ends, it is essential that the teacher arrive
at the classroom at least 10 minutes before the scheduled time for
beginning,
B, Procedure. No matter what activities may be called for by the
time schedule, the trained teacher will open the class with a cordial
salutation to the whole group and will also greet each individual pupil
with a pleasant nod. This applies both to early arrivals and to late
comers who may have been delayed through no fault of their own, and who
are at once put at ease by the gesture. The first greeting lays the
foundation for a friendly relationship.
Greetings, however, must not be time consumers. They may
easily be fitted into the planned schedule and should not be prolonged
into lengthy conversation. For the teacher should begin instruction
promptly even if only a small proportion of class members are present.
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 5
Page 2
There is nothing more discouraging to early arrivals than to sit idly
hy waiting for late entrants. The time schedule should anticipate
possible late comers and plan activities accordingly.
In giving assignments, it is helpful if the teac ar will not
only pronounce the words slowly and distinctly, hut repeat them at
least once and then write them on the hoard. Valuable minutes are
often consumed and confusion produced while students ask others for a
reference which should have been given clearly.
Irrelevant questions constitute another hindrance to scheduled
procedure. Student frequently make well-meant inquiries at totally in¬
appropriate times. These questions indicate thought, concern as to ac¬
curate form or fact, and confidence in the teacher's competence to
solve the question. They must be received in the spirit which prompted
them. Yet immediate replies are often awkward, for such questions may
anticipate a new grammatical construction which the teacher does not
have the time to explain properly at the moment, or which the students
are not yet prepared to understand. The skilful teacher will develop a
technique of postponing inquiries for an appropriate occasion, stating
that the point in Question will be discussed later, making careful note
of each question, and being very sure that the qv ,stioner is not made to
feel that he is being shunted aside. In any case,, an unanswered quest¬
ion is a loose end of which the teacher must be conscious until it is
finally knotted or tied into the current instruction.
C. Class Atmosphere. Although orderly procedure is an important
element in determining the class atmosphere, in the last analysis it
is the personality of the teacher which is the controlling factor. If
he is at ease, well poised, with friendly dignity and a pleasant smile,
the class reflects his attitude. If he is flustered, harried, or con¬
fused, if his voice betrays strain or annoyance, the classroom reacts
similarly. They know that it is due to unpreparedness, fatigue, lack
of interest in the group, or insufficient background. Any attempt to
restore confidence by reliance on authoritarian control is of course
out of the question.
The class should be directed, yet free. Army officers have
no time to waste in meaningless expln.hnti.ons-,. and are accustomed to
explicit directions. They will not resent a social discipline in
which all participate, under the leadership of a teacher who can both
maintain his own dignity yet put himself on a level with the class.
Such a relationship promotes the relaxation, informality and sense of
security which induce the maximum of learning.
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 5
Page 3
D. Student Particiioation. Since the learning process is a cycle
involving a stimulations, association, assimilation, and recall, it can¬
not "be accomplished without a maximum of pupil participation. The
student learns only as he practices what he learns. The teacher should,
therefore, leave no stone unturned to encourage self-expression and
vocal response. He can foster the initiative and self-confidence which
these require hy legitimate praise whenever deserved and ty commen¬
dation for all effort.
He should "be continually on the lookout to detect and point
out progress and provide evidences thereof which are simple and easily
understood. He must "be sure, moreover, to anticipate and make allow¬
ance for irregular attendance, conflicting duties, or other disturbing
factors that threaten to wreck the learning venture. The maintenance
of interest and class morale is part of his job.
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Education Circular No. 6
Section 6
Page 1
Section 6. Teaching Methods.
A. Interest Motivation. In any learning situation the most
effective motivation is the interest of the participants. To secure
this interest it is necessary to adapt subject matter not only to
the educational level but to the emotional maturity of adults and to
their occupational pursuits.
Educationally, the subject matter must present a challenge.
Progression must be fast enough to stimulate mental processes but
not too fast for the average student of the group to follow. If a
child can learn a few new words a day, and an adult illiterate about
5 or 6, a high-school graduate can probably learn 10 words, be
cause of greater practice in mental concentration. Among the group
of air officers for whom this course is prepared, most of whom arc
college graduates, it will probably rot be too much to expect that
an average of 15 words can be functionally learned within each
class session. In fact, as many as this number, functionally pre¬
sented, may be necessary to provide adequate mental challenge. Time
is valuable for these officers. An hour or two or three a week can¬
not be given over lightly, unless real substance is offered which
can be weighed and tested in terms of language skill acquired. It
may be that the 15 words will occasionally be exceeded. When this
happens in any given lesson it should be borne in mind that the
passive vocabulary (which the student will recognize) is always
larger than the active vocabulary which he will be called upon to
use.
Emotionally, the course content must be concerned with adult
reactions of a kind which may be considered mature. It will stress
physical needs in proper relation to other needs, give due weight to
avocational interests, and inject a touch of humor often enough to
relieve the dull monotony of a purely impersonal and conventional
approach. It nay even bring in implications of the differing psy¬
chological reactions of different temperaments in common-life situa¬
tions, or even include a simple formulation of life philosophy.
Throughout the various units, the course content might run the whole
gamut of adult emotional interests, particularly in the adaptation
of Anglo-Saxon or typical North American reactions to a Latin Ameri¬
can setting.
Occupationally, the com-se material is keyed to the job
which an aviator would face in Latin America. Here again, the unit
of interest of each lesson is centered around a likely situation in
which he may one day find himself.
Thus, interest is challenged and the human appeal necessary
to stimulate learning is provided by materials which present a pro¬
gressive, dynamic series of typical life situations.
A2830
Education Circular No. 6
Section 6
Page 2
B. Employment of Variety of Methods. Because of the wide range
of interests of the students and the dual purpose of the course, both
for language skill and better international understanding, the use of
a wide variety of teaching techniques will be essential to secure the
desired results. A conversational or oral approach will usually be
preferred, either in the form of dialogue or question and answer. A
discussion of some challenging point may follow, or a dramatic enact¬
ment to clarify meaning, with exercises, drill, and practice in a
wide variety of activities. All of these serve the purpose of at¬
tracting attention to a given theme by their novelty and of holding
interest which might waver in the face of a standardized or stereo¬
typed presentation. The interest span, even of a mature and educated
adult, will be limited by factors beyond the control of either teach¬
er or pupil. Weighty responsibilities, approaching duties, fatigue,
oppressive weather, or overstimulation all operate from time to time
to divert attention. It might be stated almost axiomatically, as an
overall suggestion, that 20 minutes is usually a long enough period
for any one specific activity, no matter how good or well con¬
ceived. Particularly where the drive to learn is an urgent one, a
point of saturation is reached after a limited time, and more inten¬
sive learning: can be promoted if various angles of approach are pro¬
vided.
as
C. Direct Method of Language Teaching. In teaching a language
foreign to the learner, the question frequently arises as to whether
it is wise for a teacher who knows the language of the learners to
use it for instruction purposes, or whether it is not more effective
to use the language which is being taught, as the vehicle for in¬
struction. The latter is called the direct method.
Learning a new language involves the attuning of the ear
and the training of the tongue and eyes to new sounds and forms.
The direct method of instruction provides an effective medium for
each of these three. When conversational ability and oral compre¬
hension are the main objectives rather than literary proficiency,
as in this project, it has been found that the direct method in
combination with a minimum of supplementary explanation succeeds
soonest and more effectively in teaching people to speak and under¬
stand a foreign language, to acquire a good accent, and to read in¬
telligently. Also, it challenges interest and attention if properly
supported by the skilful use of visual aids. Eor these reasons,
preference is widespread for the direct method of language teaching.
The direct method may have two different angles of approach.
Each of these has its own group of exponents and pursues its method
through a different emphasis.
The Berlitz method teaches the language through the noun
concept. Eor example, the students is shown a picture of a man. Ques¬
tion and answer follow - "What is this?" "It is a man." The word
name is emphasized in drill and conversation, always accompanied by
demonstration when possible. Grammar enters into the instruction
only informally.
A2830
Education Circular No. 6
Section 6
Page 3
D. Lesson Theme Approach. Eor purposes of this course the
theme approach is preferred. The Gouin theme emphasizes the idea
rather than the object. Gouin calls it "a mental railway for the
communication of minds." The premise is based on the greater im¬
portance of relationship of objects than of objects themselves. Its
method, therefore, is to develop a series of related sentences which
depict an activity or complete thought. This is illustrated and ex¬
plained by a picture, photograph, or actual demonstration. For example,
the teacher points to a map and says "es un mapa." Or he exhibits an
airplane and says "es un aeroplano." The outstanding characteris¬
tics of the Gouin theme include the following:
1. A series of sentences is based on the psychological
principle of the association of ideas.
2. The series of sentences leads up to some end or con¬
clusion. It becomes a unit of interest.
3. The verb is considered the essential part of the
sentence, its "soul," so to speak.
4. Concrete, rather than abstract, words and expressions
are used, for the idea must be dramatized and demon¬
strated.
The steps in the development of an interest theme may be
further described as follows: The teacher presents the theme orally
with dramatization and/or appropriate visual aid. The teacher re¬
peats and the class repeats after him individually and in unison,
the successive sentences in the theme.
Appropriate questions and answers follow, with explanation
of any confusing point in grammar or pronunciation. After the ear
has caught the sound correctly and the tongue has pronounced it with
a reasonable degree of accuracy, the teacher may write words on the
blackboard. Finally, when the whole theme is developed, the class
turns to the printed text and reads silently and orally, in rotation
and in unison.
Later the individual sentences may be broken up and used
for illustrative purposes in different persons or tenses. Or alter¬
native constructions may be introduced as seems advisable.
E. Specific Aids in Theme Development. In the development of
the direct method with cither the Gouin theme or the Berlitz plan,
the teacher will utilize a variety of approaches, selecting in each
case the one best adapted to the lesson. Through such a variety of
techniques, the value of any instruction is enhanced, for pupils
tire of stereotyped or oft-repeated activity.
A2830
Education Circular No. 6
Section 6
Page 4
1. Dramatization approach. One of the most effective
methods which those who have not yet learned many
words is the dramatization approach. This technique
may he very effectively used, particularly where the
lesson is written in dialogue form. The teacher may
also prepare material specifically adapted to drama¬
tization. In any dramatization, visual aids of va¬
rious kinds are helpful, such as objects, pictures,
signs, flash cards, etc. As the student gradually
gains greater mastery of the language, the earlier
flash card drill and spelling devices can he discon¬
tinued and more stress placed on the related activity
and the vocabulary use.
2. Narrative approach. This is an effective and desir¬
able approach with advanced groups.
3. Dialogue approach. This is even more appropriate
for this project, and has been utilized as a common
device throughout the Spanish course.
4. Picture approach. Where actual dramatization is im¬
practical or unsuitable, a picture or photograph may
be substituted and the same procedure followed. It
is recommended, however, that the picture visualize
an activity or related activities, rather than dis¬
connected or separate objects. Then the whole may
be constructed into a typical theme.
E. Specific Teaching Techniques. No one specific technique is
preferred for developing skills in reading, language use, pronuncia¬
tion, and vocabulary. Many different ones can be used effectively,
depending upon the need. But certain principles are important in se¬
lecting the most suitable technique for each situation. Also various
devices have been tried, with varying degrees of success, which faci¬
litate learning and comprehension and develop language skill. It may
be helpful to enumerate these techniques and devices.
1. Use of cognates. In teaching vocabulary, comprehen¬
sion. may be facilitated by pointing out the large
number of cognate words in Spanish and English. In
many of the lessons of the Reader, particularly les¬
sons No. 1, 2, and 8, such cognates as continents,
mapa, Norte America, piloto, aviador, profesor,
superior, notificar, departamento, aviacion, condu-
cir, vigilar, telefono, companero, necessitar, are
easily recognized and remembered without difficulty.
Words may also be taught by word families, as for
example, hermano, hermana, padre, madre, mujer,
hombre, and the like. Comparison with antonyms and
A2830
Education Circular No. 6
Section 6.
Page 5
synonyms is another device for helping students
to recognize the meaning of a word. Also, words
are often learned more easily if their language
derivation is pointed out, and, '* certain derivatives
are classified together. It is often helpful to
analyze words for their literal meaning. Or the
teacher may suggest visual imagerv which will im¬
press the meaning upon the pupil. A constant
effort should he made to accustom students to
thinking in Spanish and to correlate each Spanish
word with the object of activity which it depicts
rather than to translate it into English.
2. Imitation. The oral approach to all lessons is
preferred since new woras are learned largely
through imitation. This is a natural method and
an effective one. Imitation is essential, as a
matter fif fact, in differentiating between closely
similar sounds. Vritten explanations are not ade¬
quate, because English and Spanish sounds for the
same letters are often different, and the written
symbol confuses rather than clarifies. By imita¬
tion the student can learn intonation and vocal in¬
flection, which are important in expressing dif¬
ferent shades of meaning. The teacher who speaks
Spanish with ease will also vary the pitch of his
voice, the rhythm of speech, and even change the
tone quality to express different meanings. Since
the inflection in English and Spanish are so dif¬
ferent, these variations can be learned only by
Accustoming the ear to their sound and'by repeated
imitation of the teacher's voice in classroom crill.
If the ear impression is to come first, through
this oral approach, it is suggested that the les¬
son sheets not be distributed until the middle or
end of the lesson; or if given before, students may
be asked to turn the sheet down on their desks
and not look at it until the end of the lesson.
3. Pronunciation. In order to acquire a good accent
and proper pronunciation, it is important to ob¬
serve the vocal organs in action. Sometimes a
chart of the position of the speech organs is
helpful. Rules will be taught as they are illus¬
trated in the lesson text. They are simple, and
if taught in this way will give little difficulty.
In the first place there is an appropriate sound
for each letter. Some are easy and some cufficult.
A2830
Education Circular No. 6
Section 6
Page 6
Drill should he concentrated on those which are
difficult, such as n, 11, r, j, and g before
e end i.
The rule for accent is simple. When a word ends
in a vowel, n, or s, the stress is on the penult,
as in senorita, hablan, iunes; when the word
ends in a consonant except n or s, the stress is
on the last syllable, as in capital, profesor;
any exception to the above is indicated by a writ¬
ten accent as dificil, periodico. This rule can
be explained as examples occur.
Variations of pitch in Spanish express different
shades of meaning. T^ese can best be learned
through imitation. Clarity of tone is also im¬
portant in Spanish. Attainment may require con¬
siderable practice and drill, particularly for
those who are accustomed to slur their consonant
sounds. Pronunciation may be helped by daily
practice in oral reading until pupils are far
enough advanced to get pronunciation drill
through conversation.
4. Reading. Roth oral reading and silent reading
are skills which must not be neglected. Oral
reading, as has been stated above, can be very
helpful as drill in pronunciation. Also, after
the mechanics of word calling has been suffi¬
ciently mastered so that attention need not be
concentrated on the words themselves, reading
aloud may provide excellent drill in the devel¬
opment of proper oral inflection.
Silent reading is perhaps a better tool for the
learning of vocabulary and training in compre¬
hension. It is suggested that students be urged
to hunt for the key words in a given passage, to
form the habit of calling up direct association
between basic images or ideas, and to try to get
the sense rather than the English word. In read¬
ing a newspaper or magazine, one can best get the
thought by re-reading several times if necessary
and by trying to get the^meaning from the context
rather than looking up each word.
Reading, both oral and silent, can also be used
as an aid in vocabulary building.
5. Spelling. In teaching spelling, it is important
to postpone the spelling until after the student
A2830
Education Circular No. 6
Section 6
Page 7
"gets" the pronunciation with his ear. In other
words, pronunciation will help spelling more than
spelling can help pronunciation. It should be re¬
membered, also, that spelling is a tool much less
important than speaking comprehension and reading.
It is not deserving of too much time in a course
in conversation.
6. Language structure. Language structure or grammar
will always be taught through function. A gramma¬
tical usage will first be employed, drill will fol¬
low in the proper form, and the rule will then be
given. The abstract rule is then seen in its ori¬
entation and related to practical use. It is not an
abstraction floating in a void. For example, in
lessons 1 and 2, the negative "no" is used — "no
es piloto," "yo no soy aviador," etc. Then at the
end of lesson 2, the explanation is given — "The
negative no always precedes the verb."
7. Vocabulary notebooks. These may prove helpful in
building up an extensive vocabulary. Students
may care to enter words in their books by word fam¬
ilies or some other device which will facilitate
memorization.
8. Teachers' notebooks. These are usually invaluable.
They can be used for notations at the completion of
each lesson. In them the teacher can note student
progress, both individually and by group, special
difficulties can be listed, and notations entered
concerning techniques that proved good or bad. In
them also, the teacher can enter his evaluation of
the total instruction. Informal and formal tests
and student reaction to them can be recorded. Prob¬
lems, questions asked in class, and reaction time
to the questions can also be listed. In other
words, the notebook may serve the teacher as both
a reference and a guide.
A2830
Education Ciro^'.ar Ho. 6
Section 7
Page 1
Section 7. Lesson Planning. The daily preparation time of each
teacher will be devoted to the organization of an appropriate and well-
integrated lesson plan. For even with a well-prepared Reader at hand,
a daily plan is essential. Fo two teachers will construct identical
plans. But all plans will contain certain common elements and all will
be guided by well-known pedagogic principles.
A. Principles of Lesson Planning. Most important of these
principles is the motivation of interest to impel learning. It
cannot be said too often nor too impressively that learning is
largely determined by interest. Learning cannot be compelled. It
must be impelled or stimulated from within, from the interest and
enthusiasm of students which has been aroused by a vital contact
with their own personal experiences. The content of every lesson,
therefore, should be presented through an established and demon¬
strated relationship with the past, present, or future life exper¬
ience and conduct of the learners.
The second principle to consider at this time is that pro¬
gression must be geared to the r< lucational level and the .. arning
capacity of the students. It must be fast enough to hold interest
and offer a challenge, but not so fast as to offer discouragement.
Since no prepared Reader can be exactly adjusted to the needs of
all classes, it may be necessary at times to modify the progression
as originally set. If it is too fast for the group, tho teacher
must be content with a slower tempo. Perhaps ho will expand tho
questions and answers, prolong the period, or divide the unit in
two. If it is too slow, the very pertinent supplementary material
provided for the text, such as the lists of idioms, technical voca¬
bulary, etc., can be introduced as needed. In any case, tho rate of
progression at all times must be geared to the needs of the students.
The third principle is that of stress on drill in the learn¬
ing of a new language. Reviextr, repetition, drill, review, repetition,
drill; these must constitute a veritable theme song for the teacher
who expects students to develop language skill. The automatic res¬
ponse or conditioned reflex which is essential for conversational
facility is established only by dint of constant repetition accom¬
panied by the natural stimulus of a desire to learn. Habits of
speech have become fixed in adults. Few patterns cannot well be
learned without the building up of a new habit, and this requires
constant drill. The lesson plan must provide for this drill.
A2830
Education Circular Ho. 6
Section 7
Page 2
The fourth guiding principle is that of the need for student
participation and pupil response in making learning effective and of
permanent value. The process of learning constitutes a cycle. The
teacher must usually give the initial stimulus. It is his job, so
to speak, to throw the hall first. But this stimulation of the student
includes only half the learning cycle. The other step is the throvr-
ing hack of the hall from student to teacher, or the response which the
student makes. This student response is the teacher's clue to the effec¬
tiveness of his approach. It shows him that the original stimulus
has been sufficient or inadequate. It is part of the trial and error
process of testing through use which must take place to make learn¬
ing effective. Dr. William H. Kilpatrick says that we learn truly
only that which has passed through our experience. In this response,
the student is reconstructing his own environment in terms of the new
vocabulary, new exercises, or other new material which the teacher is
endeavoring to impart. Student participation then is the sine qua non
of learning. When a teacher talks during 50 percent or 75 percent of
the class period, he is throwing away his opportunity to sot up a learn¬
ing situation. When he fails to secure at least 50 percent student
participation in an instruction period, it behooves him to develop some
new technique which will make his teaching a more genuinely cooperative
process. A new language, moreover, is learned largely through imi¬
tation of sound, of intonation, of inflection, and of accent. Give
the student a chance to imitate and you give him a chance to learn.
Again the lesson plan must provide for a maximum of student response.
Another and fifth principle in lesson planning is the bud¬
geting of the time schedule in conformity with well-known limita¬
tions in the span of interest of adults. The lesson plan must sched¬
ule a variety of activities and must insure adequate development of
each. Yet no matter how well planned an activity may be, nor how im¬
portant the purpose which it hopes to achieve, it should not be pro¬
longed much beyond the peak of interest which it enlists. The eco¬
nomic lav; of diminishing returns is one which a teacher may well
learn. In the classic example, the thirsty man on a hot day gulps
down his first glass of water and reaches eagerly for the second.
Probably the peak of enjoyment is reached with the third which he
sips slowly. Then the law begins to operate and the possible satis¬
faction of a fourth glass is weighed carefully before he takes it.
A fifth glass is not even considered. With the knowledge of this
principle well in mind, the teacher must be prepared to stop any
activity, no matter how valid, before the interest has begun to flag.
This usually means that 15 to 20 minutes is the outside limit of
time for any one activity. Yet the time cannot be prescribed
exactly in advance. The teacher must develop enough sensitivity
to class reaction to be able to catch indications of unrest and
terminate the activity promptly upon their detection.
A2830
Education Circular No. 6
Section 7
Page 3
Practices Included in Lesson Planning. In the planning
of a lesson in Spanish, provision must he made for the inclusion
of those practices or activities which are needed to insure a gen¬
uine learning process. The lesson is based on a unit of interest.
What practices are essential to develop this unit of interest?
1. Review. Except for the first, every lesson
should start with a review. Without this,
newly acquired learning is easily forgotten.
But the review should not "be confined to
fragmentary chunks of a previous lesson. It
should give a broad overview of the previous
lesson theme, emphasize principles of impor¬
tance which it illustrated, and include spe¬
cial drill on new or difficult phonetic
sounds, grammatical rules, or new vocabulary.
It should lead up to the new lesson easily
and naturally. It should not be too long.
2. Oral drill. Oral drill, both choral and indi¬
vidual, must be a part of each activity with¬
in the lesson. It should precede reading and
it should precede writing. Por oral exercise
is the logical approach to language learning.
The student, in fact, as was said before, should
not see the printd or written word on page or
blackboard until he "gets" it through his
ears and uses it orally himself. Through
oral drill, the vocal pattern is set in the
mind's eye. The new word or phrase becomes
part of the student's vocal equipment. He
learns through practice to use it with ease
and facility- It becomes a part of his auto¬
matic nervous response.
3. Questioning technique. A good teacher will
study the art of questioning, for it is an art.
Questions must be pertinent, well timed, ad¬
justed to capacity to respond, and geared to the
tempo of the group. The question which calls
for a yes or no answer is not so good as the
question which requires a complete sentence.
The question which permits of two or three li¬
ferent reponses is still better. "iEs Norte
America un continents?" requires only a "yes."
"iEs Canada un pais o un continente?" requires
a sentence in reply. But the question " iQ,ue
paises de Sud America forman el hemisfcrio
occidental?" might have several different an¬
swers. Questions of this kind which can be
A2830
Education Circular No. 6
Section ?
Page 4
developed as tho student's progress require more
thought and therefore stimulate more learning.
Questions also must not he too long. When
they become a memory test of the teacher's
words, rather than a test of knowledge of the
translation, the teacher has failed in accom¬
plishing his purpose.
4. Blackboard use. Blackboard work will not be
so common a practice in this course because
the purpose is mainly conversation. But the
blackboard is an invaluable tool for the
teacher. When advisable, also, blackboard as¬
signments for one or more students give opportu¬
nity for self-expression. They may serve as
time-saving devices and give opportunity to
evaluate student progress. They also provide a
change in activity when oral drill has pro¬
duced temporary fatigue which becomes apparent.
Visual aids and audio-visual aids are of ex¬
ceptional value in clarifying a term or a con¬
cept to the object or life activity. They
help to make abstractions vivid and real. They
bolster the memory with lines of association
which insure retention of the new word or thought.
The ingenious teacher will include in every les¬
son all possible teachings aids to supplement the
lesson content.
5. Demonstration and dramatization. These tech¬
niques, as already described, are invaluable
adjuncts in the teaching process. Demonstration
of a word by pointing to the appropriate object
shows what instead of telling what. Dramatiza¬
tion of incidents or activities shows how in¬
stead of telling how. Either will increase
interest and stimulate learning.
6. fi-ra.mmat.ical and -phonetical drill. These are na¬
turally essential in the study of a new language.
But it must be remembered that they are important
only as they relate to function. Therefore, they
should not be presented as separate activities,
but rather introduced as the content of the les¬
son requires their use. Interpreted thus within
the lesson, they are viewed in their relationship
to use, never in isolation.
Articulation The clear articulation by the
teacher of each new Spanish word and phrase is of
Education Circular No.
Section 7
Page 5
great importance. The teacher should pronounce
each new word slowly with face to the class
(not facing the blackboard while in the act of
writing out the word). For the clarity with
which sounds are uttered in such languages as
French and Spanish is in decided contrast with
the typical American tendency to slur thorn.
The difference between the common American
pronunciation of see and the Spanish pronunci¬
ation of .si. will deomonstrnte this. The student
will get this distinction if, for example, the
teacher will show that the tongue must be for¬
ward in order to pronounce "1" and "r" proper¬
ly in Spanish, or will show how the lips are
held to get the Spanish si. properly. In fact,
the position of mouth, tongue, and lips are all
significant. They make speech visible to the
pupil at the same time that the words are ar¬
ticulated. Pronunciation, accent, and inflec¬
tion are also important for the teacher.
Summary and evaluation. No lesson is complete
until the main points have been summarized.
This helps to pull together all loose threads,
postpones explicitly to the next day all items
which have not been adequately covered, and
points the way to the new lesson. It may be
done by the teacher or by the class, preferably
the latter. But the responsibility for seeing
that it is done rests on the teacher. Students
as well as teacher can evaluate progress. Some¬
times they like formal tests to verify their
conclusions. These are available if desired
in prepared form, or may be set up by the
teacher. Evaluation, to be complete, must in¬
clude not only a summary of achievement but a
presentation of need. In the light of such
evaluation, the teacher will make whatever
modifications are needed in his previous me¬
thod of presentation, lesson content, or rate
of progression.
A2830
Education Circular No. 6
Section 7
Page 6
C. Use and Evaluation of Lesson Plans. The lesson plan is
prepared as a guide, a check, and a summary. It shows the teacher
how to organize his instruction. It checks on his progress and
prevents him from devoting all the available time to one activity,
thereby neglecting one that may be even more important. Lesson
plans in a series are a record of accomplishment and may be con¬
tinually referred to in order to ascertain what ground has been
covered and what remains to be done. A lesson plan is like a
road map which one follows implicitly until he has learned all
the alternative turns. He then abandons the map and charts his
own itinerary. In other words, a lesson plan is a signpost rather
than a strait jacket. No lesson plan should be followed so closely
that initiative is stifled and. spontaneity destroyed. An experienced
teacher may find himself restricted by someone else's plan and will
modify it to suit Ms needs. An untrained teacher, on the contrary,
will welcome a plan prepared by someone else. He can use it as a
temporary crutch until he has learned to progress alone. For any
teacher a well-planned lesson gives confidence and assurance.
A lesson plan is never finally complete, for no preplanning
can be sure to anticipate all needs. Even a plan that succeeds in
one situation may have to be modified in another. The order of ac¬
tivities, for example, is relatively unimportant so long as the
lesson starts from the interest motivation. If the aim is kept
continually in mind—namely, to understand, speak, and read Span¬
ish, which in a broad sense really means to learn to think in Span¬
ish if one is to converse freely—the translation and the tool
words immediately become subsidiary to the acquisition of language
skill. The order in most instances will take care of itself.
The evaluation of a lesson plan is simple. If it achieves
the results desired, it is a good lesson plan. If it does not, it
must be modified to meet evident need. It is good, in other words,
only as it serves its purpose. Evaluation is best expressed in
terms of function.
D. Sample Lesson Plan.
1. Statement of Aim.
General: The ability to understand, speak, and. read
the Spanish language.
Specific: Drill in pronunciation. Acquisition of new
vocabulary pertaining to a visit to a friend.
Familiarity with social procedures.
A2830
Education Circular No. 6
Section 7
Pago 7
2. Preparation Before Class.
a. Assemble visual and/or audio-visual aids and ar¬
range for adequate display and use.
b. Write any necessary assignments on blackboard.
c. Have on hand paper, pencils, chalk, eraser, and
any other essential tools.
d. Arrange tables, chairs, etc., as desired. It is
preferable, where possible, to arrange s 'ting
around tables where students can face each other.
3. Lesson Content.
Select any lesson in Spanish Reader.
4. Procedure.
a. Greetings should be given in Spanish as a demon¬
stration of Spanish courtesy and social custom.
b. Review. Some definite tying in of the new lesson
with the preceding one is usually necessary for
good orientation. This may include both conver¬
sation and reading. The more the students can par¬
ticipate in the review, the better. Special em¬
phasis on some point of unusual difficulty may be
helpful.
c. Oral presentation of the new topic. The aim here
is to interest the group in the new topic. Ques¬
tions may provoke response. Visual aids, pictures,
and objects of various kinds will help to stimulate
interest. Dramatization and demonstration are also
effective devices. Some explanation in English may
be necessary; for example, of a technical expression.
But the development in so far as possible should be
in Spanish.
d. Individual and cnoral response to lesson presentation.
e. Questions and answers as outlined in lesson. These
are intended only to be suggestive and may be arranged
or reorganized to suit needs.
f. Conversation. This activity is intended to promote
the development of the interest theme of the lesson.
It will have to be teacher motivated to begin with
Education Circular No. 6
Section 7
Page 8
but as the students learn a larger vocabulary, it
can become freer and more general. After it can
actual become a general conversation, the teach¬
er may refrain from interruption and correction
during a limited part of the activity, with the
purpose of overcoming shyness and speech hesitancy.
Errors may be noted by the teacher and reserved for
later comment.
Reading of the new lesson. This activity may be
begun by the oral reading by the teacher of the
whole scheme. After a short opportunity for si¬
lent reading by the group, the teacher may call
for choral response followed by individual read¬
ing. (If the group is too large, individual read¬
ing may have to be limited.) This will provide op¬
portunity for a check on pronunciation, and may be
t". 3 strategic opportunity for a short phonetic
drill.
It is probably better not to go into formal trans¬
lation until the theme has been read over a number of
times. Perhaps the students will be able to figure out
much of the meaning from the content, from dramatic
enactment, or from visual aids. Multiple-choice sen¬
tences or completion sentences or other tests pre¬
pared with the lesson body may be used for text com¬
prehension with advanced classes, but the chief ac¬
tivity is the actual reading drill.
The lesson may contain a verb in the present tense.
It may be advisable to develop the past or future
forms of this verb and introduce at this point a
short grammar lesson which would thus be closely
correlated with the reading activity and might be
better remembered because of this association.
Vocabulary drill. This drill may be necessary to
insure proper understanding. In the early stages,
it should not become a spelling lesson. The recog¬
nition of the word by sound first and then by
sight, and the understanding of its meaning, is
more important for our purposes than the spelling.
A2830
Education Circular No. 6
Section 8
Page 1
Section 8. Follovr-un Supervision. No matter how well prepared he the
course of instruction which a teacher is following, nor how careful the pre-
service training, good teaching requires constant and skii od supervision.
Such supervision is particularly essential in this project for several
reasons. In the first place, because of the urgency of the defense need,'
many corners have been shaved close. Teachers may have to be assigned
without the full preparatory training. Classes may be set up hurriedly
without full equipment or even in shifting quarters and classrooms where
it is hard to maintain the usual atmosphere of calm and equanimity.
In the second place, teachers are launched into an entirely new
teaching milieu, where the student demand upon them is much more in¬
sistent than previously. Due to the high educational level of the stuv
dents, the tempo may frequently be increased, and the intellectual strain
made more intense.
In the third place, the Work Projects Administration has proferred
a service to the armed forces of our country in \\rhich success is of
vital importance to the building up of a more cordial understanding of
Latin America based on simple everyday ability to communicate freely.
In order to make this follow-up supervision effective the
supervisor must observe the teacher in action. He must be.prepared
to sit through a full period, quietly and unobtrusively in the rear
of the room, and note what happens. He must be conscious of class atti¬
tudes, relationships, and student response, as well as the teacher's
A283Q
Education Circular No. 5
Section 8
Page 2
oral presentation. With the lesson plan before him, he can eval¬
uate it in terms of the class procedure, can justify or criticize
deviations from the plan, note use of visual or audio-visual aid,
and try to estimate progress. He will of course observe any mech¬
anical adjustments which are needed.
As soon after the session as possible, he discusses his obser¬
vations with the teacher and makes suggestions for improvement.
These aids may be given simply, anc* the teacher may be dismissed
with a few general comments if he has demonstrated that he knows
his job and is doing it. More, often however, follow-up assistance
will be needed, materials or references, perhaps some supplementary
training in technique, or opportunity to visit a better-prepared
teacher. For all teachers, regular training meetings by week or
by month will be invaluable in improving the caliber of teaching.
In other words, an intensive pre-service training course is
prescribed and in most instances will be given. But follow-up
in-service training, with wise supervision based on sympathetic
understanding of need, will be the best guarantee of tne high type
of service which the Air Corps has the right to expect and which
the Work Projects Administration desires to render.
A2830
Education Circular No. 6
Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Atkins, H.G. and Hutton, H.S.
Buchanan, M.A, and MacPhee.E.D.
Cole, Robert D.
Coleman, Algernon
Gouin, F.
Hagboldt, P.
Hall, G'uillermo
Handschin, Charles Hart
Huse, H. R.
Oliver, T. E.
Palmer, Harold E.
Palmer and Redman
West, Michael
The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages in
School and University. Longon: Arnold. 1930.
An Annotated Bibliography of Modern Language
Methodology. University of Toronto Press, 1929.
Modern Foreign Languages and Their Teaching.
New York. D. Appleton-Century Co.. 1937,
(Revised by Tharp)
Analytical Bibliography of Modern Language
Teaching. 1932-1937. University of Chicago
Press, 1938. (2 volumes)
The Art of Teaching and Studying Languages.
Longman's, 1924.
Language Learning. Chicago, 1937.
Teaching of Languages: Why and How of the
Direct Method. World, 1925.
Methods of Teaching Modern Language, Yonkers,
N.Y. World Book Co., 1923.
The Psychology of Foreign Language Study.
1932. U. of N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,1932.
Modern Language Teachers' Handbook. D.C. Heath
& Co., 1935.
Principles of Language Study. N.Y.World, 1925.
This Language-Learning Business. London, George
G.Harrap & Co., Ltd.; or Clark,Irwin, Toronto,
Canada, 1932.
Language in Education. Longman's, Green & Co.,
1929.
Wilkins, Lawrence A.
Spanish in the High Schools. Sanborn, 1919-1921,
NOTE: This is a minimum suggestive bibliography on Methods of Teaching
Modern Languages. Teachers of Spanish will find additional and
very useful references in such professional journals as "Hispania"
(California), "The Modern Language Journal," "The Hispanic Review,"
and others.