CONSIDERATIONS
ON THE
SUBJECT OF A COMMUNICATION
BETWEEN THE
ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS.
dßn
I «36
CONSIDERATIONS
ON THE
SUBJECT OF A COMMUNICATION
BETWEEN THE
ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS,
By means of a Ship-Canal across the Xsthmus, which connects North and
South America ; and the hest means of efíectlng it, and permanently
securing its henefits for the world at large, hy means of a co¬
operation between individuals or companies of different
nations under the patronage of their respective
GoveriinreBtSo
Bi) a €:íítT¿u 0t "Mm
Formerly U. S. Consul at Limay and for the ports of Peru.
GEORGETOWN, B. C.
Printed and Published
AT THE METROPOLITAN OFFICE,
1836.
t«36
LIBRARY
BUREAU OF RAILWAY BCONOIilCS.
WASHINGTON. D. C.
MAR 161911
(S(DH§IÎID)IiEAiriî(0)M©, ETO»
Among the various improvements which have been made, or
which are in progress or contemplation, on the face of the earth,
there is not one of greater importance to mankind in general, or to
the people of America in particular, than that of opening a navi¬
gable communication for ships between the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans through the Isthmus connecting the two Americas ;—be¬
cause it would diminish the distance and facilitate the intercourse
between greater bodies of the human family, and to a much larger
extent, than is» practicable by human means in any other part of
the world.
This grand object has been contemplated ever since the dis¬
covery of America, as a necessary result of the form and position
of this continent, and the wants of trade and intercourse between
its different sides ;—but during the long continued sway of Spain
over the Isthmus, and through her contracted policy, it could not
be effected ; and was necessarily postponed until a more propitious
period should arrive.
In consequence of the emancipation of the Spanish colonies on
this continent, such a period has at length arrived ;—and the ac¬
complishment of the grand object has been hailed by some, as
one of the chief advantages of a commercial nature that would
flow from that glorious revolution ; and been characteiized by
others as " probably the mightiest event in favor of the peaceful
intercourse of nations which the physical circumstances of the
globe present to the enterprize of man."
It has therefore occasionally engaged the attention of Govern-
inents as well as individuals for some years past, and been theb
[ 4 ]
subject of public negotiation, as well as private contract ;—but re¬
mains as yet unattempted, and for the present apparently dormant.
It is not abandoned however ;—but is cherished by many reflect¬
ing and enterprizing individuals in different parts of the world, as
a consummation not only devoutly to be wished, but as fast ap¬
proaching in the general progress of events ;—towards which
they would cheerfully contribute all in their power, whenever ripe
for execution, and judiciously set on foot.
Under these circumstances it cannot be improper for any indi¬
vidual, however obscure or uninfluential, to endeavor to draw pub¬
lic attention to the subject, by suggesting his own ideas and plans
for examination, and inviting others nor can it be premature to
present and discuss the subject at a period like the present, when
the spirit of improvement is abroad on the earthy and no scheme is
left untried that promises utility to man ;—a spirit that animates
all enlightened nations, and extends to every method of improving
their condition—that produces concert of action for general good
between governments as well as individuals, and leads to under¬
takings and and arrangements for the benefit of large portions of
the world as well as its minor parts. The consideration of the
subject is therefore not only proper and seasonable, but the period
seems to have actually arrived \Vhen this project, " the mightiest
in favor of the peaceful intercourse of nations," has become ripe
for execution and requires only a proper concert of action between
those most deeply interested in its results, to be carried into ef¬
fect. If ripe for execution, and depending on concert alone,
it follows no doubt that, like other grand and important public ob¬
jects, the main spring of its achievement must he^ the awakening
public attention to its merits^ and combining public exertions in its
favor.
To excite that attention in some degree, and to induce, if possi¬
ble, some concert of action towards achieving the end, is the motive
and object of the present publication. Its author has been
led to direct his attention to the subject at intervals during several
years ; originally impelled by official duty when employed in a
publi c station abroad, and subsequently by a strong desire to con¬
tribute something towards the good of his country and the
world :—and, consequently, through various inquiries, researches,
and personal examinations into it, he has probably acquired as
much knowledge of the facts and circumstances bearing on it, as
[ 5 ]
is yet possessed by any one ;—the result of which in part he now
begs leave respectfully to submit to the public.
Before going into details, however, it is thought proper to pre¬
mise, as the result of much reflection, strengthened by many able
opinions, that considering the object in view to be interesting in
a greater or less degree to all parts of the world, and highly im¬
portant to all America, and a great part of Europe in particular ;—
that whatever is to redound to the benefit of so many nations ought
to be effected through common means and united exertions, and
not to be left to the efforts of a few individuals or a private com¬
pany unassisted or unrestricted ; and that the enjoyment of its
advantages, when completed, should be secured to the world at
large upon equitable terms, free from monopoly, restrictions, or
impositions,—the work ought to be undertaken and completed on
public or national account, or by an association of individuals of
different countries, under the patronage of their respective govern¬
ments and their united guaranties, and not by private individuals
alone, nor by a company out of a single nation, nor by a single
government. Considering^ also, that the amount of capital requir¬
ed may exceed what would comport with the convenience of the
inhabitants of a single country to advance, especially those of the
United States or any other part of America, and that Europeans
are possessed of vast surplus funds, seeking investment every
where, and of course ready for this purpose, if desired, and rendered
inviting ;—that while the latter can so easily furnish capital, the
former can more easily, from proximity of situation and other cir¬
cumstances, supply labor, skill, and materials, and attend to the
execution of the work ;—that all the efforts hitherto made by in¬
dividuals of our own country and others, in forming associations
and obtaining privileges for executing such a work, have proved
abortive, and caused an abandonment of the object on their part ;—
and especially that the distinguished Head of one European na¬
tion, the King of the Netherlands, together with an association of
his wealthy and enterprizing subjects, have already, some time
since, turned their particular attention to the subject, and taken
some preliminary steps in relation to it, and invited foreigners
generally to unite with them in prosecuting the work for common
benefit (although extraordinary events have occurred in the
Netherlands causing a suspension of their proceedings,)—it re¬
sults clearly and forcibly, without any weighty considerations to
[ 6 ]
the contrary, that a fall concert of action between all those in
Europe and America, governments as well as individuals^ who may
be disposed to promote the great end in view, should be brought
about, if in any way possible ; and one general association formed
out of the whole, for executing the work on joint or common ac¬
count, and securing its benefits permanently for themselves and
the world at large :—but if unfortunately such an association
should be found impracticable after a full trial (which can hardly
be anticipated) that then a combination should be formed between
the citizens of the United States and those of the Netherlands, at
least, (who are believed to be in favor of such apian)—open to
any other persons who should choose to co-operate, for the purpose
of executing the work on joint account with each other, under the
patronage of their two respective governments.
Without further preliminary remarks, the subject in hand will
be explained and illustrated within a short compass, as well as the
writer may be able with the information possessed, under the fol¬
lowing heads, into which it may most aptly be divided ; name¬
ly :—the nature and extent of the work in contemplation ;—its
practicaibility^ either with ease, or difficulty ;—its probable cost ;—
its public utility ;—its private revenue ;—and the best mode of exe¬
cution^ or the most judicious arrangements for its accomplishment
and the permanent enjoyment of its benefits ;—together with some
general remarks or reflections,
1st. The nature and extent of the work in contemplation.
It ought certainly to be a Ship Canal^ with locks to ascend and
descend the dividing ridge between the-two oceans ; of such large
dimensions as to admit the passage of loaded ships or vessels of
almost any burden with facility and dispatch from one ocean to the
other ; so as to supersede entirely the necessity of voyaging round
Cape Horn. Nothing less than a canal of that description can
possibly satisfy the wants and desires of the world in this respect
at the present day ;—nothing inferior to that ought now to be at¬
tempted or aimed at, if by any human means that can be brought
to bear on it, such a work can possibly be accomplished. A boat
canal or rail-road might answer a good purpose, and would cer¬
tainly be better than no improvement at all of the passage across
the Isthmus ;—but not to be compared with a ship canal, nor even
capable of turning the current of trade and intercourse from the
long route by way of Cape Horn. Such a road or canal would
[ 7 1
leave indispensable the transhipment of cargoes from vessels in one
ocean to those in the other in boats or carriages over the interme¬
diate space, at much expense, risk and loss of time, and also the
employment of two sets of vessels, one in each ocean, for carry¬
ing the same cargoes to market ; which would overbalance the
advantages of using it, and the difference of cost between it and
a ship canal, and of course continue the preference in a great
measure, if not entirely, of going round Cape Horn^ It would
justly be considered a half way measure only, unsuited to the
wants and capacities of the world at the present advanced and en¬
lightened period, and far beneath the proper aim and scope of na¬
tional efforts or endeavors ; while the difference of cost between
it and a ship canal would not be worth regarding, in comparison
with so great a difference of utility to the world at large.—Con¬
sequently if any communication be made between the two oceans
through the united means and exertions of different nations, or as¬
sociations of individuals under the patronage of different govern¬
ments, it ought certainly to be by means of a grand spacious canal
from one ocean to the other, with locks to ascend and descend the
intervening ridge of land at its lowest elevation ; navigable for
loaded ships or vessels of the largest size usually employed on the
Atlantic and Pacific ; and kept in such order and under such con-
troul, as always to be passed through by vessels of all nations, eX"
ce]^t vessels of war y with speed and safety at a moderate expense
or toll.
2d. Its practicability :—either with ease or difficulty.
This may be inferred with certainty from the construction of
similar works in different parts of the world, and frqm the surveys
and examinations heretofore made along two different routes across
the Isthmus. , Whatever has been done in one place can of course
be done in another similarly situated, by the use of similar means.
It is well known that numerous boat canals and a few ship canals
of great lengths and over great elevations, have been made in dif¬
ferent parts of the world, and also some very deep cuts or excava¬
tions through the earth (as in the valley of Mexico, to prevent
the overflow of waters,)—wherefore the same may be done on the
Isthmus in both respects. Nothing is wanted for a canal of ány
length or dimensions but sufficient water at an elevation to feed
and supply its summit level ;—and there is no other difference
between constructing a large canal and a small one than the cost
t 8 1
or expense. That difference may be very great, but not veiy ifia'
terial, nor even in some cases very obj actio nable< If the cost of
fifty or sixty miles ship canal be equal to that of five or six hun¬
dred miles boat canal, and the income or benefits resulting from it
be in proportion to the cost, the amount of outlay forms little ob¬
jection, and to large capitalists may even be some recommenda- *
tion. Let water be supplied at a proper elevation, and by means
of a sufficient capital, a canal of any length or dimensions can be
made any where. Upon the simple fact, therefore, of a supply of
water at a proper elevation depends the practicability of a canal
across the Isthmus, either large or small ; but whether with ease
or difficulty , at a very large or a moderate expense, depends on
various other circumstances.
From surveys and examinations already made upon the Isthmus
along two different routes, the fact of a supply of water at a suffi¬
cient elevation has been fully a.scertained. Those surveys and
examinations were made, formerly under the direction of the
Spanish Government, and latterly under that of the new govern¬
ments of Central America and Columbia, while the latter existed
under Bolivar ;—the one by the way of Lake Nicaragua, and the
other by the way of Chagres and Panama. According to various
authorities both routes were found adapted to the purpose by the
engineers formerly employed under the Spanish Government, but
for political considerations were not permitted by the government
to be improved for the purpose. Since the emancipation of the
Spanish colonies both routes have again been explored ;—the for¬
mer by engineers employed by citizens of this country, and by en¬
gineers employed by the King of the Netherlands ;—and the latter
by engineers employed by Bolivar, while President of Columbia
in 1828 and 1829 ;—and also by private individuals.
The result of these various surveys and examinations has been,
in regard to the route by way of Lake Nicaragua, to inspire such
a confidence in its practicability as to lead to contracts and en¬
gagements for the construction of a canal in that way ; in one case
at least of a ship canal, by the Holland Company :—and in regard
to the route by way of Chagres and Panama, a similar confidence
in the minds of all who have examined the authorities, and espe¬
cially of those who have also gained some knowledge of the route
from their own personal examinations and inquiries, and other
sources*
[ 9 1
Which of the two routes is preferable need not be ascertained
long beforehand : to know that one or the other is barely practica"
ble is sufficient for preliminary purposes ;—and that there is more
than one practicable is highly favorable to the enterprize, because
it affords a choice between them, depending on their natural ad¬
vantages, and on the terms to be obtained from those controlling
the territory of each, as to the cost of the work smd the enjoy¬
ment of its benefits.
As to the degree of ease or difficulty, with which a ship canal
may be constructed along either of those routes, that may be
judged of in some measure from the following circumstances.
By the route through Lake Nicaragua, a ship canal would re¬
quire an excavation of proper depth and breadth ;—(about twenty-
two feet deep, forty feet wide at bottom, and one hundred feet
wide at top,)—for a distance from sixty to seventy miles between
the Atlantic and the Lake, with locks to ascend about one hundred
and forty feet to the level of the Lake ;—and another similar ex¬
cavation of about twenty or twenty-five miles long between the
Lake and the Pacific, with locks to descend about the same num¬
ber of feet ; and if a cut or excavation, on a level with the Lake,
through the dividing ridge or space between it and the Pacific,
could not be effected, then, with additional locks, to ascend and
descend that ridge, and a feeder of water from a higher level at a
considerable distance. Thus a canal of two parts, about eighty-
five or ninety miles long together, connecting Lake Nicaragua
with both oceans, would afford a navigation from one ocean to
the other, about one hundred and eighty or ninety miles long, in¬
cluding a portion of the Lake to be used as a part of it, and would
terminate at each end in a good harbour, or one capable of being
made good and sufficient for the purposes wanted.
By the route of Chagres and Panama, a ship canal would re¬
quire a similar excavation for a distance of between thirty-five and
fifty miles ; varying in proportion as the bed of the river Chagres
and its tributary, the Trinidad, might be used for the purpose, be¬
tween a port on the Atlantic side called Navy Bay, or Port Limon,
near the mouth of the river Chagres, and a port on the Pacific
side called Chorrera, at the mouth of a river of that naine ;
or the port of Panama, at the city of the same name with locks
sufficient to ascend and descend the dividing ridge between
the two oceans, and a cut or excavation through a part of it, where
B
t 10 ]
water may be deficient to supply the summit level ; the whole
elevation of which ridge above either ocean is believed, on good
authority, to be less than two hundred feet, and its breadth quite
narrow, and easily cut through to a level with streams of water,
which would answer as feeders a sufficient distance each way.
Thus a canal of two parts—the one only three miles long, to con¬
nect Navy Bay with the river Chagres, and the other between
thirty and forty-five miles long, from the junction of the river
Chagres and Trinidad, or somewhat higher up the one or the
other to the Pacific, at the port of Panama or Chorrera—would
afford a navigation, from one ocean to the other, of between fifty
and sixty miles long, including a portion of the two rivers to be
used as a substitute, and w^ould terminate on the Atlantic side in
a very excellent harbour, and on the Pacific side in one capable
of being made equally good.
Under this head it may be further observed, that besides the
two routes described, there are others which have been represent¬
ed as affording great facilities for a communication between the
two oceans, but probably meant for boat canals only, and even for
that purpose not preferable to those described. It is, however, pos¬
sible, and barely so, that in the event of further explorations of the
whole Isthmus, between North and South America, some other
route more eligible for a ship canal than any yet known may be
discovered ; and as such explorations will no doubt be made be¬
fore the work is undertaken, the very best route discovered will
of course be selected.
Upon the whole, therefore, the construction of a ship canal, along
the one or the other route thus partially described, may be consi¬
dered as practicable without much difiiculty, and that most im¬
portant point as established.
3d. Its probable cost.
This cannot be ascertained or estimated with any degree of ac¬
curacy from data at present known ; but, from a comparison
with other similar works, may be conjectured at not exceeding
twenty millions of dollars. The only wmrks of the kind from
which to draw any inference applicable to this, are the Holland
Canal, from Amsterdam to the ocean at the Welder; and the Cale¬
donian Canal across Scotland, from the East or German Sea to the
West Sea or Irish Channel. The Holland Canal is fifty miles and
a half long, twenty feet nine inches deep, thirty-six feet wide at
[ 11 ]
bottom, and one hundred and twenty-four feet wide at top, wi^
two tide locks at the extremities, and two sluices with flood-gates
in the intermediate space ; being on a level with the sea, and sup¬
plied with water from thence at high tides, and. occasionally by the
aid of a powerful steam engine. It was completed in the year
1825, and cost about five millions of dollars.. The Caledonian-
Canal is sixty-nine miles and a quarter, long, from sea to sea, in¬
cluding the intermediate lakes forming a part of the line ; but it has
only twenty-three miles of excavation with an expensive deepen¬
ing of those lakes. It is twenty feet deep ; forty feet wide at bottom,,
and eighty or ninety feet wide at top ;—having twenty^three locks
to overcome an elevation of ninety-four feet. It was completed
in the year 1822, and cost about four and a half millions of dollars.
From these two works some inferences may be drawn in rela¬
tion to the cost of that in contemplation. Its length and dimen¬
sions, by the route of the Chagres, would be similar to that of the
Holland Canal, and its lockage probably to that of the Caledonian.
As the former cost about five millions, and the latter about four and
a half millions of dollars, it would probably be quite safe to esti¬
mate the cost of this as not exceeding twenty millions of dollars;-—
making allowances one way for the much higher price on the
Isthmus of scientific aid, and labor requiring skill, and of some of
the materials, with disadvantages of climate, and perhaps some
unknown physical obstacles ; and allowances the other way for
the low price of common labor and provisions there ; the abun.-
dance of timber and stone of all sorts ; the almost entire use of
land for nothing, and the easy acquisition of extensive territory
for a trifle, along the canal, and at each end, which would grow
into value by means of the canal, and might possibly in time reinar
burse a considerable proportion of its cost.
There is another great public work recently completed in
Sweden, called the " Gotha canal," which may afford inferences
favorable to the one in contemplation, but no particular account
of it has yet been published. It is stated in the public prints to
be one of the greatest works of Europe, and to have cost ten mil¬
lions of rix dollars. Its length and dimensions are not mentioned,
but the elevation overcome in its whole course is known to be
above three hundred feet by lockage ;—more than three times that
of the Caledonian Canal.
Although estimates of the cost, without better information than has
[ 12 ]
yet been obtained, must necessarily be very uncertain ; yet it seems
quite probable that it would not exceed twenty millions ;—and it
is beyond all doubt (which is enough to be known beforehand)
that the cost of the work will be trifling, indeed, in comparison
with its immense value when completed ; that the capital invested
in it may be made at all events to bring a fair interest, or if not re¬
stricted, an extravagant interest, which ought however to be
guarded against, and that the world would be immeasurably bene¬
fitted besides wherefore, a few millions, more or less in the cost
of the work, deserves but little weight in forming conclusions about
undertaking it.
4th. Its public utility.
The public or general advantages that would result from the
execution of this project are too immense either to be foreseen to
their full extent, or to be described in detail so far as they are ap¬
parent ; but a few of its most important and immediate effects may
be thus specified.
The saving of above twelve thousand miles in the circumnaviga¬
tion of South America by Cape Horn, and avoiding the delays and
dangers of doubling that Cape, at all seasons of the year, would be
its first great general effect ; which would be a reduction of dis"
tance^ time^ expense^ and risk^far exceeding^ what the globe admits
of being effected anywhere else. By means of a ship canal across
the Isthmus, through either of the routes mentioned (which are both
within the tropics, where no changes of weather interrupt naviga¬
tion, as well as nearly central between the most populous and
wealthy regions of America, and also in the most direct line from
Europe and the United States, to the Eastern countries of Asia and
the islands of the Pacific,) the trade and intercourse between all of
them in every direction would become comparatively easy^ scfe^
cheap^ and rapid ;—and millions of the human race be thus
brought into communion with one another, who are now widely
separated by nature's barriers, and scarcely known to each other.
But to specify its effects more particularly (as they well deserve
to be), it is apparent, from a mere inspection of the map of the
world, and a slight calculation of the wants and interests and de¬
sires of a large portion of its inhabitants, especially on this con¬
tinent,
1st. That the inhabitants of the western side of America, from
Chili inclusive on the south, to the Russian possessions on the
I 13 ]
north, a distance of about eight thousand miles {as the coast
winds), together with those of the numerous islands of the Pacific,
would be peculiarly and most extensively benefitted, by reason
of its opening to them all an easy and intimate intercourse with
the inhabitants of the eastern side of America and those of Europe,
and the best means of effecting their exchanges with the world in
general, and also facilitating the introduction among them of those
improvements in agriculture, arts, and sciences, and especially in
self government, wherein they are yet so wofully deficient.
2d. That the inhabitants of the United States would be next
highly benefitted by reason of the immense increase of commerce
in general, which would result from the facility of intercourse with
the western side of America and the islands of the Pacific, wherein
they would participate more largely, and from which they
would reap greater advantages than Europeans or others, in con¬
sequence of their proximity and superiority in navigation.
3d. That the very rich, extensive, and highly important trade of
the United States, and of Europe, with China, Japan, and the In¬
dian Archipelago, would be much facilitated and increased by
reason of shortening the distance above four thousand miles, and
saving time in the voyages still more in proportion, from the whole
route passing through the most favorable latitudes for winds and
currents each way.
4th. That the immense and still growing Whale fishery and
Skin and Fur fishery of the United States, and other nations in the
Pacific ocean, would be exceedingly accommodated, extended,
and made more lucrative, by shortening the voyages of those en¬
gaged therein above one-half, and enabling them to realize the
fruits of their enterprize, skill, and capital, at much less risk, ex¬
pense, and loss of time.
5th. That the settlement and improvement of the extensive
and important territory of the United States bounding on the Pa¬
cific ocean, and its general advantage to the Union, would be
greatly facilitated and augmented, by bringing it, on an average,
above twelve thousand miles nearer to the seat of government
and the states on the Atlantic, by way of the Isthmus, than it is by
way of Cape Horn, and admitting of a rapid and regular inter¬
course with it by means of a steam navigation and otherwise.
6th. That the commerce in general of the United States, and
of the world at large, would become more extended, and the pro-
[ 14 ]
ducts of agriculture and manufactures of the various portions
more demanded, by reason of its opening new markets to each
through the increased facility of exchanges.
7th. And, finally, that, in consequence of the more intimate in¬
tercourse and communion of such numerous and immense bodies
of the human race, the characters of nations would gradually be¬
come more improved and assimilated ; a pacific and harmonious
disposition more generally cultivated ; forms, and the administra¬
tion of governments amended ; liberty, knowledge, and virtue,
more widely diffused ; and prosperity and happiness more
generally enjoyed.
From this imperfect sketch of the tendency and effects of the
execution of this project, it is manifest that there is not an im¬
provement to be made on the whole globe so highly beneficial to
mankind in general as the one in contemplation ;—nor from what
has been shown before, is there any one so easy of execution, in
proportion to its benefits.
5th. Its private revenue ;—or profit on capital invested.
Suppose the work to cost twenty millions of dollars (as has
been estimated), the interest thereon at four per cent per annum,
the full value of money in Europe, would be eight hundred thou¬
sand dollars annually. But in order to present sufficient induce¬
ment to advance the capital required, and suitably to reward con¬
tributors to an object so beneficial to the world, a higher compen¬
sation ought to be allowed, and, as far as possible, to be guaran^
tied ;—limited, however,, from considerations of gener,al equity and
policy, to a rate that would not be extravagant. Without assign¬
ing at present more particular reasons, it will be assumed that
the rate of interest should be about double the usual value of mo¬
ney ;—that is, about eight per cent per annum on the capital in¬
vested, and never allowed to exceed that rate ; payable biennially
from the period when the income of the canal shall be sufficient to
meet it, with an accumulation on the advances of four per cent
per annum until that period arrives. This would require a re¬
venue from the canal of one million six hundred thousand dollars
annually.
It is easy to show how that amount, and a great deal more,
would be produced, or rather would be saved by means of the ca¬
nal, upon the present commerce of the world, that would flow
through it whenever opened, without calculating its certain and
[ 15 1
almost unlimited increase and consequent larger savings in time-
The mere difference in the amount of insurance paid, the inte¬
rest of money invested, and the expenses of navigating vessels em¬
ployed, between voyages from the United States and Europe to
the Pacific ocean, and all the countries bordering on it, by way of
the canal, or by Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, wmuld
■'jß>
far exceed annually the one million six hundred thousand dollars
required for interest on the cost of the canal. But it is impossible
to make estimates from present information more precise or accu¬
rate than as approximations towards correctness ;—of which the
following is ci specimen, viz.
The average length of voyages from the United States round
Cape Horn, to the principal ports on the west side of America and
to the whaling districts of the Pacific, is above four months ;—
while by way of the canal it would not exceed one month ;—mak¬
ing a difference of three months each way, and six months on a
voyage out, and home—usually performed in about a year, except
by whaling vessels—consequently there would be a saving effected,
of insurance on vessels and cargoes, and oí interest on the amount
of their cost ; and of expense in navigating those vessels, just in pro¬
portion to, the saving of time on the voyages. This saving would
be about one-half of one per cent, both on the insurance and on
the interest, as is usually paid ; and considerably more on the ex¬
penses of navigation ;—making not less than ten per cent per an¬
num. It is estimated there are at least one hundred ships or ves¬
sels of the United States sailing annually from home ports for the
Pacific ; and as many returning thence, including those employed
in whaling ; the aggregate value of all which with their cargoes
may be estimated as high as five or six millions of dollars ; and ten
per cent saved thereon would be at least half a million of dollars.
The British and Europeans exchange annually with the west¬
ern side of America to a much larger amount, and carry on also
a considerable whaling business in the Pacific. As from the rela¬
tive distances, the time to be saved in their voyages would be ra¬
ther less than those from the United States, and the saving of in¬
surance, interest, and navigating expenses, of course proportionally
less ; yet, as the amount of their exchanges is so much larger than
ours, it may be about correct to estimate the whole saving on the
trade of Europe with the Pacific through the canal as at least equal
to that on the trade of the United States through it ;—namely,
[ 16 ]
half a million of dollars ;—making together thus far at least one
million annually. In addition to this, must be estimated the sav¬
ing on the whole trade of the United States and of Europe with
China, and the neighboring countries and islands of the Pacific,
which would be carried on by way of the canal, because that
route would be above four thousand miles shorter than by the
Cape of Good Hope, without crossing the equator or reaching high
latitudes, and would reduce the length of voyages out and home
at least two months on an average, consequently as much as three
per cent (if not more) on the aggregate amount of that trade must
also be estimated, as to be saved by the canal ;—but the amount of
that trade is almost incalculable.,
From official reports to Congress, it appears that the exchanges
between the United States and Canton, alone, amount to aboveden
millions of dollars annually. Those between Europe and China
and neighboring countries must be a vast deal more ;—perhaps
four or five times as much ; but suppose only a little above twice
as much, and that the whole amount of exchanges of both Europe
and the United States with China, and the neighboring countries
were only thirty-three millions and a third of dollars ; then the sav¬
ing thereon by means of the canal would be as much as one million
of dollars annually ;—thus making altogether two millions.
Thus it appears that, if the present commerce of ihe United
States and of Europe with the western side of America, the islands
pf the Pacific, and China and neighboring countries, should be
carried on through the canal, the immediate annual saving thereon,
upon the grounds stated, without reference to other great benefits,
would be not less than two millions of dollars (and it might be a
great deal more) ;—-while the whole revenue required to pay the
interest on the cost of the canal, at the high rate of eight per cent
would be only one million six hundred thousand dollars ;—con¬
sequently there can be no doubt of sufficient remuneration for the
capital to be employed. But this calculation does not compre¬
hend all the sources of revenue to be derived from the canal. It
merely shows the saving to be made in effecting the present ex¬
changes between certain parts of the world by means of the canal,
and the amount which might of course be levied for the use of the
canal, without adding at all to the present charges on the same
commerce. Other advantages would justify additional charges,
if more income were required ;—but the natural growth of con\-
i 17 ]
flüerce, together with that resulting from the increase of facilities,
would soon produce an immense addition, and a vast surplus of
income from the canal ; unless limited by previous restrictions,
as proposed, and as it ought certainly to be.
6th. Its mode of execution ;—or the arrangements most neces¬
sary or expedient to effectuate the design, and permanently to se¬
cure its benefits.
This involves what is highly important and extremely diflScult,
and requires the greatest foresight and judgment. It is indeed the
main point, on the judicious settlement of which beforehand the
execution of the project and its permanent utility chiefly depend.
Considering^ then, that as the work in contemplation ought, for
the reasons already given, to be constructed and preserved for the
benefit of the world, through the united means and exertions of
individuals or companies of different nations, under the patronage
of their respective Governments, it will be requisite in the first
place to devise and adopt the most suitable measures for bringing
about such a cordial co-operation of individuals or companies, and
securing such a powerful patronage of Governments as may be
adequate to the end :—that as the right or privilege to execute
the work must depend on the will or consent of the Government
of the country through which the Canal is to pass, it will be re¬
quisite in the next place to negotiate with the Governments of
both countries through which a Canal is practicable, in relation
to the terms and privileges which would be granted by them, if
undertaken through either :—that as the selection of the best route
must depend on previous explorations and surveys of the Isthmus,
it will be requisite also to employ competent engineers to perform
the same, especially in regard to the two routes by way of Lake
Nicaragua, and by way of the river Chagres ; and upon their re¬
port of the characters of both, together with the result of the ne¬
gotiation with each Government for terms and privileges, to de¬
termine which of them is entitled to the preference :—that as it
wül he of the utmost importance to be well secured in the enjoys
ment of the rights and privileges acquired from the Government
of the country through which the Canal is to be made, it will be
further requisitë io obtain a guarantee of the same firom each of
those Governments whose citizens or subjects combine to execute
the work, by means of treaty stipulations between them and the
fermer, for that express purpose ; so that these rights and privx-
c
L 18 J
leges should never be violated with impunity, and that the full
benefits of this intended highway of nations should for ever be
secured to the world at large on equitable terms :—
And that as the proper execution of the work, after all the pre¬
liminary arrangements shall have been completed, will depend on
a suitable organization of the general body of contributors or
stockholders, it will be requisite finally for them to adopt a proper
Government, or system of regulations for themselves and their
successors, in relation to this object, under the sanction of legisla¬
tive charters in each country, and to constitute a superintending
Board of Directors out of the whole body, for the purpose of
conducting the operations of the general association, and employ¬
ing the agents necessary to carry their views into effect.
These considerations indicate the general course or scheme of
action to be pursued, in reference to the mode of undertaking and
accomplishing the work and securing its benefits. They plainly
shew, in the first place, the necessity of governmental interference.
It is manifest that, from the very incipient steps to be taken in re¬
lation to the Canal until its completion, and subsequently for its
preservation and use, the co-operation of one or more powerful
Governments, with individuals and companies, is indispensable.
This results from various causes ; especially the following :—
From the difficulty of negotiating for the necessary privileges be¬
tween private individuals on one side and, a foreign Government
on the other, and obtaining the necessary security ;—from the in¬
equality of physical strength between the parties negotiating, and
the want of confidence thence resulting, if no guaranties be ob¬
tained ;—from the danger of revolutions or convulsions in new
Governments like those referred to, and their incompetence to en¬
force their own decrees, at all times, if ever so well disposed
from the temptation always existing on the side of a strong party
to violate its engagements with a weaker party ; and more espe-
cially from the object in view being one of such great and univer¬
sal concern, as to deserve and to demandthe attention and co¬
operation of Governments and individuals in different parts of the
world.
It is therefore respectfully suggested, and^with deference recom¬
mended, that negotiations be opened without delay by the go¬
vernment of the United States, with those of New Grenada and
Central America, for the purpose of obtaining permission to ex-
[ 19 ]
plore and survey the different routes through the territories of each
most eligible for a ship Canal, from one ocean to the other, and of
ascertaining the terms and conditions upon which they would re¬
spectively allow such a Canal to be constructed ; and also that
competent engineers be employed by our Government, as soon as
permission be obtained, to explore and survey the Isthmus, or at
least the two routes pointed out as most feasible, in order to as¬
certain which of them from physical circumstances is entitled to
the preference, and what would be the probable cost of a Ship
Canal through either ;—and at the same time, or as soon as cir¬
cumstances render it advisable, that negotiations be opened by
our Government with such other Governments as would probably
be disposed to co-operate in promoting the object, especially those
of Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands, for the purpose of
entering into arrangements to accomplish the great end in view
through common means and united exertions.
Such negotiations with the former would probably lead to stipu¬
lations or offers, on the part of some or all of them, for contribu¬
ting pecuniary aid, if necessary, towards the first cost of the work ;
at least, whenever competent individuals or companies should un¬
dertake its construction and provide for raising the residue of the
amount required ;—^but the negotiations should be directed prin¬
cipally to, and would probably eventuate in, the formation of a
treaty between the Governments referred to on one side, and the
Government of the country through which the Canal is to pass
on the other ; stipulating all the terms and conditions on which
the work is to be constructed and its benefits enjoyed, and guar¬
antying to each other, and to the individuals and companies con¬
cerned in it, all the rights and privileges acquired by each in con¬
sequence of such treaty stipulations.
The considerations stated indicate in the next place the course
of proceeding for individuals to pursue in relation to the object in
view. If our Government should adopt the preliminary steps
suggested^ they should commence acting in accordance therewith,
by endeavouring to form, in the first place, a partial association in
this country of such persons as are most disposed and most com¬
petent to promtotqtheXobject, for the purpose of combining their
efforts in its favor,^ and recommending it to the public by their uni¬
ted voice and influence—thus trying to make proselytes and gain
strength by degrees, and to bring about in time such an associa-
[ 20 ]
tion out of this and other countries as should be adequate to the
end.
This first association need not incur expense, nor engage in
hazardous measures, but should chiefly advise and consult with
each other in regard to the course to be adopted, in concurrence
with the steps which may be taken in the matter by our Govern¬
ment and others, and recommend that course to the public ; and
thus ascertain how far public opinion in our own country would
warrant the undertaking under proper auspices, and what degree
of co-operation could be obtained from abroad. If the result of
these measures should prove favorable thus far (as there are cer¬
tainly good grounds to expect), then ulterior measures might easi¬
ly be devised and adopted, and would readily be seconded by the
public in general, for extending the association and forming a
great company out of this and other countries, more or less nu-
merous or dispersed, according to circumstances, but under one su¬
perintending Board of Directors, which should be fully compe¬
tent, with the aid and patronage of their Governments, to effectuate
the great design.
The plan or scheme of action thus suggested and explained,
for executing the work and securing its benefits, although the
result of much reflection is recommended with diffidence, because
there is room for v/ide difference of opinion respecting it ;—espe¬
cially as regards the very extensive co-operation contemplated.
The idea of several governments acting in concert with each other,
and with individuals, and a company being formed out of different
nations for the attainment of a common end, is, perhaps, novel and
unprecedented, and may be deemed by some visionary and imprac¬
ticable. But it must be considered, that the world has recently
become more enlightened ; that the present is an age of improve¬
ment, of enterprise, of vast expansion of mind and physical means ;
that mankind have groAvn more pacific and philanthropic also,
and are generally cultivating peace and friendship with each
other ;—and, consequently, that impediments to united action for
common good among nations, as well as individuals, are much
diminished, and the inducements and facilities in its favor much
increase. The scheme of united action for attaining the great
end in view is, therefore, much more likely to meet with favor now
than formerly. It would probably strike the minds of the intelli¬
gent and patriotic in all parts of the world, as worthy of encour-
[ 21 ]
agement and adoption ; and their sentiments would give an
impulse te public opinion, and, finally, to corresponding action.
The plan is worth trying, at least, if no better be devised ;—a
failure would involve no disgrace or injury ;—and success would
operate like a victory over human weakness as well as over phy¬
sical nature, extending benefits to, and improving the condition of,
an immense number of the human race.
Having thus, as briefly as the copiousness of the subject per¬
mitted, but very imperfectly, explained and illustrated, undi^ the
heads proposed, the nature and extent of the work in contempla¬
tion ; its practicability ;—probable cost ;—public utility ;—private
revenue ;—and mode of execution ;—it remains only, as observed
in the introduction, to add a few general remarks.
It may be emphatically repeated, and will no doubt be admitted
by every one reflecting on the subject, that this is really and truly
the most useful, important, and magnificent improvement which
the physical circumstances of the globe present to the enterprise
of man." It has no equal on earth ;—nor can it possibly have
any by reason of the form and position of the two great continents
into which the land is divided by nature and their surrounding
waters Where else, upon the face of the Earth, can a distance of
fourteen thousand miles be reduced to two thousand, by means of
an artificial passage of fifty or sixty miles ?—or even sixteen
thousand miles be reduced to twelve thousand ?—avoiding in each
case both the equator and high latitudes. Where else, or by
what other means within the power of man, can such immense
bodies of the human race, now widely separated by natural barriers,
be brought into communion with each other, and reap such im¬
mense benefits as would flow from this single improvement ?
Why then shall the world, enlightened as it is, eager for improve¬
ments, surcharged with capital rapidly accumulating and seeking
investment, any longer forego this great desideratum ? Why not
improve the present favorable season ;—-so propitious to great
achievements from the prevalence of peace, the march of intellect,
and the accumulation of means ;—to commence this important
work and secure its completion, before a storm arises, or cloud
appears, or some interruption in the present happy pçpgress of
the world^s aifairs takes place, which is possible, however unfore-
rseen ? There is perhaps a tide in the affairs of nations, as well as
individuals, which, taken at the flood, leads on to immense acqui-
[ 22 ]
sitions or great achievements ;—omitted, and all their efforts for
years and ages maybe baffled by adversities. Now, therefore, is
the time for undertaking this grand enterprize ;—so long contem¬
plated by the world at large ;—so much called for and demanded
by the wants, desires, and best interests of mankind ;—so worthy
of all possible endeavors to execute it ;—so ripe for execution.
Besides the fitness of the period for undertaking the work,—on
whom devolves the duty most imperatively of taking the first steps
in relation to it ?—Is it not incumbent on the government or citi¬
zens of the United States to originate the necessary measures, and
set the wheels in motion at least ?—Are they not, from proximity
of situation and other circumstances, best enabled to take the lead
and attend to the execution of the work ?—And are they not more
deeply interested in its results than those of any other country ?—
except perhaps of the country through which the work is to be
made, who are known to be incompetent to take much agency in
it. If the affirmatives be true, then there is an obligation or duty
imposed or existing, which ought to be discharged ;—and which,
it is believed, requires only to be understood to induce proper exer¬
tion for its discharge.
In regard to the interposition of our government in favor of the
undertaking, that will result, as is conceived, from its general
duty and obligation to foster and protect commerce, and its par¬
ticular interest or policy as affected by the measure itself. It is
well known to have been the constant aim and practice of our gov¬
ernment to enter into commercial treaties with all nations whose
trade was worth cultivating ; and there is scarcely one maritime
country of Europe or America with which^ere is not such a
treaty subsisting. Our government has eveitiong sought, and at
considerable expense obtained by treaty with the Poite a few years
ago, the privilege of a passage through the straits of the Bospho-
rus, for the sake of a trifling addition to our commerce by access
to the ports of the Black Sea ;—and has recently negotiated for
commercial advantages with some of the minor powers of remotest
Asia. With how much stronger reasons is it called on, to endeavour
to obtain the privilege and advantage of access to the ports of the
Pacific through a strait or passage that may be opened through
the Isthmus. ; and even to aid in the opening thereof ; a privilege
which, whenever the passage shall be opened, will add to our com¬
merce infinitely more than is gained by our treaty with the Porte,
[ 23 ]
and many other treaties together ; and would add much also to
the general advantage of the world ;—and how just and expedient
would it consequently be, for our government to contribute largely
towards the expense of opening such a passage, if it can do so
constitutionally.
But our government has already given proof of its views in
reference to this object by its instructions to our ministers to the-
Panama Convention some years ago ;—in which instructions it
was expressly recognized as a duty or policy incumbent on the
United States to enter into arrangements with other governments,
represented in that convention, for opening a navigable commu¬
nication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through the
Isthmus by common means and united exertions. It may. be
similarly actuated from duty and policy in regard to the . large and
important territory of the United States bordering on the Pacific
Ocean ; which would be highly benefited and rendered far more
useful to the union at large by such a communication being opened
than it ever can possibly be otherwise ;—-and it may be further¬
more influenced by considerations of convenience and economy
in regard to its naval force usually stationed or employed in the
Pacific ; which could be maintained there, if such a communication
were opened, at an expense so much less than it has been hereto¬
fore» as to cause a very considerable annual saving ; perhaps equal
to the interest of a million of dollars. For these various reasons,
and others which might be specified, if necessary, there can be no
doubt whatever of all proper aid and countenance being afforded
by our government whenever the occasion arises.
In regard to a co-operation from abroad, it must be taken into
consideration, along with other circumstances, as before^observed,
that some years ago the king of the Netherlands, or a company of
his subjects under his special patronage, contemplated the construc¬
tion on their own account of a ship canal to connect the two oceans
by way of lake Nicaragua, and actually obtained from the govern¬
ment of central America the requisite privileges for executing the
same ; butin consequence of the Belgian Revolution, the project
became suspended, and remains so yet. It is not, however, aban¬
doned, but will probably be resumed by the association under the
same patronage as soon as circumstances permit ; governed by
later and more correct information as to the most eligible route.
From this may -^vell be inferred the probability of a co-operation
t 24 ]
between them and an association in the United States, if desired by
the latter ;—especially as it is also known from good authority
that the king of the Netherlands and his associates had intended
to offer to all foreigners, particularly Americans, the privilege of
joining their association/on equal terms in the prosecution of the
work. No doubt, therefore, exists of a co-operation between ah
association in this country and one in the Netherlands being easily
brought about, if desired -but it would be far preferable to have
the same extended to Great Britain and France also ;—and to have
one general association or company formed out of the four coun¬
tries together, in order to execute the work jointly in the most
perfect manner for the benefit of themselves, and of the world at
large—subject only to a reasonable toll. A combination so exten¬
sive and powerful as that of a body of leading and wealthy indi¬
viduals of Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, and the United
States, aided and patronized by their respective governments,
would be able to accomplish the object with great facility and de-*
spatch, and render its enjoyment secure and permanent. Those
governments need only treat with the governments of central
America and New Granada, for the privilege of constructing a ship
canal through the territory of either, according as the one or the
other route should be found best, and of using that canal freely
and permanently without interference by the local authorities of
either, but under the protection and guarantee of the high con¬
tracting parties; and then submit to their respective-subjects and
citizens the selection of the route and the execution of the work,
with the control thereof under reasonable restrictions ; but aiding
their operations with such legislative favors and such contributions
or loans of money, as circumstances render necessary, or useful and
advisable. Thus encouraged, private individuals, or companies of
the countries mentioned, would, in all probability, cheerfully ad¬
vance the necessary funds, and proceed with alacrity to the execu¬
tion of the work, which would no doubt be completed in a few years^
Whenever that work .shall be accomplished, it will indeed be no
ordinary task performed, nor common object attained but the
most important improvement effected, for the benefit of the world,
which is within the scope of human exertions, and a monument of
glory erected to the governments and nations who shall have pa¬
tronized and accomplished it.
It may well be asked, finally, why shall not the great end in
[ 25 ]
View be thus attained througb cone er h of action between different
nations ? Why shall not one monument, at lenst/of combined exer¬
tion to overcome physical obstacles for general good, be raised and
transmitted to posterity through the intelligence and philanthropy
of the present age ? Why shall not the present moment be seized
on to commence operations for erecting such a monument ?
Not even a plausible objection can be urged against it ; while, in
addition to the considerations imperfectly sketched above, there
are many and irresistible arguments in its favor.
The spirit of improvement, which is abroad upon the earth,
seems to authorize and dictate this grand enterprise. The gene¬
ral expansion of mind and increase of physical power, which have
taken place in the world, seem to grasp at and demand it. The
consummation is not only devoutly to be wished, but may easily
be reedized and enjoyed, if eyery intelligent man, possessing
power or influence, will perform but a portion of his duty in rela¬
tion to it.
NOTE.
The author takes the liberty to add, with deferenc c, that
having investigated the subject of the foregoing " Conside¬
rations," in consequence of being employed in a public station
abroad, he deemed it his duty to communicate his ideas to Mem¬
bers of the Government at different times since his return ; by
some of whom they were kindly received and attended to ;—^and
having more recently shewn a copy of it in manuscript to an
honorable and distinguished Senator in Congress,—that gentle¬
man recommended its publication, and thought droper to offer a
Resolution to the Senate in relation to the object contemplated,—
which passed that honorable body; and is in the following
words, viz:
"In Senate, March 3d, 1835.
" The following motion, submitted by Mr. Clayton, was con¬
sidered and agreed to.
" Resolved^ That the President of the United States be re¬
spectfully requested to consider the expediency of opening nego¬
tiations with the Governments of other Nations, and particularly
with the Governments of Central America and New Grenada,
D
I 26 3
for the purpose of effectually protecting, by suitable trealy stipu¬
lations with them, such individuals or companies as may under¬
take to open a communication between the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans, by the construction of a Ship Canal across the Isthmus,
which connects North and South America; and of securing for¬
ever, by such stipulations, the free and equal right of navigating
such Canal to all such nations, on the payment of such reasona¬
ble tolls as may be established to compensate the capitalists, who
may engage in such undertaking, and complete the work.
" Orderedj That the Secretary lay this Resolution before the
President of the United States."
It is understood that the President took a favorable view of the
subject thus recommended to him by the Senate, and has partiaUy
acted upon it.
EXPLANATION OP THE MAPS ANNEXED.
In order to afford readers of the foregoing a cle2ur idea Of the
localities of these two portions of the Isthmus, through which a
Canal is practicable, the two following ^sketches of Maps are
added:—
The first, shews the route by way of the river Chagres, and a
part of the adjacent Territory and Sea Coasts; and is copied
from a Map published in London, by one of the Engineers em¬
ployed by Bolivar, in 1828 and 1829, to explore and survey that
part of the Isthmus most eligible for a communication across,
which lay within the bounds Of Colombia, and is now a part of
New Grenada.
The second, shews the route by way of Lake Nicaragua, and a
part of the adjacent Territory and Sea Coasts ; and is copied
from a Map drawn up by an Engineer, employed by the public
authorities of Central America, about the year 1823 or 1824.
These two routes are about three hundred miles distant firom
each other—the former passing through a part of New Grenada,
and the latter through a part of Central America ;-^the centre of
the first being about Q'* 18' north latitude, and 19*^ 30' west Ion-
[ 27 ]
gitude; aud of the second about 12® north latitude, and 84«
west longitude.
In examining the first Map, it will be perceived that the route
marked on it commences at JYavy Bay, on the Atlantic side of
the Isthmus, there called the Caribbean Sea ; and runs southerly
across the Isthmus to the Pacific, at the bay of Chorrera, or that of
Panama ; a distance of about fifty or sixty miles with the wind¬
ings, although in a straight line less than forty miles.
This route may be traced on the Map as composed of dif¬
ferent parts. The first, a cut or excavation of about three miles,
from Navy Bay to the river Chagres, on a level with the sea.
The next, the bed of that river, about twelve or fourteen miles,
until its junction with the river Trinidad, using it as a feeder till
near its source,^ with the necessary locks to ascend to the summit
level ; then a deep cut of a few miles through the intervening
ridge, reducing that level so low as to be fed with water from the
adjacent high lands-—and then to the Pacific, at the bay of Chor¬
rera, along the margin of the river of that name, and using it as
a feeder. Or, instead of ascending the river Trinidad, the route
might diverge from near its mouth in a direction towards the city
and bay of Panama, supplied with water from the river Chagres,
and other streams along that line,—thus making Panama the ter¬
mination or entrance into the Pacific instead of Chorrera. Which
of these terminations is preferable, will be ascertained, of course,
by proper surveys and examinations.
In examining the second Map (which is drawn on a much
smaller scale than the other), it will be perceived that the route
marked on it commences on the Atlantic side at the bay or port
of St. John, at the mouth of the river of that name, which is the
outlet of the Lake Nicaragua ; and follows the river St. John,
ascending with locks up to the Lake,—a distance of about sixty
miles, and an elevation of about one hundred and forty feet ;—then
using the Lake itself as a part of the line, which is deep and large,
to a port or station on its western shore, which is nearest to the
Pacific ;—and thence by a deep cut or excavation on a level with
the Lake, if possible, through the intervening ridge to the Pa¬
cific, at a port or bay called St. John of the South, within the
gulf of Papagayo ; a distance of about twenty-five miles ;—or,
if so deep a cut be too expensive, then with locks to ascend and
descend the dividing ridge, supplied with water from a higher
[ 28 ]
descend the dividing rldg3, supplied v/ilh wuter from a higher
level at a distance, probably from Lake Leon, which, being at a
considerably higher elevation than Lake Nicaragua, would answer
for the purpose.
It may be useful to mention, that the route used by travellers
in crossing the Isthmus, and for transporting merchandize, has
been, for near a century, and now is, by way of the River Cha-
gres,—landing at its mouth, and ascending it in canoes or boats,
to a town called Ciuces, at the head of navigation for such craft,
about fifty miles with the winding^,, though not half that distance
in a straight line,—and going by land from Cruces to Panama on
muleback, about twenty miles.
The ancient route from Porto Bello to Panama, formerly the
great channel of communication between Spain and her colonies
on the west sea of America, has been disused for a long series of
s
years, except for local purposes ; and is said to have become
impassable, except for footmen.
ATLANTIC OCEA/V
3 5556 041 294562