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GENERAL OP DIVISION PORFIRIO DIAZ. 
 President of the Mexican Republic. 
 
Edition for the World's Fair exposition. 
 
 Jl?e F?i<;l7e5 of /T\?xi<;o 
 
 AND 
 
 ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 BY 
 
 ADOLFO DUCLOS SALINAS. 
 
 ST. LOUIS: 
 Nixon-Jones Printing Co, 
 
 1893. 
 

 ? 
 
 e I^iefyes of /T\exieo. 
 
 
TO THE GENERAL OF DIVISION, 
 
 MR. PORFIRIO DIAZ, 
 president of the united states of mexico. 
 
 Sir: This work, although it contains many glaring 
 
 deficiencies, must possess for you one great merit ; 
 
 that it deals with the study of the mexican 
 
 Nation, to which you have consecrated, — 
 not without great sacrifices, the best portion 
 of your life, the sum complete of your ener- 
 gies, i have therefore presumed to dedicate it to you. 
 
 very respectfully, 
 
 a.dolfo duclos salinas. 
 (3) 
 
BOOK I 
 
 PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 
 
 (5) 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 MEXICO AND HER REVOLUTIONS. 
 
 I. Before passing in review the manifold sources of 
 wealth possessed by the territory of Mexico ; before com- 
 mencing the study of those elements of greatness and of 
 prosperity but ill-developed upon which our Republic can 
 count; before enumerating the list of her actual conquests, 
 let us look over the arena in which they have been realized. 
 Let us take a rapid glance at that stormy period which im- 
 mediately preceded our own, but of which now remain only 
 recollections and traditions. The bloody and lamentable 
 picture we are about to present, without extenuation of any 
 kind, will not serve so much to condemn the men of past 
 generations, as to show that if in the midst of so much 
 strife they have found time to do something in behalf of the 
 moral and material development of the Republic, their 
 deeds should rather be enrolled in the list of heroisms. 
 
 The revolutionary period commences where the war of 
 Independence ended. Hardly had the empire been consti- 
 tuted when, in 1823, Santa-Ana revolted, proclaiming the 
 Federation, and in 1824 Don Jose Maria Lobato gave in his 
 adherence to the revolutionary plan. In August of the 
 same year Don Antonio and Don Manuel Leon rose in arms 
 in Oaxaca and in support of the cause of Lobato ; and in 
 1827, Bravo and his followers announced the plan of 
 October for the expulsion of the Spaniards. On the 30th 
 November, 1828, the revolution of "La Acordada " broke 
 out in the Capital ; in 1829 there was carried into effect the 
 expulsion of the Spaniards which in its disastrous industrial 
 consequences was equivalent to the worst kind of revolu- 
 
 (7) 
 
8 THE KICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 tion, and which brought in its train the Spanish invasion of 
 the month of July of the same year. In December also 
 of the same year General Bustamante revolted in Jalapa, 
 Guerrero went to his encounter, and while the brothers 
 Rayon were in revolt in the Capital, Bustamante assumed 
 the presidency ; not that the revolutionary disturbance 
 came therefore to an end; on the contrary, it became con- 
 centrated in the south, where Guerrero had gone, and one 
 after the other San Luis, Michoacan, Puebla, in short the 
 majority of the States, joined the revolt. 
 
 Shortly after the political assassination of Guerrero (on 
 the 14th Feburary, 1831) came the new rebellion of Santa- 
 Ana in January, 1832, seconded by Texas, Tamaulipas, 
 San Luis and Zacatecas. In 1833 Don Ignacio Escalada 
 rose in Morelia with the cry of " Religion and our Rights," 
 and in July of the same year the Governor of Zacatecas 
 pronounced against Santa-Ana, the Dictator. At this 
 time there began those separatist's movements in Texas 
 which ended with the recognition of her independence. 
 In 1837 came the fresh rebellions of Ugarte, in San Luis ; 
 of Urrea in Sonora; of Guzman in Michoacan, and others 
 in Tamaulipas, all of which preceded by only a few months 
 the first French intervention (in November, 1838). Not 
 for this foreign intervention did the civil war cease. It did 
 so only when Santa- Ana succeeded in getting the better of 
 it in Acajete, on the 3rd of May, 1839. 
 
 In July, 1840, Urrea, in conjunction with Gomez Farias, 
 rose in Mexico, the resulting battle lasting fifteen days and 
 ending with a victory for Bustamante. In the following 
 year (1841) General Paredes proclaimed the Dictatorship 
 in Guadalajara, on the 8th of August. Valencia sec- 
 onded the movement in Mexico on the 31st of the 
 same month and Santa-Ana in Veracruz on the 9th 
 of September. Shortly afterwards occurred a fresh rising 
 in Mexico (December, 1844), and meantime, at the very 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 9 
 
 moment in which the war of American intervention was 
 breaking out, General Paredes raised the revolutionary 
 cry in San Luis. From the time of that intervention 
 until the French one, partial insurrections abounded. 
 In July of 1846, the rebellion of Yanez; in August that of 
 Salas; in February of 1847 that of the "polkos;" 
 shortly afterwards Paredes rose anew in Aguascalientes ; 
 then Don Leon Marquez got up a revolution with not 
 much success. In 1851, Bahamonde in Michoacan and 
 Blancarte in Jalisco rose in arms against the government of 
 Don Mariano Arista, and with them joined shortly after- 
 wards L6pez Uraga who had been sent against them, a pro- 
 ceeding which was imitated later (in 1853) by Kobles 
 Pezuela. 
 
 On the 1st of May, 1854, Don Florencio Villareal pro- 
 claimed the famous revolutionary plan of Ayutla, after- 
 wards seconded and reformed by Comonf ort in Acapulco ; 
 then came interminable, bloody and fratricidal struggles, 
 developed, now here, now there, amidst the darkness of 
 the dictatorial policy, from one end of the republic to the 
 other. Santa-Ana fell (in 1855) and Don Ignacio Comon- 
 fort became President. New risings in Sierra Gorda and 
 Zacapoastla ; the constitution of 1857, which Comonfort be- 
 trayed in December of the same year ; he is proclaimed in 
 the midst of the revolutionary effervescence — Juarez comes 
 into power, but not into the capital, where Zuloaga has al- 
 ready proclaimed himself anti-president . The strife between 
 liberals and conservatives which brought in its disastrous 
 train the French intervention, breaks out afresh, and — 
 enough ! What has been said is sufficient to justify our 
 putting the question, " could Mexico in the midst of such 
 " distress, war and pillage, be expected to stimulate her 
 " industries, develop her mines, promulgate and enforce 
 " laws favorable to agriculture, protect commerce, insure 
 " security to life and property, in short, set out with 
 
10 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 «' vigor on the road that leads to prosperity and civili- 
 sation?" Most certainly she could not. Little, very 
 little could be done in the midst of such commotion in the 
 directions mentioned, and it is sufficient glory for our 
 fathers to have left us the heritage of those political beliefs 
 which rule alone at the present day. 
 
 ERA OF PEACE. 
 
 II. A new political order of things was inaugurated with 
 the triumph of the Revolution of Tuxtepec, which com- 
 pletely removed the inveterate elements of discord and retro- 
 gression which then existed, and placed the country in new 
 and unknown channels of prosperity. The triumph of the 
 Revolution was the triumph of peace, and this latter triumph 
 gave birth to a political-social evolution which made Mexico, 
 heretofore the quarrelsome and retrogressive country of 
 other years, the most progressive nation of Spanish- 
 America. From the political era it had advanced to the 
 economical stage ; from the contest for a beginning, to the 
 struggle for existence; from the metaphysical or specu- 
 lative epoch to the positive or real. 
 
 The Conservative party, which arose from the ashes of 
 the Spanish domination, and which, for nearly half a cen- 
 tury had never ceased to sow discord among the Mexicans, 
 had buried itself amidst the ruins of its last attempt and 
 final treason — the French intervention. The triumphant 
 elements, prostituted by the policy of procrastination which 
 they had adopted immediately succeeding their victory, 
 were removed in 1877 and replaced by other and newer 
 ones, more in harmony with the spirit of our Jin de siecle. 
 
 To establish a new order of things, it became necessary 
 to inaugurate a formal policy of honesty, acknowledging 
 the credits of foreign nations, and more especially that of 
 the United States ; it was a matter of absolute necessity to 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 11 
 
 give ear to the patriotism of the people in order to secure 
 their pecuniary co-operation ; it was unavoidable to increase 
 their burdens with new taxations, and finally, it was inev- 
 itable to shirk the duty which confronted the government, 
 of opening up new avenues of trade to commerce, to indus- 
 try, to mining ; and institute a progressive policy which 
 should be distinctly at variance with the decalogue of the 
 former administrations. 
 
 What the result of the efforts of the Executive has been 
 in this direction will be seen in the superficial study which 
 we propose to make of the works recently undertaken 
 through the medium of his Cabinet. 
 
 SIEGE OF MEXICO IN TIME OF THE CONQUEST. 
 Mex. R. T. D. Los I 
 
12 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS. 
 
 I. In referring, at this point, to the relations existing 
 between Mexico and other countries and to the work 
 undertaken by the Secretary of Affairs with a view to 
 facilitating and improving the transaction of business per- 
 taining to his department, we will merely notice matters of 
 the greatest importance and omit those of a mere second- 
 ary interest. 
 
 It would be difficult, if not impossible, in a work of 
 such complicated character as this, to descend to details 
 and to follow, step by step, the delicate and progressive 
 career of Mexican international polity; we will therefore 
 confine ourselves to such a presentation as may be strictly 
 necessary to give a correct and clear understanding of the 
 subject, without venturing upon unwarranted comments or 
 attempting to interfere with the policy of reserve neces- 
 sary for the adjustment of relations now awaiting a 
 settlement. 
 
 The treaties entered into by the administration of 1862, 
 in reference to the Powers which recognized the French 
 intervention and the government of the usurper, were de- 
 clared void and of no effect. The agents appointed by the 
 government in foreign countries could not retain an official 
 character after the restoration of the Republic but simply 
 that of commercial, private agents, with instructions to be 
 reserved and prudent in their conduct and to obey in all 
 things the laws of the countries in which they resided. 
 
 During this period of struggle, friendly international 
 relations were sustained only by the American republics 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 13 
 
 which had always displayed sympathy with the cause of 
 Mexico's independence and liberty; among these the 
 United States deserves especial mention, for, by the moral 
 support which it lent to the national cause, it became 
 entitled to the gratitude and consideration of the Mexican 
 people and of the Mexican government. 
 
 President Juarez in his address to the national assembly 
 which convened December 8, 1867, used the following lan- 
 guage in this connection : 
 
 " By reason of the intervention our relations with Euro- 
 pean powers were broken off. Three of these powers, by 
 virtue of the treaty of London, entered into war with the 
 Eepublic ; then France alone continued the intervention 
 but the other European powers which had previously 
 entertained relations with the Republic declined to recog- 
 nize it and, in violation of the obligation of neutrality, 
 recognized the so-called government sustained by France. 
 "In this manner the European governments broke 
 their treaties with the Republic and suspended the 
 relations with us which they have not yet renewed 
 The government has taken care also that the subjects 
 of these nations residing in the Republic should be 
 under the protection of the law and of the governmental 
 authorities. The efficacy of this protection has been suffi- 
 cient to remove any cause for complaint. It has been prac- 
 tically shown that by reason of the enlightenment of our peo- 
 ple and because of the principles of our liberal institutions, 
 strangers living in Mexico are on an equality with Mexi- 
 cans and enjoy all the rights and privileges granted by the 
 laws, without need of the special protection resulting from 
 treaties." Thus it was that the Executive did not find it 
 inappropriate to declare that he was ready to enter into new 
 treaties in proper and becoming terms whenever those 
 foreign nations might see fit to present them. 
 
 The confederation of northern Germany, Spain and Italy 
 
14 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 promptly displayed a disposition to re-establish relations of 
 friendship with the Republic and sent successive, accredited 
 representatives who were received by the President with 
 due consideration and recognition. The relations with the 
 United States are becoming closer and closer as the mer- 
 cantile traffic and industrial operations between the two 
 countries increase in volume and are strengthened by mutual 
 confidence. 
 
 FRONTIER MATTERS. 
 
 II. The difficulties which have arisen in connection with the 
 depredations of uncivilized Indians who inhabit the frontiers 
 of Mexico and the United States have been settled in a satis- 
 factory manner, notwithstanding the gravity which they had 
 assumed. These depredations led to many complaints on the 
 part of the authorities of both nations along the frontier 
 of Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and Tamau- 
 lipas. (The Mexican government has made concessions to 
 the Indians, more or less important, but their absolute 
 pacification could not be secured in the extensive and 
 abandoned regions which they inhabit, and where not even 
 the American republic has been able to guarantee absolute 
 security for the lives and property of its own citizens. It 
 was proposed on the part of the government of the United 
 States that permission should be granted to its troops to 
 cross into Mexican territory in pursuit of Indians and that 
 they should be subjected, en masse, to the law of extradition, 
 which both nations should co-operate to enforce. But the 
 Executive did not possess authority to grant this permis- 
 sion, and notice to this effect was given to the American 
 minister, whose government persisted in its demand, add- 
 ing, that it would not be hampered in its pursuit of the 
 savage by any consideration. The Mexican minister made 
 suggestions declaring that his government would find it 
 necessary to enter a protest against the violation of its ter- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 15 
 
 ritory, should such a case arise. Measures were taken to 
 remove and transport, in a peaceful manner, to territory 
 destined for that purpose in the United States, the tribe of 
 Kickapoos who had crossed into Mexico in a time of peace ; 
 but these refused to return to their former reservations. 
 In the beginning of 1873, it was thought in Mexico that 
 the o-overnment at Washington proposed to renew its ne- 
 gotiations relative to the removal of these Indians and 
 instructions were immediately given to the governors of 
 Nuevo Leon and Coahuila to aid the American officials in 
 the best manner possible, in making a peaceful removal. 
 On this occasion the efforts of the Mexican Government 
 were fruitless, as Colonel McKenzie, in May of the same 
 year, crossed the Bravo river with United States forces 
 and, making a sudden and unexpected attack upon a camp 
 of Kickapoos, killed some and carried off about forty 
 prisoners, women and children. The authorities of the 
 frontier settlements of Mexico, becoming apprised of what 
 had taken place, recruited some armed forces to attack and 
 repel the American troops, but not being able to overtake 
 them, had to return to their respective localities. The 
 Mexican minister in Washington who had received notice 
 of what had happened from the vice-consul at San Antonio, 
 Texas, asked for instructions from the Secretary of Foreign 
 Affairs to take suitable action in reference to the matter 
 with the United States ; but no decisive step was taken at 
 once, as it was deemed better on account of the gravity of the 
 situation to await fuller and more complete details and infor- 
 mation. The information received brought out some points 
 of which the most important, till then unknown to the Mexi- 
 can Government, was that the frontier forces of this country 
 to whom was intrusted the task of fighting the uncivilized 
 Indians, had crossed, in pursuit of them, into United States 
 territory where, far from being interfered with, they had 
 been protected, without any thought on the part of the 
 
16 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 military authorities that their territory had been violated 
 by the presence of Mexican troops in pursuit of a common 
 enemy. This circumstance, together with the fact that the 
 American troops had entered no populated locality on the 
 frontier of Mexico, and that they had inflicted no loss or 
 caused no damage to the inhabitants, during their march, 
 calmed the excitement created on the northern frontier. 
 
 Other invasions of Mexican territory occurred subse- 
 quently. In November of 1875 an American official carried 
 out his plau to enter Mexican territory in pursuit of certain 
 criminals. General Fuero, by reason of this occurrence, 
 appealed to General Potter, commanding at Brownsville, 
 and notified him that such invasion was contrary to the 
 treaties between the two nations, and that, should he fail 
 to withdraw the troops immediately from the national ter- 
 ritory, he would not only protest against the aggression, 
 but would be compelled to repel force with force. General 
 Potter replied by saying that his repeated orders to Amer- 
 ican officers to make no aggressive move against Mexico, 
 had been disobeyed, but that having repeated them in con- 
 nection with tbe incident against which a protest had been 
 entered, the American troops had withdrawn. 
 
 On the 3d of April, 1877, Lieutenant-Colonel Shaffer 
 made another invasion, taking possession of Piedras 
 Negras, not in pursuit of malefactors, but to wrest from 
 the Mexican authorities by force, two Mexicans guilty of 
 crimes committed on Mexican soil. 
 
 The minister of this country at Washington, protested 
 against the invasion on the 28th of the same month and 
 asked that the government inflict punishment on the guilty 
 parties, and give guaranties against similar occurrences in 
 the future. In May following, the Secretary of State re- 
 plied, saying that he had already asked for information 
 concerning the matter. Notwithstanding, on the first of 
 June, the war department of the United States issued an 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 17 
 
 order to General Ord, in which authority was granted to 
 the United States troops to invade Mexican territory in 
 pursuit of certain classes of malefactors, to capture and to 
 punish them, and to recover the property stolen from 
 American citizens. 
 
 While the Plenipotentiary of Mexico at Washington was 
 protesting against this order, the President, through the 
 Secretary of War, was imparting to General Trevino, chief 
 of the military zone of the north, certain instructions 
 intended to obviate those conflicts as far as possible or, at 
 least, in an extremity, to save the honor and dignity of the 
 republic. 
 
 General TrevirLo was advised to locate his forces at the 
 most convenient points, so as to guard the Mexican frontier 
 and prevent the thieves of both sides of the Bravo from 
 escaping punishment by simply crossing the river, and to 
 this end, to pursue, within the boundaries of the Republic, 
 malefactors who may commit theft in Mexican territory, 
 and seek safety in the United States, as well as those who, 
 having committed a theft in that country, might cross to 
 Mexico to escape justice; that in case the civil or military 
 authorities of the United States should make a demand for 
 criminals arrested by the troops under his command, his 
 action should be regulated by the extradition treaty in force 
 in 1862. He was authorized, as well, to act in concert with 
 the proper authorities in pursuing criminals, without thereby 
 authorizing, in any event, foreign troops to enter Mexican 
 territory ; to prevent Mexican troops from entering upon 
 foreign soil, and that in bringing these instructions to the 
 knowledge of General Ord or the commander of the United 
 States forces, he would give him to understand that the 
 wishes of the President on this point, contained no other 
 restrictions than those imposed by international law, the 
 treaties of both countries, and the dignity of the Republic. 
 That, as the national government, as a consequence, could 
 
18 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 not permit foreign forces to enter Mexican territory with- 
 out the consent of the national Congress, much less allow 
 these forces to exercise acts of jurisdiction such as were 
 expressed in the order issued by the war department of 
 the American Union, he should repel such forces if an 
 invasion took place. 
 
 In the month of September of the same year, a party of 
 American soldiers made, another invasion; they attacked 
 the camp of the Lipans, burned their temporary habita- 
 tions, carried off five aged Indians which they captured in 
 the assault, and a considerable number of horses belonging 
 not only to the Indians, but also to several Mexicans. 
 
 A party of a hundred men left Zaragoza in pursuit, 
 under the command of Colonel Inocente Rodriguez, but 
 failed to overtake them, the invading force having re- 
 crossed the river Bravo. 
 
 This anomalous situation on the Mexican frontier lasted 
 till the year 1882. 
 
 On the 3rd of May of this year, the United States min- 
 ister to Mexico requested the government to allow the 
 American troops to enter Mexican territory in pursuit of 
 rebellious Indians. The reply was given, that only the 
 Senate could grant such permission, and that the Executive 
 could appeal to that body for such authority only when he 
 knew that the United States was disposed to make similar 
 concessions to Mexican troops under like circumstances. 
 The American government, having declared this to be a 
 matter of reciprocity, authority was asked from and 
 granted by the Senate on May 11th, 1882, whereby the 
 United States troops were permitted to enter Mexican 
 territory and the Mexican troops, United States territory, 
 in accordance with the enactments of the same body on May 
 29th, 1879, and the amendments of October 14th, 1880. 
 
 The authority was granted for the period of one year, 
 and the agreement was signed in Washington on the 29th 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 19 
 
 of July of the same year. On the 28th of July, 1883, it 
 was extended for another year, and again renewed for 
 a similar period on October 31st, 1884. 
 
 During last year was renewed between Mexico and the 
 United States the agreement, that the Federal troops of the 
 two countries can cross the borders for the purpose of pur- 
 suing the savage Indians. This agreement was renewed as 
 a result of the depredations committed by the Apaches who 
 are under the leadership of " Kiel " on the entire frontier 
 of Arizona and New Mexico. The agreement will remain 
 in force during one year from November 25, 1892. 
 
 AGREEMENTS RELATIVE TO BOUNDARY LINES WITH THE 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 The special relations existing between Mexico and the 
 neighboring nations of North America and Guatemala, led 
 the Mexican government to direct its attention to measures 
 for settling the difficulties which may arise, in the shape of 
 just and equitable agreements in which it was stipulated 
 that commissions be appointed pending a definite settle- 
 ment of the boundary lines. In this manner the agreement 
 signed in Washington on July 29, 1882, was negotiated. 
 Its purpose was to determine the manner in which the 
 monuments should be placed which indicated the dividing 
 line between Mexico and the United States, established in 
 conformity with the treatise of February 2d, 1848, and of 
 December 30th, 1853 ; which monuments may have been 
 partially destroyed or misplaced; and how to erect new 
 ones in case of necessity. 
 
 The longest period allowed by this agreement for the 
 work of the respective commissions, was four years and 
 four months, but at the request of the American govern- 
 ment an extension of eighteen months was granted by an 
 additional document signed December 5th, 1885. 
 
20 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 This extra time having expired without the appointment 
 of the boundary commission, both governments signed the 
 agreement of February 18th, 1889, putting in force the 
 stipulations of the treaty of July, 1882, and continuing it 
 for five vears longer, to be calculated from the date of its 
 ratification, October 12th, 1889. 
 
 The continuous variations of the river Bravo, have given 
 rise to the difficulties between the two governments. To 
 settle them, the agreement of November 12th, 1884, was 
 arranged whereby rules were fixed to decide questions 
 which might arise from the variations of the rivers Bravo 
 and Colorado, which bound the .two republics. 
 
 The agreement was ratified on September 29th, 1886. 
 Another agreement was entered into on March 1st, 1889, 
 for the purpose of facilitating the application of the prin- 
 ciples contained in the one preceding. An international 
 boundary commission was established by the first article 
 with exclusive jurisdiction to decide under certain condi- 
 tions, all differences and questions which may arise by 
 reason of the boundaries indicated by the rivers mentioned. 
 Its duration is to date for five years from December the 
 24th, 1890, the date of its ratification. 
 
 The dividing line indicated by the river Bravo, gave rise 
 to a new international difficulty. In February, 1884. 
 Beaver Island was invaded by several Texans who despoiled 
 and expelled the Mexican citizens that occupied it. Al- 
 though considered Mexican territory, the right of Mexico 
 to reclaim its ownership of the island seemed doubtful ; on 
 which account, both governments concluded to maintain the 
 statu quo while the matter was being determined by the 
 precedents established. The plans submitted, when the 
 boundaries were traced, were examined, the report of the 
 commission ad hoc sent upon the ground to study the spot 
 in controversy and, also, the report of General Emory, 
 chairman of the American commission and^ no other means- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 21 
 
 of investigation being at hand, the Secretary of Affairs 
 hastened to send to the Mexican Legation in Washington 
 the letter of September 26th, 1884, in which it was recom- 
 mended to make known to the Department of State, that 
 the Mexican government did not insist upon its right to the 
 island of Morteritos or Beaver Island or Island No. 13. 
 
 AGREEMENTS RELATIVE TO THE BOUNDARIES OF 
 GUATEMALA. 
 
 The boundary question has been the cause of constant 
 difficulties with the republic of Guatemala ever since the 
 independence of Mexico, notwithstanding the negotiations 
 initiated by the latter in 1832, 1852 and 1858. 
 
 In 1873 several persons, natives of Guatemala, located 
 in a district called Bejucal ; they asked to be considered 
 Mexican citizens, and the government, which has regarded 
 this district as national territory, arranged for the estab- 
 lishment therein of Mexican officials. The government of 
 Guatemala entered a protest insisting that Bejucal belonged 
 to that republic. The Mexican Executive suspended the 
 pending arrangements, and immediately asked the Governor 
 of Chiapas for a report. In view of this report, instruc- 
 tions were again issued on the second of "July following, to 
 carry out the previous order, and an answer was sent on 
 the same date to the Charge d'Affaires of Guatemala, say- 
 ing that Mexico considered Bejucal as a part of her terri- 
 tory. The government of Guatemala, on the 30th of 
 August disputed the grounds on which Mexico's resolution 
 was based, and protested against the step taken, declaring 
 that she would not renounce her sovereignty over Chiapas 
 and Soconusco. The President of Mexico replying to the 
 statements of Guatemala, insisted upon the resolution he 
 had taken, declaring that he would permit no discussion 
 concerning the possession of Chiapas and Soconusco by the 
 Republic. 
 
22 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 A movement was then inaugurated to fix the boundaries 
 of the two countries, as a means of settling the difficulty 
 referred to and any other of a similar nature that might 
 arise. A formal invitation was extended to the government 
 of Guatemala to grant full authority to open negotiations 
 in Mexico and to designate, of common accord, a scientific 
 commission to make investigations, draw plans and obtain 
 the requisite information. 
 
 On the 22nd of July, 1874, negotiations were begun with 
 the Guatemalan legation, which had been invested with 
 complete authority, concerning the preliminaries of the 
 boundary dispute, and on the 7th of December, 1877, the 
 duplicate agreement was signed. By virtue of this agree- 
 ment, a mixed commission composed of engineers was cre- 
 ated for the purpose of examining and studying the dividing 
 line between the two countries, which commission was to 
 meet in the city of Tapachula two months after the mutual 
 ratification. 
 
 In 1881 the investigation was not concluded and it 
 was proposed by Mexico to remodel the agreement because 
 of the termination of its last period of extension. 
 
 " But in the meantime," says Mr. Mariscal, in his report 
 to the Senate in -1882, " a grave incident occurred which 
 determined the manner in which this boundary question, so 
 long-lived and apparently so interminable because of the 
 pains taken by Guatemala to profit by it for the acquisition, 
 in whole or in part, of the territory of Chiapas, should be 
 settled. 
 
 Official notice was received of an invasion made by the 
 Prefect of San Marcos, in conjunction with Guatemalan 
 soldiers who demolished a boundary sign recognized then 
 provisionally, as an international mark, and erected 
 another some leagues distant from our territory. This was 
 one of many acts of daring rashness with which the author- 
 ities of Guatemala ridiculed our apparent weakness, evi- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 23 
 
 denced by the habitual absence from the neighborhood, of 
 armed troops, either State or Federal. It then appeared to 
 me that only the presence of Mexican troops in the vicinity 
 of the frontier, could prevent the repetition of such acts, 
 by giving the government of Guatemala to understand that 
 the time had arrived to settle the matter in controversy 
 without the evasions and disturbances with which it had 
 always been disgraced. 
 
 The President, with good judgment, undertook the task 
 of inaugurating with respect to Guatemala, a more ener- 
 getic policy, but one based on the strictest justice, and 
 consented to the sending of troops to Soconusco. The 
 troops finally succeeded in overcoming many obstacles 
 which it is unnecessary to mention and, sustained, by their 
 presence, the measure proposed by the Secretary of 
 Affairs — to replace the boundary sign destroyed by the 
 Prefect and other armed Guatemalans, and tear down the 
 one erected by them. 
 
 At the bare announcement that troops were marching to 
 the frontier, the government of General Barrios under- 
 stood that they were determined to defend our rights with- 
 out yielding longer to ridicule in the shape of audacity or 
 intrigue. He even thought that we were about to make 
 war on him, either ostensibly or in a covert manner, by 
 fostering on the frontier revolutionary movements which 
 we might promote in his territory. He was correct in 
 neither, as we will show at the inception, by declaring the 
 real purpose of the expedition. *' * * That govern- 
 ment, believing itself in danger, began to take extraordinary 
 precautions, preparing for war by the organization of its 
 army, the purchase of arms and so forth — heavy and use- 
 less expenses which only served to weaken it. But, above 
 all, it was resolved to adopt the measure of which some 
 Guatemalan statesmen had dreamed — it was resolved to 
 appeal to an alliance with the United States, against Mexico, 
 
24 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 to an alliance that might assume the appearance of a most 
 impartial arbitration. 
 
 At this time the Hon. Mr. Blaine was in Washington as 
 Secretary of State or minister of Foreign Affairs, who, with 
 his enterprising and active policy, was attracting universal 
 attention. It was regarded as an opportune moment, and 
 an appeal was made to Mr. Blaine with a view to securing 
 his mediation between Mexico and Guatemala. What fol- 
 lowed this appeal is well known, and in what terms the 
 Secretary of State, in the name of his government, pro- 
 posed to ours an arbitration by the United States. * * * 
 A fact which is not yet generally known, and which, 
 at first, could only have been suspected though it 
 has since been fully established, is that at the 
 time mentioned, extensive plans were being hutched and 
 subsequently being carried into effect in conjunction 
 with the appeals for mediation on the part of the United 
 States, to annex Soconusco and even Guatemala to the 
 United States for the purpose of preventing the latter 
 nation from displaying impartiality in the proposed arbi- 
 tration and, finally, to give Mexico a powerful neighbor 
 on the south. 
 
 Meanwhile the horrible crime which deprived President 
 Garfield of his life, occurred, and, taking advantage of it 
 in Guatemala, the Minister of Affairs of that government, 
 D. Lorenzo Montufar, proceeded to Washington apparently 
 on a mission of condolence and sympathy, but, in reality, 
 to advance the intrigues referred to. As a matter of fact, 
 his residence in the capital lent them much importance, 
 for with his undeniable energy and ingenuity, Sefior 
 Montufar knew how to win the co-operation of active and 
 intelligent agents. 
 
 Mr. Blaine had replied to a communication, insisting 
 upon the proposition of arbitration by his government, 
 even if the question of Chiapas should be excluded. It did 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 25 
 
 not seem opportune to me to respond to such persistence 
 till I had satisfied myself if the Secretary of State would 
 change his views. During the period when this change 
 was taking place, I sent my second reply which has not 
 yet been published, to Mr. Blaine, limiting myself prin- 
 cipally to the statement that the question of the territory 
 belonging to Chiapas, comprising Soconusco, being elim- 
 inated (of which Mr. Blaine had made no mention), I 
 believed that it would be a very simple matter to fix the 
 boundaries and that there would be very little probability 
 of arbitration necessary, but that in the remote event of 
 such necessity, the government of Mexico would accept 
 with pleasure in such capacity, the President of the United 
 States. 
 
 At this time our minister to Washington, Mr. Manuel 
 Zamacona, resigned his position and Mr. Matias Eomero, 
 whose antecedents and special aptitude for the handling of 
 the Guatemalan controversy had caused him to be selected 
 for the position, was substituted in his place. Mr. Romero 
 had -scarcely arrived in Washington, when he found that 
 the attitude of that government was gradually assuming 
 an impartial phase, a thing much to be desired in so 
 grave an emergency. The agents of Guatemala became 
 aware of this, and. great must have been the alarm 
 it caused to their government when it conceived the 
 idea of making a coup d'etat, so to say, by fully 
 empowering President Barrios to go in person to Washing- 
 ton for the purpose of settling the difficulty with Mexico. 
 Mr. Romero, on his part, with the energy and zeal which 
 characterize him, had thrown more light on the subject 
 among the members of the press, and still more among 
 persons of great influence with the people and the adminis- 
 tration. Proof of this is to be found in the letter which 
 the illustrious General Grant addressed to Mr. Romero, 
 and which the latter had published by the press ; a docu- 
 
26 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 ment from which it was easy to infer with the greatest 
 degree of probability, what answer the United States would 
 give to the appeal for arbitration so eagerly made by Gen- 
 eral Barrios. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the answer given by the government 
 at Washington, was this : that it was disposed to serve a3 
 arbitrator in the boundary controversy between Mexico and 
 Guatemala only in case both nations should seek it of com- 
 mon accord. In vain, as is known, did General Barrios 
 tenaciously insist and implore that arbitration should be 
 imposed upon us, alleging that only in that manner could 
 confidence be inspired in any arrangement that might be 
 made, since Mexico did not inspire him with any ; Presi- 
 dent Arthur adhered firmly to his decision. In vain, as is to 
 be reasonably presumed, efforts were made to tempt the 
 United States government by proposals of annexation and 
 so forth, which had previously been made by Mr. Montu- 
 far ; the result was the same and the disillusion the most 
 complete. 
 
 What then was he to do? That which he should have 
 tried to have done at first ; have an understanding with 
 onr government without attempting to secure forced medi- 
 ation or to obtain it in a clandestine manner. This is what 
 followed, apparently with sincerity, for he declared to Mr. 
 Eomero that his conduct, which had been hostile to Mexico, 
 had rather been the result of wicked and malicious coun- 
 sel than of his own volition. He showed himself disposed 
 to renounce the pretended claims of Guatemala to Chiapas 
 and Soconusco, and to enter into a treaty in relation to the 
 boundaries between the two countries ; for which purpose 
 he desired to visit Mexico immediately. 
 
 The wishes expressed by General Barrios to come to 
 Mexico, could not be carried out, by reason of the neces- 
 sity incumbent on him of concluding a treaty as soon 
 as possible, and the anxiety of that gentleman to go to 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 27 
 
 Europe in furtherance, apparently, of other plans which he 
 entertained. It was for this reason that Mr. Romero was 
 empowered by telegraph, to attach his signature to certain 
 preliminaries renouncing the claim already indicated; 
 declaring that no indemnification of any kind would be 
 required therefor, and promising to adjust in Mexico a 
 boundary treaty based upon actual possession, and, if it 
 should be necessary, in some instances, to ignore that, to 
 eventually compensate each other by exchange of territory. 
 These preliminaries were to be signed by Mr. Romero in 
 conjunction with General Barrios and the Guatemalan 
 minister to Mexico who was then in New York whither he 
 had been summoned by General Barrios." . 
 
 The preliminaries were signed in New York on August 
 the 12th, 1882. The first article said- The Republic of 
 Guatemala waives the discussion in which it has been en- 
 gaged relative to the claims, in its favor, to the territory 
 of the State of Chiapas and its department of Soconusco. 
 
 " As the Senate will notice," continued Mr. Mariscal, 
 "the preliminaries were already a victory over the former 
 pretensions of Guatemala to Chiapas and Soconusco. 
 Nevertheless the renunciation of the pretended claims 
 of that nation, was not expressed with entire clear- 
 ness, as it was said that Guatemala waived the discussion 
 not that it renounced its claims and for this reason, it 
 was possible, though it did not appear probable, that 
 she might some time desire to assert these claims with- 
 out discussing them. It was necessary to amend this state- 
 ment in the manner presented in the first article, by saying 
 definitely : ' The Republic of Guatemala renounces for- 
 ever the rights, which it claims to possess, to the territory 
 of the State of Chiapas and its department of Soconusco 
 and, as a consequence, regards said territory as an integral 
 part of the United Mexican States.' " 
 
 This treaty, as stated in another chapter, was signed on 
 
28 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 September 27th, 1882, and promulgated May 2d, 1883. 
 As it stipulates to trace the boundary line with due pre- 
 cision on trustworthy maps, and to establish on the land 
 monuments which would make the boundaries of both 
 republics visible, each government had to appoint a scien- 
 tific commission which had to begin operations within six 
 months from the date of ratification by both parties, at the 
 latest. The protocol of September 14, 1883, was arranged 
 for the purpose of regulating the details of organization, 
 and the work of the commission, and by this it was agreed 
 that an extension of time till November 1, 1886, should be 
 granted to the commissioners, in which to complete their 
 labors. This -period was extended by the agreement of 
 October 16, 1886, and for two years longer by that of 
 October 22, 1888. 
 
 Finally by the agreement of October the 20th, 1890, the 
 period stipulated by the treaty of September 27, 1882, and 
 extended by the protocol and agreements already men- 
 tioned, was still further extended for two years, to date 
 from November 31, 1890, to October 31, 1892. 
 
 COMMERCIAL TREATIES. 
 
 III. The relations of the Republic with the German 
 empire have grown closer of late years, to the reciprocal 
 advantage of the commercial interests of both countries. 
 In 1877, Mr. Vallarta, then minister of Foreign Affairs, 
 said in his report to the National Congress, that 
 the motives which have induced and still induce the 
 government of Mexico to maintain solid relations with 
 that country, among which are to be considered a recogni- 
 tion of the special services rendered by the diplomatic rep- 
 resentatives of the dynasty in power in 1840, and in the 
 unfortunate epoch of 1847, when the emperor did not yet 
 occupy the throne ; that subsequently united Germany 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 29 
 
 availed itself of the first opportunity to rectify a mistake 
 into which it had been led by an error common to the time 
 in which it happened ; that it again offered to renew its 
 friendship with the republic, by initiating negotiations 
 for a treaty of commerce and navigation, and that, finally, 
 the government of Germany, in conformity with established 
 rules whereby the principle of sovereignty is recognized by 
 independent nations, had been the first to recognize that 
 the administration of Mexico then in force, and exercising 
 exclusive authority in its civil affairs, not only without 
 resistance, but with the approval and support of the 
 Mexican people, combined, in the exercise of such author- 
 ity, all the conditions of an organized government, and that 
 none other had the right to pass judgment upon, or ignore, 
 its existence. That this respect for the doctrine of non- 
 interference which Mexico had maintained at all times, 
 rendered doubly appreciable the friendship of a people, 
 who in the moral and intellectual order, through the medium 
 of one of the most illustrious sages, had favored the prop- 
 agation of ideas of independence among the colonists of 
 New Spain. 
 
 The treaty of commerce and navigation concluded between 
 the North German Confederation and the Zollverein on 
 August 28th, 1869, and which was to remain in force till the 
 25th of August, 1878, was condemned, as it was deemed pro- 
 per to arrange another better adapted to the necessities of the 
 two countries. Negotiations were initiated in July, 1882, 
 and on December the 5th of the same year, the new treaty 
 was signed, and on July 26th, 1883, the same was ratified. 
 In this treaty are specified for the first time, in a precise 
 and definite manner, principles which the Spanish American 
 especially, has been obliged to defend as fundamental rules 
 of popular rights. Among others, the following appear : 
 That as regards the reclamations or complaints of individ- 
 uals in matters of civil, criminal or executive jurisdiction, 
 
30 Tiu: RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 respective diplomatic representatives would only inter- 
 fere in cases where justice was denied, or delayed in au 
 extraordinary and illegal manner: where a positive sentence 
 si ..Id fail of execution or where, legal remedies beiug ex- 
 hausted, there had been au express violation of the treaties 
 existing between the two nations, or of the principles of 
 international law, public or private, generally recognized 
 by civilized nations : that the German government will not 
 seek to make M:\ - - le uuless when the Mexican 
 
 - or their representatives may have failed or 
 se due diligence in connection with injuries, 
 vexatious oi iges i ;ted by the insurgents, upon 
 
 man su - M an territory, during a period of 
 
 civil war. or by savage tribes refusing to pay allegiance to 
 inment. 
 
 X0KWAT AXP SWEDEN. 
 
 Ml l :ristophersen having been received iu Mexico as 
 Minister Plenipc y ad hoc of the kingdom 
 
 and Sweden - .. 1885, explained on the 2»5th 
 
 f his mission, which was U 
 : : tship, Bommeree and navigation. 
 As the traffic of this nation with the Mexican St ates 
 
 terns, Tamaulipas. Campeche and Yucatan 
 f importer; 
 
 sided to, aud the 
 
 rere sabs the plenipote 
 
 _ vernments on Jnly I ... 1885. These were 
 
 ied in matters of secondary consideration, 
 
 by - _ :ed in Brussels on the 15th of December 
 
 in the same year and ratified »n December the 10th. 15^-. 
 
 JfCK. 
 
 The Extraordin: : Pleuipoter.: 
 
 of the French Republic ~ed in Mexico on the _4th 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 31 
 
 of March, 1882, made known the desire of his o- v- 
 ernment to celebrate a treaty of commerce and naviga- 
 tion with the Republic of Mexico. Various difficulties 
 arose when the general grounds of the negotiation had 
 been scarcely initiated and considered, and then the 
 impossibility of accepting the preliminary agreement pro- 
 posed by Mr. Coutouly for the government of the de- 
 liberations and consideration of the treaty proper — in 
 which agreement a stipulation was contained relative to 
 the treatment of the most favored nation by both parties 
 without restrictions of any kind — prevented a definite ar- 
 rangement for the time being. 
 
 In this connection the " Diario Oficial " of the 22nd of 
 April, 1885, said that " the principal difficulty in the way of 
 a treaty of commerce with France would disappear when 
 the French government would do away with the pro- 
 visional character of the conference ; when France would 
 not insist that the national treaty should secure the right 
 for French vessels to land at Mexican ports, as our govern- 
 ment was positively determined not to grant this immuuitv 
 from the payment of duties, to the ships of any nation, to 
 the evident injury of Mexican vessels. 
 
 Negotiations having been resumed, it became possible to 
 conclude with the French Republic, the treaty of friend- 
 ship and commerce which was signed in Mexico on the 
 27th of November, 1886, and ratified the 5th of May, 1888. 
 It would remain in force from the 14th of March, 1888, the 
 date of mutual ratification, to February 1st, 1892. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 The resumption of diplomatic relations between Mexico 
 and Great Britain, interrupted during more than twenty 
 years, was arranged in the same manner as with France, by 
 unofficial intimations of a confidential character dating from 
 
32 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 December ,1882. Mr. Velasco, Mexican Minister in Paris, 
 had some conversation upon the subject with Lord Lyons, 
 the English ambassador, whereby the representative of En- 
 gland was led to understand that if the diplomatic relations 
 should be resumed, the Mexican government would not 
 allow an arrangement of the indebtedness known as the 
 London Debt, to be considered, or the arrangement of the 
 indebtedness adjusted in 1851, which should be considered 
 at the proper time. 
 
 In February, 1883, Mr. Lionel Garden, English vice- 
 consul in Havana, made known, in Mexico, to Mr. Mariscal 
 in an unofficial manner, that his government desired to 
 know what obstacles prevented the renewal of relations 
 between the two countries. The Minister of Affairs an- 
 swered that, in his opinion, up to that time, the principal 
 difficulties had been : 
 
 1st. The question of etiquette as to who should assume 
 the initiative. 
 
 2d. The opposition on the part of the holders of bonds 
 in London to the renewal of diplomatic relations without a 
 previous settlement of their claims. 
 
 3d. The declaration of the Mexican government that the 
 treaty concluded with England in 1826 (as well as the 
 others in the same connection) had become inoperative by 
 reason of the part taken by said country in the inter- 
 vention of 1861, and 
 
 4th. The declaration of the same government that for 
 the same reason, the agreement of 1851 relating to the 
 payment of certain English claims, had also become in- 
 operative. 
 
 In May following, Mr. Mariscal received a note dated 
 April 19th, in which Lord Granville, Her Majesty's minis- 
 ter of Foreigu Affairs, made known that his government 
 would gladly take the first step towards there renewal of 
 relations, hoping that such action would be appreciated by 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 33 
 
 the government and people of Mexico, and proposing 
 that special envoys be sent simultaneously to London and 
 Mexico by each party respectively, who would assume the 
 conduct of negotiations. 
 
 When the note was answered on May the 18th, by ac- 
 cepting the proposal in the name of the President, confer- 
 ences were held in Mexico for the purpose of arranging the 
 preliminaries, which were subscribed to on the 6th of 
 August, approved by the Senate on October the 20th and 
 published on the 27th of the same month. 
 
 Since July, 1884, the British envoy had been expressing a 
 wish to enter into a treaty of friendship, commerce and 
 navigation with Mexico and, although a Plenipotentiary ad 
 hoc had been appointed by the President to discuss the mat- 
 ter presented, negotiations were suspended owing to a lack 
 of sufficiently ample instructions on the part of the English 
 representative to give his assent to certain clauses which the 
 Republic regarded as essential. 
 
 The difficulties having been overcome, the treaty was con- 
 cluded and signed on the 27th of November, 1888, and 
 ratified on February the 15th, 1889. 
 
 In accordance with article fourteen of this treaty, its 
 stipulations are to be applied to all the colonies and foreign 
 possessions of her Brittanic Majesty, in so far as the laws 
 permit, with the exception of India, the Canadian 
 Dominion, Newfoundland, New South Wales, Victoria, 
 Southern and Western Australia, Queensland, Tasmania, 
 New Zealand, the Cape and Natal ; being applicable, how- 
 ever, to the colonies mentioned or to foreign possessions 
 in whose interest notice may be given, for that purpose, 
 by the representative of her Brittanic Majesty, to the 
 Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Eepublic, within two 
 years from the date of ratification by both countries. 
 
 In compliance with this condition, the British Legation 
 has given notice that the British colonies which accepted 
 
 3 
 
34 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 the treaty were: Natal, Tasmania, Western Australia, 
 Victoria, Newfoundland, Southern Australia, and the 
 Colony of Queensland, and that the Dominion of Canada, 
 the Cape of Good Hope and the colony of New Zealand 
 desired to be excepted from its stipulations. 
 
 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE. 
 
 In view of the favorable disposition evinced by Japan to 
 establish commercial relations with the Republic, the Pres- 
 ident commissioned the Mexican Minister at Washington 
 and sent him the necessary instructions, to have an under- 
 standing with the representatives of that empire for the 
 negotiation of a treaty of friendship, commerce and nav- 
 igation. This treaty was signed in the American capital 
 on the 30th of November, 1888, and ratified on June the 
 14th, 1889. 
 
 EQUADOR. 
 
 The treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation exist- 
 ing between the Republic of Mexico and that of Equator 
 was concluded and signed in Washington on July the 16th, 
 1888; ratified October 28th, 1890, and the mutual 
 exchange of ratification took place November 26th of the 
 same year. Its duration is ten years. 
 
 THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. 
 
 The treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation in 
 force between Mexico and the Dominican republic, was 
 signed in Mexico on March 29th, 1890, and ratified on the 
 12th of December in the same year. It will last five years 
 dating from the 11th of July, 1891, when it was mutually 
 ratified. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 35 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 The period having expired for the duration of the treaty 
 of commerce and navigation of December the 14th, 1870, 
 between the republic and the kingdom of Italy, during 
 which a new one was being negotiated, both governments 
 agreed to an extension which should expire on June the 
 30th, 1884. The new treaty was signed in Mexico on the 
 16th of April, 1890, ratified on the 6th of July, 1891, and 
 mutually approved on the 23rd of the same month. Its 
 duration is to be for ten years, counted from the last date 
 and its stipulations are to be applicable to the colonies or 
 foreign possessions of Italy in whose favor notice may be 
 given, for this purpose, by the Italian representative in 
 Mexico to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the republic, 
 during the life-time of the treaty. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Several commercial treaties have been negotiated with 
 the republic of the United States, but they never became 
 operative owing to a lack of ratification or to other causes. 
 That is what happened to the treaty negotiated by Mr. 
 Forsyth, American Minister to Mexico, with the govern- 
 ment of this nation in 1857, in which great concessions were 
 made to the United States in the isthmus of Tehuantepec, 
 and with the commercial reciprocity treaty known as that 
 of McLane-Ocampo, which granted privileges to both 
 nations. 
 
 At the close of 1882 the Secretary of Affairs designated 
 two commissioners, who, jointly with those of the United 
 States, might arrange a treaty of commercial reciprocity 
 between the two republics. 
 
 On the 20th of January, 1883, the agreement was con- 
 cluded in Washington, Messrs. Matias Romero and 
 
36 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Estanislao Cafiedo having conducted the negotiations on 
 behalf of Mexico, and General U. S. Grant and W. H. 
 Prescot on behalf of the United States. It was ratified 
 with some modifications by the United States Senate on the 
 11th of March, 1884. The modifications were, that to make 
 the agreement operative it should be necessary for the 
 Congress of the United States and for the government of 
 Mexico to enact, beforehand, the laws required for its exe- 
 cution and that the respective measures should be taken 
 within sixteen months from the date of ratification by both 
 parties. These modifications having been approved, the 
 treaty was ratified, on the 14th of May, 1884, by the Mexi- 
 can Senate. The respective legislation not having been en- 
 acted by the two governments the period of sixteen months 
 was extended by means of a protocol, signed in Washing- 
 ton on the 25th of February, 1885, to the 20th of May, 
 1886 and, by a supplementary document dated May, 14th, 
 1886, a still further extension to May the 20th, 1887, was 
 granted. As no further extension of the period last desig- 
 nated has been given, a new instrument will be necessary 
 to resurrect the previous treaty. 
 
 EXTRADITION TREATIES. 
 
 The United States. 
 
 IV. The treaty of December 11th, 1861, for the extradi- 
 tion of criminals, in force between Mexico and the United 
 States, has presented difficulties in practice. Criminals 
 who commit an offense in Mexico elude justice by crossing 
 to American territory, where it has been impossible to 
 secure their surrender, for the reason that the accused have 
 recourse to the writ of habeas corpus, of which the 
 Supreme Court and other tribunals of that country have 
 jurisdiction, and the government officials have refused to 
 surrender the criminals, or for the reason that the govern- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 37 
 
 merit has thought that the text of one of the articles of the 
 treaty, declaring that the extradition of its own subjects 
 was not obligatory on either of the contracting parties, 
 forbade the surrender to the Mexican authorities of Amer- 
 ican-born citizens accused of crime and wanted by the 
 Mexican government. 
 
 In the correspondence which passed between the two 
 governments Mexico has sought to demonstrate that ex- 
 tradition is an exalted administrative act pertaining to the 
 Executive by virtue of a compact between the two nations 
 and that, a treaty being a law for the countries by which 
 the stipulation was entered into, its enforcement cannot be 
 subject to a previous review by judicial authority; that, 
 finally, in regard to the extradition of native-born citizens 
 the treaty does not deny but concedes to the Executive the 
 right to grant it whenever he may deem it advisable. 
 
 The President of the American Union has declared that 
 it was his sincere conviction that the crimes committed on 
 both sides of the frontier should not go unpunished, and 
 has also indicated various methods to give force to the 
 treaty of extradition so that its opportune and energetic 
 enforcement may afford the necessary protection and guar- 
 anty to the border populations of each country. With 
 such intentions a new treaty has been negotiated whereby 
 the disputes arising from the enforcement of that of 1861 
 should be avoided. By this it has been declared in an in- 
 contestible manner that both governments can exchange 
 their native-born citizens when necessity may arise for not 
 allowing criminals to go unpunished, and that certain rules 
 should be established in regard to the time during which a 
 prisoner accused of crime may be held while legal proceed- 
 ings are pending and while the question of extradition is 
 being settled. 
 
 The treaty mentioned, which was concluded in Washing- 
 ton on February 20th, 1885, underwent important altera- 
 
38 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 tions on the part of both governments and it became 
 necessary again to consider it, but nothing has resulted 
 from such consideration up to the present time. 
 
 Kecently( January 18th, 1892) the Government of Mexico, 
 in conformity with its policy of facilitating tbe demands of 
 justice of the United States, has issued an important circu- 
 lar, through the medium of the Department of Foreign 
 Affairs, in which it is founded that when demand has been 
 made by the United States of America for the extradition 
 of any individual, even though the latter should claim to be 
 a Mexican citizen at the time such demand is made, he must 
 be detained and closely guarded and held subject to the 
 disposition of the Department in question, but must not be 
 delivered up except by express request of the President of 
 the Republic, communicated through the Department of 
 Foreign Affairs. In the meanwhile the required authority 
 will take the preliminary steps to institute judicial pro- 
 ceedings or request that he be instructed by competent 
 judicial authority in order that the nationality of the pre- 
 sumed criminal may be determined. 
 
 The result must be communicated to the Department of 
 Foreign Affairs, accompanied by a copy of the judicial pro- 
 ceedings, in order that the final action, may be taken. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 The government of Belgium consulted that of the Re- 
 public as to whether it felt disposed to conclude a treaty of 
 extradition with that kingdom, and the government of 
 Mexico having expressed its willingness, the Envoy Extraor- 
 dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Belgium submitted 
 a proposition which, with a few modifications, was signed 
 in Mexico on the 12th day of May, 1881, and approved by 
 the Mexican Senate on the 24th of November of the same 
 year. On the 14th of March, 1882, the treaty having been, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 39 
 
 previously, mutually ratified, the proper publication was 
 made whereby effect was given to the treaty. 
 
 The agreement was entered into for five years to date 
 from its ratification on March 13th, 1882, and to go into 
 operation three months after the date of ratification. It 
 was to remain in force twelve months from the time when 
 either of the two governments should express a wish that 
 the treaty should terminate. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 A treaty of like character was arranged between Mexico 
 and Spain and by them approved on November the 17th, 
 1881. The same was mutually ratified on March the 3d, 1883, 
 in consequence of an extension having been granted of the 
 time mentioned therein for such purpose. The treaty was 
 promulgated in Mexico on the 4th of the same month. Its 
 duration is indefinite as it will only cease to be effective 
 when either of the contracting parties terminate the 
 same by twelve months' notice of a wish to do so. This 
 was the first treaty arranged with Spain after the can- 
 cellation of those in force on account of the war of inter- 
 vention. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 A treaty of extradition also exists with the kingdom of 
 Great Britain and Ireland, which was signed in Mexico on 
 September the 7th, 1886, approved by Congress on Decem- 
 ber the 10th, 1887, and by her Britannic Majesty on 
 December the 10th of the same year; the respective docu- 
 ments being exchanged in Mexico on the 22nd of January, 
 1889. This treaty is of indefinite duration and can only 
 be terminated by one of the contracting parties on a 
 notice of not less than six months and of not more than a 
 year. 
 
40 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS 
 
 Telegraphic Arrangement between Mexico and Guatemala. 
 
 V. On the 5th of February, 1887, an agreement relative to 
 telegraphic communication was signed in Mexico by these 
 republics, in which it was stipulated that a telegraphic 
 station should be established at Nenton in Guatemala ter- 
 ritory close to the station of that country for the purpose 
 of effecting the immediate transmission of dispatches 
 addressed to one or the other republic, or of those which it 
 may be necessary to forward to other countries through 
 their respective territories. This agreement went into 
 effect on the first of June in the same year when it was 
 mutually ratified. 
 
 International Agreement Relative to the Publication of 
 Custom House Duties. 
 
 By a decree of the 31st of October, 1890, the Mexican 
 Senate approved the agreement signed in Brussels on the 
 5th of July of the same year by the respective delegates, 
 for the establishment of an international union, having for 
 its object the publication in the several countries comprised 
 in such union of the custom house duties of the different 
 countries of the globe, together with subsequent changes 
 and modifications. The agreement went into effect on the 
 1st of April, 1891, and will remain in force for seven years. 
 If the agreement should not be canceled twelve months 
 prior to the expiration of such period, it will continue in 
 force seven years longer and so on, for every seven years. 
 The revocation of the contract shall be addressed to the 
 Belgian government and will only affect the country mak- 
 ing it, the agreement remaining in force for the other 
 nations comprised in the union. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 41 
 
 CLAIMS. 
 
 United States. 
 
 VI. On July the 4th, 1868, an agreement was entered into 
 between Mexico and the United States for the purpose of 
 deciding the claims made by citizens of Mexico against the 
 United States and vice versa for losses sustained subsequent 
 to February the 2d, 1848. By this agreement a mixed com- 
 mission was established composed of one Mexican and one 
 American and a third party to be selected by these two 
 >intly who should decide in case of a disagreement between 
 the other two. The commission was to remain in existence 
 for two years and six months from the date of its first 
 session. On the 19th of April, 1871, the agreement was 
 continued to January 31st, 1873, but not being able to 
 terminate its labors in this interval, a new contract, en- 
 tered into on November the 27th, 1872, extended the time 
 for two years more. On November the 20th, 1874, a 
 further extension was granted to January the 31st, 1876, 
 granting to the Board of Arbitration, for the purpose of 
 deciding the cases submitted to it, a still further extension 
 to November the 20th of the same year, when the commis- 
 sion completed its labors. 
 
 The sum total demanded of Mexico amounted to $470,- 
 126,613.40 but indemnity was granted only to American 
 claimants in different kinds of money to the value of 
 $4,125,622.20. 
 
 The indemnities demanded by Mexicans amounted to 
 $86,661,891.15 but they were allowed in different kinds of 
 money, only $150,498.41. 
 
 Mexico, by reason of the stipulations contained in the 
 agreement of July, 1868, had therefore to pay to the 
 American government annual installments of $300,000 in 
 gold or its equivalent, to begin on January the 31st, 1877, 
 
42 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 and to continue till the final liquidation of the difference 
 between the indemnities granted to the citizens of the two 
 republics. 
 
 Among the claims adjudicated against Mexico there are 
 two of such a character that the board which made the 
 award expressed a desire that they should be reconsidered. 
 One of these is that of Benjamin Weil for the alleged con- 
 fiscation of 1,914 bales of cotton, for which Mexico was 
 condemned to pay $487,810.68; the other, that of the 
 mining company known as " La Abra " for the pretended 
 forced abandonment of a business which, having been 
 really abandoned as unproductive, was made the basis of a 
 claim against Mexico and by the subornation of witnesses 
 and by means of criminal proceedings, secured for those 
 who hatched the scheme, a favorable award in the sum of 
 $683,041.32. 
 
 The Mexican government which possessed sufficient 
 proofs to evidently demonstrate the fraudulent character 
 of said claims, succeeded, after six years of incessant 
 effort, in concluding an agreement which was signed in 
 Washington on July the 13th, 1882, and was approved by 
 the Mexican Senate on the 7th of October in the same 
 year. By virtue of this agreement the claims mentioned 
 were to be subjected to a new investigation and revision ; 
 the decree of the commission which had officiated in ac- 
 cordance with the agreement of 1868 in relation to the 
 payments not made by Mexico prior to January 31st, 1882, 
 to be null and void. 
 
 Necessaiy investigation having been made in a perfectly 
 impartial manner, the majority of the commission presented 
 a report, as a result of their researches, declaring that the 
 claim was of a fraudulent character based upon false proofs. 
 One of the parties interested in this claim demanded of the 
 Secretary of State at Washington why he did not ma'ke a 
 distribution of the sums deposited to the credit of this 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 43 
 
 claimant and his associates, but his demand was rejected by 
 the proper tribunal. 
 
 In January, 1890, the last payment of $74,138 was made 
 in liquidation of the final installment on the part of 
 Mexico, in compliance with the agreement of 1868, the 
 entire claim of the United States, amounting to n'early 
 $4,000,000, being thus canceled, leaving to Mexico the hope 
 of recovering, without doubt, the amount represented by 
 the fraudulent claims of Weil and " La Abra." 
 
 Spain. 
 
 A diplomatic incident which occurred in 1883 served to 
 demonstrate once more the strength of the friendship ex- 
 isting between Spain and Mexico, for, notwithstanding that 
 it was indispensable for the Kepublic to enter upon the con- 
 sideration of the question raised by the Spanish Minister, 
 he made no concession, in accordance with the frankness 
 with which he has always conducted his international policy. 
 Mr. Mariscal, Minister of Foreign Affairs, expresses 
 himself in the following manner in relation to this inci- 
 dent : — 
 
 " Mr. Crespo, in connection with the action taken by the 
 Senate Chamber on the 13th of June, 1883, approving the 
 legal enactment whereby tne Executive was empowered to 
 undertake the adjustment of the National Debt, sent a 
 note dated the 17th, of the same month, to our Secretary of 
 Affairs, declaring, on behalf of his government, that the 
 latter considered the contract entered into between Mexico 
 and Spain on November the 12th, 1853, as in force at the 
 time, without prejudice to the holders of bonds to exercise 
 full freedom in presenting or not presenting their claims 
 in connection with the projected agreement, their rights 
 to be reserved in the latter event. On the 26th of the 
 following month answer was made that the Mexican 
 
44 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 government had maintained and would always maintain 
 the non-continuance of said agreement for the follow- 
 ing reasons, among others: 1st. That when the republic 
 was re-established in 1867 the legislative and ex- 
 ecutive authorities declared the old contracts void which 
 had been entered into with the European Powers that had 
 made war on Mexico. 2nd. That this announcement was 
 not in conflict with the practice of nations but in conformity 
 therewith and especially with the practice of Spain. 3rd. 
 That in discussing with Spain the resumption of diplomatic 
 relations, information was obtained from three different 
 sources, the government of the United States, his Ex- 
 cellency General Prin and from Mr. Mobellan, that the 
 basis of such resumption would be the cessation of the old 
 contracts between Mexico and Spain. 4th. That Spain ac- 
 cepted this basis as, in 1871, she sent, without raising any 
 objection thereto, his Excellency Don Feliciauo Herreros 
 deFejada as minister to Mexico, and 5th. That this gentle- 
 man signed a protocol with the Minister of Affairs (my- 
 self) in which he acknowledged that diplomatic relations 
 had been resumed upon such basis. 
 
 Mr. Crespo or his government not having insisted, 
 either from conviction or because of a frendly deference, 
 upon the claims made in the note to which I refer, the 
 incident led to no consequences." 
 
 Guatemala. 
 
 On January the 26th, 1888, an agreement was entered 
 into with the republic of Guatemala relative to claims 
 made by each country, and on the 15th of Febuary, 1889, 
 a protocol was signed for the purpose of removing difficult- 
 ies arising in Guatemala upon a review of the contract 
 of January 26th, of which the two first articles had to be 
 corrected. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 45 
 
 The Mexican Senate approved the corrective agreement 
 on the 22d of November, 1889, and, on the 2d of the fol- 
 lowing month, the alterations made in said agreement by 
 an enactment of the legislative assembly of Guatemala on 
 May the 31st, 1889 ; and the action thus taken was mutu- 
 ally ratified on January the 18th, 1890. 
 
 A mixed commission is established by this agreement 
 consisting of two individuals designated respectively by the 
 President of each republic with the understanding that no 
 claims shall be admitted, based upon events occurring 
 prior to 1873, as the claims based upon prior occurrences 
 or arising from losses and injuries inflicted in disputed 
 territory before the boundaries of the two republics had 
 been definitely determined (granting it to be impossible 
 to decide the legality of such events without determining 
 to which of the two nations the territory belonged in which 
 they occurred), should be referred by the commissioners to 
 their respective governments, to be adjusted, at the instance 
 of the interested parties, by the ordinary authorities 
 according to law, without recourse to diplomatic action 
 unless where justice may be denied. The mixed commis- 
 sion when occasion may require, shall take cognizance of 
 the exceptions raised, including the claim of prescription, 
 deciding them in accordance with general legal principles. 
 The commission convened and began its work on July the 
 30th, 1890. 
 
 ECONOMIC REGULATIONS. 
 
 The development of the diplomatic and commercial re- 
 lations of Mexico with other countries led to a reorganiza- 
 tion of the different departments of the Secretaryship of 
 Affairs, a new commercial department having been created 
 in which all matters pertaining to the consular service of 
 the Republic and to the protection of its commerce abroad, 
 were to be centered, in accordance with the provisions fixed 
 
46 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 by the regulations of February the 11th, 1884, 'for the 
 internal management of the Department of Foreign Affairs. 
 This Department embraces all the commercial data sent t@ 
 the secretary periodically by the consular agents, — an 
 aggregation which makes known our commercial require- 
 ments with other nations. 
 
 The decree of January the 24th, 1854, relative to exemp- 
 tions from customs duty in favor of diplomatic agents has 
 been subjected to considerable changes. The Secretary of 
 Affairs took sufficient notice of the suggestions made by 
 the foreign diplomatic agents residing in Mexico to exempt 
 from the payment of customs duties certain goods intended 
 for their special use and initiated a measure by virtue of 
 which the Secretary of the Treasury secured the enactment 
 of the 22d of May, 1885, whereby the concessions indi- 
 cated are clearly defined in the most appropriate manner. 
 
 The Secretary of Affairs submitted a measure of impor- 
 tance to the National Congress on the 15th of October, 
 
 1885, accompanying it by a bill relating to citizenship of 
 foreigners based upon a communication of Mr. Vallarta 
 and submitted for the purpose to the Secretary. 
 
 After some modifications the bill became a law on May 
 the 28th, 1886, and was classified as an enactment con- 
 cerning citizenship and naturalization. 
 
 MEXICAN DIPLOMATIC BODY. 
 
 VII. In accordance with a law dated the 7th of March, 
 
 1886, regulating the Mexican diplomatic body, the relations 
 of the Republic with foreign governments are intrusted to the 
 following kinds of missions: Special and Plenipotentiary 
 missions : Extraordinary Plenipotentiary Legations or merely 
 Plenipotentiary ones : Resident Minister Legations : Charge 
 d' Affaires Legations. The President of the Republic is 
 the person who appoints the agents and diplomatic employes 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 47 
 
 and also with the Senate's approbation the heads of mis- 
 sions. It is the President who directs diplomatic negotia- 
 tions through the secretaryship of State and of the Foreign 
 Affairs Office. To this secretaryship all the diplomatic 
 bodies of Mexico are subject ; to it they all look for their 
 instructions as well as for the approval or disapproval of 
 their acts. 
 
 The personnel of the diplomatic missions is made up of 
 the following functionaries and employes: 
 
 I. Special Envoys and Plenipotentiary Ministers, Extra- 
 ordinary Envoys and Plenipotentiary Ministers. 
 
 II. Resident Ministers. 
 
 III. Charge d'Affaires. 
 
 IV. Charge d'Affaires ad interim (temporary). 
 
 V. First secretaries. 
 
 VI. Second and third secretaries. 
 
 VII. Aggregates. 
 
 The secretaries who as substitutes perform the duties of 
 a head of a mission, during the latter 's absence or sickness, 
 are the Charges d'Affaires ad interim, and to undertake 
 such a charge they do not need the Senate's approbation. 
 When cases of that kind arise the duties of the first secre- 
 tary are fulfilled by the second and so on successively, but 
 all such duties are of an accidental and temporary charac- 
 ter and do not imply any promotion. The aggregates or 
 supernumeraries do not receive any salary and are bound 
 to engage themselves to follow a diplomatic career when 
 the government appoints military or naval aggregates to 
 missions, as it may sometimes deem convenient ; they must 
 be officers in the army or navy and have no duties except 
 their military and naval studies and must give due attention 
 to etiquette. They have no right to take precedence as 
 belonging to the diplomatic body. Promotions from the 
 position of Aggregate to that of Charge d'Affaires are 
 strictly given to priority of age. 
 
48 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The salaries of the heads of missions and diplomatic 
 employes, as well as the official and extraordinary expenses 
 of each Legation are settled in the first place by the law 
 which establishes the mission, and afterwards by the law 
 regulating the estimates. Diplomatic ministers sent to 
 Europe and the United States receive for their traveling and 
 household expenses ten thousand dollars, whilst those 
 destined for what was formerly Spanish America eight 
 thousand, which amount is equally divided between the 
 two above mentioned purposes. For the expenses of their 
 return voyage to the Republic they receive a like sum. The 
 first, second and third secretaries of Legations have for the 
 expenses of their journey to their destination the half of 
 their respective yearly salaries and this amount they re- 
 ceive on starting from the Republic. They receive a third 
 part of their yearly salaries when transferred from one Le- 
 gation to another. For their return journey expenses they 
 receive the same amount as is given for their outward 
 journey. The secretaries charged with ad interim affairs 
 enjoy half of the salary appointed for the ministers whose 
 places they take ; and if the substitute be a first secretary 
 and hold the position service economy, the extraordinary 
 expenses of the secretaryship, accounts with the general 
 treasury: to publish and forward requisitorial letters re- 
 ceived from abroad and also those sent from the Republic to 
 foreign countries ; the general record of the nation ; all 
 matters which do not pertain to the other sections. The 
 cash which comes into the secretaryship either by reason 
 of the dues exacted by it, or which enters by any other 
 title is kept under double locks and keys and in the custody 
 of the Chancellor in such place as the superior official 
 designates. A special writer indites all the cabinet letters 
 and all other diplomatic documents which require more 
 care and attention then the ordinary ones. 
 
 The Translators attached to the Chancellorship trans- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 49 
 
 late all documents, pamphlets or newspaper articles required 
 by any section according as the superior official directs 
 and when they happen to have no translation to do they are 
 employed as ordinary clerks. 
 
 The Port Official or sorter has under his charge the 
 entry of the documents of every kind which come in or o-o 
 out. These he notes separately, clearly and with precision, 
 selecting the essential points of their contents and advising 
 thereof the section or department to which they rio-htly 
 belong and to which he is bound under the strictest re- 
 sponsibility to send them without delay ; he copies under 
 the direction of the superior official into their respective 
 books the consents given by the President at ministerial 
 meetings and those which he gives with reference to this 
 particular secretaryship. 
 
 Record and Library Section.— The duties of this sec- 
 tion are : to keep in perfect order all the documents which 
 already exist in it and those which enter it from other sec- 
 tions as completed documents, all of which must be 
 formed into books under the headings and according 
 to the subjects they treat of, to make a collection of 
 the national and foreign periodicals received in the sec- 
 retaryship to gather together the laws, decrees and 
 regulations issued from the other secretaryships of State 
 and to have them circulated in foreign countries, to collect 
 and forward publications intended for exchange with other 
 governments as also to receive and compile the ones sent 
 by the latter ; the preservation and proper arrangement of 
 the library ; to look after its catalogues aud indexes. Within 
 this last duty are comprised the Geographical Charts, plans 
 and papers relating to the boundary lines of the Republic; 
 to supply the secretary, superior official and the depart- 
 mental and sectional principals with the books and docu- 
 ments they may need for the dispatch of business; no book 
 or paper belonging to the records must be parted with nor 
 
 4 
 
50 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 must a partial or entire copy be given to any person, ex- 
 cept those mentioned, without a special order from the 
 secretary or superior official. When cases arise where it 
 is necessary to allow a book or documentary record to leave 
 the library, in addition to a statement of such act being 
 placed in the book or document itself, another book must be 
 put in the place from which it was taken, notifying the same 
 thing. It is also a duty of this section to take care to de- 
 mand from other secretaryships, whenever necessary, a due 
 number of copies of all the laws and regulations issued by 
 them and the latter are bound to supply such copies if 
 they are meant for circulation or to form the collection of 
 records. 
 
 DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION. 
 
 Mexico has diplomatic representation in Germany, 
 Belgium, Spain, Portugal, France, England, Italy, United 
 States and Central America. 
 
 The following Powers are represented in Mexico : Great 
 Britain, Dominican Republic, Germany, Belgium, United 
 States, Spain, France, Costa Rica, Italy and Republic 
 Argentina. 
 
 CONSULAR AGENCIES. 
 
 There are Consular Agents of Mexico in the following 
 cities : — 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Germany, at Bremen, Berlin, Frankfort on the Main, 
 Hamburg, Karlsruhe, Leipzig, Mannheim and Mayence. 
 
 Belgium, at Amberes Brussels, and Gheut. 
 
 Denmark, Saint Thomas. 
 
 Spain, Alicant, Barcelona, Bilbao, Cadiz, C6rdoba, 
 Corunua, Ferrol Gijon, Granada, Havana, Huelva, Jerez de 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 51 
 
 la Frontera, Irun, Las Palmas, Madrid, Malaga, Manila, 
 Palma de Mallorca, Porto Rico, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, 
 Santa Maria, Santander, San Sebastian, Santiago de Cuba, 
 Sevilla, Valencce and Vigo. 
 
 France, atBayon»ne,Bourdeaux, Fort de France, Havre, 
 Marseilles, Nice, Paris, St. Jean de Luz y Hendaya, St. 
 Nazaire and St. Malo. 
 
 England, at Barrow-in-Furness, Bridgetown, Cardiff, 
 Dover, Dublin, Faltmouth, Gibraltar, Glasgow, Great 
 Grimsby, Hong-Kong, Liverpool, London, Manchester, 
 Montreal, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Newport, Mon, Southampton 
 and Swansea. 
 
 Italy, at Florence, Genoa, Messina, Naples, Palermo 
 and Rome. 
 
 Low countries, at Amsterdam and Rotterdam. 
 
 Portugal, Lisbon and Oporto. 
 
 Sweden and Norway, at Gotemburgo and Stockholm. 
 
 Switzerland at Geneva and Vevey. 
 
 America . 
 
 United States, at Boston, Brownsville, Chicago, Dem- 
 ing, Eagle Pass, El Paso, Philadelphia, Galveston, Kansas 
 City, Laredo, Los Angeles, Nogales, New Orleans, New 
 York, Pansacola, Rio Grande City, Roma, San Antonio, 
 San Francisco, San Diego, St. Louis, Mo., and Tucson. 
 
 Columbia, at Bogota, Colon and Panama. 
 
 Guatemala, at Guatemala, Libertad, Quetzaltenango 
 and Retalhuleo. 
 
 Salvador, San Salvador. 
 
 Venezuela, at Caracas, Carupano, La Guayra and 
 Maracaibo. 
 
 Argentina, at Buenos Aires. 
 
 Bolivia, at La Paz. 
 
 Costa Rica, at San Jose. 
 
 Chili, at Valparaiso. 
 
52 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Dominican Republic, at Santo Domingo. 
 Equator, at Guayaquil and Quito. 
 Uruguay, at Montevideo. 
 Haiti, at Port-au-Prince. 
 
 Oceania, 
 Hawaii, at Honolulu. 
 
 FOREIGN CONSULAR AGENCIES IN MEXICO. 
 
 The representatives of the foreign powers in the Kepub- 
 lic of Mexico are residing in the following cities : — 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Germany, has representatives in Acapulco, Carmen 
 (Island), Chihuahua, Colima, Durango, Guadalajara, 
 Guanajuato, Guaymas, Mazatlan, Merida, Mexico, Mon- 
 terey, Morelia, Oaxaca, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, Tampico, 
 Tehuantepec, Chiapas, Tepic and Veracruz. 
 
 Belgium, at Acapulco, Carmen (Island), Mazatlan, 
 Merida, Mexico, Puebla, Tampico and Veracruz. 
 
 Denmark, Mexico and Veracruz. 
 
 Spain, Carmen (Island), Celaya, Chihuahua, Cuerna- 
 vaca, Durango, Guadalajara, Jalapa, La Paz, Matamoros, 
 Mazatlan, Merida, Progreso, Mexico, Morelia, Monterey, 
 Oaxaca, Puebla, Saltillo, San Luis Potosi, San Juan- 
 Bautista, Tampico, Tehuantepec, Tepic, Tuxpan and 
 Veracruz. 
 
 France, Acapulco, Carmen (Island), Guanajuato, 
 Guadalajara, Jicaltepec, San Rafael, Mazatlan, Merida, 
 San Luis Potosi, Saltillo, Tampico, Tehuantepec, Tonala, 
 Tuxpan and Veracruz. 
 
 England, Carmen (Island), Mexico, Guaymas, Minatit- 
 lan, Mezatlan, Progreso, Tepic and Veracruz. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 53 
 
 Italy, Carmen (Island), Mazatlan, Monterey, Puebla, 
 Tampico and Veracruz. 
 
 Low countries, Veracruz. 
 * Portugal, Carmen (Island), Mexico, Oaxaca and San 
 Lutis Potosi. 
 
 Sweden and Norway, Carmen (Island), Frontera, Gua- 
 dalajara, Guaymas, Laguna de Terminos, Merida, Mexico, 
 Minatitlan, Progreso, San Juan-Bautista, Tampico and 
 Veracruz. 
 
 Switzerland, Mexico. 
 
 America. 
 
 United States of America, Acapulco, Altata, Bahia, 
 Magdalena, Camargo, Campeche, Chihuahua, Ciudad- Vic- 
 toria, Coatzacoalcos, Durango, Ensenada, Frontera, Garita 
 Gonzales, Guadalupe y Calvo, Guanajuato, Guaymas, Guer- 
 rero (Tamaulipas), La Paz, Laguna de Terminos, Man- 
 zanillo, Matamoros, Mazatlan, Merida, Mexico, Mier, 
 Minatitlan, Monterrey, Nogales, Nuevo Laredo, Paso del 
 Norte, Piedras Negras, Punta de Santa Cruz, Sal-tillo, San 
 Benito (Chiapas), San Bias, San Jose, San Luis Potosi, 
 Tampico, Tehuantepec, Salina Cruz, Tuxpan, Veracruz 
 and Zacatecas. 
 
 Guatemala, Acapulco, Guadalajara, Hermosillo, Mexico, 
 Tapachula (Chiapas), Tanpico and Veracruz. 
 
 Honduras, Mexico and Veracruz. 
 
 Nicaragua, Acapulco. 
 
 Peru, Mexico aud Mazatlan. 
 
 Paraguay, Mexico. 
 
 Salvador, Acapulco and Veracruz. 
 
 Santo Domingo, Mexico. 
 
 Venezuela, Mexico, Tampico and Veracruz. 
 
 Argentina, Mexico. 
 
 Columbia, Acapulco, Mexico, Tampico and Veracruz. 
 
 Costa Rica, Guaj'mas and Veracruz. 
 
54 
 
 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Chili, Mazatlan, Mexico and Veracruz. 
 Equator, Guaymas and Mexico. 
 
 Oceania. 
 Hawaii, Manzanillo and Mexico. 
 
 BRIDGE OF " WILD RATTAN " OVER THE RIVER NEXACA. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 55 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 INTERIOR DEPARTMENT. 
 
 I. One of the most important works realized in this 
 Department since the pacification of the Republic is the re- 
 organization of the public powers of the Union and those 
 of the States. 
 
 With general good effect the department has since then 
 directed the home policy of the country, pushing forward 
 on the road to public peace and harmony between the 
 central government and that of the States. Thus it has 
 taken the initiative in important reforms and introduced 
 improvements in nearly all of the branches dependent upon 
 it, such as public charities, security and health, the drainage 
 of- the valley of the city of Mexico, the penitentiary of the 
 District, etc., etc., which works will be treated of in their 
 proper place. 
 
 Although the department of intercourse and public 
 works has now, since the 13th of May, 1891, change of the 
 postal service, yet it has been deemed convenient to treat 
 upon that branch in this chapter, inasmuch as the principal 
 reforms introduced into this most important service of 
 public administration have, in conformity with the decree 
 of April 21st, 1882, without exception, been introduced by 
 the government department. 
 
 The above mentioned are the works detailed in this 
 chapter, in which will also be included with distinction the 
 labors continued by the new department. 
 
 POSTAL SERVICE. 
 
 II. Ruled as it was by the ordinance of the viceroys and 
 by other resolutions issued at that period, the postal service 
 
/ 
 
 56 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 could not be but a most irregular one whilst working under 
 a legislature, not only complicated, but inconsistent with 
 the actual order of things in the country. 
 
 Hence it became urgently necessary to adopt, for the 
 convenience of the Postal Service, a system that would suit 
 the social conditions of the country and answer the purposes 
 of the increase of its population, as well as display greater 
 activity on its commercial and industrial fields. This the 
 Department of Interior proposed to do by introducing, 
 on the 8th of December, 1881, in the House of Deputies, a 
 bill to that effect. When this bill had passed, Congress 
 published, on the 21st of April, 1882, a decree authorizing 
 the President of theEepublic to introduce the much needed 
 reform bearing upon the Postal Service. 
 
 The labors of the special commission appointed to draw 
 up the project to that end were fiuished in October of that 
 same year, and, on the 18th of April of the following year, 
 the decree of the reform was published and ordered to be 
 put into effect on the 1st of January, 1884. 
 
 Since that date the Postal Service in the United States 
 of Mexico is a public one of the Union, and continued to 
 depend upon the Interior Department until the 13th of 
 May, 1891, when it passed to form part of the Department 
 of Intercourse and Public Works, created by the decree of 
 that same date. 
 
 The new postal law classifies in the following manner 
 the objects which the Post-office undertakes to convey: — 
 
 First. 
 
 WRITTEN CORRESPODENCE. 
 
 This class comprises the official communications, letters, 
 and all, or partially so, — manuscripts or writings by means 
 of transcribers, writing machines, or other like systems, 
 and also all matter sent in closed envelopes having the 
 usual appearance of pieces of correspondence. 
 
MANUEL ROMKKO RUBIO. 
 Secretary of the Interior. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS, 57 
 
 Second. 
 
 PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 This class comprises publications made on regulation 
 sheets issued in intervals of not less than three months and 
 furnished with date of issue and number in progressive 
 order, publications in the form of printed sheets without 
 pasteboard, morocco, leather, linen and other matters used 
 in covers ; publications having for their object anything of 
 interest to the public, viz. : politics, literature, science, 
 art, or special industry ; but excluding all such publications 
 as, while fulfilling some of these conditions, still owe their 
 existence only to the fact of publishing matters of private 
 interest. 
 
 Third. 
 
 ALL PRINTS NOT EMBRACED IN THE FORMER CLASSES 
 
 such as books, official circulars, business papers, publica- 
 tions not on newspaper sheets, originals sent to press, 
 proofs of printings, with or without corrections, and their 
 originals. 
 
 Fourth . 
 
 DIVERSE MATTER. 
 
 In this class is comprised all that matter which, not figur- 
 ing in the first, second and third classes, appears suscepti- 
 ble, by their bulk, form, weight or nature, to be conveyed 
 by the mails. 
 
 The mail does not carry the following objects : — 
 
 1st. Those exceeding in dimensions 20 centimeters in 
 length, 10 in breadth and 5 in depth. Nevertheless, when 
 objects of greater dimensions do not injure the contents of 
 the mail bags, the Postmaster may allow their conveyance. 
 
 2nd. Objects causing customs duties. 
 
58 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 3rd. Correspondence, prints, objects and parcels the 
 weight of which exceeds, in one single bulk, two kilo- 
 grams. But books belonging to private industries, docu- 
 ments and books of public offices, even if each of these be 
 of greater weight, may be admitted, provided their dimen- 
 sions do not make their accommodation in the mail bags, 
 difficult or impossible or do not damage the objects for the 
 conveyance of which the mails are specially destined. 
 
 4th. Bank notes, checks payable to bearer, moneys, 
 jewelry, precious stones, liquids, poisons, explosives or 
 inflammables, grease stuffs, matters easily meltable, live 
 animals, corpses undissected, sweets, pastes, fruits and 
 vegetables tending to decompose, and substances emitting 
 bad odors. 
 
 5th. Foreign lottery tickets. 
 
 6th. All obscene or immoral matter. 
 
 The postage is paid by means of stamps, and is, as a 
 rule, obligatory. Only when the objects are directed to 
 countries comprised in the Universal Postal Union is the 
 postage optional. 
 
 The correspondence of Federal officers and employes, of 
 the powers of the States in their relation with supreme 
 powers of the Union, is exempt from the obligation of 
 paying postage. But said official correspondence, and the 
 objects destined for public service, must go in special 
 envelopes or with special stamps. 
 
 The correspondence and objects of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th 
 class which are not provided with postage stamps are not 
 forwarded. By this are understood the following cases: — 
 
 A. Correspondence directed to countries not comprised in 
 the Universal Postal Union, not having been furnished with 
 the stamps necessary to cover the total cost of the postage. 
 
 B. Internal correspondence which has not been furnished 
 with, at least, the stamps equivalent to the cost of the post- 
 age, corresponding to 15 grams, or when more should be 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 59 
 
 paid, the difference between the value of the stamps which 
 it carries and the amount it should bear, exceeds the post- 
 age corresponding to 30 grams. 
 
 C. Correspondence of the supreme powers of a State 
 with the functionaries and employes of same, or with the 
 powers of others, when not furnished with, at least, stamps 
 equivalent to the postage of 30 grams, or when more should 
 be paid, the difference between the value of the stamps it 
 bears and the amount it should bear exceeds the postage of 
 60 grams. 
 
 D. When official stamps are used for correspondence 
 outside the cases for which they are intended. 
 
 E. The objects comprehended in fractions B., C. and D. 
 which are not furnished with stamps corresponding to the 
 total value of the postage. 
 
 The Post-office always forwards correspondence insuffi- 
 ciently provided with postage, thus taking into considera- 
 tion the correspondence of private individuals which, having 
 stamps equivalent to the postage of 15 grams, should pay 
 more by reason of its weight, and the deficiency does not 
 exceed the one that corresponds to 30 grams. It also for- 
 wards the correspondence of the governments of the States 
 with their functionaries and employes, also with those of 
 other States, when having stamps to the value of the postage 
 of 30 grams, should pay more by reason of its weight, and 
 the deficiency does not exceed the postage corresponding to 
 60 grams. 
 
 This correspondence is forwarded to its destination, but 
 at the time of being delivered to whom it may be directed, 
 this person must place, in the presence of the respective 
 employe, the stamps corresponding to the double amount 
 which has not been paid. 
 
 Postage stamps are the only valuables admitted in order 
 to verify the postage of the correspondence and other 
 matter conveyed by the Postal Service. In the denomi- 
 
60 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 nation of postal stamps is understood postal cards, the 
 card letters, and the stamped bonds and envelopes. 
 
 The postage and stamped envelopes are of two classes, 
 one for the use of the public, and the other for official 
 service. The postal letters and cards can be employed as 
 well for international service as for internal. 
 
 The stamps should be placed by those interested, and in 
 no case by the employes of the administration. 
 
 The Postal Code considers as falsifications of stamps: 
 1st. Those who, without the authority of the Government, 
 print them or assist in their impression. 2d. Those who 
 knowingly place in circulation or keep false stamps in their 
 possession. 3d. Those who alter the real stamps, with the 
 object of issuing them for a higher valuation. 4th. Those 
 who manufacture, help to manufacture, or keep in their 
 possession dies, utensils or materials which have for object 
 the falsification of stamps. 
 
 The crime of falsification is punished with imprisonment 
 of from one to three years, which term is doubled in the case 
 of a second offense, and everyone who knowingly employs, 
 sells, or intends to sell stamps which have already served for 
 postage, incurs a fine of $25 to $100, or a penalty of from 
 fifteen days to two months' imprisonment. 
 
 The inviolability of correspondence of private individuals 
 is trespassed upon, by opening with intention or malice, or 
 by destroying or abstracting from any office of the service, 
 any closed piece of correspondence confided to the mails. 
 
 The crime of violating correspondence is punished in 
 particular with a penalty of from one to three years im- 
 prisonment, doubling the term in case of second offense. 
 When the violation of a letter or any sealed packet has 
 for object the appropriation of any bank check, bill of 
 exchange, or of any document contained in the letter, or 
 sheet of paper, or the committal of any other crime, the 
 rules of accumulation are observed. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 61 
 
 NEW POSTAL CODE. 
 
 When the new system was adopted, the mechanism of 
 dispatch changed materially with the inauguration of new 
 offices for the General Administration, with the creation of 
 more than a thousand others at convenient points, estab- 
 lishment of other postal roads, increase of employes in the 
 existing' offices, and with the suppression of the categories 
 in the exterior administration, which, with the same char- 
 acter and attributions, subordinated themselves directly to 
 the General Administration. 
 
 In virtue of the New Postal Code, those codes bearing 
 upon the same subject for the State governments were 
 suppressed for the circulation of their official correspond- 
 ence, and the previous and obligatory postage, the free sale 
 of stamps, the postal card system, the uniformity of 
 internal postage, etc., etc., were established. 
 
 The tariff formerly in force for the internal service, which 
 had for base twenty five-cents postage for each half ounce of 
 weight in one letter, was reduced to ten cents for each fifteen 
 grams or fraction thereof. Five cents was fixed for the 
 value of the stamps of the postal cards to any distance, 
 and two cents for the circulation of same in the Urban 
 Service. The official correspondence of the States under- 
 went, since the 1st of October, 1885, a reduction of postage, 
 which is now at three cents for each letter weighing up to 
 five grams. 
 
 The publication of periodicals of second-class matter 
 taking place in Mexico, and the foreign ones of like char- 
 acter, pay four cents each 480 grams or fraction of that 
 weight. Pamphlets and other articles of third-class mat- 
 ter, as also those of the second which are not forwarded 
 by the publishers or their agents, pay one cent for each 
 thirty trains or fraction thereof, and articles of fourth-class 
 pay two cents for the same weight. 
 
62 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 As to the countries which are not comprised in the Uni- 
 versal Postal Union, the price of postage of the corre- 
 spondence and articles is double the appointed one for the 
 internal service, and paid for by the person to whom the 
 letters or articles are directed. In respect to these coun- 
 tries the registry system is not admitted. 
 
 By the Circular of December 31st, of the same 
 year, the circulation of elementary books and all classes 
 of scientific and literary publications was facilitated, the 
 postage being reduced for these articles to one cent for 
 each thirty grams ' weight which is now paid. The reform 
 was introduced that not only the written correspondence, 
 but pamphlets, samples of merchandise, and, in general 
 all articles conveyable by the Postal Service, can be regis- 
 tered, paying for this right twenty-five cents for each letter 
 or parcels without prejudice to classifying each article 
 according to its class and paying the price of postage that 
 corresponds to it in conformity with the tariff. The 
 registry fee is paid by means of postal stamps, which the 
 interested party himself must affix to the letter or article 
 sent. 
 
 Since the 27th of November, 1885, the postage in the ad- 
 ministration of the Northern Boundaries has been reduced 
 to the rate of foreign correspondence which is five cents for 
 each fifteen grams or fraction thereof, in conformity 
 with the Postal Convention, and in order to avoid that the 
 inhabitants of the towns on the Mexican border should post 
 their letters in the United States, with the object of saving 
 100 per cent in the postage. 
 
 By the decree of May 31st, 1885, the ten inspectors of 
 Zones, created by the Postal Code, were suppressed, and four 
 were created for the public service, whose attributions are 
 determined by the law of the 28th of April of the same 
 year. 
 
 The Urban Postal Service, inaugurated on the 5th of 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 63 
 
 March, 1885, in the city of Mexico and in the outside 
 towns of the Federal District, extended finally to sixty-four 
 of the principal cities of the Republic. 
 
 ECONOMIC REGULATIONS. 
 
 The Postal Administration of the Federal District pub- 
 lished the following on the 30th of December, 1892: — 
 
 The offices of registration shall be open to the public 
 from 8 in the morning to 8 at night, both in this admin- 
 istration and in the branches of the city, but the post 
 boxes are closed at the following hours : For corre- 
 spondence both inland and foreign sent by the National 
 Mexican Railway and by the Mexico to Nuevo Laredo 
 Route: In this office at 11 a. m. In the branch offices at 
 10 a. m. 
 
 For correspondence sent by the afternoon posts to the 
 States of Puebla, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Hidalgo and 
 Mexico by the local trains of the different railways : In 
 this office at 1 p. m. In the branch offices at 12 p. m. 
 
 For correspondence sent to the States of the Interior, 
 West and North, by the Mexican Central Railway as well 
 as to the following States and Territories of the American 
 Union: California, New Mexico, Washington, Wyoming, 
 Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Nevada, Utah, Colorado and 
 Arizona and places in the east of Texas : In this office at 
 5 p. m. In the branch offices at 4 p. m. 
 
 For correspondence sent to the points at which the Cen- 
 tral Railway touches between Mexico and Leon, and for 
 the States of Michoacan, Mexico, Guerrero, Morelos, 
 Hidalgo, Puebla, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Veracruz, Tabasco, 
 Campeche and Yucatan and for Cuba : In this office at 8 
 p.m. In the branch offices at 7 p. m. 
 
 It is requested that persons, who have to register their 
 correspondence, will at once communicate to the adminis- 
 
64 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 trator any difficulty, delay or obstacle they meet with, 
 whether in the respective departments of this office, in the 
 city branches or in those outside the Federal District. 
 Claims for the acknowledgment of receipts can only be 
 made in the respective offices of this administration 
 between 8 a. m. and 8 p. m. 
 
 UNIVERSAL POSTAL UNION. 
 
 III. A most important reform tending to extend the in- 
 ternational communications of Mexico was undoubtedly its 
 adhesion to the postal treaty of Berne which was approved 
 of by representatives of twenty-one countries on the 9th of 
 October, 1874. The government, being invited to send a 
 representative to the Congress of the Postal Union which 
 would be held in Paris in accordance with article 28 of that 
 convention, appointed Mr. Gabino Barreda, Mexican Min- 
 ister in Germany, as its representative, empowering him to 
 enter into the agreement in conformity with the instruc- 
 tions which were at the same time sent to him. 
 
 On the 1st of June, 1878, Mr. Barreda signed the postal 
 agreement of the same date and which was approved of by 
 the Senate and published on the 10th of December of the 
 same year. 
 
 By virtue of this arrangement, the different nations that 
 were represented, form under the name of the Universal 
 Postal Union, but one single territory for the exchange of arti- 
 cles which the postal traffic places in their post-offices. They 
 number the opened or closed letters, post-cards, prints of 
 whatever kind, documents (papiers d'affaires) and samples of 
 merchandise, whilst the nations which supply the transport 
 service for the correspondence must be paid the following 
 expenses of transit : for land transport 2 francs per kilo- 
 gram of letters or post-cards and 25 centimes per kilogram 
 of other articles; for sea transport of more than three hun- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 65 
 
 dred miles 15 francs per kilogram of letters or post-cards 
 and 1 franc per kilogram of other articles. In cases where 
 the sea transport belongs to two or more nations the ex- 
 pense may be more than 15 francs per kilogram of letters 
 and this duty is divided among the nations interested. The 
 expenses of transit are borne by the remitting nation. The 
 prices for the carriage of articles by post are fixed as fol- 
 lows : for letters 25 centimes if prepaid, if not double, for 
 each letter weighing 15 grammes or a fraction of 15 
 grammes ; 10 centimes for a post card ; 5 centimes for every 
 object or packet of printed matter, documents, and samples 
 of merchandise, not exceeding 50 grammes. The lowest 
 cost of documents is 25 centimes per packet, and that of 
 samples 10 centimes. To these charges may be added 
 a further charge of 25 centimes for letters, 5 centimes for 
 post-cards and the same amount for other objects whose 
 weight is 5 grammes or less, to pay for the cost of sea- 
 transit. 
 
 In case of insufficient prepaid postage the deficit is paid 
 by the persons to whom the articles are sent and with 
 double the amount of the insufficiency. Articles which by 
 their natures soil or injure the other correspondence are not 
 transmitted ; nor samples which have a merchantable value, 
 or exceed 250 grammes in weight or are more than 20 
 centimetres long, 10 wide and 5 thick ; nor documents and 
 printed matter of any kind weighing more than 2 kilograms ; 
 nor articles, with the exception of letters, which have not 
 been prepaid at least in part. 
 
 For registered letters there must be paid in addition 
 to the ordinary postage, 25 centimes in European States 
 and 50 in other countries and these imply the handing of a 
 receipt to the remitter and if 25 centimes more are paid, 
 the postal authorities are obliged to give a receipt signed by 
 the person to whom the article was delivered. In the case 
 of the loss of an article which was registered there must be 
 
 5 
 
66 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 paid to the remitter or at his request to the person to whom 
 the article was sent an indemnity of 50 francs by the postal 
 authorities in whose territory or in whose sea service the 
 article went astray, and if it be impossible to find out which 
 is the responsible office, the indemnity must be paid in 
 equal parts by both nations. Every claim and indemnity 
 lapses after one year reckoned from the delivery of the 
 registered article in the post-office. In countries where the 
 franc is not the monetary unit the postage is fixed according 
 to equivalent values laid down in article 14 of the regulations 
 of order and details in which it is determined that in Mexico 
 6, 4 and 2 cents are equivalent to 25, 10 and 5 centimes 
 respectively. 
 
 The postage of any article sent should be paid by means 
 of postage stamps available in the country from which the 
 object is sent for the correspondence of private persons. 
 The official correspondence which relates to the postal 
 service which is exchanged between the postal authorities 
 is excepted. 
 
 The money collected for postage belongs to the country 
 which collects it : the return of things from the post-office 
 brings with it no expense for the persons to whom they are 
 returned. 
 
 The sendiug of letters or packets containing gold or 
 silver, coin, jewelry and precious articles and objects which 
 are subject to duty is forbidden. The time fixed for the 
 agreement to be put in execution was the 1st of April, 1879, 
 without definite limit, each of the signing parties being 
 able to withdraw from the union on giving one year's 
 notice. 
 
 POSTAL CONGRESS OF LISBON. 
 
 During the months of February and March, 1885, the first 
 postal Congress met at Lisbon in fulfillment of astipulation 
 in the previous agreement. Sr. D. Luis Bretony Nedra, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 67 
 
 consul of the Republic in that city, was charged with the 
 representation of Mexico. The clauses added to the Postal 
 Convention of Paris were approved of by the Senate on 
 the 27th of May, 1886. These clauses contain important 
 reforms and additions. The free transit of double post- 
 cards with answer prepaid was extended throughout the 
 whole union, commencing on the 1st of April, 1886, the 
 postage of each of the two parts which make up the post- 
 cards being 10 centimes of a franc ; the statements of the 
 accounts of transit between the countries which form the 
 union are made instead of every two years once in every 
 three years, taking as their basis the number and weight 
 of the objects transmitted in twenty-eight days instead of 
 one month ; extra postage is no longer charged for trans- 
 mitting answer, post-cards which are cut off from the double 
 post-cards and the postage of post-cards having the answer 
 prepaid is twenty centimes for the two halves ; it is not 
 allowable to send packets of papers or printed documents 
 of any class whose weight exceeds two kilograms or when 
 any of their sides measure more than 45 centimetres; the 
 remitter can have an object withdrawn from the service 
 or its directions altered as long as it has not been de- 
 livered to the person to whom it is sent, by paying the 
 neccessary expenses at the time he asks for its deten- 
 tion either by post or telegraph. The detention is 
 not obligatory in countries where the legislature does not 
 allow the sender to dispose of an article during its journey. 
 Articles sent by post may be delivered at the house of the 
 receiver by a special employe when the sender so requests 
 and pays 30 centimes ; articles so sent are described as 
 "express." The dispatch of documents of identity is 
 established by virtue of a special treaty between the 
 Argentine Republic, Bulgaria, Egypt, Italy, Luxemburg, 
 Mexico, Paraguay, Portugal, Roumania, Switzerland, 
 Uruguay and Venezuala. The object of these memoranda 
 
68 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 is to enable foreigners to obtain without delay their regis- 
 tered correspondence at any office in the countries mentioned 
 without being obliged to undergo in each case the formali- 
 ties which are required to establish the identity of a person 
 in the post-offices. The sending of articles of gold and 
 silver, precious stones and other valuable objects, is author- 
 ized whenever the posting or sending is not forbidden by 
 the laws of the country from which they are sent, through 
 which they pass or for which they are destined. It was 
 also definitely settled at the Congress of Lisbon that the 
 values fixed for Mexico of 6, 4 and 2 cents as equiva- 
 lent to 25, 10 and 5 centimes should be lowered to 5, 2 and 
 1 cent and the new scale of postage for foreign countries 
 was issued on the 24th of September, 1885. 
 
 POSTAL CONVENTIONS. 
 
 United Slates 
 
 IV. The notable increase which is every day seen in the 
 foreign postal service and the continually increasing activity 
 of correspondence with the United States especially, owing 
 to the facility and frequency of communication with that 
 country, has rendered the making of new postal agreements 
 absolutely necessary in order to extend the service between 
 the two nations, because the agreement entered into in 1861 
 and known as " Corwin Lerdo " did not offer to Mexico 
 the advantages which were to be desired. With this object, 
 on the 4th of April, 1887, a postal agreement was entered 
 into with the U nited States through Mr. Romero, Mexican 
 Minister at Washington. This arrangement facilitates the 
 interchange of correspondence, printed matter, samples 
 and packages of certain sizes, total prepayment of all cor- 
 respondence being obligatory with the exception of letters. 
 The Secretaries of Government of the Exchequer issued 
 their respective regulations on the 10th and 11th of August 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 69 
 
 of the same year. The first was amplified in November 
 and the second was abolished by the regulations of Sep- 
 tember, 1887, and then both came into force on the 1st of 
 January, 1888. 
 
 Another agreement was signed at Washington, on the 
 28th of April, 1888, the object of which was to render more 
 efficient the parcel-post service and ill it the irresponsibility 
 of both post-office departments for loss or damage to parcels 
 was declared. The agreement came into force from the 
 1st of August following. In order that the treaty might 
 be carried out the Secretary of the Exchequed issued regu- 
 lations of the 30th of December, 1888, and the Secretary 
 of Interior a decisive rule on the 29th of the same month 
 and year for the carrying out of this and the previous 
 agreement of 1887. 
 
 On the 24th of January, 1889, another agreement was 
 signed at Washington by which was organized with the 
 greatest possible safety a rapid system for the interchange 
 of mails, meant exclusively for the direct service of regis- 
 tered correspondence between Mexico and New York. The 
 1st mail-bags were despatched from both cities on the 15th 
 of February, and since then they are being received at 
 both ends respectively every fifth day from their despatch. 
 
 French Republic. 
 
 Another agreement was entered into on the 10th of De- 
 cember, 1891, regarding the interchange of parcels without 
 declared value and on the basis of the Paris Convention of 
 the 3d of November, 1880, between the Eepublics of 
 Mexico and France. This agreement was made through 
 Messieurs Mariscal, Foreign Secretary, and Albert Henri 
 Blanchard de Fargas, Envoy Extraordinary and Plenipo- 
 tentiary Minister of the French Eepublic in Mexico. 
 
 The agreement will be obligatory till such time as one 
 
70 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 of the two nations shall give a year's notice to the other 
 of its intention to allow it to become extinct. The Senate 
 approved this Convention on the 12th of December, the 
 President signed it on the 14th of the same and it was 
 promulgated on the 27th of June, 1892. 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 A treaty of the same kind regarding the carriage of par- 
 cels between the Republic and the United Kingdom of 
 Great Britain and Ireland was made in Mexico by Mr. 
 Mariscal, foreign minister, and the British minister, Sir 
 Spenser St. John, on the 15th of February, 1889. The 
 regulations for its being carried out were issued by the 
 Secretary of the Interior on the 12th of March, 1890. 
 
 German Empire. 
 
 On the 24th of May, 1892, an agreement was signed by 
 Messieurs Mariscal, foreign Secretary, and Von Winckler, 
 Envoy, Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary minister of the 
 German Empire. By this there was established between 
 the two nations a regular postal service for parcels without 
 declared value and the value of whose contents cannot be 
 claimed on delivery. This agreement after being approved 
 of by the Senate on the 30th of the said month was ratified 
 on the 27th of the following June. 
 
 MAIL STEAMERS. 
 
 V. The Government, in order to stimulate commerce to 
 create regular communications between Mexico and foreign 
 countries, as well as to facilitate intercourse between the 
 cities and ports on her coast, has favored the establishment 
 of mail steamers by granting to the companies concessions 
 of subventions more or less large taking into account the 
 necessities of the public service. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 71 
 
 The contracts which have lately been made by the Sec- 
 retary of the Interior and of Communications as of Public 
 Works are the following : 
 
 Imperial German Mail Harrison Line. 
 
 A contract, dated the 12th of February, 1887, with Mr. 
 Carlos G. Martens representing Messieurs Guillermo Bus- 
 ing & Co., of Veracruz to carry free of charge for the 
 government, all the public and official correspondence, 
 printed matter and parcels directed to Europe by the 
 steamers of the "Imperial German Mail," and the English 
 correspondence by those of the " Harrison Line." 
 
 The first line runs every month between Hamburg and 
 Havre, Veracruz, Tampico and Progreso, and vice versa ; 
 the second runs every month between the ports of Liver- 
 pool and Veracruz and is allowed to touch at any of the 
 ports of Tampico, Tuxpan, Frontera and Progreso both 
 out and home. The steamers of both lines carry under the 
 same conditions the correspondence from one to the other 
 of the Mexican ports at which they touch and are excepted 
 from the payment of lighthouse dues. This contract was 
 made for two years and it was prolonged under the same 
 conditions on the 12th of February, 1889, for three more 
 years to conclude on the 1st of March, 1892. 
 
 New York and Cuba Mail Steam Ship Company. 
 
 A contract dated the 5th of December, 1889, with Mr. 
 Eobert W. Parson in his own name and that of the New 
 York and Cuba Mail Steam Ship Company, to perform 
 between the ports of the line a like service to that expressed 
 in the previous contract. The steamers of the company 
 sail every week between New York and Veracruz, touching 
 at Havana and Progreso and alternately at Tampico by 
 Tuxpan or Campeche and Frontera. They are exempted 
 
72 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 from the payment of lighthouse duties and may engage in 
 the coasting trade provided there are no national vessels 
 ens-aged in the same. The contract was made for five 
 years. 
 
 General French Company of Steam Transports. 
 
 A contract signed on the 10th of January, 1891, with 
 Messrs. F. J. Mufios & Co., agents in Veracruz for the 
 General French Company of Steam Transports to perform 
 a service like to that stipulated for in the previous. The 
 steamers of this company make their voyages every month 
 from Antwerp to Veracruz touching now and then the ports 
 ^)f Bordeaux, Havana and Progreso, and from Veracruz 
 to Antwerp touching at Tampico, New Orleans and Havre. 
 In this contract are also included the irregular steamers of 
 the same company as well as those placed at the disposal 
 of the service either to increase the number of monthly 
 voyages or the number of ports. As compensation for this 
 service the steamers are excepted from custom duties. The 
 contract will last for three years and may be prolonged at 
 the will of the parties. 
 
 General Transatlantic Company. 
 
 A contract made by the same Secretaryship with Mr. 
 Eugenio Dutom, general agent of the above company, on 
 the 20th of August, 1891, stipulates that it continues to 
 perform the service of carrying correspondence between the 
 ports at which its steamers touch in accordance with the 
 agreement made with the French Government, and more- 
 over that it shall perform between the same ports the 
 postal service laid down in the previous contract. There 
 are included in this contract the steamers which make 
 monthly all round voyages, the irregular ones of the same 
 company and those placed at its service, all of which are 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 73 
 
 exempted from the payment of lighthouse dues. This 
 contract is made for 3 years and may be prolonged at the 
 will of the contracting parties. 
 
 West Indian and Pacific Steam Ship Company. 
 
 A contract dated the 25th of November, 1891, and en- 
 tered into by the said Secretaryship of Communications 
 and the above compauy represented by Mr. Juan Eitter to 
 undertake a like service has been already expressed in the 
 previous contracts. The steamers run every twenty-eight 
 days between the ports of Liverpool and Veracruz, touching 
 also at Barbadoes, St. Thomas, Trinidad, La Guayra, 
 Puerto Cabello, Curazao, Sta. Marta, Savanilla, Cartagena, 
 Port-au-Prince, Kingston, Golan, Tampico and New Or- 
 leans ; they may also call at the port of Progreso both on 
 their out and home voyage. The contract is for three 
 years, which may be prolonged. The steamers are free 
 from the payment of light-house dues. 
 
 Transatlantic Steam Ship Company of Barcelona. 
 
 A contract made on the 11th of September, 1891, by the 
 same Secretaryship with Mr. Carlos Calderon and Vasco, 
 representative of the above-mentioned company, for the 
 service of the public and official correspondence, placed 
 under its charge the ports of the Mexican Gulf at which 
 the steamers may touch. The said steamers are exempted 
 from paying light-house dues and may engage in the coast- 
 ing trade if there be no national boats engaged therein. 
 
 Harrison Steam Ship Line, called " The Charente Steam- 
 ship, Limited." 
 
 A contract entered into on the 8th of March, 1892, by 
 the Secretaryship of Communications and Mr. Carlos G. 
 
74 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Marten representative of the said company for the trans- 
 port of mails between Mexico and Europe, is on the same 
 conditions as the preceding contract. The steamers sail 
 every eight days between the ports of Liverpool and Vera- 
 cruz, touching both on their outward and return voyages 
 at Tampico, Tuxpan, Frontera, Campeche and Progreso as 
 well as at Barbadoes, St. Thomas, Trinidad, La Guayra, 
 Puerto Cabello, Curazao, Santa Marta, Savanilla, Carta- 
 gena, Port-au-Prince, Kingston, Colon and New Orleans. 
 These steamers must make at least one voyage every 
 month. They are freed from the payment of lighthouse 
 dues and may engage in the coasting trade. The contract 
 lasts for three years. 
 
 New York, Mobile and Mexico Steamship Company. 
 
 A contract made between the Minister of Communications 
 and Mr. Emeterio de la Garza representing the said com- 
 pany on the 22d of April, 1892, for the carrying of mails 
 on the same terms as are stipulated for in previously 
 mentioned contracts. These vessels sail every 28 days 
 between Mobile and Tampico and are exempted from paying 
 lighthouse duties. 
 
 Line of Steamers between Progreso, New Orleans and New 
 
 York. 
 
 A contract dated the 22d of April, 1892, entered into by 
 the Secretaryship of Communications and Mr. Manuel 
 Peniche, representative of Mr. P. Gonzalez, agent of the 
 said line for the transport of mails. The steamers under- 
 take the postal service on their voyages from Progreso to 
 New York and from Progreso to New Orleans as well as in 
 the irregular voyages which they make from Boston to 
 Progreso and from Progreso to Veracruz. These steamers 
 
AND IT.S INSTITUTIONS. 75 
 
 are bound to make at least one voyage every month; they 
 do not pay lighthouse dues. The contract is for three 
 years. 
 
 Line of Mr. Joaquin Redo. 
 
 A contract entered into on the 1st of August, 1888, with 
 Mr. Joaquin Eedo, for running one or two mail steamers 
 between San Francisco and Guaymas, touching on their 
 outward and return voyages at San Diego, Ensenada de 
 Todos Santos, Magdalena Bay, Cape San Lucas (higher), 
 Mazatlan and La Paz ; each voyage not to be of more 
 than one month's duration. The subventioned line carries 
 gratuitously the mails and packets of printing matter sent 
 by the post-office to the ports or from the ports at which 
 the line touches ; it also carries at reduced rates packages 
 containing articles of the Federal Government, troops or 
 army men who are traveling on service, citizens or foreign 
 subjects who are notoriously poor and wish to come to the 
 Republic, and Mexican citizens who wish to return to Mex- 
 ico from abroad. In return for these services a subven- 
 tion of $2,700 is given for the voyage and return. The 
 capital of the line is not subject to the payment of Federal 
 taxes; the vessels do not pay any port dues with the excep- 
 tion of the pilot's fee and may engage in the coasting trade 
 at the various points in their journeys. This contract is 
 made for ten years. 
 
 Steam Ship Company of the Pacific Coast. 
 
 On the 12th of August, 1891, the Secretaryship of Com- 
 munications and Public Works made another contract with 
 this company in which it was stipulated that the company 
 should run a mail boat between San Francisco, California, 
 and Guaymas, touching in its outward and return voyage 
 at the ports of Ensenada de Todos Santos, Magdalena Bay, 
 San Jose del Cabo, Mazatlan and La Paz. It perforins a 
 
76 THE RICHES OF, MEXICO 
 
 like service to that stated in the foregoing contract. The 
 mail boat in exchange pays no lighthouse dues and may 
 engage in the coasting trade at the different ports of its 
 voyage. The company is also empowered to open a regis- 
 ter for the vessels one day before that appointed for its 
 sailing and its capital is exempted from the payment of Fed- 
 eral taxes, with the exception of the stamp duty. The 
 length of each voyage and return shall not exceed one 
 month. The contract is for five years, which may be pro- 
 longed at the desire of the parties to it. 
 
 Line of Steamers of Mr. James W. Porch. 
 
 Similar conditions to those of the preceding contract 
 were arranged on the 12th of August, 1891, between the 
 Minister of Communications and Mr. James W. Porch, for 
 the establishment of a line of steamers to run between the 
 ports of Philadelphia to Baltimore and Veracruz touching 
 on their outward and home voyage at the ports of Pro- 
 greso, Frontera, Campeche, Tuxpan and Tampico, and other 
 ports of Mexico or the United States when the traffic so 
 require. The company's steamers shall run at least once 
 every month between the said ports. The contract will last 
 for five years and may then be prolonged for five more. 
 
 Line of Mr. Robert R. Symon. 
 
 Mr. Sebastian Camacho as representative of Mr. Robert 
 E. Symon signed, along with the same Secretaryship and 
 on the 15th of October, 1891, a contract reforming that of 
 the previous 25th of June. By this agreement the steam- 
 ships "Mazatlan" and " Altata " are to sail from Man- 
 zanillo to Guaymas touching at these ports on each voyage. 
 These steamers undertake the carriage of the mails and of 
 other things as per previous contract. They engage in the 
 seaport and the coasting trade and do not pay light honse 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 77 
 
 dues nor are they subject to the payment of Federal taxes 
 except the stamp duty. This contract is for four years. 
 
 Line of Mr. Manuel Romero combined with the Steamers 
 of the /Spanish Transatlantic Company. 
 
 A contract of the 21st of August, 1889, entered into with 
 Mr. Manuel Romero for the establishment of two steamers 
 each running an all round voyage every twenty or twenty- 
 five days between the ports of Tuxpan, Veracruz, Coatza- 
 coalcos, Minatitlan, and Frontera and being able to arrive 
 at San Juan Bautista de Tabasco, Laguna, Campeche, Pro- 
 greso and Tampico in time to meet the steamers of the 
 Spanish Transatlantic Company which communicate every 
 ten days with the pilots of Veracruz and Progreso. 
 
 Under the conditions of the contract just mentioned it 
 carried the mails as well as the government servants and 
 government articles. The company receives a subvention 
 of a thousand dollars after each voyage. The contract is 
 for five years which may be prolonged to another five years 
 and so on if notice of renunciation be not given before the 
 end of the fourth year of each period. 
 
 Pacific Mail Company. 
 
 A contract dated the 11th of December, 1889, with Mr. 
 Juan B. Frisbie, representative of the Pacific Mail. This 
 contract was a prolongation till the 31st of December, 1891, 
 of a previous one drawn up on the 20th of December, 1887. 
 The steamers of the company are obliged to continue 
 making two voyages every month with the line called 
 " Direct between San Francisco and Panama touching on 
 their out and home journeys at the ports of Mazatlan and 
 Acapulco and at those of Manzanillo and San Bias, once at 
 least every month when outward bound and again once 
 when homeward bound. The same company shall also 
 
78 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 make with the line called " Oriental", an all round voyage 
 every month calling both when going and coming at the 
 ports of Acapulco, Salina Cruz, San Benito, Puerto Angel 
 and Tonala. They perform the postal service gratuitously 
 and other transports with the same allowance as is stipu- 
 lated for in the foregoing contract. The vessels may engage 
 in the coasting trade if there are no national boats so 
 doing. The company used to receive a subvention of 2,500 
 dollars monthly ; but when the contract was provisionally 
 prolonged and for an indefinite time from the 1st of Jan- 
 uary, 1892, the subvention was withdrawn. 
 
 Mexican Company of Navigation on the River Grijalva. 
 
 The Secretaryship of Communications and Public Works 
 made a contract on the 11th of August, 1891, with Mr. 
 Charles Wehener for the establishment of lines of navi- 
 gation on the river Grijalva between " Atasta " and 
 "Palmas " by a company to be called the " Mexican Com- 
 pany of Navigation on the river Grijalva." They can 
 make the journey from Atasta to Barra de Chiltepec by the 
 river Gonzalez. Between the two first mentioned points 
 they must run at least six voyages per month and between 
 the first and last the number of runs shall be determined by 
 the company with the approbation of the government. 
 
 The company undertakes to carry gratuitously the mails 
 and postal parcels which are delivered to them by the post 
 offices and also to perform the postal service between 
 "Atasta" and "Las Palmas " either by means of a 
 special mail boat when the ordinary boat is unavailable or 
 by means of a post horse. It will also carry with a 
 reduction of a third part of the fare laid down in its list, civil 
 and military employes in the service of the government, 
 armed forces, war material, colonists who are passing from 
 one point on the line to another along with their luggage. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 79 
 
 The company enjoys a subvention of $5,400, equal to $75 
 per all, round voyage. The term of the contract is five 
 years. 
 
 Company of Navigation on the Rivers of /Sotavento of 
 
 Veracruz. 
 
 By virtue, of another contract made on the 3d of December, 
 1891, with the Secretaryship of Communications, Messrs. 
 Juan A. Chazaro, Sucesores, engage to establish lines of 
 navigation on the rivers Papaloapan, San Juan Michapan 
 and Alonso Lazaro between Tlacotalpan and Tuxtepec, and 
 between Tlacotalpan and Alonzo Lazaro, and to organize a 
 company called the "Company of Navigation on the Rivers 
 of Sotavento of Veracruz." A steamboat must perform 
 the special service for passengers and mails carrying them 
 from Alvarado to the farthest point navigable on the 
 Papaloapan. Each of the company's vessels must make 
 at least four voyages per month and the mail boat three 
 voyages a week. 
 
 The company carries the letters, printed matter and 
 parcels delivered to it by the post-offices and undertakes 
 the postal service between Tlacotalpan and Tuxtepec. It 
 allows a reduction in the fare to civil and military em- 
 ployes, armed forces in the freight of war material and 
 other things pertaining to the government. In exchange 
 it receives from the government a subvention of $5,100 
 yearly. The contract is for five years which may be pro- 
 longed for a like term at the will of the parties to it. 
 
 POSTAL STATISTICS. 
 
 VI. To obtain an exact idea of the progress in Mexico 
 of the Postal Authorities the following statistics are 
 quoted. 
 
 The post-offices existing in the Federal District, States 
 
80 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 and Territories of the Republic during the fiscal year 1889- 
 90 in accordance with Budget of Expediture for the said 
 period were as follows : — 
 
 States and Territories. Post Offices. 
 
 Aguascalientes 4 
 
 Baja California S 
 
 Campeche 6 
 
 Coahuila 22 
 
 Colima 2 
 
 Chiapas 7 
 
 Chihuahua 20 
 
 Distrito Federal 1 
 
 DuraDgo 15 
 
 Guanajuato 21 
 
 Guerrero 11 
 
 Hidalgo 19 
 
 Jalisco 2G 
 
 Mexico 24 
 
 Michoacan 21 
 
 Morelos 7 
 
 Nuevo Leon 13 
 
 Oaxaca.... 14 
 
 Puebla 24 
 
 Quere"taro 7 
 
 San Luis Potosi 20 
 
 Sinaloa 13 
 
 Sonora 14 
 
 Tabasco 4 
 
 Tamaulipas 14 
 
 Tepic 7 
 
 Tlaxcala 6 
 
 Veracruz 30 
 
 Yucatan 13 
 
 Zacatecas 1G 
 
 Grand total 409 790 13 I'M 
 
 
 Stations. 
 
 
 Sub-Offices. 
 
 Federal District. 
 
 Totals. 
 
 2 
 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 ... 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 ... 
 
 49 
 
 3 
 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 ... 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 
 54 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 32 
 
 
 47 
 
 33 
 
 ... 
 
 54 
 
 21 
 
 ... 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 
 55 
 
 71 
 
 ... 
 
 97 
 
 41 
 
 ... 
 
 G5 
 
 12 
 
 ... 
 
 63 
 
 7 
 
 ... 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 
 39 
 
 34 
 
 ... 
 
 4S 
 
 47 
 
 ... 
 
 71 
 
 7 
 
 ... 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 
 47 
 
 22 
 
 
 35 
 
 59 
 
 
 73 
 
 17 
 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 
 41 
 
 7 
 
 ... 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 
 15 
 
 03 
 
 ... 
 
 93 
 
 39 
 
 
 52 
 
 21 
 
 
 37 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 81 
 
 The following figures give us the amount of the internal 
 correspondence between the fiscal years 1878-79 — 1889-90. 
 
 Fiscal Years. No. of Pieces. 
 
 1878 to 1879 5,992,611 
 
 1889" 1880 5,786,790 
 
 1880 "1881 6,141,790 
 
 1881 "1882 6,732,504 
 
 1882 "1883 10,640,516 
 
 1883 "1884..... 10,488,518 
 
 1884 "1885 11,905,209 
 
 1885 " 1886 13,289,591 
 
 1886 "1887 16,504,034 
 
 1887 "1888 27,439,018 
 
 1888 "1889 43,052,800 
 
 1889 "1890 95,852,939 
 
 Total 253,826,320 
 
 COMPARISON. 
 
 Fiscal Year. No. of Pieces. Increase. Decrease. 
 
 1878tol879 5,002,611 
 
 1879 " 1880 5,786,790 205,821 
 
 1880 "1881 6,141,790 355,000 
 
 1881 " 1882 6,732,504 590,714 
 
 1882 " 1883 10,640,516 3,908,012 
 
 1883 " 1884 10,488,519 151,998 
 
 1884 " 1885 11,905,209 416,691 
 
 1885 " 1886 13,289,591 1,384,382 
 
 1886 " 1887 16,504,034 3,214,443 
 
 1887" 1888 27,439,018 10,934,984 
 
 1888"1889 43,052,800 15,613,782 
 
 1889 " 1890 95,852,939 52,800,139 
 
 By reason of commercial developments, the opening of 
 new routes of communication and careful conduct of the 
 Postal Authorities, the volume of correspondence has 
 notably increased and at the end of the fiscal year 1890- 
 
82 THE RICHES OF MEXTCO 
 
 91, 165 new offices have been established; since then there, 
 has been 53 additional offices added, making a grand total of 
 1,430 post-office, extensions, throughout the Republic of 
 Mexico, the greater part of which have daily communication. 
 
 During the first six months of the fiscal year 1890-91, 
 the mail matter handled by the Mexican post-office num- 
 bered 63,062,468 pieces, in the second half of the same 
 year, 65,577,650; during the first half of the fiscal year 
 1891-92, 67,780,647, showing a decided gain over the 
 preceding half year by 1,609,182 pieces and 4,718,179 
 pieces over the first six months of the fiscal year 1890-91. 
 
 The postal movement for the six months comprehended 
 between July and December, 1891, can be divided as 
 follows : 
 
 Received. Delivered. Totaled. 
 
 Letters and written communications : 
 
 Interior service 9,799,724 12,924,458 22,724,182 
 
 Foreign service 2,397,298 1,612,223 4,009,521 
 
 Printed matter and samples : 
 
 Interior service 17,605,122 16,752,154 34,357,276 
 
 Foreign service , 3,850,459 1,611,725 5,462,184 
 
 Kegistered matter : 
 
 Interior service 227,893 270,063 497,956 
 
 Foreign service 80,300 49,228 129,528 
 
 Official correspondence : 
 
 Interior service 10,027,617 13,194,521 23,222,138 
 
 Foreign service 2,477,598 1,661,451 4,139,049 
 
 Total 46,466,011 48,075,823 94,541,834 
 
 The postal card movement for the same period is this: 
 
 Received 16,600 
 
 Delivered 12,500 
 
 Total '. 29,100 
 
 The Custom House of the city of Mexico handled 5,666 
 packets coming from England and United States, during 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 83 
 
 the period that we are considering. The average of the 
 daily circulation of the postal matter in the offices of all 
 the Kepublic, is to the amount of 365,112 pieces. 
 
 Referring to the income of post-offices in some of the 
 principal cities of the Republic, the following data has just 
 been published: 
 
 FISCAL YEAR, 1890-91. 
 
 Acapulco $ 4,154 13 
 
 Celaya 9,145 15 
 
 Chihuahua 15,463 20 
 
 Durango 8,794 90 
 
 Guadalajara i 22,836 24 
 
 Guanajuato ... 13,121 87 
 
 Guaymas G,116 88 
 
 Hermosillo 8,115 40 
 
 Leon 8,338 07 
 
 Mazatlan 16,962 05 
 
 Monterey 22,599 79 
 
 Morelia 8,508 65 
 
 Pachuca 9>513 3i 
 
 Puebla 36j 288 45 
 
 Queretaro 8)616 8 9 
 
 Salttillo 10,962 84 
 
 San Luis Potosi 24 543 32 
 
 Tehuacan 6j500 73 
 
 Te P ic 5,013 32 
 
 Toluca , 6j391 69 
 
 VII. As has been seen by the last preceding contracts 
 (Till.), credit has been given to the Interior Department 
 for certain works which have been carried to completion 
 by the Department of Communications and Public Works. 
 It could not possibly be otherwise, without falling into a 
 labyrinth of confusions, more especially to those but little 
 versed in the economic problems of Mexico ; as by virtue 
 
84 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 of the law promulgated May 8th, 1891, which created the 
 Department of Communications and Public Works, marked 
 separations had been made in the others, principally in 
 those of Colonization, Industry and Commerce and of the 
 Interior, as a result of which the continuity of the works 
 would be interrupted, and that which might have been 
 commenced by one would be carried forward or completed 
 by other. For the purpose of clearness, it has been con- 
 sidered preferable in this book not to divide the series of 
 the works, but to credit each one to its original department, 
 making mention, however, of the new Department, at the 
 stage where said series were continued by the latter. 
 
 It will also be noted that various branches of the Interior 
 Department have been omitted in this chapter and in the 
 same manner we have treated the others ; this was required 
 by the plan of the work, as from the different departments 
 we have separated those subjects, which, by virtue of their 
 importance, required to be treated separately. 
 
 MEXICAN RAILROAD FROM VERACRUZ TO CITY OF MEXICO. 
 
 Mex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 85 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OE JUSTICE AND PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 
 
 I. Of late years the department of State has directed 
 special attention towards two of the important branches 
 subordinate to that office. 
 
 Its most important dispositions have tended, first, to 
 make uniform the legislation, in which task it has met with 
 frequent and serious difficulties on being applied to the 
 courts, and, secondly, to procure an increase of institutions 
 for public instruction, choosing sucb methods of teaching 
 as are best adapted to meet the wants of the people. 
 
 The progress made in this second order of labors is 
 detailed in the chapter of this work bearing upon public 
 instruction, and in the present one are set forth the condi- 
 tions of the Federal juridical power, the functions of which 
 are exercised by the courts established by the law of the 
 country. These courts are : the Supreme Court of Justice, 
 first in the ascending scale of Federal jurisdiction, — and the 
 circuit courts and judicatures of district, which form the 
 starting point of said jurisprudence. 
 
 In this chapter are likewise pointed out the principal 
 works begun with the object of uniforming the civil legisla- 
 tion of the Federal District and Territories. 
 
 SUPREME COURT. 
 
 This institution was created by the Congress of Consti- 
 tuents in virtue of the resolution of August 27th, 1824. 
 On the 4th of October of that same year the Federal Con- 
 stitution marked out its contributions, and, by decree of 
 February 14th, 1826, its organization was finally completed. 
 
86 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 By the law of May 23, 1837, it underwent a new organi- 
 zation, which it retained until the 2d of September, 1846, 
 when it was re-organized under the former law of 1837. 
 
 By the decree of December 16th, 1853, the Supreme 
 Court was denominated " Tribunal Supremo," a title which 
 it kept until November, 1855, when it re-assumed its origi- 
 nal name. 
 
 The Supreme Court of Justice is organized in conformity 
 with the Constitution of February 5th, 1857, and is com- 
 posed of eleven Magistrates, four Supernumeraries, an 
 Attorney-General, and a Solicitor. It is divided into three 
 Boards of Commissioners. Affairs of its cognizance are 
 dispatched with subjection to the by-laws of July 29th, 
 1859. 
 
 This tribunal has twice been interrupted in the course of 
 its functions, first, by decree of November 22d, 1859, 
 when due to the strife with the conservative party, the ex- 
 ercise of its attributions was commuted to the courts of 
 the States, until constitutional order was re-established 
 throughout the country at the end of June, 1861. The 
 second interruption occurred during the War of Intervention 
 by the French Empire. At that period the court, upon 
 being reorganized by decree of August, 1867, became in 
 vested with the attributions corresponding to the Superior 
 Court of Federal District, but it relinquished the exercise of 
 these attributions upon its re-establishment on the 3d of 
 May, 1868. 
 
 CIRCUIT COURTS AND DISTRICT JUDICATURES. 
 
 These courts were created by the law of May 20th, 1826, 
 and their organization has been subject to the decree pro- 
 mulgated on the 22d of May, 1834, as well as those of 
 October 2d, 1846, and November 23d, 1855. 
 
 Twice have the circuit courts been suppressed, first, by the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 87 
 
 decree of October 18, 1841, until their re-establishment 
 took place in September, 1846, and their second suppres- 
 sion took place by the decree of September 20, 1853, until 
 the 23d of November, 1855, when their second re-establish- 
 ment was brought about by virtue of the decree issued on 
 that date. 
 
 During their suppression these courts were substituted 
 by the Supreme Court of the States. 
 
 Since the creation, on the 23d of November, 1855, of 
 the Supreme Court of the Federal District, its first Board 
 of Commissioners was vested with the attributions of cir- 
 cuit court, until the creation of the court of that name, on 
 the 1st of June, 1878. 
 
 As the system of government in Mexico is based on the 
 absolute independence of the powers, the Department of 
 Justice has no privileges whatever in these courts other 
 than those of appointing their employes and granting 
 licenses to these upon application. 
 
 The aforesaid law of June 1st, 1878, makes provision to 
 the effect that the Magistrates of the Circuit Court, Judges 
 of District, and their respective secretaries, are appointed 
 by the President of the Republic, — a list of the applicants 
 to the office having been presented previously by the 
 Supreme Court, within a fortnight of the date upon which 
 it has been demanded. After the lapse of this term the 
 appointment is made by the Executive, the Courts, in that 
 case, having forfeited their right to interfere in the matter. 
 
 The attorneys-general are appointed and removed at will 
 by the Executive, the same as the other employes of minor 
 importance. Both those of the Circuit Courts and those of 
 the District Judicatures, are appointed by the Supreme 
 Court, in conformity with a list of three applicants presented 
 by the corresponding courts and judges. 
 
 The circuit magistrates and the district judges continue 
 four years in office. They consider the case before them, 
 
88 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 whether with the assistance of secretaries or with wit- 
 nesses, beiug aided in the exercise of their office by a sec- 
 ular attorney-general. 
 
 There are actually eight circuit courts, distributed 
 around in the States, being located at the following points: 
 Culiacan, Chihuahua, Guadalajara, Merida, Mexico, Mon- 
 terey, Orizaba and Queretaro. 
 
 The Court of Culiacan comprises the district judicatures 
 of Lower California, Sinaloa and Sonora, — the Court of 
 Chihuahua, the judicatures of Chihuahua, Durango and 
 Paso del Norte, — the Court of Guadalajara, the judicatures 
 of Aguascalientes, Colima, Jalisco, Tepic Territory and 
 Zacatecas, — the Court of Merida, the judicatures of Cam- 
 peche, Chiapas (San Cristobal Las Casas), Tabasco and 
 Yucatan, — the Court of the City of Mexico, the first and 
 second judicatures of the Federal District, and those of 
 Guerrero, Hidalgo, State of Mexico, Morelos and Tlax- 
 cala, — - the Court of Monterrey the judicatures of Coa- 
 huila (Saltillo), Nuevo Leon, Nuevo Laredo, Matamoros, 
 (Tamaulipas), and Piedras Negras (Porfirio Diaz City, 
 Coahuila) — and to the Court of Orizaba belong the judi- 
 catures of Oaxaca, Puebla, Tampico (Tamaulipas), Tapa- 
 chula (Chiapas), first of Veracruz (Jalapa), and second 
 of Veracruz, established in the port of that name, — and, 
 finally, to the Court of Queretaro correspond the judica- 
 tures of Guanajuato, Michoacan, Queretaro and San Luis 
 Potosi. 
 
 The district judicatures number thirty-eight and are 
 distributed one in each State of the Eepublic, with excep- 
 tion of Chiapas, Chihuahua, Coahuila and Veracruz, where 
 two exist, as also in Lower California and the Federal Dis- 
 trict. There are three in Tamaulipas, and one in the 
 Tepic Territory. 
 
JOAQUIN BARANDA. 
 
 Secretary of Justice. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 89 
 
 RIGHT OF HABEAS CORPUS. 
 
 ("Ley de Amparo.") 
 
 II. The recourse of habeas corpus, which has for object 
 to make effective in a country the guarantee offered by its 
 constitution, was in Mexico first regulated by the law of 
 February 28th, 1861. The deficiency of this law origi- 
 nated the initiative presented in the Congress of the Union 
 on the 30th of October, 1868, which, being approved with 
 modifications, became a law on the 20th of January, 1869. 
 This law prohibited the action of habeas corpus in mat- 
 ters of juridical character, but the Supreme Court, moved 
 by the fundamental idea of the Constitution, found it nec- 
 essary to grant a counter sentence in the courts in cases 
 that constituted a violation of guarantee, thus establishing 
 a practice which, although in conformity with the injunc- 
 tions of the Constitution, nevertheless gave the Court, in the 
 opinion of some litigants, the character of revisor of ail 
 kinds of sentences. 
 
 On the other hand, in cases where the reclaimer act was 
 suspended, the Federal authorities had no other rule to go 
 by but its own criterion, whereby the right of habeas 
 corpus became illusory in many cases. 
 
 These difficulties became more visible when a grant of 
 habeas corpus was given in cases of recruiting for the 
 army, as it then became necessary, in order to make effect- 
 ive the writ of execution issued by the courts, to conciliate 
 the discipline and privileges of the militia, with the respect 
 due to sentences of the Federal justice. 
 
 These and other difficulties of the second law of ordin- 
 ance, bearing upon the recourse of the right of habeas 
 corpus, which presented themselves in practice, induced 
 the Department of Justice to submit, on the 2nd of 
 October, 1877, another project of reform to the Congress, 
 
90 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 which, being discussed together with one presented by the 
 Supreme Court of Justice in 1878, gave origin to the third 
 law on the subject now in force, and which was promul- 
 gated on the 14th of December, 1882. 
 
 This new law details minutely the cases in which the Fed- 
 eral authority can decree t*he suppression of the reclaimed 
 act, and makes the right of habeas corpus in matters 
 of juridical character against sentences pronounced by the 
 courts, when these sentences signify a violation of individual 
 guarantees, or an attack upon the sovereignty of the States. 
 
 It extended sufficient jurisdictional power to the local 
 judges and to the mayors that they, as auxiliaries to the 
 district judge in the localities where there were none of 
 these, might, in the terms of the law, recognize in the 
 requests for right of habeas corpus and suspend the 
 reclaimed act. 
 
 Thus vanished the difficulties upon which the right of 
 habeas corpus stumbled in the recruiting cases. In these 
 cases the law provides that the writ of suspension shall be 
 notified to the field or subaltern officer commissioned to 
 execute the act, and that without delay, through the Sec- 
 retary of Justice, the Secretary of War is also imparted 
 with the fact, that he may order the non-removal of the 
 promovent from the place from which he solicited the right 
 of habeas corpus, until the sentence is fully pronounced. 
 In that case the Supreme Court of Justice, upon returning 
 the writs to the judge, shall forward, through the Secretary 
 of the Branch, copy of the sentence to the Secretary of 
 War, that this functionary, in his turn, may order without 
 delay the execution of the sentence. 
 
 This same law establishes the responsibility of the author- 
 ities resisting the determinations of justice, detailing also 
 the cases in which the judges, by thus violating the law, 
 must present themselves before their superiors to respond 
 for their conduct. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 91 
 
 Code of Proceedings in the Federal Jurisdiction. 
 
 III. The inefficiency, under the political system prevalent 
 in the country, of some legal dispositions inherited from the 
 Spanish legislation and still in force in the Federal juris- 
 diction, — the deficiency of those dictated at later periods, — 
 and, finally, the notorious legal influence exercised by the 
 Federal courts in matters differing so much in tendencies 
 as do those appertaining to the Department of Dispatch, — 
 have, since the year 1872, brought the Executive on the 
 idea of forming a Code of Proceedings in matters of 
 Federal interest. 
 
 In 1877, finding it necessary to dispatch at least the 
 organic law of Article 96 of the Constitution, — which 
 article orders the establishment and organization of circuit 
 courts and district judicatures — a project to that effect 
 was presented to Congress for its approval. This project, 
 though examined and approved by the House of Deputies, 
 is still pending in the House of Senators. Neither was any 
 practical result obtained to this end, when, in 1881, the 
 same project was submitted to the examination of another 
 commission. Finally, in 1885, a new commission was 
 appointed to study the question of the required code, the 
 results of its labors having been presented to the Govern- 
 ment for revision. 
 
 CODE OF COMMERCE. 
 
 IV. The ordinance of Bilbao, the observance of which 
 was prescribed by decrees issued on the 22d of February, 
 1792, and April 27th, 1801, being adopted in the country 
 as a standard in the field of commercial intercourse, consti- 
 tuted in Mexico the legislation of commerce. 
 
 After the Independence this legislation underwent inno- 
 vations and reforms, until the promulgation, on the 16th of 
 May, 1854, of the first Mexican Code of Commerce, 
 
92 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 despoiling the central Government of its authority in that 
 direction. 
 
 This code did not suit the country because of the form 
 of government under which if had been constituted and its 
 democratic principles, sanctioned by the constitution of 
 1857, and, hence, its reform became necessary. The labors 
 bearing on this reform were inaugurated in 1867, but not 
 before 1880, owing to the interruption of wars, was the 
 project completed by the commission appointed for that 
 purpose, and in September of the following year the said 
 project was forwarded to Congress for approval. 
 
 On the suggestion of the respective commission of Con- 
 gress, the President was authorized, by decree of June, 
 1883, to effect a new revision of the project and to pro- 
 mulgate the corresponding law. On the strength of this 
 decree, the President, on the 15th of April, 1884, issued a 
 new code, which was approved by the National Congress 
 on the 31st of May of the same year. Two months later, 
 on the 20th of June, the Commercial Register became its 
 by-laws, constructed by the secretaries of the civil branch 
 of the judicature. 
 
 When, by decree of December, 1885, the functions of 
 the Commercial Register passed over to the offices of the 
 Public Register, this by-law had to be reformed, an opera- 
 tion that was effected on the 20th of December of the 
 same year. 
 
 Nevertheless, in practice it became evident that this Code 
 labored under the disadvantage of several defects, due to 
 the modification it had undergone by the former decree 
 issued by Congress, as well as to certain disposition it con- 
 tained relative especially to the Banks of Issue and Circu- 
 lation. Hence, with a view to removing these defects, the 
 president was authorized, by decree of June 4, 1887, to 
 reform totally or partially this Code. To this end a special 
 commission was appointed on the 21st of that month, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 93 
 
 which in the following year presented a project of partial 
 reform bearing upon limited companies. This project was 
 raised to the rank of a law on the 10th of April, 1888. 
 
 The labors of the commission next directed themselves 
 to making other modifications of importance, which gave 
 origin to the new Code now in force, which was published 
 on the 15th of September, 1889, and commenced to take 
 effect after the 1st of September, 1890. 
 
 CIVIL CODE AND ITS CODE OF PROCEEDINGS. 
 
 V. As the legislation of Spain became inefficacious to 
 Mexico independent, it became necessary to adopt it in its 
 new political existence. With this end in view, on the 22d 
 of January, 1822, commissions were appointed for the first 
 time to form their projects of civil and penal legislation. 
 The results obtained in that direction are not known. 
 
 During the war called " The War of Three Years," 
 President Juarez, then residing with the Government inVera- 
 cruz, recommended in 1858 the formation of a Civil Code 
 to the jurist Justo Sierra who, in less than one year, pre- 
 sented a project on the subject, which circulated in print in 
 1861. Some time afterwards a commission was appointed 
 to revise and modify the project, but when on the point of 
 finishing its work, it was obliged to suspend proceedings 
 owing to the French Intervention. Upon the return of the 
 Government to the Capital another commission was appointed 
 to finish this incompleted work, which was done in 1870. 
 
 The project was approved by Congress by decree of 
 December 8th, of the said year, and commenced to rule in 
 the Federal District and Territories of Lower California 
 from the 1st of March, 1871. 
 
 After this several States adopted the code, some without 
 any modification, and others with those necessary to meet 
 their local requirements. 
 
 In June, 1882, a commission was appointed to study the 
 
94 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 modifications that should be made in the aforesaid code, as 
 some defects in its application had been pointed out. The 
 new project, embracing important reforms, was presented in 
 March, 1883. 
 
 On the 14th of December of the same year, Congress 
 authorized the President to promulgate the accorded modi- 
 fications, and to that purpose was adopted the new code on 
 the 31st of March, 1884, which is now in force. 
 
 The promulgation of the Civil Code carried with it the 
 necessity of the formation of proceedings in this matter. 
 The commission to which the formation of this code was 
 commended presented its project in 1872, and after being 
 revised it was issued as a law and commenced to go into 
 effect on the 15th of September of the same year. 
 
 In April, 1875, the Legislative Power authorized the 
 Government to appoint a commission to propose the neces- 
 sary additions and'exphinations to this code, inasmuch as in 
 practice it had been found to contain very prominent defects. 
 
 The project of reforms was presented in November of 
 the same year and forwarded to Congress for approbation. 
 The house not being able to proceed with the required 
 promptness in the discussion of the project, it authorized 
 the Government, by decree of June 1st, 1880, to realize the 
 reforms. In consequence, the code was promulgated, go- 
 ing into effect on the 1st of November of that year. 
 
 The last reform to which the Code of Proceedings was 
 subject was made by the same commission that performed 
 the same duties respecting the Civil Code. The project in 
 question was presented to Congress on the 7th of June, 
 1883, but the house authorized the Government on the 
 14th of December of that year to publish both codes. In 
 virtue of this authorization, the Civil Proceedings were 
 promulgated on the 15th of May, 1884, and were approved 
 by the Legislative power on the 31st of the same month. 
 This code is still in force. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 95 
 
 PENAL CODE AND ITS CODE OF PROCEEDINGS. 
 
 VI. The formation of a Mexican Penal Code was initi- 
 ated, as has been stated, since 1822. Later, in 1852, Juarez 
 recommended the study of a project for Penal Code and 
 Proceedings to the lawyer Juan A. de la Fuente, but the 
 result of this work is unknown. 
 
 In 1862 a commission was appointed to form a Penal 
 Code, but this commission did not conclude its work on ac- 
 count of the War of Intervention. In September, 1868, 
 the works were taken up again, and the project was finally 
 finished by the commission in May, 1871. At the end of 
 that year, on the 7th of December, it came into force by 
 the law of that date, beginning to rule on the 1st of April, 
 1872. Later the code has undergone the reforms pro- 
 mulgated by decree of May 26th, 1884. 
 
 In order to form the Code of Proceedings in the penal 
 branch, a commission was appointed on the 4th of Septem- 
 ber, 1871. This commission presented to the Department 
 of Justice, in 1872, the respective project, which, after a 
 close revision, was ordered in print to further its greater 
 circulation. 
 
 In 1880 the works of the code were taken up again with 
 earnest desire, and the members of the commission did not 
 cease to hold frequent conferences until they definitely 
 ended this labor. 
 
 The decree of June 1st, 1880, authorized the Executive 
 to put in force the new law, and, thus, on the 15th of 
 September of that year the law was promulgated, begin- 
 ning to rule on the 1st of November. 
 
 Lastly, a new commission has been recommended to form 
 some modifications which this code needs, in view of the 
 difficulties encountered in practice. This commission has 
 not, as yet, presented the result of its works. 
 
96 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 CHAPTER IT. 
 
 DEPAETMENT OF COLONIZATION — INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. 
 
 I. The amount of work executed by this Department 
 lias been of such a varied nature as to render it impossible 
 to treat it under this heading. We shall, therefore, simply 
 refer at present to the most important among these which 
 have seen the light since the restoration of peace, in 1876, 
 and such as have been completed during the same period, 
 although initiated by a previous administration. 
 
 Great portion of the affairs of this Department will be 
 dealt with under separate chapters, agreeably with the 
 general plan of this work. 
 
 General Vicente Riva Palacio was the first to give an 
 impulse to the affairs of the Department of Fomentation. 
 Since, these have been improved upon by his successors, 
 General Carlos Pacheco, and the intelligent and distin- 
 guished engineer, Mr. Manuel Fernandez Leal, the present 
 incumbent. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Notwithstanding the earnest endeavors on the part of the 
 Government to issue a general chart of the Republic that 
 should advantageously replace the first atlas and official 
 chart published in 1850, the impecunious condition of the 
 General Exchequer placed a bar in the way of proper public 
 development and individual enterprise. 
 
 From the time that the Department of Fomentation 
 undertook to push these works especial attention has been 
 devoted to them without interruption of any kind. The 
 
MANUEL FERNANDEZ LEAL. 
 
 Secretary of Colonization, Industry and Commerce. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 97 
 
 Geographical Exploring Committee of the national terri- 
 tory, comprised of civil engineers, aided by a military 
 staff, has been organized and extended their field of opera- 
 tion to a great portion of the States of the Republic, gath- 
 ering large amount of useful information to determine the 
 geographical co-ordinates of the most important localities. 
 Those of less importance being determined by topographi- 
 cal observations derived from the former. They have like- 
 wise been fixing the route of the different roads through the 
 States where the survey has been conducted and made 
 detailed maps of the same. The War Department has 
 made a careful examination of the roads, renderino; a 
 minute report which illustrates the difficulties to be en- 
 countered during a march as well as the most advantageous 
 posts for battle along the roads traveled over. 
 
 The department of Natural History, which has been 
 attached to the Geographical Committee, has acquired the 
 most accurate data concerning the special conditions that 
 characterize the Mexican territory, and the development 
 and improvement of its natural resources. 
 
 The Mexican committee appointed to determine the 
 national boundary lines with regard to the United States 
 ■and Guatemala, besides fixing with due precision the bound- 
 aries between Mexico and said countries have also made 
 important local studies on different sections of the Republic. 
 To the preceding stock of information must be added the 
 data acquired by the special committee appointed by the 
 Department of Fomentation in 1881, to carry on the coast 
 survey along the Pacific coast and. adjacent islands. Owino- 
 to these studies a more thorough knowledge has been 
 attained with regard to the geographical position, topo- 
 graphical formation and geological constitution of the coast 
 and neighboring islands, as well as of the natural products 
 to be found thereon, while the production and development 
 of the pearl shell, the mother-of-pearl, the tortoise shell, 
 
 7 
 
98 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 guano, hemp and precious woods has received considerable 
 attention. 
 
 All this scientific work, together with that contributed by 
 different States and diverse colonization companies comprise 
 a large stock of valuable information which has been utilized 
 in making up the map of Mexico. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORING COMMITTEE. 
 
 With the view of acquiring an exact knowledge of the 
 natural resources of the country and forming an accurate 
 estimate of the requirements of the different localities the 
 Government, in 1877, issued orders for the drawing up of 
 official geographical charts. The government printing 
 department being already in possession of all the existing 
 data on the subject, the Secretary of Fomentation in 
 order to inaugurate the operations on the field, presented 
 during the same year, a bill before Congress for the pur- 
 pose of appointing the committee intrusted with the 
 collection of the necessary geographical and statistical 
 information. The aforesaid bill was passed under decree 
 of Congress in December of the same year, the resolution 
 being immediately followed by the appointment of the 
 official staff composed of a director, a chief engineer, and 
 six assistant engineers. The appointment of a director 
 fell upon Mr. Agustin Diaz, civil engineer, who was nomi- 
 nated January 1st, 1878, the rest of the committee receiving 
 their appointment on the 15th of the same month. 
 
 On the 30th day of April the staff was reduced to a 
 director, a chief engineer and one assistant engineer, thus 
 upsetting the original plans of the committee who there- 
 upon decided to proceed in their work zone by zone, 
 shaping their future course in conformity with the cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 On the 10th of May the committee proceeded to the city 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 99 
 
 of Puebla, the eastern region having been selected for the 
 inauguration of operations. 
 
 The results obtained from the very start proved of such 
 importance that the War Department concluded to increase 
 the staff of the committee and, in September, 1879, ap- 
 pointed ten engineers selected from among staff officers 
 and one naturalist engineer to wait upon the committee. 
 Later on a still greater addition was made to the committee 
 by the appointment, on July 1st, 1882, of a group of 
 accountants and draftsmen and a section of Natural History. 
 The Geographical Exploring Committee is at present com- 
 posed of a chief managing engineer, one second managing 
 engineer, one second engineer, two third ditto, two assistant 
 engineers, one engineer, secretary and one clerk, not to 
 mention nineteen men belonging to the outfit of accountants, 
 draftsmen and the department of Natural History, nor the 
 military corps attached to same, which deserve especial 
 mention hereafter. 
 
 On completion of the work in the State of Puebla the 
 committeetransferred their field of operations to Jalapa in the 
 early part of October, 1880, in order to commence work in 
 the State of Veracruz. Shortly after, on May 12th, 1881, 
 it was decided to send the second engineer to Nuevo Leon, 
 and Tamaulipas, in charge of a section, to proceed with 
 the drawing up of the geographical charts of those States. 
 This section took up its headquarters at Matamoros and 
 after fulfilling its mission was recalled and proceeded to join 
 the committe in Jalapa, each member falling back upon his 
 respective section. 
 
 At the beginning the work was confined to the prepara- 
 tion of the charts, the astronomical position of the city of 
 Puebla and other heads of departments; the location of 
 the roads by means of the troqueameter and hand com- 
 pass. The latitude was ascertained by the most approved 
 methods, and the longitude was taken by the absolute 
 
 LofC 
 
100 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 longitude of Puebla. The work was executed with such 
 expedition that within one year the necessary information 
 had been collected to report upon the sections that had 
 been surveyed. In the execution of the General Chart 
 care was taken to accurately mark on the zones gone 
 over certain points conveniently distributed on the map 
 showing the geographical route, and over this the work 
 in detail, therefore in the development of the plan are com- 
 prised the following : the direct astronomical positions and 
 the geodetical and topographical situations. The geograph- 
 ical position has been ascertained by longitude through 
 telegraphic signals exchanged between the observatory in 
 the capital of the Republic and the field of operations, 
 and in very few instances, by observation and com- 
 parison of our chronometers; the latitude by means of 
 diverse astronomical observations, especially those of cir- 
 cummeridian stars, selected by pairs at the time of culmi- 
 nation, when nearly equizenitical. The altitude has been 
 obtained by means of a sufficient number of hipsometrical 
 observations taken simultaneously with the barometrical 
 observations of Meteorological National Observatory of 
 Mexico, or at the headquarters of the committee. 
 
 With regard to the geodetical position this has been as- 
 certained by means of topographical lines forming great 
 polygons based on astronomical points clearly defined, so 
 that the operation may easily be verified by either system. 
 
 The topographical part of the work has been subdivided 
 into the following classes, viz. : the preparation of 
 especial maps, in order to familiarize the officers of the 
 committee with the different processes that might be em- 
 ployed; in drafting out and preparing the General Map; in 
 the formation of topographical maps of diverse towns and 
 finally in reconnoitering military positions for the use of 
 the War Department. 
 
 At headquarters, the residence of the Managing Director, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 101 
 
 are to be found the different offices of Military Adminis- 
 tration in charge of the service and the national guard and 
 the departments of Accountants, Draftsmen, Observations, 
 Lithography and Photography, under their respective 
 managers. 
 
 The Department of the Secretary is in charge of the cor- 
 respondence and keeps the records of the committee as 
 well as all printed matter addressed to same. 
 
 The Department of Accountants looks after the numer- 
 ical results obtained by the outfits appointed by the com- 
 mittee, and the reporters on the field ; prepare the schedules 
 and forms to be used by the committee and preserve on 
 record all the figures made by the members of the different 
 outfits. 
 
 The Department of Draftsmen manage the collection of 
 field notes and all further information for the preparation 
 of the geographical map. 
 
 The Meteorological and Astronomical Observatories 
 erected on the field of operations have a twofold object, 
 viz. : it tends to keep the officers in practice as regards the 
 use of the instruments after marking the geographical 
 position of the locality in each group and at the same 
 time, to obtain, within a given period, most valuable infor- 
 mation on the climatological conditions of said localities 
 which shall correspond with the simultaneous observations 
 of temperature and atmospheric pressure taken by the 
 different groups during their excursions in order to obtain 
 the exact altitude of their respective localities. 
 
 The lithographic and engraving plants were definitely 
 erected with the machinery received from' Paris for the 
 purpose in June, 1889. 
 
 These departments undertake the issue of printed forms 
 adapted to all the purposes of the committee, thus facilitat- 
 ing the execution of estimates of other operations ; the 
 diagrams of route marked on sections of the chart devoted 
 
102 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 to the benefit of the War Department ; the tabulated 
 schedule of signals to be employed in the engraving of the 
 maps ; the printing of circulars on the regulations of the 
 Scientific Committee; the proper labels for the adequate 
 denomination of exhibits at the Museum, etc., etc. 
 
 The department of photography, photo-engraving, and 
 photo-zincography at the staff officers' quarters, in the War 
 Department, lie under the management of the Director, 
 Mr. Fernando Ferrari Perez, at the head of the section on 
 Natural History, per especial grant issued April, 1891. 
 
 The Geographical Exploring Committee commands 
 the services of a military guard composed of laborers and 
 working men who furnish their help on the field and in the 
 shops established by the committee. They also mount 
 guard on the field, under command of their superior offi- 
 cers, and in the shops serve at the orders of a superintend- 
 ent and an overseer. 
 
 The different sections, in pursuance of a well regulated 
 plan, survey and map out every inch of the ground run 
 over, while the field notes and data acquired on the ground 
 is simultaneously arranged in all the sections. 
 
 The preliminary work for the preparation of the General 
 Chart already covers over eighty sheets comprising the 
 States of Puebla, Tlaxcala, nearly the whole State of 
 Veracruz, Hidalgo, Mexico, the Federal District, Morelos, 
 Sonora and Tamaulipas, besides over thirty maps of 
 different townships. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 II. This department commenced its labor at the close of 
 the year 1879, with one solitary engineer. In 1882, its 
 personnel was increased, being composed of three naturalist- 
 engineers and three assistant collectors and preparers. Of 
 these six members, three belonged to the Department of 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 103 
 
 Colonization, Industry and Commerce, and two to the 
 chief special staff of the Minister of War. In 1884, the 
 department under consideration, was composed of only one 
 naturalist-engineer and two assistants; the secretary was 
 therefore obliged to furnish an engineer, and there other 
 individuals, in addition to the Exploring Commission, until 
 1887, in which year the law governing the Estimates of 
 Expenditures of the Federation, assigned to the Depart- 
 ment of Natural History one chief naturalist, two secondary 
 naturalists, an astronomer, a preserver, three assistant col- 
 lectors and preparers, a designer, an inspecting and 
 preserving civil engineer of archaeological monuments, and 
 a war staff composed of eight persons. In 1888, the 
 inspecting engineer was discontinued. 
 
 The department was removed to Puebla, at which point 
 the center of operations of the Geographical-Exploring 
 Commission had been established, and its labors were 
 extended to the same zones in which the preliminary 
 sketches were being made, taking advantage of each one of 
 the seasons of the year, as might be required by the char- 
 acter and diversity of their studies. 
 
 The department of Natural History, within a short space 
 of time, succeeded in collecting and classifying an infinite 
 variety of rocks and minerals, many species of vegetables 
 and classes of woods, a large number of insects of various 
 kinds, reptiles, a rich assortment of birds, mammals, fossils, 
 a quantity of antiquities pertaining to aboriginal races and 
 lastly drew up geographical charts of the places explored. 
 
 The geographical commission having been invited by 
 the Mexican New Orleans Exposition Committee to make 
 known the result of their labors at the great International 
 Exhibition, the department decided to forward the various 
 collections to the United States in order that they might 
 be properly verified, inasmuch as it was well-nigh impossi- 
 ble to do so in this country, owing to the lack of authorities 
 
104 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 with which to perform the work of making a library of 
 classifications. The articles failed to reach their destina- 
 tion, having been lost on the steamer City of Merida, 
 which was burned in the Bay of Havana, on August 29, 
 1884. 
 
 The members of the commission therefore determined to 
 make every effort to replace the lost collections, and went 
 to work with such good will and energy, that within the 
 short period of three months they had succeeded in making 
 a new collection, which, although somewhat incomplete, 
 figured conspicuously among the exhibits of the Exposition 
 in question. The collection consisted of 462 specimens of 
 mammalia and birds, 300 of reptiles and fishes, 7,000 
 varieties of insects, 2,000 classes of plants, and 965 
 samples of rocks and fossils. 
 
 The faculty of the Smithsonian Institution at Washing- 
 ton, furnished material assistance to the Mexican Engineers 
 of the Department of Natural History, in their work of 
 classifying many specimens, and in the identification of 
 others, thus confirming the novelty of quite a number. 
 
 The Museum of the Commission was located in Puebla, 
 in a building comparatively small ; but as the numbers of 
 specimens secured by the Department of Natural History 
 was somewhat larger, and was subsequently increased by 
 the addition of others presented by the Smithsonian Insti- 
 tute, together with many more obtained by Mr. Ferrari 
 Perez through interchanges with various scientific institu- 
 tions in the United States, the Government decided on 
 March 31, 1886, to place at the disposal of the Exploring 
 Commission, a portion of the ancient Military College of 
 Tacubaya, for the establishment of its museum. The 
 articles forming the collections were accordingly immedi- 
 ately transferred to the new location, which was formally 
 opened to the public on April 2d, 1887. The museum 
 contains two spacious halls, in which are placed to public 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 105 
 
 view, and arranged in cases, woods and construction mate- 
 rials, also specimens of zoology, mineralogy and geology, 
 scientifically numbered and classified. The Department of 
 Natural History is located in the building occupied by the 
 museum in Tacubaya, and possesses departments arranged 
 for classification, exhibition, and shops for preparing the 
 samples and specimens. Up to the present writing explor- 
 ations have been made of isolated sections of Lower Cali- 
 fornia, and, from October to December, 1886, in the 
 islands of the coast of Campeche. 
 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 III. At the same time that a study was being made of 
 the geography of the country, the collection of general 
 statistics received a remarkable impetus from the Secretary 
 of Fomentation. For the formation of a bureau in this 
 interest, several measures were inaugurated in 1877 and 
 appeals were made to the local authorities requesting infor- 
 mation concerning the value of country and city real estate 
 throughout the various States, as well as detailed accounts 
 relative to the agricultural products everywhere harvested 
 with a view to compiling these statistics and classifying 
 them under different heads. An auxiliary commission was 
 appointed to take charge of the preliminary work in the 
 office of the Secretary of Fomentation, to which was 
 intrusted the organization and management of this Bureau 
 of Statistics, the classification of the different subjects 
 which it comprises, the place to be assigned to communica- 
 tions from abroad in such matters and, finally, a compara- 
 tive study of the proceedings had in other countries in this 
 class of work. 
 
 The work done in this line, up to that time was of little 
 consequence. Certain schedules relating to the census of 
 the city of Mexico covering the }^ears 1875, 1876 and a 
 
106 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 part of 1877, were about completed; in them the number 
 of inhabitants of each ward was given, the permanent and 
 floating population, the mortality in the eight larger wards 
 into which the city is divided, the prevalent diseases in 
 alphabetical order; the deaths, the seasons being taken into 
 consideration, aswell asthe meteorological observations, and 
 the localities in which they occurred, as also their classifi- 
 cation by sex, age, civil condition, etc. A beginning was 
 made also to collect data, with a view to making these 
 schedules embrace the entire Federal district. 
 
 General Management of the Bureau of Statistics. 
 
 On the 26th of May, 1882, a legal enactment was passed 
 establishing a general management of the Bureau of 
 Statistics in the department of the Secretary of Fomen- 
 tation. This bureau is charged with obtaining, compiling, 
 classifying, and publishing periodically, in comparative 
 schedules, the data pertaining to this branch of business. 
 The law fixes as a basis for the compilation of statistics : 
 The census of the nation, classifying its inhabitants by sex, 
 age, nationality, profession, industry or labor by which 
 they subsist, civil condition and if able to read and write; 
 the tax on farms, city real estate and mining property; the 
 list of agricultural products and of industrial pursuits, with 
 a view to the production and consumption of raw mate- 
 rials; commercial trade in imports and exports and inter- 
 state commerce ; a schedule of the public schools and of 
 charitable institutions ; public highways and neighboring 
 roads, ship routes, telegraphs and railroads; the adminis- 
 tration of civil and criminal law ; religious worship ; the 
 amount of the public revenue ; the condition of the army, 
 its expenses, and military and naval pensions. In these 
 arrangements, the obligation of the State government and 
 of the political, judicial and municipal authorities to aid the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 107 
 
 General Government in the better fulfillment of the law, is 
 pointed out, as well as how these functionaries or em- 
 ployes cannot excuse themselves from furnishing the 
 statistics asked for by the Secretary of the Bureau. 
 
 The arrangement for the organization of the bureau of 
 general statistics was made on the 10th of June, 1883, by 
 virtue of the memorial submitted by Mr. Penafiel with the 
 view that it should serve as a basis of application for the 
 enactment of the 26th of May, 1882. 
 
 General Census. — The provision in regard to this, pre- 
 scribes that it should take place every ten years, the period 
 designated having always to terminate with the figure zero 
 or the figure five. For a recount of the inhabitants, the 
 actual population is to serve as a basis, and this being veri- 
 fied, the data for the resident population shall be obtained. 
 The census of each family or home, should be obtained 
 nominally, by means of lists containing data relative 
 to the members of the family present or absent. The 
 actual population of each locality is established by the 
 number of persons, minors or of age, actually present 
 when the census is taken, the traveling inhabitants and 
 those to arrive, being taken into consideration, for the 
 purpose of determining their liability to taxation. Every 
 person present, in any locality of the national territory 
 during the day of the census, without excepting any class 
 or kind, shall be obligated to write his name in the census 
 schedule, whether he has a family or home, whether a 
 traveler, a resident of the vicinity, a non-resident, a 
 foreigner, a member of the army, a native of the country, 
 a minister of worship or a public official. In regard to 
 absent parties, it shall simply be necessary to note whether 
 they have a family and if they are casually absent from their 
 homes during the day of the census. The Mexican consuls 
 shall collect data relative to residents of Mexico in foreign 
 countries, on the same day that the national census is taken* 
 
108 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The lists or schedules shall be filed personally by the 
 head of the family, or by some one under his direction, by 
 the chiefs of the military departments, the superintendents 
 of the prisons or hospitals, by the principals of colleges, 
 by the owners, superintendents, managers or heads of inns, 
 boarding houses, hotels, etc., before the hour of twelve 
 o'clock of the day fixed for t*he census. Those without 
 any domicile, and every traveler without a fixed abode, 
 shall, on the evening of the census, inscribe his name on the 
 list kept where he may take up his lodging, prior to noon 
 on the day of the census. The municipal authorities col- 
 lect the list of each territorial division within their jurisdic- 
 tion, and shall forward them to the general manager of the 
 Bureau of Statistics within a month, at the farthest, from 
 the day designated for the taking of the census, availing 
 themselves of the data relative to the population taken from 
 these lists, for the purpose of making them known to the 
 districts, territory or State to which they may respectively 
 belong, but, without using the secret details for determining 
 the civil condition of individuals, or for other purposes than 
 that of compiling the local schedule for the resident 
 population. The data to be noted with regard to the move- 
 ment of population, must refer to births, marriages and 
 deaths. The judges of the civil tribunals and the ministers 
 of different worship, who take cognizance of the number 
 of these incidents because of the ceremonies in which they 
 take part, shall be obliged to submit, monthly, to the 
 respective municipal authorities, the necessary notifications ; 
 all the municipalities of the country shall remit them, each 
 month, to their respective States, district and Federal ter- 
 ritories, and these, in turn, to the general manager of the 
 Bureau of Statistics. 
 
 Every foreigner who arrives with a view to becoming a 
 resident or establishing himself in the Republic, is obliged 
 to enter his name upon the municipal schedule of the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 109 
 
 locality in which he establishes himself, and to procure the 
 ticket of the respective vicinity. The superintendents of 
 ports and municipalities shall furnish information to the 
 Bureau of Statistics, concerning the number of immigrants 
 and emigrants, in accordance with the printed schedules 
 furnished to them for that purpose. 
 
 As regards the branch relating to territory, it comprises 
 the details of territorial division, physical description, geo- 
 logical, hydrographical and climatological division, and 
 the topographical plans of the territory. These data are 
 provided annually by the municipal authorities, by the 
 Governors of the States or by commissions appointed by 
 the Minister of Colonization. 
 
 The agricultural census comprises information concern- 
 ing the number of estates adapted to cultivation of alimen- 
 tary, industrial and horticultural plants, which grow in 
 each municipality, and also the number of those not under 
 cultivation ; their area, much or little cultivation, manner 
 and method of tilling, character of implements, cultivation 
 by shares, the number of farms rented out, the number of 
 owners of cultivated lands, the number of renters, the kind 
 of products, woodlands, their kinds, extent and preserva- 
 tion, cattle, their kinds, wild animals and fish, raw and 
 liquid products of each cultivated farm, the unit of value 
 of the dollar and the unit of measure of each product ; the 
 price of each hectare of land, the number of laborers and 
 the wages paid them, the annual yield of each cultivated 
 farm, the consumption of its products in the home and 
 outside market. 
 
 The industrial census contains data relative to the num- 
 ber and class of industrial establishments, the mechanical 
 force employed, the fuel consumed, the raw and liquid prod- 
 uct of the works, the prices, number of laborers and their 
 wages, the consumption of the industrial product in the 
 market at home and elsewhere. 
 
110 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The information relating to the mining industry, com- 
 prises name of the mineral or mineral district, that of the 
 mine and its character, mines or veins in development or 
 suspended, the output and value of the mineral product, 
 the product subjected to treatment, its quantity and value, 
 the number of milLs not operated, the workmen employed 
 in the development of the mine, the machinery, animals, 
 the value of the former and the cost of the latter ; raw 
 materials consumed in the development and in the mills, the 
 number of employes and their wages, a comparison be- 
 tween the cost of production and the revenue from the 
 work ; special data relative to silver and gold, the coining 
 of money, the assays of the mills and mints, the importa- 
 tion and exportation of mineral products. These data are 
 collected every two years. 
 
 The information relative to public instruction, embraces 
 the public school course, from the rudiments or the instruc- 
 tion of children to the professional degrees, instruction in 
 the different grades of these classes, and the methods pur- 
 sued, whatever may be the authorities, bodies or individuals 
 responsible for them. The institutions are classified into 
 six groups : schools of primary and rudimentary instruc- 
 tion, schools of secondary instruction or intermediary and 
 preparatory, schools of the higher or professional grade, 
 special schools for the blind and deaf mutes ; schools, 
 societies or scientific bodies, literary and artistic. In the 
 professional establishments are included law schools, notary 
 institutions and business colleges, medical colleges, surgery, 
 pharmacy and obstetrics, agricultural and veterinary, en- 
 gineers, assayers and metallurgists ; schools of architecture 
 and construction, painting, sculpture and engraving, the 
 arts and sciences, commercial and business schools, con- 
 servatories of music, elocution, and military and naval 
 academies. 
 
 The secretaries of the different States will furnish to 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. HI 
 
 the manager of the Bureau of Statistics, the data relating 
 to national institutions and to those of the Federal district 
 and territory ; those relating to institutions maintained by 
 State funds, will be furnished, by the municipal authorities, 
 under the supervision of the Governors. The managers of 
 primary and secondary educational establishments, not 
 national, furnish in duplicate, the last day of each year, 
 to the municipal authorities of its locality, the respective 
 information, in the manner determined by the super- 
 intendent. 
 
 Under the head of matters relating to the administration 
 of civil and criminal justice, are included the tribunals and 
 their judicial organization for civil, criminal and military 
 affairs, the judges and their salaries, the punishments in- 
 flicted, the employes connected with the courts. These 
 statistical data are furnished by the Federal tribunals, by 
 the tribunals of the State and by the judges of the first class. 
 
 Under the head of data relating to internal and foreign 
 commerce, are comprised statistics of general trade, special 
 kinds of business, importation and exportation by sea, in 
 national or foreign ships, the country or State where they 
 embark, and whither bound; the quantity of goods, in 
 weight, packages, measure or number; the value of imported 
 and exported articles as shown by the invoice and also their 
 market value ; the fiscal duty imposed. The subordinates 
 of the Secretary of the Treasury and the fiscal managers of 
 the several States, will furnish these data. 
 
 The following are the data relating to navigation; mari- 
 time activity, with the arrival and departure of ships, their 
 nationality, tonnage and crew, the passengers and freight 
 they carry and details relating to subsidized vessels. The 
 data relating to the national marine, shall comprise : the 
 number, class and crew of national vessels; the subordinates 
 of the Secretaries of the Treasury, War and Navy will 
 furnish these data. 
 
112 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The department of revenue will be limited to informa- 
 tion relating to taxes and the amount of the fiscal revenue 
 and the revenue of the different States, the municipal 
 revenues being separated from those which properly be- 
 long to the State or nation. 
 
 The data relating to the administrative departments are: 
 the diplomatic and consular bodies, a list of foreigners, 
 their nationality and civil condition ; births, marriages and 
 deaths of Mexican citizens in foreign countries; consular 
 advices relative to imports and exports; appropriations and 
 general expenses ; the public debt at home and abroad ; 
 the army and its organization, its expenses and soldiers' 
 pensions ; the formation and instruction of the army and 
 navy; colonization, highways, telegraphs, telephones and 
 railroads : lighthouses and meteorology ; police and public 
 peace ; post-offices and their organization ; offices of the 
 civil registrar ; the amount of business transacted by the 
 public registrar of realty and transactions of the notarial 
 department; financial and charitable institutions, prisons 
 and asylums, appropriations, expenses and revenues of the 
 States, their militia force, public works and by-roads. 
 The Secretaries and Governors of the States shall furnish 
 these data every four months. 
 
 An auxiliary branch of the Bureau of Statistics, is estab- 
 lished in each municipality, composed of the chief munici- 
 pal representative, a person elected from amongst the most 
 prominent residents of the locality and a professor of 
 primary instruction in the same place. This commission 
 shall be obliged to aid the local authority in all the work of 
 collecting data. In the capitals of the States, the com- 
 missions shall be composed of an agent appointed by the 
 Secretary of Public Works and two others to be designated 
 by the Governor of the State, and, in their case, by the 
 Governor of the District and the corresponding dignitaries 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 113 
 
 of the Federal territory. All Federal employes shall be 
 agents of the bureau for the collection of statistics. 
 
 The Secretary of Fomentation can do honor to those 
 persons who indicate a special aptitude for statistical work, 
 by conferring upon them diplomas or gold or silver medals, 
 according to the merit they have displayed. The data or 
 statistical information, shall be entered in schedules or lists 
 in triplicate, one of which shall be forwarded to the capitals 
 of the States for the first compilation, another for the 
 bureau of general statistics and the third to be reserved in 
 case of loss, or repetition of the same work. Such are 
 the principal provisions contained in the regulations organ- 
 izing the work of general statistics in Mexico. 
 
 In 1883, the national Hygienic Congress, in fixing the 
 basis for the organization of the department relative to the 
 movement of population, classified maladies to be listed in 
 the mortality schedules, for the medical branch of the 
 bureau of statistics ; laid down rules of classification for the 
 data on mortality, prescribed the requisites of a medical 
 certificate in cases of death and of registration of births, 
 marriages and burials. 
 
 CARTOGRAPHY. 
 
 IV. As has been said, in 1877 there were commenced by 
 the Secretary of Fomentation the labors directed towards 
 the study of the necessities, situation and the relation of 
 the localities of the country, as a means of providing, with 
 better success, for the improvement of the different 
 branches of the government. By the first attempts, an 
 improvement of the geographical maps and a correction of 
 the statistical data, were secured. 
 
 A commission of engineers was appointed in January of 
 the same year which devoted itself to presenting, in cata- 
 logue form, the geographical position, plans and maps of 
 
114 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 roads and cities, itineraries and other reliable documents 
 now existing. The plan was discussed which should be 
 followed in a new class of work, the vast extent of the 
 country being taken into account, the competent service 
 which might be secured, and the possibility of increasing it 
 with auxiliary forces. 
 
 At last a plan was adopted that could lead to immediate 
 results, consisting in the designation of astronomical locali- 
 ties on the route of all telegraph roads of the Republic, 
 which would serve as a basis for reducing to a systematic 
 whole the data obtained, and as a foundation upon which 
 the subsequent topographical work may rest. This sys- 
 tem would be aided by the designation of other points for 
 the purpose of chronometry, on the roads running at right 
 angles to the telegraph lines. 
 
 It being now time to begin field engineering, an appeal 
 was made to Congress on the 15th of November, 1877, 
 asking that the President be authorized to re-establish 
 exploration commissions charged with the collection of 
 geographical and statistical data. 
 
 It was then that the movement was initiated to send 
 commissions to make a scientific study of the country, a 
 movement with which the Secretary of Fomentation and 
 Secretary of War placed themselves in harmony, by send- 
 ing other mixed commissions of civil and military surveyors 
 for the purpose of increasing the size of the force, as well 
 as to foster military studies by the formation of a strategic 
 body, essentially practical. 
 
 The cartographical commission, organized in said year 
 of 1877, displayed, from the first, an assiduity deserving of 
 praise, as it organized and arranged the necessary details 
 of the work, in four months; traced the outlines on thirty- 
 five sheets, formulating at the same time, a plan for the 
 necessary publications. The sketches of the work done in 
 the Valley of Mexico, as well as those relating to Tehuan- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 115 
 
 tepee, were reduced to a scale 1:100,000 and 1:500,000 
 respectively, and to 2:000,000 the four sheets which were 
 completed and printed in 1877. 
 
 The general administrative itinerary map recently com- 
 pleted, fixed the different localities in which are to be 
 found the principal and subordinate managements of the 
 customs post-offices, heads of the treasury department, 
 banks, etc. It is made on the scale 1:200,000 and divided 
 into nine parts ; the map of " Exploration of the Isthmus of 
 Tehuantepec " originally prepared by the commission in- 
 trusted with the study of the ground, on a scale of 
 1 :250,000 with reference to the meridian of Greenwich ; 
 the cartographic department, relating it to the meridian of 
 Mexico, by reducing it to a scale of 1 : 500,000. The " Topo- 
 graphical chart of the neighborhood of Puebla," has been 
 made and drawn by this department, advantage having 
 been taken of the labors of the geographic exploring party. 
 This map is made in nine pieces. The " Telegraphic and 
 Eailroad Chart " prepared under the instructions of Minister 
 Eiva Palacio to facilitate the study of the different railroad 
 concessions, telegraph lines and routes of maritime com- 
 munication, contains the communities which the projected 
 roads traverse, the lighthouses in the different harbors and 
 the meteorological stations. 
 
 All these data came into service for the (t General Geo- 
 graphic Chart of the Republic," ordered made in 1881, by 
 Mr. Fernandez Leal, at that time performing the duties of 
 the Secretary of Public Works. The astronomical posi- 
 tions which had been fixed from the several capitals of 
 the States, and those determined by the boundary commis- 
 sions of Guatemala and the United States and the charts 
 of the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico and of part of the 
 Pacific Ocean, arranged by the American Marine service, 
 reduced to a scale of 1:300,000, were also materials 
 which served for the preparation of the general map to 
 
116' THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 which we are referring and which was published in the year 
 1883. 
 
 Several works are about to be completed in the carto- 
 graphical department, namely : another general geographical 
 chart of the Republic; a complete map of the Federal Dis- 
 trict containing the most recent data and a hydrographic 
 chart. The cartographic department is composed of a man- 
 aging engineer, three principal draughtsmen, two assistants 
 and two pupils. 
 
 OBSERVATORIES. 
 
 V. There are several observatories in the Republic, of 
 which the following are the principal ones : 
 
 The Central Magnetic Meteorological Observatory. 
 
 Its erection was determined upon on the 8th of February, 
 1877, at the instance of General Vicente Riva Palacio, then 
 Secretary of Public Works.* It was erected on the roof of 
 the national palace, under the direction of architect 
 Vicente E. Manero and the physical studies were undertaken 
 on the 6th of March following, by the first exploring geo- 
 graphical commission. In 1880 Engineer Manuel Fernandez 
 Leal, Assistant Secretary of Public Works, obtained special 
 aid from Congress for the observatory, granting it a special 
 portion of the appropriation, it having been maintained up 
 to that time by the resources of the commission already 
 mentioned. 
 
 Its force consisted of a manager, Mr. Mariano Barcena, 
 one principal expert, four assistants and telegraph op- 
 erator. 
 
 To better advance the practical study of meteorological 
 science, the Secretary of Public Works appealed to thehigher 
 
 * Now of "Fomentation, Colonization, Industry and Commerce.' 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. H? 
 
 authorities of tne States, requesting them to appoint com- 
 petent persons to make observations of the atmospheric 
 phenomena in connection with the Central Observatory, for 
 which purpose the latter formulated and distributed the 
 requisite informations to the official establishments of public 
 instruction, individuals and persons, who, by reason of 
 their scientific education, were qualified for such observa- 
 tions. Some Governors, to properly respond to the request, 
 determined to erect official observatories, or increase the 
 number of those in existence. In this manner the Governors 
 of San Luis Potosi, Zacatecas, Puebla, Guanajuato, 
 Queretaro, Oaxaca and Mexico, lent their co-operation. 
 An astronomical and meteorological observatory was 
 ordered built by the Secretary of Public W6rks in the port 
 of Mazatlan, Sinaloa. 
 
 There are at present eleven official and eleven private 
 stations in the country. The first are sustained by the 
 States in which they are located and the attaches perform 
 the duties without extraordinary compensation, the service 
 of the latter is rendered by the individuals interested, with- 
 out any remuneration. The Secretary of Fomentation 
 pays for the services of the Mazatlan Observatory, and 
 also aids the other auxiliary institutions, by the distribu- 
 tion of instruments through the Central Observatory. 
 
 His co-operation was also asked on behalf of the heads 
 of departments and the employes of the Federal telegraph 
 offices and telegraphic corporations, for the daily compara- 
 tive study of atmospheric phenomena. The corresponding 
 observatories and the Central, began to communicate their 
 observations to each other by means of the telegraph, the 
 information concerning the condition of the weather in the 
 respective localities, being transmitted daily and the 
 schedule of daily observations with relation to the instruc- 
 tions published by the office at the capital, being submitted 
 monthly. Thus it was, that in a few months, after the 
 
118 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 inauguration of the service, a meteorological foreign system 
 was fully established. 
 
 The installation of the Central Observatory was made 
 known to nearly all the observatories, academies and scien- 
 tific societies of America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Oceania, 
 and an international service was immediately started, which 
 accepted the invitation given at the beginning of April, to 
 take part in the international meteorological observations, 
 to be conducted under the auspices of the International 
 Congress of Meteorologists, and to take place in Vienna in 
 1873. From the first of May, 1877, the office made obser- 
 vations of atmospheric conditions, without interruption, at 
 the same instant, in which they are made in Washington, 
 Paris, Greenwich, Vienna and in nearly all the observatories 
 of the first class in the world. The corresponding hour 
 for these observations in Mexico is 5 :32 in the morning. 
 In several States of the Republic the same observations are 
 made and the uniform results are published in the bulletins 
 of the Signal Service department in Washington, for circu- 
 lation throughout the entire world. 
 
 In the vast field of study embraced by the observatory, 
 is included the greater part of many problems of atmos- 
 pheric conditions in relation to climatology, public health, 
 mortality and changes in population ; for which work the 
 co-operation of the public registrars and of the principal 
 hospitals, was sought and secured. 
 
 In the observatory, observations are made every hour 
 during the day and night, and the data obtained in the 
 office and those sent in by those co-operating elsewhere, are 
 calculated, discussed, arranged and printed. Observations 
 are made of the thermometer, psicrometer, anemoscope, 
 ozonometer and especially of the condition of the heavens. 
 The hourly changes of the temperature of the water are 
 noted; barometric observations are made every quarter of 
 an hour at the approach of the tropical hours and study is 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 119 
 
 made of atmospheric atoms wafted by different winds which 
 blow in the Valley of Mexico ; of the micography applicable 
 to the same seismographic studies of actinometry, atmos- 
 pheric electricity, etc. 
 
 The observatory is always open to the public ; it decides 
 questions submitted to it in matters included in its field 
 of operation ; examines, gratuitously, the instruments sub- 
 mitted to it for such purpose; it furnishes, in detail, all 
 the data collected by it relating to meteorology and its ap- 
 plication, and sends information daily to the press, hospi- 
 tals and drug stores of the capital. 
 
 From the time of its inauguration, the observatory has 
 issued publications of importance, among which should be 
 mentioned those relating to the periodical observation of the 
 phenomena of vegetable life in connection with meteorolog- 
 ical changes. With these data, the Botanical Calendar is 
 composed, which has appeared monthly since July, 1877, in 
 the Bulletin of the Ministry of Public Works. In this is 
 observed, the inception, the culmination and the decadence 
 of florescence of many plants, wild and domestic, of the 
 Valley of Mexico, and the dates are indicated on which the 
 crops are planted and harvested, the appearance of the 
 growing crops, the dates on which the foliage of trees falls 
 and buds, and on which the field grass springs into life. 
 The observatory publishes, besides: The Meteorological 
 Bulletin of the Ventral Observatory in which the labors 
 performed by this institution are technically and minutely 
 explained: The Monthly Meteorological Review, which con- 
 tains, in epitome, the comparative data of the observatory 
 and corresponding sections: The Monthly Climatological 
 Review which was first published in January, 1881, to 
 make known the data collected by the telegraph operators 
 and civil registrars: The Weather Bulletin, with the daily 
 account of the meteorological conditions observed in the 
 different localities of the country. 
 
120 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The engineers of the observatories have prepared 
 and published the following : A Table to reduce to 0° 
 th'e Barometric pressure in the Valley of Mexico, and 
 in all localities which may be subject to the same mod- 
 erate pressure : The Meteorological Telegraphic Key which 
 facilitates and secures uniformity in the daily transmis- 
 sion of foreign observations; The Tables for Hygro- 
 metrical Calculations: The Barometric Tables relating 
 to the correction and application of barometric science, 
 applied to all the altitudes of the Republic ; Studies of 
 Comparative Meteorology, in four volumes, in which are 
 discussed the data of the central observatory in comparison 
 with those of the corresponding Mexican stations and with 
 those of foreign observatories that may have forwarded 
 their observations ; The Psycrometric Tables, prepared for 
 the Valley of Mexico, and the necessary corrections to make 
 them applicable to any other altitude within the limits of 
 the Republic ; The Colorations of the Heavens, a work in 
 which are discussed the different hypotheses concerning the 
 twilight colorations which have attracted universal attention 
 since the year 1883; and, finally, A Catalogue of Meteors 
 prepared in the observatory during several years. 
 
 The Central Observatory is in communication with the 
 larger part of- the observatories and academies of the world 
 to be found in the following nations : United States, 
 Central America, South America, Cuba, Sweden, Norway, 
 Denmark, Russia, Holland, Germany, Switzerland,Belgium, 
 France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, England, Greece, Turkey, 
 Egypt, several islands of Asia, China, Japan, Australia, 
 the Sandwich Islands, Saxony, Bavaria, Austria, Ireland, 
 Roumania and Africa. The number of institutions with 
 which the observatory conducts a correspondence is, 375 in 
 foreign lands and 488 domestic institutions, making a total 
 of 863. 
 
 The principal instruments in use, are: barometers of 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 121 
 
 different systems, barographic instruments, thermometers 
 showing the highest and the lowest conditions, ther- 
 mometers of solar radiation, terrestrial and centesimal, 
 in large numbers; electric termographs, psycrometers, 
 actinometers, anemometers, anemometrograph, anemos- 
 copes, instruments for the study of atmospheric cor- 
 puscules, including photomicrography, pluviometers, 
 atmometers, ozonometers, cianometers, photometers, elec- 
 trometers; apparatus for earthquakes, seismographs, 
 meteorograph of P. Secchi, with all their accessories; 
 magnetometer, polar and solar compasses, chronometers, 
 catetometer, a binocular microscope, astronomical telescope, 
 theodolites, terrestrial and celestial globe, instruments for 
 dividing the sun's rays, a galvanometer. It possesses, be- 
 sides, a telegraph office with all its equipments. The 
 instruments represent in their present condition, a capital 
 of more than $9,000. 
 
 The library of the office contains more than 2,000 
 volumes, the greater part of which has been otained from 
 the observatories, academies and professors entertaining 
 relations with the observatory, in exchange for the services 
 rendered to them by the observatory. 
 
 The general government has allowed for its maintenance 
 the sum of $11,797.50, annually. 
 The Meteorological Astronomical Observatory of Mazatlan. 
 
 This was established through the agency of the Secretary 
 of Public Works in the year 1879. The building was 
 erected at the expense of the national treasury on an arti- 
 ficial esplanade on the summit of the mountain known as 
 Vigia. The scientific work was begun on the 15th of May 
 of the. same year, 1879, under the direction of engineer 
 Fiacro Quijano. 
 
 From that date the first international simultaneous ob- 
 servation is made daily at 5 h. 02 m. 00 s. and a list is sent 
 monthly to the observatory at Washington, at the same 
 
122 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 time as to the Central of Mexico. The meteorological 
 daily service receives attention at seven o'clock a. m., two 
 o'clock p. m. and nine o'clock p. m. and on several other 
 occasions during the day and during a part of the night, and 
 an account of these is also forwarded monthly to the Cen- 
 tral Meteorological Observatory, and the details of the day 
 preceding daily, by telegraph. For the weather predic- 
 tions, the greatest number of observations possible is made 
 during the day and night at the approach of storms, 75 per 
 cent of the predictions being verified. 
 
 The Observatory of Mazatlan is also charged with the 
 study of the tides by means of the mareograph, an auto- 
 matic instrument presented by the " coast survey " of the 
 United States for the purpose of obtaining a greater num- 
 ber of data to compare with those furnished by this class 
 of service, as organized in the North American ports. 
 
 The apparatus was put in position in December, 1879 ; 
 the lists are forwarded monthly to the American office and 
 to the management of the Port of Mazatlan. 
 
 In November of 1879, a code of meteorological signals 
 was adopted, for the prediction, as near as possible, of 
 weather probabilities. 
 
 The astronomical labors of the observatory are directed 
 to a calculation of time by means of solar and stellar 
 meridians, whereby is announced daily, by means of a bell, 
 the noon hour, for the regulation of the clocks in the bay. 
 The relative geographical conditions of the observatory 
 and the light-house have been determined; observations 
 were made of the transit of Venus by means of the solar 
 disc on the 6th of January, 1882, and of the comet of 1884 
 on the 19th and 21st of January; as well as other important 
 observations. 
 
 The instruments necessary for the performance of its 
 work, were donated to the observatory at the time of its 
 installation; barometers, psycrometers, thermometers of 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 123 
 
 the greatest and least power, thermometers of Fahrenheit 
 and centigrade, anemoscope, anemometer, instruments 
 with which to measure the amount of the evaporation of 
 water, in the shade and in the open air, and a pluviometer. 
 It also possesses a transit telescope of 31 inches focal 
 distance, three of a clear objective opening, with a microm- 
 ter having an adjustable rim for the eye. Attached to the 
 telescope is a vertical ring of six inches in diameter, and 
 an adjustable pivot with the geometrical ruler, which the 
 verniers contain and which approximate angles of 10" and 
 10". It has contrivances for elevating the upper portion 
 of the instrument and its supports, 180° above the lower 
 portion (placet, ). There are also in the observatory, an 
 American marine chronometer of the manufacture of Negus, 
 N. Y. For the observation of Venus, an equatorial was 
 purchased in 1882 from William Gregy, New York, of 
 2 m. 30 s. focal distance and of an amplifying diameter of 
 70. In 1884, there were obtained from the Central Observ- 
 atories of Astronomy and Meteorology, an altazimut of 10 
 inches in diameter in the horizontal and vertical tubes, with 
 an approximation of 10 seconds, and of the make of 
 Troughton and Simms; a small cubic barometer, six free 
 thermometers, one of the largest and one of the smallest 
 calculating strength; a psycrometer and an anemometer; 
 all of a decimal calculation and of the make of Negritti 
 and Zambra. 
 
 In addition to these meteorological and astronomical 
 instruments, the observatory has a telephone and signal 
 outfit with which the watch announces vessels that appear 
 in sight and signals the weather probabilities as made known 
 by the observatory. The library of the office is not very 
 large but contains national and foreign works of merit. 
 The officers consists of a manager, an assistant and an 
 office boy. It receives a government appropriation of 
 $4,064.30 annually. 
 
124 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 THE NATIONAL ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY OF TACUBAYA. 
 
 The idea of constructing a national observatory in Cha- 
 pultepec was suggested in the year 1842 by General Pedro 
 Garcia Conde ; some appropriate work was done in the 
 locality and instructions were sent to Europe for the man- 
 ufacture of three large instruments, a meridian telescope, 
 an astronomical pendent and a*n equatorial, at a cost of 
 $10,000. 
 
 Scarcely had the new administration, resulting from the 
 revolution of Tuxtepec, been inaugurated, when it was ar- 
 ranged that the palace of Chapultepec should be used as a 
 national astronomical observatory, and, in elfect, Engineer 
 Angel Anguiano was commissioned to prepare designs. 
 These being presented and approved, the work of construc- 
 tion was begun on the 16th of May, 1877. The inauguration 
 of the observatory took place on the 5th of May, 1878, and 
 the first astronomical work was undertaken, which consisted 
 in the geographical location of the establishment. The 
 meteorological list was arranged in June of the same year. 
 
 In 1882 the Government resolved to transfer the observa- 
 tory from Chapultepec to Tacubaya. With this view, the 
 afore-mentioned Mr. Anguiano, presented a design of an 
 observatory, which was also accepted. This was to be 
 constructed in the center of the garden belonging to the old 
 Archbishopric of Tacubaya, then occupied by the military 
 college. The work of construction was begun in October 
 of 1882. 
 
 After the observation in Chapultepec of the transit of 
 Venus through the sun's disc on December the 6th of that 
 year, the work of dismounting and transferring the instru- 
 ments to Tacubaya was begun, and in a few months they 
 were arranged there temporarily. The observatory resumed 
 its interrupted scientific labors in September, 1883, continu- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 125 
 
 ing them up to the present regularly and without interrup- 
 tion. 
 
 The studies undertaken in this establishment, since its 
 installation, are innumerable. Its meteorological observa- 
 tions were at first made three times a day, as well as the 
 observations of the conditions of the barometer and of the 
 wet and dry thermometer; daily indications of the highest 
 and lowest temperature and of the pluviometer. Subse- 
 quently the observations were made hourly from 7a.m. till 9 
 p. m. because of the necessity for obtaining certain indispen- 
 sable meteorological data for the improvement of astronom- 
 ical calculations. At present, the ordinary observations 
 are made from 7 a. m. 12 p. m. and 9 p. m., as well as 
 those of the elevation and inclination of the magnetic needle. 
 Important studies have been made, with a view to examining 
 the variations that might take place in the measurement of 
 horizontal angles, and in relation to the variations of the 
 level, changes of time, and of full moons. 
 
 Observations have been made with sufficiently satisfac- 
 tory success of the transit of Venus through the solar disc, 
 in 1882 ; a solar eclipse on the 16th of May, 1883 ; the 
 appearance of a periodical comet in January, 1884; an 
 annular eclipse of the sun on March 16, 1885 ; the planet 
 Eucrates, in 1889, and the total eclipse of the sun on the 
 22nd of December of the same year, by means of two 
 commissions sent to Progreso (State of Yucatan) and to 
 Charcas (State of San Luis Potosi), respectively. 
 
 On the 10th of January, 1891, the observatory assumed 
 the task of determining the position of stars, which might 
 serve for reference in their locations to verify the photo- 
 graphic chart of the heavens in the zone embraced by the 
 observatory, which is from 10° to 16°. These data are 
 published in the Bulletin under the name of " Meridian 
 Observations for the Formation of a Catalogue of Stars in 
 the Observatory of Tacubaya." 
 
126 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The first Annual of the observatory, was given to the 
 press in 1881, containing explanatory articles on several 
 subjects; tables for the solution of practical astronomical 
 problems; meteorological observations made in the office 
 during the year ; geographical locations of certain parts of 
 the Republic approved by the observatory, either because 
 of being its own work, or because of the authenticity of 
 their sources and the means employed in securing them; 
 data relative to the change of signals, by commissions or 
 persons making and forwarding them ; a calendar ; the 
 report which the manager of the observatory, Angel 
 Anguiano, submits annually to the Secretary of Public 
 Works, relative to the work done in the establishment, and 
 many other details and information of interest in fostering 
 astronomical science. 
 
 The Bulletin is another semi-monthly publication 
 issued by the observatory. Its purpose is to make known 
 the work done in the office; it publishes original articles, 
 translations or compilations of important astronomical 
 work; information concerning the discoveries and progress 
 of astronomical science, etc., etc. ; and it contains besides, 
 a list of meridian observations with the date on which they 
 were made, the name of the star observed, its transit through 
 the middle line, a corrected transit, the just ascent of the 
 star and the error of the pendent and its progress. Its 
 publication was begun on January, 1890. 
 
 The following are the most notable instruments of the 
 observatory: a large equatorial which has an aperture of 
 0" 38 ; the total length of the cylinder is 5 m 40 ; the height, 
 from the pavement of the point of intersection of the polar 
 needle with that of declination is 3 m 28 ; the foundation is 
 of wrought iron. The examination of the orbs of inclina- 
 tion and just elevation is made by means of a single tele- 
 scope and this is lighted by a combination of prisms. 
 
 For small movements in a direct elevation, there is a 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 127 
 
 mechanism in one of the cog-wheels which operates the 
 clock movement. The instrument contains five glasses of 
 different amplifying power, of 200, 360, 750 and 1,000 
 diameters. It was manufactured by Grubb, in Dublin, 
 and its total cost in Mexico was $13,000. 
 
 A Meridian Compass with an aperture m 203 and 
 2 m 74, focal distance ; it has a vertical compass on each side 
 of m 91 in diameter; it is supported on iron with a lower 
 mechanism for the lesser movements of the altazimut, and 
 to easily locate the instrument in the meridian ; it has two 
 telescopes of an objective opening of m 15 ; its cost is 
 $10,000. 
 
 A Transit Telescope of Estel, of an objective aperture 
 of m 15. 
 
 An Englisli Photolieliograph with an objective aperture 
 m 10 of Dalmeyer's make. It cost $4,000. 
 
 A /Small Equatorial with an objective aperture of m 
 15, of Grubb's make. 
 
 A Photographic Equatorial manufactured specially, in 
 accordance with the regulations of the International 
 Congress of 1887, whereby the observatory was to take 
 part in the photographic preparation of a chart of the 
 heavens. 
 
 A Large Altazimut intended specially for the correction 
 of the pendent and for a study of the sun spots, use being- 
 made of the chronograph. It is of the English make of 
 Troughton and Simms with an aperture of m 038 and a 
 focal distance of m 85 ; the azimut compass measures m 
 61, the vertical m 59; the micrometric telescopes approxi- 
 mate 1". The eye-glass has two micrometric screws, the 
 one horizontal, which moves the mounting of the reticule 
 and the other, perpendicular to the former, which moves a 
 horizontal bar. 
 
 Several Marine (Jltronometers ; a pendent of median 
 time with the corrections and adjuncts necessary to furnish 
 
128 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 
 
 the time to the public clocks. Two chronographs, one 
 large cylindrical, and the other de lira. 
 
 A Spectroscope which has five prisms situated in a circu- 
 lar mounting, and which contains in its two faces the two 
 objective adaptations of the synthetical and analytical tele- 
 scope, in front of which is fixed a prism. The mounting 
 is articulated and by means of springs and chains which coil 
 and uncoil themselves on an axis, can increase and diminish 
 their diameter and convert the faces of the prisms into dif- 
 ferent angles by meaus of the luminous surface. When 
 this reaches the last prism, it is reflected inwardly twice 
 and then passes, by means of the same prisms, to the analy- 
 tical telescope. 
 
 Finally, among many other instruments to be found in 
 the observatory, are a heliograph and a magnetometer; 
 some ordinary thermometers of the highest and lowest 
 temperature ; psychrometers ; several barometers and 
 aneroids; anemoscopes; anemometers and pluviometers. 
 
 The increase in its scientific relations which the national 
 observatory attained since its inception, has been very 
 great, thanks to the appreciation with which its labors have 
 been recognized by foreign associations and institutions of 
 a like character. At present, it entertains relations in 
 Europe with Germany, France, Spain, Austria, Hungary, 
 Belgium, Denmark and Great Britain; with Greece, 
 Holland, Italy, Portugal, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Switzer- 
 land, Eoumania, Turkey; in Asia, with China, India, Japan 
 and Syria ; in Africa, with Egypt, Cape Colony, Guinea, 
 the Island of Mauritius, the Island of Madagascar, and the 
 Island of St. Helena; in Oceanica, with Australia, the 
 Phillipine Islands, and New Zealand; in America, with 
 Canada, the United States, Costa Rica, Salvador, Guatemala, 
 Brazil, Columbia, Chili, Equador, English Guina, Peru, the 
 Argentine Republic, Uruguay and Cuba. The total of 
 observatories, academies and associations belonging to the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 129 
 
 countries named, with which a correspondence is maintained 
 by the establishment, is 423, the greater part of which 
 exchanges their scientific publications with the observatory. 
 
 The library, of which there are thirteen shelves, contains 
 2,500 volumes. 
 
 The staff of the observatory consists of a manager, first 
 assistant, an employe to make the observations and one to 
 make the calculations, a second assistant, a manipulator of 
 the chronometers and a party to make the meteorological 
 observations; a telegraph operator and a janitor. 
 
 The general government devotes $21,208.85 to the estab- 
 lishment, including $12,000 wherewith to continue the 
 work of construction. 
 
 The Central Astronomical Observatory . 
 
 The Minister of Public Works, Vicente Riva Palacio, in 
 accord with the President of the Republic, resolved upon the 
 construction of the Central Astronomical Observatory. Its 
 purpose was to give impetus to the geography of the country, 
 to afford practice to the youth engaged in the study of as- 
 tronomy, and, above all, to provide a staff of persons to 
 make the calculations and observations necessary in the 
 National Observatory of Chapultepec. 
 
 The observatory was located in the upper portion of the 
 National Palace, under the supervision of Engineer Vicente 
 Manero. The work was completed at the end of September, 
 1877, but the* first observations were made on the first of 
 August previous, the day of its installation. 
 
 The observatory has always been connected with the In- 
 spection of highways, its labors are co-ordinated with those 
 of the latter, according to requirements, and with those of 
 the staff which the Department of Fomentation assigns to 
 said Inspection. 
 
 From the first, the observatorv was noted for the im- 
 
130 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 
 
 portance of its scientific labors, of which Engineer Fran- 
 cisco Jimenez had charge. 
 
 The latitudes of certain localities were fixed by telegraphic 
 signals in the States of Mexico, Hidalgo, Queretaro, San 
 Luis Potosi, Guanajuato and Jalisco; a semi-daily table of 
 arc-lines was published, formed by the latitude of Mexico, 
 degree by degree from m to 70° which facilitates the calcula- 
 tion of the rise and setting of the stars ; a celestial chart based 
 on the horizon of Mexico; a pamphlet entitled, «« The Tele- 
 scope and its Amplifying Power; " a dissertation on the 
 method of determining the longitude of the seconds pend- 
 ent and of the gravity in Mexico; a work entitled, " The 
 Meridian Curve of Median Time."" Engineers Anguiano, 
 Fernandez and Palafox co-operated in these labors. 
 Other studies have been made, such as the " Table of Cal- 
 culation," relating to the values of the azimut heaters, the 
 level and colineation for the observations made of the 
 transit in the latitude of Mexico. A resolution has been 
 reached relative to the indulgence to be granted in topo- 
 graphical operations, according to the instruments to be 
 used in that connection; the most favorable time for mak- 
 ing observations of terrestrial angles during these investiga- 
 tions; and the inquiry relating to the astronomical 
 refraction of the central table, it having been remarked 
 that the European tables on this subject are unsatisfac- 
 tory for the conditions of the locality. 
 
 The transit of Mercury through the solar disc was also 
 predicted in the observatory, as well as the solar eclipse, 
 the first having been verified on the 6th of May, 1878, and 
 the second on the 29th of July of the same year, and the 
 observation of the partial eclipse of the sun on the 11th of 
 January, 1880. 
 
 The principal subsequent operations of the Central 
 Observatory consist in the change of telegraphic signals 
 for determining the longitude for the engineers employed 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 131 
 
 in geographic surveys; to determine the time by meridian 
 gradations for the regulation of the clocks of the capital ; 
 to compare and regulate weights and measures with due 
 precision ; and to fix the work to be done in the office by 
 the students of the School of Engineers. 
 
 The establishment possesses a transit telescope with a 
 focal distance of 1.16 metres, and a movable objective 
 opening of 69 millimeters; a zenith telescope with a fixed 
 focus and a small movement which allows a widening or 
 narrowing necessary for the stellar focus, and it. has a 
 screw with a piuion which causes a variation in the intens- 
 ity of the light, for the illumination at will of the threads ; 
 another zenith telescope of the make of Troughton and 
 Simms ordered in England in 1852, and issued by the 
 Mexican commision in 1853 for tracing the northern bound- 
 aries between the United States. It was also used by the 
 commission of the Valley for fixing the geography of the 
 city of Mexico in 1857, and in 1874, by the commission 
 selected for the observation of the transit of Venus in Japan. 
 Its azimut compass is m 31 in diameter with three nonius 
 of an approximate reading of 30". It has a vertical quad- 
 rant of ,n 15 in radius with a nonius of similar approxima- 
 tion, with a telescope of l m 22 of focal distance, objectivity 
 of m 0765, of a loose aperture; three celestial eye-glasses, 
 one bent, the other straight, to be used in combination 
 with a microscope divided into a hundred parts and a level, 
 in the quadrant, whose divisions are 1" 00, with a curva- 
 ture radius of 186 metres. It possesses, besides, four 
 straight astronomical eye-glasses, with their corresponding 
 helioscope, and also a terrestrial eye-glass ; a search tele- 
 scope of 0" 25 focal distance of 0" 022,of a free opening, 
 with a negative eye-glass. 
 
 There is also in the observatory, an astronomical pendent 
 of Vazquez, with a string for eight days; a universal alta- 
 zimut, the azimut compass of which is m 26 in diameter, 
 
132 THE RICHES OE MEXICO 
 
 with a telescope of m 042 of a free aperture whose reticule 
 is of 5 vertical threads and three horizontal; another 
 English altazimut of the make mentioned, received in 1882; 
 its tubes have a diameter of 8 inches (English), divided 
 into fractions of 5 minutes, and its readings are approxi- 
 mated to a second with microscopes ; two chronographs 
 ordered built directly in London in 1886 and the cost of 
 which was 78 pounds sterling; together with several other 
 instruments of less importance. 
 
 Devoted, as the establishment is, at present, to geo- 
 graphical pursuits, the greater part of the instruments which 
 it possesses is distributed amongst the different commis- 
 sions employed in several localities of the country in the 
 performance of work under the auspices of the Secretary of 
 Fomentation. 
 
 PUBLIC MONUMENTS. 
 
 VI. Notwithstanding the unfavorable condition affecting 
 the public treasury, the Secretary of Public Works has 
 undertaken and carried into effect, the erection of some 
 monuments commemorative of the glorious deeds of illus- 
 trious Mexicans, or of benefactors deserving the gratitude 
 of their contemporaries. 
 
 The principal monuments of this class, to be found in 
 the Kepublic, are the following: — 
 
 A Monument of Columbus. Mr. Anthony Escandon 
 ordered this monument to be built at his own expense, to 
 be erected in some public place of the Capital, and intrusted 
 the French artist Mr. Cordier with the execution of the 
 work. Its parts were . received in Mexico, in January, 
 1876, and, on the 11th of April the following year, the 
 work of erecting the monument was begun in the first 
 arbor of the Avenue of Eeform, under the direction of 
 Engineer Eleuterio Mendez. It was completed in August 
 following. The monument consists of a foundation of 
 
T~ 
 
 Mex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. 
 
 STATUE OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 
 City of Mexico. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 133 
 
 basalt intermixed with trachite and of four steps of the 
 same material, by which ascent is made to a platform 
 paved with marble in two colors and surrounded by an 
 iron railing supported by eight pillars of the same ma- 
 terial, each pillar carrying five lamps provided with 
 globes of opaque costal and adorned with projections of 
 oxydized bronze. 
 
 The two parts of the monument are of conchillated red 
 marble of the Vosges. The first has four pillowed rests 
 and the block has four tablets, that of the principal front- 
 age containing the dedication to Christopher Columbus and 
 being surmounted by the arms which the Catholic Kings 
 gave to the great Admiral, in combination with those of 
 Castile. The tablet facing south represents the construc- 
 tion of the monastery of Santa Maria de la Rabida beneath 
 the designs which the celebrated Father Marchena present- 
 ed to Columbus. The tablet facing north represents the 
 discovery of the Island of Guanhani, as Columbus is in the 
 act of giving thanks to Providence, and shows the natives 
 fleeing to the woods of the interior, when they discover 
 him in the act. The tablet facing west contains a fragment 
 of a letter written by Columbus to Raphadi Sauris and, 
 lower down, the dedicatory of Mr. Anthony Escandon 
 when donating the monument to Mexico. On the four pro- 
 jections at the corners of the pedestal, appear four statues 
 representing the following personages: to the front at the 
 right of Columbus is Father Marchena, to the left Father 
 Dehesa ; on the turn, to the right, Father Gante and to the 
 left the Rev. Las-Casas. 
 
 A pedestal stands on the second part of the monument, 
 with four tablets having four projections, supports towards 
 the front and finished with a cornice in the shape of an in- 
 clined plane, on which appears Columbus pointing out his 
 wonderful discovery to the old world. 
 
 The statue of Columbus measures 3.90 metres, the ped- 
 
134 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 estal on which it rests 2.68 metres ; the frames 2.00 metres; 
 the work itself, 4.47 metres; the basalt basis, 90 conti- 
 metres. The entire monument is encircled by a number 
 of basalt pillars through which is passed an iron chain. 
 
 On the base of the principal frontage the following, 
 inscriptions appears: "August, 1877 — General Porfirio 
 Diaz, being President of the Republic, and Vicente Riva 
 Palacio, Minister of Public Works, this monument was 
 erected." The estimate of the work was $3,984 and the 
 total cost, when completed, nearly $16,000. 
 
 Hypsographic Monument. On the 19th of July, 1877, 
 the Government determined upon the erection of this mon- 
 ument at the intersection of the meridian which passes 
 through the south corner of the front of the National 
 Palace and the parallel which passes through the corner 
 formed by the streets of the Seminary and the Arch- 
 bishopric. The purpose for which this monument was 
 constructed was to fix in a clear and definite manner the 
 altitude of the different methods of comparison which have 
 been used as a basis of the hydrographic operations for the 
 city and valley of Mexico, as well as for the purpose of 
 honoring the memory of the illustrious cosmographist, 
 Enrico Martinez, who drew and superintended the tunnel 
 work by which an exit was given to the river Cuautitlan in 
 the year 1608. 
 
 The designs and the work of construction were intrusted 
 to the civil engineer, Francisco M. Jimenez, and the bronze 
 portion of the statue which represents the city of Mexico 
 was let out by contract to the sculptor, Miguel Norena, for 
 the sum of $6,740. 
 
 The large marble pedestal was finished on the 5th of May, 
 1878, and on the same day of the year 1881, the bronze 
 statue surmounting it was placed in position. 
 
 The monument is properly located with relation to the 
 astronomical meridian and embraces the following details : 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 135 
 
 On top are four tablets which indicate the same level as is 
 indicated in the sidewalk to the northwest of the National 
 Palace, a level which had been determined previously in a 
 general way by the measurements of the lakes. On the 
 four sides of the plinth the signals are made of marble, in 
 measurements by the metre, yard and vara. On one of the 
 side tablets, the following inscription appears: " To the 
 memory of the renowned cosmographist, Enrico Martinez. 
 The Ministery of Public Works, 1878." On the others are 
 to be seen : a plate containing a comparative plan of the city 
 indicating the altitude above the mean tide at Veracruz; 
 an apparatus illustrative of Lake Texcoco, with a reference 
 scale; the geographical co-ordinations of the center of 
 the monument, the magnetic inclination fixed in April 
 of the same year, 1878, and the altitude of the base 
 of comparison in relation to the lower tangent of the Aztec 
 Calendar which at that time was located at the foot 
 of the east tower of the Cathedral; an inscription which 
 reads " General Porfirio Diaz, being President of the Re- 
 public, and General Vicente Riva Palacio, Secretary of 
 Fomentation, this monument was erected in the year 
 1878." Then can be observed the plate containing the 
 comparative plan in relation to the sidewalk on the north- 
 west corner of the National Palace, and four horizontal 
 channels with bronze rulers which indicate the median alti- 
 tudes of lakes Xochimilco, San Cristobal, Xaltocan and 
 Zumpango, according to the data furnished by the Com- 
 mission of the Valley in 1862. 
 
 The statue which surmounts the monument is an allegory 
 of the city of Mexico, in the attitude of placing a crown 
 upon a stone bearing the following inscription: 
 
 " Enrico Martinez." 
 
 The monument is four metres and 96 centimetres in 
 height, and its cost was $12,724.14. 
 
136 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Monument to Ouauthemoc. In 1877, the Government 
 resolved to embellish the Avenue of Keform with commem- 
 orative monuments, dedicating them to Cuauthemoc and to 
 the Aztec chiefs who distinguished themselves during the 
 period of the conquest ; to Hidalgo and other heroes who 
 aided in the movement of independence, and to Juarez and 
 other notables of the Reform. For this purpose a conven- 
 tion was called on the 23d of August of the same year, for 
 the submission of designs of a monument to the first of the 
 chiefs above named. Among the five submitted, the com- 
 mittee designated for that purpose, selected, on the 15th of 
 April, 1878, the design of Engineer Francisco M. Jimenez, 
 who received the prize of $1,000 offered by the convention. 
 
 The construction of the work was undertaken on the 5th 
 of May following in the center of the second arbor of the 
 Avenue of Reform, under the direction of the same party 
 who had prepared the design. In 1881, certain changes 
 were recommended by Engineer Jimenez, which were ap- 
 proved by the Secretary of Fomentation, on account of 
 which the estimates made at first, amounting to $152,031.50 
 was reduced to $90,782.23. 
 
 The bronze sculpture work was contracted to Mr. Miguel 
 Norefia. From the month of April, 1884, when Engineer 
 Jimenez died, the construction of the monument was in- 
 trusted to Engineer Ramon Egea who superintended the 
 work up to the time of its dedication, which took place 
 the 21st of August, 1887, the anniversary of the day on 
 which the last of the Aztec emperors was tortured by the 
 conquerors. 
 
 The principal base or foundation which supports the 
 monument, is octagonal in form, built of stone from the 
 vicinity, at a height of 1:50 metres above the level of the 
 sidewalk corner. Eight bronze leopards, each two metres 
 wide, resting on projecting pedestals, guard the entrances 
 of the four stairways leading to the platform of the foun- 
 
HYPSOGRAPHIC MONUMENT IN MEMORY OF ENRICO MARTINEZ. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 137 
 
 datioti, the floor of which is manufactured of Guanajuato 
 gravel. On this foundation rests the lower part of the 
 monument, which is square and in general appearance 
 similar to the Teocalli with their flowing robes. 
 
 In the angles, there are braces consisting of three large 
 projecting stones which leave an open space in each front. 
 In the front space, there is a block of bronze 4.02x1.40 
 metres, bearing this inscription in bronze letters of 025 
 metres : 
 
 "To the memory of Cuauthemoc and of the warriors 
 who fought heroically in the defence of their country 
 MDXXI." 
 
 In the rear space, to the west, there is another block of 
 the same size with the following inscription : " Porfirio Diaz, 
 President of the Republic, and Vicente Riva Palacio, Secre- 
 tary of Fomentation, ordered this monument constructed 
 MDCCCLXXVII; it was built by order of Manuel Gon- 
 zalez, President of the Republic and the Secretary of 
 Fomentation, Carlos Pacheco MDCCCLXXXIII." 
 
 On the tablet facing north, there is a bas-relief in bronze, 
 the same in size as the blocks already referred to, which 
 represents the apprehension of Cuauthemoc at the moment 
 when he takes hold of the poniard which Cortez carries in 
 his belt and pronounces the words, " Take this dagger, then, 
 and kill me with it." 
 
 The bas-relief which faces the south represents the 
 torture of the Aztec chief at the moment when he pro- 
 pounds to the Lord of Tlacopam, the famous question, 
 «' Is this a bath, or some other species of delight? " The 
 figures of these bas-reliefs are 1.33 metres in height. 
 
 The second portion of the monument has four groups 
 of three columns in each angle; all of Aztec architecture, 
 which rest in the angles of a pedestal having four inclined 
 planes bearing these names and inscriptions: Cuitlahuac, 
 Cacama, Tetlepanquetzal and Coanacoch, names of the four 
 
138 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 allied kings who distinguished themselves during the war 
 of the conquest. 
 
 In the intermediate columns, also a Toltec ornamentation, 
 are also placed bronze insignia representing the weapons, 
 banners and badges of the allied kings. The cornice work 
 similar in design to that of the palaces of Uxmal and 
 Palenque has a frieze of shields, armor and weapons of 
 war, used and worn by the Aztec warriors. The upper- 
 most portion of the monument consists of a pedestal with 
 four tablets adorned with scrolls in the angles. The front 
 tablet displays a bronze hieroglyphic of Cuauthemoc, that 
 is to say ; an eagle which in its swoop touches with its bill 
 the imprint of a human foot, which means, " The eagle 
 that alighted." 
 
 The pedestal is surrounded by a cornice ornamented with 
 rattlesnakes intertwined, and on this is erected the statue 
 of Cuauthemoc in the garb of a warrior and wearing a 
 feather plume. He is clad in a cotton jacket and a cloak 
 which falls from his shoulders, and he holds in his right 
 hand an arrow which he is in the attitude of shooting at the 
 enemy, while, at the same time, with his left hand he 
 gracefully lifts the mantle. ' 
 
 The statue is of bronze and four metres in height. The 
 whole work is built of very hard, polished stone of a 
 greenish gray color quarried in Puebla. The statue, bas- 
 relief, leopards, emblems, tablets, frieze, and ornamenta- 
 tion of the pedestal are made of bronze; weight 11,980 
 kilograms and the total cost of the monument was 
 $94,914. 
 
 Monument of Chapultepec. In September, 1877, Engi- 
 neer Agustin Diaz, professor and former student of the 
 Military College, in the name of some of the members of 
 the institution, asked permission from the Secretary of 
 Fomentation to erect a monument to be dedicated to the 
 memory of the students who fell at Chapultepec on the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 139 
 
 13th of September, 1847, while fighting against the North 
 American troops. 
 
 The design was furnished by Engineer Ramon Rodriguez 
 Arangayti who was also a student of the College, and who, 
 as such, took part in the event referred to. The superin- 
 tendence of the work was given in charge to Engineer 
 Francisco de P. Herrera. On the 6th of September, 1881, 
 the monument was completed; on the 13th of the same 
 month, the anniversary of the battle of Chapultepec, it was 
 solemnly dedicated by the President of the Republic. 
 
 This monument is a simple one; it is a 6 m 50 in 
 height and is erected on the spot where the bridge is to be 
 found, where the students fell or were taken prisoners. 
 
 It consists of a platform composed of six blocks of stone, 
 one metre square and fifty centimetres high, on which rests 
 a plinth of two metres in length and one and a half metres 
 in width and one metre in height. On this plinth is placed 
 the foundation stone of the five faced or star block, the 
 dimensions of which are, l m 50 in length and width by 
 l m 10 in height. On the front of the four tablets of the 
 block commemorative inscriptions are engraved ; the foun- 
 dation is composed of a large stone, the four corners of 
 which display acanthus, leaves, bunched oak and laurel in 
 bas-relief; of a small block of stone, decorated with 
 Green sea-weed and finally of a filete on which rests the 
 monolith bearing the inscriptions. This is 2 m 80 in height, 
 l m 40 in length and m 80 in width and has four beveled 
 corners. 
 
 A palm tree in bas-relief overhangs the names of the 
 students who perished. 
 
 On the back of the monument are the names of the 
 leaders, officers, and students taken prisoners in this 
 glorious combat. The other two sides or faces of the 
 monolith, contain a commemorative inscription and a dedi- 
 cation of the monument. 
 
140 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The cap of the star stone which consists of a block l m 
 30 in length, m 70 in width and l m in height, is orna- 
 mented with a filete, a moulding or bead in pearls and a 
 large ogee fluting of pearls, with figures of sea-weed. In 
 the middle of cypress and laurel wreaths, is to be found 
 the national coat of arms; the balance of the decorative 
 work, consisting of evergreens, poppies, etc., etc. This is 
 all in bas-relief ; the eagles are of bronze and the material 
 of chiluca stone obtained from the quarries of the estate 
 "DelCristo." 
 
 The total cost of the monument was $9,676.05. 
 
 There are also several other important monuments, in 
 the different States of the Republic, which it would take too 
 long to enumerate, amongst which, the most worthy of 
 note are those built to the memory of the liberator, Hidalgo, 
 in the community of Dolores and in the State of Chihua- 
 hua. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.* 
 
 VII. The old system of weights and measures of the 
 colonial time prevailed in Mexico until 1857, when the 
 French decimal metric system with a few modifications was 
 established by the law of the 15th of March, that is to say ; 
 the ara for surface and ground measurement ; the litre as 
 the unit of contents as well for liquids as for solids ; the gram 
 as a unit of weight, and the Mexican peseta, ten grams and 
 ninety millograms in weight, as the monetary unit; but the 
 enactment of the 15th of March, 1861, fixed as the unit of 
 value, the silver dollar of the same quality and the same 
 weight as it possesses at present. As a result of this enact- 
 ment, a new department was organized in the Ministry of 
 
 * Vide, " Commercial Development." 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 141 
 
 Fomentation called «' General management of weights and 
 measures," the purpose of which should be, to formu- 
 late reduction tables of the old and new methods, design 
 and examine the arrangements relating to new coins ; to 
 submit designs and suggest legal changes on the subject, 
 and to organize the work of market weighers and the mar- 
 ket taxes. On the 10th of November, 1862, the respective 
 tables were approved, in connection with the decimal 
 metric system already established. 
 
 The law of 1857 prescribed that, from the first of Janu- 
 ary, 1862, this system should be used exclusively in 
 Mexico ; but the force of custom amongst the masses, and 
 the critical condition of the country at the time, resulted 
 only in such compliance with the law as affected official 
 acts and the business of the government in its various 
 departments. 
 
 In conformity with the provisions of the law of the 
 2d of August, 1863, the measurements of land and water 
 either for irrigation or power, are determined by engineers 
 and surveyors according to the decimal, metric system, and 
 the longitudinal road and surface measurements by the tables 
 already mentioned of the 10th of November, 1862. This 
 law requires also, that in making a valuation, the engineers 
 and surveyors must indicate the agricultural character of 
 the land, submit a plan or sketch of the land sold, and the 
 longitude of the boundaries and the size of the angles must 
 show, on each plan or sketch, the astronomical and magnetic 
 position, indicating the inclination that may have been 
 observed, and the date of observation. The plans or 
 sketches must show the surface conditions of the lands ; and, 
 in determining distance and making official measurements, 
 the engineers and surveyors must indicate the changes to be 
 made in the measurements in case the ground should not be 
 level and for that reason, necessitate corrections. 
 
 For liquids, the litre is the only measure. In the com- 
 
142 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 putation of ditch water the second is the unit of time, and 
 for citv water, the minute: a surco is equal to six and one- 
 half litres, per second of ditch measurement, and for city 
 measurement, the paja is considered equal to 45 centimes. 
 The engineers, surveyors and measurers of water determine 
 in each case the data applicable to the city and country 
 which are co-related with matters of inclination, distance 
 from the point of measurement of the pressure level; all 
 of which should be taken into account, the formulas used 
 and the motives by which they were governed in their 
 work being noted in each case. 
 
 The measure of the power force is the kilogram etre, 
 that is, a kilogram of power per second from a metre in 
 height, 75 kilogrametres being equal to one horse power. 
 
 On the 25th of April, 1881, the Secretary of Fomen- 
 tation suggested to Congress a law intended to secure the 
 definite adoption of the decimal system of measures. The 
 measure having been discussed and passed, with some 
 modifications, a law was enacted covering the subject on 
 the 20th of December, 1882. By this it was determined 
 that, from the first of January, 1884, the new system should 
 go into effect exclusively in so far as official acts, commerce, 
 the arts, business, and all other relations, both public and 
 private, were concerned. Certain contradictions which were 
 remarked in the formulas of this law, and difficulties expe- 
 rienced in its enforcement, induced the President to submit 
 another measure to Congress on the 3rd of December, 
 1883, for the amendment of certain portions. The measure 
 being approved without alteration, it was passed on the 
 14th of the same month. According to this enactment 
 the metric system should be used from the first of January, 
 1886 ; but after July, 1886, the Secretary of Public Works 
 should establish offices to verify weights and measures in 
 the capital of the Republic, in the capital of the States, 
 and territory of California, with a view to affording to all 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 143 
 
 municipalities, and to individuals who may desire it, the 
 benefit of their supervision, as well as for the verification 
 of the weights that may be submitted to them. These 
 offices were to remain established for five years, after which 
 time the work of verification was to be performed in the 
 offices known as " Fiel Contraste." 
 
 The Department of Fomentation was authorized to enter 
 into contract with individuals, for the establishment of 
 factories for the manufacture and sale of the new weights 
 and measures, these factories receiving exemption during 
 ten years from every kind of tax or contribution, general 
 or local, and the materials intended for manufacture being 
 also exempt from the payment of duties or internal revenue 
 taxes, subject to the restrictions imposed by the Executive. 
 
 By an enactment of the 19th of December, 1888, the 
 period fixed was extended to the first of July, 1891, and 
 that fixed for the establishment of offices attending to the 
 matter of verification, to January of the same year. 
 
 By a new enactment of December the 17th, 1890, the 
 duration of the first law was continued to the first of Jan- 
 uary, 1893, for the purpose of giving effect to the metric 
 system ; instructions being given at the same time, by this 
 law, that the offices of verification or check system, which 
 the Secretary of Fomentation might establish, should adopt 
 the weights and measures of the decimal metric system 
 tc the absolute exclusiou of the old method, the sale of 
 its weight and measures as well as their manufacture and 
 verification, to cease from the time that the same Ministry 
 should, in its judgment, have acquired a sufficient number 
 of weights and measures properly approved. 
 
 CONTRACTS RELATIVE TO WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 In conformity with the contract of the 16th of October, 
 1890, Mr. Alexander Casarin was empowered by the Secre- 
 
144 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 tary of Colonization and Commerce (Fomentation), to 
 establish in the capital of the Eepublic, and in other parts 
 of the country one or more factories for the manufacture 
 of weights and measures, which, under the new system, 
 should be subjected to the check system of the respective 
 offices. The Department of Fomentation should furnish 
 to the beneficiary the authorized models or molds, for the 
 manufacture of weights and measures, designating the 
 names required for each city, as well as for their respective^ 
 sub-divisions. 
 
 " The National Manufacturing Company of Weights and 
 Measures," as the institution organized by Mr. Casarin is 
 to be designated, is under obligation to keep its work shops 
 open and to manufacture the official collections, as well as 
 the greatest possible number of those destined for public 
 use during the period fixed for the substitution of the pres- 
 ent decimal metric system. 
 
 The mechanism, utensils, fixtures and materials, necessary 
 for the manufacture of weights and measures, will be free, 
 during ten years, from import duties, whether State or 
 Federal, subject to the restrictions imposed by the Depart- 
 ment of Fomentation. During the same time the factories 
 which the concessionaire may establish shall be exempt 
 from all taxes and contributions general and local during 
 the period of five years to date from the inception of the 
 contract. At the same time the government obligates itself 
 not to grant to any other person or company a similar con- 
 cession covering the same privilege. 
 
 The Government grants to the concessionaire a subsidy of 
 $100,000, which, in accordance with the terms of the con- 
 tract, shall be paid by fifty per cent of the check or verifi- 
 cation taxes, or license imposed on the weights and measures 
 which the concessionaire or company has to pay on the 
 amount of production. 
 
 The ten years mentioned in the contract having expired, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 145 
 
 the Government can acquire title, at an appraised value, of 
 the work shops established by the concessionaires or the 
 company, and also ofthe materials therein contained. 
 
 This contract was approved by Congress on the 3d of 
 June, 1891. 
 
 The Department of Colonization, Industry and Commerce 
 entered into another contract with the same Mr. Casarin on 
 the 13th of June, 1891, by virtue of which the latter will 
 deliver to the former a collection of 10,000 plates in lots of 
 nine, consisting of chromo-lithographs, measures, weights 
 and geometrical instruments and drawings of the decimal 
 metric system, in the following manner: plates representing 
 longitudinal measurements with their geometrical descrip- 
 tion, in five colors; surface measurements, measures of 
 bulk and capacity for liquids, grain, with their geometric 
 description, in three colors : utensils for weighing, with their 
 description, in five colors: pieces of iron and bronze with 
 their description, in three colors : coins of gold, silver and 
 copper, in four colors ; and a general chart or plate, represent- 
 ing the entire metric system, in five colors. The drawings 
 must be of the natural size, and each plate will bear the 
 proper nomenclature and explanatory notes of the system. 
 
 The concessionaire obligates himself by this contract, 
 to deliver every month or oftener, 18,000 plates, so that 
 at the expiration of five months the collection of 10,000 
 lots, of nine plates each, will have been delivered. 
 
 THE INTERNATIONAL METEIC CONVENTION. 
 
 An event of importance to Mexico, has been its partici- 
 pation in the International Metric Convention of Paris in 
 1875, the object of which was to secure the extensive 
 adoption of the decimal metric system. 
 
 On the 29th of August, 1889, the Mexican minister in 
 Paris asked authority from the Department of Foreign 
 
 10 
 
146 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Relations, for participation on the part of Mexico, in the 
 international conference; but the exact obligations to be 
 incurred by the Government because of such action, and 
 the bases and respective regulations, not being known, an 
 answer was returned on the 30th of September, of the 
 same year, postponing action until the necessary informa- 
 tion could be obtained. 
 
 On the fourth of July, 1890, permission was accorded 
 by the President allowing Mexico to take part in the inter- 
 national league, and it was arranged that the Mexican 
 minister in Paris should take the necessary steps to make 
 known to the French government, that the Eepublic would 
 take part in the convention, and would comply with what- 
 ever conditions which might be imposed on it, as well as 
 for its admission to the conference, as for acquiring the 
 dies of the metre and kilogram of iriclied platinum. 
 
 In the months of January and September of 1891, drafts 
 to the amount of 29,048 francs were forwarded to the 
 Mexican Charge d' Affairs in Paris, to pay for the die of the 
 kilogram and to meet the share of expense for the inscrip- 
 tion and for the expense incurred during the first year. On 
 the 20th of October following, the sum of 22,335 francs 
 was given to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, representing 
 the share of the expense incurred by the Mexican Govern- 
 ment for the entertainment of the " International Bureau 
 of Weights and Measures ; " the participation of the Mexican 
 Eepublic in the Paris convention of May 20th, 1875, being 
 thus affirmed. 
 
 The die of the kilogram which arrived safely in Mexico 
 as appears from the proceedings of April the 4th, 1891, was 
 designated by the number 21; it was taken from the office 
 of the International Railroad together with all its parts 
 and certificates of its origin, on the 13th of November of 
 the same year, alter the delivery to the Minister of Foreign 
 Relations of the sum of 3,305 francs. The die of the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 147 
 
 kilogram and accompanying documents were brought to 
 Mexico by Captain Angel Ortiz Monasterio, in the corvette 
 " Escuela General Zaragoza " and were received in the 
 Department of Fomentation through the mediation of the 
 Department of Foreign Relations, on the 20th of January, 
 1892. On the 27th of November, 1891, the sum of 2,878 
 francs was paid, this being Mexico's share of the expense 
 of the International Convention of the year 1891; and on 
 the 29th of March, 1892, the sum of 2,460 francs, its share 
 for this year, was also paid. 
 
 On the 30th of November, 1891, the following nations 
 were represented in the International Metric Convention: 
 Germany, Austria, Hungary, Belgium, The Argentine 
 Eepublic, Denmark, United States of America, France, 
 Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, Rou- 
 mania, Servia, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Turkey and 
 Venezuela. 
 
 MEXICAN NATIONAL CURRENCY. 
 
 VIII. In order to substitute a National Currency for the 
 old coin of the Spanish Government, the Mexican Congress, 
 two years after the Declaration of Independence, by decree 
 of the 1st of August, 1823, ordered the making of new 
 dies for the coining of said money. 
 
 All coins whether of silver, gold, or copper, were to 
 bear the same obverse, that is, the escutcheon of the nation 
 was to be stamped upon it, and around its border the in- 
 scription " Republic of Mexico." 
 
 All silver coins were to bear on their reverse a cap with 
 the word Liberty stamped diagonally across it and from 
 whose center rays of light shot forth, besides which should 
 be expressed the value, the year and place of mintage, 
 together with their ley * and the initials of the assayers. 
 
 * The value of pure metal. 
 
148 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 On the reverse of all gold coins, a hand was to be 
 stamped holding a rod with the Liberty cap on its point, 
 the whole resting upon a representation of an open Code 
 Book, with the inscription "Liberty in the Law" around 
 it, as also the same marks and signs, that appear on the 
 silver coins, indicating their value, place and year of mint- 
 age, etc^ 
 
 On the reverse of copper coins was to appear two palms 
 forming a fringe, in the center of which their respective 
 value was indicated, and also the year and place of mintage 
 was to be stamped upon it. 
 
 The alloy in the silver and gold coins was to remain 
 the same as established by the Spanish Government forty 
 years before, and which regulations are still in force. 
 
 By the law of March 15th, 1857, the metric-decimal 
 system (as was previously mentioned page 140 referring 
 to weights and measures) was first established in Mexico, 
 and the "peseta" or shilling was declared to be the 
 monetary unit ; that, however, was changed by the law of 
 March 15th, 1861, which made the dollar ($1.00) the unit 
 for silver coins and for gold that of the denomination of 
 ten dollars ($10,00). 
 
 This same lawalso decreed that the ten dollar ($10.00) gold 
 pieces should be known by the name of Hidalgos, those of 
 twenty dollars ($20.00) as double Hidalgos and those of 
 five dollars ($5.00) two dollars and a half ($2.50) and one 
 dollar ($1.00) as half, quarter, and tenth Hidalgo respect- 
 ively, but this disposition up to the present date, has never 
 been put into effect. 
 
 In conformity with the law of November 28th, 1867, 
 called the " Curio de la Balanza " Scales die the silver dollar, 
 containing the amount of alloy and the weight prescribed 
 by the aforementioned law of 1823, is the monetary unit 
 of the Kepublic, and is subdivided, according to the metric- 
 decimal system as follows: two coins of the value of 50 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 1.49 
 
 cs. each, four of 25 cs., ten of 10 cs., and twenty of 5 
 cs., the penny or 1 cs., piece must be made of copper or 
 some alloy in which copper predominates. 
 
 The value of the various gold coins is twenty dollars 
 ($20.00), ten dollars ($10,00), five dollars ($5.00), two 
 dollars and a half ($2.50) and a dollar ($1.00) respectively. 
 
 The ley* of all silver coins is expressed in decimal figures, 
 0,902- 1 Vo I o, (10 dineros 20 grains) and that of gold coins, 
 by 875, or 21 carats. 
 
 The weights of the different silver coins are as follows: 
 the dollar ($1.00) 27 grammes 73 milligrammes, the 50 cs. 
 piece, 13 grammes 536 milligrammes, the quarter or 25 cs. 
 piece, 6 grammes 768 milligrammes, the 10 cs. piece, 2 
 grammes 707 milligrammes, and the 5 cs. piece, 1 gramme 
 653 milligrammes. 
 
 The weight of the various gold coins is as follows: the 
 $20.00 piece, 33 grammes 841 milligrammes, the $10.00 
 piece, 16 grammes 920 milligrammes, the $5.00 piece, 8 
 grammes 460 milligrammes, the $2.50 piece, 4 grammes 
 230 milligrammes, and the one [dollar piece, 1 gramme 
 692 milligrammes. 
 
 The weight of the copper penny or one cent piece is 8 
 grammes. 
 
 The diameter of the silver dollar is 37 millimetres and 
 that of its subdivisions is as follows: The 50 cs. piece, 30 
 millimetres, the 25 cs. piece, 25 millimetres, the 10 cs. 
 piece, 17 millimetres. 
 
 The diameter of the various gold coins is as follows : the 
 $20.00 piece, 34 millimetres, the $10.00 piece, 27 millime- 
 tres, the $5.00 piece, 22 millimetres, the $2.50 piece, 18 
 millimetres and the $1.00 piece, 15 millimetres. 
 
 The difference allowed for precious metals, either in 
 excess, or deficiency in ley, must not exceed 0,003 in silver 
 
 * See note, page 147. 
 
150 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 coins, the deficiency in ley, however, is only allowed in 
 special cases, and not in the general mintage of coins. 
 
 The law of 1867, whose object was to reform the 
 national currency, uniformly regulating its subdivisions, 
 in view of the fact that the simultaneous use of the coins 
 of the metric-decimal and those of the imperial, or old 
 system, was prejudicial to the public interest, also requested 
 engravers, whether foreign or native, to send in designs 
 for improving and perfecting the model in force, and 
 named the 15th of September, 1868, as the date on w T hich 
 the so-called imperial coins were to be retired from circu- 
 lation, therefore it came to pass that in accordance with 
 this law (which is still in force) the coinage of moneys of 
 the Scales die was ordered, but this did not meet with suc- 
 cess, not only on account of their faulty design, but also 
 from the fact that they were not accepted in Asia as 
 current coin. 
 
 This caused Congress to issue the decree of May 29th, 
 1873, which ordered the re-establishment of the die used 
 prior the 28th of November, 1867, but that all the other 
 dispositions relating to the weights, fractioning, etc., made 
 by the law of November, 1867, were to remain in force. 
 
 A decree of Congress issued on the 16th of December, 
 1881, provided for the coinage of copper coins of the 
 denomination of one, two, and five cents, to consist of a 
 mixture containing from 75 to 80 per cent of copper and 20 
 to 25 per cent of nickel, also determining the weights and 
 diameters of the same, at the same time stopping the coin- 
 age in the mints of silver 5 cents pieces, and copper pennies 
 or cent pieces ; it also decreed two years later, the retire- 
 ment from circulation of copper coins of 1, I-5-, and 3 cents. 
 
 The total issue of this new coin was restricted to four 
 millions dollars and then the Executive was authorized to 
 proceed with its coinage, and to issue it according to the 
 wants of the public. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 151 
 
 The Government contracted for said coinage and this 
 fractional currency was soon introduced ; shortly after- 
 wards, however, speculators monopolized large quantities 
 of nickel, which was paid into the public offices, especially 
 in the capital and coast custom-houses, in large quantities; 
 great losses resulted therefrom, as it was difficult to put it in 
 circulation again, and as the recounting of it involved a loss 
 of time, it was received in bulk, and by weight, which 
 owing to the difference in weight of the respective coins, 
 led to dishonesty and fraud. 
 
 About the middle of the year 1883 nickel commenced t© 
 suffer a depreciation in value, ranging from 4 to 50 per 
 cent, which induced merchants to set different prices on 
 their goods, acccordingas they were paid in silver or nickel. 
 
 The law of December 12th, 1883, proclaimed to prevent 
 this evil, decreed the forced circulation of the nickel coins 
 to the amount of 20 cents in every payment, and that all 
 Federal offices should not, in any transaction, payout more 
 than 5 per cent of it, also that all Federal treasury offices 
 should receive it without limit up to the last day of the 
 year 1883, and during the following year, from January 
 1st to February 29th, to the extent of 50 per cent, from 
 March 1st to April 30th of 30 per cent, from May 1st to 
 June 30th of 20 percent, and July 1st, and thereafter to the 
 extent of 10 per cent in all payments of moneys. 
 
 It also ordered that all Federal offices should withhold 
 from circulation the nickel 5 cent piece not yet issued and 
 retain all those that should be paid in. 
 
 By Circular of the Department of Interior, issued some 
 days earlier (on the 2nd December, 1883), heavy fines, or 
 imprisonment was to be imposed on all persons who should 
 refuse to receive the new coin, or tried to embarrass, or 
 impede, its circulation, as also on all merchants who refused 
 to receive it, or set higher prices on their goods in the 
 event of being paid in nickel, while on the other hand 
 
152 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 the City Council, and the Treasury Department, took the 
 necessary steps to facilitate merchants and importers, in the 
 purchase at reasonable rates payable in nickel, of all goods 
 of chief necessity, to be sold at retail, and offices were 
 also opened in the public markets where said coin was 
 exchanged for silver at par. 
 
 By the decree of January 9th, 1884, the emission of 
 nickel certificates for the amounts of $10.00, $50.00, 
 $100.00 and $500.00 was authorized ; these were to be de- 
 posited in the National Bank, which was to sell them at par 
 for silver coins, and from the proceeds of said sales, 50 
 per cent was to be applied to the exchange, also at par, of 
 silver for nickel coins deposited by private individuals, 
 with said bank, for that purpose. • 
 
 This decree, as also that of the 16th of the same month 
 and year assigned for the redemption of said certificates, 
 15 per cent of the receipts of the custom houses at Vera- 
 cruz, Guaymas, La Paz, Matamoros, Mazatlan, Laredo, 
 Salina Cruz, Paso del Norte, Tonala, Campeche, Frontera, 
 Progreso, Tampico, Tuxpan, Acapulco, and San Bias, 
 from February to June and in July and thereafter 10 per 
 cent of the same. 
 
 In view of the lack of fractional coin, and to further the 
 carrying out of the above dispositions, the Department of 
 Fomentation arranged, with the lessees of the mint for the 
 coinage, m advance, of double the amount of 5 cent and 
 10 cent pieces specified in the respective contracts. 
 
 By decree of April 7th, 1884, nickel coin was not 
 accepted at the custom-houses in payment of duties, but it 
 ordered that what remained of it in circulation should be 
 received in all the other public offices according to the pro- 
 visions of the law of December 12th, 1883. 
 
 Finally the decree of Congress of May 10th, 1886, 
 revoked that of December 16th, 1881, as also all the dis- 
 positions relating thereto made later, and re-established 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 153 
 
 the monetary law of November 27th, 1807, and ordered the 
 issue of nickel coins. By same decree the executive was 
 authorized to order the issue of $200,000.00 in copper and 
 silver coins of denomination of 1 and 5 cents respectively, 
 the same to have a forced circulation to the extent of 25 
 cents in every payment; the issue of the 5 cent coins was 
 to be effected according to the demands of the retail trader. 
 
 The law of June 4, 1888, ordered that all silver coins of 
 the value 121 C s., 6i cs., 3 cs., all coins that had become 
 defaced by use and all copper moneys of the old issue, should 
 be called in, for the purpose of being recoined; also that on 
 June 30th of the following year the legal circulation of said 
 coins should cease, and that prices of goods, wages, etc., 
 should be expressed in decimal figures. 
 
 By the law of June 1, 1889, the date set by the preced- 
 ing one was extended to June 30, 1890, and further extended 
 to April, 1891, by that of June 10, 1890. 
 
 Eegulations issued on November 30, 1889, ordered that 
 all receiving offices in the Republic whether State or Federal 
 should set apart for redemption all defaced 50 cs. and 25 cs. 
 pieces, those known as " provisionals " also all 12|- and 6 
 cs. in silver and copper 3 and li'cs. pieces, which coins 
 should be forwarded to the respective agencies of the 
 National Bank, to be exchanged for decimal currency. 
 
 All salaries, wages, prices of goods, freights, etc., were 
 to be fixed and paid in said currency, under penalty of a 
 fine of $25.00 for thefirst offense and $50.00 in each case 
 thereafter. All authorities and notaries public who dispatch 
 documents expressing values were to use the term, "dol- 
 lar" and its decimal subdivisions, not allowing even for 
 the purpose of being more explicit, the mention of coins 
 of the old style, under a penalty of a fine of from $5.00 to 
 $100.00; these regulations also ordered the forward accept- 
 ance of copper coins to the amount of 25 cs, in each pay- 
 ment. 
 
154 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 By decree of May 31st, 1889, the circulation of all coins 
 that had, by being filed, bored through or by any cause 
 other than usage, lost the legal weight, was prohibited. 
 
 On December 9th, 1890, the Department of Fomenta- 
 tion presented to Congress a project embracing important 
 modifications to the monetary law. It proposed that coins 
 should continue to be the same type as they were, but that 
 the designs be improved, and that the references to the 
 value of the coin and the ley of the metal be changed so as 
 to read " one dollar " instead of " 8 reales " and that the 
 ley be expressed in decimal fractions, in place of " Dine- 
 ros and Granos " and the edge to be milled instead of 
 being as it was ; all fractional coins should be stamped as the 
 unit, and bear such distinctive signs as might be found 
 necessary. 
 
 Gold coins on their obverse like silver ones, were to bear 
 the escutcheon of the nation, and on their reverse the bust 
 of Hidalgo, with their respective inscriptions. The copper 
 coins were to remain unchanged. 
 
 In this project the creation of a new silver coin was sug- 
 gested of the denomination of 20 cents, weighing 5 
 grammes 415 milligrammes and the suspension of the coin- 
 age of the 25 cent piece ; subdivisions of the dollar would 
 thereby be 20 cs., 10 cs. and 5 cs. With reference to gold 
 coins, it was proposed to raise the ley from 0.875 to 0.900 
 that the legal proportion between gold and silver be from 
 1 to 15^- and that the coins be of the denominations of 
 $5.00, $10.00 and $20.00, the coinage of $1.00 and $2.50 
 pieces being abolished. The project also established the 
 weight and diameter of gold and silver coins, as the differ- 
 ence allowed in their ley, and provided likewise in regard 
 to the copper coins. 
 
 The above project is still pending before Congress. 
 
 In order that all coinage should be uniform in the mints 
 of the Republic the Department of Fomentation contracted 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 155 
 
 on the 25th of August, 1886, with Mr. Fernando Sayago 
 for the establishment in the mint of the city of Mexico of 
 a " Central Department of Engraving " by virtue of which 
 contract Mr. Sayago obligated himself to deliver properly 
 packed and to the utter satisfaction of the interventor 
 appointed by the government, such dies made to strictly 
 conform with the type adopted by law as might be applied 
 for by the respective sub-mints. The lessees of said mints 
 were to make their requisitions to the Department of Fo- 
 mentation, which through its interventor would cause them 
 to be filled ; the new dies being changed on receipt of the 
 old ones. Each mint pays $50.00 for a pair of dies, one 
 obverse and one reverse, or two obverses and two reverses 
 constituting a pair. 
 
 EXHIBITIONS. 
 
 IX. The Government of the Republic has seen the im- 
 portance of exhibitions in making known the riches of 
 every kind which the country contains and the greater part 
 of which was unknown to the civilized world. It also saw 
 their importance in fostering and stimulating the agricul- 
 tural and mining industries of Mexico and in bringing to 
 perfection these' branches of human activity. It is for this 
 reason that it has always been disposed to aid as far as lay 
 in its power either by subventions or the granting of im- 
 munity from taxes or by any other means, these labor com- 
 petitions whether they have taken place in the Republic or 
 in foreign countries. In addition to being represented at 
 the exhibitions of Paris, Venice, St. Louis, Matansas 
 and Buenos Ayres it has also exhibited in the following 
 abroad : 
 
 Exhibition of Philadelphia. In order to celebrate the 
 hundredth anniversary of the independence of the United 
 States of America the Congress of that nation decreed an 
 
156 . THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 International Exhibition of arts, manufactures, and agri- 
 cultural and mining products. It was held in the city of 
 Philadelphia in the year 1876. 
 
 The President, U. S. Grant, issued on the 3d of July, 
 1873, the proclamation referring to it, and in virtue of a 
 resolution approved of by the Congress on the 5th of July 
 of the same year, an invitation was sent to every country 
 on the globe. 
 
 The Mexican Minister at Washington received from the 
 Secretary of State the circular relating to the 5th of July 
 and bearing the date of the 5th of August following, and 
 the Minister of the United States in Mexico directed a note 
 to the Foreign Secretaryship inviting, in the name of his 
 country's Government, the Government and people of 
 Mexico to take part in the exhibition which would be held 
 from the 19th of April till the 19th of. October, 1876. 
 
 On the following day an answer was given cordially 
 accepting the invitation of the North American Government 
 and immediately the Interior Secretaryship began to dictate 
 the means necessary to organize the preliminary works. In 
 1874 the Exhibition Committee was appointed under the 
 chairmanship of Sr. Lie Manuel Romero Eubio, and also 
 the commission which was to represent, Mexico in the 
 celebration ; convenient publications were also written 
 in order to show the desire that existed to make known 
 among foreign nations the natural and industrial resources 
 of which Mexico is possessed, and regulations were made to 
 organize the works in the Republic. 
 
 Hitherto Mexico had not figured on a grand scale in the 
 exhibitions of other countries. She had to contend at the 
 very beginning with certain difficulties inasmuch as she had 
 to calculate the expenses which had to be incurred in order 
 that the exhibits of Mexicans who lived in the various States 
 of the Republic might be brought to the capital, and this 
 had to be done by difficult roads and with heavy transport 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 157 
 
 expenses and from thence they had to be exported to their 
 destination. 
 
 The result, however, of the Mexican Exhibition in Phila- 
 delphia was sufficiently satisfactory. 
 
 In the Mining and Metallurgical Department samples were 
 exhibited of native sulphur of bromirite and a sample of a 
 meteoric stone weighing 4,000 lbs; collections of lead and 
 silver ores, samples of silver producing galena, geological 
 collections of Mexican onyx and a mass of coppered silver, 
 in the manufacture department were displayed; salts of 
 sodium, essences, wax candles, indigo, porcelain, furniture 
 of Austrian imitation and form, gloves, embroidery, artifi- 
 cial flowers, ixtle (paper) bark, and wax-works. 
 
 Among education and science works were exhibited scien- 
 tific books on surveying, topography and calculus, works 
 on Mexican fossils, philology and the public instruction of 
 Mexico, collections of maps, etc. Among the art exhibits 
 were oil paintings and photographic portraits. 
 
 In the agricultural department were seen collections of 
 woods, of corns, grass, coffee, cultivated tobaccos, vanilla, 
 vegetable wax, sugars, chocolate, liquors, Parras wines, 
 henequen fabrics and cords, maguey fibers, carmine and 
 cochineal. In horticulture, various herbs and a collection 
 of botanical maps, etc. 
 
 The Mexican exhibitors obtained in the exhibition 73 
 diplomas and 47 medals, whilst the Government of Mexico 
 received an extraordinary diploma. 
 
 The distribution of prizes was performed by the Presi- 
 dent of the Eepublic in the National Theater on the 22d of 
 July, 1877. 
 
 The Exhibition of JSfeiu Orleans. The Centenary Uni- 
 versal Industrial and Cotton Exhibition of the city of New 
 Orleans was proclaimed on the 10th of September, 1883, 
 by the President, M. Chester A. Arthur by virtue of a 
 law of the Congress dated the 10th of February of the 
 
158 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 same year, and was inaugurated on the 10th of December, 
 1884. Its object was to celebrate the centenary of the first 
 remittance of cotton as an article of commerce sent by the 
 United States to Europe in 1784 ; but the cotton exhibition 
 was thrown open to the exhibits of cotton in all its condi- 
 tions of cultivation and manufacture and to all the arts, 
 manufactures, mining and agricultural products of the 
 world. 
 
 In pursuance of a decree of the Congress an invitation 
 dated the 31st of October, 1883, was sent to the Mexican 
 Government through the United States minister at Mexico 
 and in the name of the North American Union asking Mexico 
 to send representatives and take part in the said exhibition. 
 
 After accepting this invitation on the 7th of December 
 following the Mexican Government appointed General 
 Porlirio Diaz as general commissioner in the Kepublic to 
 take charge of the organization of the preparatory works 
 for Mexico's participation in the exhibition. A directing 
 committee of the general commission was constituted and 
 the necessary special commissions were appointed. 
 
 According to the plan adopted by the commission the 
 participation of Mexico was to be secured by the co-opera- 
 tion of the superiors of the Federation, by that of the 
 States and of the general public. In this way a complete 
 picture would be shown of the natural resources of the 
 country, its scientific, industrial, artistic and commercial 
 progress; whilst the specialty in which each State excelled 
 in any of these branches would be clearly marked as well as 
 the productions of the special industries established at dif- 
 ferent places in the Republic. 
 
 Mexico responded in a liberal manner to the invitation 
 sent to her by the United States Government and got ready, 
 with great expense, her best natural, industrial and artistic 
 products and thus her exhibition surpassed the hopes of her 
 own people and of strangers. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 159 
 
 The Mexican train which brought the -first remittance of 
 exhibits sent by Mexico to the Universal Competition ar- 
 rived at New Orleans on the 27th of November at midday 
 and was saluted in its transit with demonstrations of wel- 
 come by the American people. Among the buildings of 
 the exhibition, Mexico occupied an area of 40,000 square 
 feet and here were exhibited the agricultural products of 
 every climate, the finest fibers, precious woods, marbles, 
 tiles or other building materials, essence oils, liquors, wines, 
 preserves, sweets, fine sugars, coffee and cocoa of the high- 
 est quality, tanned skins which were taken for cloth, sarapes 
 and the finest mufflers, cotton cloths, works in silver and in 
 wax, carriages and trappings exquisitely made, furniture, 
 collections of books, maps, atlases, engravings and photo- 
 graphs. 
 
 In the fine art galleries were to be seen sixty oil paint- 
 ings, collections of amulets and medals, marble busts, etc., 
 which were all objects of admiration. In the ladies* 
 special section, the laces, point laces, embroidery, open 
 work, inlaid work and artificial flowers roused the interest 
 of merchants engaged in these branches. 
 
 In the horticultural gallery were shown more than 900 
 specimens of living plants, 700 species of textile plants 
 and 400 orchids of rare forms, colors and perfumes; singing 
 birds of all kinds, parrots and pheasants. 
 
 The octagonal pavilion constructed for the Government 
 of iron and glass and in the Arabian style contained samples 
 from the Mexican mines of gold, silver, copper, iron and 
 other metals of unrivaled riches and of a very notable 
 scientific classification. 
 
 The music of the 8th Regiment of the Mexican Army 
 under the direction of Captaiu Encarnacion Payen was 
 listened to with enthusiasm and admiration by the visitors 
 to the exhibition. 
 
 The skilled musicians of the band, equally with Sr. Payen 
 
160 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 were the object of frequent ovations, applause and honor- 
 able distinctions. 
 
 The 29th of May, 1885, was the day dedicated to Mexico 
 in the exhibition by the authorities of Louisiana and of 
 the city of New Orleans, the directory committee of the 
 exhibition, the commissioners of the United States and the 
 people. 
 
 The festival which was organized had for its object to show 
 the high appreciation the above mentioned bodies and 
 people had for the Mexican exhibition and for the liberal 
 and generous way in which the Government and Mexican 
 people had contributed to its success. 
 
 Mr. Burke, General Director of the exhibition, expressed 
 himself in eloquent and very honorable terms about the 
 high state of advancement attained by Mexico, and her 
 future prosperity. 
 
 The solemn distribution of the prizes gained by Mexico 
 at this exhibition was performed by the President of the 
 Republic on the 5th of May, 1887. At the same time 
 were distributed the prizes gained by the Mexican exhibit- 
 ors in the Continental Exhibition of Buenos Ayres. 
 
 The prizes won by Mexico distributed among the various 
 States, Federal District and Territories, are as follows: — 
 
 Aguascalientes, 4 prizes and 3 honorable mentions; 
 Oampecke, 3 prizes and 4 honorable mentions; Coahuila, 
 9 prizes and 3 honorable mentions ; Colima, 6 prizes and 
 9 honorable mentions; Chiapas, 5 prizes and 10 hon- 
 orable mentions ; Chihuahua, 6 prizes and 1 honorable 
 mention ; Federal District, 67 prizes, 27 honorable men- 
 tions, 17 diplomas and 1 certificate of merit; Durango, 12 
 prizes and 5 honorable mentions ; Guanajuato, 3 prizes 
 and 3 honorable mentions; Guerrero, 1 honorable men- 
 tion; Hidalgo, 8 prizes and 3 mentions; Jalisco, 16 prizes 
 and 6 honorable mentions; Mexico, 13 prizes and 6 men- 
 tions ; Michoacan, 12 prizes, 9 mentions, and 1 diploma ;, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 161 
 
 Morelos, 5 prizes and 5 mentions; Nuevo Leon, 4 prizes 
 and 1 honorable mention; Oaxaca, 13 prizes and 21 hon- 
 orable mentions; Puebla, 12 prizes and 10 honorable 
 mentions; Querelaro, 4 prizes and 4 mentions; San Luis 
 Potosi, 15 prizes and 10 mentions ; iSonora, 10 prizes and 
 9 mentions ; Tabasco, 4 prizes and 3 mentions ; Tamaulipas, 
 2 mentions ; Tlaxcala, 3 prizes and 1 honorable mention ; 
 Veracruz, Grand Diploma of honor, 23 prizes, 13 hon- 
 orable mentions, 2 diplomas and 1 certificate of merit; 
 Yucatan, 8 prizes, 6 honorable mentions and 1 diploma; 
 Zacalecas, 7 prizes and 3 honorable mentions; Lower 
 California, 6 prizes ; Tepic, 2 prizes and 3 honorable 
 mentions. Altogether there were: 1 Grand Diploma of 
 honor, 282 prizes, 181 honorable mentions, 36 diplomas, 
 and 2 certificates of merit. Total, 502. 
 
 Paris Exhibition. The Minister of the French Eepublic 
 in a note dated the 15th of April, 1887, in the name of his 
 Government invited the Government of Mexico to contrib- 
 ute its products to the Universal Exhibition which would 
 be inaugurated in Paris on the 5th of May, 1889. The 
 Government wishing to know beforehand the exhibits which 
 its different States and Federal Territories would be able 
 to contribute, delayed its answer till the 27th of December, 
 1887, when it accepted the invitation. 
 
 The organizing commission of the Mexican exhibition in 
 Paris actively began its labors by appointing commissions 
 to draw up and publish special regulations, to form an 
 estimate of the probable expenses of the exhibition. It 
 also sent appeals to the railway and ship companies 
 and to the Governors of the different States asking their 
 definite co-operation in securing the objects of the commis- 
 sion. 
 
 The co-operation of the nation was obtained by means 
 of the combined action of the government officials, com- 
 prising the Secretaryships of State, and the State and 
 
 n 
 
162 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Federal District Governors, and the leading politicians of 
 the territories and the private exhibitors. 
 
 The direction of the works was placed under charge of 
 the Interior Secretaryship, whence invitations were sent to 
 the Governors and leading politicians of the territories 
 asking them to contribute to the success of the Mexican 
 exhibition and to organize the necessary works in their 
 respective localities. Sr. M. Diaz Mimiaga was appointed 
 Delegate of the Government in Paris, and special commis- 
 sions were formed in conformity with the new groups 
 established by the French regulations. The Interior Secre- 
 taryship resolved that a commission of architects should 
 take in hand the project of the building and adopt the 
 style of some of the old monuments of the country. 
 
 The space occupied by Mexico in the Exhibition was 
 about 2,100 square metres in front of the Fine Art Pavilion 
 and on the right side of the Eiffel Tower. 
 
 Mexico exhibited oil paintings, sculptures and medal 
 engravings, drawings and models of architecture, works on 
 education, and primary, secondary, higher and technical 
 teaching, books, stationery binding, art materials, photo- 
 graphs and photographic apparatus, musical instruments, 
 charts and Geographical and Cosmographical instruments, 
 Topography and Statistics, ordinary and elegant garniture, 
 works of tapestry and decoration, wax works, artistic 
 bronzes, works of art in castings and in embossed metals, 
 morocco-leather works, baskets and brushes, yarn and 
 cotton, linen, hemp, smooth and carded wool fabrics, silks 
 and silk fabrics, lace, tulles, embroidery and laces, bonnets 
 and linen, wearing apparel of both sexes, jewelry, 
 portable arms, objects for journey and country use, toys, 
 the products of mining works, of metallurgy, products of 
 explorations and forest industries, products of hunting, 
 products of fishing, and fishing tackle and netting, 
 unalimentary agricultural produce, chemical and drug 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 163 
 
 products, leather and hides, materials and processes of 
 mining works and metallurgy, materials and processes of 
 agricultural manufactures and food industries, mechanical 
 machines and apparatus, tools, carriages and wagons, 
 harness, railway materials, material and processes of civil 
 engineering, of public works, and architecture, hygiene 
 and public sanitary arrangements, material and processes 
 of the military art, cereals, farinaceous products, fatty 
 substances, goods, milks, meats and fishes, vegetables and 
 fruits, sugars and confectionery, chocolates, sweets, 
 carpentry, liquors, fermented drinks, beer, agricultural 
 statistics, method and material for agricultural teaching, 
 materials and processes of rural and forest works, useful 
 and noxious insects, flowers and ornamental plants. 
 
 The Mexican exhibitors in this International Competition 
 won 19 Grand Prizes, 96 gold medals, 233 silver ones, 333 
 bronze and 321 honorable mentions. Total, 1,002 prizes. 
 There were also awarded to them 57 medals and com- 
 memorative diplomas and three unforeseen prizes granted 
 as rewards by the International Judges. 
 
 NATIONAL EXHIBITIONS. 
 
 X. Several exhibitions have been held in the various 
 States of the Republic and special ones of horticulture in 
 some of the towns of the Federal District. All have been 
 remarkable, both for the number of exhibitors and for the 
 variety and good quality of the objects shown. In these 
 exhibitions the General Government has co-operated by 
 sending certain sums of money as subventions. 
 
 The chief national exhibitions held were the following : — 
 
 General Exhibition of the Industry of Mexico. This was 
 
 held in the capital of the Eepublic between the 1st and the 
 
 5th of November, 1853. At this time D. Joaquin Velazquez 
 
 de Leon was Secretary of Fomentation, and General D. 
 
164 THE KICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Antonio L6pez de Santa Ana, President of the Eepublic. 
 The objects exhibited were divided into four classes: First. 
 Plants, flowers, fruits and vegetables. Second. Agricul- 
 tural products. Third. Artistic industry, and Fourth, 
 factory industries. Two halls were made for the objects 
 to be exhibited, one in the center of Constitution Square, 
 which was used for the prizes and for the exhibition of 
 first-class articles, and the other in the passages of the 
 University where all the other industrial articles were dis- 
 played. The number of exhibits was about 163. 
 
 The National Exhibition of Mexico of the year 1875 
 was held in a beautiful palace expressly built in the 
 Alameda of the capital of the Eepublic. The States that 
 •chiefly attracted attention by their products were Campeche, 
 Hidalgo, Mexico, Morelos, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, 
 Yucatan, Zacatecas and the Federal District. The exhib- 
 itors were granted 37 gold medals, 96 silver ones, 80 of 
 bronze and 92 honorable mentions. Many of the exhibits 
 were sent to the International Exhibition of Philadelphia 
 in 1876. 
 
 The Merida Exhibition was celebrated in the May of 
 1879. The six halls which the building contained were 
 divided into departments, one of which was devoted to 
 exhibits sent from Mexico and the rest were assigned to 
 each of the political divisions of the State, Hunucma, Temax, 
 Espita, Merida, Aconceh, Motul, Maxanu, Ticul, Valladolid, 
 Sotuta, Fizinim, Izamal, Tiskokob and Tekar. The number 
 of exhibitors was about 509 and the exhibits about 1,038. 
 The prizes were silver and bronze medals and honorable 
 mentions. Of the first, 6 were granted to exhibitors, of 
 the second 10 whilst there were 56 honorable mentions. 
 
 The Puebla Exhibition. The second exhibition of the 
 Puebla Society of Artisans was held in the town of Puebla 
 in the month of April, 1880. The ordinary prizes awarded 
 by the qualifying judges were 192. First class, consisting 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 165 
 
 of gilt medals, 251, second class, which were silvered medals, 
 145, third class, which were bronze medals, and 167 honor- 
 able mentions. In addition to these prizes won by exhibit- 
 ors, other extraordinary and special ones were awarded to 
 certain persons, companies and corporations which had 
 most distinguished themselves in advancing the sciences, 
 arts and industries of Mexico and likewise to the Governor 
 who had given the greatest impulse to material improve- 
 ments and public instruction. The Government gave the 
 exhibition a subvention of $2,000. 
 
 The Toluca Exhibition. By a decree of the 14th of 
 October, 1882, the Congress of the State of Mexico author- 
 ized the Governor to convoke an exhibition of the native 
 products, of mining, agriculture, industry, sciences and fine 
 arts which should be held in the town of Toluca. It also 
 empowered him to spend money to the amount of 4,000 
 dollars of the general funds of the State and to adopt means 
 to raise the necessary money for the said exhibition. The 
 building was constructed inside what was formerly called 
 the market and was 175 metres long by twenty-three broad. 
 The cost of it came to more than twenty thousand dollars. 
 The solemn opening of the exhibition, the first that was 
 ever held in the State of Mexico, took place on the 2d of 
 April, 1883. 
 
 Monterrey Industrial Exhibition. Two exhibitions have 
 now been held in the capital of Nuevo Leon; one in the 
 September of 1880 and the other in the same month of the 
 year 1888. Both were initiated by the society called " The 
 Grand Circle of Workmen of Monterrey " which asked and 
 obtained from the Congress of the State a subvention of 
 two thousand dollars in order to bring each of them to a 
 successful issue. 
 
 The latter of these exhibitions was held in the building 
 of the society situated in the square of the Cinco de Mayo. 
 Two hundred and fifteen exhibitors took part in it and they 
 
166 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 were awarded 15 gold medals, 80 second class, 48 third 
 class and 22 honorable mentions. A great part of the 
 objects shown in it were sent to the fair and international 
 exhibition of San Antonio (Texas) which took place in the 
 November of 1888, and where they obtained a brilliant suc- 
 cess. 
 
 The exhibitors were granted 7 gold and 18 silver 
 medals, 40 diplomas, and a diploma and gold medal which 
 the Directory Committee presented to the Governor on ac- 
 count of the important part which the workmen and 
 factory hands of the State took in the said exhibition. 
 
 Queretaro Exhibition was decreed on the 8th of December, 
 1880, by the Congress of the State, and was opened on the 
 30th of April, 1882, by General Pacheco, Secretary of Fo- 
 mentation. Eight extensive halls contained in the industrial 
 palace, and in their center were displayed huge cases con- 
 taining the 5,000 exhibits of 1,400 exhibitors. The exhibi- 
 tion was closed on the 20th of August, 1882, after 40,000 
 visitors had passed through the gates. The General Gov- 
 ernment gave the exhibition a subvention of $2,000 whilst 
 the government of the State gave 4,000 ; 355 first class 
 prizes, 225 second, 128 third and 184 honorable mentions 
 were awarded. A part was taken in this exhibition also 
 by the towns of Mexico, Puebla, Orizaba, Guanajuato, Sala- 
 manca, Irapuato, Allende, Celaya, Salvatierra, Guadalupe, 
 Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Durango, Tepic, Monterrey and 
 others. 
 
 The Guadalajara Exhibition. A committee of private 
 individuals presided over by the Governor of the State, Sr. 
 General Ramon Corona, discussed the question of holding 
 an exhibition which would make known to visitors to the 
 city of Guadalajara the progress and resources of the 
 State. The place chosen for the exhibition was known by 
 the name of Alhondiga or the old school of arts. This 
 was properly repaired and on the 15th of May, 1888, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 167 
 
 the opening took place on the inauguration clay of the 
 Guadalajara railway. The Secretary of Fomentation gave 
 $1,000 to the exhibition. 
 
 Articles Awarded Prizes. 
 
 in the various exhibitions. 
 
 The chief articles which have been awarded prizes in the 
 national exhibitions are the following: 
 
 Cereals. Cascabillo coffee of Colima, wheat, beans, rice, 
 husks, and Indian corn. Tubercules. A specimen of beet- 
 root, red variety. Medicinal plants. A collection of 
 plants, vanilla, sarsaparilla, nopal gum, chaca grass, chan 
 mucilage seed. Plants and substances used in the industries. 
 Sugar canes, Aztectea, higuerilla (castor bean), aud 
 Yucatan bark, nuts and saffron. Dried fruits and preserves. 
 A collection of preserved fruits, peppers. Textile plants. 
 Henequen, cotton, ixtle and agave. Coloring plants and 
 their products. Indigo, saffron, orchella, weed, logwood, 
 achiote. Park, seeds, etc., used as drugs. All classes of 
 barks and seeds. Building timber. A collection of tim- 
 bers remarkable for their variety and richness, mahogany, 
 tampeceran, rose-wood, tepehuaje and orange wood attract- 
 ing special attention. Tobaccos, cigars and cigarettes. 
 Every class made. Gums, resins, etc. White India rubber. 
 Vegetable wax, vegetable oils. Olive oil, higuerilla and 
 cocoa-oil. Flours. Wheat flour, yuca starch, and sago. 
 Wines and liquors. Sherry, parras wines, tequila, Rhine, 
 grape brandy, pulque, tovola, maguey brandy, quince wine, 
 gin and various liquors. Sugar. Refined and yellow sugar. 
 Cotton fabrics. Marronesas, cloaks, saile de menaje, 
 coverlets, prints, smooth oil-cloth, spun fabrics, driles, 
 poplins, mufflers, vests and drawers, carpets, table-cloths, 
 cloth and cashmeres. Silks. Mascadas, bufandas and 
 other woven silks; spun silks, worked with skeins and 
 
168 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 dyed. Hemipterous and homopterous insects. Cactus or 
 nopal cochineal, originaiy of Mexico and carmine. 
 lortoise shell. Tortoise shell and art works of same. 
 Tanned and prepared skins. Kid skins for gloves, grain 
 shagreen, zuela, varnished skins, English imitation 
 skins, stamped chive gamuzas, lamb gamuzas, dressed 
 sheep skins, sashes, flowers on leather and grenetine. 
 Wax. Beeswax. Fats. Varnish of the insect called kum 
 of Yucatan, candles. Prepared wool. Cashmeres and other 
 woolen fabrics. Mining. Calcareous formations, stalac- 
 tites (tecali), collections of rocks and fossils, sulphur, 
 industrial metallurgical collection, samples of Veracruz 
 coal, coal and anthracite of Tecamatlan in the State of 
 Puebla, collection of the mercury mines of the Sierra, 
 Qneretaro, cast and forged iron, marbles, mineralogical 
 collection of Zacoalpam, black lead and tequesquite from 
 the Salada works in the State of Zacatecas. Science and 
 art instruments. Perfected plough, agrometer, apparatus 
 for collecting sulphureous gas, hot air machine, models of 
 locomovils, locomotives and tender, various telegraphic 
 and agricultural instruments. Enamels. Different enam- 
 els, application of enamel to photography, and the invention 
 of the application of chromo-lithography or porcelain deco- 
 ration. Wax works, pottery and glass. Various pieces per- 
 fectly baked and equally well enameled and different pieces 
 of glass recommended by their size, cleanliness and color. 
 Chemical products. A collection of turpentine products, 
 sulphate of iron, matches and a collection of salts aud 
 saltpetres. Fine arts. Various paintings, statues, archi- 
 tectural designs, hollow and lined engravings and filigree 
 works. Various objects. Hats, dyers' coppers, carriages, 
 sets of teeth, tortoise-shell works, brass beds, glasses aud 
 models of glass, glass etchings, mosaic incrustations, inlaid 
 work in wood, ivory works, furniture, trappings, coach- 
 harness, riding-saddles and cleats, silk masks, embroidery, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 189 
 
 leather bags, printing type, boxes, blank books, lithographs, 
 chronio-lithographs, photo-lithographs and various manu- 
 factures of henequen and musical instruments. 
 
 COMMERCIAL MUSEUM OF GUADALAJARA. 
 
 The formation of this museum was granted by Mr. 
 Mariano Barcena, Governor of the State of Jalisco, in view 
 of the continually increasing desire to make known to 
 traveling merchants orsimple tourists the industrial improve- 
 ments and the elements of local wealth which existed in the 
 State and to widen the field of action for commercial trans- 
 actions. It was inaugurated on the 16th of September, 
 1890, on the lower story of the Engineer School, formerly 
 the College of San Juan. 
 
 This museum of industrial products, elementary materials 
 and of mining, the first of its kind which was established 
 in the country, is intended to show and explain the produc- 
 tion of the different places in the State and to stimulate 
 progress and perfection in the various industries by adapting 
 them to the necessities and tastes of consumers. The 
 objects shown and grouped in order have on one side the 
 dates referring to their origin, qualities, prices and other 
 accounts sufficient to make them known. 
 
170 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS. 
 
 I. The law passed by Congress on May 8th, 1891, and 
 promulgated the same month and year, increased the 
 Secretaryships of State for the dispatch of the business of 
 the Federal Administration, to seven, making proper 
 distribution of the business in question, and providing that 
 in doubtful or cases out of the ordinary, the President of 
 the Republic should decide through the medium of the 
 Secretary of Relations, to which department the matter 
 should be referred for final disposition. The law of 
 February 23d, 1861, which had formerly governed the 
 subject, had distributed the branches of the public 
 administration among the six Departments of State then 
 existing, namely : Department of Foreign Relations, In- 
 terior Department, Department of Justice and Public Instruc- 
 tion, Department of Colonization, Industry and Commerce, 
 Department of Finance, and War and Navy Department. 
 The new law of 1891, created, as has been stated, another, 
 that of Communication and Public Works, to which was 
 assigned the disposition of the following branches which had 
 heretofore formed part of the jurisdiction of the Interior 
 Department and Department of Colonization, Industry and 
 Commerce, viz. : Interior Post Offices, Maritime Mediums 
 of Communication, or Steamship Mails, Universal Postal 
 Union, Telegraphs, Telephones, Railroads, Harbor works, 
 Lighthouses, Highways, Promenades, Ports, Rivers, 
 Bridges, Lakes and Canals, Domestic Service and Works 
 in the National and Chapultepec Palaces and the Drainage 
 of the Valley of Mexico. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS, 
 
 171 
 
 The new Department commenced its labors in the month 
 of July, 1891. 
 
 The greater portion of the branches of the administra- 
 tion which pertain to this department, and which the plan 
 of the work requires to be treated herein, have been 
 included in the respective chapters dedicated to Commer- 
 cial Development and to the Departments of the Interior 
 and Colonization, Industry arid Commerce. 
 
 * Vide Book VI. Public Administration. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO. 
 
 Mex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. 
 
172 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 TREASURY AND PUBLIC CREDIT DEPARTMENT. 
 THE PUBLIC DEBT. 
 
 I. Although the labors of the Treasury Department have 
 been somewhat complicated, they have been of the most 
 useful nature, as to them are due the re-establishment of 
 the country's credit and the systematic organization now 
 existing in its revenues. 
 
 On the 15th of May, 1883, the Executive requested 
 authorization from Congress to enable him to arrange the 
 national debt, whatever may have been its sources. By 
 the law of June 14th of the same year the necessary 
 authorization was granted, which had for its main object 
 the consolidation of the entire debt into bonds of a new 
 issue, to which should accrue an interest of three per cent 
 per annum, as well as the re-installment of the deferred 
 credits together with those of the legal origin which had 
 suffered a discount of four per cent of their value for 
 having been presented at the offices of the empire. 
 
 With respect to the debt contracted in London (1824), 
 the preparations for its settlement were commenced by 
 means of previous arrangements of a private character with 
 the committee of bondholders. The result of the various 
 conferences held on the subject was the formation of a 
 project of arrangement, to which several modifications were 
 proposed by the Secretary of the Treasury, who received 
 it for examination and afterwards returned it with the 
 necessary power to have the respective contract drawn up 
 in the name of the Government of the Republic, as well as 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 173 
 
 a project of settlement and conversion of the debt to be 
 submitted to the committee of bondholders. 
 
 The respective agreement was also formed, which was 
 then sent to Congress for its formal action and approval, 
 and although this agreement was declared open to general 
 discussion, still it was not approved but withdrawn from 
 discussion in November, 1884, by a suspensive proposition, 
 due to public manifestations against it. In the following 
 January, the commission conferred upon Mr. Noetzlin, as 
 attorney of the Government, for the arrangment of the said 
 debt, was declared expired. 
 
 In those days the obligations weighing upon the Federal 
 revenue were very numerous. The Custom Houses of 
 Tampico and Mutamoros were compromised to the extent 
 of $94.87 per cent of their receipts, those of Laredo, 
 Mier, Camargo and Veracruz with $87.87 per cent, and 
 the others with $87.37 per cent. In the Federal District, 
 the Tax Department had their receipts pledged in their 
 entirety in favor of the National Bank, the Principal Ad- 
 ministration of Eevenues had to deliver $2,000 per day, 
 and the National Lottery was compromised to turn over its 
 entire net profits to the same bank. 
 
 The mints, with the exception of that of Oaxaca, were 
 subject to a tax of $2,384,568.67, inalienable, with a 
 product of one per cent on the coinage collections, which 
 amount corresponds to the Public Revenues as price of 
 rental. 
 
 Thirteen buildings of national property were mortgaged 
 in favor of the Mortgage Bank in the sum of $880,000, in- 
 alienable in twenty years with payments of $24,200 every 
 three months. 
 
 To these obligations must be added a deficit of more than 
 $23,000,000, the result of preceding fiscal years, as well as 
 a decrease of some $6,000,000 in its revenues as compared 
 with those of the previous year. 
 
174 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The first step taken to save this embarrassing situation 
 was that directed towards redeeming the public revenues. 
 All debts with the National Bank were liquidated, with 
 which institution it was agreed that the balance due it by 
 the Public Treasury should be paid by allowing to it 15 
 percent of the importation duties, — that the amount due 
 the bank should not cause interest, with the exception of 
 the balance in its favor on the account current, which debt 
 should pay 6 per cent interest per annum, and setting 
 aside for the bank $100,000 per month on account of 
 credits that were collected through that institution by 
 private individuals. It was arranged that the National Lot- 
 tery should deliver to the bank only the excess of its 
 income, thus freeing it from the pressure of the orders 
 issued in 1883 and 1884, looking to the payment of the 
 $282,931 which it owed to the said bank. 
 
 The relief thus afforded to the Public Eevenues, and the 
 suspension of the payment of the $2,000 daily which the Ad- 
 ministration of Revenues had to deliver to the National 
 bank, enabled the government to dispose of 60 per cent 
 of its normal income. 
 
 The next step taken was to endeavor to increase the rev- 
 enues and establish all possible economy, to which end a 
 new customs tariff was issued, — the stamp tax amended — 
 reducing to one-half the contributions which had been 
 doubled in several fractions. On January 29th, 1885, a 
 tax on merchandise was created, called the " Internal Rev- 
 enue Tax," to substitute the previous one of March 22nd, 
 1884, known as the " Stamp Tax on Quoted Merchandise," 
 which one had presented great difficulties to the collector 
 as well as to the public. Finally, the positions of super- 
 numeraries and auxiliaries were suppressed, and the em- 
 ployes intrusted with funds who could not guarantee their 
 responsibility within the term fixed upon by law were 
 dismissed. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 175 
 
 It was nevertheless impossible to meet the government's 
 obligations owing to the poor state in which the Public 
 Treasury found itself. There was still a deficit of $34,- 
 903,353, and it became necessary to consider the expediency 
 of again consolidating the debt. The laws and regulations 
 of June 22d, in regard to arranging the floating and consol- 
 idated debt, were issued, which also bore upon a reduction 
 of salaries among the functionaries and employes of the 
 Union. In virtue of these laws, the credits against the 
 Treasury were converted into certificates drawing 6 per 
 cent interest per annum, which operation, together with 
 the reduction of salaries which amounted to $2,000,000 per 
 annum, and the other economies introduced, the expenses 
 were at once reduced to $23,000,000. 
 
 For the registry, verification and conversion of credits 
 and claims, an office was established in Mexico under the 
 title of « Management of the Public Debt," which office 
 was definitely installed on the 13th of February, 1886, as 
 also was a Financial Agency in London, empowered to 
 transact the requisite operations in regard to the certificates 
 of the debt there contracted. Said agency commenced 
 business on the 5th of April, of the same year. 
 
 LOANS. 
 
 II. Subsequently, for the purpose of redeeming the float- 
 ing debt, to reduce the exterior one and procure funds to 
 be applied to the improvement of public finances and to aid 
 in the development of the country's resources, the Execu- 
 tive negotiated a loan in Berlin of £10,500,000, in the 
 exercise of the authority conferred upon him by the law of 
 December 13th, 1887. A portion of this loan (£3,700,000) 
 was taken up and placed with the Banking House of 
 Bleichroeder at 70 per cent, which was the rate fixed upon 
 by the said authorization, with an interest of 6 per cent 
 
176 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 per annum, — and the balance, £6,800,000 face value, which 
 was to be applied to. the redemption of the consolidated 
 debt certificates placed in London, amounting to £15,000,- 
 000, was granted to the same bankers, to whom an option of 
 accepting it at 86^- per cent was allowed until the 1st of 
 July of the following year, thus making an average of 
 80.68 per cent as the basis on. which the loan was nego- 
 tiated. 
 
 The contracts of November 27th and December 3rd, 
 1886, May 21st, 1887, and April 6th, 1888, were entered 
 into with the National Bank for the placing of funds in 
 London to meet the dividends accruing on the debt, — for 
 paying in Mexico the amount of the coupons of the certifi- 
 cates whose interests were payable in the capital, as they 
 fell due, — for the placing of funds in New York to meet 
 the American debt, — and, finally, for the public debt 
 service with which said bank is encharged. 
 
 In June, 1887, an arrangement was consummated with the 
 mortgage bank, in pursuance of which the clause relative 
 to the payment of interest was annulled, and the sundry 
 loans that had been placed with the bank were condensed 
 into one, to which institution was conceded an arrangement 
 under which the cash deposits which, in virtue of the con- 
 tracts that the Department of Colonization, Industry and 
 Commerce might enter into, were to serve as guarantee to 
 the public and the government, should be changed into 
 mortgage bonds. 
 
 The Railroad Debt. 
 
 III. The rapid construction of railroads throughout the 
 country brought with them, as a natural consequence, in- 
 creased compromises for the government, the payments 
 of which could not be refused, nor even postponed, inas- 
 much as the appropriations authorized for their payment 
 absorbed a considerable portion of the Federal revenues. 
 
MANUEL GONZALEZ COSIO. 
 Secretary of Public Works. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 177 
 
 The Executive having been entitled by the law of the 
 14th of May, 1890, to consolidate and convert all the 
 subventions due to the railroad enterprises, the govern- 
 ment resolved to issue a loan, which was taken up by the 
 house of Bleichroeder of Berlin. This loan, amounting- to 
 £6,000,000 and on the basis of 6 per cent interest per 
 annum payable every three months, was granted to the 
 said house, the price of sale having been fixed at 88| 
 per cent of its face value on the bonds which the said 
 house issued to the public for its own risk and account. It 
 was also allowed a commission of one-fourth per cent on the 
 amount of payment of the coupons and of the bonds that 
 were amortized by lot, and 1 per cent on the total nominal 
 value, to cover all emission charges. The Government 
 appropriated and assigned, as a guarantee for interests and 
 amortizations of the loan, in favor of the bondholders, 12 
 per cent of the total amount of the import and export 
 duties collected at the Frontier and Maritime Custom 
 Houses of the Republic. 
 
 The main object of this operation was to liquidate and 
 pay preferentially to the companies that enjoyed a share 
 of the customs duties, since with this reduced, an increase 
 in the receipts would be obtained which would facilitate 
 the payment of the obligations, thus diminishing the 
 deficiency. And, in effect, the amount due the rail- 
 road companies for the year 1890, was about $40,- 
 000,000.00; of these companies there were four 
 which enjoyed the benefit of the apportionment, 
 viz.: the Mexican Central which received 8 percent; the 
 Mexican Railway, 6 per cent; the Mexican National, 6 per 
 cent; and the Interoceanic, 3 per cent; appropriations 
 which amounted to 23 per cent. The credit against the 
 exchequers of the two first-mentioned companies, which, 
 from the same period, accepted the conversion, amounted, 
 for the year 1890, to $23,082,212.30, and without delay 
 
 12 
 
178 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 there was applied to them, deducting the discount, and as 
 a balance, $17,871,486,31, which transaction produced a 
 difference in favor the Federal exchequer of $5,210,725.99, 
 which sura represents the reduction in the railroad debt. 
 
 An increase of 2 per cent was also made, above the 
 customs duties, in the receipts of the exchequer, this 
 portion being the exemption, between the 14 which the 
 two companies enjoyed, and the 12 which represented 
 the guarantee of the loan. The same loan was utilized for 
 the purpose of balancing the deficiency which existed in the 
 fiscal year 1890-1891 and the account of the National Bank 
 which amounted to, approximately, some $9,000,000.00. 
 
 It may be remarked that the sums given in cash and in 
 certificates of construction, amortised with a certain 
 percentage of the import duties, to railroad enterprises, 
 make a total of $64,794,371.62, which the Federal Gov- 
 ernment has paid to the companies in question up to 
 June 30th, 1892 ; which payment was made principally 
 during the last ten years. If, to the former sum, be added 
 $19,743,000.00, which is the value of the bonds issued for 
 the same subventions, some at par with 5 per cent annual 
 interest, and others at 90 per cent of their nominal value, 
 with 6 per cent interest, there would result a total of 
 $84,537,371.62 paid by the exchequer for account of 
 acquired subventions. 
 
 Since the end of June, 1892, in which period Mr. 
 Matias Romero was in charge of the Treasury Depart- 
 ment, he began to examine and formally study the situa- 
 tion which at present confronts the Federal Treasury, and 
 there was found to be a large increase in the pecuniary 
 obligations in the shape of periodical payments, which the 
 nation labors under; an increase occasioned by the fact 
 that the compromises made by the government, carry with 
 them the right of revenue to a great extent, and must be 
 paid in gold, whereas in reality silver suffers a large de- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 179 
 
 prcciation and the consequent charge for exchange. This 
 circumstance, the largest and most costly public improve- 
 ments which the nation actually demands, the failure of 
 the crops during the year 1891, the consequent decrease in 
 domestic commercial transactions, and imports (due to the 
 extra charge which articles of merchandise are burdened 
 with by reason of the necessity of paying for them in gold) 
 demonstrated the probable decrease which would be neces- 
 sary to effect in the economical estimate of expenditures 
 for the years 1892-1893. In view of this, an equalization 
 of the estimates of expenditures was effected and a system 
 of strict economy and reduction of expenses to the lowest 
 possible point was immediately adopted, — and this without 
 prejudice to the compromises of the government, or injury 
 to the efficiency of the service of the administration. 
 
 It was recognized as absolutely necessary to discontinue 
 the system of granting subventions to railroad enterprises; 
 to abolish completely the " alcabalas," or State taxes, which 
 the constitution of 1857 attempted to suppress, and to seek 
 for new bases of taxation which would serve to increase the 
 public revenues. With this end in view, a tax was created 
 on tobaccos and alcohols, and another, applicable to the 
 entire country, on transversal inheritances, establishing a 
 miaiimum quota upon ancestors and descendants, and bur- 
 dening insurance transactions, which heretofore had only paid 
 2 per cent upon the amount of the premiums. It was deter- 
 mined to reorganize the offices of the Federal treasury and 
 to introduce into the custom-house tariff such modifications 
 of certain duties, which manifestly would be of public 
 benefit, taking steps in the meantime for the radical revis- 
 ion of the present ruling tariff, although the results which 
 might be produced thereby could not be foreseen, owing to 
 the prohibitive character. In the same manner, certain 
 changes were made in the law of June 6, 1892, which estab- 
 lished a tax upon mining property, and suggested the 
 
180 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 propriety of doing away with the system of renting the 
 public mints to private individuals, for fees to the Federal 
 government and the Department of Mines. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT. 
 
 IV. The state of the public debt until 30th June, 1892, as 
 below, has been arranged by the ** Financial Review " of 
 the City of Mexico, with official data furnished by Treas- 
 ury Department. 
 
 Capital. Interest. 
 Remainder in circulation of the old debt of Lon- 
 don and English Exconventiou 6% £ 110,250 £ 3,307 
 
 First loan Bleichroeder (1888) 6% 10,500,000 630,000 
 
 Railroad loan (1890) .....6% 6,000,000 360,000 
 
 Bonds of the railroad of Tehuantepec 5% 2,700,000 135,000 
 
 Loan of the City of Mexico 5% 2,400,000 120,000 
 
 Total £21,710,250 £1,248,307 
 
 Reduced into Mexican currency, 36 pennies per 
 dollar : 
 
 Capital $144,735,000 
 
 Interest 8,322,046 
 
 And convert our debt in gold into Mexican currency we 
 can already calculate the total amount of our Public Debt. 
 
 Capital. Interest. 
 
 The foreign debt in gold reduced to Mexican 
 
 currency $144,735,000 $ 8,322,046 
 
 Approximate value of the domestic debt on the 
 
 30th of June, 1892 3% 32,000,000 960,000 
 
 Eight million dollars convertible at 10% 800,000 24,000 
 
 Certificates of alcances in circulation till 30th 
 
 June, 1890 2,906,076 
 
 Unpaid balances of the estimates, payable until 
 
 30th of June, 1890 8,612,785 
 
 Balances paid by the Treasury until 30th June, 
 18S2, which must be considered in the con- 
 solidated debt 2,605,999 78,179 
 
 Bonds of the harbor works of Tonala 500,000 30,000 
 
 Bonds of the harbor works in Veracruz, approx- 
 imately 2,000,000 250,000 
 
 Bonds of the harbor works of Tampico, having 
 
 already a depth of 18 feet, 30th June, 1892 3,000,000 180,000 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 181 
 
 Capital. Interest. 
 
 Bonds of the railroad from Matamoros to Guate- 
 mala frontier 600,000 36,000 
 
 Bonds of the railroad from Torreon to Durango. 600,000 36,000 
 
 Mexican National Kailroad — approximate bal- 
 ance from 1892 to 1898 1,080,000 1,080,000 
 
 Southern Kailroad, finished in September, 1892; 
 actual value of twenty-one annuities of 
 $880,800 with premium, calculated by the an- 
 nual interest 6% 10,384,000 880,800 
 
 KAILROAD BONDS. 
 
 Monterrey and Gulf, 650 kilometers $5,200,000 $346,000 
 
 Tonala to Frontera (bonds) 480,000 32,000 
 
 Maravatio to Iguala (bonds) 180,000 10,800 
 
 San Marcos to Nautla (bonds) 420,000 25,200 
 
 Chihuahua to La Sierra (bonds) 80,000 4,800 
 
 Pachuca to Tampico (bonds) 400,000 24,000 
 
 Cash debt, without interest, to different railroads 1 , 786,000 . . 
 
 To the lessors of the mints until 30th June, 
 
 1890 2,169,000 66,000 
 
 Cash debt to International and Mortgage Bank 
 
 until 30th June, 1890 1,044,186 114,860 
 
 $221,583,046 $12,500,685 
 
 With data furnished by Mr. Matias Eomero, Secretary 
 of Finance, the following statement concerning the Mexican 
 credit has been formed, which demonstrate the progress 
 reached by the Mexican finances in seven years, from 1885 
 to 1892: 
 
 VALUE OF THE PUBLIC DEBT IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES, 1885. 
 
 Argentina 102 
 
 Brazil 100 
 
 Chili 105 
 
 Columbia , 20 
 
 Costa Rica , 24 
 
 Equador 9 
 
 Guatemala , 32 
 
 Honduras 6 
 
 Mexico , I9f 
 
 Paraguay 13 
 
 Peru 16 1 
 
 Uruguay 41 
 
 Venezuela • 31 
 
182 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 VALUE OF THE PUBLIC DEBT ON THE SAME COUNTRIES, 1892. 
 
 Argentina • 40 -50 
 
 Brazil 65-66 
 
 Chili 9l£-92£ 
 
 Columbia 21£-22£ 
 
 Costa Rica 63 -66 
 
 Equador . . .' 17£-18£ 
 
 Guatemala 43£-42£ 
 
 Honduras ' 7|- 8£ 
 
 Mexico 85^-86 
 
 Paraguay 25-29 
 
 Peru ' 10 
 
 Uruguay 34f-35| 
 
 Venezuela • • • • 44£-45£ 
 
 Comparing both statement can be noted that Mexico's 
 credit has raised from the ninth place, that occupied in 
 1885, to the second place ; almost on a par with Chili. 
 
 ACTUAL CONDITION OF THE PUBLIC TREASURY. 
 
 V. Since the final assurance of peace in the Republic was 
 given, no more arduous undertaking, of the most difficult 
 and delicate character in its accomplishment, has confronted 
 the Government than the organization of the Public Treas- 
 ury. After fifty years of lawlessness, revolutions, changes 
 in the government, foreign interventions, bad management, 
 in short, how to bring order out of the chaotic condition of 
 our finances, and at the same time undertake enormous 
 expenses for the preservation of peace, the development of 
 the rich resources of the country, protect the compromises 
 made in foreign countries and meet the requirements of 
 the administration, was a problem little short of being 
 unsolvable. 
 
 With the triumph of the saving revolution, there followed 
 a period of uncertainty, of distrust, which brought com- 
 mercial development during these years to a condition of 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 183 
 
 statu quo, with great injury to the needs of the Government, 
 from which no relief could be had until confidence became 
 firmly established in 1880. From this year the receipts of 
 the Federal Treasury, which, from 1874 to 1876, had been 
 reduced to $14,000,000.00, were successively increased 
 during the succeeding four years, to twenty-one, twenty- 
 three, twenty-eight and thirty millions of dollars, dimin- 
 ishing later by~some two millions, owing to the acknowl- 
 edgment of the English debt, which caused such an 
 unwarranted scandal in the Republic. Meanwhile, and in 
 conformity with the policy which has been followed so ener- 
 getically by the new governments of Mexico, immense 
 expenses were undertaken to subvention railroad lines, the 
 resultant benefits of which could not be immediately ob- 
 tained. Immense sums were expended in influencing 
 foreign immigration to the Republic, and large amounts 
 were devoted to public improvements, etc., all of which 
 placed the Government in the position of being obliged to 
 make good its credit with foreign nations, as has already 
 been stated. 
 
 As if all this were not sufficient to confuse our finances, 
 the failure of the crops of 1891 and the scarcity of products 
 in the year 1892, followed in succession, which, impover- 
 ishing the people, owing to the high prices demanded for 
 the necessaries of life, and preventing them from expend- 
 ing their small savings in the purchase of articles of for- 
 eign production, paralyzed the import trade, and this, 
 necessarily, resulted in injury to the custom house receipts. 
 On the heels of this disaster there followed the depreciation 
 in the value of silver and the consequent rise in foreign 
 exchange ; and, if it is remembered that silver is the cur- 
 rent money of the country, and that the value of the im- 
 ports must be paid in- gold, in addition to which the 
 unlooked for depreciation followed another rise, also unex- 
 pected, it is not to be wondered at that the import business 
 
184 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 of Mexico should have suffered a terrible unsettling of its 
 mercantile calculations, and, therefore, placed it in a differ- 
 ent position as an auxilary of the Government, to withstand 
 new imposts. As a result of all this, the deficit in the 
 reciepts of the Federal Treasury, which had been making 
 itself felt in former years, became further intensified, caus- 
 ing a decrease in the receipts of the exchequer, from $44,- 
 142,857.00 for the fiscal year 1890-91, to $39,019,414.00 
 for the year 1891-92, or a deficit of $5,813,442.00.* 
 
 The crisis is not yet passed, and the opportunity is 
 favorable for remarking that, it was the profound wisdom 
 of the Government, and the vital condition of the country, 
 which has enabled the latter to withstand the rude shocks 
 of adversity without falling into misery, and the former 
 to maintain intact the credit of the Nation with foreign 
 countries, keeping ever distant from bankruptcy. The 
 county owes much, from this point of view, to the highly 
 reputed financier, Mr. Matias Romero, who, among other 
 happy expedients, which, without the shadow of a doubt, 
 contributed greatly to the salvation of the public credit, 
 has introduced for the next fiscal year of 1893-94, strict 
 economy in the expenses of the public service, without, 
 however, affecting the efficiency of the administration. 
 
 It has been calculated that the new taxes and above men- 
 tioned economies will increase the resources of i;he Treasury 
 in near $3,300,000 for the next fiscal year. 
 
 Mexico's revenues and expenditures. f 
 
 VI. The different sources of the Federal Revenue, that 
 form the income budget of the Republic, are as stated: 
 Custom Houses, Stamp Taxes, Direct Taxes, Federal Dis- 
 
 * We have here considered the receipts of the estimate and the extra- 
 ordinary ones. The amount of the estimate was $37,474,879. 
 f Vide, Book VI, chapt. 1st. 
 
JOSE IVES LIMANTOUR. 
 
 Secretary of Finance. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 185 
 
 trict and Territories and Sundries. Here is the percentage 
 of this contribution of the several branches: 
 
 1889-90. 
 
 Custom Duties j^.OG 
 
 Stamp Tax " fi _ 
 
 Direct Taxes *~® 
 
 Federal District and Territories ^j" 
 
 Sundries ' 7,iU 
 
 100.00 
 
 The State Revenues compared by decades show an in- 
 crease of 133 per cent, in twenty years, viz : 
 
 ,070 71 $16,033,649 
 
 ioSO-81 23,172,723 
 
 1890-91 "• 37,391,804 
 
 isK::. • 37,474,879 
 
 The growth by decades of the cash revenue of the 
 Republic from its different sources, in the period that we 
 have above considered, is as follows : 
 
 1869-70 1879-80 1889-90 
 
 Custom Duties $8,510,532 $12,754,518 $23,356,327 
 
 Stamp Tax ■ 1,897,894 3,847,990 7,937,927 
 
 Direct Taxes 485,452 592,688 1,447,149 
 
 Federal District and Territories. . • » . 1,312,859 1,175,884 1,591,793 
 
 Sundries 1,471,505 2,752,957 2,297,279 
 
 $13,678,242 $21,124,037 $36,630,475 
 
 The following are the expenses of government in the 
 fiscal year 1891-92, as recently published: 
 
 Authorized Actual 
 
 BRANCHES OF THE BUDGET. Expenditures for the Expenses for the 
 
 fiscal year 1S91-92 fiscal year 1S91-92 
 
 1. Legislature $1,023,040.35 $956,007.41 
 
 2. Executive 49,977.20 43,465.94 
 
 3. Judiciary 476,784.50 466,312.53 
 
 4. Foreign Affairs 577,436.75 508,620.86 
 
 5 Interior.. • 2,524,051.93 2,425,511.23 
 
 Q. Justice.'.' • 1,789,636.25 1,669,505.32 
 
 7. Col. Industry and Commerce. 798,668.85 640,178.18 
 
 8. Communications and Public Works.... 4,619.506.81 4,144,649.85 
 
 9. Treasury 23,179,853.69 20,268,423.63 
 
 lo". WarandNavy 12,793,636.5 12,226,874.67 
 
 Totals $ 47,832,592.83 $ 43,349,549.62 
 
 Difference between the authorized expendi- 
 tures and the expenses $4,483,043.21 
 
186 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 WAR DEPARTMENT. 
 WORK OF ORGANIZATION. 
 
 I. The military institutions inherited from Spain formed 
 for many years in Mexico the basis and the formation and 
 constitution of Mexico's army. This was the case in spite 
 of their manifest unfitness for the new political system and 
 though they were entirely unadapted to the advances made 
 in the science of war. 
 
 The different administrations which followed each other 
 since 1821, introduced some improvements, slowly indeed, 
 but still they were improvements, into the tactics 
 and armaments. Nevertheless in 1867, on the fall of the 
 Empire, it was felt that the army had many defects which 
 must be made good before it should be constituted in a 
 regular and complete manner. With this object works of 
 reorganization were begun which, however, did not pro- 
 duce their due effects on account of the attention of the 
 government being withdrawn to other politics. When the 
 triumph of the Tuxtepec revolution was effected by the 
 occupation of the capital of the Republic by the troops, 
 who proclaimed the new plan on the 24th of November 
 1876, then followed immediately the establishment of a 
 general peace. This opened up a new field of action for 
 the Secretaryship of war and projects of reform in the 
 national army were at once unrolled. 
 
 The organization and number of the forces were from 
 1860 to 1877 the source of yearly debates in the Congress, 
 and the Executive could not, therefore, adopt a definite 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 187 
 
 organization which would be exposed to changes caused by 
 the political state of the Republic. 
 
 In the year 1877 the first measures of reform in the war 
 department were dictated. These had for their object the 
 lessening of the number of the army, the unnecessary 
 superiors and officers being relegated to guard duty. The 
 effective troops, who at the end of December, in 1876, 
 amounted to 33,291 men, were on the 30th of November, 
 1877, reduced to 26,936. They were then organized in 
 flying brigades of infantry, cavalry and mixed, in divis- 
 ions with general fixed quarters and in an army body 
 intended to assist the brigades when necessary. In a 
 memorial dated the 10th of December, 1878, the war 
 secretaryship asked from the Congress powers to improve 
 the scientific and administrative organization of the army. 
 These were granted by decree on the 14th of the same 
 month. 
 
 By virtue of these powers the Executive created, on the 
 24th of January of the following year 1879, in the War Sec- 
 retaryship, the department of the Special Body of Superior 
 Rank. This is composed of the superiors and faculty 
 officers and their decrees were issued on the 15th of the 
 following September. 
 
 The labors of this department, which, among other duties, 
 has charge of the general organization and regulation of 
 the army, brought about among other reforms the issuing 
 of the decrees of the 25th of January, 1879. By these 
 decrees the persons composing the Staff are determined. 
 They regulate also the organization of the Bodies of 
 Engineers and of Artillery and arrange that of the Military 
 Medical Body. This latter was reformed on the 2d of 
 March and the 14th of May, 1880, on the 28th of June, 
 1881, and on the 3d of July, 1882, and had new regulations 
 laid down for it on the 22d of April, 1880. These new 
 rules were substituted for the old ones of the 1st of April, 
 
188 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 1855. By virtue of the above decrees important reforms 
 were made in the Military College also. These decrees, 
 together with the regulations of the 1st of March, 1879, 
 were crowned by the new reforms of the 23d of June, 
 1881, and by the plan of studies issued on the 22d of 
 February, 1883. A company of Mounted Police was like- 
 wise created for important police service in the army. 
 
 Decrees were sent forth on the 2d of April and 15th of 
 May, 1879, and on the- 19th of May, 1880, for the regulat- 
 ing of the Infantry and Cavalry Departments in the War 
 Ministry as well as for that of infantry battalions and per- 
 manent cavalry regiments. 
 
 In the January of 1880, instructions were given for 
 the management of the smaller war vessels. The number 
 of men in the national navy was increased by a resolution 
 passed on the 8th of March of the same year and on the 
 26th of March, 1881, its regulations were definitely fixed. 
 
 The greater part of these resolutions, besides others 
 which have been omitted for the sake of brevity and which 
 had for their object the provisional organization of the 
 army, were re-drawn up with certain modifications and now 
 form one body in the decree of the 28th of June, 1881. 
 
 On the 30th of June, of the same year, the Military Ad- 
 ministrative Body was established and formed an integral 
 part of the Federation Treasury. This corporation lasted 
 till the 30th of January, of the year 1885, when it was 
 suppressed and in its place was established the third section 
 of the General Treasury. This latter has at present the 
 charge of making the military payments and its members, 
 like the paymasters of the army, are of a purely civil 
 character. 
 
 On the 24th of November, 1881, a new regulation was 
 issued for the service of the War Secretaryship reforming 
 to a certain extent the previous one of the 30th of June, 
 1880. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 189 
 
 The reform then in the organization of the army had 
 begun. The rules and regulations which we have men- 
 tioned tended to nullify the defects and vices which had 
 crept into the army during the long period of revolutions 
 through which the Eepublic had passed. They were also 
 directed in such a way as to render more uniform the 
 army legislation which consisted of a chaos of resolutions 
 which the governments and various factions issued, put in 
 force or abolished as it suited their particular interests. 
 
 GENERAL ORDINANCE. 
 
 II. The General Ordinance of the army however had been 
 already reformed in 1852, but displayed in some of its re- 
 gulations notorious contradictions to the rules of the Con- 
 stitution of 1857. It became absolutely necessary to 
 reform it and bring it into conformity with the institutions 
 then in force and with the advances made in the art of 
 war. 
 
 A commission was indeed appointed, the president of 
 which was General Felipe Berriozabal. After a short time 
 on the 10th of September, 1880, it presented a project 
 which was approved of and ordered to be printed on the 
 23d of the same month in order that it might be laid before 
 Congress. 
 
 The President, Gonzalez, however, wished the project of 
 Ordinance to be subjected to a careful revision and he en- 
 gaged in the work himself, having for his secretaries 
 General Jose Montesinos and Colonel Francisco Troncoso. 
 The former was superior officer of the ministry of war and 
 the' latter chief of the special body of the staff. 
 
 Two years later the new Ordinance, corrected and 
 enlarged, was put in force by a decree of the 6th of 
 December, 1882, which made its rules binding from the 
 1st of January, 1883. From that date the previous gen- 
 
190 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 eral ordinance of 1852, and all other military regulations 
 opposed to this law were abrogated. 
 
 On the same date, namely the 6th of December, 1882, 
 was issued the law regulating the Military Supreme Court 
 of Justice. Along with this court and by the same law 
 were established the four tribunals of instruction, all of 
 which were to commence their duties on the 1st of January, 
 1883. 
 
 The President being empowered to issue the regulations 
 for the National Guard, by the law dated the 2d of May, 
 1883, it was directed that the department of the staff 
 should compile its project, and this being done, it was 
 forwarded on the 30th of May, 1886, through the govern- 
 ment secretaryship to the Congress to obtain its approba- 
 tion. 
 
 RECRUITING. 
 
 In order to fill up vacancies in the army the country has 
 had recourse to the systems of enlistment, lots, and pressing. 
 Want of funds and of a good policy has been the cause of 
 difficulties in carrying out practically to a successful issue 
 the two first systems. The last has only been resorted to at 
 extraordinary crisis or when fighting for independence 
 or the institutions of the Republic. 
 
 The law of the 28th of May 1869 regulates the recruiting, 
 giving as its basis lots, and it grants to the legislatures of 
 the States the power to substitute for lots the enlistment of 
 volunteers. These regulations have not been fully carried 
 out, for some States do not supply recruits, others only a 
 part of their proper contingent, and there are but few that 
 send in their full total. 
 
 As it has been impossible to enforce in Mexico generally 
 the idea of the citizens' duty to serve in the national army 
 for a fixed time, the organization has therefore in certain 
 cases been effected bv forced recruiting and some States 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 191 
 
 have been compelled to make up their contingent of men 
 who were unworthy of the military service. 
 
 RECRUITS. 
 
 The law already mentioned of 1869, and its different 
 regulations are still in force and in conformity with its 
 orders the States furnish the contingent necessary to 
 make up the deficiencies of the army. The recruiting 
 officers residing in the various capitals of the States are 
 charged with the duty of receiving recruits, enrolling them 
 and instructing them until they are incorporated in the 
 batallion or regiment to which they are assigned by the 
 superiors of the different zones. 
 
 Those under 21 years of age, who are not married, if 
 they offer to serve voluntarily in the army are bound to 
 show the permission of their fathers or tutors, or if they 
 have none or if permission is refused without a justifying 
 reason, then that of the first political authority is asked. 
 Those who are married even though under 21 years of age 
 require no permission whatever. The conditions necessary 
 for a recruit to be admitted into the army are: to be above 
 18 years of age and under 47 ; to be a Mexican either by 
 birth or naturalization ; not to suffer from any chronic or 
 contagious disease; to be strong; not to have any such phy- 
 sical defect as would make him appear ridiculous or a 
 monster; not to have any hurt that would hinder the full 
 use of his weapons ; not to be deaf nor lacking in intelli- 
 gence; to speak Spanish and to be at least 1.60 metres in 
 height. 
 
 The corporation superiors are bound to see this regula- 
 tion carried out as far as it relates to the age and height 
 of the recruit and it is laid down that the military physicians 
 must not take into account the under or over-age of such 
 persons or their want of height as causes of incapacity but 
 
192 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 must limit themselves to declaring their incapacity by- 
 reason of their physical condition. 
 
 Both for the admission of recruits and for the rejection 
 of the unfit which take place every quarter of a year, the 
 military physicians adhere to the list of diseases which 
 incapacitate for army service and which was issued by the 
 Secretaryship of War on the 3rd of August, 1888. Indeed 
 it has been ordered that in those barracks where there is 
 no infirmary a place must be set apart furnished with the 
 necessary instruments for the examination of recruits and 
 incapables, and that this examination take place at the times 
 already mentioned. The major or failing him the captain 
 of the week gives orders to the companies to form in their 
 respective squares and to the persons judged incapable of 
 service to step forward. The physician is told of the 
 reasons of incapacity alleged and makes a due examination 
 if necessary. The soldiers whose time is out and who 
 wish to re-enlist are subject to a fresh examination by the 
 doctor of the battalion or regiment to which they belong 
 in order to see if they still retain the conditions of health 
 necessary for recruits entering the service. The govern- 
 ment, in its proposal to form an army of soldiers who 
 would be volunteers and efficient and would remain 
 soldiers with capacity of acquiring good military instruction 
 has laid down various regulations. Among them may be 
 mentioned those which order that from the day on which 
 a recruit begins to receive his pay, six cents are daily 
 deducted until the sum of ten dollars is made up. This 
 amount remains as a deposit in the General Treasury of 
 the Federation or sometimes in the chief exchequer of the 
 different States until the above mentioned sura is completed. 
 If the recruit does not then wish to continue in the service, 
 this amount is used to pay for a substitute, but if there is 
 no substitute forthcoming, then the ten dollars are handed 
 over to him on completing his term of service, so that this 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 193 
 
 amount together with the sum which the law allows as a 
 gratification to those who have completed their term of 
 service, may enable the recruit to retire on better con- 
 ditions. 
 
 This regulation was issued because one of the principal 
 reasons why there are still pressed soldiers in the army, is 
 because the recruits furnished by the States are neither vol- 
 unteers nor have they the necessary means to pay for a 
 substitute who would free them from the service. 
 
 ARMY DISBURSEMENTS. 
 
 As soon as a man is enrolled as a soldier he receives into 
 his own hand the pay which the law ordains for toilet, 
 barber and common expenses. He is famished beforehand 
 with a pair of trousers and a cloth coat, the same for drill, 
 two shirts and two pairs of drawers, a pair of shoes, a 
 neck-tie and a sun-shade, a kepi, two handkerchiefs and a 
 provision bag, an overcoat and a knapsack, a blanket, a 
 carry-all with plates and a carrier, a gun-holder and a 
 blanket strap, schacots and straps. The cavalry soldier, 
 trooper, mounted artillery and train receive a cleaning 
 brush, a corn-bag and a blouse, a belt and sabre-sash, sad- 
 dle and trappings, a cloak, a pair of spurs with straps, a 
 saddle-rug, a nose-bag, an apron, a brush and a curry-comb. 
 
 The whole of the troops wear white gloves on parade and 
 each soldier has for cleanliness, a clothes-brush, a blacking- 
 brush, a comb, a tin box for blacking, a purse containing 
 thimble, thread, buttons and needles and another tin box 
 for soap. 
 
 On exceptional occasions when the mess is served to the 
 various bodies of the army, it is abundant, of good quality, 
 well seasoned and to pay for it only twelve cents a bead are 
 required. 
 
 13 
 
194 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 TERM OF SERVICE. 
 
 The service is obligatory for five years for corporals and 
 soldiers and those who remain in the army during this 
 period of time without deserting or being sentenced to a 
 longer term of service, are proposed, as having completed 
 their term, to have given to them their full liberty and to 
 receive a gratification of twenty dollars. 
 
 This gratification is due to those of the troops whose 
 annual pay does not exceed $160.60 cents and have served 
 their full time, or to those who have become sick owing 
 to the hard labor of the service and have become incapable 
 of further duty. 
 
 The incapable or those who have been incapacitated in 
 war or in any campaign, have the right of being transferred 
 to the Batallion of Invalids. Full freedom to retire is 
 granted on the day on which they complete their term of 
 service and they remain excepted from service forever after- 
 wards unless in cases of international war or when they are 
 actually engaged in a campaign at the time of the com- 
 pletion of their service. In such cases they remain only 
 during such time as is absolutely necessary and they have 
 granted to them as an extra gratification one dollar per 
 month. 
 
 Those troops who have served out their time may, if 
 they wish, continue voluntarily in the service and if they 
 have observed good conduct, can re-enlist for four years 
 more. For this new engagement of theirs they receive a 
 gratification of $20. Those also who have retired with full 
 freedom from the army and have asked to be re-admitted 
 into the service receive a like gratification, but this is on con- 
 dition that not more than six months have elapsed since their 
 retirement. Re-enlistments can be renewed for periods of 
 four vears. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 195 
 
 GENERALS. 
 
 There are two classes of generals in the army, namely, 
 the Division Generals, which is the highest rank to which 
 a military man can aspire, and the Brigade Generals. In 
 accordance with the Ordinance the number of the former is 
 ten, five exercising authority and five in barracks and it is 
 impossible to become a Brigade General if there is not a 
 vacancy to be filled ; the number of the latter is thirty-two, 
 one-half with command and the other half in barracks. 
 
 The appointment of Brigade Generals may be made from 
 among the effective colonels even when the} 7 have not 
 graduated as generals. The vacancies among the Division 
 Generals are filled up from amonsf the effective Brigade 
 Generals, whilst the places of these latter are filled by grad- 
 uated generals and effective colonels. The commissioned 
 generals are those who have a seat in the supreme military 
 tribunals of the Federation, those military commanders 
 who have this actual office, the generals in chief of Divis- 
 ions and of Brigades and all who have been in active 
 service. The generals who have not been commissioned 
 are considered as in barracks. They enjoy the military 
 honors and considerations which the ordinance appoints to 
 be given to those who do not exercise authority, and in 
 times of peace they choose for their residence the place 
 most agreeable to them, whilst in time of war the govern- 
 ment assigns them their barracks so that they may be ready 
 for service should it be necessary. 
 
 The general of a Division or of a Brigade can obtain his 
 retirement, if he applies for it, either for reasons of physical 
 impossibility or for any other cause subject to the rules laid 
 down in the ordinance. In such cases they are excepted 
 from all military service although it is their duty to offer it 
 to the government in cases of public disturbance of the 
 
196 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 peace. They enjoy also the military honors and consider- 
 ations appointed for those in barracks. They can likewise 
 obtain their absolute retirement and again return to the 
 service if they so request within two years after their retire- 
 ment has been granted and if the government thinks their 
 services of advantage. 
 
 RETIREMENT. 
 
 Furlough may be granted to the soldiers of the army in 
 order that they may attend to their private affairs or on ac- 
 count of sickness. In the first case it may last four months, 
 and during the first month they receive full pay and during 
 the second half pay. In the second case it may last 
 for six months with full pay all the time. Unlimited 
 furlough is granted to the commanders and officers of the 
 permanent army in order that they may retire from the 
 service for an indefinite time either at their own request or 
 because the government so disposes when reducing the 
 numbers. This retirement brings with it no pay and 
 absolute retirement is given to such persons if after two 
 months they are not summoned back by the government 
 as required. The document giving absolute retirement 
 implies total separation from the army and is handed to 
 more than the generals for it is given to the commanders, 
 officers and sergeants who apply for it ; to the soldiers who 
 have served their full time ; to those who for faults have 
 been sentenced to this punishment by competent judges; 
 to those who have been proposed for it by the committees 
 of honor of battalions or regiments of the army, and to 
 commanders and officers who have been lowered and have 
 afterwards interposed a justification with the result that the 
 tribunal ratified the lowering. He who obtains it at his 
 own request may return to the service within two years, 
 unless the retirement has been granted on throwing up a 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 197 
 
 commission confided to him, or at the moment of commenc- 
 ing a campaign in which his force should take part, for in 
 such cases he enters the army as a common soldier and if 
 he is rehabilitated by Congress he loses his priority. 
 
 PROMOTION. 
 
 The promotions which can be obtained in the different 
 branches of the army are as follows : 1st. From soldier to 
 soldier of the first class. 2nd. From soldier of the 1st 
 class to corporal. 3d. From corporal to 2nd sergeant. 
 4th. From 2nd sergeant to 1st sergeant. 5th. From 1st 
 sergeant to sublieutenant. 6th. From sublieutenant to 
 lieutenant. 7th. From lieutenant to 2nd captain. 8th. 
 From 2nd captain to 1st captain. 9th. From 1st captain, 
 according to fitness, to adjutant or major. 10th. From 
 major to lieutenant-colonel. 11th. From lieutenant-col- 
 onel to colonel. 12th. From colonel to effective General 
 of Brigade. 13th. From General of Brigade to General 
 of Division, the highest grade in the army. 
 
 The things taken into consideration when granting pro- 
 motion are: good civil and military conduct, aptitude and 
 notable progress in the knowlege of the branch of the army 
 to which the person to be promoted belongs, firmness of 
 character and fitness to command, honor in all its mean- 
 ings, civil and military, love for the profession of arms, mil- 
 itary spirit, proper age and without defects, sufficient knowl- 
 edge to fulfill the duties imposed by new position and for 
 the higher ranks ; besides the considerations already men- 
 tioned there must be a technical knowledge of all the arms 
 of the forces. 
 
 MORALITY. 
 
 In order to secure morality in the army, committees of 
 honor have been established since the 28th of December, 
 
198 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 1838. These deliberate and decide upon the dismissal of 
 such as, owing to bad conduct, ought not to belong to the 
 service. In each battalion or regiment there is one of 
 these committees composed of the colonel, the lieutenant- 
 colonel, one major, two captains, a second captain, a lieu- 
 tenant and a sublieutenant or ensign. These are appointed 
 by a majority of the votes of the officers belonging to the 
 battalion or regiment, the votes being taken in a general 
 meeting which takes place in the December of each year. 
 The committee of honor takes cognizance only of such 
 faults as, without being crimes, may, however, stain the fair 
 name of the battalion or regiment or the honor of its 
 officers. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF THE WAR DEPARTMENT . 
 
 III. The Secretaryship of War is a condensation of all 
 the details of the army. It has for its service four sections, 
 a general record office and seven departments. 
 
 The first section concentrates the business sent to it from 
 the chief clerk's office to which it is annexed. It formu- 
 lates the expressions and forwards everything connected 
 with petitions of pardon, telegraphic and telephonic cor- 
 respondence, notices of the movements of the army forces, 
 revolutionary movements and those of troops, of places 
 besieged, escorts safe-conducts and the correspondence with 
 the governors of the different States. 
 
 The second section takes charge of the issue of patents to 
 the generals, commanders and officers of the army and navy, 
 the declaring of pensions, furloughs and absolute and lim- 
 ited retirements, orders to the military commandership 
 for the issue of passports and regulations referring to 
 freights and passages in the railways, diligences and 
 steamers. 
 
 The third section has care of the accounts, the issuing of 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 199 
 
 bills granted in accordance with the war tax, of all that 
 relates to billeting, barrack buildings, passages and freights 
 and an ante-revision of accounts. It has also charge of the 
 revision of the telegraph accounts of State Governors and 
 of the particulars of the general provisions of forage. In 
 genera] it has to do with every claim of payment made 
 upon the government, and which does not relate to the 
 organization or administration of the army. 
 
 The library section undertakes the management of the 
 library of the secretaryship, the publication of laws, 
 decrees, regulations, circulars and other business in the 
 same line, the preserving of autographs or original docu- 
 ments 'which bear the signature of the President of the 
 Eepublic, excepting only the patents and diplomas, the pur- 
 chase of stationery for the secretaryship, the register of 
 review arrangements, the issue of passports and the 
 signed reports of the various sections and departments. 
 
 The record section takes under its charge the preservation 
 and arrangement in alphabetical order of all that is issued 
 from the sections and departments and of all other docu- 
 ments which the chief clerk determines should enter this 
 section. 
 
 In conformity with the decree of reforms dated the 29th 
 of February, 1892, the staff of these five sections is as 
 follows: 2 infantry colonels who are principals of the sec- 
 tion; 4 cavalry colonels, also principals of the section; 1 
 consulting lawyer, 1 lieutenant-colonel of infantry, 3 of 
 the same and likewise of cavalry, 1 infantry major, 3 cav- 
 alry majors, 1 first captain of infantry, 4 of the same and 
 also of cavalry ; 1 second captain of infantry, 5 of the 
 same and likewise of cavalry, 7 infantry lieutenants, 2 of 
 the same and also of cavalry, 2 sub-lieutenants, of infantry, 
 9 ensigns, 10 first sergeants, 5 office boys, and 1 porter. 
 
 The Department of the Special Body of the Staf, is the 
 most important belonging to the secretary's office and in 
 
200 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 time of war has intrusted to it the following matters: The 
 organization of the army in general and its disposal for 
 garrison, zones, camps or cantonments, the movements of 
 the troops and military expeditions, correspondence with 
 different authorities as regards the men, war materials, 
 works, instructions and service of the army; the general 
 details of the army, the pass-word, countersign, etc., the 
 army administration, estimates and expenses, the bil- 
 leting of troops, the States and their condition with re- 
 gard to men and war materials, military hospitals, depots 
 of clothes, equipment and food, maintaining and employing 
 the means of transport, the maintenance of order and disci- 
 pline among the army bodies, the administration of justice 
 in the same, retirement, furloughs and changes, prisoners 
 of war, general police and security, espionage, military 
 acknowledgments, letters and plans, truce ambassadors, 
 agreements, the staffs, reports and accounts of battles 
 with their military criticism, judgments sent to generals in 
 chief or commanders of troops after an action ; punish- 
 ments and losses, encampments and bivouacs, fortified 
 camps and the general supply of the army. 
 
 In time of peace, the same department has under its 
 management the following affairs: extraordinary missions, 
 staffs, knowledge of places and their products ; the study 
 of strategical points for use in time of war, military 
 acknowledgments and plans of campaign ; the formation of 
 the military tribunals of the Republic and the particulars 
 of each State; divisions of the army among the States; 
 the roads of the Republic, the general supply of the army, 
 the formation and revision of military regulations ; clothes 
 depots, equipment and food; the yearly report of war and 
 its general statistics. 
 
 The staff of this department is as follows: 1 brigade 
 general, principal of the Body and of the Department, 2 
 infantry majors, 2 cavalry majors, 5 first cavalry captains, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 201 
 
 1 second infantry captain, 3 second cavalry ones, 3 lieuten- 
 ants of infantry, 6 cavalry lieutenants, 4 first sergeants of 
 cavalry and 4 office boys. 
 
 The Department of Engineers undertakes all that pertains 
 to the Military College, the Battalion of Engineers, perma- 
 nent fortification works and the repairs of military 
 buildings. 
 
 Its staff is composed of 1 brigade general, chief of the 
 Department and of the Body, 1 lieutenant colonel of the 
 Faculty staff of Engineers, 1 captain of the same, 1 first 
 cavalry captain, 1 second cavalry captain, 1 infantry lieu- 
 tenant and 1 office boy. 
 
 The Artillery Department, has to do with the staff of the 
 army ; the general park ; battalions in service and the 
 reserves ; train squadrons, companies stationed in ports and 
 fortresses, naval storehouses, the national manufacture of 
 arms, national foundry, the national manufacture of 
 powder, foreign warehouses, the central theory and practice 
 school for instruction in the different weapons and the 
 target school. 
 
 The staff of the department is made up of 1 brigade gen- 
 eral, 2 colonels of the Faculty Staff of artillery, subinspect- 
 ors; 1 cavalry colonel, 2 lieutenant colonels of artillery, 1 
 account principal, 1 account officer, 4 first artillery captains, 
 2 first cavalry captains, 1 first warehouseman, 4 second, 11 
 first park-keepers, 2 second, 3 clerks and 1 office boy. 
 
 The Faculty Department Committee consists of 1 colonel, 
 1 lieutenant-colonel, 3 majors and 4 captains, all of artillery. 
 
 The Infantry and Cavalry Department has charge of all 
 that relates to the infantry both as regards economy and 
 administration ; it also has care of inspection, reviews, dis- 
 cipline and morality; promotions and reductions, the 
 organization of battalions, companies and isolated piquets; 
 furloughs ; justifying causes of reviews, the promotions and 
 declaration of veterans; filling up and recruiting; the 
 
202 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 purchase of baggage animals, their disposition, certificates 
 of service; history of battalions; diplomas; affiliations; 
 honor committees and the irregular infantry forces that 
 are in the service of the Federation. Besides what has 
 been already mentioned with regard to the cavalry this 
 Department has also charge of forages, the appointing 
 of foragers, the buying of horses, their disposition in the 
 regiments and auxiliary forces ; administration of justice 
 in the army ; military colonies with their organization and 
 administration, withdrawals, the placing of commanders 
 and officers where they may be available and commisariat 
 inspection ; and finally all that has reference to the recruit- 
 ing officers in the States of the Kepublic. 
 
 This department is composed of: 1 brigade general, 1 
 infantry colonel, sub-inspector, 1 cavalry colonel, also sub- 
 inspector, 1 infantry colonel the same, 1 lieutenant-colonel 
 of infantry, 1 lieutenant-colonel of cavalry, 4 cavalry 
 majors, 3 first infantry captains, 6 first cavalry captains, 4 
 second infantry captains, 4 second cavalry ones, 1 sub- 
 lieutenant, 1 ensign, 2 office boys. 
 
 The Department of the Military Medical Body, has 
 charge of all that comes within the scope of medicine, that 
 is of the military Hospitals, Statistics and Military Veteri- 
 nary Medicine. It is made up of 1 brigade general who is 
 a medical surgeon and chief of the department, 1 lieu- 
 tenant-colonel who is a veterinary surgeon, 1 lieutenant- 
 colonel a medical surgeon, 1 first cavalry captain, 3 sub- 
 lieutenants and 1 office boy. 
 
 The Central Navy Department has under its inspection 
 the national war vessels, together with the home and foreign 
 merchant ships, the chief naval commands and the harbor 
 masterships ; the numbers in the navy; the arsenals ; skids ; 
 naval schools, navigation and cruising patents. 
 
 The staff is formed of 1 ship captain, principal of De- 
 partment and of the Body, 1 frigate captain, 1 sub-inspector 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 203 
 
 of machines, 1 first engineer inspector, 3 snb-lieutenants, 
 and 2 second marine corporals. 
 
 GENERAL ORGANIZATION OE THE ARMY. 
 
 IV. The army of the Mexican Republic is organized 
 according to the following classifications: — 
 
 I. Special Body of the Staff. 
 
 II. Body of Engineers and Military College. 
 
 III. Body of Artillery and Establishments for making 
 war materials. 
 
 IV. Infantry. 
 
 V. Cavalry. 
 
 VI. Military Medical Service. 
 
 VII. Battalion of Invalids. 
 
 VIII. Placement of commanders and officers in avail- 
 able positions. 
 
 IX. Tribunals and Military Police. 
 
 THE SPECIAL BODY OF THE STAFF 
 
 Was established by a decree dated the 24th of January, 
 1879, and forms an entire department of the War Secre- 
 taryship, on which it directly depends. This body has two 
 chief purposes : 1st. The special service of the army in its 
 various branches as far as regards organization and regula- 
 tions. 2d. The formation of the Chart and the Military 
 Statistics of the Republic, the drawing up of plans and the 
 formation of routes. In order to enter the Special Body 
 of the Staff it is necessary to have gone through the course 
 of studies laid down in the programme of the Military 
 College, including all the subjects specified in its regulations 
 and this too with success. The pupils who are successful 
 in the subjects laid down enter as lieutenants. Other 
 officers who aspire to enter the Staff must pass an exami- 
 
204 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 nation before a committee of professors of the same college, 
 assisted by a chief of the Staff. 
 
 According to the clauses in the regulations of the Staff 
 laid down on the 15th of September, 1879, promotions are 
 generally given on account of seniority ; instruction and 
 distinguished services being special motives for pre- 
 ference. 
 
 The officers who enter the body remain six months in 
 the department in order to become acquainted with the 
 organization and mobilization of the army as well as its 
 various services. They afterwards pass on to the bodies 
 of the army, the infantry and cavalry branches in order 
 to go through their various exercises. They then engage in 
 topographical works or enter the Staffs of Divisions and 
 Brigades. During their practice they have to learn the 
 service of armies on campaign. Captains, if they have 
 been in the cavalry, are obliged to serve as lieutenants in 
 the infantry and vice-versa. They are then commissioned 
 in the topographical and geographical sections or have 
 positions on the Staffs of Divisions and Brigades. Lieu- 
 tenants are considered as student-officers of the Staff. 
 
 In the Body the grades and services in other branches 
 are forbidden and all must be in the effective service of 
 the Staff. 
 
 The officers of the army who enter the Staff hold priority 
 according to the time of their entrance into it and they 
 must be either lieutenants, captains or majors. They are 
 exempted from drill in the infantry or cavalry, accord- 
 ing as they have belonged to one or other branch of the 
 service. They are not, however, freed from service in the 
 department, topographical and geographical sections and 
 the Staffs of Divisions and Brigades, nor from service in 
 the other branch distinct from that to which they right- 
 fully belong. The Staff is supplied from faculty men of 
 great attainments and gives to the country an ever-mcreas- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 205 
 
 ing number of scientific officers. It is composed of the 
 following: 5 colonels, 10 lieutenant-colonels, 10 majors, 
 22 first captains, 22 second captains, 48 lieutenants and 
 2 cavalry majors in addition. 
 
 BODY OF ENGINEERS AND MILITARY COLLEGE. 
 
 The Body of Engineers was created by decree on the 
 25th of January, 1879, and its regulations were issued on 
 the 11th of July, 1883. In accordance with these latter 
 the special service of the Body embraces: Permanent and 
 transitory works of Fortification; attack and defense of 
 towns and fortified positions ; repairing roads and difficult 
 passes on the marches; the building of permanent bridges 
 and the erection of works of art on the highways and rail- 
 ways ; the placing in positions of defense strategical points 
 or important military situations in territory occupied by 
 the enemy; the building, guarding and repairing of the 
 military edifice of the Republic and the drawing of the 
 military plans ; as also works connected with the general 
 Chart of the Republic, when necessary, in union with the 
 Officers of the Special Body of the Staff. 
 
 To enter the Body it is essential to have gone through 
 with success the course of studies in the subjects laid down 
 by the regulations of the Military College during the three 
 periods of study. The pupils and officers of the college 
 who have fulfilled these conditions enter as faculty lieuten- 
 ants. The army officers who have not gone through their 
 studies at the Military College and aspire to enter the Body 
 have to undergo an examination. The officers of the Spe- 
 cial Body of the Staff, the faculty artillery -men, and those 
 of other branches of the army who have gone through their 
 course at the college have not to be examined in order to 
 enter the Body of Engineers. 
 
 Battalion of Engineers. — In conformity with a decree of 
 
206 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 the 30th 1 of June, 1888, this battalion is organized as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 The Staff: 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 1 major, 1 first 
 adjutant, 1 subadjutant, lieutenant, 1 first cornet sergeant, 
 1 cornet corporal and 4 mule drivers. 
 
 Four Companies — with 4 first captains, 4 second cap- 
 tains, 24 lieutenants, 6 first sergeants, 36 second sergeants, 
 73 corporals, 4 general guide corporals, 20 cornets, and 8 
 drummers, 576 sappers and 8 mule drivers. The battalion 
 has 32 mules. 
 
 Each company is composed of 174 men who are divided 
 into three parts of 43 mining sappers, 43 pontooniers and 
 88 workmen. Four more men are employed in the detail 
 labors of the company. 
 
 All the troops of the battalion are equally instructed in 
 the exercises of sapping, mining and pontooning ; and it is 
 also laid down that in each company there shall be 50 men 
 who are blacksmiths, locksmiths, coach-builders, carpen- 
 ters, belt-makers, painters or gilders, their numbers vary- 
 ing according to the necessities of the service ; 80 masons 
 and 44 day laborers. 
 
 In the works the sergeants act as overseers or foremen, 
 the corporals as gaffers and the remaining troops as work- 
 men. 
 
 The general exercises of manceuvers, encampments and 
 technichal labors are gone through once in the year. One- 
 half of the battalion performs them in the months of 
 November, December and January and the other half in 
 the months of February, March and April, in order that 
 the works may not be stopped. 
 
 The Military College * depends on the Secretaryship of 
 War and is the center of instruction for those youths who 
 devote themselves to the military profession in the various 
 
 * In the chapter "Public Instruction" this establishment is spoken of 
 as the school of militaiy instruction. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 207 
 
 branches of the army. It is considered the first institution 
 of its kind that exists in the America of the Latin races. 
 
 As it forms an integral part of the army it is organized 
 as follows : The Staff is composed of a general director or 
 colonel of the Army (professor), 1 subdirector, colonel 
 or lieutenant-colonel of the Faculty, Staff of Engineers, 
 Special Body of the Staff or Artillery (professor), 1 prin- 
 cipal of details, major of the army, 1 adjutant, lieutenant 
 in the army, 1 Army Medical Surgeon (professor), 1 
 librarian, lieutenant of the army, 3 clerks for the direction, 
 subdirection and majority respectively, 37 other professors, 
 10 masters, 6 adjutants, 3 preparatory masters for Physics, 
 Chemistry and Natural History, one first or second sergeant 
 director of the band and 1 cornet corporaL 
 
 Two Companies. — Each of them is composed of 1 first 
 captain of the army, 1 second captain of engineers, Staff 
 or Artillery, 1 first sergeant, 5 second sergeants, 10 cor- 
 porals, 10 first-class pupils, 116 pupils and 4 bondsmen. 
 Eath company is provided with 20 horses. — Servants : They 
 are made up of 1 steward, 1 infirmarian, 1 veterinary rid- 
 ing-master, 2 cooks, 3 errand porters, 1 door porter, 27 
 waiters, 5 grooms and 2 scullions. 
 
 From December, 1876, till the 30th of June, 1890, 530 
 pupils completed their faculty studies in this college and 
 passed into the service of the Special Staff into that of the 
 Army staff, of the Engineer Staff, of the Faculty Staff of 
 Artillery, of artillery battalions, of the navy, and of in- 
 fantry and cavalry bodies. 
 
 BODY OF ARTILLERY. 
 
 This Body also depends directly on the War Secretary- 
 ship and consists of the following : I. A Department an- 
 nexed to the said Secretaryship ; IT. Four Artillery 
 Battalions; III. A train Squadron; IV. Five fixed Com- 
 
208 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 panies ; V. The general Park ; VI. The Store-houses ; VII. 
 The Arsenal ; VIII. The Foundry; IX. The Powder Fac- 
 tory; X. The Theory and Practice School; XI. Five 
 Foreign Store-houses. 
 
 Elsewhere have been enumerated the duties, etc., belong- 
 ing to the Artillery Department as well as the persons who 
 form its staff. It should, however, be added that to insure 
 prompt dispatch of business the Department is divided into 
 two sections. The first, which is the general office of the 
 Body, takes charge of all personal business ; and the second 
 has the care and dispatch of the scientific business of the 
 branch, the revision of supply accounts, armament and 
 ammunition of all the Army bodies. 
 
 Each of the Four Battalions of Artillery, on a peace foot- 
 ing, in order to be able to serve three very small battle bat- 
 teries, and one mountain one, has a staff and four companies. 
 The staff consists of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 1 major, 
 an adjutant first captain, 1 subadjutant, lieutenant, 2 second 
 captains, 2 lieutenants, 4 sublieutenants, 1 first trumpet 
 sergeant, 2 first veterinary sergeants, 1 trumpet corporal 
 and 4 saddle horses. Of the four companies, 3 are battle 
 companies and one mountain, and their total amounts to 
 356 men, 40 saddle horses and 200 mules. 
 
 The Train Squadron, on a peace footing, is composed as 
 follows: A staff, 1 major, 1 first captain, principal of the 
 details, 1 adjutant lieutenant 2 veterinary first sergeants, 1 
 trumpet corporal, 3 saddle horses and 2 companies with 9.8 
 men, 20 horses and 200 mules. 
 
 At present there is only one fixed company which is 
 quartered at Veracruz and consists of 77 men, 2 horses and 
 16 mules. The military depot of this place is under the 
 charge of a store-keeper. The decree of the 1st of Octo- 
 ber, 1886, which organized the Artillery Body lays down 
 as the lowest height for artillerymen 1 metre, 68 centimetres 
 and for train men 1 metre, 63 centimetres. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 209 
 
 ESTABLISHMENTS EOR THE MAKING OF WAR MATERIALS. 
 
 The four factory establishments which exists in the 
 Federal District are counted as an integral part of the Artil- 
 lery Body. They are The Store-house and general Park of 
 Artillery and the National Arsenal, which are at Ciudadela. 
 The National Foundry, situated in Molino del Key, and 
 the National Powder Factory in the town of Santa Fe. 
 
 Store-house. — This establishment has to receive and 
 repair all war material, as well as to construct mountings, 
 carriages, gear, equipment and all the objects for which it 
 was instituted. It has a steam engine of 60 horse-power 
 which works three machine-rooms; one for turnings of 
 different kinds and sizes and a machine for brushing and 
 chiselling iron ; one for wood-work and a third in which 
 there are 3 brushing machines, a large radial auger, another 
 small american one, a large tile for heavy pieces, a small 
 double one, a universal polishing machine, another for 
 engraving work, a pedal wheel for small pieces and 
 pressure and two machines for making screw threads. 
 
 There are also in the Store-house belt-makers, carpenters 
 and locksmiths' rooms ; a forge with a rotatory ventilator, 
 moved by the principal motor, a steam hammer of 5,000 
 pounds force, and another machine for metal and wood- 
 work. 
 
 The establishment is divided into a Staff comprising 12 
 men and into a Company of Workmen with 89 workshops. 
 
 The General Park has under its charge the receivings 
 keeping and distributing of the war materials, arms and 
 ammunition. Its Staff and section of workmen are made 
 up of 25 men. 
 
 National Arsenal. — Here are made and repaired the 
 portable arms and in it is manufactured the metallic 
 ammunition. Although at various times the establishment 
 
 U 
 
210 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 attempted the complete manufacture of arms, it was 
 unable to succeed owing to the want of the necessary 
 machinery and apparatus for its object. Hence it is that 
 the so-called arsenal in Mexico is merely a work-shop for 
 repairing and transforming fire-arms, making bayonets, 
 sabres, axes and for the construction of metallic cart- 
 ridges. 
 
 In the November of 1877 the Congress voted 400,000 
 dollars for the definite establishment of a national arsenal, 
 capable of turning out a hundred guns per day ; but want 
 of funds in the Treasury only permitted the erection of one 
 capable of producing from fifty to sixty a day. The 
 machinery of the repairing department was indeed reformed 
 and the factory was supplied with special machinery and 
 the necessary accessories for the production of guns and 
 carbines. There is machinery for inlaying, cutting and 
 heading tubes, for priming and perforating small barrels 
 and for oiling; two automatic loading machines for boring 
 gun-barrels ; rifling, grooving and screw-making machines ; 
 two hand-polishing machines, another for opening cuttings, 
 a wheel, a machine for brushing iron and another for 
 cutting boxes. 
 
 The factory contains 162 fixed machines which are put 
 in motion by a powerful engine of 160 nominal horse 
 power and with Galoway tubular boilers. 
 
 There are steam generators in order that, in cases of 
 unforeseen accidents to the principal boiler, the works may 
 not be interrupted. The metallic cartridge department, 
 which is in the same building as the factory, is furnished 
 with new machines adapted to the workmanship of every 
 calibre. In this room 15 different engines work in produc- 
 ing cartridges of 11 m / m 9 (43) and among them is one 
 called the Inspector which examines the cartridges, reject- 
 ing those that are not ot the proper size as well as those 
 that have not the full charge of powder. The room has 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 211 
 
 also a special engine incase the principal engine should get 
 out of order and stop. 
 
 The machinery of the Arsenal can only make guns of 
 43 (10.9) calibre and it has been estimated that in the 
 establishment and with an expenditure of 180,000 dollars 
 10,000 fire-arms at least could be made in a year and more 
 than 400,000 cartridges. The arsenal has the same staff as 
 the store-house. 
 
 National Foundry for Arms. — This establishment has 
 received special attention from the Government. The 
 work-shops contain machinery suited to fulfill all the 
 requirements of the service. In these rooms are made all 
 the brass artillery; the zinc canister shot, leaden balls and 
 all the pieces of metal necessary as war material, copper 
 and brass rails are smelted and made into sheets for the 
 construction of metallic cartridges. Projectiles of various 
 calibres for land and sea artillery are molded and formed 
 there. 
 
 There is a hydraulic press for the compression of 
 bronze ; and the pieces of iron, necessary for the other 
 factories and for the artillery, are smelted and shaped. 
 Besides this the establishment is supplied with machines 
 for brushing and filing iron, for making screw-threads and 
 boring, machines for striating projectiles, for boring, 
 grooving and turning cannons. It has also a ventilator 
 (compressed air) two criks, three parallel wheels and a 
 hydraulic wheel which communicates movement to all 
 the workshops. 
 
 The foundry is managed by the following: A staff, with 
 11 persons and a company, with 58 workmen. 
 
 Poivder Factory. — In this establishment the army powder 
 is manufactured and the ammunition of the artillery is 
 loaded and made up. It has eight work-shops well 
 supplied with all the apparatus suited to the process of 
 manufacture and worked by a hydraulic wheel of cast iron. 
 It is furnished too with a room for granulating and 
 
212 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 classifying the powder and another for glazing and 
 dissecting, worked by hydraulic wheels of seven metres in 
 diameter. 
 
 The ventilator sends through an iron tubing a current of 
 air which leaves all its moisture in various boxes containing 
 chloride of calcium and thus dried it passes on to the 
 perforated axles of the casks and therefrom draws the 
 moisture from the powder and dries it. By this process 
 the dangers of explosions are greatly lessened. 
 
 The staff of the establishment consists of forty-one 
 persons. 
 
 MILITARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 The education of the army has always been regarded 
 by the government of Mexico as a real necessity, and 
 at all times they have endeavored to foster it by every 
 possible means. On the 27th of September, 1846, the 
 establishment of a school for primary education in the 
 capital of the Eepublic was decreed. Its purpose was to 
 organize the army and to educate a portion of the men 
 whom the States sent to fill up vacancies. This school for 
 a long time gave excellent results. 
 
 Later on night classes were established to instruct the 
 troops in reading, writing and the chief rules in arithmetic. 
 Military libraries were also set up, ordinary gymnastic and 
 riding schools, practical schools for the infantry, cavalry, 
 artillery and engineers and offices for the practice of tele- 
 graphy by the army officers. 
 
 The re-establishment of academies of instruction for the 
 various branches of the army, among all the bodies when 
 they are in garrison, was initiated and approved of in 1877. 
 The teaching is carried on by means of oral lessons and by 
 theses, proposed by one or other of the academies. The 
 conferences take place every week and on the different 
 days of each week, in turns tor the effective Generals 
 and graduates, the commanders and officers of engineers, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 213 
 
 the commanders and officers of artillery, of infantry and 
 cavalry. The academies were extended to the forces of 
 the various branches of the army which are outside 
 of the Federal District. The ordinance of 1882 laid 
 down that the colonels or commanders of battalions or 
 regiments should establish military academies in order to 
 perfect the instruction of all classes of the army. It enu- 
 merates the subjects to be studied during the three annual 
 terms into which it ordains that the academy courses 
 should be divided. In addition to these academies the 
 battalions and regiments receive the instructions in con- 
 formity with their respective regulations, that is, with 
 regard to exercises and tactical evolutions as applied on 
 land, the management of their weapons, instruction in tar- 
 get-shooting, instruction about security in the field, school 
 of orientation, exercises proper for battle, and instructions 
 in camping and making trenches when in the fields. The 
 Theory and Practice School was created in order that those 
 officers who had not completely gone through their studies 
 at the military college might have a course in this school 
 of those subjects which are essential in order to belono- to 
 the Faculty Body of Artillery. The title is obtained by 
 passing the proper general examination. The sergeants of 
 the body also receive the theory and practice instructions 
 necessary to fulfill their duties. The War Secretaryship 
 appoints the professors from among the commanders and 
 officers who are considered most fitted to fill the. post, 
 whilst the artillery establishments supply the necessary 
 elements for the practical teaching. The persons who 
 manage the school are one lieutenant colonel of the Faculty 
 Staff, director; one major, subdirector; one lieutenant, 
 adjutant ; one first sergeant, clerk : one second sergeant, 
 door porter and one porter. The School of Military 
 Bands was established in the city of Mexico in the year 1879. 
 Its object is to bring into uniformity, in the various corps 
 
214 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 of the infantry and cavalry, the military trials and move- 
 ments ordained to be gone through. The artillery battal- 
 ions, regiments and brigades send two bandsmen to the 
 school during the hours' of instruction and as soon as the 
 cornets, drummers and trumpeteers are sufficiently taught, 
 they return to their respective bodies, and in their place 
 two others are sent, and so on in succession. The bands- 
 men receive the necessary instruction for the knowledge of 
 the notes of music. The staff of the school is made up 
 of one director, lieutenant colonel of cavalry and one band- 
 master, a musician. 
 
 INFANTRY. 
 
 The infantry is organized in battalions numbered from 
 one to twenty-eight. Each one of these, on a peace 
 footing, consists of a Staff and four companies. They all 
 receive the same instruction and wear the same uniform. 
 
 The regulations adopted for army manceuvers were put in 
 force by virtue of a circular issued on the 3d of November, 
 1887. 
 
 The twenty-eight battalions have also four battalion 
 squares as reinforcements in order to pass from the peace 
 footing to the war footing. These squares can double the 
 number of their effective soldiers in case of mobilization and 
 it is possible also in a short time to double the number of 
 battalions existing in time of peace. 
 
 Each battalion, on a peace footing, has the following 
 organization given it by decree on the 1st of July, 1889 : 
 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 1 adjutant, first 
 captain, 1 sub-adjutant, 1 first cornet sergeant, 1 cornet 
 corporal, 4 mule drivers, 4 first captains, 4 second cap- 
 tains, 12 lieutenants, 12 sub-lieutenants, 4 first sergeants, 
 32 second sergeants, 72 corporals, 20 cornets, and 464 
 soldiers. There are also 32 mules. The infantry squares 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 215 
 
 are each organized as follows: 1 colonel, 1 major, 1 ad- 
 jutant, 1 first cornet sergeant, 1 cornet corporal, 4 cap- 
 tains, 4 lieutenants, 4 sub-lieutenants, 2 first sergeants, 9 
 second sergeants, 19 corporals, 10 cornets and 76 soldiers. 
 There are also a company stationed atEnsenada de Todos 
 Santos, a battalion of Sharpshooters of Cruces and the 
 companies of Sierra Gorda, making up altogether 23 officers 
 and 434 troops. 
 
 CAVALRY. 
 
 The cavalry is organized in regiments numbering 13 and 
 each of them comprising a Staff, and 4 squadrons. As 
 reinforcements it has regiment squares, but which are at 
 present replaced by the first and second bodies of cavalry 
 auxiliaries. 
 
 Each regiment is composed of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant 
 colonel, 1 major, 1 first adjutant, 1 subadjutant ensign, 1 first 
 trumpeter sergeant, 1 first sergeant, beltmaker, 2 first ser- 
 geants, veterinary surgeons, 1 trumpet corporal, 4 first 
 captains, 4 second captains, 48 corporals, 12 trumpeteers, 
 320 soldiers, 4 mule drivers, 4 boys and 421 horses. Each 
 Body of the Auxiliaries is organized thus : 1 colonel, 1 
 lieutenant colonel, 1 major, 1 first adjutant, 1 carrier, 1 first 
 sergeant, chief trumpeteer, 1 first sergeant, belt-maker, 1 
 first sergeant, veterinary surgeon, 1 trumpet corporal, 2 first 
 captains, 2 second captains, 6 lieutenants, 6 ensigns, 2 first 
 sergeants, 12 second sergeants, 26 corporals, 6 trumpeteers, 
 192 soldiers, 4 mule drivers, 4 boys and 250 horses. 
 
 Besides the regiments and auxiliary bodies already men- 
 tioned there are the First Body Countrymen of Tamaulipas, 
 which consists of 1 colonel, 1 major, 2 first corporals, 2 
 second corporals and 200 guards and the Escort of the 
 Geographical Exploring Commission consisting of 8 officers 
 and 120 men. 
 
216 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 THE MILITARY MEDICAL BODY. 
 
 This body was organized by decree on the 25th of Jan- 
 uary, 1879, and decrees for its reform were issued on the 
 2d of March, 1880, and on the 28th of June, 1881, and the 
 3d of July, 1882. 
 
 The health service for the Army and National Navy is or- 
 ganized by regulations published on the 22d of April, 1880. 
 According to these the military health service, which has 
 under its charge the Military Medical Body, looks after the 
 qualification of physical fitness, the preservation of health, 
 the development and strength of the men in the army; 
 the cure of their diseases and advising the dismissal of those 
 who by disease are of no use for the service. To it belongs 
 also the duty of caring for the healing, improving and ex- 
 amining of the horses and mules as well as the obligation of 
 bringing under the notice of the Government or military 
 authorities all that regards the different branches of the 
 sanitary service. 
 
 For the care of wounded or sick soldiers there are three 
 kinds of military hospitals established, namely, fixed, divis- 
 ional and temporary. The divisional change from place to 
 place along with the general quarters of the divisious of 
 the army. The temporary hospitals are for cases of epi- 
 demic, or any exigency, large union of troops, etc. In 
 places where no military hospitals exist there are infirma- 
 ries in the barracks, so that in them the medical officers in 
 the respective corps can attend to those who have only slight 
 infirmities. The Military Medical Body is composed of 
 doctors of the School of Medicine of Mexico who have both 
 been pupils in the practical Medical Military School and 
 who on receiving their titles in the National School of Med- 
 icine serve in the different bodies of the army as majors, 
 being at the same time medical surgeons. Those doctors, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 217 
 
 who have not been in the Medical Military School, if they 
 enter the army do so with the rank of captain. 
 
 In order to be a candidate for a position in the Body, in 
 its Faculty Staff, it is necessary to have received in the 
 class of aspirants the medical military education which is 
 given in the Military Hospital of Instruction. Moreover, 
 in order to be admitted as an aspirant it is essential to be 
 physically suited to follow the military profession — to be 
 a student of medicine or pharmacy or to have gone through 
 at least the third professional year in the course for medi- 
 cine and the first year of the pharmacy course; to have 
 served at least one year in the class of meritorious pupils 
 and to be suited, in the judgment of the director of the 
 establishment, for the faculty service ; to have displayed 
 in the judgment of the same director, morality and good 
 conduct; to engage to serve during three years in the class 
 of army medical surgeons. 
 
 For the Ambulance service those soldiers are admitted as 
 officers who can show the best certificates of service whilst 
 the ordinary ambulance men must have been voluntarily 
 enlisted and it is necessary that the superiors of the second 
 infirmarians, besides having the neeessary physical capacity 
 must also be able to read and write. 
 
 The ambulance service is under charge of Army Health 
 Body and has for its special object the assistance and curing 
 of sick or wounded soldiers during campaign operations 
 and taking them to the hospital. These duties are fulfilled 
 by the sanitary men assigned to the various divisions and 
 by the litter-bearers of the different army corps. They 
 are supplied with sanitary materials and the beasts of burden 
 assigned by law for their purposes. 
 
 The ambulance officers have the direction of their respect- 
 ive sections with the same kind of duties as those laid 
 down by the ordinance for the rank and file officers. They 
 give the necessary military instruction to the ambulance 
 
218 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 men before they receive instructions for the management 
 of the letters, drugs, barks, stores and instructions about 
 the management of their animals and harness to the train- 
 men. It is the duty of the faculty officers to stimulate the 
 ambulance men who are under them to the practice of sur- 
 gery in small matters in order that they may be more capable 
 of fulfilling their duties in the hospitals and in the field. 
 
 Every corps has its doctor. The Military Medical Body 
 taken altogether is composed of two generals, 1 chief of 
 the Department, a doctor, as has been already said,* and 
 the other director of the Military Hospital of Instruction, 
 who is likewise Director of the Practical School, 3 colonels, 
 2 inspectors and the other Sub-director of the Military 
 Hospital of Instruction ; 19 lieutenant colonels of whom 
 seven are professors in the Practical School and at the same 
 time fixed doctors in the Military Hospital of Instruction, 
 nine are Directors of the fixed Hospitals of the Kepublic, 
 two act as secretaries for the chief of the Medical Depart- 
 ment! and the last is Administrator of the Hospital of 
 Instruction; 56 majors, medical surgeons of whom forty- six 
 are employed in the sanitary service of the battalions and 
 regiments and ten occupy the posts of Subdirectors in the 
 fixed Hospitals ; and lastly twelve first captains also em- 
 ployed in the corps of the army. 
 
 The Pharmaceutical service is made up of the following: 
 1 druggist principal, resident in the Military Hospital of 
 Instruction, Mexico ; 2 majors, 4 1st captains, and 9 2d 
 captains for the service of the fixed Hospitals. 
 
 The Veterinary service consists of majors, first captains 
 and second captains employed for the artillery regiments 
 and battalions. 
 
 The Navy Medical service has one major, medical 
 surgeon, for each of the vessels in the National Fleet. 
 
 * Page 203. t ■*#. Id - 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 219 
 
 For the care of wounded and sick soldiers there are 10 
 permanent military hospitals established, whilst there is a 
 varying number of temporary ones. Those that are per- 
 manent are built in Mexico, Veracruz, Puebla, Guadalajara, 
 San Luis Potosi, Tampico, Tepic, Mazatlan, Matamoros, 
 and Monterrey. 
 
 The Hospital in Mexico, which also undertakes the military 
 medical education, has a sta ft' composed of 1 brigade Gen- 
 eral, who is director, 1 colonel, subdirector, 7 lieutenant 
 colonels, professors, and 1 major, all of whom are medical 
 surgeons, 12 lieutenants of the Navy, 1 lieutenant colonel, 
 chemist and druggist, 1 administrator and 1 commissary, 
 the first holding the rank of lieutenant colonel and the 
 latter that of first captain, and 1 assistant commissary. 
 All the Hospitals in the Kepublic have a like staff composed 
 of a Director lieutenant-colonel, a Subdirector, major, and 
 both of them medical surgeons ; a chemist and druggist and 
 an Administrator, first captains, and a commissary, second 
 captain. The Hospitals of Tepic, Mazatlan, Monterrey, and 
 Matamoros have each a staff composed of 1 major who is a 
 medical surgeon and the Director, 1 second captain, chemist 
 and druggist, 1 second captain, administrator, and 1 lieu- 
 tenant, commissary. The Hospital of Tampico has a 
 lieutenant colonel, a major who is subdirector and both are 
 medical surgeons ; a second captain who is a chemist and 
 druggist ; a second captain who is administrator, and a 
 commissary who is a lieutenant. The Merida Hospital has 
 assigned to it a Major who is a medical surgeon, and a 
 commissary administrator who is a lieutenant. 
 
 The Company of Infirmarians consists of 1 first infantry 
 captain, 2 infantry lieutenants, 2 sublieutenants, 15 first 
 sergeants, watchers, 18 second sergeants, higher infirmaries, 
 39 corporals, first infirmarians and 100 soldiers, second 
 infirmarians. 
 
 The Ambulance Train is formed of 1 infantry lieutenant, 
 
220 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 1 infantry sublieutenant, 5 second sergeants, overseers, 18 
 mule-drivers and 60 carriers. 
 
 The Medical Military Practice School. — On the 22d of 
 April, 1880, this School was established in the Military 
 Hospital of Mexico. In it the pupils go through a course 
 of internal and external clinics, and acquire a knowledge 
 of surgical instruments and apparatus and of the way t® use 
 them, and of the means for transporting the wounded; they 
 also study urgent surgery; military hygiene, legal medicine 
 as far as it regards the Penal Code and military legislation ; 
 therapeutics as applied to the making up of receipts in 
 hospitals and campaign drug stores, and chemical analysis 
 and especially of organic products. 
 
 Lately a new kind of Ordinance has been laid down in 
 order to teach those who belong to the corporation a know- 
 ledge of the duties of every rank in the service and the 
 general points of this service. 
 
 Conferences held about each of these subjects form 
 another course at the end of the college year and all of 
 them together constitute the subjects taught in the Medical 
 Military course which is obligatory for every Medical 
 Surgeon in the Army. 
 
 These conferences were begun on the 15th of January, 
 1880. In certain subjects the lessons are oral and last at 
 least half an hour. They are, in the same way as the 
 courses, either daily or weekly, or they may be held 2 or 3 
 times a week. 
 
 At the end of the college year the conferences are closed 
 and eight days afterwards the examinations of the meri- 
 torious and aspiring pupils begin. 
 
 The aspirants among other duties have to accompany the 
 doctor who is their immediate superior on his visit and to 
 inform him of the condition of the sick or wounded ; to 
 take his orders, make up the receipts and diet billets, etc. 
 
 In the service of the health watch, a d.xxiy which they 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS^ 221 
 
 undertake in turns, they must have a knowledge of all the 
 sick and wounded in order to be able to prescribe for them 
 in cases of urgency ; they have also to take the first pre- 
 cautions, feel the pulses and notice the temperature, etc. ; 
 they have besides to examine the corpses before these are 
 taken to the amphitheater in order to be sure that the 
 death is real and they are obliged to give a verbal account 
 to the vigilance doctor of what has occurred during their 
 watch. 
 
 The meritorious pupils have charge, in the rooms, of the 
 nippers and surgical instruments which their respective doc- 
 tor assigns to them, and receive instructions in the form 
 which he prescribes to make them aspirants. 
 
 The number of pupils who are passing through the vari- 
 ous classes is 25 ; many of them with the object of going 
 through all their studies there have asked to be given 
 places as meritorious pupils. The chief instruction given 
 consists of the technical part of a military doctor's duty. 
 The establishment is carried on with perfect regularity, and 
 the pupils have shown at their examinations a real advance . 
 Many of them have received and have been employed in 
 high posts. 
 
 The Veterinary Service. — Consists of 4 majors, veterinary 
 surgeons, 4 first captains ditto, 4 second captains ditto, and 
 2 lieutenants aspirants. The staff is divided among the 
 different places where the regiments or battalions are sta- 
 tioned in order that the horses may be kept in the best 
 condition for service. 
 
 THE POLICE BODY OF THE ARMY. 
 
 A decree of the 25th of January, 1879, created a com- 
 pany of horse police for the general preservation of order 
 in the army when in the field, in garrison, in cantonments, 
 in camp, etc. It laid down as indispensable qualifications 
 
222 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 for being admitted into the company the following : to 
 have been an old soldier of the army, to have no bad marks 
 for civil and military conduct, to know how to read and 
 write, to be of a fair height and to have a strong constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 The duration of service when a person is enlisted in this 
 body is four years, but when this term is completed it may be 
 prolonged at the expressed wish of the person. The new 
 term of service which he agrees to is set forth in his regis- 
 ter and is obligatory. 
 
 By a decree of the 12th of June, 1885, the squadron of 
 police was called the Police Body of the Army, by which 
 name it is at present known ; it was also placed under the 
 Cavalry Department of the War Minister in acordance 
 with a decree dated the 3d of September of the same year, 
 1885. 
 
 In conformity with the regulations laid down for the 
 body and which were dated the 5th of May, 1879, the police 
 in times of peace have two ordinary services of security to 
 perform, namely, to keep watch, over the fortified places, gar- 
 risons and cantonments and to guard the environs of these 
 within a radius not exceeding half a day's march. For the 
 first duty two men at least are told off whilst for the second 
 a body of five is appointed. 
 
 The police service in the army embraces provost service 
 properly so-called, convoy and baggage service, the guard- 
 ing of prisoners and the army requisites. 
 
 The provost-general exercises jurisdiction over the whole 
 army and the provosts over the divisions or brigades to 
 which they are attached. This jurisdiction covers all that 
 relates to crimes, transgressions, and acts of opposition to 
 the laws committed in territory occupied by the army, the 
 flanks and the rear guard, in a word as far as the action 
 of the troops extends. 
 
 It is the duty of the provosts to protect the inhabitants 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 223 
 
 of the country against pillage or any other violence and to 
 fulfill in the same way as the military police the duties 
 of judicial guardianship as soon as they become aware of a 
 crime or transgression. 
 
 The police have among their other functions a continual 
 and repressive watchfullness over crimes in the military 
 orders, over those which are committed by persons who 
 are subject to the laws of war, and they exercise a like 
 surveillance over the men who accompany or serve the 
 army in the territory which is declared to be in a state of 
 war or siege, and in the field, or when individual guarantees 
 have been constitutionally declared suspended. 
 
 Beyond these cases the police, as far as the inhabitants 
 of the country are concerned, can only bring the crimes to 
 light and apprehend the delinquents in default of the ordi- 
 nary police, and they are bound to hand them over to the 
 authority competent to deal with them. 
 
 The police are empowered to render extraordinary serv- 
 ices for the suppression of smugglers, when such services 
 are required by the customs administrators in places where 
 they are stationed, and for the protection of the branches 
 of the public treasury when they are threatened with rob- 
 bery and for the protection of railways or public buildings. 
 
 The army police body is composed of the following: 1 
 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 1 adjutant, 1st cap- 
 tain, 1 sub-adjutant, ensign, 1 first sergeant, 1 first ser- 
 geant, harness-maker, 1 trumpeteer corporal, 2 boys, 4 
 mule-drivers, 2 first captains, 2 second captains, 6 lieuten- 
 ants, 6 ensigns, 2 first sergeants, 12 second sergeants, 24 
 corporals, 6 trumpeteers, and 226 gendarmes. 
 
 NATIONAL BATTALION OF INVALIDS. 
 
 This force consists of those soldiers who have retired 
 from the army but who still exercise the right which the 
 
224 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 law grants them of entering this battalion because they 
 have been incapacitated either in battle or in a campaign, 
 but without losing their right to receive their pay for their 
 time of service. 
 
 Their duties are passive ones and they are employed for 
 giving orders in certain public offices whilst in others they 
 act as guards. The Battalion of Invalids is formed of 2 
 chiefs, 11 officers and 161 men. The organization of this 
 body was decreed on the 25th of January, 1879. 
 
 THE RESERVE OP COMMANDERS AND OFFICERS. 
 
 This is a body composed of those commanders and offi- 
 cers who are in excess of the number required for the various 
 commands and regulations made in order to organize the 
 army. As these men have lent their services to the Nation, 
 the Government in justice towards them attends to their 
 support with the least possible detriment to the exchequer. 
 They are employed in certain positions in fortified places 
 and form a reserve to complete the squares in times of war. 
 
 On the 28th of January, 1885, it was resolved that the 
 commanders and officers of the reserve should attend the 
 classes of the Theory and Practice School of the army, 
 where they might study the regulations for the employ- 
 ment of troops in the field, and gain some knowledge of 
 transitory fortifications, constitutional law, the law of 
 nations, and other subjects. 
 
 On the 30th of June, 1890, the body consisted of 1 
 Brigade General, 695 commanders and 464 officers. 
 
 MILITARY TRIBUNALS AND POLICE. 
 
 Before the General Ordinance of the Army was put in 
 force on the 10th of January, 1883, the Administration of 
 justice and military laws were regulated in accordance with 
 
GENERAL OF DIVISION PEDRO HINOJOSA. 
 Secretary of War. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 225 
 
 the law of the 20th of January, 1869, which establishes 
 military juries. The want of a penal Code on this matter 
 was greatly felt, for the soldiers were subjected to the 
 penalties laid down in the reformed Ordinance in 1852, and 
 many of these punishments were in direct opposition to the 
 principles of the Charter of 1857. Moreover the judges in 
 the military order were irresponsible and a tribunal was 
 needed to revise their proceedings and thus give guarantees 
 of receiving justice to those who should be tried. 
 
 When the new Code of military justice was published 
 and its new principle adopted the organization of the 
 tribunals and the procedure of trials were entirely changed. 
 
 The administration of military justice still remained 
 under the charge of the provosts as well as the ordinary 
 Councils of War and also the extraordinary and in addition 
 to these the councils of the Superior Court of military 
 justice. 
 
 The Juries of Instruction, the Councils of War and the 
 Supreme Court of Justice began their duties on the 1st of 
 January, 1883, in conformity with the law of the 6th of 
 December, 1882. The magistrates and other employes 
 of the court were appointed on the 30th of December of 
 the preceding year. 
 
 From the very beginning certain inconveniences in the 
 application of the new Code presented themselves both by 
 reason of the new procedure employed and by reason of the 
 fresh interpretations which were given to certain precepts 
 of the law. 
 
 The Secretaryship of War promulgated various regula- 
 tions in order to smooth over these difficulties and to facili- 
 tate the fair and prompt administration of justice. The 
 inconveniences, however, became so frequent and grave that 
 it was found necessary to modify the law and bring it into 
 conformity with actual experience. Accordingly a com- 
 mission was appointed to revise the Code which was in 
 
 15 
 
226 THti RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 force and to present the President of the Republic the 
 plan of reforms which in its judgment ought to be sub- 
 stituted. The commission in its innovations has suc- 
 ceeded in giving to the accused all the guarantees which 
 modern rights demand and above all the fullest possible 
 liberty as regards himself and his defenders. 
 
 MILITARY TRIBUNALS THEIR ORGANIZATION AND COM- 
 PETENCY. 
 
 IV. The administration of Military Justice, in con- 
 formity with the latest changes made in the Code covering 
 this subject of September 16th, 1892, is under the charge 
 of : 1st, the Military Heads authorized to issue orders of 
 procedure; 2nd, the Ordinary Military Courts; 3d, the 
 Extraordinary Military Courts or Councils; 4th, the 
 Supreme Military Court. 
 
 These tribunals only pass upon criminal actions arising 
 from crimes coming under their judrisdiction ; the civil 
 action resulting from these crimes, is governed by the 
 provisions of ordinary legislation, drawn before the ordinary 
 tribunals, and they have no authority to pass sentence until, 
 in the order of military procedure, executive sentence has 
 been pronounced. 
 
 The military heads above referred to are : the General- 
 in-Chief of a body of troops, the Generals of divisions, 
 brigades, or columns which operate individually ; the 
 Chiefs of Zone; the Chief Commanders of the States; the 
 Military Commanders ; the chiefs in command of troops 
 who are somewhat removed from their superior officers. 
 
 With the exception of these latter, the military chiefs 
 convoke and assemble the ordinary and extraordinary 
 councils of war, direct and pass upon, with the aid of a 
 lawyer, the processes, provided the crimes to be passed 
 upon are such that the average penalty assigned by law 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 227 
 
 does not exceed eleven months of arrest, or fines up to the 
 second class; they puss upon actions taken against sergeants 
 and captains for crimes whose punishment is simple dismis- 
 sal from the service, and also, in the same manner, try 
 causes, inflicting the punishment which the law requires. 
 
 Ordinary Councils of War. — There is a permanently es- 
 tablished tribunal of these in the general headquarters in 
 each military zone ordivisionand in some military provinces, 
 and two in the Military Commandant's Department of the 
 Federal District. They are composed of seven proprietory 
 voters and a number of supplementary voters who supply 
 the accidental absences of the former. One and the others 
 are appointed by the Secretary of War from among the 
 head chiefs and captains of the army ; the supplementary 
 appointments may be made in certain cases by the respect- 
 ive military chief. 
 
 The rank of the persons composing these councils must 
 be equal to or greater than the rank of the persons upon 
 whom process has been served, and if the latter should be 
 a General of Division, and there are not the requisite num- 
 ber of Generals of this grade or rank, the Council of War 
 will be made lip of from among the Generals of Brigade. 
 The citizens who have been served upon shall be regarded 
 as members of the troops, and if there should be any mili- 
 tary person accused conjointly, the graduation of this one 
 will determine the manner in which the Council shall be 
 formed. 
 
 The voter of the highest class shall preside as President 
 of the Council, and where there are more than one of this 
 class, the oldest shall preside, while the voter of lesser rank 
 shall act as Secretary. 
 
 The ordinary Councils of War pass upon military crimes 
 or misdemeanors which the law does not place under the 
 jurisdiction of the military heads of which mention has been 
 made, or to the Extraordinary Councils of War; and, in 
 
228 THE KICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 time of war, they shall consider crimes which, by virtue of 
 the legal ordinances of the State in which they are located, 
 come under their jurisdiction. 
 
 Extraordinary Councils of War. - — These are composed 
 of seven military officials of the rank required by that of 
 the accused, as in the case of the Ordinary Councils of War, 
 but the officers of the company to which the accused person 
 belongs shall not be permitted to form part of these Councils. 
 
 These Councils shall have the power to pass upon the fol- 
 lowing crimes: desertion in face of the enemy ; sedition 
 in face of the enemy, at the moment of combat or at two 
 days' march distant, whether facing the enemy, or in re- 
 treat ; treason, unless this consists of placing prisoners of 
 war at liberty, or in protecting their escape in face of the 
 enemy during a battle or during retreat ; rebellion in face 
 of the enemy, either while marching against or retreating 
 from same, while being pursued at less than two days' 
 march distant therefrom, or in a besieged or blockaded 
 place ; espionage committed under the circumstances men- 
 tioned for the crime of rebellion ; violence committed 
 against a superior officer ; cowardice ; crimes against the 
 existence, security or preservation of the army, or its 
 belongings, committed in face of the enemy or in a besieged 
 or blockaded place, provided the penalty determined by law 
 shall be capital punishment. 
 
 In order to determine the competency of the Extraordi- 
 nary Council of War, the following circumstances must 
 exist : that the accused persons shall be apprehended in 
 fraganti; that not more than 24 hours shall have transpired 
 between the commission of the crime and the passing of 
 sentence, at the simple lapse of this period without the 
 guilty person being tried, nullifies the jurisdiction of the 
 Extraordinary Council, and the consideration of the case 
 shall be assigned to the Ordinary Council ; that the failure 
 to immediately apprehend the criminal, implies a serious 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 229 
 
 danger to the existence and preservation of the troops, or 
 the success of military operations. 
 
 The designation of the individuals who shall compose the 
 Ordinary Councils of War, shall be made by the War 
 Department in vigorous succession, from amongst those 
 comprised in a list which shall be made up and published 
 annually, and in which shall be included, in conformity with 
 an ancient order, the names of the generals and other chiefs 
 of the army, who, having no other commissions in the 
 service, shall be eligible to discharge the duties of members 
 of the Council. 
 
 The members who shall compose the Extraordinary 
 Council, shall be selected from a list made up by the chief, 
 whose duty it shall be to convoke a Council of War, in 
 which shall appear the names of all the military officials 
 of the required rank who may be subject to its orders and 
 disposable for this service. In this list shall be included 
 even those who are not in active service. 
 
 Supreme Military Court. — This tribunal shall be com- 
 posed of eight magistrates, of which the first five shall be 
 military officers and the other three lawyers, and six super- 
 numeraries, four of whom shall be military officers, and 
 two lawyers. All of these shall be appointed by the Chief 
 Executive of the Nation. 
 
 The first regular magistrate, who must be a General of 
 Division, shall be the President of the Court, and the 
 second, who shall be of equal rank, or active General of 
 Brigade, shall be the Vice-President. 
 
 In order to be a military magistrate, it is necessary that 
 the individual possess the permanent rank of active Gen- 
 eral of the Armv ; and in order to be a consulting masis- 
 trate, the person must be a Mexican citizen in the exercise 
 of his rights, be 35 years of age, and a lawyer for at least 
 10 y ears, as required by law. These possess the character 
 of actual and permanent Generals of the Army. 
 
230 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 For the proper dispatch of the business which corre- 
 sponds to it, the Court shall sit in full tribunal or divided 
 into two courts with the requisite secretaries and notaries. 
 The full tribunal shall be composed of all the magistrates, 
 both regular and supernumerary, and shall not hold ses- 
 sion with less than seven members. The first Court shall 
 consist of five magistrates, of which two shall be lawyers, 
 and the second Court, of three, one of whom must be a 
 lawyer. 
 
 Each of the courts shall have a chief officer. The secre- 
 taries, with the exception of the one pertaining to the 
 second court, shall possess the title of colonels of cavalry ; 
 the secretary of the latter shall have the title of Colonel of 
 Infantry. The chief official and the notary of the first court 
 shall possess the title of Colonel of Cavalry, and the chief 
 official of the second court that of Lieutenant Colonel of In- 
 fantry. These functionaries are also appointed by the Chief 
 Executive of the Nation. The principal attributes of the full 
 tribunal are as follows, to suggest to the War Department 
 the necessary modifications regarding military legislation 
 and the appropriate instruction for the proper administra- 
 tion of justice; pass opinions upon matters of law as 
 directed by the judicial functionaries of the military order, 
 try cases as to the responsibility of the magistrates of the 
 court, the solicitor general or their assistants, military 
 chiefs authorized to dictate orders of procedure, and 
 counsel ; reverse the sentences pronounced by the extraor- 
 dinary counsels of war as to responsibility and as to the 
 nullity in certain cases of competent jurisdiction ; reverse 
 the decisions of the military chiefs in order not to dictate 
 the order of procedure. 
 
 The first Court shall pass upon the legal disputes which 
 may arise between the military tribunals of the first class ; 
 of matters invading appeal, of appeal refused and revision 
 in cases determined by law, of the excuse of military chiefs 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 231 
 
 in processes being or which have been passed upon by the 
 same court. 
 
 The second Court shall pass upon the pleas of the military- 
 chiefs in cases which are being or have been passed upon 
 by said Court ; also of the application for revision, whose 
 consideration does not belong to the Full Tribunal or to the 
 first Court. 
 
 Instructing Judges. — For the proper formation of trials, 
 there have been located Judges of Instruction in every local- 
 ity where permanent counsels of war have been established 
 and where such do not exist, or where it may be necessary 
 to substitute a judge by reason of the rank of the accused 
 person, in which case a special appointment shall be made. 
 
 The permanent judges shall be colonels or lieutenant 
 colonels of the army, and are appointed by the War Depart- 
 ment; and the others who must be generals, chiefs or 
 officials of equal or higher rank than that of the accused, 
 shall be appointed by the military chief whose intervention 
 may be necessary in the suit or trial. 
 
 The Instructing Judges perform their judicial functions 
 with secretaries appointed also by the War Department 
 and act under the direction of the Military Chief upon 
 whom they depend. 
 
 Counsellors. — These functionaries study and consider 
 the questions of right which, in the administration of jus- 
 tice, the Military Chiefs having the right to determine the 
 final action against the parties responsible for the com- 
 mission of the crimes, may indicate. They are appointed 
 at the will of the executive, and must be at least 30 years 
 of age, five years a lawyer and Mexican citizens in the full 
 enjoyment of their rights. 
 
 In these localities where permanent Councils of War 
 have been established, there is a counsellor attached to the 
 respective Military Chief, with the title of Colonel of 
 Cavalry. The Counsellors attached to the chiefs in whose 
 
232 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 territorial jurisdiction there is no permanent Council of 
 War possess the character of Lieutenant Colonels of the 
 same class. In the military headquarters of the Federal 
 District there are four Counsellors attached to the four 
 courts of permanent instruction which exist therein. 
 
 Defenders. — The defenders in the trial subject to 
 military jurisdiction may be freely named by the cul- 
 prits, from among the persons who may or may not 
 belong to the military class. Generals are prohibited 
 from defending members of the army of rank inferior 
 to themselves. Outside of such cases the defenders 
 are appointed by the War Department from among the 
 officials and chiefs of the army ; only those who are ex- 
 pected to act in conjunction with the military court, are not 
 required to belong to it; it is sufficient that they are Mexi- 
 can citizens in the exercise of their rights, that they are 
 over 25 years of age and have been lawyers for at least two 
 years. 
 
 The official defenders are prohibited from receiving any 
 remuneration from their clients. 
 
 There are in the military command of the Federal Dis- 
 trict four official defenders, one for each court of instruc- 
 tion that may there exist. In the Military Court there are 
 two with the title of Colonels of Cavalry. 
 
 THE COUET OF INQUIRY ( MINISTEEIO PUBLICO). 
 
 This court has been established for the purpose of aiding 
 in the administration of justice and securing proper com- 
 pliance with the rulings of the Tribunals of Justice, it is 
 aided in its work by the judicial Military Police. 
 
 The Court of Inquiry is composed of the following 
 persons : the General Military Solicitor ; two auxiliaries of 
 the latter, two agents attached to each of the permanent 
 courts of instruction, and the others who must intervene in 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 233 
 
 the trials which are presided over by the non-permanent 
 instructing judges and who are appointed by the authority 
 who order the legal action. The solicitor and other agents 
 are appointed by the President of the Republic. 
 
 The Solicitor General takes the rank of permanent gen- 
 eral of Brigade of the Army, his auxilary agents that of 
 Colonels of Cavalry, and the agents attached to the courts 
 of instruction, that of Majors, at least. 
 
 The same qualifications are necessary for the post of 
 solicitor as are required for that of magistrate of the court ; 
 for the post of auxiliary agent of the solicitor the same 
 qualifications are required as for that of Counsellor. The 
 other agents must be twenty-one years of age, and, among 
 other requisites, must possess aptitude for discharging the 
 duties intrusted to them at the pleasure of the authority 
 who must appoint them. 
 
 MILITARY JUDICIAL POLICE. 
 
 The object of this body is to assist the military tribunals 
 in the investigation of crimes, the collection of proof and 
 the discovery of the delinquents. It works through the 
 medium of provosts, through the military police, through 
 the officials in guard of stations, through the officers of the 
 week,, captains of barracks within their respective quarters, 
 through the permanent judges of instruction, through the 
 majors in command of stations, or chiefs of superior rank, 
 or their assistants, and through the Court of Inquiry. 
 These functionaries may, in case of necessity, request the 
 assistance of the militia and that of the municipal police. 
 
 CRIMES, MISDEMEANORS AND PENALTY. 
 
 The existing military penal code makes the following 
 classification of military crimes and misdemeanors : 
 
 1st. Crimes against Military Duty. — Voluntary inutil- 
 
234 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 ity for the purpose of withdrawing from the service, 
 incorrigible conduct, absence from the reviews of the 
 battalion or regiment, disobedience, insubordination, insults 
 or violence directed against sentinels, guards or safeguards, 
 threatenings, undue deliberation, evil intentions, sedition, 
 infraction of sentinel's duties, offenses committed by 
 prisoners of war, flight of these or of military prisoners, 
 abandonment of posts or of military points, commissions of 
 the service, command or arrests, unnecessary capitulation, 
 cowardice or puerile acts committed through same, deser- 
 tion, duels, infraction of military duties not specified in the 
 Code. 
 
 2nd. Crimes Committed in the Exercise of Military 
 Duties or by reason of same, drunkenness, revelation of 
 secrets pertaining to the service, falseness, simulation or 
 concealment of any personal circumstances, falsification in 
 the lists of soldiers, animals, marches or forage, false inform- 
 ation, abuse of authority, abuse in the matter of lodgment or 
 in the acquisition of means of transport, maltreatment of 
 prisoners or wounded soldiers, violence against incarcerated 
 prisoners, outrages and offenses against the military and 
 civil police, violence against persons in general, pillage 
 appropriation of booty, despoliation of wounded prisoners 
 or corpses, destruction or devastation of property in gen- 
 eral, peculation and exactions, smuggling, rebellion, treason, 
 usurpation of authority, commission or functions of the ser- 
 , vice, of the name of superior of uniform, of insignias or of 
 offices. 
 
 3d. Crimes Against the Existence, Security or Preserva- 
 tion of the Army or its Belongings. — False alarm, secretion, 
 giving away or destruction of the property belonging to 
 the army, espionage, incitement for the purpose of 
 serving the enemy. 
 
 4th. Offenses Committed in the Administration of Mili- 
 tary Justice or on accountof same, offenses on the part of the 
 
AN© ITS INSTITUTIONS. 235 
 
 functionaries and others employed in the administration of 
 military justice, in the discharge of their respective duties, 
 offenses committed in the name of military justice, offenses 
 of the common order subject to the laws of war. 
 
 5th. Faults. — Those consisting of the infraction of mili- 
 tary rules or the decrees of the military police, are punish- 
 able by the tribunals of war, or administratively through 
 correctionary discipline. 
 
 PENALTY. 
 
 In the matter of crimes, offenses and faults in general, 
 the tribunals of war are subject to the dispositions of the 
 Penal Code of the Federal District, in as far as same does 
 not conflict with the Code of military justice. 
 
 The following persons are criminally responsible before 
 the military tribunals: members of the army, officials 
 ( " asimilados " ), those connected with same and those 
 citizens who appear as authors, accomplices or concealers of 
 crimes or offenses subject to the jurisdiction of war. By 
 " asimilados ' are understood those individuals who render 
 services in the army distinct from actual military duty, 
 but who receive pay from the Federation and the considera- 
 tion due to soldiers. 
 
 The punishments applicable by the tribunals of war are: 
 
 Expulsion, in public or private; Arrest, which is 
 divided into minimum, covering from one to 30 days, and 
 maximum, from 31 days to eleven months; Ordinary Im- 
 prisonment, in the military prison, castle or fortress 
 designated by the War Department, in a separate cell, with- 
 out communication by day or night. This may last for a 
 term of eleven months without exceeding fifteen years. 
 
 Extraordinary Imprisonment, substituted for the death 
 penalty in certain cases as provided by law, lasts for twenty 
 years, and is applied in the same way as ordinary imprison- 
 
236 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 inent : Remanding to Service, applicable only to members 
 of the troops, consists in depriving them of the right to 
 request their discharge from the army, even though they 
 should have completed their term of enlistment, for the 
 period assigned by the penalty : Suspension from employ- 
 ment or commission, which entails the deprivation of the 
 emoluments to which the culprit may be entitled : Dis- 
 missal from service, the death penalty, which is inflicted 
 by shooting the criminal, but it is not permitted to torture 
 the culprits previous to their execution. 
 
 LATEST CHANGES IN THE CODE OF MILITARY JUSTICE. 
 
 V. The Code of Military Justice, which became effective 
 January 1st of the present year (1893), introduced impor- 
 tant changes in what was known as Military Jurisprudence, 
 which was contained in the third volume of the general 
 army ordinances. These modifications consist chiefly in 
 the organization of the tribunals, in the appeals and in the 
 penalties. 
 
 The new law did not limit the jurisdiction of war; but 
 the common offenses committed within a military district, 
 and which was formerly called military offenses, are now 
 known as common offenses punishable by military courts. 
 
 TRIBUNALS. 
 
 The Military Court of Inquiry is composed of a solicitor 
 general, two agents and the agents attached to Courts of 
 First Inquiry. The Military Court of Inquiry is entrusted 
 with the prosecution of crimes and the right and prompt 
 administration of justice. The agent of the Court of 
 Inquiry must be of equal or superior rank to the accused. 
 
 All members of the army are obliged to act as defenders 
 when so appointed, but generals cannot defend individuals 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 237 
 
 of lesser rank than that of General of Brigade. The mili- 
 tary chiefs are judges and impose penalties, in consultation 
 with the consulting lawyer, provided the punishment of 
 the crime equals at most eleven months of arrest. Exceed- 
 ing this period, the ordinary councils of war consider the 
 case. 
 
 These councils are called permanent and are constituted 
 as follows: Seven proprietary voters designated by the 
 War Department, and the necessary substitutes to take the 
 place of any absentees. When the culprit is of superior 
 rank to any of the voters, the council is made up from 
 members drawn in consecutive term from a list 
 which must be published by the War Department, 
 and in which appear the names of the officials 
 eligible for such service, as provided by an ancient order. 
 In the various zone the military heads carry this into effect. 
 There exist permanent Councils of War as follows : Two in 
 the Military Headquarters of the Federal District, one in 
 the General Headquarters of each zone and one in the Mili- 
 tary Headquarters designated by the Secretary of War. 
 
 The members of the Council of War are refusable to the 
 number of those without cause and must be excused when 
 they have any legal impediment. 
 
 The Extraordinary Councils of War are also composed 
 of seven voters drawn at random from the best of officials 
 made up by the chiefs empowered to convoke a session of 
 the council. Those councils try crimes of a somewhat 
 grave character ; but it is necessary that the criminal shall 
 have been apprehended in fraganti and that twenty-four 
 hours shall not have passed between the commission of the 
 crime and the sentencing of the culprit. 
 
 The trials are arranged by instructing judges who, upon 
 termination of the preliminary proceedings and the declara- 
 tion that the council is prepared to go into session, the 
 day having been fixed ; present themselves at the conven- 
 
238 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 
 
 tion which is composed of the President of the Council, 
 who is of the highest rank and at the same time President 
 of the Debates. This latter personage seats himself at the 
 spot most convenient, the Advising Attorney at his right 
 and the Instructing Judge at his left. At the right of the 
 Advising Attorney are seated those voters, and three more 
 at the left of the Instructing Judge. 
 
 In their respective places, are then seated the agent of 
 the Court of Inquiry at the right of the President of the 
 Debates, at the left the defender or defenders of the 
 accused, the latter being seated on a bench in front. The 
 Council must decide upon the questions which the advising 
 lawyer may submit, and pronounce sentence in secret ses- 
 sion. This sentence passes to the Supreme Military Court 
 (formerly Supreme Court of Military Justice) in revision 
 or appeal. 
 
 The Supreme Military Court > is composed of two 
 chambers, the first and second, composed as follows: 
 the first of five magistrates, three generals and two 
 lawyers with the character of generals of brigade ; 
 the second, of two generals and one lawyer. 
 These are called regular, in addition to which there 
 are six supernumeraries, — four military and two legal, 
 who act as substitutes for the regular, and form part of 
 the full tribunal. Each chamber has its own President, 
 and in the full tribunal the President of the first chamber 
 presides, he being considered as chief of the Administra- 
 tion of Justice in the tribunal of war. The first court con- 
 siders appeals, the second, revisions. 
 
 OF APPEALS. 
 
 Sentence having been pronounced by a petty tribunal, 
 if the interested parties are satisfied with the decision, the 
 matter passes to the second chamber of the Supreme 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 239 
 
 Military Court for revision, in order to determine whether 
 there has been any violation of the law and place the re- 
 sponsibility where it belongs. If the parties, or any one 
 of them, are not satisfied, appeal is then resorted to and 
 the matter goes to the first chamber for second trial. For 
 three days proofs are received. The parties may request 
 proofs, provided that which they request has not already 
 been considered in the first trial. The day being set for a 
 hearing, the parties allege and the court within the period 
 of eight days must pronounce sentence changing, nullifying 
 or confirming the judgment already passed. If the culprit 
 is the appellant, no greater penalty can be inflicted than 
 that already determined by the first court. This appeal 
 may also be interposed during xhe trial for any decision 
 which may cause injury and which may be specified by the. 
 law. Besides the recourse of appeal, the law allows 
 that of explanation of sentence and denied appeal. The 
 first is in case the parties believe that the sentence of the 
 court is obscure ; and must be resorted to the moment the 
 decision has been given, while the tribunal must decide 
 clearly upon the appeal. The second is resorted to when 
 appeal has been denied, or when it has been granted with 
 certain restrictions ("en el efecto devolutivo "). There 
 exists in the law which has just been repealed, the appeal 
 of abrogation (casacion) submitted to the universal laws 
 which govern such matters, and which were provided for 
 in the ordinance in question. 
 
 OF PENALTIES. 
 
 The following are now regarded as military crimes: 
 Voluntary inutility, disobedience, insubordination, insults 
 or violence directed against sentinels, guards, or safe- 
 guards, calumny, undue deliberation, sedition or mutiny, 
 infraction of sentinel's duties, infringement of duties of 
 
240 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 
 
 prisoners of war, evasion of same or of military arrests, 
 abandonment, unnecessary capitulation, cowardice, deser- 
 tion, dueling, intoxication, revelation of secrets, falsehood, 
 abuse of authority, maltreatment of prisoners or persons 
 under arrest, abuse of the military or civil Ipolice, maraud- 
 ing, pillage, destruction, stealing, exaction, smuggling, 
 rebellion, treason, usurpation of authority, false alarms, 
 embezzlement, transfer or destruction of property belong- 
 ing to the army, espionage, instigation for the purpose of 
 helping the enemy, and crimes committed in the military 
 administration. 
 
 In general, the new law is much more lenient than the 
 old one ; it only requires that the culprit who has been guilty 
 while the third part of the ordinance has been in force, 
 shall request the application of the most favorable law, in 
 order that the tribunals shall grant to his demand. 
 
 This new law is extolled by all as being just, legal and 
 adequate to meet the requirements of the Mexican army, 
 without departing from the universal rules governing 
 military rights. 
 
 If it possesses any defects, practice will soon demonstrate 
 wherein they lie, in order that proper correction may be 
 made of same. 
 
 NATIONAL NAVY. 
 ORGANIZATION WORKS. 
 
 VI. All the governments of Mexico since it gained inde- 
 pendence have made great sacrifices to. establish a well 
 organized navy, and yet, in spite of all, they have not suc- 
 ceeded in securing even a medium one, in a branch of 
 national defense which is so important. 
 
 In 1829 the fleet consisted of 1 war ship, 2 frigates, 1 
 corvet, 4 brigs, 5 schooners, 2 other fore and aft schooners 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 24; 1 
 
 and 4 gunboats, and the estimate of expenses amounted to 
 
 $1,289,262. , , _ . .. 
 
 In 1846, the small squadrons that used to ply along the 
 coasts of theEepublic disappeared; out of a principle of 
 national honor three vessels were disarmed and sunk in the 
 Atlantic in order to obstruct approaches and to avoid being 
 taken by the North American squadron. Twenty-one 
 captains of war-ships and of frigates and over one hundred 
 and fourteen officers who formed the commanding body of 
 the navy were employed in land service till 1848, when 
 thev were appointed to the few places which were to remain 
 in the navy, whilst to all who were not given positions 
 retirement for an unlimited period was granted. With the 
 schooner « Fortuna," which cost the Government six thou- 
 sand dollars, a beginning was made in 1849 in the formation 
 of the new fleet which was now indispensable in order to 
 give security to the coasts, to protect commerce and to 
 prevent smuggling. . , 
 
 The Secretary of War and of the navy in a memorial 
 presented by him to the Congress in 1890, thus expressed 
 himself about what the Mexican navy had been : « A series 
 of trials and attempts without agreement, without plan and 
 without resources and in consequence a succession of 
 disasters,suchhas been since the independence the history of 
 our war and merchant navy. In these attempts incalculable 
 sums of money have been simply thrown away and what is 
 more lamentable still is that numbers of citizens have been 
 uselessly sacrificed; for deprived of natural resources, 
 without experience and relying merely on their enthusiasm 
 and bravery they were obliged to yield to the indisputable 
 superiority of very skillful adversaries. Events which are 
 not very distant warn us of the importance which a well 
 organized navy has even among nations which do not 
 as^re to play a grand part among maritime powers In 
 the year 1829 Barradas without being noticed landed on 
 
242 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 the Gulf coast and encamped on the bank of the Panuco. 
 At least 300 years before this time the natives of Tabasco 
 were already acquainted with seafaring matter and a number 
 of large Indian canoes followed in the wake of the brigs 
 of Cortes. In the year 1838 the squadron of Baudin cast 
 anchor at the foot of the fortress at Ulua and displays 
 under our eyes the preparations made for an assault. In 
 1847 Scott was easily able to cast among us from his war 
 vessels 3,600 bombs and plough up with his boats the 
 waters of the port. Lastly we remember with what ease 
 we have seen the soldiers of Napoleon III. repulsed from 
 the stronghold of Mazatlan and yet find security in their 
 boats, and then when out of our reach throw a parting shot 
 among us as they were being lost to sight in the immensity 
 of the Pacific Ocean. The inaction of the governments 
 would awaken in us a feeling of shame and indignation if 
 history, or rather the actual facts, did not justify our 
 country which had just broken its prison bonds and was 
 weak, inexperienced in war, engaged in social reforms and 
 enveloped in an immense strife and had not therefore time 
 to devote itself to technical studies nor the means to 
 organize schools. But to-day it has them. Peace and 
 national prosperity, the consequence of peace, are a living 
 reality and nobody can now doubt that it is our duty to 
 guard ourselves againt the surprises of the future and to 
 prepare ourselves for resistance now that we have been 
 taught by our many calamities. 
 
 In effect the Republic is at present making preparations 
 to become a maritime nation. The Federal Government 
 is making efforts to increase the number of men-of-war 
 and to secure the means to enable it to watch over national 
 interests ; it is stimulating the progress of the national 
 merchant navy by granting it absolute protection and is 
 undertaking the formation of a body of marine officers 
 who shall be well instructed in all the advances made 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 243 
 
 in the sciences as well as in the practice which good 
 service in the navy requires. 
 
 For this object it has ordered the establishment of 
 a special section of marine studies in the military college, 
 wherein the young men who devote themselves to a naval 
 life may receive a complete scientific education. Several 
 of them have passed on to practice in the Spanish navy 
 as midshipmen, others to Ferrol in order to follow the 
 career of naval engineers, whilst others have gone to sea in 
 the Mexican squadrons. The naval schools have sent 
 forth from their bosoms talented pupils who have passed 
 on to practice in national merchantmen as pilots paid by 
 the treasury. 
 
 The merchant fleet has also undergone various ups and 
 downs owing to the continued state of political agitation 
 through which the country has passed. As a national 
 industry it has made the same strides in progress as the 
 other industries and like them it has been supported for 
 the most part by the interior markets and only in a very 
 small degree by foreign ones. 
 
 As regards the independence of the merchant fleet here 
 is the opinion of the Secretary of War as given in the 
 report already mentioned: "There are in force several 
 laws which I am bound to observe and which undoubtedly 
 rest upon economic and political grounds, which again are 
 founded on scientific principles, but I may be allowed to 
 presume that the absolute independence of the merchant 
 fleet authorized perhaps by an erroneous interpretation of 
 the laws, has for a long time deprived us of one of the 
 most fruitful sources of wealth. This result was clearly 
 seen when the laws of the Spanish Cortes, which were still 
 in force in Mexico at the end of the war of independence, 
 admitted conscription but rejected enrollment. Then in 
 1841 when the naval ordinances put in force the system of 
 enrollment the progress of the navy was at once evident 
 
244 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 as it was now protected both by its distinctive rights 
 and able to support itself by the mere traffic along the 
 coasts. 
 
 " Inexperience was the cause of the abandonment of the 
 protective system and the navy once more entered upon a 
 period of decline. On the re-establishment of the Re- 
 public a subvention was given to it ; but this means, which 
 was suitable at that time, has now become unnecessary. 
 At present we are able to strengthen our merchant navy, 
 by uniting it with the war fleet so that it may act in con- 
 junction with the latter for common interests that is in 
 defending the country." 
 
 Many regulations have been dictated by the Secretary 
 of- War since 1879, with the object of thoroughly reorgan- 
 izing the fleet. It would be tedious and perhaps useless to 
 enumerate them ; the first ones were remolded in the law of 
 the 28th of June, 1881, and this, along with later laws, was 
 annulled by the new ordinance of the war fleet promul- 
 gated on the 4th of July, 1891, and which came into force 
 on the 16th of September of the same year. 
 
 This ordinance took the place of the old ones of the 
 years 1793 and 1802 which, with some few modifications, 
 had till then remained in force although in some particulars 
 they were in direct opposition to the political organization 
 of the Republic. 
 
 THE PRESENT ADMINISTRATION OF THE NAVY. 
 
 The naval administration of the Republic is under the 
 charge of the Central Department of the Navy in the War 
 Secretaryship ; under the Gulf of Mexico Department ; 
 under the Pacific Ocean Department, under the twelve 
 harbor-masters who in their turn are dependent on the 
 Gulf Department and under fifteen who are subject to the 
 Pacific Department. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 245 
 
 The Naval Department is the central and advising office 
 for all the others belonging to this branch. It has the 
 powers and is supplied with the staff to undertake the 
 labors of the department as has been already mentioned 
 elsewhere. 
 
 The Gulf and Pacific Departments are established, the 
 first in Veracruz and the second in Mazatlan, and both have 
 under their charge the squadrons in their respective seas, 
 the direction of the merchantmen and general police and 
 military inspection within the limits marked out for their 
 jurisdiction. The staff of each is composed of 1 man- 
 of-war captain who is chief of the Department, 1 frigate 
 captain, judge instructor, 1 first lieutenant, secretary, 1 
 sub-lieutenant, storekeeper, 2 clerks and 1 first ordinance 
 sailor. 
 
 The Harbor-masters of the Republic are 25 in number 
 and have under their care the surveillance of the ports, 
 roadsteads and bays. The chief duties of the captains who 
 serve them are : to see that vessels are properly anchored 
 or moored and that due order is observed inloadins: and un- 
 loading ; to direct their entrances and departures and all 
 maneuvers that take place in the harbors, as well as to in- 
 spect and watch over the lighthouses; to practice a scientific 
 knowledge of the ports having regard to their plans and 
 other data and information which they may obtain and this 
 by going with the official pilots; to advise the captains or 
 shippers of national merchant vessels when they are ill- 
 supplied with masts, yards, rigging, cables, etc., or when 
 they are overloaded in such a way as to render them ex- 
 posed to an accident; to see that they do not set sail before 
 they are provided with all necessaries or before they are 
 lightened and that they draw sufficient water. It is also 
 incumbent on the harbor-masters to examine the smaller 
 craft in order to inform themselves of their condition ; to 
 give without any delay whatever the necessary assistance 
 
246 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 in cases of the grounding or losing of vessels on entering or 
 leaving port and also to do all that is requisite when ves- 
 sels are run into in such a manner as to cause serious 
 damages, etc., etc. 
 
 The habor-mastership of Veracruz is composed of 1 
 corvet captain or first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 
 interpreter and secretary, 1 clerk, 1 first boatswain, watch- 
 man, 1 third boatswain, master, 4 second quarter-masters 
 and 3 first sailors, oarsmen. 
 
 The harbor-master's staff at Mazatlan consists of 1 cor- 
 vet captain or first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 1 clerk, 
 1 third boatswain, watchman, 1 first quartermaster, mas- 
 ter, 2 second quartermasters, oarsmen, and 5 first sailors, 
 also oarsmen. 
 
 The remaining harbor-masterships are made up of 180 
 persons and each of them is under the direction of one 
 second lieutenant or of one sub-lieutenant. 
 
 The positions of harbor-masters are divided according 
 to their degree of importance into first, second and third 
 class. 
 
 The following are those of the Gulf with their class and 
 geographical limits of jurisdiction : Matamoros, third class, 
 jurisdiction extending from the center of the mouth of the 
 river Bravo to three miles north of the bar of Soto la Marina. 
 TampicOy second class, from that place to " Cabo Rojo." 
 Tuxpan, third class, from the last point to three miles 
 south of the bar of the river Cazones. Veracruz, first class, 
 from the last point to three miles south of the river's 
 mouth. Anton Lizardo from the last mentioned point 
 to three miles south of the bar of Saulecomapan. Coat- 
 zacoalcos, second class, from the last point to three 
 miles east of the bar of Santa Ana. Frontera, third 
 class, from that point to three miles north of the bar of 
 San Pedro y San Pablo ; Ida del Carmen, second class, 
 from the last point to three miles north of Jovinal Point ; 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 247 
 
 Campeche, second class, from Jovinal Point to three miles 
 north of the ranch of Clestum ; and Progreso, second class, 
 from Celestum to the boundary line between the Kepublic 
 and Guatemala. 
 
 The Harbor-masterships of the Pacific Ocean, their class 
 and limits of jurisdiction, are as follows: Todos Santos, 
 third class (Lower California), from the boundary line of 
 North America to Eugenio Point or Cape St. Eugenio : 
 Ma Guadalupe, third class (Pacific Ocean), comprises the 
 group of islands and their immediate dependents : Magda- 
 lene Bay, third class (Lower California), from Eugenia 
 Point to Rabbit Point or Cape ; San Lucas, third class, from 
 the previous point to Cape Pulmo (inclusively) ; La Paz, 
 second class, from the previous point to the right bank of 
 the mouth of the river Colorado ; La Libertad, from that 
 point to Cape Tepopa (inclusively) ;Guaymas, second class, 
 from Cape Tepopa to the right bank of the mouth of the 
 river Fuerte ;Altata, second class, from the previously men- 
 tioned point to the mouth of the river Piaxtla (exclusively) ; 
 Mazatlan, first class, from the last point to the mouths of 
 the river Cafias, Teacapan ; San Bias, second class, from 
 the last place to Point Graham (inclusively); Mas 
 Marias take in the islands Revillagigedo, whose position 
 with regard to the Marias, is about 176 or 200 leagues 
 southwest and which consist of the islands Locarro, San 
 Benito and Clarion; Manzanillo, third class, from Cape 
 Graham to the bar of Zacatula (right bank); Acapulco, 
 second class, from that point to the jutting point ; Puerto 
 Angel, third class, from the previous point to the mouths 
 of the river called Copalita ; Salina Cruz, third class, from 
 the previous place to the point north of the bar of Tonala ; 
 Tonald, third class, from the last point to Zacapulco; and 
 Soconusco, third class, from the last point to the mouth of 
 the river called Zuchiate. 
 
248 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 THE NATIONAL FLEET. 
 
 The fleet of the nation consists of five war vessels, 
 namely, the " Independencia," the "Libertad," the "Xi- 
 cotencatl " and the second fore-and-aft schooner " Colon," 
 which are all dependent on the Gulf Department, and the 
 gun-boat " Dem6crata," which is under the Pacific 
 Department. 
 
 There are two naval establishments : The Porfirio Diaz 
 Arsenal, situated in Goatzacoalcos, which guards the war 
 material and furnishes important services to national and 
 foreign vessels, and the Pedro Saenz de Baranda floating 
 dock, which is dependent on the arsenal and opened for 
 the service of the port where it is situated by a decree 
 dated the 1st of February, 1888. Both establishments are 
 supplied with the necessary foundries and endeavors have 
 been made to give them the extension which their usefulness 
 demands. 
 
 The steamers " Eesguardo de Tampico," "Progreso," 
 *' Campeche," " Mazatlan " and " Cuauthemoc " which 
 previously formed part of the fleet, were made over by a 
 memorandum of the President on the 15th of March, 1886, 
 to the Secretaryship of the Exchequer for fiscal purposes. 
 The corvet — School " Zaragoza," is a beautiful vessel des- 
 tined for service in the national fleet. It was built in 
 France and launched in the year 1891. Its masts are like 
 those of a sailing vessel and its measurements the follow- 
 ing: Length of water-line, 222 feet; breadth, 32.91 feet; 
 mean draft of water, 12.82 feet; displacement, 1,221 tons ; 
 speed, 15 miles. Its guns consist of 4 cannons of 472 
 common closure ( cierre comun), 2 of 57 m / m rapid shooters, 
 and 2 of 32 m / m mitrailleurs. It is capable of carrying 
 230 men. According to the contract its building cost 395,- 
 699 Mexican dollars. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 249 
 
 We are told that in the fleets of the world there is only 
 one other vessel of the same class as the " Zaragoza," and 
 that is the cruiser "George Bancroft," of the North 
 American navy. 
 
 The officers and crew of the " Zaragoza " are made up 
 of: 1 man-of-war captain, commander, 1 frigate captain, 
 chief of details, 3 first lieutenants, 3 second lieutenants, 2 
 sub-lieutenants, 3 first marine officers, 20 first midshipmen, 
 1 first chief engineer, 1 second chief engineer, 2 second 
 engineers, 1 electric engineer, 1 third engineer, 12 mechan- 
 ical apprentices, 1 first boatswain, 2 second constables, 
 stewards, waiters, quartermasters, gunners, sailors, etc., 
 etc., numbering altogether 139 persons. 
 
 The coast-guard steamers of the Mexican navy are four 
 in number, the "Mazatlan," the " Tampico," the " Cam- 
 peche," and the " San Bias," and have on board 40 
 men. 
 
 The merchant fleet is as follows : 33 steamers with 
 5,581.06 tons burden, and 208 sailing vessels with a tonnage 
 of 9,109 tons. 
 
 THE STANDING ARMY. 
 
 VII. On the 30th of June, 1890, the effective army had 
 13 Division Generals, 83 Brigade Generals, 14 retired Gen- 
 erals, 1,197 commanders and 2,596 officers. The infantry 
 troops numbered 16,783, the cavalry 7,374, the artillery 
 1,849, the Medical Body 213, the Staffs 152, the Military 
 Commanderships 4, Engineers 900, the Supreme Court 4 
 ordinances, and the Secretaryship of War with its De- 
 partments, 12. These figures give a total of 31,194 men. 
 
 The army has in its service 7,237 horses and 2,400 
 baggage animals. 
 
 The weapons of the infantry consist of Remington rifles 
 of 43 caliber and numbering altogether 19,161 with 18,923 
 
250 
 
 THE KICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 bayonets, 413 swords and 1,718,499 cartridges, 586 Colt 
 revolvers with 22,056 cartridges for them. 
 
 The cavalry arms are Remington carbines, caliber 58 and 
 50. The number of them is 8,870 with 543,953 cartridges ; 
 8,357 sabers and 562 Eemington revolvers and 20,906 
 cartridges. 
 
 The artillery is supplied with its proper number of 
 breech-loading cannons, the Bange system being the one 
 adopted. Its effective troops consist of 39 commanders, 
 192 officers and 1,849 men, 158 horses and 1,124 mules. 
 
 In the General Park, the National Palace, in the store- 
 houses of the artillery establishments and among the fixed 
 companies at the various ports there is a vast number of 
 fire-arms of different systems and calibers and a good 
 supply of ammunition, lances, hand-grenades, battery and 
 mountain cartridges of the Reffye system and for rifled 
 guns of every caliber. 
 
 CASTLE OF SAN JUAN DE ULUA, OPPOSITE VERACRUZ. 
 •Mex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. 
 
BOOK II 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION AND 
 POPULATION. 
 
 (251) 
 
CHAPTEE I. 
 
 GEOGEAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF MEXICO. 
 SITUATION AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. The northern boundaries which separate Mexico from 
 the North American Eepublic have gone through several 
 changes since the year 1795, when they were first settled be- 
 tween that Republic and the Spanish Vice-regal Government. 
 According to the treaty of 1819, the two Floridas were 
 ceded to the Government of the United States, this cession 
 including the islands adjacent to the coast and depending 
 on those provinces. The treaties of 1828 were entered 
 into with the object of ratifying the boundaries recognized 
 in the treaty of 1819. On the 2d of February, 1848, the 
 treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, under which the 
 divisory line between the United States and Mexico was 
 greatly altered, and this treaty was afterwards confirmed 
 and slightly modified by that of December 30th, 1853, in 
 the following manner : 
 
 Leaving intact the same boundary line between the two 
 Californias, as already defined and marked in accordance 
 with Art. V. of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the 
 boundary between the two Republics is declared to be as 
 follows : commencing in the Mexican Gulf at a distance of 
 three leagues from the shore, the line starts from the mouth 
 of the Rio Grande as stipulated in the above mentioned 
 Art. V. of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ; from thence, 
 as is also stipulated in that article, the line follows the 
 center of the river up to a point where it crosses the parallel 
 of 31° 47' north latitude; from thence it follows a straight 
 
 (253) 
 
254 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 line due west for a distance of 100 miles ; thence due south 
 to the parallel of 31° 20' north latitude ; from that point 
 the line follows this last parallel to the meridian 111° west 
 of Greenwich ; thence in a straight line to a point in the 
 Eio Colorado 20 miles below the junction of the rivers Gila 
 and Colorado; and from thence, following the center of the 
 river Colorado, the line runs up stream till it meet3 the 
 present boundary line between the twoCalifornias.* 
 
 On the southeast, Mexico is bounded by the Eepublic of 
 Guatemala, which at one time formed a part of its terri- 
 tory until the year 1824, when it separated on the fall of 
 the Emperor Iturbide. The boundaries between Guate- 
 mala and Mexico gave rise to complicated diplomatic ques- 
 tions which were finally settled by negotiations in 1882. 
 
 In accordance with the convention of the 23d of Sep- 
 tember of that year, signed in Mexico City by plenipoten- 
 tiaries representing both nations, a scientific commission 
 was appointed composed of six engineers from each of 
 the contracting parties. This body was commissioned to 
 definitely specify the natural points constituting the boun- 
 daries between the two nations and to set up the proper 
 landmarks showing the artificial lines. 
 
 These lines were specified under Article III, of the treaty 
 of the first of March, 1883, in the following manner: 
 
 " The permanent boundaries between the two nations 
 shall be the following : 1st. The center line of the Eio 
 Suchiate, starting from a point in the sea distant 3 leagues 
 from its mouth and following the river upwards by its 
 deepest channel, to a point at which the river cuts the 
 vertical plane passing through the highest peak of the vol- 
 cano of Tacana, at a distance of 25 meters from the south- 
 ernmost column of the Talquian Custom House, in such a 
 manner that this Custom House shall remain within the 
 
 * Treaty of La Mesilla — Art. I. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 255 
 
 territory belonging to Guatemala. 2d. The line determined 
 by the vertical plane above spoken of, from the point 
 where it meets the river Suchiate, up to its intersection 
 with the vertical plane that passes to Ixbul from the sum- 
 mit of Buenavista. 3d. The line determined by the verti- 
 cal plane which passes through the summit of Buenavista, 
 and which will be fixed astronomically by the Mexican 
 Scientific Commission, and the summit of the mountain of 
 Ixbul, from the point where it intersects the previous line 
 up to a point 4 kilometers distant from the latter hill. 
 4th. The parallel of latitude which passes through the 
 point last specified, running in an easterly direction until 
 it intersects the deepest channel of the river Usumacinta, 
 or that of the Chixoy, in case the above mentioned parallel 
 does not intersect the first named river. 5th. The center 
 line of the deepest channel of the river Usumacinta or of 
 the river Chixoy, if that should be the one intersected, and 
 following the stream of the Usumacinta until it intersects 
 the parallel situated 25 kilometers to the south of Tenosique 
 in Tabasco, such line being measured from the center of the 
 Plaza in that town, 6th. The parallel of latitude above 
 referred to as intersecting the deepest channel of the 
 Usumacinta, until it intersects the meridian at a third 
 part of the distance between the centers of the plazas of 
 Tenosique and Sacluc, such third part being measured from 
 Tenosique. 7th. This same meridian, from its intersection 
 with the parallel above spoken of to its intersection with 
 the parallel of 17° 49'. 8th. The parallel last spoken of 
 from its intersection with the last meridian, in an easterly 
 direction as far as required. 
 
 On the east, the Republic is bounded by the Mexican 
 Gulf and Carribean Sea, from the mouth of the Rio Bravo 
 to the peninsula of Yucatan, giving a coast line of 2,580 
 kilometres. On the west it is bounded by the Pacific 
 Ocean, with a coast line of 6,250 kilometres. The greatest 
 
256 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 width of the Republic from east to west is 2,000 kilo- 
 metres, measured on the frontier line of the United States, 
 and the least width, is on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, 
 where it measures 210 kilometres. Its greatest leDgth 
 from north to southeast, is 2,800 kilometres. 
 
 Astronomically speaking, the Mexican Republic is sit- 
 uated between the parallels of 14° SO' and 32° 42' of north 
 latitude, and between the meridians of 12° 21' east and 18° 
 west of Mexico. According to the English system these 
 would be 86° 46' 8" and 117° 7' 9" west of the Observatory of 
 Greenwich. Its superficial area measures 1,983,332 iniri- 
 aras, and the adjacent islands 3,682, thus giving a total 
 area of Mexican territory of 1,987,014 miriaras, or 751,700 
 square miles. 
 
 MOUNTAIN SYSTEM. 
 
 II. Probably there is not another country in the world 
 whose mountain system is found so attractive as that of 
 Mexico. This opinion, which was expressed by Baron 
 Humboldt, has been afterwards confirmed by many eminent 
 g;eoloo;ists and travelers. Starting from CaDe Horn and 
 running along the west coast of South America, the magni- 
 ficent Cordillera of the Andes undergoes a depression on 
 the Isthmus of Panama and elevating itself afresh, enters 
 the territory of the Republic by way of Soconusco. In 
 the State of Chiapas, its branches form narrow and pro- 
 longed ravines, valleys and table lands with an elevation 
 of 1,200 or 1,500 feet above the level of the Pacific Ocean, 
 giving to the country a most picturesque appearance, and 
 the aspect of a coast protected by enormous batteries of 
 granite. To the north of Oaxaca, Morelos and Guanajuato, 
 this important range acquires a great width under the 
 name of Sierra Madre, and from thence it forms a series 
 of elevated mountain ranges which have been called the 
 Mexican Andes, and which, stretching along the entire 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 257 
 
 length of the central tableland disappear in the valley of 
 the Eio Bravo del Norte. To the north of Oaxaca this 
 range becomes forked, one branch bearing to the eastward 
 in the direction of Charcas and Catorce until it is lost in 
 the State of Nuevo Leon, where it forms extensive and 
 fertile valleys as well as a series of canyons, through which 
 torrents of water descend during the rainy season. The 
 western branch, which runs parallel to the eastern, traverses 
 the State of Guerrero, where it undergoes a considerable 
 depression, rising afresh in the State of Michoacan. It 
 undergoes another depression in Jalisco, in the neighborhood 
 of Bolanos, and continues in a northerly direction by way 
 of Culiacan and Arizpe in the States of Sonora and Sinaloa, 
 from whence it eventually unites with the Eocky Mountain 
 ranges in the United States. A third branch, which is not 
 so clearly defined, extends through Zacatecas and Durango, 
 continues through Parral in the State of Chihuahua, and 
 from thence is ultimately absorbed in the Sierra Madre of 
 the western coast. 
 
 This immense system of mountains gives to the country 
 an extremely varied aspect and is the reason why all 
 the climates are found within its territory, according to the 
 diversity of altitude. 
 
 Starting from either coast towards the central table- 
 land, the country is found elevating itself in a way that is 
 plainly visible, and at times forming steep elevations. 
 From the coasts of Veracruz and Tamaulipas, as well as 
 from the plains of the northern frontier, enormous walls 
 of basaltic rocks and granite peaks are seen to crown the 
 summits of the ranges, presenting great difficulties in those 
 parts where the traveler finds no road. Between the spurs 
 of these mountains are found many picturesque and fertile 
 valleys or plains, beautifully watered by meandering 
 streams and sometimes by considerable rivers, which, 
 duringthe rainy season are often heavily flooded. The most 
 
 17 
 
258 
 
 THE KICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 notable of these valleys which form, it may be said, steps 
 from the sea upwards, are the following : 
 
 Elevation above 
 sea level. 
 
 Valley of Toluca ... 2580 m. * 
 
 Canada de Lxtla- 
 
 huaca 2527 " 
 
 Plains of the Apam 
 
 (Tlaxcala) .2480 " 
 
 San Juan de los 
 Llanos (Puebla)...2360 " 
 
 Llanos del Cazadei'o 
 (Hidalgo) 2300 " 
 
 Valley of Mexico . . . 2270 " 
 
 Patzcuaro (Michoa- 
 can) 2190 " 
 
 Valley of San Cristo- 
 bal L. C. (Chiapas) 2104 " 
 
 Valley of Puebla .... 2000 to 2150 m. 
 
 Tulancingo (Hidal- 
 go).. ..2089 m. 
 
 Tula 2047 " 
 
 Plains of the Salado 
 
 (San Luis) 2000 to 230C m. 
 
 Iritacuaro (Michoa- 
 
 can), 2000 m. 
 
 Morelia (Michoacan) 1950 " 
 
 San Juan del Rio 
 
 (Queretaro) 1950 " 
 
 Ario 1890 " 
 
 Bajio (Guanajuato.. 1750 to 1790m. 
 
 Tazco de Alarcon. ..1780 m. 
 
 Cueucame (Duran- 
 
 go) 1740 " 
 
 Valley of Maltrata 
 (Veracruz) 1691 " 
 
 Valley of Oaxaca. . . . 1550 " 
 
 * Metre, 3 feet 3| inches. 
 
 Elevation above 
 sea level. 
 
 Cuernavaca (More- 
 los) 1525 m. 
 
 Guadalajara (Jalis- 
 co) 1523 " 
 
 Zapotlan (Jalisco) .. 1425 " 
 
 Chilpancingo (Guer- 
 rero) 1420 " 
 
 Sayula (Jalisco) 1385 " 
 
 Atenquique (Jalisco) 1248 " 
 
 Valley of Orizaba 
 
 (Veracruz) 1227 " 
 
 Valley of El Maiz ... 1220 " 
 
 Valley of Ameca 
 
 (Jalisco) 1180 " 
 
 Tula de Tamaulipas.1171 " 
 
 Valley of the Nazas 
 
 (Durango) 1100 " 
 
 Plains of San Gabriel 
 (Morelos) 1008 " 
 
 Iguala (Guerrero) .. . 919" 
 
 Tepic (City of) 900 " 
 
 Jorullo.... 850" 
 
 Colima 532 « 
 
 Mexcala (Rio de las 
 Balsas) 520 " 
 
 Monterrey (Nuevo 
 Leon) 486 " 
 
 Ciudad Victoria (Ta- 
 maulipas) 449" 
 
 Cerralvo (Nuevo 
 Leon) 380 " 
 
 Las Balsas 123 " 
 
 Acaponeta 64 " 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 259 
 
 The following are some of the principal mountains in the 
 Republic, with their elevations according to the latest cal- 
 culations : 
 
 Popocatepetl (Mex- 
 ico and Puebla) . .5420 m. 
 
 Citlaltepetl or Peak 
 of Orizaba (Vera- 
 cruz 5395 " 
 
 Ixtlacihuatl (Mexico 
 and Puebla) 4800 " 
 
 Xinantecatl or Peak 
 of Toluca (Mexico) 4578 " 
 
 Peak of Colima (Jal- 
 isco 4?78 " 
 
 Ajusco (Federal Dis- 
 trict) 4153 " 
 
 Matlacueyatl or Mal- 
 intzi (Tlaxcala)...4107 " 
 
 Cofre de Perote or 
 Nauchampatepetl 
 (Veracruz) 4089 " 
 
 Volcano of Colima 
 
 (Jalisco) 3884 " 
 
 Peak of Tancitaro 
 
 (Michoacan) . . 3860 " 
 
 Llanitos (Guana- 
 juato) 3815 " 
 
 Mount Patamban 
 
 (Michoacan) 3750 m. 
 
 Zempoaltpetl (Oax- 
 aca)... 3396 " 
 
 Peak of Quinceo 
 
 (Michoacan) 3325 " 
 
 El Gigante (Guana- 
 juato) 3250 " 
 
 Las Navajas (Hidal- 
 go) 3212 " 
 
 Veta Grande (Zacat- 
 
 ecas) 2786 " 
 
 Hueitepec (Chiapas)2705 " 
 
 Jesus Maria (Chi- 
 huahua) 2511 " 
 
 Monte Proafio (Za- 
 catecas) 2368 " 
 
 Volcano of Ceboruco 
 
 (Jalisco) 1525 " 
 
 Volcano of Tuxtla 
 
 (Veracruz) 1500 " 
 
 Volcano of Jorullo 
 
 (Michoacan) 1300 " 
 
 GEOLOGICAL FORMATION. 
 
 IV. The coasts lying along the Pacific and Gulf in the 
 Republic of Mexico, are formed of earths belonging to the 
 tertiary period, interrupted to a small extent by eruptive 
 and sedimentary rocks; with the exception, however, of 
 the coast of Lower California, lying, approximately, 
 between the 2° 40' and 28° 10' of north latitude, which is 
 
260 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 formed by earths of the quaternary period. Contiguous to 
 the tertiary earths, departing from the coast, are to be 
 found those of the quaternary ; these form the chief por- 
 tion of the Yucatan Peninsula, terminating at a few min- 
 utes from San Juan Bautista, capital of Tabasco, and pre- 
 cede the cretaceous earths lying between the 19° 4' and 51° 
 50' of North Lat. ; 2° 20' E. Long, and 7° 30' W. From the 
 second to the ninth parallel of W. Long, the tertiary earths 
 join with the cretaceous earths and from there begins the 
 vast zone of eruptive rocks, primitive and metamor- 
 phised, comprised between the 18° and 32° of North 
 Lat. which contains the so-called Volcanic Zone, of 
 which we shall treat below. Between the 2° and 3° of W. 
 Long, and the 24° of North Lat. are also found jurastic 
 earths as are also met with in the State of San Luis Potosl, 
 along the tablelands which extend to the north and east 
 of Mineral de Caiorce; these are not, however, the only 
 determination of that mesozoic subdivision which have been 
 classified, although these lands do not abound in the 
 Republic. 
 
 From the cretaceous rocks met with on many of the 
 mountain ranges of the interior, as well as on the coasts of 
 the Mexican territory, and which are found to be upheaved 
 by masses of porphyry, Don Mariano Barcena has concluded 
 that the original mountain ranges were formed towards the 
 end of the Mesozoic period or at the beginning of the tertiary. 
 The sedimentary marine formations were upheaved by vol- 
 canic action on the masses of porphyry, many of which crown 
 the crest and peaks of our mountains. Enormous hollows 
 were formed corresponding to the upheavals, and probably 
 were occupied for many centuries of the tertiary period, by 
 extensive lakes. At the present day many vestiges of these 
 lakes can be seen in different parts of the Republic, es- 
 pecially in the States of Oaxaca, Nuevo Leon and Tamau- 
 lipas. . During the Mesozoic age, enormous disturbances 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 261 
 
 took place, doubtless due to volcanic action, and extensive 
 traces of these can be found in the interesting zone com- 
 prised between the 18th and 20th parallels of latitude (90 
 kilometres apart), in which active volcanoes are found to 
 this day, as well as the greater part of the extinct ones. 
 The principal volcanoes in Mexico are the following: — 
 Active. Jorullo, whose formation dates from the year 
 1759, and which now appears to be in a quiescent condition, 
 although it still gives a few belches of sulphur and smoke; 
 Tuxtla de San Martin, which had an eruption in 1793; 
 Popocatepetl, whose late eruption was in 1802, and Colima 
 in 1870. Besides the above, we have the peak of Orizaba, 
 which is visible at a large distance out on the Gulf of 
 Mexico, forming a beautiful spectacle to greet the traveler. 
 Amongst the extinct volcanoes we have the following: that 
 of San Andres de Tuxtla and Uqueo in Michoacan ; the Peak 
 of Toluca in Mexico ; Ajusco in San Nicolas ranges and 
 Cerro Caldera in the Federal District and Puebla ; the Colli 
 in Jalisco and the Cofre of Perote (in Puebla) which, al- 
 though not formed like most volcanoes, contains several 
 extinct craters on its slopes besides other vestiges of the 
 course of lava streams. The Peak of Toluca is very 
 remarkable from the circumstances that its crater contains 
 four lakes of drinking water, of which the largest measures 
 400 feet in length by 250 in width, with a depth of ten 
 metres. 
 
 The Azoic period, which left such clearly defined traces 
 in Canada and the northern lakes of the United States, 
 does not appear to have had much effect on the geological 
 formation of Mexico, unless it be on a few crystalline rocks 
 to be found in the southern ranges of the Sierra Madre,* 
 and which perhaps may be said to belong to that period. 
 The same may be claimed with respect to the Silurian 
 
 * Cfeology, by Mariano Barcena. 
 
262 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 period, for, although there are a few sandstones and slates 
 to be found in the western Sierra Madre, and in the District 
 of Altar in Sonora, it has not yet been scientifically proved 
 that these strata should be credited to that particular period. 
 Nor have there as yet been found any formations which 
 can be described as characteristic of the Devonian period, 
 and the study of the carboniferous formation is, up to the 
 present, very imperfect. The coal beds in the midland 
 States, according to the author above mentioned, belong to 
 a more recent period ; but this assertion, which appears well 
 founded with respect to some of the interior States, is not so 
 as regards the coal beds of San Felipe and Piedras Negras 
 in Coahuila, San Marcial in Sonora, besides those of 
 Chihuahua, Michoacan, Veracruz, Guerrero, Oaxaca and 
 Chiapas, of which mention will be made at length further on. 
 TheTriasic period in the Mesozoic age, left remarkable im- 
 pressions in the form of a dark or gray colored clay slate 
 which contains particles of mica and which has been discov- 
 ered in the district of Acatlan in the State of Puebla. In 
 " Noria de los Angeles," in the State of Zacatecas, and in 
 other parts, ferrasic amonites have been discovered and com- 
 pact foetid lime stone, with a gray, smoky color, which have 
 been carefully studied by the Mexican geologist, Don 
 Mariano Barcena. These contain hypurites, merineas and 
 radiolites in abundance. In regular stratification through- 
 out these masses have been found limestone, slate, clay, 
 slates and beds of " piedra lidia." No traces can be met 
 with of the glacial period or of the Cenozoic age, and the 
 large polished blocks which have been found by General 
 Riva Palacio in the neighborhood of Acapulco appear most 
 likely to belong to the Champlain or Diluvial period. To 
 the same period quite probably appertain the alluvial and 
 lacustrine valleys, which are so abundantly found within 
 the Republic. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 263 
 
 GEOLOGICAL COMMISSION OF MEXICO. 
 
 It cannot be said without exaggeration that profound 
 geological studies have been carried to a successful tcrmi- 
 nation in Mexico, nor, much less with that continuity of 
 purpose which they demand ; it may be truthfully stated, 
 however, that meritorious efforts have been made in this 
 direction. 
 
 The Geological Commission, initiated by the Department 
 of Colonization, Industry and Commerce on April 26th, 1886, 
 and which was created by the decree of December 18th, 
 1888, has made unheard of efforts in the accomplishment 
 of its important task, as the success of its labors abundantly 
 attest. In 1889 it presented at the Universal Exposition 
 of Paris a "Geological Map of the Republic," containing 
 fifty per cent of the superfice of the country, and a '< Mining 
 Chart of the Republic," which works were awarded a gold 
 medal. In 1890 it submitted the same works to the 
 " Mineral Metallurgical Exposition " of London, and, wilh 
 the same good fortune, these were also awarded a gold 
 medal. At the International Geological Congress, which 
 met in Washington, in 1891, it exhibited the Geological 
 Map of the Republic augmented with new determinations, 
 and containing a study of seventy per cent of the superfice 
 of the country. To this work was added the paleontologic 
 and petrographic collections which served the purpose of 
 determining and classifying the formations. It is proposed 
 to exhibit at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago, this 
 present year, the geological map in question, containing 
 seventy -five per cent of the superfice of the country, the 
 paleontological and petrographical collections augmented, 
 and a mining chart of the Mexican Republic. 
 
 The personnel of this organization is as follows : Professor 
 
264 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Antonio del Castillo, director ; Jose S. Aguilera, paleontol- 
 ogist; Ezequiel Ordonez, petrographist ; Carlos Sapper, 
 geologist ; Ramon Felix Buelna, mining geologist; Luis G. 
 Becerril, draughtsman ; Natalio Diaz, clerk ; Fidencio Rod- 
 riguez, engraver. 
 
 At the present writing (April, 1893), Mr. Sapper is 
 devoting himself to the study of the Southern States, and 
 Mr. Buelna will shortly make a tour of exploration of those 
 regions in some of the Northern States as yet unexplored. 
 As soon as the general formations are determined, the 
 commission will direct its energies to the study of the 
 details of the metalliferous croppings of " Agricultural 
 Geology," and complete a few other important geological 
 studies, in diverse localities of the country. An appropri- 
 ation of $30,000.00 per annum has been assigned to the use 
 of this commission. 
 
 NATURAL WONDERS. 
 
 V. Amongst the wonders of nature which are to be found 
 in Mexico, worthy of study by the traveler and geologist, we 
 can mention the Barranca de las Tres Penas with its mag- 
 nificent scenery, the falls of Juanacatlan, in the State of 
 Jalisco, called by some travelers the Mexican Niagara, 
 with a width of 146 metres and a fall of 17 metres, the 
 falls of Regla formed by the waters of the River Huazca- 
 zaloya, which fall into an amphitheater formed of magnifi- 
 cent basaltic columns 34 metres high, and showing an extent 
 of 234 metres of cliff full of these wonderful natural 
 formations. The grotto of Cacahuamilpa in the State of 
 Guerrero, is widely known, and of this grotto it has been 
 said that " a painter can draw all the fanciful figures that 
 his imagination can inspire, and assure people that he has 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 265 
 
 copied them from the interior of the Cave of Cacahuamilpa, 
 without any fear of contradiction." * 
 
 The ravine in which this grotto is found has a length of 
 about 4 kilometres. — The geyser of San Andres in Michoa- 
 can, has been thus described by Saussure: "In front of 
 the spectator rises a white slope which appears to be covered 
 with porcelain; on the summit is found a well with a 
 diameter of two meters from which a stream of vapor 
 issues with a horrible hissing sound, and rises to a consid- 
 erable elevation ; a wave of boiling water overflows from the 
 opening and runs to the bottom of the valley along numerous 
 gutters, leaving behind it a lining of silica, making the gut- 
 ters appear to be lined with the finest china. .The same forest 
 contains lakes of boiling water, solfataras and fumarolas. 
 
 In the suburbs of Puebla, adjacent to the ranch known as 
 La Posada, the eminent Mexican geologist, Professor An- 
 tonio del Castillo, discovered in 1881 a geyser of tophus 
 limestone which sends forth at intermittent periods sul- 
 phidric gas, and this is known in that vicinity by the in- 
 digenous title of Ouescomate. 
 
 The Mexican Geological Commission has just published 
 a view taken from the mouth of the Geyser, from south to 
 north, and a section from northwest to southeast. 
 
 It would require a voluminous and special work to give 
 an account of all the natural wonders that are so abundantly 
 found throughout the Mexican territory. 
 
 HYDROGRAPHIC SYSTEM. 
 
 VI. The following table shows the names of the 
 principal rivers in Mexico, the States in which they 
 
 * Francisco Bulnes — Civil Engineer. 
 
266 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 are found, their length in leagues and the seas they flow 
 into. 
 
 States through which Length in 
 
 Rivers. they flow. leagues. Discharge. 
 
 Bravo Chihuahua, Coahuila and Tam 
 
 aulipas 548 Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Panuco Tamaulipas 120 
 
 Alvarado Veracruz 87 
 
 Coatzacoalcos. " 87 
 
 Grijalva Chiapas and Tabasco 132 
 
 Usumacinta . . . " I 31 
 
 Yaqui Sonora 150 Gulf of California. 
 
 Mayo " 74 
 
 Ures • " 100 
 
 jr U erte Between Sonora and Siualoa 130 
 
 Culiacan Sinaloa • • • • 60 
 
 Sinaloa " 100 
 
 Balsas Guerrero, Michoacan & Mexico . . 164 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Mezquital Durango and Jalisco 115 
 
 Nazas Durango 81 Lake of Parras. 
 
 Ameca Jalisco • • Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Lerma or Mexico, Michoacan 
 
 Tololotlan ... Guanajuato and Jalisco 208 
 
 The lakes of the Republic can be considered as divided 
 under two heads ; one comprised in the country included 
 between 19 and 21° of N. Latitude and the other situated 
 in the southern part of the country. The names of the 
 principal lakes are as follows: — 
 
 In Coahuila, Tlahualilo or Caiman, El Muerto and Par- 
 ras. In Tamaulipas, the Laguna Madre. In Chihuahua, 
 the lakes of Guzman, El Tajo, Santa Maria, Patos, Castillo, 
 and Enciuillas. In Campeche, the Laguna de Terminos. 
 Between Jalisco and Michoacan, Chapala. In Michoacan, 
 Cuitzeo and Patzcuaro. In Mexico: Chalco, Xochimilco, 
 Lerma, Zumpango, Xaltocan, Texcoco and San Cristobal. 
 In Hidalgo, Metztitlan. In Veracruz, Taniahua. On 
 the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Superior Lake and the 
 Inferior Lake. In Nuevo Leon: San Francisco, Conchas 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 267 
 
 and others of salt water. In Tabasco, Ramon and Ismate. 
 In Chiapas : Tepancuapan with a length of 24 kilometres, 
 and the lake of Islotes. In Durango, Guatimape. In 
 Guanajuato: Juriria, measuring 17 kilometres in length 
 and 7 in width. 
 
 The following table has been published giving the tem- 
 perature of some of the different waters of the country. 
 
 Springs of hard water in Mexico City 22° 50 
 
 Hard water in the reservoir at Salto del Agua 17 60 
 
 Spring of soft water in the Desierto 9 00 
 
 Soft water in reservoirs within the City 13 98 
 
 Artesian well in the Preparatory School - 15 06 
 
 Artesian well in the Hospital of San Lucas 17 30 
 
 Artesian well in Bucareli Avenue. 21 50 
 
 Artesian well in the Mint 25 50 
 
 Large reservoir in Chapultepec 21 47 
 
 Common well in the National Palace 15 90 
 
 Settling tank in Guadalajara 21 00 
 
 Water in the well in Guadalupe 21 50 
 
 Aragon Baths — Mexico 24 50 
 
 Baths at the Station in Guadalupe 22 80 
 
 Water of the Pefion Baths 44 50 
 
 Baths at Atotonilco — Hidalgo 66 50 
 
 Sulphur water at Santiago — Puebla 28 00 
 
 Baths at Tenguedo— Hidalgo 46 20 
 
 Baths at Zalatitan, near Guadalajara 41 00 
 
 Laja Spring, near Ahualulco — Jalisco 93 00 
 
 " * CLIMATE. 
 
 Temperature and Barometric Pressure. 
 
 VII. The climate of Mexico has not as yet been the 
 object of serious study, but of the results of such observa- 
 tions as made, the most notable is that published in the 
 City of Mexico in 1879, and which is entitled "Data for 
 the Study of the Climate of Mexico," by Dr. Domingo 
 Orvananos. Most of the following information has been 
 taken from this excellent work and from another by the 
 
268 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 same author, called " Essay on the Medical and Climatolo- 
 gical Geography of the Mexican Republic." This book 
 was compiled from official data which had been collected 
 from the Department of Fomentation, and was published by 
 that Department in the year 1888, whilst General Carlos 
 Pacheco administered it, with such credit to himself and 
 his country. 
 
 Few countries can be compared with Mexico in regard to 
 variety of climate. During a voyage of a few hours by 
 rail, the thermometer will vary from 20° to 27° centigrade 
 in the summer, and the same journey made in winter will 
 show a variation of from 18° to 30° ; and the light clothes 
 which the immigrant can hardly bear when he lands in Vera- 
 cruz, have to be changed on arrival in Mexico for a much 
 heavier class, the traveler feeling as cold in summer as he 
 would in a moderate winter elsewhere. 
 
 This does not mean that the temperature rises in a steady 
 and continuous manner from the coast to the Central table- 
 land, as it often happens in the Pacific and Southern States, 
 where the cold country is only a few hours distant from 
 the coast and the hot country is situated at a much larger 
 distance in the interior of the country. The different 
 elevations found in Mexico have led to the division of the 
 climate into three classes : hot, temperate and cold, for 
 which reason the lands situated at an elevation of less than 
 1,000 meters above the sea, are called " Tierra Caliente," 
 or hot country. These districts produce all kinds of 
 tropical fruits and products, such as the cocoa, the mango, 
 the banana, etc. Between the elevations of 1,000 and 
 2,000 metres we have the " Tierra Templada," or tem- 
 perate zone, which is that to which immigrants ought to 
 direct their steps, both because it is free from all risk of 
 yellow fever, which does not propagate at more than 
 700 metres elevation, and because it is free from the 
 excessive heat of the sea and coast and the insupportable 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 269 
 
 plague of insects which there abound. The part of the 
 country called " Tierra Fria," or cold country, is under- 
 stood to be all that is situated at an elevation of more than 
 2,000 meters above the sea, and where severe cold is 
 sometimes felt in winter time. In these parts the ther- 
 mometer occasionally shows a cold of 40 or 50° below zero, 
 but these cases are very rare. Even in the coldest parts of 
 Mexico, which are undoubtedly found in the mountains of 
 Chihuahua, hard winters are very unfrequent, and on the 
 central tableland the thermometer is very seldom found 
 descending to zero, even in elevated valleys like that of 
 Toluca. 
 
 The latitude and longitude have very little influence on 
 the climate of the greater part of the country, which is 
 distributed, partly in the torrid and partly in the temperate 
 zone. To make comparisons of temperature would require 
 the examination of the thermometrical data obtained in 
 various places situated at the same altitude but in different 
 latitudes. 
 
 The mean temperature of the three zones above spoken 
 of is as follows: 
 
 Hot country (according to situation) 23° to 25° 
 
 Temperate country (according to situation) ... 17° to 19° 
 
 Cold country (according to situation) 13° to 17° 
 
 As a general rule, the climate of Mexico can be consid- 
 ered as temperate. 
 
 According to Dr. Orvananos the mean difference between 
 the average temperature of the hottest and coldest months, 
 is greater in the hot country, less in the temperate zone 
 and very slight in the cold country. In the first, this 
 difference amounts to 8° or 10°; in the second, it varies 
 between 6° and 10° and in the third between 5° and 8°. 
 The average of the highest temperatures which are observed 
 in the course of a year (absolute maximum) as well as in 
 
270 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 the lowest temperatures (absolute minimum) is as follows: 
 In the hot country the first is 28° to 30° and the second 16° to 
 22°; in the temperate zone, the first is 23° to 33° and in the 
 second 0.5' to 12°, whilst in the cold country the first is 19° 
 to 33° and the second 0.5' to 9°. 
 
 The difference between the absolute maximum and mini- 
 mum is less in the hot country, increases in the temperate, 
 and continues that increase, although very slightly, in the 
 cold. At the same time it undergoes a notable diminution 
 in those places which are situated above the level of 2,300 
 meters. 
 
 From the foregoing it will be understood that the climate 
 of the Kepublic can be classified as very equable in propor- 
 tion to the elevation. At the same time it becomes more 
 variable in proportion to the increased elevation. But that 
 variation is greatly diminished in those localities which are 
 situated above the average elevation of the central tableland. 
 
 The different seasons of the year are hardly to be felt in 
 the inter-tropical regions, but they are more marked in 
 those which are situated at the higher elevations. In those 
 parts of the country which are comprehended in the torrid 
 zone, the different seasons are only known as dry and wet. 
 The dry season extends from November to May, during 
 which time rains are very scarce, whilst the wet season 
 begins in June and terminates in October, during which 
 time the rains are very abundant. In some States, such as 
 Tabasco, the rainy season is at times prolonged to eight or 
 nine months, whilst in others, such as Yucatan, this season 
 is generally found to be almost dry. 
 
 The mean barometric pressure at 0° in the seventeen 
 principal meteorological stations established in the Repub- 
 lic, is as follows: Aguascalientes, 605.68; Amecameca 
 (Mexico), 563.48 ; Guadalajara (Jalisco), 638.83 ; Guana- 
 juato, 605.91; Huejutla (Hidalgo), 763.82; Leon (Guana- 
 juato), 618.70; Mazatlan (Sinaloa), 760.87; Mexico 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 271 
 
 (Capital), 586.46; Pabellon (Aguascalientes), 607.76; 
 Puebla (State College ), 593.49 ; Puebla (Catholic College), 
 094.02 ; San Luis Potosi, 613.41 ; Toluca, 568.06 ; Tuxpaa 
 (Veracruz), 762.58 ; Veracruz, 760.00 ; Zacatecas, 573.45; 
 Monterey, 718.07. 
 
 The following table shows the elevation, mean tempera- 
 ture and barometric pressure in the principal cities of the 
 Republic: 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 Hermosillo 
 
 Culiacan 
 
 Guadalajara 
 
 Colima 
 
 Morelia 
 
 Chilpancingo 
 
 Oaxaca 
 
 San Cristobal Las Casas 
 
 Merida 
 
 Campeche Sea level 
 
 San Juan Bautista 
 
 Jalapa 1405 
 
 Ciudad Victoria 449 
 
 Chihuahua 1412 
 
 Saltillo 1627 
 
 Monterrey 495 21°86 718.07 
 
 Durango 2100 
 
 Zacatecas '.'. 2442 
 
 San Luis Potosi 1890 
 
 Aguascalientes 1861 
 
 Guanajuato . . . . 2083 
 
 Queretaro . < 1490 
 
 Pachuca 2450 
 
 Toluca 2625 12°60 £56.03 
 
 Tlaxcala 2252 
 
 Puebla 2162 
 
 Cuernavaca 1542 
 
 Mexico 2260 
 
 La Paz Sea level 
 
 Tepic 953 24°00 676.75 
 
 Elevation 
 meters. 
 
 Mean 
 tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 Mes 
 ric 
 mi 
 
 in baromet- 
 pressure in 
 Uimeters. 
 
 210 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 1566 
 
 19°83 
 
 
 636.40 
 
 486 
 
 2<5°11 
 
 
 717.75 
 
 1950 
 
 16°50 
 
 
 615.76 
 
 1193 
 
 21°00 
 
 
 
 1546 
 
 19°90 
 
 
 636.39 
 
 2104 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 26°16 
 
 
 763.07 
 
 a level 
 
 26°00 
 
 
 761.72 
 
 .... 
 
 26°03 
 
 
 ...... 
 
 15°80 
 
 572.97 
 
 17°25 
 
 614.16 
 
 17°80 
 
 604.75 
 
 18°80 
 
 601.37 
 
 17°60 
 
 615.36 
 
 15°86 
 
 593.81 
 
 21°09 
 
 636.67 
 
 15°72 
 
 586.80 
 
272 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 HUMIDITY. 
 
 In the hot country, the mean humidity varies from 85.04 
 to 77 hundredths, in the temperate zone it runs from 77 
 to 60 hundredths and from 67.05 to 48.04 in the cold 
 country. 
 
 According to the data collected up to the present time, 
 it appears that the atmospheric humidity is rather greater 
 on the Gulf coast than on the Pacific coast, as the first 
 almost amounts to 85 hundredths, whilst the second usually 
 remains below 80 hundredths. 
 
 It happens at times, that on account of the prevailing 
 winds, the average of humidity does not obey the general 
 laws, and that is what occurs in the towns of Mazatlan and 
 Guadalajara in which we have an average humidity of 77 
 hundredths, although Mazatlan is situated on the sea level and 
 Guadalajara at an elevation of 1,567 meters, besides being 
 70 leagues from the coast. 
 
 With respect to humidity, the climate of Mexico can be 
 classified as follows: 
 
 The hot country, humid. 
 
 The temperate zone, moderately humid and the cold 
 country very dry. 
 
 RAINS. 
 
 With regard to rains, the following facts have been 
 noticed : 
 
 1st. It rains more or less throughout the whole extension 
 of the Eepublic. 
 
 2d. The rains are more plentiful on the Gulf coast than 
 on the Pacific coast. 
 
 3d. That rains are abundant to the south of the Gulfs of 
 Mexico, California and Tehuantepec. 
 
 4th. That the rains are moderate in the greater parts of 
 the central and northern States. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 273 
 
 5th. That in the Gulf States, such as Veracruz and 
 Tabasco, and the western part of Campeche, the rains are 
 very abundant, whilst they are moderate in Yucatan and the 
 ports of Tamaulipas. 
 
 tith. With respect to the Pacific coast States, the follow- 
 ing conclusions have been arrived at: that the rains are 
 moderate in those districts situated to the south of the State 
 of Sinaloa, as well as in the larger proportion of the dis- 
 tricts in the States of Jalisco, Michoacan, Guerrero, Oaxaca, 
 and the territory of Tepic, whilst they are abundant in all 
 the northern and central parts of Sinaloa as well as in the 
 greater part of Chiapas. 
 
 The following table has been officially published, show- 
 ing the annual rainfall in different parts of the Kepublic: 
 
 Aguascalientes 591 .0 
 
 Campec&e 833.2 
 
 Colima 1052.9 
 
 Cordoba (Veracruz) 2798.5 
 
 Cuernavaca (Morelos) 1105.4 
 
 Guadalajara (Jalisco) 863.7 
 
 Guadalcazar (San Luis Po- 
 
 tosi) 1194.8 
 
 Guanajuato 859.5 
 
 Guaymas (Sonora) 711.2 
 
 Huehuetoca (Mexico) 2282.9 
 
 Huejutla (Hidalgo) 466.1 
 
 Ixtacomitan (Chiapas) 4618.5 
 
 Lagos (Jalisco) 866.6 
 
 Leon (Guanajuato) 728.3 
 
 Llano Grande (Guerrero) . . . 865.9 
 Matamoros (Tamaulipas)... 815.4 
 
 Mazatlan (Sinaloa) 822.2 
 
 Merida (Yucatan) ". . 913.0 
 
 Mexico (Federal District) 
 
 Central Observatory 607.4 
 
 Mexico (Federal Dist.) Pre- 
 paratory Nat. School 701.6 
 
 Mirador (Farm) Veracruz. .2130. 5 
 
 Monterrey (Nuevo Leon)... 744.0 
 
 Morelia (Michoacan) 648.4 
 
 Oaxaca 715.3 
 
 Orizaba (Veracruz) 2510.0 
 
 Pabellon (Farm) Aguas- 
 calientes <■ 506.6 
 
 Patzcuaro (Michoacan) 1158.6 
 
 Pinos (Zacatecas) 1007. 
 
 Puebla (Catholic College).. 1319. 5 
 
 Puebla (State College) 932.9 
 
 Queretaro 594.2 
 
 Saltillo (Coahuila) 554.1 
 
 San Juan del Eio (Quere- 
 taro) 500.6 
 
 San Luis Potosi 393.4 
 
 San Nicolas Buenavista (F. 584.7 
 D.) 
 
 Tezuitlan (Pueblo) 1530.9 
 
 Tinaja (San Luis Potosi) 766.0 
 
 Tlacotalpam (Veracruz) 1823.7 
 
 Toluca (Mexico) 678.0 
 
 Tuxpan (Veracruz) 1532.0 
 
 Veracruz 1319.1 
 
 Zacatecas 819.1 
 
 18 
 
274 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 WINDS. 
 
 Very little is known with regard to the winds of this 
 Republic, either with respect to their prevalent direc- 
 tion, or to their velocity. With respect to their tem- 
 perature, and degree of humidity, a little information has 
 been obtained, but only as regards the valley of Mexico. 
 
 The prevailing directions of the wind are as follows in 
 the localities which are shown : 
 
 Guadalajara "W . 
 
 Guanajuato S. W. 
 
 Leon N. N. E. 
 
 Mazatlan N. E. & N. W. 
 
 Mexico • N. W. 
 
 Pabellon (Aguas Calientes) W. S. W. 
 
 Puebla (State College) N. E. 
 
 Puebla (Catholic College) S. 
 
 San Luis Potosi E. 
 
 Zacatecas S. E. 
 
 From the above table it will be seen that the prevailing 
 winds in most of these localities are from a westerly 
 direction, those from the north and south being less fre- 
 quent, whilst those from the east are very rare. 
 
 With respect to the velocity of the winds we have the 
 data compiled in fourteen meteorological stations, and from 
 these we can deduce that the average velocity is about 
 moderate in Zacatecas ; very moderate in Amecameca, 
 Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Mazatlan, Pabellon (Aguascal- 
 ientes), Puebla, (the two observatories), San Luis Potosi, 
 and Tuxpan, and almost insensible in Aguascalientes, 
 Leon, (Guanajuato), Mexico, (Central Observatory) and 
 Toluca. 
 
 With respect to the humidity of the different winds in 
 the valley of Mexico, they can be placed as follows: 1st, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 275 
 
 N. W. ; 2d, W. ; 3d, S. W. and N. ; 4th, S. ; 5th, S. E.; 
 6th, E., and 7th, N. E. 
 
 With respect to temperature the winds come in the fol- 
 lowing order, beginning with the coolest : 1st, N. W. ; 2d, 
 W. ; 3d, N. ; 4th, S. W. ; 5th, S. and N. E. ; 6th, E. ; and 
 7th', S. E. ; * 
 
 We now present a general summary of the meteorolog- 
 ical observations taken in different parts of the Mexican 
 Eepublic, only noting that the observations taken in Mexico 
 and Puebla include the last eleven years, whilst the other 
 localities have only reported observations for ten years. 
 
 * These data have been extracted from " The Essays on Climato- 
 logical and Medical Geography," of which we have spoken above. 
 
 DRAINING THE VALLEY OF MEXICO. 
 Mex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. Notchistongo. 
 
276 
 
 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
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AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 277 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 THE STATES. 
 
 I. Up to this point we have considered the territory of 
 the Kepublic as a whole, making but little mention of its 
 political division ; we now propose to enter into details on 
 this subject. 
 
 The United Mexican States, embracing 27 States, 2 Ter- 
 ritories, 1 Federal District and the islands adjacent in both 
 seas. 
 
 The following is the political division: 
 
 CENTRAL STATES. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Dis- 
 
 Divi- 
 
 Can- 
 
 De- 
 
 tricts. 
 
 sions. 
 
 tons. 
 
 part- 
 ments. 
 
 CAPITALS 
 
 Distrito Federal . 
 Aguascalientes... 
 S. Luis Potosi. .. 
 
 Guanajuato 
 
 Queretaro 
 
 Hidalgo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Morelos , 
 
 Tlaxcala 
 
 Puebla 
 
 Rurango . 
 
 Zacatecas , 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 Aguascalientes. 
 
 S. Luis Potosi. 
 
 Guanajuato. 
 
 Queretaro. 
 
 Pachuca. 
 
 Toluca. 
 
 Cuernavaca. 
 
 Tlaxcala. 
 
 Puebla. 
 
 Durango. 
 
 Zacatecas. 
 
278 
 
 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 NORTHERN STATES. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Dis- 
 tricts. 
 
 Divi- 
 sions. 
 
 Can- 
 tons. 
 
 De- 
 part- 
 ments. 
 
 CAPITALS. 
 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 5 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Saltillo. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Monterrey. 
 
 
 
 
 
 GULP STATES. 
 
 Tamaulipas. 
 Veracruz. .. 
 Tabasco. . . 
 Campeche . . 
 Yucatan . . . 
 
 18 
 
 C. Victoria. 
 
 Jalapa. 
 
 S. Juan Btta. 
 
 Campeche. 
 
 Merida. 
 
 PACIFIC STATES. 
 
 Michoacan 
 
 Colima 
 
 Guerrero 
 
 Jalisco 
 
 Sinaloa 
 
 Chiapas 
 
 Oaxaca 
 
 Territory of Tepic. 
 Lower California. . . 
 
 Totales 
 
 177 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 118 
 
 11 
 
 29 
 
 50 
 
 Morelia. 
 
 Colima. 
 
 Chilpancingo. 
 
 Guadalajara. 
 
 Culiacan. 
 
 S. Cristobal L. C. 
 
 Oaxaca. 
 
 Tepic. 
 
 La Paz. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 279 
 
 TERRITORIAL EXTENSION. 
 
 We have here the territorial extension of the States and 
 Territories of the Bepublic. 
 
 CENTRAL STATES. 
 
 MIRIAEAS. 
 
 Distrito Federal I » 200 
 
 Aguas Calientes 7 > G44 
 
 Durango 98,470 
 
 Guanajuato 29,458 
 
 Hidalgo 23 > 101 
 
 Mexico 23,957 
 
 Morelos 7, 184 
 
 Puebla • 31 > 616 
 
 Queretaro 9 > 215 
 
 S. Luis Potosi '••••■ 65,586 
 
 Tlaxcala 4 > 132 
 
 Zacatecas 64,138 
 
 NORTHERN STATES. 
 
 Chihuahua 227,468 
 
 Coahuila 164,690 
 
 Nuevo Leon < 61,118 
 
 Sonora..., 199,224 
 
 GULF STATES. 
 
 Campeche ■ 46,855 
 
 Tabasco • • 26,094 
 
 Tamaulipas 83,234 
 
 Veracruz 75.651 
 
 Yucatan 91,201 
 
 PACIFIC STATES. 
 
 Lower California 151,109 
 
 Colima 5 ' 887 
 
 Chiapas 70 > 524 
 
 Guerrero • ■ 64 > 756 
 
 Jalisco • 82,503 
 
 Michoacan • 59,261 
 
 Oaxaca 91 » 6G4 
 
 Sinaloa 87 > 231 
 
 Tepic 29 ' 211 
 
 Total . 1,983,382 
 
280 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 The adjacent Islands which make up the whole of the 
 Territory of the Eepublic, are as follows : 
 
 Guadalupe (Pacific Ocean) 208 
 
 Cedros 
 Sta.Margarita 
 Creciente 
 Revillagigedo 
 Tres Marias 
 
 343 
 
 128 
 
 52 
 
 41 
 
 53 
 
 Tiburon (Gulf of California 96 
 
 Angel de la Guarda " " 636 
 
 Montagne " " 42 
 
 SanEsteban " " 38 
 
 San Lorenzo " " 22 
 
 San Jose " " 182 
 
 Cerralvo " " 152 
 
 Santa Catalina " " 38 
 
 Monserrate " " 25 
 
 Carmen " " 144 
 
 San Marcos " " 28 
 
 Partida " " 24 
 
 Cozumel (Gulf of Mexico) . 406 
 
 Mujeres " " 4 
 
 Espiritu Santo " " 68 
 
 Other small islands < 82 
 
 Total , 3,681 
 
 ASTRONOMICAL POSITION OF THE CAPITALS. 
 
 The latest works of the Department of Chartography, 
 subordinate to the Department of Colonization, Industry 
 and Commerce, undertaken with a view of determining the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 281 
 
 astronomical position of the Capitals of the States, show 
 the following results: 
 
 CAPITALS. 
 
 Latitude, N. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Sonora 
 
 Chihuahua 
 
 Coahuila 
 
 Nuevo Leon 
 
 Tamaulipas 
 
 Sinaloa 
 
 Durango 
 
 Zacatecas. 
 
 Aguascalientes 
 
 S. Luis Potosi 
 
 Jalisco 
 
 Colima 
 
 Michoacan 
 
 Guanajuato 
 
 Quer6taro 
 
 Hidalgo 
 
 Veracruz 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Pnebla 
 
 Tlaxcala 
 
 Morelos 
 
 Guerrero 
 
 Oaxaca 
 
 Tabasco 
 
 Chiapas 
 
 Yucatan 
 
 Campeche 
 
 Distrito Federal 
 
 Lower California 
 
 do ■ 
 
 Territorio de Tepic. . . . 
 
 Hermosillo 
 
 Chihuahua 
 
 Saltillo 
 
 Monterrey 
 
 Ciudad Victoria 
 
 Culiacan 
 
 Durango 
 
 Zacatecas 
 
 Aguascalientes. 
 S. Luis Potosi .. 
 Guadalajara — 
 
 Colima 
 
 Morelia 
 
 Guanajuato .... 
 
 Quere"taro 
 
 Pachuca 
 
 Jalapa • 
 
 Toluca 
 
 Puebla 
 
 Tlaxcala 
 
 Cuernavaca 
 Chilpancingo . . 
 
 Oaxaca 
 
 S. Juan Bautista 
 S. Cristobal, L.C 
 
 M6rida 
 
 Campeche .... 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Ensenada .... 
 
 La Paz 
 
 Tepic 
 
 29° 4' 
 
 28 38 
 25 25 
 25 40 
 
 23 42 
 
 24 48 
 24 1 
 22 46 
 
 21 53 
 
 22 9 
 
 20 40 
 19 14 
 
 19 42 
 
 21 
 
 20 35 
 20 7 
 19 31 
 19 27 
 19 2 
 
 19 19 
 
 18 55 
 17 33 
 17 3 
 17 59 
 16 44 
 
 20 55 
 
 19 49 
 19 26 
 31 51 
 
 29 16 
 
 21 30 
 
 37" 
 
 23 
 20 
 15 
 54 
 
 4 
 29 
 35 
 
 1 
 10 
 45 
 21 
 13 
 58 
 42 
 35 
 33 
 28 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 10 
 28 
 37 
 10 
 40 
 50 
 
 5 
 50 
 18 
 47 
 
 11° 47' 
 6 56 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 8 
 5 
 3 
 3 
 1 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 
 23 
 2 13 
 32 
 56 
 53 
 6 
 22 
 2 25 
 6 6 
 6 59 
 9 24 
 8 33 
 
 17 31 
 13 33 
 5 43 
 
 55" O 
 
 23 " 
 
 24 « 
 
 7 E. 
 1 " 
 
 31 O. 
 
 55 " 
 22 " 
 
 56 " 
 20 " 
 31 " 
 47 « 
 
 29 " 
 
 8 « 
 
 20 " 
 19 E. 
 12 " 
 47 O. 
 
 6 E. 
 
 45 " 
 
 42 O. 
 
 3 E. 
 
 21 " 
 28 
 48 
 
 30 " aprox. 
 30 " 
 
 
 
 14 
 44 
 15 
 
 aprox. 
 
 Note. — The meridian line of reference used to determine the de- 
 grees of longitude is one which passes through the east tower of the 
 Cathedral in the City of Mexico. 
 
282 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 POPULATION AND RACES. 
 BEGINNING OF MEXICAN CIVILIZATION. 
 
 I. The population and even the civilization of the Mexi- 
 can Republic, does not date, as is well known, frond the 
 discovery of America. The European conquest did no 
 more than modify said civilization and purify it from 
 savage customs by introducing higher forms of civilization, 
 improvements in industries, architecture, arts and sciences, 
 a more enlightened religious belief by abolishing human 
 sacrifices and many forms of superstitious rites or worship. 
 The ancient history of the Mexicans still remains an enigma 
 next to impossible of solution. Said solution, however, 
 not being essential to the object of this work, we 
 will not enter into details on the subject, contenting our- 
 selves with casting a rapid glance over the aforesaid civili- 
 zation. 
 
 It is beyond a doubt that America was inhabited many 
 centuries before the Christian era, though not a trace re- 
 mains of the aborigines. Those who have imagined that 
 they saw in the Tollan or Tulan of the Mexicans the ultima 
 Tulce of Seneca, deducting therefrom the resulting theory 
 of immigrations, have gone grievously astray, since, if not 
 entirely imaginary, the Tulse in question existed, at any rate, 
 subsequent to the peopling of America. The probability 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 283 
 
 is no doubt that the Tula of the Romans as well as the 
 Tila of the Icelander geographer, Carl Rafn, had no actual 
 existence. 
 
 America was not peopled by any one current of immigra- 
 tion, but by several. The Toltecs came from the northwest, 
 be their point of departure what it may, and they came, 
 perhaps, obeying through a long series of centuries, the 
 geological phenomenon of the steady cooling of the north- 
 ern regions. There is a good reason for supposing that 
 many hundreds or thousands of years ago, Greenland was 
 occupied by a flourishing nation. 
 
 Of the most ancient ruins of all, there are not now even 
 traces ; of the comparatively modern, there exist fortifica- 
 tions and remains of buildings, principally in the valleys of 
 Ohio, Missouri and Mississippi. The emigrations from the 
 regions of the north must have been carried out without any 
 fixed plan, and, possibly, with intestine wars as their 
 largely determining cause. Tula or Tollan must have been 
 the name of the northern nation that gave birth to these emi- 
 grations, and Tolteca or Nahoa the language spoken there, 
 modified to a greater or less extent in the different districts 
 or States of the said nation. This explains the persistency 
 of the Nahoa geographical names throughout Mexico 
 and Central America. Of the northern emigrants some 
 went southwards along the coast of the Pacific, and between 
 it and the western mountain ranges ; they were probably the 
 first to arrive at Chiapas and Guatemala, and were also 
 those who in the course of centuries, attained to a high 
 degree of prosperity and civilization in said localities, and 
 became the authors of the palenquian civilization, as 
 Orozco y Berra called it. Perhaps Violet-Le-Duc was 
 not altogether wrong in supposing that inhabitants of 
 Arian or even of the African race, must have preceded in 
 Yucatan and Chiapas, principally, the Toltec emigrants. 
 
284 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 A study of the bass reliefs of Chichen Itza and others of 
 the monuments of Yucatan, incites to this belief, the 
 more so that the conquerers encountered on the Peninsula 
 in question, types which were perfectly in accordance 
 with those found amongst the inhabitants of northern 
 Europe.* 
 
 Another of the northern immigrations must have been 
 the one which left traces of its passage in Missouri, Illinois 
 and Ohio, and which remained awhile in the region now 
 represented by our northern States. Buried in the fast- 
 nesses of the eastern Sierra Madre, fighting for possession 
 of the valleys and perhaps of the water supply, these 
 immigrants subdivided, retaining in the course of the cen- 
 turies no other trace of their relationship than the somewhat 
 faint one of language. The most considerable of the immi- 
 grations from the north must have taken place when their 
 predecessors who occupied Chiapas and Yucatan, had at- 
 tained to a high degree of civilization ; had become merged 
 in the aboriginal races, white and black, spoken of in the 
 Papol-Vuh, and had extended their dominion southwards 
 to Guatemala and northwards to Oaxaca and Yucatan. 
 Perhaps the palenquiau civilization had even then begun to 
 decay and the zapotecan to flourish. The ruins of Izamal, 
 Tizcocob, Acamec and Chichen-Itza are worthy of the 
 attention due to relics of an advanced civilization. The 
 ruins of Mitla, in Oaxaca, belong clearly to a new priest- 
 ruled and powerful nation ; they have somewhat of Egypt- 
 ian art and much of Roman. In the ruins of Yucatan and 
 Oaxaca, as compared with those of Chiapas, there is 
 visible a renaissance. The former are products of a more 
 refined taste, while at the same time they indicate their 
 probable relationship with the latter. 
 
 * Violet-Le-Duc. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 285 
 
 The teocalli is preserved; the pilasters or intercolumns 
 without base or capital, begin to appear in the Oaxaca and 
 Yucatan remains,! in a rudimentary fashion ; as do also 
 the arch and the vault. The joints are better adjusted, the 
 angles purer, the levels irreproachable ; so much so that, 
 according to the author already cited, " there were only 
 needed evidences of the carver's art, or designs which 
 evinced artificers of considerable knowledge and skill, to 
 complete the architecture." The most important of the 
 immigrations was, as we have said, the one of which me- 
 morials exist in traditions, hieroglyphics and writings. 
 The great Toltec peregrination carried out by a large num- 
 ber of tribes who kept settling along the road, must have 
 taken place at a period when the territory of Anahuac was 
 already well populated. Trade or dissensions went on 
 dividing up the general body of the emigrants, leaving them 
 stationed along the banks of the Gila, in territory which 
 formed part of the State of Sonora; in Casas Grandes of 
 the State of Chihuahua; in El Zope, in Durango; in La 
 Quemada, in Zacatecas; in Cholula of the State of Puebla 
 and in San Juan de Teotihuacan in the State of Mexico. 
 Extending immediately southwards, they carried along in 
 their course the Mistecos, Chuchones, Popolocos, Amuchcos 
 and other tribes who in former times occupied the region of 
 the valley of Mexico and the coasts of the Gulf and the 
 Pacific. When the Aztecs arrived in the country occupied 
 or conquered many centuries before by individuals of their 
 own race the descendants of these last were disappearing in 
 Central America, leaving behind them their magnificent 
 monuments, and the Zapoteca branch was flourishing. 
 War, perhaps, was what gave the death-blow to these 
 ancient civilizations. It is time to leave the subject. 
 
 t Reliable authors are of opinion that the buildings of Yucatan 
 belong to the Maya and Toltec civilizations. 
 
286 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 What is said will have been sufficient to give an idea of the 
 antiquity of the Mexican population.* 
 
 THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF MEXICO. 
 
 II. — The Empire of Anahuac had at the time of the 
 conquest over 30,000,000 inhabitants. In the territory of 
 Mexico, Toluca, Texcoco and Puebla were 1,500,000 dwell- 
 ing houses capable of lodging 9,120,000 persons. These 
 figures are not exaggerated and are worthy of belief since 
 they can be substantiated by creditable dates, for in the 
 valley of Mexico, alone, from 1524 to 1540, there were 
 more than 6,000,000 of Indians baptized. The statistics 
 drawn up by Cortez of the Valley of Anahuac, shows that 
 there were 620,000 families composed of four to ten indi- 
 viduals each, and, according to the information furnished 
 to Charles V., there must have been 3,720,000 inhabitants. 
 In addition to this, were the 655 villages in the immediate 
 vicinity of Tenoxtitlan which numbered 5,400,000 individ- 
 uals, making a total of 9,120,000, of which we have made 
 mention. To this total sum may be added the number of in- 
 habitants of Morelia, Potosi, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco and 
 Yucatan, estimated, approximately, at 20,880,000, which 
 sums up the total amount to 30,000,000 inhabitants. This 
 number decreased with great rapidity from the cruelty of 
 the conquerors, the epidemics and famine. Within a period 
 of 36 years, from 1520 to 1576, three and one-half millions 
 of the native inhabitants died. The depopulation of the 
 country continued at such a rate that by the year 1793 the 
 total population of New Spain, without including the Pro- 
 vinces of Guadalajara, Veracruz and Coahuila, scarcely 
 amounted to 3,865,499 individuals. The following table 
 
 * In different parts of this book the ancient Mexican civilization is 
 treated of. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 287 
 
 shows the increase of the population of Mexico for 95 
 years : 
 
 Years. Authorities. 
 
 1793. .Viceroy Count of Revillagigedo 4 
 
 1795.. " " 5 
 
 1 803-. Humboldt 5 
 
 1808.. <c 6 
 
 1810. .D Fernando Navarro y Noriega 6 
 
 1815.. D John Salas 5 
 
 1824..Poinsetts 6 
 
 1830..Burcardts , 7 
 
 1831 . . A. J. Valdes 6 
 
 183G . . Information of the States and Territories 7 
 
 1839 . . Geographical and Statistical Society 7 
 
 1852.. D. Juan N. Almonte 7 
 
 1854.. Recorder of the Minister of Fomentation 7 
 
 1855..Lerdo de Tejada 7 
 
 1856.. " " 7 
 
 1856.. Garcia Cubas 8 
 
 1856 . . Orozco y Berra 8 
 
 1862 . . J. M. Perez Hernandez 8 
 
 1 869 . . Garcia Cubas 8 
 
 1872 . . Secretary of the Interior 9 
 
 1873 . .Bias Balcarcel 8 
 
 1 874 . . Garcia Cubas 9 
 
 1878.. Secretary of the Interior 9 
 
 1880. .Emiliano Busto 9 
 
 1882.. Vodo Von Gliimun 10 
 
 1886 . . Garcia Cubas 10 
 
 1888 . . Direction of Statistics , 11 
 
 1890 11 
 
 1892 . 11 
 
 From this data it will be seen that from the years 1852 to 
 1862 the population increased at the rate of 9.58 per 
 cent; from 1862 to 1872, 8.34 per cent; from to 1872 
 to 1882, 9.94 per cent; from 1882 to 1892, 18.29 per 
 
 cent. This calculation must be accepted only as an 
 approximate one, as all the censuses which have been 
 taken at the various periods mentioned contain glaring 
 imperfections. 
 
 babita 
 483 
 
 ,nts. 
 680 
 
 200 
 
 000 
 
 837 
 
 100 
 
 500 
 
 000 
 
 122 
 
 354 
 
 764 
 
 731 
 
 500 
 
 000 
 
 996 
 
 000 
 
 382 
 
 284 
 
 843 
 
 132 
 
 044 
 
 140 
 
 661 
 
 919 
 
 853 
 
 395 
 
 661 
 
 520 
 
 859 
 
 564 
 
 283 
 
 088 
 
 287 
 
 413 
 
 396 
 
 524 
 
 743 
 
 614 
 
 097 
 
 056 
 
 994 
 
 724 
 
 343 
 
 470 
 
 384 
 
 193 
 
 577 
 
 279 
 
 001 
 
 884 
 
 791 
 
 685 
 
 490 
 
 830 
 
 632 
 
 924 
 
 834 
 
 822 
 
288 
 
 THE RICHES OP MEXICO 
 
 Population of the States. 
 
 III. The population of the States and capitals according 
 to the last data, is as follows: — 
 
 Middle states. Capitals. 
 
 Federal District . . Mexico 
 
 Aguascalientes . . . .Aguascalientes. . 
 
 S.Luis Potosi S. Luis Potosi.. 
 
 Guanajuato Guanaj uato 
 
 Queretaro Quere"taro 
 
 Hidalgo .". Pachuca 
 
 Mexico Toluca 
 
 Morelos . . Cuernavaca 
 
 Tlaxcala Tlaxcala. ....... 
 
 Puebla Puebla 
 
 Durango Durango 
 
 Zacatecas Zacatecas 
 
 Northern States. 
 
 Chihuahua Chihuahua 
 
 Coahuila Saltillo 
 
 Nuevo Leon Monterey 
 
 Sonora Hermosillo 
 
 Tamaulipas C. Victoria 
 
 Gulf States. 
 
 Veracruz Jalapa 
 
 Tabasco S. Juan Btta .... 
 
 Campeche Campeche 
 
 Yucatan Merida 
 
 Pacific States. 
 
 Chiapas » . . . S. Cristobal L. C . 
 
 Oaxaca Oaxaca 
 
 Guerrero Chilpancingo 
 
 Michoacan Morelia 
 
 Colima Colima 
 
 Jalisco Guadalajara 
 
 Sinaloa Culiacan 
 
 Territory of Lower I Lpaz 
 
 California....... J 
 
 Territory of Tepic.Tepic 
 
 In the 
 
 In other places Total in 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 of the State. 
 
 each State, 
 
 329,535 
 
 121,711 
 
 451,246 
 
 32,355 
 
 89,571 
 
 121,926 
 
 62,573 
 
 483,874 
 
 546,447 
 
 52,112 
 
 855,004 
 
 1,007,116 
 
 23,520 
 
 190,005 
 
 213,525 
 
 25,000 
 
 469,212 
 
 494,212 
 
 11,585 
 
 786,895 
 
 798,480 
 
 8,195 
 
 143,345 
 
 151,540 
 
 6,771 
 
 141,217 
 
 147,988 
 
 78,530 
 
 760,938 
 
 839,468 
 
 24,800 
 
 241,131 
 
 265,931 
 
 20,722 
 
 506,244 
 
 526,966 
 
 13,128 
 
 '284,945 
 
 298,073 
 
 25,801 
 
 162,199 
 
 188,000 
 
 40,703 
 
 231,284 
 
 271,987- 
 
 11,883 
 
 154,009 
 
 165,892 
 
 10,092 
 
 179,047 
 
 189,139 
 
 11,705 
 
 630,119 
 
 641,824 
 
 8,536 
 
 117,464 
 
 125,000 
 
 18,700 
 
 72,480 
 
 91,180 
 
 32,000 
 
 243,506 
 
 275,506 
 
 20,000 
 
 279,941 
 
 299,941 
 
 28,827 
 
 776,022 
 
 806,845 
 
 6,500 
 
 332,635 
 
 339,135 
 
 26,974 
 
 S07,949 
 
 834,923 
 
 25,124 
 
 44,423 
 
 69,547 
 
 95,000 
 
 1,066,709 
 
 1,284,614 
 
 9,487 
 
 214,197 
 
 223,684 
 
 6,093 
 
 28,575 
 
 34,668 
 
 14,000 
 
 116,019 
 
 130,019 
 
 Grand Total. 
 
 11,834,822 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 289 
 
 POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES. 
 
 The following table shows the actual population of the 
 principal Mexican cities. 
 
 CITIES HAVING 100,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS. 
 states . Localities. Rank. Inhabitants. 
 
 Federal District Mexico City 329,535 
 
 Jalisco ....Guadalajara " ••••• 95 > 000 
 
 Puebla Puebla " 78,530 
 
 San Luis Potosi. ••••.... San LuisPotosi « 62,57. 
 
 Guanajuato Guanajuato 
 
 « 52,112 
 
 LOCALITIES HAVING 20,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS. 
 
 Guanajuato Leon City 47,739 
 
 Nuevo Leon Monterrey *J» U J 
 
 Aguascalientes Aguascalientes " 32,d55 
 
 * . W^riria " 32,000 
 
 Yucatan Mencla » 
 
 Oaxaca Oaxaca 28,827 
 
 Michoacan Morelia " 26.J74 
 
 Coahuila Saltillo : " 25,801 
 
 Hidalgo Pachuca " 2o,000 
 
 Durango Durango " 24,800 
 
 Guanajuato Celaya " 24,b70 
 
 Queretaro Queretaro... • Z6 f~» 
 
 Jalisco Ciudad Guzman " 23,205 
 
 Colima Colima " 25,1-4 
 
 Guanajuato Allende - 21, 748 
 
 Zacatecas Zacatecas ^>'^ 
 
 Chiapas San Cristobal L.C « 20,000 
 
 Veracruz Veracruz " 26,000 
 
 LOCALITIES HAVING 10,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS. 
 
 Veracruz Orizaba City 19,775 
 
 Campeche Campeche " 18,700 
 
 Yucatan Tinum Town 18,370 
 
 Zacatecas Guadalupe Village 16,225 
 
 Guanajuato Silao City 15,739 
 
 San Luis Potosi Moctezuma " 15,666 
 
 Guanajuato Irapuato Village 14,778 
 
 Chiapa3 San Bartolome" City 14,669 
 
 Chiapas Chamula Town 14,500 
 
 19 
 
290 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 States. Localities. Rank. Inhabitants. 
 
 Federal District Xochimilco Town 14,373 
 
 Guanajuato Salvatierra City 14,322 
 
 Jalisco Lagos " 14,297 
 
 Chiapas Comitan " 14,000 
 
 Zacatecas Ciudad Garcia " 14,000 
 
 Territory of Tepic Tepic " 14,000 
 
 Chihuahua Chihuahua " 13,128 
 
 Zacatecas Fresnillo " 13,021 
 
 Sinaloa Mazatlan " 12,852 
 
 Federal District Tacubaya " 12,027 
 
 Michoacan ^ Uruapan " 12,000 
 
 Jalisco Ameca City 12,000 
 
 Jalisco Autlan « 12,000 
 
 Sonora Hermosillo " 11,883 
 
 Veracruz ....Jalapa " 11,705 
 
 Mexico Toluca " 11,585 
 
 Jalisco Teocuitatlan Town 11,286 
 
 Michoacan Piedad Cabadas City 11,142 
 
 Jalisco Sayula " ........ 10,655 
 
 Federal District San Augel Town 10,580 
 
 Michoacan Angangueo " 10,473 
 
 Michoacan -Sahuayo " — 10,400 
 
 Tamaulipas Ciudad Victoria City 10,092 
 
 Coahuila Monclova " 10,000 
 
 Queretaro San Juan del Rio " 10,000 
 
 LOCALITIES HAVING 5,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS. 
 
 Guanajuato Salamanca Village 9,992 
 
 Jalisco Cocula City 9,936 
 
 Tamaulipas Matamoros " 9,882 
 
 Sinaloa Culiacan City 9,487 
 
 Oaxaca Juchitan Village 9,223 
 
 Sinaloa Mocorito " 9,000 
 
 Jalisco Etzatlan " 8,904 
 
 Zacatecas Chalchihuites " 8,838 
 
 Federal District Tlalpam Municipality.. 8,831 
 
 Mexico Tenancingo City 8,682 
 
 Tabasco San Juan Bautista " 8,530 
 
 Michoacan Cotija Town 8,520 
 
 Jalisco La Barca City 8,352 
 
 Nuevo Leon Linares City 8,346 
 
 San Luis Potosi Matehuala t( 8,300 
 
 Mexico Amecameca. > " 8,207 
 
 Morelos Guernavaca " . .... 8,195 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 291 
 
 Statc3. Localities. Rank. Inhabitants. 
 
 Hidalgo Tulancingo City 8,000 
 
 Chihuahua Cusihuiriachic Town 8,000 
 
 Chihuahua Hidalgo del Parral City 8,000 
 
 Sinaloa Rosario Village 8,000 
 
 Yucatan Hunucina. " 8,000 
 
 San Luis Potosi Santa Maria del Bio .City 7,911 
 
 Michoacan Pureparo Village 7,826 
 
 Guanajuato Valley of Santiago " 7,800 
 
 Jalisco Tuxpam Town 7,729 
 
 Guanajuato Penjamo.. Village 7,657 
 
 Veracruz San Andres Tuxtla " ... 7,585 
 
 Guanajuato San Luis de la Paz " 7,582 
 
 Michoacan Patzcuaro City 7,511 
 
 Jalisco San Gabriel Village 7,500 
 
 Oaxaca ..Tlaxiaco City 7,458 
 
 Jalisco Ahualulco Village 7,428 
 
 Zacatecas Vlllanueva City 7,398 
 
 Jalisco Encarnacion de Diaz.... " 7,384 
 
 Tlaxcala Huamantla " 7,381 
 
 Guanajuato.. Dolores Hidalgo " 7,200 
 
 Michoacan Puruandiro " 7,180 
 
 Federal District Coyoacan Municipality. . 7,018 
 
 Chihuahua.. Ciudad Juarez City 7,000 
 
 Durango San Juan de Guadalupe.. " 7,000 
 
 Zacatecas Sombrerete " 7,000 
 
 San Luis Potosi Catorce " 6,988 
 
 Guanajuato S. Francisco del Rincon. Village 6,950 
 
 Chiapas .-Tenejapa Town 6,912 
 
 Jalisco Arandas Village 6,839 
 
 Guanajuato Santa Cruz " 6,836 
 
 Tamaulipas Tampico City 6,792 
 
 Federal District Atzcapotzalco Municipality.. 6,789 
 
 Tlaxcala.... Tlaxcala City 6,771 
 
 Guanajuato' San Felipe " •.... 6,700 
 
 Oaxaca Tehuantepec " 6,674 
 
 Zacatecas Valparaiso Village 6,623 
 
 Federal District Guadalupe Hidalgo " 6,566 
 
 San Luis Potosi Lagunillas " 6,632 
 
 Michoacan Cheran Town 6,500 
 
 Jalisco Ojuelos " 6,500 
 
 Guerrero Chilpancingo City 6,500 
 
 Coahuila Parras " 6,500 
 
 Guanajuato. Moroleon Town 6,495 
 
 Zacatecas Chupaderos " 6,448 
 
292 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 States. Localities. Rank. Inhabitants. 
 
 Federal District Milpa Alta " « 6,362 
 
 Jalisco Atotonilco el Alto City 6,242 
 
 Coahuila Matamoros. < Village 6,215 
 
 Guanajuato Yuriria " 6,178 
 
 San Luis Potosi Rayon City 6,150 
 
 Lower California La Paz " 6,093 
 
 Durango Lerdo Village 6,077 
 
 Yucatan .Ticul City 6,051 
 
 Guerrero Tixtla de Guerrero " - 6,010 
 
 Puebla Morelos... Village 6,000 
 
 Guanajuato Acambaro " 5,990 
 
 Michoacan Purepero " 5,965 
 
 Federal District Hastahuacan Municipality.. 5,910 
 
 Federal District Ixtapalapan " •• 5,825 
 
 Sonora Alamos City 5,802 
 
 Zacatecas Veta Grande '....Town 5,801 
 
 Aguascalientes Rincon de Romos City 5,790 
 
 San Luis Potosi Guadalcazar " 5,640 
 
 Coahuila Sierra Mojada Village 5,600 
 
 Zacatecas Ortega or Rio Grande .. . " 5,565 
 
 Chiapas Tuxtla Gutz City 5,500 
 
 Jalisco..... Jalostotitlan u 5,485 
 
 Guanajuato Comonfort " 5,394 
 
 Veracruz Coatepec City 5,362 
 
 Morelos Yautepec " • 5.361 
 
 Federal District. Tlahuac Municipality. . 5,271 
 
 Oaxaca Villa Alvarez Village 5,268 
 
 Puebla Tehuacan \ .City 5,232 
 
 Michoacan Jiquilpem Town 5,220 
 
 Guanajuato Iturbide Village 5,210 
 
 Jalisco Tepatitlan ..Town 5,205 
 
 Sonora Guayraas City 5,200 
 
 Mexico. Zutnpango " »••• 5,145 
 
 Aguascalientes Jesus Maria Town 5,125 
 
 Jalisco Zapotiltic " 5,120 
 
 Michoacan Tanhuato " 5,060 
 
 Chiapas ... Tapachula City 5,046 
 
 Jalisco Tecolotlan Town 5,029 
 
 ■ Yucatan Valladolid City... 5,010 
 
 Zacatecas. Pinos " 5,000 
 
 Jalisco Zapotitlan Town 5,000 
 
 Veracruz Teocelo " ••• 5,000 
 
 Sonora Ures City 5,000 
 
 Veracruz Cordova • •• " • 5,500 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 293 
 
 The Pacific States comprises Lower California, Colima, 
 Chiapas, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacan, Oaxaca, Sinaloa and 
 the Territory of Tepic, population 4,023,376. 
 
 The Gulf States are Campeche, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, 
 Veracruz and Yucatan, population 1,322.649. 
 
 The middle States, Federal District, Aguascalientes, S. 
 LuisPotosi, Guanajuato, Queretaro, Hidalgo, Mexico, More- 
 los, Tlaxcala, Puebla, Durango and Zacatecas, population, 
 5,564.845. 
 
 While those of the north, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila 
 and Nuevo Leon scarcely amount to population, 923,952. 
 
 We give the comparative density of each of the Federal 
 States of the Republic : 
 
 States. Area Area 
 
 Miryaras. Square 
 
 Miles.* 
 
 Federal District.. 376 975 
 
 Aguascalientes — 16 42 
 
 S. LuisPotosi 8 20 
 
 Guanajuato 34 88 
 
 Queretaro 23 67 
 
 Hidalgo 21 61 
 
 Mexico 33 102 
 
 Morelos 21 85 
 
 Tlaxcala 35 91 
 
 Puebla 26 70 
 
 Durango 3 6 
 
 Zacatecas 8 23 
 
 Sonora § 2 
 
 Chihuahua 1 4 
 
 Coahuila 1 3 
 
 Nuevo Leon 4 12 
 
 States. Area Area 
 
 Miryaras. Square 
 Miles. 
 Lower California 
 
 (Ter.) i | 
 
 Chiapas 4 19 
 
 Colima 11 20 
 
 Sinaloa 3 6 
 
 Jalisco 15 33 
 
 Michoacan 14 35 
 
 Guerrero 5 14 
 
 Oaxaca 9 24 
 
 Territory of Tepic 5 10 
 
 Tamaulipas 2 7 
 
 Veracruz ......... 8 24 
 
 Tabasco.. 5 10 
 
 Campeche 2 4 
 
 Yucatan 3 9 
 
 We see that the Central States, especially those com- 
 prising the Valley of Anahuac, have the most population ; 
 the number of inhabitants per each square kilometer is less 
 
 * The estimate on square miles belong to the Bureau of the American 
 Republics, Washington, U. S. A. 
 
294 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 in the region of the southwest; still diminishing consider- 
 ably more in the Gulf States; as much as the rich and 
 endless plains and valleys of the northern region, there are 
 found but few inhabitants. In extensive sections of the 
 Northern Frontier there can scarcely be counted a fraction 
 of an inhabitant to the square kilometer. The causes of 
 this region not being inhabited are various, among others, 
 the inroads of the hordes of savages, which from the most 
 remote periods have pillaged those regions ; and the in- 
 security of persons and property which became proverbial 
 there during the revolutionary epochs. Among the States 
 of the Pacific the richest of them are Chiapas, Sinaloa and 
 Oaxaca, which are found equally uninhabited ; and notwith- 
 standing the great wealth of these sections, they remain in 
 a state of nature, as two-thirds of the population is com- 
 posed of Indians, which contribute very little to the 
 local riches. In like manner an attentive observer 
 may remark the former condition of the same or greater 
 irregularity with which the population is distributed 
 in the Republic, who have no regard, either remotely or in 
 forecasting the general laws of the climate, for the natural 
 condition and riches of the lands, or connections with the 
 centers of trade. This is more observable when a general 
 study of the State is made, and thence passing to that of 
 distinct localities. Along the borders of the western 
 Sierra Madre, the population abounds in an uncivilized 
 state, and absolutely isolated. All this is owing principally 
 to the topographical configuration of the territory, which 
 makes it difficult for the increase of the population ; they 
 isolate themselves in communities from communication 
 with the rest of the world, whose members seldom leave 
 their homes in search of better lands and surroundings, 
 simply content with their unpropitious circumstances, and 
 this is one of the principal causes of the state of back- 
 wardness of civilization in this Republic. This defect in 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 295 
 
 the progress of our nation is the lack of energy among the 
 people, who, collectively, submit in stolid indifference to 
 their unfavorable condition without actively exercising 
 their intelligence to improve their circumstances. 
 
 RACES PREDOMINANT RACES. 
 
 IV. The present predominating race in Mexico is not 
 the Indian, as in the times previous to the conquest, nor 
 the Spanish race as in the time of government by Viceroys, 
 or even the Creole as in the first years of the Independence, 
 but a people springing from a commingling of the blood of 
 the Spanish and American. The European and Indian 
 have amalgamated to such an extent that comparatively 
 few of the distinct races excel in Mexico. Very few 
 Europeans become naturalized citizens of the country, and 
 as for the Indians they live in nearly absolute independence, 
 as is the case with those who inhabit the mountains of Chia- 
 pas and Oaxaca ; the one in a semibarbaric, the other in a 
 secluded manner; either in a lamentable and fallen state, as 
 in the central table lands, or next to the barbaric, as in 
 Sonora and Chihuahua. The Indians, by virtue of their 
 endowments received, are pre-eminent in aptitude for any 
 kind of accomplishment, and will not separate them- 
 selves from their tribal customs to join in the general 
 movement of progress and civilization and the uniting 
 of their race with the more intelligent one. The 
 Spanish-American, which forms an energetic race, 
 improved by the amalgamation, has preserved much 
 of the Indian tenacity, endurance in adversity, and their 
 war spirit and inclination to strife ; while from the Spaniards 
 he has derived his mental qualifications and a restless, 
 chivalrous spirit with not a little of his lack of practical 
 common sense. The mixed race are the managers of the 
 industries, directors of the finances, and form the chief 
 
296 THE EICIIES OF MEXICO 
 
 portion of the tax-paying class of Mexico. The Indian 
 stupefied and discouraged by the oppression of the Span- 
 iard, and degenerated by superstition, stili finds himself 
 unable to shake off the inertia, which has had its consum- 
 ing effect, not for the want of intellectual capacities, but 
 because the race is weighted down with the two great 
 elements of degeneration, viz : oppression and fanaticism, 
 which prevent it from rising above its degraded condition. 
 The horde of semi-barbarians of Yucatan are obedient to 
 only two motives, hate and detestation for the white race 
 and love of the priests. Notwithstanding this, it would be 
 ridiculous at the present day to enter into a discussion as to 
 the capacity of the Indians to " conceive abstract ideas," 
 as in the time of Robertson, or to discuss their " strength 
 and resistence," as in that of Dn. Benito Maria Moxo, which 
 hardly conceded. But such subjects are not worthy to 
 occupy too much attention from intelligent persons. There 
 is scarcely in existence one solitary individual possessor of 
 rudimentary ethnical knowledge, who would dare to doubt 
 the moral gifts of the Indian or his physical resistence. 
 The Indian, as a soldier, is sufficiently known to European 
 nations, and in order to form an idea of his moral gifts, 
 it is sufficient to read the story of Juarez, Ramirez, Alta- 
 mirano and many others whose names have been, and will 
 continue to be, handed down on the brightest page of history. 
 Until now we have considered the Indian by comparison 
 in the light of two extremes, from the highest grade of 
 intelligence to that of the barbaric ; we have also spoken 
 of the degenerate Indian ; and we will now consider him as 
 one joined to civilization, that is to say, regenerated, or 
 become amalgamated with the predominant race. The 
 Indian, in order to attain the civilization of his more fortu- 
 nate neighbor, has two roads before him, the army and 
 the workshop. The army is a school and ladder for the 
 Indian; the school where he can obtain a rudimentarv 
 
L. Batres Archeologist. 
 
 IDOLS AND ANCIENT INDIAN TYPES. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 297 
 
 education to place him on the road to securing higher posi- 
 tions among the Spanish-American element; therefore, 
 incidentally it may be stated that so long as there exists so 
 large a number of Indians in Mexico, the reduction of the 
 army, of which so much has been said, would be a cen- 
 surable measure. 
 
 Besides the army, the Indian has another road to civiliza- 
 tion, — industry. In the factories and workshops he is placed 
 in contact with the active and intelligent elements and will 
 ere long receive the benefits of the stimulus; he com- 
 mences in his new position by abandoning his dress, which 
 is only so in name, and adopting that of the Spanish- 
 American, finally acquiring intelligence and development 
 of his moral faculties. 
 
 The Spanish-American, to which race belongs the greater 
 portion of the public functionaries and literary men of 
 Mexico, has succeeded, after the most energetic efforts and 
 with the material aid of the native Indian element, in 
 reconstructing the national character, binding together all 
 its parts, fusing its dissolvent elements in a common mass, 
 and inspiring in all classes, with, the love of country, the 
 spirit of true progress. 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION". 
 
 Mr. Garcia Cubas furnished us with the following table 
 of the three great races forming the population of the 
 Republic: First race, European and Spanish American; 
 second, mixed; third, Indian. 
 
 19 per cent of the first 2,165,185 
 
 43 per cent of the second 4,900,156 
 
 38 per cent of the third 4,330,371 
 
 11,395,712 
 
298 the riches of Mexico 
 
 According to the data of the last books of Mr. Garcia 
 Cubas, — 1885 and 1889 — the proportion among Indians, 
 whites and mixed, has been the same during the period 
 mentioned, which is not the actual fact. The proportional 
 rate of the Indian race is stationary or decreasing, while 
 the Spanish American increases on his own account, and by 
 reason of the decrease of the Indian. As a proof of this, 
 we will say that our Republic has been increasing annually 
 in 15.51 per 1,000, and of this amount only three per 1,000 
 belong to the Indian race, perhaps less than that. We 
 may expect that before a century, the greater part of the 
 Indian race will be amalgamated with the predominating one 
 and will disappear ; as an example we may state that in the 
 northern frontier, there existed in former times so large a 
 number of Indians that they could form a great army; but 
 they have been gradually disappearing for many causes, 
 and they will ultimately cease to exist as a distinct race. 
 In the year 1849, the Minister of War, Grl. Mariano 
 Arista, gave the following information: "There are a 
 great many Indians in a vast extension of territory from 
 Puerco River to Las Nueces, who live by hunting the 
 cibolo — the Mexican bull — and many other animals which 
 abound in those fertile places ; and according to the infor- 
 mation furnished me by different persons whom I introduced 
 among the Indians, all the savage tribes could form an 
 army of over 30,000 individuals, leaving the necessary 
 number for the protection of their families." That is to 
 say, that in only one portion of the States of Chihuahua, 
 Texas, Nuevo Leon and Coahuila, there were over 250,000 
 savage Indians, not including the peaceful natives, amount- 
 ing to 80,000, which gives a total of 330,000 Indians in a 
 territory of 180,000 square kilometers. At present in the 
 same territory there can scarcely be found 25,000 to 30,000 
 Indians. 
 
 Towards the coast of the Gulf, the Indian element is 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 299 
 
 confounded with the mixed one ; but it is more remarkable 
 in the Central Table. Towards the northwest the aborig- 
 ines occupy the greatest portion of the Sierras Tarahu- 
 mara, in Chihuahua aud a portion of the State of Sonora; 
 but they commence to decrease towards the coast of the Pa- 
 cific. In the Central States and in those of the southwest the 
 Indians abound to the same extent as the white and mixed 
 races ; and in the States of Oaxaca, Guerrero, Michoacan, 
 Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche and Yucatan the number of 
 Indians is greater than those of white and mixed combined. 
 According to the classification of Mr. Francisco Pimen- 
 tel, which is the best at the present day, the Indian race is 
 subdivided in different groups, classified according to their 
 languages, in the following manner : 
 
 Native Mexican or Indian Tribes. — They are composed of the 
 native Mexicans and Cuitlatecos, and are found in the States of Sinaloa, 
 Jalisco, South of San Luis Potosi, Colima, Coasts of Michoacan, Guer- 
 rero, Morelos, Mexico, Puebla, Federal District, Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, Vera- 
 cruz, Aguascalientes, Tabasco, Oaxaca and Chiapas, and amount to 
 1,849,000. 
 
 Sonora Opata-Pima Tribe. — It is composed of the Opatas-Limas, 
 Papagos, Yumas, Yaquis, Mayos, Tarahumaras, Coras, Huichales, Tepe- 
 huanes and Acaxees, and are found in the States of Sonora, Chihuahua, 
 Durango, Sinaloa, Jalisco and Zacatecas, amounting to 85,000. 
 
 Guaicura and Cochimi Laimon Tribe. — This tribe amounted for- 
 merly to more than 20,000 individuals, inhabiting the Peninsula of Lower 
 California. At the present time it has been reduced in the northern 
 region to 2,500. 
 
 Seri Tribe. — It is found in the Island of Tiburon and in the coasts 
 near the State of Sonora. It has decreased notably and at present it 
 scarcely amounts to 200 individuals. 
 
 Tarasca Tribe. — This is an ancient and powerful tribe, the ancient 
 enemy of the Mexican one, and founder of Michoacan. It is found in 
 the State of Michoacan and in some towns of the States of Jalisco and 
 Guerrero. It has decreased on account of its amalgamation with the 
 mixed race and amounts to 275,000. 
 
 Zoque-Mixe Tribe. — It is composed of the Zoques, Mixes and Tapi- 
 julapas and it is found in the States of Chiapas, Tabasco and especially 
 in Oaxaca, amounting to 60,000. 
 
300 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Totonaca Tribe. — It is found in Sierra de Huauchinangotothe north 
 of the State of Puebla, in the regions of Veracruz, adjoining Huastecos, 
 between the rivers of Chachalacas and Cazones, and amounts to 90,000. 
 
 Mixteco-Zapoteca Tribe. — It is one of the most important races 
 "which is found in the State of Oaxaca, and in a portion of Guerrero and 
 Puebla. It is comprised of Mixtecos, Zapotecos, Chuchones, Popolocos, 
 Cuicatecos, Soltecos, Chatinos, Papabucos, Amusgos, or Musgos, Maza- 
 tecos and Chinantecos, and amounts to 677,088. 
 
 Matlalzinga or Pirinb-a Tribe. — This tribe is the founder of the 
 City of Toluca. It is found in the Valley of Toluca, in the town of Charo 
 of Michoacan, in San Martin and Santa Cruz of the District of Mascal- 
 tepec del Valle, in San Juan Atzingo San Mateo Mexicalzingo, Calimaya 
 and San Mateo Temascaltepec and amounts to 5,000. 
 
 Maya Quiche Tribe. — It is composed of the Mayas or Tucatecos, 
 Puneturoc, Lacandones, Petenes, Itzacs, Chafiabales, Comitecos and 
 Tocolobales, Choles, Quiches, Tzotziles, Tzendales, M am es and Huaxtecos 
 and amount to 456,283. 
 
 Chontal Tribe. — It is found in the State of Tabasco, Guerrero 
 Oaxaca and extends towards Guatemala and Nicaragua, amounting to 
 31,000. 
 
 Huave Tribe. — This tribe belongs to Nicaragua and is found in the 
 districts of Juchitan, Tehuantepec and in the State of Chiapas, amount- 
 ing to 3,800. 
 
 Apache Tribe. — This is a savage tribe which is composed of Chirica- 
 hues, Toatos, Mimbrefios, Gilenos, Mescaleros, Sacramentefios, .Carriza- 
 lenos, Xicarillas, Mogollones, Lipanes, Faraones and Navajoes. These 
 tribes are found in territories belonging to the United States and come 
 very often to our territories. The number of those residing in the States 
 of Chihuahua and Sonora can be estimated in 8,000. 
 
 Othomi Tribe. — It is comprised of Othomies, inhabitants of the 
 States of Guanajuato Queretaro West of Hidalgo, N. W. of Mexico ; the 
 Serranos, inhabitants of Sierra Gorda in Guanajuato; Maxahuas in the 
 district of Ixtlahuaca, Villa del Valle and in the Sierras of Tajimaroa, 
 Tlapujahua and Zitacuaro; Pames in the Old Mission of Cerro Prieto, of 
 Jacala, State of Hidalgo, in Santa Maria Acapulco, State of Queretaro, 
 in Purisima de Arnedo and Xichi of the State of Guanajuato, but the 
 greatest part of this tribe is found in the eastern districts of the State 
 of San Luis Potosi, and the Jomares, or Mecos, are found in the chain of 
 mountains of Guanajuato. The Othomies are found in the surroundings 
 of the Capital of the Republic, in the town of Ixtenco in Tlaxcala and in 
 the mountains between the Valley of Mexico and Toluca. The number 
 of them is estimated in 704,734. The total of Indians of the different 
 tribes amounts to 4,247,605. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 301 
 
 The Spaniards, who form one of the elements or our race are found in 
 the Mexican territory in the following manner: — 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Aguascalientes 
 
 Campeche 
 
 Coahuila 
 
 Colima 
 
 Chiapas > 
 
 Chihuahua 
 
 Duraugo 
 
 Guanajuato 
 
 Guerrero 
 
 Hidalgo 
 
 Jalisco 
 
 Michoacan 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Morelos 
 
 Nuevo Leon ••• 
 
 Oaxaca 
 
 Puebla 
 
 Quer6taro 
 
 San Luis Potosi — 
 
 Sinaloa 
 
 Sonora 
 
 Tabasco 
 
 Tamaulipas 
 
 Tlaxcala. 
 
 Veracruz 
 
 Yucatan 
 
 Zacatecas 
 
 Federal District... 
 
 Lower California . 
 
 Territory of Tepic 
 
 Total amount. 
 
 76 
 
 28 
 
 84 
 
 300 
 
 91 
 
 193 
 
 112 
 
 115 
 
 296 
 
 169 
 
 114 
 
 221 
 
 472 
 
 68 
 
 294 
 
 32 
 
 35 
 
 267 
 
 99 
 
 37 
 
 1,935 
 
 379 
 
 59 
 
 1,852 
 
 71 
 
 7,573 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 51 
 
 88 
 
 18 
 
 32 
 
 62 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 78 
 
 44 
 
 73 
 
 113 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 57 
 
 43 
 
 7 
 
 693 
 
 112 
 
 21 
 
 287 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 1,980 
 
 47 
 
 15 
 
 99 
 239 
 
 71 
 146 
 106 
 
 83 
 188 
 157 
 
 89 
 202 
 414 
 
 43 
 198 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 217 
 101 
 
 23 
 1,89 
 296 
 
 48 
 1,665 
 
 66 
 
 6,616 
 
 34 
 
 16 
 31 
 
 130 
 32 
 72 
 63 
 42 
 
 124 
 74 
 66 
 75 
 
 150 
 30 
 92 
 13 
 19 
 90 
 41 
 17 
 
 648 
 
 176 
 28 
 
 436 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 2,598 
 
 
 24 
 147 
 
 84 
 
 17 
 
 86 
 33 
 135 
 388 
 109 
 225 
 174 
 143 
 325 
 247 
 158 
 294 
 585 
 
 77 
 303 
 
 34 
 
 39 
 324 
 142 
 
 44 
 
 2,628 
 
 491 
 
 80 
 
 2,139 
 
 3 
 
 92 
 
 339 9,553 
 
 The preceding table, made upon request of the Spanish Minister, by 
 the Statistical Secretary of the Department of Colonization, Industry and 
 Commerce, has reference to the year 1887, and as will be seen by one oi 
 the memorandums in said table, it is very imperfect for the reason that 
 as a general rule, there is no mention made of the wives and children of 
 the Spaniards, and of these many are not shown in the census taken. 
 To the preceding total must be added the following :— ^ 
 
 Former total a'.'Vj'iV.',!^ ' 
 
 Immigrants remaining in the Republic, as per official data up to 
 
 jgg9 z,oe» 
 
 Calculations'based on the preceding immigration up to 1892 1,790 
 
 33% of unregistered .'"'". 'qoa 
 
 Calculation as to its capacity for increase in Spain 00± 
 
 Probable total 17,717 
 
302 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 CHAPTER IY. 
 
 IMMIGRATION AND COLONIZATION. 
 
 Primary Laws. 
 
 I. The first care of Spain, when the conquest was once 
 an established fact, was to close up to the rest of the Con- 
 tinent all the ports of her American possessions. Nay, she 
 went further and limited the traffic so that it should be 
 carried on only by certain favored persons and cities, the 
 monoply falling especially to the share of Seville and Cadiz. 
 These primitive regulations were ratified by royal decrees 
 on the 15th of May, 1509, the 14th of September, 1519, 
 and by others later on, because one issued on the 15th of 
 January, 1529, empowering various ports to trade with 
 America, produced no practical effect. A proclamation 
 dated the 16th of July, 1561, and which gave rise to the 
 system of freightage, restricted still more the interoceanic 
 commerce. This state of things, with an occasional slight 
 change, was prolonged for years and years until King 
 Charles III. issued the ordinance or edict of free trade and 
 which bore the date of 12th of October, 1778. This 
 ordinance extended to thirteen Spanish ports the right of 
 trading with New Spain and was a kind of precedent for 
 that of 1799, by which trade was allowed between New 
 Spain and neutral ports. We may suppose that it was at 
 this time that exotic immigration into the Colonial territory 
 began, that is, immigrants came here who were not from 
 Spain, Asia or Africa. 
 
 The decree of the Spanish Court, dated the 9th of Novem- 
 ber, 1820, put a climax to the previous ones and withdrew the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 303 
 
 ancient monoply of Veracruz. It gave the right to five ports 
 in the Gulf to trade with Europe and the colonies, and in 
 the Pacific it empowered those of Acapulco, San Bias and 
 Mazatlan to do so. This regulation, made under pressing 
 circumstances, preceded only a little the memorable event 
 of Mexico's political emancipation (1821 ) and was promul- 
 gated shortly before the decree of October 8th, 1823, by 
 which when the territory of Mexico was opened to the com- 
 merce of the world, it was closed to Spanish merchandise 
 and Spanish ships. 
 
 During the colonial epoch the restrictions laid upon 
 foreigners were being fast broken through. Mining, which 
 as is well known, is the irresistible loadstone of adventurers, 
 was entirely forbidden to them until by virtue of a decree 
 dated the 7th of October, 1823, the following laws were 
 abrogated: Law 12, tit: 10, book 5, and law 5, tit. 18, 
 book 6 of Summary of Castile; law 1, tit. 7, book 8, and 
 those comprised under tit. 27, book 9 of the Indies Summary 
 along with Art. 1, tit. 7 of the Mining Ordinances. It was 
 due to the abrogation of this last that foreigners gained the 
 right to acquire shares in mines, both free ones, and those 
 for which they were liable to be assessed for damages or 
 improvemets to the mine. Their rights, however, were 
 limited when acquiring shares in non-working mines whether 
 in registering new ones or in claiming abandoned ones. 
 The first decree relating to colonization is dated the 14th of 
 October, 1823, and by it the unoccupied lands of the new 
 province which was to be formed out of Acayucan and 
 Tehuantepec were destined for the establishment of natives 
 and foreigners. In the following year, 1824, a law was 
 passed on the 18th of August, which authorized foreigners 
 to settle on national lands provided no one of them 
 possessed an estate of more than one square league con- 
 taining 5,000 varas of irrigated land, 4 producing season 
 crops and 6 with watering-stations on them. 
 
304 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 This law provided that the lands situated within 20 
 leagues of the inland boundary lines and within 10 of the 
 coast line should not be colonized by foreigners, unless with 
 the previous authorization of the Federal Executive. This 
 regulation is still in force and has been ratified by later 
 laws. In 1828, whilst the conspiracy of P. Arenas was still 
 fresh in men's minds, and whilst the new institutions were 
 little trusted and everything foreign was looked upon with 
 alarm, the laws of the 12th of March and 14th of April 
 were promulgated, and in accordance with them passports 
 and naturalization were required of those who entered the 
 country. 
 
 These laws were passed only a little more than a year 
 before the memorable one of the 20th of May, 1829, for 
 the expulsion of the Spaniards which crowned the initiative 
 already taken by the States of Jalisco, Michoacan and 
 Mexico. 
 
 In 1842 the law of the 14th of March laid down that 
 foreigners could possess landed property, but not more than 
 two farms in the same department, and no proprietorship of 
 land whatever on the frontiers or coast. It was also ruled 
 that foreigners who remained out of the Republic for more 
 than two consecutive years should lose all rights to their 
 properties. 
 
 Several laws of the same tenor were passed during the 
 long period of political and economical reconstruction 
 through which the Eepublic had to go. In all of them may 
 be seen the struggle between two antagonistic principles; 
 the first being distrust of the foreigner, and, unhappily, 
 a distrust too well justified; the second, the liberal spirit 
 of the aere, which at times was reflected with brilliant 
 intensity from the high souls of the men of battle of those 
 days. 
 
 On the eve of the proclamation of the Ayutla plan, on 
 the 16th of February, 1854, a law was passed in which 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 305 
 
 lands and pecuniary help were offered to European immi- 
 grants. 
 
 During the administration of Mr. D. Sebastian Lerdo de 
 Tejada a law was passed on the 31st of May, 1875, which 
 authorized the Executive, during the time that a law was 
 being brought in and passed for definitely determining and 
 arranging all that related to colonization, to put into exe- 
 cution by its own direct action the law already mentioned 
 by means of contracts with particular companies and on 
 certain general bases. 
 
 LAWS IN FORCE GOVERNING IMMIGRATION AND COLONIZATION. 
 
 II. A decree dated the 15th of December, 1883, com- 
 pleted what was left undone by the previous law and finally 
 opened the sluice-gate for the colonizing stream. 
 
 By virtue of this decree the Executive was authorized to 
 look after the measurement, boundaries, partitions and 
 valuations of the untilled lands or national properties 
 which existed in the Republic in order that the necessary 
 steps might be taken to establish colonists. 
 
 The divisions were in no case to exceed 6,012 acres, 
 this amount of land being the largest extent which it was 
 allowable to give to one individual who had arrived at 
 man's estate and was capable of making a legal contract. 
 
 The lands thus marked out, measured, divided and valued 
 mi^ht be given to foreign immigrants and to natives of the 
 country, who wished to settle on them as colonists, under 
 the following conditions : 
 
 I. That the lands be bought at a valuation fixed by engin- 
 eers and approved of by the Colonization Secretaryship on 
 a ten years' purchase, payment commencing from the 
 second year of the colonist's establishment on the land. 
 
 II. That the lands be bought for cash, or paying at 
 shorter dates than those fixed by the previous condition. 
 
 20 
 
306 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 III. That a free title be given to the colonist when he 
 asked for it, but in such case the extent of the land must 
 not be more than one hundred hectares or 250 acres, and 
 no title to the ownership can be obtained except when it 
 is justified by the man having held the land in his power 
 and by his having cultivated the whole of it or at least not 
 less than the tenth part of it during five consecutive years. 
 
 In order to be regarded as a colonist and to have a right 
 to the privileges granted to such by law, foreign immigrant 
 must bring with him to the Republic, a certificate from the 
 consul or immigration agent or from the company or house 
 authorized by the Executive to bring colonists to the 
 Republic. 
 
 ' Colonists who settle in the country enjoy the following 
 privileges for ten years beginning from the date of their 
 establishment : 
 
 I. Freedom from military service. 
 
 II. Exemption from all taxes except municipal ones. 
 
 III. Exemption from importation or inland duties upon 
 provisions where there are none to be had, upon agricul- 
 tural implements, tools, machinery, chattels, building 
 materials for houses, necessary furniture, breeding animals 
 which are destined for the colonies. 
 
 IV. Personal and intransmissible exemption from export 
 duties upon the produce of the lands. 
 
 V. Prizes for excellence of work, rewards and special 
 protection for the introduction of new culture or industry. 
 
 VI. Freedom from the duties upon the legalization of 
 signatures and the issuing of passports which the consular 
 agents grant to individuals who enter the Republic for- its 
 colonization by virtue of contracts made by the govern- 
 ment with a particular firm or firms. — Every foreign im- 
 migrant who settles in a colony is bound before being 
 established, to make known in presence of the Federal agent 
 of colonization or before the respective notary or judge, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 307 
 
 his nationality and whether he desires to retain such 
 nationality or to obtain that of Mexico in accordance with 
 the privilege which the Constitution of the Republic gives 
 him in such a case. The colonists have all rights and duties 
 which the Federal Constitution grants to and imposes upon 
 Mexicans and foreigners as the case may be. They are, 
 however, in all questions that may arise or to whatever 
 class the persons may belong, subject to the tribunals of 
 the Republic to the total exclusion of all foreign interference. 
 Colonists who, without a justifying reason, abandon for 
 more than a year the lands which have been granted.them 
 for purchase, and without having paid for them in full, lose 
 all right to the said lauds and also to that part of the 
 purchase money which they may have paid. 
 
 Mexicans who reside abroad and desire to settle on the 
 vacant lauds of the frontiers of the Republic have a right to 
 a free grant of land upon the same conditions as those given 
 under number III, of article 3, which we have mentioned 
 above. The extent of such a grant is 200 hectares, or 500 
 acres with the enjoyment for fifteen years of the exemp- 
 tions which this law grants. The law also empowers the 
 Executive to assist colonists or immigrants in such cases as 
 it deems convenient, having regard always to the amounts 
 assigned them in the estimates, having regard also to the 
 expenses of transporting their persons and luggage, both by 
 sea and land, and taking into consideration the distance the 
 railways carry them. Such colonists have too a free main- 
 tenance for fifteen days at their places of settlement and 
 are supplied with tools, seeds, building materials and 
 animals for working and breeding purposes. For these last 
 services the State is re-imbursed according to the value of 
 the lands ceded. 
 
 The Executive can authorize companies to lay out untilled 
 lands, provided they measure, set up boundary limits, 
 divide into lots, value and describe them for the transport 
 
308 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 of colonists thereto, and their settlement thereon. The 
 lands marked out by such companies, with the exception of 
 those granted to the said companies, for their expenses in 
 laying out, are given to colonists or held in reserve by the 
 government. 
 
 Foreigners and Naturalization. 
 
 Among the provisions of the law dated the 28th of 
 May, 1886, and which relates to foreigners and their natural- 
 ization, the following may be of interest for the immigrant 
 inasmuch as they. inform him of the guarantees, rights 
 and immunities which he can enjoy in the country. 
 
 Expatriation. — The Republic of Mexico recognizes expat- 
 riation or emigration as the natural and inherent right of 
 every man and as necessary to the enjoyment of individual 
 liberty. It therefore both permits its own inhabitants to 
 exercise this right so that they may leave their country and 
 settle down in a foreign land, and protects the right which 
 foreigners of every nationality have to come and live under 
 its jurisdiction. The Republic then receives subjects or 
 citizens from other States and naturalizes them in con- 
 formity with the said law of the 28th of May, 1886. 
 
 Expatriation and naturalization in another country do 
 not, however, exempt a criminal from extradition and the 
 trial and punishment due to him in accordance with the 
 treaties, international customs and the laws of the country. 
 
 Citizens who have been naturalized and made such in 
 Mexico, even if they be in foreign lands have a right to the 
 same protection from the Government of the Republic as 
 Mexicans who are so by birth, whether the matter be one 
 of person or property. This does not hinder them, if they 
 return to their original country, from being subject to the 
 responsibilities which they may have incurred before their 
 naturalization in Mexico and by the laws of their first 
 country. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 309 
 
 The Mexican Government protects its citizens abroad as 
 far as international laws allow. The President, accord- 
 ino- as he deems it convenient, makes use of the means 
 placed at his disposal by international laws, always provided 
 they do not constitute acts of hostility ; and even so, if 
 diplomatic interference is not sufficient and if the means at 
 his disposal are not enough for his purpose, or if the injuries 
 to the Mexican nation are so grave as to demand severe 
 measures, then the President gives immediate account of 
 the matter to Congress and lays before it the documents 
 relating thereto in order that effective constitutional steps 
 may be taken. The naturalization of a foreigner loses its 
 effect if he reside in his original country during two years, 
 unless he does so in the discharge of an official commission 
 from the Government or with the latter' s permission. 
 
 Naturalization.— Every foreigner who fulfills the neces 
 sary conditions laid down by the law can be naturalized in 
 the Eepublic. At lest six months before petitioning for nat- 
 uralization his request should be presented in writing before 
 the municipality of his place of residence. In this request 
 he should state his desire to become a Mexican citizen and 
 to renounce his foreign nationality. The municipality will 
 then give him a copy certificate of his statement and keeps 
 the original in its records. 
 
 When the six months have passed and after the foreigner 
 has resided two full years in the Eepublic he can ask the 
 Federal Government to grant him a certificate of natural- 
 ization. In order to obtain it he must first present himself 
 before the district judge under whose jurisdiction he may 
 
 be and offer proof of the following : 
 
 I. That according to the law of his country he is in the 
 full enjoyment of his civil rights and is of age. 
 
 II. That he has resided in the Republic for at least two 
 years and that during that time he has observed good 
 conduct. 
 
310 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 III. That he has means, a trade, profession or funds on 
 which to live. 
 
 To the petition which he presents to the district judge 
 asking him to authorize this information, he must also add 
 the certificated copy given him by the municipality and 
 must send too an express renunciation of all submission, 
 obedience and fidelity to any foreign government, and 
 especially to the one of which he was previously a subject: 
 he has also to renounce all foreign protection from the laws 
 and authorities of Mexico, and all the rights which are 
 conceded to foreigners by treaty or international law. 
 
 The district judge before ratifying the petition directs that 
 the testimony of the witnesses be received in presence of the 
 State Prosecutor Promoter and he can also, if he deems it 
 necessary, demand information regarding such witnesses 
 from the municipality. 
 
 The judge likewise admits whatever other proofs there 
 may be of the points laid down in the petition and asks the 
 opinion of the State Prosecutor Promoter thereon. 
 
 He then, in case his judgment is favorable, remits 
 the original document to the Foreign Secretaryship in 
 order that if there be no legal impediment the certificate of 
 naturalization may be issued. The petitioner then through 
 the same judge draws up a petition for the said Secretary- 
 ship asking for a certificate of naturalization, and again, 
 declaring his renunciation of all foreign rights and statin^ 
 his adhesion, obedience and submission to the laws and 
 authorities of Mexico. 
 
 Foreigners who serve in the national merchant navy can 
 be naturalized after a service on board of one year only. 
 The necessary formalities may be gone through before 
 the district judge of any of the posts at which the vessel 
 touches and in like manner any of the municipalities of the 
 same is empowered to receive the petitioner's manifestation. 
 Foreigners who by virtue of the law are already naturalized 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 311 
 
 and those who have the right of choosing to become Mexi- 
 can citizens or not, are not included in these provisions. 
 Hence it is that the children of a Mexican man or woman 
 who has lost his or her citizenship, the foreign woman who 
 marries a Mexican, the children of a foreign father, or of 
 a foreign mother, and of an unknown father if born in 
 Mexico territory and the Mexican woman who is the widow 
 of a foreigner, are all looked upon by the law as naturalized 
 if they fulfill these conditions and for them there is no need 
 of any formalities. 
 
 Foreigners who acquire landed property in the Republic, 
 who have had children born to them in Mexico and who 
 serve the Government in an official capacity, can apply to 
 the Foreign Secretaryship for their certificate of naturaliza- 
 tion within the term of one year. To their petition there 
 must be added a certificate of their having acquired landed 
 property, had children born in Mexico, or accepted some 
 public employment, according as their special case may be. 
 They must also present the renunciation of rights and the 
 protest of submission required for ordinary cases of 
 naturalization. 
 
 Absence in a foreign country with the leave of Govern- 
 ment, provided such absence does not exceed two months 
 during a period of two years, does not interrupt the neces- 
 sary number of years' residence in the Republic. 
 
 Certificates of naturalization are not granted to the subjects 
 or citizens of a nation with which the Republic may be at 
 war. Neither are they conceded to persons who are reputed 
 and judicially declared in other countries to be pirates, 
 slave dealers, incendiaries, coiners, bank forgers, or forgers 
 of any papers which serve as money, nor are they given to 
 murderers, highway robbers or thieves. 
 
 Any naturalization fraudulently obtained by a foreigner 
 in violation of the law is absolutely null and void. 
 
312 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Certificates of naturalization are issued entirely gratui- 
 tously so that no payment can be demanded for them 
 whether under the title of costs, registration fee, stamp or 
 any other name. 
 
 As the act of naturalization is in an especial way personal 
 he who wishes to become naturalized can only be repre- 
 sented by a person with special faculties for the act, and 
 these faculties must include the power of making the 
 renunciation of foreign rights and the protest of submission 
 to Mexico. In no case, however, can the representative 
 supply the defect of residence in the Eepublic for the 
 proper period of time by the foreigner. A citizen and for- 
 eigner cannot exchange their qualities as such nor transfer 
 them to another person so that neither the citizen can 
 enjoy the rights of the foreigner nor the latter the prerog- 
 atives of the former. 
 
 The change of nationality or naturalization produces no 
 retroactive or backward effect. The acquisition and enjoy- 
 ment of the rights of a Mexican citizen only take effect on 
 the day after that on which all the conditions have been 
 fulfilled and all the formalities gone through which the law 
 lays down for the obtaining of naturalization. Colonists 
 who come to the country in fulfillment of contracts made by 
 the Government and whose traveling expenses and settle- 
 ment are paid for by the same are regarded as Mexicans. In 
 their enrollment contract they must state their determina- 
 tion to renounce their former nationality and to adopt that 
 of Mexico. And on being established in the colony they 
 present themselves before a competent authority to make 
 a further renunciation and protest which is sent to the 
 minister of foreign affairs in order that the proper certifi- 
 cate of naturalization may be issued. 
 
 Colonists who come to the country on their own account 
 or on behalf of companies or of private enterprises which 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 313 
 
 do not receive any government subvention, in fact, immi- 
 grants of every kind can become naturalized in accordance 
 with some or other of the provisions of this law. Those 
 colonists who have hitherto settled in the country are also 
 bound by the same law in all that does not oppose the 
 rights they have acquired by their contracts. 
 
 The naturalized foreigner becomes a Mexican citizen as 
 soon as he complies with all the regulations laid down in 
 Art. 34 of the Constitution. He is then on an equality 
 with Mexicans as far as regards his rights and duties, but 
 he is of course incapacitated from holding such positions or 
 employments as according to law must be filled by natives 
 by birth. There is an exception, however, even to this, 
 viz.: when a person has been born within the national 
 territory but has been naturalized in accordance with num- 
 ber II of Art. the 2d of the law dated the 28th of May, 
 1886, and which refers to foreigners. 
 
 The Rights and Duties of Foreigners. 
 
 Foreigners in the Eepublic enjoy the civil rights which 
 are the due of Mexicans as well as the privileges granted 
 under Section I, Title I, of the Constitution, the only 
 exception to these rights and privileges being that the 
 Government has the power to expel a foreigner who is 
 pernicious. 
 
 In order to become possessors of untilled national lands, 
 landed property and ships foreigners are not bound to 
 reside in the Republic, but they remain subject to the 
 restrictions which the reigning laws impose. This rule 
 holds good in all cases where the ownership means the hiring 
 of immoveables or fixtures by a foreigner when the term of 
 his contract exceeds ten years. 
 
314 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The Federal law alone can modify and restrict the civil 
 rights enjoyed by foreigners. But owing to the principle 
 of international reciprocity foreigners are subject to the 
 same disabilities in the Republic as the laws of their coun- 
 tries impose upon Mexicans who reside abroad in theirs. 
 Hence it is that the provisions of the civil codes and the 
 regulations of the district regarding this matter have the 
 same force as Federal laws and are obligatory throughout 
 the whole of Mexico. 
 
 Foreigners can without losing their original nationality 
 occupy houses with all due legal effect. The ownership, 
 change or loss of house property are regulated by the laws 
 of Mexico. 
 
 When the suspension of personal guarantees has been 
 declared in the terms laid down in Art. 29 of the Constitu- 
 tion, foreigners equally with Mexicans are subject to the 
 provisions of the law which decrees the suspension unless 
 they are especially excepted by treaty. 
 
 Foreigners are bound to contribute to the public expenses 
 in the manner which the laws direct, and to obey and respect 
 the institutions, laws and authorities of the country and to 
 submit themselves to the judgments and sentences of the 
 courts without the power to have recourse to means 
 other than those which the laws grant to Mexicans. They 
 are allowed to make an appeal to diplomatic means, only 
 when justice has been denied to them, or wilfully retarded 
 in its administration, and after they have uselessly exhausted 
 all the ordinary means appointed by law, and then they 
 must appeal in the manner laid down by international 
 
 law. 
 
 Foreigners do not enjoy the political rights which belong 
 only to Mexican citizens. Therefore they cannot vote nor 
 be voted for in any popular election for any position 
 whether it be a political one, or in the Army, Navy or 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 315 
 
 National Guard. Neither can they form associations to 
 treat about the political affairs of the country nor exercise 
 the right of petition in such matters. These regulations, 
 however, do not interfere with what is laid down in Arts. 
 1st, number XII. and 19th of the above-mentioned law of 
 1886. 
 
 Foreigners are exempt from military service. Those 
 who own houses, however, are obliged to undertake the 
 duty of police, when it is a question of the security of prop- 
 erty and of the preservation of order in the place in which 
 their houses are. Foreigners who later took part in the 
 civil dissensions of the country may be expelled from its 
 territory as pernicious foreigners who have subjected them- 
 selves to the laws of the country by the crimes they have 
 been guilty of. Their rights and duties are regulated 
 during the time the war lasts in accordance with the law of 
 nations and with a due regard to treaties. 
 
 As the laws regarding the enrollment of foreigners have 
 been repealed the minister of Foreign affairs is the only one 
 who can issue certificates of any particular nationality to 
 foreigners citizenship in his supposed country but they do 
 not exclude proof to the contrary. The final and definite 
 proof of a particular nationality is given before competent 
 tribunals and in the manner which the laws and treaties 
 determine. 
 
 The law already cited of May, 1886, does not grant to 
 foreigners the rights denied to them by the law of nations 
 or by the treaties and legislation in force in Mexico. 
 
 Immigratory Movement. 
 
 III. The foreign immigration to the Republic has been 
 until now of small consideration, notwithstanding it has 
 
316 
 
 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 been increasing continuously, as will be seen by the fol- 
 lowing table: 
 
 MOVEMENT OF PASSENGERS AT THE DIFFERENT PORTS. 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 PORTS. 
 
 ARRIVALS. 
 
 DEPARTURES. 
 
 IN FAVOR OP 
 IMMIGRATION. 
 
 1884. 
 
 Gulf Ports 
 
 11.365 
 4.463 
 
 9.083 
 3.892 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 15.828 
 
 12.975 
 
 2.853 
 
 1885 
 
 Gulf Ports 
 
 1C162 
 
 8.122 
 
 
 
 
 4.651 
 
 3.911 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 14.813 
 
 12.033 
 
 2.780 
 
 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 Gulf Ports 
 
 9.882 
 5.933 
 
 7.705 
 5.680 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15.815 
 
 is.afis 
 
 2.430 
 
 
 
 
 1887 
 
 Gulf Ports 
 
 10.736 
 13.400 
 
 8.305 
 10.431 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24.136 
 
 18.736 
 
 5.400 
 
 ] 888. 
 
 Gulf Ports 
 
 13.648 
 13.033 
 
 10.651 
 11.961 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26.681 
 
 22.612 
 
 4.069 
 
 
 
 1889. 
 
 Gulf Ports 
 
 17.974 
 12.918 
 
 12.628 
 12.920 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30-892 
 
 25.548 
 
 5.344 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FOR SIX YEARS. 
 
 Gulf Ports... 
 Pacific Ports. 
 
 Grand Total. 
 
 73.767 
 54.308 
 
 128.165 
 
 56.494 
 
 48.795 
 
 105.289 
 
 22.876 
 
 General movement. 
 Annual average. . . . 
 
 .233.454 
 . 38.909 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 317 
 
 The under mentioned countries have contributed to the 
 immigratory movement as follows: 
 
 YEAKS 
 
 NATIONS 
 
 ARRIVALS 
 
 DEPARTURES 
 
 DIFFERENCE 
 
 In favor Against 
 
 1884 
 
 Spain 
 <« 
 u 
 tt 
 << 
 n 
 
 3,026 
 2,005 
 1,847 
 2,270 
 2,654 
 3,909 
 
 1,719 
 1,479 
 1,424 
 
 1,403 
 1,764 
 2,548 
 
 1,307 
 526 
 423 
 867 
 890 
 
 1,361 
 
 
 1885 
 
 
 1886 
 
 
 1887 
 
 
 1888 
 
 
 1889 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 15,711 
 
 10,337 
 
 5,374 
 
 
 
 
 1884 
 
 United States 
 u 
 << 
 <( 
 n 
 
 1,304 
 1,297 
 1,179 
 5,805 
 4,291 
 3,987 
 
 1,373 
 967 
 1,300 
 4,152 
 4,067 
 4,133 
 
 330 
 
 1,653 
 224 
 
 69 
 
 1885 
 
 1886 
 
 121 
 
 1887 
 
 1889 
 
 146 
 
 
 Total 
 
 17,863 
 
 15,992 
 
 2,207 
 
 336 
 
 1884. 
 1885. 
 1886. 
 18S7. 
 
 1889. 
 
 England 
 
 234 
 
 238 
 229 
 386 
 569 
 726 
 
 188 
 
 46 
 
 
 175 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 171 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 119 
 
 267 
 
 
 264 
 
 305 ....••• • 
 
 415 
 
 311 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 2,382 
 
 1,332 
 
 1,050 
 
 1884. 
 1885. 
 1886. 
 1887. 
 1888. 
 1889. 
 
 France 
 
 619 
 362 
 509 
 761 
 783 
 758 
 
 547 
 362 
 476 
 460 
 671 
 671 
 
 72 
 
 33 
 301 
 112 
 
 87 
 
 Total 
 
 3,792 
 
 3,187 
 
 605 
 
318 
 
 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 884. 
 885. 
 886. 
 887. 
 
 Germany 
 
 352 
 
 307 
 280 
 453 
 477 
 682 
 
 DEPARTURES 
 
 Total 
 
 2,551 
 
 378 
 262 
 285 
 296 
 300 
 531 
 
 DIFFERENCE 
 
 In favor Against 
 
 2,052 
 
 45 
 
 157 
 177 
 151 
 
 530 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 1884. 
 1885. 
 1886. 
 1887. 
 1888. 
 1889' 
 
 Italy 
 
 392 
 216 
 283 
 216 
 469 
 386 
 
 Total 
 
 1,962 
 
 620 
 237 
 311 
 223 
 357 
 294 
 
 2,042 
 
 112 
 92 
 
 204 
 
 228 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 284 
 
 1884. 
 1885. 
 1886. 
 
 1887 
 
 1889. 
 
 Various 
 
 Nations 
 
 230 
 269 
 216 
 386 
 702 
 1,496 
 
 168 
 191 
 181 
 401 
 410 
 
 292 
 596 
 
 15 
 
 Total 
 
 3,299 
 
 2,251 
 
 1,063 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 47,560 
 
 37,193 
 
 11,033 
 
 666 
 
 
 
 General movement 84,753 
 
 In favor of the immigration • • •• .10,367 
 
 Annual average • ■• • • 1,727 
 
 From a comparison of the two totals corresponding to 
 the general movement, may bo deduced the number of 
 Mexicans arriving and leaving the Kepublic, which, in 
 six years, amounted to 148,701. 
 
 In the preceding table we have only considered the 
 movement of travelers entering through the ports of the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 319 
 
 Pacific and the Gulf for the reason that we have not suffi- 
 cient data with which to estimate the immigration which 
 enters through the frontiers of the United States and which, 
 we are satisfied, would exceed greatly that of any other 
 country. 
 
 After having perused the foregoing regarding foreign 
 immigration, its insufficiency, apparently inexplicable, will 
 at once be noted, considering the elements of wealth which 
 Mexico possesses, — sufficient to form a prosperous nation 
 of 60,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 From within a few years subsequent to the declaration 
 of Independence, as has been seen, our statesmen, pre- 
 occupied with that idea, have endeavored by every possible 
 means to attract to our shores a large foreign immigration, 
 as if to accomplish this object, good will and laws more or 
 less liberal would only be necessary. This has been a 
 lamentable error, which has cost Mexico a large amount of 
 money, and which has only served to lessen us in the 
 esteem of foreign nations. Every colonist who has re- 
 turned to his native land a victim of our deception, has, 
 naturally, become a defamer of the Republic, and, de- 
 ceived, the greater portion of the colonists attracted to 
 Mexico by means of deceptions practiced, or by a 
 stipend wasted, in the majority of cases, by avaricious 
 contractors, or by both causes, have been compelled to 
 return; during the first period, because the picture pre- 
 sented by the nation, turbulent and ravaged by the politi- 
 casters, was not the most inviting for working people; 
 and, recently, because notwithstanding the peace and 
 morality attending the administration which we have en- 
 joyed during the past seventeen years, rarely, indeed, has 
 artificial colonization given good results. The colonist, 
 circumscribed and compromised, to work his determined 
 length of time under fixed conditions, has never been satis- 
 tied; he ends by comparing his condition with that of a 
 
320 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 slave or prisoner, at least. This is what experience teaches 
 us. 
 
 Now, then, we have no right, as yet, to expect a spon- 
 taneous and numerous colonization of laboring classes 
 while we are unable to offer good wages and profitable 
 lands. The inequality which exists between the wages paid 
 on our northern frontier and those of the Southern Ameri- 
 can States, causes a large number of persons to emigrate to 
 that country, to the great injury of our " hacendados." 
 But the evil is not a permanent one. In brief, with our 
 systems of cultivation and irrigation modernized, our Mex- 
 ican . farmers and mining companies would be enabled to 
 pay high wages, and the immigration from Europe, which 
 is at present unfavorable to us, would find its way to our 
 country, more particularly by reason of the active hosti- 
 lity which the United States of America, whose population 
 is already sufficiently dense, has shown towards European 
 immigration, after having closed its doors to the Chinese. 
 
 As a matter of fact, and responsive to an increase in 
 wages, the voluntary immigration from the Antilles has 
 begun to make itself felt in the Peninsula of Yucatan. 
 
 The State of Chiapas, which is making prodigious strides 
 forward, will soon make urgent demand for a large num- 
 ber of hands, will increase its wages, and the laboring 
 classes will hasten en masse to that privileged territory ; 
 and as many more will come from the frontiers and coasts, 
 to the central tablelands throughout the whole extension 
 of the Kepublic. 
 
 It is only necessary that the proper period of time shall 
 elapse, in order that this evolution may be accomplished. 
 There is much to be hoped for from spontaneous immi- 
 gration ; but very little, or nothing, from the systems of 
 artificial colonization which have been employed up to the 
 present, with great waste of the nation's money. 
 
 Apropos of the colonization and utilization of indigenous 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 321 
 
 labor, the eminent statesman, Mr. Matias Komero, makes 
 the following statement : 
 
 " We have an indigenous population of pure race, which 
 probably exceeds the half of the inhabitants of the Kepub- 
 lic, or, say more than six millions. As a general rule, the 
 Indians have preserved, with very slight modifications, 
 the customs which they had when, some four hundred 
 years since, America was discovered by Columbus, and 
 remain in a state of almost complete isolation, relying upon 
 themselves, as far as possible, to meet their petty require- 
 ments ; so that they consume what they themselves produce 
 and produce but little for exportation, therefore that from 
 this point of view, the Indians represent no factor in our 
 public wealth. 
 
 The duty of the Government is to civilize those of our 
 fellow-citizens whom they find in this condition ; place 
 them in contact with the rest of the country and with the 
 civilized world ; make them producers and consumers of 
 national and foreign merchandise ; educate them, teach them 
 at least the Spanish language, to read and write ; and when 
 this has been accomplished, and when the Indians, until now 
 disinherited, are made participants in the advantages and 
 comforts of civilization, we shall have effected, if I may so 
 state, the transportation to our country of millions of 
 colonists, without the cost and inconvenience of bringing 
 here a foreign population, and being compelled to assimilate 
 it with our own." 
 
 COLONIES. 
 
 IV. The political revolutions which were rife for so many 
 years in Mexico rendered completely unsuccessful the first 
 efforts which were made at foreign colonization. A like 
 fate befall all the endeavors made previous to the Rev-, 
 olution of Tuxtepec, which was the turning point of the 
 
 21 
 
322 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 course of political upheavals and which inaugurated an era 
 of peace, industry and material prosperity. 
 
 The triumph of the Revolution and the coming to the 
 front of practical men made a complete change in the 
 political and economical aspect of the Republic. The 
 people were now tired of revolutions, their own chosen men 
 were guiding their destinies and these men pointed out to 
 them new paths along which they might not hesitate to 
 advance with steady pace. The thoughts and judgments 
 of the greater part of the Mexicans had to undergo a radical 
 change and was necessary to make them understand that 
 the high road of labor was the way to reach wealth and 
 material prosperity. • 
 
 The work has been slow, perhaps, but nevertheless steady 
 and progressive. 
 
 Peace being once firmly established it was necessary to 
 reorganize the Public Exchequer, and this task was no less 
 important than the previous one. So difficult indeed was 
 it that it required great efforts and it was found necessary 
 to intrust it to an exceptionally clever financier who should 
 possess a vast knowledge of the science of finance and at 
 the same time an exquisite tact so as to bring into harmony 
 complicated combinations and to undertake with any chance 
 of success the reorganization of the Mexican Finances which 
 in 1885 had arrived at the last stage of confusion, as had 
 been seen elsewhere.* 
 
 Scarcely had the peace of the country been secured when 
 it became one of the first cares of the Rulers of the new 
 era to promote European immigration. With this object 
 eighteen contracts were entered into, their dates extending 
 from the 12th of January, 1878, when a contract was made by 
 the Colonization Secretaryship with C. Guillermo Andrade, 
 who represented the Mexican, Agricultural, Industrial and 
 
 * " Treasury Dept." 1 IV. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 323 
 
 Colonizing Company of the lands of Colorado till the 7th 
 of June, 1882. Of these contracts six had at the latter day 
 fallen into desuetude and nine were still pending execution ; 
 the only ones that were carried out were those of Messieurs 
 Rovatti and Francisco Rizzo. In order to attend to the 
 thorough establishment of the colonists who according to 
 agreement were to arrive in the Republic, the Colonization 
 Secretaryship dictated the necessary arrangements for ac- 
 quiring lands suitable for colonization, and with this view the 
 sum of $169,988 was laid out in buying the farms of Mazate- 
 pec, Chipiloe, Tenamaxtla and the lands of Settles, in Pu- 
 ebla, those of Ojo de Leon in San Luis Potosi ; and those of 
 Aldama and Nativitas which are close to those of the Ajrricul- 
 tural School of the Capital. All these lands together cover 
 an extent of 2,245,802 acres. 
 
 In addition to these tracts and by virtue of permission 
 granted by law on the 31st of May, 1857, the Colonization 
 Secretaryship acquired others whose extent is 163,642,400 
 acres situated in the fertile region of theTehuantepec Isthmus 
 and in the island of Tiburon under the jurisdiction of the 
 States of Morelos and Guerrero. 
 
 The surveying and boundary operations undertaken on 
 behalf of the Colonization Secretaryship in the Table of Met- 
 laltoyuca and the operations to be undertaken in virtue of the 
 contracts in the States of Tamaulipas, Coahuila and Chi- 
 huahua, in the islands of St. Stephen and Ciari in the lands 
 of Champoton in Campeche, considerably increased the 
 amount of lands available for colonizing purposes. The 
 results were not so good as were expected owing to the 
 contractors breaking off their engagements, but notwith- 
 standing this the efforts of the Government were not entirely 
 fruitless. 
 
 The first colony was established in the healthy and fruit- 
 ful lands of Huatusco. The colonists arrived at Veracruz 
 on the 19th of October, 1881, on board the steamer 
 
324 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 " Atlantico " having been sent out by the firm of Rovatti 
 & Co. of Leghorn virtue of their first contract. They 
 were received at the port and on the following day were 
 taken on the Mexican railway to Orizaba and from thence 
 they proceeded to the Colony, where they arrived on the 3rd 
 of November of the same year. At Orizaba they were re- 
 ceived by a deputy from the Colonization Secretaryship and 
 comfortably lodged in an extensive building. The Coloniza- 
 tion Secretary deeming his presence in the colony necessary 
 went thither along with the principal of that section of 
 affairs at the end of October and at once set about arrang- 
 ing the means for surveying and measuring out the lands 
 and for immediately installing the colonists, and establish- 
 ing the administrative order which had to be observed in 
 the future by them. The 1st colonists who arrived at 
 Huatusco under the conduct of Mr. Juan B. Ochoa, En- 
 gineer, were 423 in number, a few families having stayed at 
 Orizaba. Thus was founded and established the first 
 colony, namely, " Manuel Gonzalez," as it was immediately 
 styled. 
 
 On the 27th of January, 1882, there came to Veracruz 
 in the steamship "Casus" 193 Italians, made up of 53 
 families. These, together with 85 Mexicans, were on 
 their road to the farms of Barreto & Temilpan, where 
 they formed the colony which took the name «« Porfirio 
 Diaz." 
 
 On lands belonging to the farm of Temilpa there were 
 established with Mexican families and on the same basis as 
 the colony " Porfirio Diaz" the following towns: "San 
 Vicente Juarez," "San Eafael Zaragoza " and "San 
 Pablo Hidalgo." 
 
 The third colony, which was established on the estate of 
 Mazatepec, in the State of Puebla, was called " Carlos 
 Pacheco." It was formed of a hundred Italian families 
 who were sent. out as colonists in the Steamer "Mexico " 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 325 
 
 on the 25th of February, 1882, by Messrs. Rovatti & Pizzo. 
 The colony was made up of 428 persons of whom 384 
 were Milanese and 44 natives of Mexico. 
 
 Near this colony and adjoining the townlands of Tetela 
 the Colonization Secretaryship acquired other lands of a 
 cool and healthy temperature, of great productiveness and 
 having an abundant supply of water. Here the colonists of 
 Mazatepec settled because they wished to change their 
 climate and devote themselves to the cultivation of the 
 ordinary vine and the rancio, which is there produced in 
 great abundance. 
 
 The families that remained in Orizaba with the intention 
 of going to the State of San Luis Potosi numbered 410 
 persons. They were taken to the fertile lands on the 
 estate " Ojo de Leon " where they were started in the best 
 possible way, being at once given lots and supplied with 
 tools and agricultural instruments for clearing the land, 
 building houses, etc. This colony was named " Diez 
 Gutierrez." On the 25th of September the last band of 
 Italian colonists sent in accordance with the Rizzo contract 
 arrived at Veracruz. They numbered in all 656 persons, 
 consisting of 58 families, which were distributed as follows: 
 38, with a total of 424 persons, were sent to the estates of 
 Chipiloc and Tenamaxtla; 19, with 219 individuals, went to 
 Huatusco whilst one of 13 persons was dispatched to the 
 lands of the Agricultural School. 
 
 On the 30th of September there came to the estate of 
 Chipiloc 38 families, which along with 28 persons of both 
 sexes from the colony of " Porfirio Diaz " and a Mexican 
 family composed of 4 persons made up the colony called 
 "Fernandez Leal." At that time it consisted of 510 
 persons. 
 
 Quite close to the capital, as has been already said, the 
 lands of Nativitas and Aldama were bought and annexed to 
 the agricultural school with the view of forming a small 
 
326 
 
 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 model colony out of selected persons and especially of 
 persons chosen from the first band of Italians. 
 
 Twenty-six families, numbering in all 124 persons, were 
 selected to form this colony. 
 
 In later years, others were established, the most notable 
 and at the same time the ones that have made greater 
 progress, being the socialist colony of Topolobampo, which 
 was organized in conformity with a contract signed with an 
 American subject, Mr. Albert Owen, and the mormon settle- 
 ments established in the State of Chihuahua. The follow- 
 ing is a table of the colonies established inthe Republic, the 
 number of colonists, in 1892, their sex and nationality: — 
 
 NATIVES OF SOUTHERN MEXICO. 
 Hex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 327 
 
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328 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 From 1878 to 1891, thirty-three concessions of land 
 for colonization purposes have been granted. Of these 
 nine fell into desuetude, two were withdrawn and the follow- 
 ing are still in force. 
 
 t>ate of Contract or 
 Authorization. Concessionary. States. 
 
 January 7, 1882 Mexican Meridional Eailroad 
 
 Company P u e b 1 a Veracruz 
 
 Oaxaca and 
 
 Chiapas. 
 June 6, 1882 Eaf ael Portas Martinez Yucatan and Cam- 
 
 peche. 
 July 10, 1883 Manuel Campos & Co Yucatan and Cam- 
 
 peche. 
 
 November 9, 1883 Ygnacio Gomez del Campo 
 
 i & Co ■ Chihuahua. 
 
 December 27, 1883. . .Daniel Levy 
 
 September 29, 1884. . . Ybarra & Co . of Menda 
 
 July 17, 1884 Daniel Levy 
 
 July 21, 1884 Luis Huller & Co.. . Lower Calif ornia and 
 
 Isla de Cedros. 
 
 November 3/1884 Efren Vaca. Chihuahua. 
 
 October 8, 1886 W. Brodsick and Roberto 
 
 Simon Coahuila. 
 
 June 4, 1887 Louis Huller 
 
 March 3, 1887 Louis Arantave & Co Chihuahua. 
 
 August 19, 1887 Ponciano Palomir Chihuahua. 
 
 August 19, 1887 Maclovio Gamboa Chihuahua. 
 
 December 22, 1887 . . . Lascurain & Co Veracruz. 
 
 June 2, 1888 Agriculture Co. of Tlahualilo.Durango. 
 
 June 20, 1888 M. Ramirez Varela and Jose" 
 
 Mora Oaxaca, Veracruz. 
 
 Tabasco and Chiapas. 
 
 June 4, 1888 Louis Huller Chihuahua. 
 
 June 10, 1888 Octavio Conde Tamaulipas. 
 
 August 24, 1889 Jesus Almada Sinaloa. 
 
 July 11, 1891 Louis R. Brewer Chiapas. 
 
 November 19, 1891... Carlos Wehner Chiapas. 
 
IGNACIO MARISCAL. 
 Secretary of Foreiga Affairs. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. • 329 
 
 BOUNDARY AND COLONIZATION CONTRACTS MADE BY THE COL- 
 ONIZATION SECRETARYSHIP FROM THE YEAR 1881 TO 1891. 
 
 Date of Contract or 
 Authorization. Concessionary. States. 
 
 August 31, 1881 Eduardo Clay Wise & Co Chiapas. 
 
 May 21, 1881 Plutarco Ornelas Tamaulipas Coahuila 
 
 aud Chihuahua. 
 
 May 20, 1882 Guillermo Andrade Gulf of Cortes. 
 
 March 31, 1883 C. Flores and S. C. Hale, & Co. Lower California. 
 
 September 27, 1883 . .Federico Mendez Rivas Tabasco and Chiapas. 
 
 March 1, 1884 IreneoPaz & Co Lower California. 
 
 June 23, 18S4 Adolf o Bulle Sonora and Lower 
 
 California. 
 
 July 11, 1884 Antonio Azisnzulo & Co...... Chihuahua and Du- 
 
 rango. 
 
 August 9, 1884 Justo Sierra and Fernando 
 
 Zetina 
 
 September 17, 1884... Manuel Orellana Nogueras 
 
 & Co Guanajuato. 
 
 May 28, 1S85 Alberto Sanchez & Co Isla de Guadalupe. 
 
 June 20, 1885 Luis Huller Isla del Socorro. 
 
 August 10, 1885 Comp. Mex. Colonizadora Islas "Angel de la 
 
 Guarda " Tiburon 
 and San Esteban. 
 
 January 21, 1886 Manuel Vallejo Michoacan. 
 
 April 28, 1886 Carlos Quaglia & Co Queretaro. 
 
 July 21, 1886 Ramon G. Pena & Co Jalisco. 
 
 July 26, 1886 Manuel S.Vila Jalisco. 
 
 October 6, 1886 Jose M. Herrera Queretaro. 
 
 July 22, 1886 Comp. del Ferrocarril de Texas. Sinaloa, Sonora, 
 
 Chihuahua and 
 Coahuila. 
 
 March 5, 1888 Jose* M. Herrera Queretaro. 
 
 March 17, 1888 Comp. Mex. Agricola, Indus- 
 trial y Colonizadora Terrenos de Rio 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 September 27, 1889. . . Mariano Garcia Durango. 
 
 October 28 1889 Faustino Mnez & Co Yucatan. 
 
 February 28, 1890. . . . Alberto K. Owen Sinaloa, Sonora Chi- 
 huahua and Coa- 
 huila. 
 
 April 24,1891 Pedro Hinojosa Nuevo Leon. 
 
 April 30, 1 891 J. Gonzalez Trevifio Coahuila. 
 
330 THE EICHES OF MEXIC® 
 
 PURCHASE AND SALE CONTRACTS OF UNCULTIVATED LANDS 
 AND CONTRACTS OF COLONIZATION OF SAME MADE BY THE 
 FOMENTATION SECRETARYSHIP FROM 1885 TO 1891. 
 
 Date of Contract or 
 Authorization. Concessionaries. btates. 
 
 August 28, 1885 Louis Garcia Teruel Chihuahua. 
 
 August 28, 1885 Mariano Garcia Chihuahua. 
 
 May 22, 1886 E. Schnetz & Co '. Chihuahua. 
 
 July 10,1886 Simon Sarlat Tabasco. 
 
 October 29, 1887 E. Schnetz & Co 
 
 March 8, 1888 Guillermio Andrade Lower California. 
 
 August 17, 1888 Jose" M Garcia Chihuahua. 
 
 September 14, 1888. . • " La Mexicana ' Comp ' de mi 
 nas y terrenos en Mexico. 
 
 August 17,1888 Jose" M Garcia Chihuahua. 
 
 February 4, 1889 Eulalio Vela Veracruz. 
 
 July 25, 1889 Andres Horcasitas Durango. 
 
 June 13, 1890 Emilio Velasco Guerrero. 
 
 July 30, 1890 L. Garcia Teruel Tabasco. 
 
 August 22, 1890 Carlos Carrant Sonora and Sinaloa. 
 
 September 12, 1890... Joaquin Casasus Federal District and 
 
 several States. 
 
 January 7, 1891 Louis Robles Campeche. 
 
 January 7, 1891 Louis Gayon. Tepic Territory. 
 
 July 24, 1891 Lorenzo Torrez Sonora. 
 
 July 28, 1891 Jose" Valenzuela Jalisco and Zacate- 
 
 cas. 
 November 14, 1891...Arturo Eeeves Puebla. 
 
 UNOCCUPIED GOVERNMENT LANDS. 
 
 V. We find in the last report of the President of the 
 Republic, the following data regarding unoccupied lands: 
 
 " At the close of 1885, there were some 20,000,000 
 acres suitable for colonization, and this amount was in- 
 creased in 1886 by 7,000,000 hectares in the State of Chihua- 
 hua and Lower California. 
 
 In 1888 the surveyed lands reached the sum of 33,811,- 
 524 hectares of which amount 11,036,407 belonged to the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 331 
 
 colonization companies ; the superficies disposed of amounted 
 to 12,642,446, leaving some 10,132,671 to be distributed 
 by the Government. To this must be added 3,635,388 
 hectares covered by 1,504 titles adjudicated to private indi- 
 viduals. 
 
 In 1892 there had been surveyed 16,820,141 hectares; 
 of the 11,213,427 which belonged to the nation, there were 
 adjudicated to private parties and colonization companies 
 1,607,439 hectares, the sum realized from the sale of 
 which amounted to $493,882.49, payable in bonds of the 
 Public Debt. There still pertained to the Government 
 15,513,865 free hectares. The settlements effected with 
 the proprietors of lands, thetitle to which had been usurped, 
 produced some $1,280,328.44 invested in titles, and this 
 superfice increased to the sum of 4,222,901 hectares. In 
 many States there were granted to the Indians 4,560 pro- 
 prietory titles of lands, measuring 180,109 hectares. 
 There have also been distributed among the Yaquis and 
 Mayos many lots for cultivation and habitations." 
 
 RAFT ON USUMACINTA RIVER. 
 
 Mex. A. T. D. Los Siprlos. 
 
BOOK III. 
 
 SOCIAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 (333) 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 I. The moral, intellectual, spiritual and material develop- 
 ment of a nation as well as an individual depends largely 
 upon religious or philosophical teaching, according as that 
 teaching is best calculated to develop the individual powers 
 of mind. All religious beliefs have been formulated by 
 some of the most active minds of the race in the past, and 
 are, perhaps, as good as the race were for the time able to 
 comprehend. Without criticising the religious teachings of 
 the day, we will simply present them as history furnishes 
 the details. 
 
 CATHOLIC RELIGION. 
 
 II. The clergy in Mexico have attained an immense power 
 through their public influence and riches. To the end of 
 the VIII century it had reached the highest point of opul- 
 ence and influence, and enjoyed very great incomes. The 
 following are the emoluments of the principal ecclesiastical 
 Dignitaries in New Spain. 
 
 The Archbishop of Mexico received per year $130,000 ; 
 the Bishop of Puebla, $110,000; of Valladolid, $100,000; 
 of Guadalajara, $90,000; of Durango, $35,000; of Mon- 
 terrey, $30,000 ; of Yucatan, $20,000 ; of Oaxaca, $18,000. 
 
 (335) 
 
336 THE KICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The one of Sonora received in lieu of a stated salary, 
 rentals from real estate to the amount of $6,000 per 
 year, all of which makes a sum total of $539,000 per 
 annum. 
 
 The property of the Mexican clergy, calculated by the 
 prices that prevailed when the landed property was in 
 its rustic and urban state, and without including the 
 secular revenues of the Jesuits, has been computed at 
 $3,000,000, and the income which they derived from 
 chaplaincy taxes or rents, stocks, endowments, amounted 
 to $44,000,000, making with the previously mentioned 
 revenues from various sources, a grand total of $47,- 
 539,000. 
 
 The number of parishes were 1,073, and the ecclesiastics 
 occupied in them 2,300. The convents numbered 264; the 
 missions 157, and the Mexican clergy, including not only 
 professed, but lay-brothers and lay-friars, amounted in the 
 year 1803 to 8,000 individuals. 
 
 The first Mexican Constitution of 1824, established 
 officially the Apostolic Roman Catholic religion, excluding 
 all others, and this right was confirmed by the majority of 
 the constitutions which followed. The first severe blow 
 which the clergy of Mexico received was occasioned by the 
 decree of May 31, 1856, which introduced a legal suspen- 
 sion of the ecclesiastical properties in Puebla, and was 
 based on public opinion, which accused the clergy of having 
 instigated the civil war, employing for that purpose their 
 enormous wealth. The economical political question was 
 raised in this manner: the clergy were a powerful enemy 
 which was necessary to suppress at any cost, being regarded 
 as an element of perpetual discord ; it was indispensable to 
 protect private property against the enormous taxes which 
 were imposed upon it by the church. The following is a 
 statistical table of the rustic and urban landed properties 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 337 
 
 belonging to the ecclesiastical corporations in the Federal 
 District in the year 1856: 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 Houses. Value. 
 
 Convents , 1,268 $11,439,739 00 
 
 Congregations 62 458,326 00 
 
 Cathedral, Sagrario and Archbishopric 55 574,307 00 
 
 Parishes 24 49,828 00 
 
 Nuestra Sefiora de los Angeles 1 170 00 
 
 Sacristy of la Merced . . . 2 
 
 Recorder of San Diego 1 5,000 00 
 
 The holy places of Jerusalem 9 33,693 50 
 
 Brotherhoods 39 263,430 00 
 
 Archconfraternities , 51 469,348 23 
 
 Pious works 46 337,570 00 
 
 Chaplaincy Tribunal - 15 41,774 00 
 
 1,573 $13,678,209 73 
 
 Religious Colleges . 158 1,187,253 35 
 
 Religious Schools 4 7,224 00 
 
 162 $1,194,477.35 
 
 TLALPAN. 
 
 Convents 3 4,147 00 
 
 Chaplaincy Tribunal 1 7,669 00 
 
 4 $11,816.00 
 
 TACUBAYA. 
 
 The Parish 2 2,500 00 
 
 Pious Works 2 8,300 00 
 
 Brotherhood of San Joaquin 1 4,000 00 
 
 Collegiata of Guadalupe .. 13 54,090 00 
 
 18 $68,890.00 
 
 RUSTIC PROPERTY IN TLALPAN. 
 
 Convents 6 76,881 00 
 
 Brotherhoods 4 11,833 00 
 
 Total. 1,767 $15,042,107 08 
 
 There were also several establishments for instruction 
 and charities, which belonged equally to the Civil and 
 
 29. 
 
338 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Corporations, and which numbered 155 
 houses, representing a value of $1,584,479. In like manner 
 the capitals of both corporations, consisting of 74 rustic 
 and urban houses, represented a sum total of $104,912.06. 
 
 RESUMED. 
 
 Ecclesiastical corporations and educational estab- 
 lishments .1,767 $15,042,107 08 
 
 Beneficiaries of both corporations 155 1,584,479 00 
 
 Capitals of both corporations 74 104,912 06 
 
 Total.... 1,996 $16,731,498 14 
 
 After that followed the law of " Desamortization," 
 referring to the recovery of properties from the church, 
 and which was promulgated on June 25, 1856. The fol- 
 lowing was the general object of the Government in pass- 
 ing the law, viz. : In order to fully appreciate this law it 
 must oe considered under two aspects : 1st. As a resolution 
 to suppress and nullify the effects of one of the econom- 
 ical errors which had contributed to maintain values of 
 property in Mexico in a stationary condition and prevented 
 the development of arts and industries; 2d. As an indis- 
 pensable means of removing the principal obstacle which 
 existed to the establishment of a uniform system of taxa- 
 tion based on scientific principles; mobilizing landed prop- 
 erty which is the natural basis of all good systems of 
 taxation. 
 
 Under the first aspect it will only be necessary to fix the 
 attention upon the benefits which this measure would 
 immediately confirm upon the tenants or lessees of prop- 
 erties which formerly belonged to civil and ecclesiastical 
 corporations, as also the great good which would result* to 
 society in general, by placing in circulation the enormous 
 amount of landed estates which were in a stagnated condi- 
 tion, and finally by the impulse which would be given to the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. . 339 
 
 arts and industries through the continued improvements 
 which would be made in all the properties newly transferred 
 from the moment in which they became private properties, 
 already the object of sale and general exchange. From 
 the second point of view aside from the revenues 
 which the National Exchequer would at once derive, due 
 to the impulse which would be given to transfers of 
 ownership, which by virtue of this law, would have to be 
 legally verified, it proposed the formation of a safe basis 
 for the establishment of a system of taxes, the products 
 of which, without overloading the various sources of 
 public wealth, would be sufficient to meet the necessities 
 of the Government, and permit it to abolish at once and 
 forever all those forms of taxation which, like a dismal 
 inheritance of the colonial period, were preserved to the 
 present day, paralyzing commerce, and doing great injury 
 to agriculture, the arts, industries and to the entire nation. 
 (Decree which accompanied the law.) 
 
 The law of nationalization of July 12th, 1859, which 
 perfected in all its details the former one, states, among 
 other things, in its explanatory portion, as follows: 
 
 " That the principal motive of the present war, promoted 
 and sustained by the clergy, is to withdraw itself from 
 dependence to civil authority. * * * 
 
 " That the money given by Catholics to the church with 
 a pious object was utilized for this purpose, sustaining and 
 augmenting each day the fratricidal strife which was carried 
 on under the disguise of legitimate authority and denying the 
 right of the Republic to construct itself otherwise than as 
 suited their convenience and pleasure. 
 
 " That the various efforts which had been made up to the 
 present moment to terminate a war which was ruinous to 
 the Republic, having been utterly ineffectual, to allow its 
 sworn enemies to longer retain the resources or means 
 which they so seriously misused, would be to become their 
 
340 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 
 
 accomplice, and that it is an imperative duty to put into 
 execution every means which might be employed to save 
 the Republic from destruction." 
 
 By the provisions of this law, all properties of every 
 description, which were held by the clergy, both sec- 
 ular and regular, under various titles, reverted to 
 the Government, without distinction, as to class of title, 
 rio-ht or shares which it consisted of, nor of the name and 
 application which it might have. In order to protect the 
 new proprietors of nationalized properties, it became nec- 
 essary to make certain provisions which would guarantee 
 them the quiet and peaceful possession of their holdings, 
 without being subject to revision, except, of course, in case 
 of fraudulent sale. 
 
 The economical results of the former laws were: 1st, the 
 subdivision of the property; 2d, the increase of the public 
 wealth in circulation. 
 
 In order to form an idea of the sales which were made, 
 it will suffice to state that by December 10th, 1861, the 
 transactions in nationalized property had reached the enor- 
 mous sum of $16,553,147. 
 
 LEGAL IMPOSITIONS CONCERNING- RELIGIONS. 
 
 III. By virtue of the law of July 12th, 1859, which was 
 elevated to a constitutional rank by that of the December 
 14th, 1874, religious toleration was allowed and, as a natural 
 consequence, the church was separated from the State. 
 This law guarantees the exercise of all forms of religious 
 worship, and punishes only those forms and ceremonies 
 which may be considered as offensive or contrary to the 
 intent and meaning of the penal laws. 
 
 The ministers of any religion do not, by reason of their 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 341 
 
 character or profession, enjoy any privilege which would 
 distinguish them from other citizens; nor are they sub- 
 jected to greater prohibitions than those designed in the 
 Law and the Constitution. 
 
 Keligious instruction and the practice of any religion is 
 prohibited in the National Establishments of the Repub- 
 lic; they teach morality without alluding to any special 
 religion. 
 
 Notwithstanding this, persons residing in the public 
 establishments are entitled to practice the religion they 
 profess, and are even allowed to receive in the establish- 
 ments in question, in urgent cases, the spiritual comforts 
 of their religion. 
 
 No religious ceremony is permitted to be performed in 
 public but only in the interior of the churches. The meet- 
 ings of the churches must be public and will therefore be 
 under vigilance of the police, while the authorities may, 
 when the exigences of the case require it, exercise their 
 functions in such temples. 
 
 Members of any religious denomination are prohibited 
 from wearing any special dress to distinguish them from 
 other citizens. 
 
 Eeligious institutions may be organized as their members 
 may elect, but such organization shall have no legal recog- 
 nition from the State than that of giving personality to the 
 superiors of same in each locality in order to defend their 
 rights. No minister of any religion can, however, by 
 virtue of his character and title, appear officially to the 
 authorities. 
 
 The Government does not recognize any monastic orders, 
 and will not allow their establishment whatever mav be 
 their purpose. The secret orders of this kind will be con- 
 sidered as illicit bodies, and the authorities may disperse 
 them when necessary; while the superiors of same will be 
 
342 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 considered as trespassers against the individual welfare, 
 in conformity with Article 993 of the Penal Code of the 
 District, which is in force in the whole Republic. 
 
 By monastic orders is understood those religious associa- 
 tions whose members live under certain regulations pecu- 
 liarly their own, by means of vows or promises, temporary 
 or perpetual and subject to one or more superiors, even 
 though each and every individual of the order should 
 possess a distinct habitation. 
 
 The rights of religious bodies, as provided by the law, 
 and represented by their superior in each locality, are as 
 follows: I. The right of petition. II. Of ownership in 
 the temples acquired according to law, which right will be 
 governed by the particular laws of the State in which the 
 edifices are located, even though the association be extinct 
 in each locality, or when the property has been abandoned. 
 
 III. To receive charities or bequests which, however, can 
 never consist of real estate, acknowledgments in same, 
 nor in obligations or promises for future fulfillment, be it 
 under pretense of testamentary institution, donation, 
 legacy, or any other character of obligation of the 
 kind, as all such will be considered null and void. 
 
 IV. The right to receive these alms in the interior of the 
 churches through the medium of the collectors whom they 
 may appoint, with the understanding that beyond these the 
 appointment of all such collectors is absolutely prohibited, 
 those appointing being included in Art. 413 of the Penal 
 Code of the District, which article has been declared effect- 
 ive throughout the Republic. 
 
 In addition, they may have direct dominion over the 
 temples which, in conformity with the law of July 12, 1859, 
 have been nationalized and which were placed at the service 
 of the Catholics, as also those which having been poste- 
 riorly ceded to any religious institution, continue to belong 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 343 
 
 to the nation, but its exclusive use, preservation and im- 
 provement, shall be at the disposal of the religious institu- 
 tion to whom they have been ceded, while no decree of 
 consolidation of the property has been made. 
 
 Economical Organization. 
 
 IV. The first principal church was founded in the Penins- 
 ula of Yucatan, by Francisco Hernandez de Cordova, in the 
 year 1517, under the name of " Nuestra Senora de los 
 Remedios " (Our Lady of Succor). On September, 1830, 
 the first Archbishopric was erected, whose see was in the 
 capital of the viceregency ; the one of Michoacan, with its 
 seat Morelia was built August 18th, 1536 ; the one of 
 Guadalajara, July 31st, 1548; and finally when His Excel- 
 lency, Archbishop Pelagio Antonio de Labastida y Davalos 
 died, they founded the Archbishoprics of Oaxaca, 
 Monterey and Durango. 
 
 The actual organization is as follows: 
 
 Archbishoprick of Mexico ; of the bishopricks of Puebla, Tulanclngo, 
 Chilapa, Veracruz and Cuernavaca. Archbishoprick of Guadalajara of 
 the bishopricks of Colima, Zacatecas and Tepic. Archbishoprick of 
 Michoacan; of the bishopricks of Queretaro, Leon and Zamora. Arch- 
 bishoprick of Oaxaca; of the bishopricks Yucatan, Chiapas, Tabasco and 
 Tehuantepec. Archbishoprick of Monterrey; of the bishopricks of S. 
 Luis Potosi and Tamaulipas. Archbishoprick of Durango; of the 
 bishopricks of Chihuahua, Sonora and Sinaloa. Apostolic vicarage of 
 Lower California. 
 
 According to the official data published by the Secretary 
 of Public Works, the number of vicarages and parishes, 
 churches and chapels of the Catholic Church in the Repub- 
 
344 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 lie in 1889, not including those recently created, was as 
 follows : 
 
 Vicarages Churches 
 
 and Parishes, and Chapels. Total. 
 
 Archbishoprick of Mexico 203 1,654 1,857 
 
 Bishoprick of Puebla 187 2,513 2,700 
 
 " " Oasaca 134 1,000 1,134 
 
 « " Chiapas .'. 40 500 540 
 
 " " Yucatan.... 84 234 318 
 
 » " Tabasco 12 100 112 
 
 " « Tulancingo 70 400 470 
 
 " "Veracruz 64 100 164 
 
 " " Chilapa 75 379 454 
 
 " " Tamaulipas 39 41 80 
 
 Archbishoprick of Michoacan 58 300 358 
 
 Bishop of San Luis Potosi 33 171 204 
 
 " " Queretaro 29 107 136 
 
 " " Leon 23 100 123 
 
 " " Zamora 36 100 136 
 
 Archbishoprick of Guadalajara 106 376 482 
 
 Bishop of Durango 45 250 295 
 
 «• "Linares 36 135 171 
 
 " " Sonora 55 200 255 
 
 " " Zacatecas 20 100 120 
 
 Apostolic Vicarage of Lower California 3 3 
 
 Totals 1,349 8,763 10,112 
 
 PROTESTANT RELIGION. 
 
 ABSTRACT FROM THE REPORT OF THE STATISTICS OF 
 PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN MEXICO 1888 (REVISED TO 
 1892). 
 
 I. The Field. 
 
 Total of Prot- 
 estant Missions. 
 
 V. Number of centers of operation 87 
 
 " of congregations 469 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 345 
 
 II. The Workers. 
 
 Number of ordained missionaries 59 
 
 " of nnordained missionaries (that is, unordained men 
 
 and wives of ordained and assistant missionaries) 51 
 
 " of foreign lady teachers 67 
 
 Whole number of foreign workers 177 
 
 Number of native preachers ordained ' ill 
 
 " of native preachers unordained „.... 161 
 
 " of native helpers 177 
 
 " of other native helpers 63 
 
 Total number of native workers 512 
 
 Grand total of native and foreign workers 689 
 
 III. The Churches. 
 
 Number of churches organized 385 
 
 " of communicants 16,250 
 
 " of probable adherents 49,512 
 
 IV. The Schools. 
 
 Number of training and theological schools 7 
 
 " of students in same 88 
 
 "* of boarding schools and orphanages 23 
 
 " of pupils in same 715 
 
 " of common schools 164 
 
 " of pupils in same 6,533 
 
 Total numbers under instruction 7,336 
 
 Number of Sunday-schools 347 
 
 11 of Sunday-school teachers and officers 6,947 
 
 " of Sunday-school scholars 9,814 
 
 Total membership of Sunday-schools 10,508 
 
 V. Publishing Interests. 
 
 Number of publishing houses 5 
 
 " of papers issued 11 
 
 Pages of all lands of religious literature issued since the es- 
 tablishment of a religious press 75,197,885 
 
346 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 VI. Properties. 
 
 Number of church buildings 118 
 
 Approximate value of same (including furniture) $391,675 
 
 Number of parsonages 45 
 
 Approximate value of same including society furniture $158,835 
 
 Number of educational buildings. • 31 
 
 Approximate value of same including furniture and utensils $256,940 
 
 Value of publishing outfits $36,850 
 
 Total value of all missionary property • ... $844,300 
 
 Tatals 194 $1,688,600 
 
 From the work entitled "Mexico," published in Wash- 
 ington by the "Bureau of the American Republics," 
 the following is quoted : " The first movement towards the 
 formation of a Christian church, distinct from the Roman 
 Catholic, which came to a successful issue, was begun in 
 the country in 1868, when aid was asked of Protestants 
 in the United States. The aid being afforded, there 
 was organized in 1869, in the city of Mexico, what was 
 called "The Church of Jesus in Mexico," which, how- 
 ever, was not the result of missionary work so much as 
 " a spontaneous movement originating among members of 
 the Roman Catholic Church" in the country, who desired 
 "a greater liberty of conscience, a purer worship, and a 
 better church organization." 
 
 The Rev. Henry C. Riley, a clergyman of the Protest- 
 ant Episcopal Church in the United States, went to Mex- 
 ico, in 1869, and entered heartily into the work of " The 
 Church of Jesus." In the same year the great church of 
 San Francisco, as well as the chapel of Balvanera, was 
 purchased by the Protestants, and services were conducted 
 therein in Spanish and English. 
 
 The existing main church of San Francisco was dedi- 
 cated December 8, 1716, but the original monastery and 
 church, whose site this edifice occupies, was built 
 about 1607 on lands which had formerly been the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 347 
 
 garden and wild beast house of the kings of Tenoch- 
 titlan. Cortez provided funds for the building of the 
 first church, and material was secured in the hewn 
 stone from the steps of the great Teocalli (the 
 Aztec temple). In this church Cortez heard masses, and 
 for a time his bones found a resting-place. Here the 
 Spanish viceroys, through the centuries, took part in the 
 great festivals of the church. The Te Deum in celebration 
 of Mexican independence was first echoed by its walls. 
 Here the Liberator, Augustin Iturbide, worshiped, and 
 here his funeral services were held when he died; and here, 
 to-day, Protestant services are held. 
 
 Three churches now stand on portions of the land covered 
 by what were known formerly as the seven churches of San 
 Francisco. They are the Church of Jesus ; Christ Church, 
 where the services of the Church of England are held ; and 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church of the Trinity. 
 
 A short resume of the American Church Missionary 
 Society is given in the following lines, penned by its 
 General Secretary, under date of February 12, 1891 : 
 
 In 1873 our society entered upon work in Mexico. We found there an 
 organization entitled "The Church of Jesus." The Rev. Dr. Riley, a 
 presbyter of the Protestant Episcopal Church, acted as our missionary 
 there. Two very large buildings, formerly Roman Catholic churches, 
 were purchased at an expense ©f $50,000, and, in addition to this, during 
 the five years that we continued in charge of the work, over $83,000 were 
 expended in the support of missionaries. More than 3,000 persons con- 
 nected themselves with this Protestant movement, and in 1873 our 
 society deemed it expedient to transfer this work to the Board of Missions 
 of the Protestant Episcopal Church. After that date, the Rev. Dr. Riley 
 was consecrated Bishop of the Valley of Mexico, but subsequently re- 
 tired, and the board withdrew its support. At present the work is in 
 the care of the presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church, and is con- 
 ducted by the Rev. William B. Gordon, resident presbyter. 
 
 An orphanage for girls has long been sustained by Mrs. Hooker, 
 formerly of Philadelphia, and an effort is now being made to erect a 
 building for this orphanage at a cost of $20,000. 
 
 The Protestant Episcopal missions and churches are 
 
348 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 many, and the congregations, especially in the city of 
 Mexico, generally large and flourishing. This church 
 maintains, besides the edifices mentioned, a chapel at Sec- 
 ond Independencia street, No. 3, Mexico City, and many 
 congregations and schools in other parts of the Republic, 
 six congregations and two schools being in Hidalgo, and 
 four congregations and two schools in Morelos. 
 
 The Presbyterian Mission was begun in 1872, and central 
 stations are maintained in the' city of Mexico, Zacatecas, 
 San Luis Potosi, Jerez, Saltillo, and Lerdo, attached to 
 which are numerous out-stations. All of these congrega- 
 tions and schools are in a flourishing condition. 
 
 The Methodist Episcopal Church began work in Mexico 
 in 1873, and has made most rapid strides. The parts of 
 the Republic where the work is carried on is divided into 
 four districts, the Central, Coast, Northern, and Puebla, 
 and into twelve circuits and twenty-eight stations. Accord- 
 ina- to the statistics published in the seventy-second annual 
 report of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episco- 
 pal Church, for the year 1890, the strength of the mission 
 was: Number of appointments, 101: foreign missionaries, 
 9; assistant missionaries, 8; foreign missionaries of Wom- 
 en's Foreign Missionary Society, 7; native workers of 
 the same, 35; native ordained preachers, 10; native unor- 
 dained preachers, 30; native teachers, 25; foreign teachers, 
 3; other helpers, 38; adherents, 6,106; churches and 
 chapels, 15, estimated to be worth $91,600 : halls and other 
 places of worship, 26; parsonages or " homes " 15; esti- 
 mated value of these, $100,900; high schools, 3; number 
 of scholars attending, 115; number of teachers, 9; number 
 of other day schools, 42; number of other day scholars, 
 2,725 ; number of Sabbath schools, 47 ; number of 
 Sabbath scholars, 8,641 ; value of orphanages, schools, 
 hospitals, book rooms, etc., $111,340; volumes printed 
 during the year, 170,330 ; pages printed during the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 349 
 
 year, 2,637,000. The average attendance on Sunday 
 worship was 2,305. There was a gain during the 
 year of 28 congregations, and a net increase of 394 
 members and probationers ; 349 conversions are reported, 
 against 120 the year before; 6 day schools were added to 
 the list, gaining an increase of 526 scholars ; three more 
 Sabbath schools and 274 more Sabbath school scholars 
 appear among the figures for the year. Three new churches 
 were built and the church properties were increased $7,600 
 in value over the preceding year, most of which amount 
 was raised in the country. There were collected for self- 
 support $9,146, against $6,708 the year before. 
 
 The Baptist churches organized in Mexico are as follows : 
 Under the Home Mission Society of New York, a church 
 each at Monterey, Salinas, ^Garcia, Santa Rosa, Monte- 
 morelos, Ebanos, Cadereyta, Apodaca, in the State of 
 Nuevo Leon, and one in the city of Mexico. Under the 
 Southern Baptist Convention there are churches at the 
 following places : Saltillo, Patos, Progreso, Muzquiz, and 
 Juarez, in the State of Coahuila. In 1886 there were thir- 
 teen ordained Baptist ministers and five schools, which have 
 considerably increased in number since that date. 
 
 The American Friends Society has established missions 
 at Matamoros, City of Mexico, and other places. 
 
350 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 
 
 I. Before we enlarge upon those late labors of the Gov- 
 ernment which have been dedicated to the spread and im- 
 provement of popular instruction, it will be necessary to 
 quote, at the outset, the authorized exposition by the re- 
 nowned lawyer and Secretary of Justice and Public In- 
 struction, Hon. D. Joaquin Baranda, bearing upon this same 
 important branch of the Administration, aud to enter into 
 his memorial on the question, presented to Congress on the 
 30th of November, 1888. It reads as follows: 
 
 " The studies of the Sciences and of the Arts, as also the 
 education of children, were not elements unknown to the 
 ancient people of Anahuac, and to this, amongst others, 
 bears testimony that grand monument of porphyry and its 
 mystic emblems, in which the Aztecs read the progress of 
 time during the day and year, and observed the changes of 
 the seasons, as also the palaces of Mitla and Palenque, 
 which, in their admirable ruins, reveal the secrets of the 
 architecture of those times, bear mute testimony. On 
 the other hand, it is also kuown that there existed 
 establishments of instruction for those who dedicated them- 
 selves to the preisthood and for those who followed the 
 career of arms. But all these establishments closed their 
 doors to the mass of the people, placing their teachings 
 within the reach of the privileged class only, in accordance 
 with the degree of culture realized in that social system. 
 
 After the Conquest, the colony continued in its devel- 
 opment of three hundred years, a favorable motion of the 
 metropolis, and its instruction recommended first to the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 351 
 
 secular and regular clergy, suffered the same effects which 
 illustrious thinkers had become aware of beyond the ocean. 
 But, when the chains of dependency had been broken, the new 
 nation, urged on by the sentiment of freedom and by the 
 lights generously spread by the genius of civilization of our 
 country, exerted itself to profit by the advantages offered 
 by the new political existence, carrying into practice the 
 exercise of the rights which, with iron hand, its domina- 
 tors had limited. The enterprise had to be large and toil- 
 some, and that an idea might be had of its value, I shall 
 examine, if only rapidly, the most important organic laws 
 which, bearing upon public instruction, have been issued 
 since the time of the independence, thus giving strength 
 to the appreciation of the advances which, in the progress 
 of years and by virtue of the change which had taken 
 place upon the political field of the country, it has been 
 possible to effect up to our time. 
 
 The first law appeared on the 30th of October, 1833, and 
 was compiled by D. Jose Luis Mora. Thi3 law contained 
 conspicuous dispositions, its author having been inspired 
 by the examples furnished by enlightened countries. The 
 decrees of the 24th and 26th of the said month completed, 
 with efficacious prescription, the plan of study to which 
 the teaching in the Federal District should be subject. 
 
 But in those days of exaltation among the political 
 parties, when the spirit of exclusiveness raised mighty 
 impediments to all liberal ideas in favor of the people, it 
 happened that as the first of these decrees, which, in itself, 
 was an open emanation of the liberal principles, authorized 
 the expropriation in favor of the Public Schools of some 
 landed property in the hands of the clergy, the revolt 
 reacted with terrible consequences against the established 
 government, and said laws were buried under the ruins of 
 the routed party. 
 
 By disposition of July 31st, 1834, published by edict on 
 
352 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 the 2d of August following, several urgent measures were 
 dictated in reference to the matter, and the Executive was 
 given a term for the publication of the Plan of Study, which 
 was published, with the character of provisory, on the 17th 
 of November of the same year. 
 
 Naturally, owing to the change which had taken place in 
 the politics of the country, the former dispositions were 
 mostly left without effect, and the property was restored 
 to the clergy while the University that had been suppressed 
 was re-established. 
 
 During nine years of observance, in which the necessities 
 of the Republic were growing, and with them the want of 
 widening public education, the defect of that plan and the 
 convenience to fill the vacancies which were found in its 
 precepts, made itself preceptible. The Government then, 
 invested with extraordinary authority, published a new plan 
 of studies on the 18th of August, 1843, producing uni- 
 formity in the teaching, and establishing a gradual system 
 in the matters of the classes, — an object of the greatest 
 importance, upon which depends, in a great measure, the 
 result of scholastic labors. 
 
 By decree of November 8th, of the said year, a principle 
 of notorious transcendency was conquered in favor of the 
 future of public instruction, inasmuch as all the establish- 
 ments sustained by the rents of the exchequer were declared 
 national. Thus placed at the head of instruction, the 
 Government found itself in greater aptitude to dictate the 
 necessary and convenient measures toward the improve- 
 ment of this important branch, and to exercise an immediate 
 vigilance over all matters connected therewith. As an effect 
 of the Central System, it was provided for in said plan that 
 it should be observed in all the departments, the bases for 
 the formation of the respective ordinances were re-estab- 
 lished, as were also fixed the attributions and duties of the 
 Directive Committee, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 353 
 
 The re-establishment of the Constitution of 1824 pro- 
 clamed in the year 1846, made itself felt immediately after- 
 wards in everything relating to public instruction, inasmuch 
 as by the decree of October 23d of the said year, it was 
 ordered that the States should recover their rights above 
 the instruction, which the centralism had taken away from 
 them, and little by little the confusion occasioned by the 
 civil disturbances was repaired in this branch so important 
 to the public. 
 
 On the 19th of December, 1854, a uew plan of studies 
 was promulgated, which plan, profiting by the ideas that 
 caused the triumph of the revolution of 1852, revealed cer- 
 tain anti-democratic sentiments. But the plan did not re- 
 main in vigor for more than a few months. After the lapse 
 of that time, a decree was issued on the 22d of September, 
 1855, according to which the law of^ August 18th, 1843, 
 again went into force. 
 
 When the Department of Justice was in the hands of that 
 eminent jurist, Mr. Ignacio Kamirez, another law bearing 
 upon public instruction was promulgated *on the 15th of 
 April, 1861, which law was true to the spirit of the one 
 published in 1833. But, in consequence of the difficult 
 situation of the country, brought about by the foreign war, 
 the law could not obtain a practical application. 
 
 On the re-establishment in 1869 in the city of Mexico of 
 the Constitutional Government, the branch of public in- 
 struction, so important, found itself in a most abandoned 
 condition, so much so that a vigorous and efficacious re- 
 organization became necessary. The plants of secondary 
 instruction, which, by the change in the political system of 
 the country had been closed, demanded their timely re- 
 establishment, in order that the pupils could continue their 
 interrupted studies and could be examined. 
 
 To this end, the executive dictated, in the first place, 
 the convenient measures bearing upon the re-opening of 
 
 23 
 
354 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 the classes and improvement of the primary schools, ban- 
 ishing from the methods of teaching such ideas as might 
 not be in harmony with republican principles. 
 
 In order to procure the definite arrangement of instruc- 
 tion, the organic law was published that same year on the 
 2d of December, its by-law coming into force on the 24th 
 of January, 1868." 
 
 Since the year 1861, the education of woman had re- 
 ceived serious consideration with a view of widening the 
 field of her usefulness, but the law of 1867, still more 
 liberal, placed within her reach powerful elements of illus- 
 tration by means of which she might elevate herself to 
 the position occupied by the sex in civilized society. With 
 the idea of correcting the defects which were found to exist 
 upon a practical test of the law in question, the Executive 
 was authorized by the decree of January 14th, 1869, which 
 designated the bases which should serve as a standard in 
 modifying these provisions. 
 
 Inspired and governed by the lessons which experience 
 had taught, tmd with the object of giving a greater im- 
 petus to instruction, extending especially the privi- 
 lege of primary education to all social classes, the 
 Executive in question promulgated the organic law of 
 May 15th, 1869, which amended the law of December, 
 1867 ; and on November 9th of the same year (1869) the 
 necessary rules and regulations were adopted. True it is 
 that these were not the only changes which should have 
 been made in the law alluded to ; but, it soon became nec- 
 essary to resort to the most imperative measure, and make 
 the instruction obligatory in character. In fact, article 6 
 of the law in question made primary instruction obligatory 
 in the Federal District and Territories, in conformity with 
 the requirements of the regulations adopted. A beginning 
 was made and a principle established, but the means for 
 obtaining the desired result, which calculated upon the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 355 
 
 stimulus which premiums and honorable distinctions to the 
 most diligent pupils would give, were not equal to the 
 emergency; and it became necessary to establish a system 
 of punishment in order to overcome the negligence of the 
 parents or those intrusted with the education of the chil- 
 dren. With this end in view, the Government presented a 
 plan on April 4th, 1873 ; but owing to unforeseen obstacles, 
 the legislative power was unable to give it any considera- 
 tion. 
 
 COMPULSORY EDUCATION. 
 
 II. On the 8th of October, 1887, the Commission of 
 Public Instruction of the Chamber of Deputies presented 
 a project of law treating of compulsory instruction within 
 the Federal District and territories, which project, after 
 mature discussion by both Chambers, gave origin to the 
 promulgation of the law of May 25th, 1888. 
 
 This law sanctions the doctrine of making obligatory the 
 primary elements of instruction for children of six to 
 twelve years of age, gives free admission to the official 
 primary schools, and orders the establishment in the 
 Federal District of two schools for primary instruc- 
 tion, one for boys, the other for girls, for, at least, 
 every four thousand inhabitants, which proportion may be 
 changed as far as the territories of Tepic and Lower 
 California are concerned. These schools will be in charge 
 of the local authorities, who shall take care of the scholas- 
 tic funds and shall appoint the directors and teachers from 
 among persons duly titled by the official normal schools. 
 
 The scholastic funds are composed of the subventions 
 allowed by the General Government, — the sums destined 
 for the schools by the Municipal appropriations, — the pro- 
 duct of Municipal taxes levied for this special purpose, — 
 the amount of fines imposed in accordance with law and 
 
356 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 their regulations, as well as the donations and legacies 
 destined for public Municipal instruction. 
 
 In order to carry into effect the principle of compulsory 
 instruction, it is ordered that persons who exercise paternal 
 power, those in charge of minors, and, in special cases, the 
 owners of factories, shops, plantations and ranches, every 
 year shall prove that the children for whom they are 
 responsible receive or have received the necessary primary 
 elements of instruction. In case of violation of this order 
 they shall be punished administratively, with a fine rang- 
 ing from 10 cents to 10 dollars, or with imprisonment from 
 one to ten days. 
 
 The law imposed upon the President the obligation of 
 organizing within one year the official primary instruction, 
 under the terms therein stipulated, but as it was desired to 
 generalize its provisions in all the States of the Union, 
 where compulsory primary instruction should be exacted 
 in a preferential way, said organization was suspended 
 until this object had been attained. 
 
 In fact, the labors undertaken in support of public in- 
 struction throughout the country suffered from lack of 
 cohesion and uniformity, — the laws on the subject that 
 fixed the assignments and distribution of instruction were, 
 as a rule, different in every State, and those treating of 
 primary instruction were exposed to the changes and modi- 
 fications which the respective city councils saw fit to make. 
 This state of affairs placed difficulties in the progress of 
 instruction, as well as causing injury to the professors and 
 pupils. 
 
 PEDAGOGICAL CONGRESS. 
 
 III. In order to eradicate this lack of government, and 
 with a view to giving uniformity to the legislation and 
 scholastic regulations of the States and Federal District 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 357 
 
 and Territories, the Minister of Justice proposed the 
 assemblage of a Congress of instruction by means of the 
 circular of June 1st, 1889, inviting the Governors of the 
 States to each appoint a representative to attend the con- 
 ference that was to be held in the Capital of Mexico. 
 
 The principal points to be submitted to the de- 
 liberation of this Congress were: 1st — Primary, 
 laical instruction, compulsory and gratuitous. The 
 uniformity of this instruction was to embrace: the age 
 in which children should be received, — the classes that 
 are to be taught, —the progressive order of study,— the 
 number of years that this should last, and the author- 
 ized means of enforcing compliance with these rules. 
 The establishment in towns of small schools for chil- 
 dren and adults, and in the country of rural schools 
 with traveling teachers. 2d. Preparatory instruction, 
 gratuitous and voluntary. The uniformity of this shall 
 comprehend : the studies which constitute such classed for 
 a complete and rigorous course, such as the preparation 
 for all professions, the scientific distribution and order in 
 which these shall be taught, programme and number of 
 years which such instruction must last. 3d. Professional 
 instruction, voluntary and protected by the State. The 
 uniformity of this shall comprehend : the subjects which 
 form each course, — order and method of teaching these, — 
 number of years which such instruction shall last, — prac- 
 tical professional programmes and rules to which the pro- 
 fessional examinations shall be subjected. In order that 
 the resolutions of Congress might have the desired effect, 
 they were submitted to the classified regulations pursuant 
 to the Federal Constitution and to those of the individ- 
 ual States for their acceptance and compliance. 
 
 To enable the Congress of Instruction to dispose of the 
 greatest number of these data in the course of its opera- 
 tions, the Governors were requested, by means of the 
 
358 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 circular of October 5th of the same year, to furnish 
 statistics relative to the number of pupils, number of es- 
 tablishments, total cost of public instruction, resources of 
 its subsistence, as well as copies of the laws, regulations, 
 methods and programmes in force in their States, etc., 
 etc. 
 
 On the 29th of the same month a decree was issued for 
 the Congress, and on the 25th of November a summary of 
 the themes and programmes upon which the deliberations 
 should be based. 
 
 The Congress was installed on the 28th of the said 
 month, in the Chamber of Deputies, under the presidency 
 of Mr. Baranda, Minister of Justice and Public Instruction. 
 
 Its sessions were opened on the following 1st of Decem- 
 ber, and, after four months, were closed on the 31st of 
 March, 1890. 
 
 In its deliberations, Congress took for a basis the prob- 
 lem of uniforming the national education, as set forth in 
 the respective call, and although it was accepted by the 
 Governors of the States, still this problem required a 
 proper definition and thorough discussion, and was finally 
 adopted with some insignificant limitations due to the 
 diverse conditions of the country. 
 
 The principle of obligatory instruction, gratuitous and 
 laical, was determined, the manner in which the authorities 
 of the State should carry into effect this obligatory ele- 
 mentary instruction was defined, as well as the responsi- 
 bility of the heads of families. The fulfillment of the 
 obligation was insured by means of the penal sanction, in 
 the elements of which were inserted the proper admonitions 
 of fines and arrest. The subject of creating rural schools 
 with traveling teachers, and of infantile colonies in the 
 country, was discussed and approved, as well as the estab- 
 lishment and organization of the juvenile schools (" escuelas 
 de parvulos "), and those for adults, and the introduction 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 359 
 
 of manual labors as an educational element in the public 
 schools, with military exercises, etc., etc. 
 
 Many of the questions contained in the summary com- 
 piled by the Department on the 21st of November were left 
 pending when this first Congress came to a close. 
 
 SECOND CONGRESS OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 In order to continue and cement the labors undertaken, 
 the Minister of Justice addressed another call to the Gov- 
 ernors of the States, under date of June 19th, 1890, so 
 that said Governors should appoint their representatives 
 for the second Congress of Instruction, which was held on 
 the 1st of December of the same year. 
 
 On the 31st of October, the regulations of this Congress 
 were issued, and it was inaugurated on the 29th of 
 November, beginning its sessions on the 1st of December 
 of the same year. 
 
 This Congress occupied itself preferentially in the solu- 
 tion of the questions pending the organization of the 
 primary schools and those relative to the ones for normal 
 and preparatory studies, closing its sessions in March, 1891. 
 
 INSTRUCTION LAW IN FORCE IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT. 
 
 After the adjournment of the first Congress of Instruc- 
 tion, the Legislative Power promulgated the law of May 
 28th, 1890, authorizing the President to organize and reg- 
 ulate primary instruction in the Federal District and 
 Territories, on the basis that this instruction be uniform, 
 laical, gratuitous and compulsory. In virtue thereof, the 
 Executive issued the respective reglamentary law of 
 March 21st, 1891, which went into effect on the following 
 7th of January. 
 
 Agreeable to this law, primary elementary instruction is 
 
360 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 obligatory for children of both sexes of from six to twelve 
 years of age, and can be acquired in any official or pri- 
 vate establishment, or privately, — and, furthermore, the 
 obligatory instruction imparted in the official schools shall 
 be gratuitous and laical. 
 
 The programme of obligatory instruction, which is 
 developed in four years, is the following: — 
 
 The practical duties of life and civic instruction. The 
 national language, including reading and writing lessons. 
 Arithmetic. Eudiments of physical and natural sciences. 
 Practical notions of geometry. Eudiments of geography 
 and the national history. Drawing. Sketching of common 
 and simple objects. Singing. Gymnasium, and military 
 exercises. 
 
 In the girls' school the same programme applies, with the 
 necessary modifications in the gymnastic class, and adding 
 manual labors to be distributed as follows: — 
 
 1st Year. — Embroidery. Stitching. Hemming. Knit- 
 ting with wool and thread with wooden needles. 2d Year. — 
 Straight back-stitching. Knitting of designs, forked and 
 coarse stitching. Embroidery with colored threads. Bud 
 stitching. 3d Year. — Sewing. Back-stitching, reaper 
 fashion. Double sewing. Tucking. Knitting with metal 
 needles. Embroidery on coarse stuffs. 4th Year. — 
 Marginal embroidery. Simple fastenings. Eaveling out. 
 Practical and simple ideas of the cutting of the principal 
 parts of dress. 
 
 When this programme of compulsory instruction cannot 
 be put into practice, the adoption of the following one, 
 which shall likewise develope in four years, will be sufficient 
 to comply with the law : 
 
 Practical ideas of the duties of life. Civic instruction 
 and the country's history. The national language, com- 
 prising reading and writing lessons. Arithmetic. General 
 lessons. Gymnastic games and exercises. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 361 
 
 For the primary schools, the scholastic year consists of 
 ten months, commencing on the 7th of January and lasting 
 until the 2d of November, when the classes shall be sus- 
 pended to begin the examinations ; the scholastic week 
 shall consist of five days, counting from Monday till Fri- 
 day ; the daily work of the first year must not exceed 
 4^- hours, 5 hours in the second, 5^ in the third, and 6 
 in the fourth. The time occupied in any lesson shall not 
 exceed 20 minutes in the first year, 25 in the second, thirty 
 in the third, and forty in the fourth. In the time specified 
 for the daily work is included a half-hour of recreation, 
 which the children shall enjoy in the morning and after- 
 noon. 
 
 It is understood that in no class of the official or private 
 schools shall punishments be administered that degrade or 
 invalidate the children, and still less any of those prohibited 
 by the Constitution. 
 
 In the elementary schools, supported by public funds, 
 there shall be a director who may have under his charge up 
 to fifty pupils, an assistant being named for every new 
 group of fifty children who may attend the establishment. 
 
 In those schools where there cannot be more than one 
 teacher, the supplementary programme before mentioned 
 shall be adopted, and the system of half time shall be 
 employed in the instruction. These same programmes 
 and system shall be used in the mixed schools, which will 
 be opened in places, where, for lack of funds, it is not 
 possible to establish two schools, in such a manner that the 
 boys may attend in the morning and the girls in the after- 
 noon, or vice versa. 
 
 The half-time system consists in dividing into two dis- 
 tinct groups the total attendance of pupils, so that one of 
 these groups may receive instruction in the morning and 
 the other in the afternoon, giving to each group the 
 instruction detailed in the corresponding programme. 
 
362 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 SUPERIOR BOARD OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 
 
 The subjects appertaining to primary instruction will be 
 in charge of a special body, called the Superior Board of 
 Primary Instruction, which was installed since the month of 
 June, 1891. Before the establishment of this Board, the 
 Directive Board of Public Instruction enjoyed the same 
 attributes in subjects of Primary Instruction, in accordance 
 with the law of the 15th of March, 1869. 
 
 Vigilance committees exist in each of the principal 
 wards of the city of Mexico, and in the District Prefa- 
 ture as far as each of the municipalities and the territories 
 of Tepic and Lower California are concerned. The object 
 of these committees is to see that the law is complied with 
 relative to the obligations of fathers, tutors, or others in 
 charge of children of scholastic age. 
 
 PRIZES TO THE PROFESSORS. 
 
 The professors of the official schools who distinguish 
 themselves for their attention and painstaking work, shall 
 receive, as a reward, at the end of their first ten years of 
 service, a bronze medal, a silver one at the end of twenty 
 years, and one of gold when they shall have completed 
 thirty years of service, as well as their corresponding 
 diplomas. After thirty years of service, the professors 
 have the right to request a cessation of work, with the 
 enjoyment of their salary, which will be doubled in the 
 event that they choose to continue in their employment. 
 
 The circular of May 15, 1888, has established a premium 
 of $200 and another of $100, which, at the end of each 
 scholastic year, shall be donated to the professors of the 
 national primary schools who distinguish themselves the 
 most in the examination of their pupils, — and another 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 363 
 
 similar premium is thereby established for the directors of 
 the schools for girls. Besides these, the interested parties 
 receive a diploma setting forth their distinction. 
 
 SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT. 
 SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. 
 
 IV. This School was established in 1768 by virtue of a 
 royal decree. For a long time its home was the old convent 
 of Belem ; afterwards it was united with the college of San 
 Ildefonso, which was formerly devoted to the teaching of 
 ecclesiastical laws and sciences. The quarrels which arose 
 between the pupils of the two establishments caused the 
 school of medicine to be removed to San Juan de Letran, 
 which devoted itself to the study of Jurisprudence. In this 
 building the School occupied an independent department 
 but one which was still too small, and in consequence a 
 suitable place was given to it by adding to the school the 
 free portion of the building of San Hipolito. There it 
 stayed till 1853, when, owing to the conversion of the 
 building which it occupied into a barrack, it was found nec- 
 essary to buy that of the ex-Inquisition for $50,286. Here 
 it opened its classes in 1854 and here is where it now is. 
 
 The courses studied in the establishment are Medicine, 
 Surgery, Midwifery and Pharmaceutics. 
 
 For the year 1893 the professors lecture on the following 
 programme of studies: Descriptive Anatomy, Histology, 
 Elementary Pharmacy, Physiology, Internal Pathology, 
 External Pathology, External Clinics, Local Anatomy, 
 Internal Clinics, Therapeutics, General Pathology, Oper- 
 atory Medicine, Midwifery, Hygiene and Meteorology, 
 Legal Medicine and the Clinics of Midwifery. 
 
 For the profession of a chemist and druggist the subjects 
 
364 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 studied are : Pharmacy, both theoretical and practical, His- 
 tory of drugs, chemical analysis and practical pharma- 
 ceutics. 
 
 The female pupils that study for midwives go through 
 the classes of theoretical midwifery and its clinics. 
 
 There are also what are called finishing classes, namely : 
 Theoretical and practical Ophthalmology, Gynecology, 
 Bacteriology, Pathological Anatomy, and Pathological 
 Histology. 
 
 The number of pupils enrolled on the college books is 
 305, of whom 279 intend to follow the profession of medical 
 surgeons, 13 that of chemists and druggists, and 13 of the 
 female sex that of midwives. The Government estimates 
 assign to this School the sum of $62,388.75 per annum. 
 
 NATIONAL MEDICAL INSTITUTE OF MEXICO. 
 
 This institution was founded by decree of December 18, 
 1888, at the initiatory suggestion of the Department of 
 Colonization and Industry, and was formally opened on 
 July 1st, 1890, its purpose being the study of the flora, 
 fauna, climatology and medical geography of the country, 
 and their practical application in medicine. 
 
 It is under the jurisdiction of the Department above 
 mentioned, and is governed by a faculty composed of 
 a Director, a Prefect, Subprefect, Secretary, Assistant 
 Secretary and a Treasurer appointed by the General 
 Government. 
 
 The discharge of the scientific work is under the super- 
 vision of five divisions: 1st, Natural History; 2nd, Analy- 
 tical Chemistry; 3rd, Experimental Physiology; 4th, 
 Clinical Therapeutics, and 5th, Climatology and Medical 
 Geography, which divisions have their special departments, 
 and are provided with the necessary instruments and 
 utensils. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 365 
 
 The first division is composed of three professors, who are 
 required to be doctors or pharmacists, an assistant, two 
 draughtsmen, a photographer, a dissecting collector and a 
 clerk, and its special objects are: the collection of plants 
 and animals; to give a history of, classify, describe and 
 study properties and characters ; to form herbariums and 
 collections of dissected animals ; and furnish the other com- 
 missions with the specimens which they may require with 
 the corresponding data. 
 
 The second division is composed of three professors of 
 chemistry, who must be doctors or pharmacists, and five 
 preparers. Its purpose is : to analyze the products which 
 the other divisions furnish it with, and separate the ele- 
 mental parts contained in same ; make an elementary analy- 
 sis of these parts when they are recent discoveries; and 
 arrange their formula ; make the requisite preparations for 
 experiments by the third division and furnish the other 
 commissions with the data which may be required. 
 
 The third division is composed of four professors (three 
 doctors and a veterinary surgeon) an assistant and a me- 
 chanic. The objects of this division are : to determine 
 the dynamic-medical action of the contiguous elements 
 or preparations which engage the attention of the Sec- 
 ond division ; and forward to the Governing Board the 
 results of their studies, advising when same may be applied 
 to therapeutics, or their relative opinions on the subject. 
 
 The fourth division consists of two professors, one of 
 whom is a doctor, the other a surgeon ; also all those mil- 
 itary physicians and doctors appertaining to the public 
 beneficence, private and civil, who may wish to attach them- 
 selves as co-laborers, as also six assistant doctors. The 
 object of this division is the study of the clinical applica- 
 tions which the substances already considered by the first, 
 second and third divisions may possess. 
 
 Composing the fifth division are two professors of med- 
 
3Q6 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 icine, an assistant "and a clerk, and the study of the follow- 
 ing points is their main object: the distribution of endemic 
 diseases in all the districts of the country ; the distribution 
 of epidemics and spread of same ; local ethiological condi- 
 tions in their relation with the two preceding points and 
 the nature of the diseases ; climacteric conditions and classi- 
 fication of the climates throughout the country, for the 
 purpose of forming a general climatological map ; distri- 
 bution of the waters, with the object of forming a gen- 
 eral hydrological map ; and the distribution of the races 
 and their classification. 
 
 Medals of honor, of which there are two classes, silver 
 and gold, with their respective diplomas, are conferred on 
 those professors of the Institute who lend efficient services 
 to the same. The silver medal is awarded after five years 
 of service to the professor who shall have complied strictly 
 with his obligations, or published in the Institute ten orig- 
 inal works ; the gold medal is awarded at the expiration of 
 fifteen years' service, to the professor who, during this 
 period, shall have given strict compliance with the duties 
 assigned him, or have written and published an original 
 work on the points comprehended in the plan of the Insti- 
 tute. In the absence of such a work, this requisite may be 
 supplied by furnishing fifteen monographics covering points 
 identical with those already alluded to. In lieu of fifteen 
 years of services, the gold medal may be obtained as a rec- 
 ognition of a scientific discovery which may be compre- 
 hended in the plan of studies of the establishment. 
 
 Until a special hospital shall have been founded for the 
 Institute, there has been established a consulting room, 
 where medicines are furnished gratis to patients. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 367 
 
 NATIONAL MEXICAN MEDICAL CONGRESS. 
 
 The School of Medicine of Mexico, which has without 
 doubt attained the eminence reached by the best schools of 
 this character in both Europe and America, has, within the 
 last few years, achieved an enviable reputation for the 
 energetic efforts of its graduates in the direction of ex- 
 tending its field of scientific investigation throughout the 
 entire Republic, with the object of embodying in its doc- 
 trines the result of its observations and studies and finally, 
 has devoted no little energy to uniting in one cohesive 
 whole its isolated forces. With this end in view, on Feb- 
 ruary 2d, 1892, there was convened in the city of Mexico 
 an assembly which should be entitled the " National Mex- 
 ican Medical Congress," of which Dr. Eduardo R. Garcia 
 was the moving spirit. 
 
 This Congress held sessions on December 6th, 7th, 9th 
 and 10th, 1892, with an attendance of 267 members, rep- 
 resenting the various States, within a few days after the 
 " International Hygiene Congress," had concluded its im- 
 portant labors (December 3d, 1992). 
 
 The Executive Committee was formed in the following 
 manner: Dr. Manuel Cormona y Valle, President; Dr. 
 Rafael Lavista, 1st Vice-President ; Dr. Eduardo Liceaga, 
 2nd Vice-President; Directors, Drs. Ramos, Icaza, Manuel 
 Gutierrez, Francisco P. Chacon, Eduardo Garcia y Andres 
 Almaras, pharmacist ; General Secretary, Dr. Louis E. 
 Ruia; Relator, Dr. Secundino E. Sosa; Treasurer, Dr. 
 Domingo Orvananos. 
 
 In order to complete its labors, fourteen sessions were 
 determined upon, regulated by the subjects for discussion, 
 which represented ninety-seven works, all original, upon 
 national medicine and surgery, and which will be published 
 in two large volumes. 
 
368 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The Congress having finished its labors, the Executive 
 Committee held an extra session, with one representative 
 'from each State for the purpose of determining the matter 
 of future conventions, and it was decided : 1st, That the 
 next should be held in December, 1894, in San Luis 
 Potosi ; 2nd, that the new Board of Directors should be 
 composed of the following members: Dr. Eduardo 
 Liceaga, President; Dr. Jesus Almaraz, President of the 
 Local Board of San Luis Potosi; Dr. Miguel Otero, 1st 
 Vice-President; Dr. Gregorio Mendizabal, 2nd Vice-Presi- 
 dent; Directors, Drs. Garcia and Ramos, Mexico City; 
 Sta. Maria, Durango and Ita of Puebla. 
 
 The Minister of Justice and Public Instruction, the Hon. 
 Joaquin Boranda, presided at the opening and closing ses- 
 sions of the new scientific organization, which promises 
 such brilliant results for the future in the field of national 
 medicine and surgery. 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ENGINEERS. 
 
 The Mining Ordinances of the 22d of May, 1783, ordered 
 the establishment of a seminary in Mexico for the teach- 
 ing of metallurgical subjects. In accomplishment of this 
 regulation a college was opened on the 1st of January, 1792, 
 but the building which the institution was destined finally 
 to occupy was begun to be raised on the 22d of March, 1797, 
 according to plans drawn up by D. Manuel Tolsa, and was 
 finished on the 3d of April, 1813. Its cost, including the 
 repairs which it underwent in 1830 and in later years, 
 amounts to about $1,500,000. In it the National School 
 of Engineers, which was so named by law on the 2d of 
 December, 1867, is at present established. The school, 
 as well as that of Agriculture and Veterinary Surgery, was 
 no longer dependent, as it had hitherto been, upon the 
 Secretaryship of Justice. They were separated by law 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS, 
 
 369 
 
 on the 28th of November, 1881, when all business institutions 
 and establishments for the propagation of agriculture and 
 mining were assigned to the Secretary of Colonization, In- 
 dustry and Commerce, and the President authorized the 
 necessary reforms. 
 
 On the 15th of February, 1883, the decree reforming 
 the law of public instruction as regarded the teaching of 
 agriculture and mining, was issued and this is the decree 
 that is still in force ; the professional studies were extended 
 so as to cover a wider field; new classes were opened and 
 the necessary distinctions made between the professions by 
 determining the studies which belonged to each of them. 
 On the 15th of the following May the regulations re- 
 garding them were published. These rules have since that 
 time guided the studies of both schools, although these 
 latter have been again made dependent upon the Secretary- 
 ship of Justice. 
 
 For the teaching of mining there is the National School of 
 Engineers and the school anexed to it, called the Practical 
 School of Mining and Metallurgical Labors of Pachuca. It is 
 also ordered that there shall be established work-schools 
 for teaching mining and metallurgy at various places 
 in the country, so that in them maybe formed and trained 
 administrators and overseers of mines, workers and 
 specialists in some branch of the mining industry. 
 
 In the School of Engineers the following professions are 
 taught : The assayer and sorter of metals, the topograph- 
 icafand hydrographical engineer, the industrial engineer, 
 the road bridge and canal engineer, the mining engineer 
 and metallurgist, the geographical engineer, and that of 
 the electrical, engineer established by decree on the 1st of 
 June, 1892, when the chair of general telegraphy was 
 abolished, though formerly a part of the establishment. 
 
 In order to be enrolled in the School of Engineers with all 
 the rights of a pupil, the candidate must show by a certifi- 
 
 24 
 
370 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 cate from the National Preparatory School that he has 
 been examined and passed successfully either at it or some 
 official school of the States, in the following subjects : 
 Spanish grammar, Greek roots, French, English, elements 
 of German, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, plane and in 
 space, rectilinear and spherical trigonometry, analytical 
 geometry, rational mechanics, experimental physics, gen- 
 eral chemistry, natural history, cosmography, physical and 
 political geography and especially that of Mexico, logic, 
 lineal and landscape drawing. 
 
 The following are the professional studies for the pro- 
 fessions established in the School : 
 
 For the assayer and sorter of metals : Analytical chem- 
 istry and docimacy mineralogy, sorting, coining and the 
 administration of mints, and the practice of these branches. 
 A decree of the 1st of June, 1892, added to the list 
 industrial chemistry. 
 
 For the topographical and hydrographical engineer: 
 Higher algebra, analytical geometry and infinitesimal 
 calculus, descriptive geometry, topography and water- 
 measurement, hydrography and meteorology, topograph- 
 ical drawing and practice in these branches. 
 
 For the industrial engineer : Higher algebra, analytical 
 geometry and infinitesimal calculus; descriptive geometry 
 and water measurement; stereotomy and carpentry, ana- 
 lytical and applied mechanics, industrial mechanics , con- 
 struction and fixing of machines ; analytical and industrial 
 chemistry, and docimacy meteorology, knowledge of build- 
 ing materials, mechanical theory of building and practical 
 building, topographical machine and architectural drawing; 
 practice. 
 
 For road bridge and canal engineers : Higher algebra, 
 analytical geometry and infinitesimal calculus, descriptive 
 geometry, topography and water measurement, stereotomy 
 and carpentry, analytical and applied mechanics, hydrog- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 371 
 
 rapky and meteorology, practical building and mechanical 
 theory of building, knowledge of building materials, 
 common roads and railways, bridges, canals, harbor 
 works, graphic statics, the study of which was declared 
 obligatory for the course of the road, bridge and canal engi- 
 neer and also for that of the mining engineer and metal- 
 lurgists by a decree of the 29th of November, 1890; 
 topographical, machine and architectural drawing, compo- 
 sition, practice. 
 
 For the mining engineer and metallurgist : Higher alge- 
 bra, analytical geometry and infinitesimal calculus, descrip- 
 tive geometry, topography and water measurement, analyti- 
 cal and applied mechanics, stereotomy and carpentry, knowl- 
 edge of building materials, mechanical theory of building 
 and practical building, analytical chemistry and docimacy, 
 meteorology, mineralogy, paleontology or fossils, and 
 geology, mineral labors, artesian wells, and mining legis- 
 lation, metallurgy, graphic statics, topographical machine 
 and architectural drawing, practice. 
 
 For the geographical engineer : Higher algebra, analytical 
 geometry and infinitesimal calculus, descriptive geometry, 
 topography and water measurement, niathematicaTphysics, 
 calculation of probability and theory of errors, hydrography 
 and meteorology, analytical mechanics, elements of cosmog- 
 raphy, geodcesia and physical and practical astronomy, 
 elements of geology, typographical and geographical draw- 
 ing, practice. 
 
 For the teaching of mining and metallurgy in the work 
 schools the pupils go through the elementary theoretical 
 studies of arithmetic and receive some ^ knowledge of 
 algebra, geometry and trigonometry, physics and me- 
 chanics, chemistry, metallurgy and mining labors ; 
 accounts, administration and economy of mines and works 
 together with the application of all these elements to 
 practical questions in the various branches ; Spanish; and 
 
6 
 
 372 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 lineal drawing. These studies are merely aids to the real 
 practice which is the predominant feature of the work- 
 schools. The instruction in the National School of 
 Engineers and the School annexed to it is free and neither 
 for entrance nor for examinations is any fee required. 
 
 There are two kinds of pupils enrolled, namely, proprie- 
 tary, that is, those who intend to adopt one of the professions 
 taught in the School, and supernumerary, that is, those who 
 wish merely to attend one or more of the classes which are 
 siven in the establishment. Besides this the classes are 
 public and any person that wishes may attend them. 
 
 The Government has established pensions in order to 
 stimulate the studies of those pupils who in the judgment 
 of the committee of professors of the School are deserving 
 of them. There are in like manner finishing pensions for 
 those pupils of the School and of the work-schools who 
 after obtaining their title or diploma are proposed by the 
 above mentioned committee to be sent abroad in order to 
 follow out their finishing studies during two years. 
 
 The professional titles are given them by the Secretary 
 of Justice upon previous advice from the managers of the 
 School and after the pupils have passed successfully the 
 general examination. The pupils of the work-schools, in 
 like cases, are sent a corresponding diploma ; whilst those 
 who have only received instruction and practice in some 
 one special subject taught receive a certificate of ability. 
 
 It is only the professional title that authorizes a pupil 
 to follow the career of a mining engineer or metallurgist : 
 the diploma and certificate of ability merely express the 
 person's knowledge of the branch for which they are 
 given. 
 
 The School has a meteorological observatory, and a 
 library containing some important scientific works. Its 
 cabinets of building materials, mineralogy, topography, 
 geodoesia, astronomy and industrial mechanics are very 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 373 
 
 interesting. The number of pupils in the establishment 
 may be set down as averaging 120 yearly. The Government 
 has assigned the sum of $67,527.40 per annum for its 
 support. 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY 
 
 SURGERY. 
 
 The establishment of professorial chairs for teaching 
 agriculture in Mexico was granted by the Directing Com- 
 mittee of the old College of San Gregorio, and communi- 
 cated to the Government by an initiative of the 4th of 
 April, 1850. When its approbation was secured the 
 President of the Republic issued a circular on the 17th of 
 April of the same year, making it known to the Governors 
 of States that they might inform the public. The agricul- 
 tural teaching consisted of five courses, whilst the practice 
 took place in the farms which the college held. But an 
 agricultural school, properly such, was not established till 
 1853, in the same year as its adjunct, the Veterinary, which 
 was created on the 17th of August, and both were definitely 
 installed on the 22cl of February, 1854, in the ex-convent 
 of San Jacinto, and the neighboring tenements bought by 
 the Government. At present the tenements belongino- to 
 the School, including the portion occupied by the house and 
 other buildings, measure 708,664 square meters. As has 
 been already said the School was placed under the Fomenta- 
 tion Minister by the law of the 28th of November, 1881, but 
 afterwards became once more dependent upon the Minister 
 of Justice in virtue of a decree ; and now continues to be 
 governed in conformity with the law dated the 15th of 
 February, 1883, and with the regulations of the 15th of May 
 of the same year. The courses established in the National 
 School of Agriculture are those of agricultural engineer 
 and of the medical veterinary surgeon, and in order to be 
 
374 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 enrolled as a proprietary in either of them, a pupil must 
 have passed successfully in the examination of the different 
 branches of primary instruction. The preparatory studies 
 for the said professions are gone through at the National 
 Preparatory School. The professional studies for the 
 career of agricultural engineer are the following : Arith- 
 metic, algebra, plane geometry, and in space, rectilinear 
 and spherical trigonometry; analytical geometry, infinitesi- 
 mal calculus, descriptive geometry, analytical and applied 
 mechanics, topography and water-measurement, cosmog- 
 raphy and geography, especially that of Mexico, physics 
 and meteorology, general chemistry with its application to 
 agriculture, agricultural technology, botany, zoology, 
 geology and hydrotogy, agronomy and philotechnics, 
 drainage and irrigation, farm building, zootecny; ac- 
 counts, management, economy and country legislation; 
 Spanish, Greek and Latin roots, French, English and 
 elements of German ; natural landscape, topographical, 
 machine and architectural drawing, the practice of them. 
 The studies likewise comprise microbiology, political 
 economy and logic as is laid down in the circular of the 
 22d of March and decrees of the 25th of May and 1st of 
 June respectively, this last subject being obligatory for the 
 courses of an agricultural engineer and a medical veteri- 
 nary surgeon. 
 
 The following studies have to be gone through by 
 the medical veterinary surgeon : Arithmetic, algebra, plane 
 geometry and in space, physics and meteorology, general 
 chemistry, botany, zoology, geology, comparative, general 
 and descriptive anatomy, exterior of domestic animals, 
 farriery, veterinary physiology, general pathology, exter- 
 nal pathology, surgery, internal pathology, midwifery, 
 hygiene, pathological anatomy, therapeutics, zootecny, 
 legal medicine and veterinary legislation, Spanish, 
 Greek and Latin roots, French, English, elements of 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 375 
 
 German, natural, anatomical and landscape drawing, clinics 
 and practice. Those subjects are also studied which are 
 laid down in the decrees previously mentioned of the year 
 1886. 
 
 In the work-schools the predominant feature is practice 
 aided by the elementary theoretical studies of arithmetic, 
 some knowledge of algebra, geometry and trigonometry 
 with their applications to the measurement of lines, surfaces 
 and solids; elements of mechanics with their application to 
 agricultural machinery, elements of physics, meteorology, 
 and chemistry elements of zootecny, of agronom}' - and 
 philotechnics, accounts, farm management and economy; 
 Spanish, French, and the native idioms of places, natural 
 landscape and linear drawing. 
 
 With regard to the enrollment of proprietary and su- 
 pernumerary pupils, the issuing of professional titles, 
 diplomas, certificates of ability, and pensions the same 
 rules are laid down as those for the National School of 
 Engineers. The total number of pupils is 117 of whom 91 
 are destined for the career of agricultural engineers, 15 
 for that of veterinary surgeons and 11 who are devoting 
 themselves to various subjects. 
 
 The meteorological observatory of the establishment is 
 endowed with the necessary instruments and apparatus for 
 the practical study of astronomy and the observations which 
 are made therein are sent every month to the Central 
 Observatory through the Fomentation Secretary. The 
 statutes of this school have been lately reformed. 
 
 HIGHER SCHOOL OF COMMERCE AND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 This school was inaugurated in the year 1868 in compli- 
 ance with the organizing law of Public Instruction in the 
 Federal District, dated the 2d of December, 1867, and 
 which ordered its establishment. The school occupies a 
 
376 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 portion of the old hospital of Terceros, situated in San 
 Andres street, between CondesaLane and Sta. Isabel street. 
 This building, which was completed on the 7th of May, 
 1756, at the expense of the members of the third order of 
 S. Francisco, was confiscated in 1861 by virtue of the laws 
 of the Reform and bought afterwards by the Government 
 from the holder for the sum of $75,000. The establish- 
 ment is at present ruled by the law of the 15th of May, 
 1869, reforming the organization of Public Instruction and 
 which has beeu already mentioned. This law was issued by 
 the President, authorized by the Congress, on the 14th of 
 January, 1869. The school is also governed by the regula- 
 tions relating to it and approved of on the 27th of August, 
 1887. 
 
 The rolls were opened on the 15th of December. The 
 pupils who entered their names up to the 31st of the same 
 month are considered as making up its complement ; those 
 who inscribed themselves after that date are regarded as 
 supernumeraries. In order to be enrolled it is required 
 that the pupil should be at least 14 years of age, that he 
 should have finished his primary education, and if a minor, 
 that he should be presented by his father or guardian, who 
 shall also sign the enrollment along with the pupil. The 
 course of studies is as follows: Arithmetic and commercial 
 correspondence, fiscal accounts, book-keeping, commercial 
 geography, political economy, theory of credit, law of 
 nations, diplomatic correspondence and customs, commer- 
 cial consular and maritime laws, administrative law, con- 
 stitutional law, practical knowledge of national and foreign 
 wealth, chemistry as applied to commerce, commercial 
 hand-writing, general history and the special history of 
 Mexico, statistics and history of commerce, financial, bank- 
 ing and exchange operations, Spanish grammar, French, 
 English and German. The library of the school contains 
 4,800 volumes. The number of pupils enrolled in this pres- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 377 
 
 ent year of 1893 is 275, the average attendance being 211. 
 The school enjoys an annual assignment of $28,643.20. 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES FOR MEN. 
 
 The school occupies a beautiful building which is a com- 
 plete contrast to the old and ruined convent of San Lorenzo. 
 In order to be enrolled as a pupil it is sufficient to be in- 
 scribed as such in the school secretaryship, to know how to 
 read and write and to be at least 13 years of age. To be a 
 free pupil it is only necessary to have finished the primary 
 instruction and to have obtained in its examination and in 
 its last course at least the qualifications of Good in all the 
 subjects which the said course embraces. The classes which 
 are given in the establishment are the following: Spanish 
 grammar, geography of the country, writing, arithmetic, 
 algebra, geometry, rectilinear trigonometry, model and 
 ornametal drawing, lineal and machine drawing, modeled 
 drawing and carving, physics and some knowledge of 
 mechanics, general chemistry and as applied to the arts, 
 French, English, music and gymnastics. In 1886 a chair 
 was established for constitutional law and political economy. 
 
 The workshops set up in the school are: Smithy and 
 lock-smith's shop, carpentry and cabinet-making shops, 
 turners' shop for solids and hollow articles, mechanical 
 arts, pottery, stone-cutters' works, galvanizing works, 
 typography and lithography, photography, photopography 
 and foundry. 
 
 The Practicing School for Machinists, established by de- 
 cree on the 18th of December, 1890, in the National School 
 of Engineers was transferred to the School of Arts and Pro- 
 fessions for Men in conformity with a decree dated the 16th 
 of March, 1892. The studies comprised in its course are: 
 Arithmetic, algebra, as far as equations of the first grade ; 
 elementary geometry, plane trigonometry, elements of 
 
378 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 physics, elements of mechanics, practical knowledge of the 
 constructing materials used in machines and of the tools, etc., 
 employed in putting together and taking asunder machines; 
 practical and detailed knowledge of steam engines, and 
 especially of the locomotives whose systems are preferred 
 on account of certain advantages, knowledge of the practi- 
 cal working and management of locomotives and of steam 
 engines in general, knowledge of- the regulations and laws 
 relating to the running of trains on the railways, lineal and 
 machine drawing, some knowledge of French and English, 
 practice in railway works, overseeing, foundries and indus- 
 trial establishments. 
 
 The school assigns fifty fellowships of which each State 
 of the Republic has a right to one. According as the school 
 has put its pupils through a complete course they have 
 taken positions at the directors and assistants in the differ- 
 ent workshops and thus their progress gets rewarded. The 
 number of pupils for the year 1893 was about 338, includ- 
 ing those who are pursuing the course of machine en- 
 gineers. The Government sustains the institution with a 
 yearly sum of $44,364.55. 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES FOR WOMEN. 
 
 This school was founded on the 16th of November, 1871, 
 as a means of moralizing the people, to diffuse illustration 
 and open a wider field for the destitute class, who, through 
 this establishment, would find better resources for the sub- 
 sistence of life and improvement of social conditions. 
 
 Unfortunately, the results obtained have not corres- 
 ponded entirely to the beneficient thought which caused its 
 foundation, for nearly all the students belong to the middle 
 class of society, and the destitute appear to continue re- 
 signed to remain in ignorance. 
 
 The maiden pupils receive the theoretic, artistic and 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 379 
 
 technical instruction necessary for the exercise of some art 
 appropriate for women, as also commercial instruction in a 
 sufficient measure to open for them the road to employment 
 in commerce, or in any industrial business, taking charge 
 of the accounts. 
 
 The instruction is general and technical, the first being 
 comprised of Spanish, arithmetic, book-keeping, notions 
 about civism and science, English, writing and drawing; the 
 second one, painting, modes, embroidery, making of 
 artificial flowers, lace-making, tapestry, gilding and book- 
 keeping. 
 
 The pupils are either boarders in the establishment, or 
 supernumeraries. For the former ones it is obligatory to 
 assist at all the classes of general instruction, and to dedi- 
 cate themselves to the practice of the workshop that they 
 choose, and they can, if they feel so disposed, attend the 
 class of music. The course of instruction comprises four 
 years. The last one is dedicated to the perfection in those 
 branches taught during the three first years. 
 
 The supernumerary pupils are only allowed to assist at 
 the workshops they may choose, at the class of drawing, 
 and, by permission of the director, at the class of music. 
 The course of instruction last two years or more, if the 
 teacher in the workshop thinks it necessary to employ more 
 time. 
 
 In order to be a regular boarding pupil, it is necessary 
 to be presented, if of minority, by the person who has care 
 of the pupil; be, at least, 13 years of age and not older 
 than 25; to be vaccinated and not have any contagious 
 disease; to accredit her moral conduct to the satisfaction 
 of the director ; to be able to read and write orthograph- 
 ically, and to know the four rules of arithmetic, which 
 must be verified in the examination for admission. 
 
 The supernumerary pupils must have the same requisites 
 as required of the boarders, but the limit of age is extended 
 
380 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 to 30 years, and the examination is confined to reading and 
 writing only. 
 
 The number of regular boarders must not exceed 60, and 
 that of supernumeraries 80. The programme of studies for 
 this school was, during considerable time, burdened with 
 incongruous matters that greatly embarrassed the industrial 
 instruction proper, as required by the idea that presided at 
 its creation. 
 
 The Department of Justice suppressed said class in 1892, 
 and dedicated the activity of the school to results more to 
 the point and more practical. 
 
 At the initiative of Mr. Zamacona, director of the estab- 
 lishment, the department is actually occupied in studying 
 the reformation of the instruction, in conformity with the 
 advances made in our epoch on the field of industries, hav- 
 ing in view, to a certain extent, the women working at 
 manual labor that consumes their time, injures their health 
 in many cases, and prevents them from receiving culture 
 mentally and morally. 
 
 A trial has therefore been made to facilitate women of 
 home works of modern industries, using to this end machines 
 of easy management and small cost, as can be afforded by 
 the actual progress in mechanics. 
 
 CORRECTIONAL SCHOOL OF TRADES AND PROFESSIONS. 
 
 This School was founded in the year 1881, being located 
 in the edifice formerly known as St. Peter and St. Paul's 
 College. To its custody are assigned for instruction, 
 young people under eighteen years of age, upon when 
 gubernative sentences have been passed, or who have been 
 taken in charge by request of their parents or guardians 
 for the purpose of correcting their evil tendencies and 
 teaching them habits of order and industry. The institu- 
 tion is of a military character in its organization, and its 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 381 
 
 correctional corps consists of a body known as the " Work- 
 ing Battalion." The scholars who distinguish themselves 
 by their good behavior, are entitled to premiums or marks 
 of distinction, and continue to advance to the rank of cap- 
 tain, 1st or 2d sergeant, enjoying the prerogatives of their 
 class. 
 
 The literary instruction which they receive is of the most 
 modern character, and is given the pupils for one or two 
 hours daily. For the elementary and industrial instruction 
 there are classes and workshops under the direction of 
 competent skilled mechanics and workmen. The educa- 
 tion of the pupils is based upon primary and second 
 primary classes, and they may pursue other studies, or 
 enter the shops. 
 
 There are machine shops, iron working, brass-finishing, 
 carpentry, tailoring and shoe shops. 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS. 
 
 On the 29th of August, 1781, D. Fernando Jose 
 Mangino who was at that time Superintendent of the 
 Mexican Mint, proposed the establishment of this institu- 
 tion, the project being approved of in September by the 
 Viceroy. A preparatory committee charged with the duty 
 of organizing and establishing the new institution was ap- 
 pointed in the October following. On the fifth of Novem- 
 ber, 1781, it was found possible to open the drawing classes 
 provisionally by a fund of $22,380; the proceeds ©f private 
 donations and of annual subscriptions imposed upon the min- 
 ing tribunals, the Consulate and cities of Mexico, Veracruz, 
 Queretaro, San Miguel el Grande, Cordoba, and Orizaba 
 and which the committee had to collect. The expediency 
 and advisability of the foundation of the academy being 
 agreed upon, Charles III issued a decree for its erection on 
 the 25th of December, 1783, calling it " St. Charles of New 
 
382 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Spain," and granting it an allowance of $13,000 yearly. 
 The statutes were authorized by a royal decree of the 18th 
 of November, 1784, and the academy was opened on the 
 4th of November, 1785, in the Mint. In 1791 the academy 
 was removed to the old hospital of the " Love of God," 
 which was founded in 1541 and closed on the 1st of July, 
 1788. About $13,000 were then spent on works of art, 
 instruments for the study of agriculture and mathematics 
 and consulting works and received the collection of gypsum 
 presented by Charles III and brought to Mexico during the 
 same year by Professors D. Manuel Tolsa and D. Rafael 
 Jimeno. The collection is valued at $40,000. In 1825 
 the directing committee bought the building and neighbor- 
 ing houses which the School at present occupies, for the 
 sum of $76,000. Since 1861 the establishment is directly 
 dependent on the Government of the Union and under the 
 charge of a committee of professors and a director named 
 from among themselves. The plan of studies drawn up in 
 1868 gave it the name by which it is at present known, 
 namely, the National School of Fine Arts. 
 
 The gallery of paintings of the old Mexican school con- 
 tains invaluable treasures: the works of Echanove, Juarez, 
 Rodriguez, Arteaga, Cabrera and others. In the gallery 
 of European paintings are found works of Murillo, Sur- 
 baran, Alonzo Cano, Leonardo Vinci and other masters. 
 Among the landscapes are biblical paintings by Marko 
 de Landesio and his disciples ; the paintings of the modern 
 Mexican school are equally rich and varied. The sculpture 
 galleries contain a collection of works executed by cele- 
 brated sculptors and many originals in plaster and marble 
 of the modern Mexican school. Equally magnificent are 
 the galleries of line and hollow engraving and of archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 The studies which are gone through in the school are 
 divided into preparatory and special, the latter for the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 383 
 
 courses of painting, sculpture, ornamental modeling, line 
 wood and hollow engraving. Some of the first are taught 
 in the National Preparatory School. According to the 
 present programme the preparatory studies are completed 
 in ten years, the last two of which are devoted exclusively 
 to the special studies whose first year corresponds with the 
 fifth of the preparatory ones. The subjects embraced by 
 these studies are the following: Spanish, French, figure 
 drawing; ornamental drawing, copied from prints; mathe- 
 matics (arithmetic, algebra and elementary geometry) ; 
 drawing copied from the prints ; perspective drawing taken 
 from plaster ; landscape drawing, drawing from classic 
 orders including their theory; Italian, anatomy of forms, 
 geography, drawing from nature, general and national 
 history, natural history and history of the fine arts. 
 
 Branch of Painting. Study of light and shade, classic 
 orders, drawing of the nude, copying of pictures, general 
 history, natural history, studies painted from nature, history 
 of the fine arts. 
 
 Landscape Painting. Elements of coloring, studies 
 drawn from nature, landscape and figure drawings, classic 
 orders of architectural drawings, anatomy, paintings of the 
 natural, of landscapes and of figures, general history, com- 
 position, history of the fine arts and the aesthetics of the 
 fine arts. 
 
 Branch of Sculpture. Study of the old and of the natural, 
 composition, anatomy, general history, the aesthetics of the 
 fine arts and the execution of studies in marble and metal. 
 
 Branch of Modeled Ornamental. Copies of ornamentals, 
 drawing of plaster casts, anatomy, classic orders, studies 
 of still nature, drawing of the natural, history, composi- 
 tion of ornamentals of every style, history of the fine 
 arts, practice in stucco, alabaster, marble and woods, the 
 Aesthetics of the fine arts. 
 
 Branch of Line Engraving. Disposition of burine and 
 
384 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 etching lines, preparation of backgrounds, field and drap- 
 ery, anatomy, classic orders, drawing of the natural, and 
 pen sketching, burine and etched copies, history, engrav- 
 ing of figures burine and etched, drawing from painted 
 pictures and from nature, composition, history of the fine 
 arts. 
 
 Branch of Hollow Engraving . Studies of heads and of 
 modeled figures, and engravings taken from the old and 
 from prints, anatomy, classic orders, historical elements of 
 heraldry; letter engravings, modeled ornaments. Prin- 
 ciples of history and of the fine arts ; historical medals of 
 every kind; drawing, composition of the same, drawing of 
 the nude. 
 
 Branch of Architecture. For this course, which was es- 
 tablished in 1867, the pupils must study the following in the 
 National Preparatory School: Mathematics, French, En- 
 glish, physics, cosmography, chemistry, geography and 
 history ; and in the School of Fine Arts these, namely, 
 classic orders and drawing representing the orders of every 
 style, composition of the ornamental copied from plaster or 
 the natural, infinitesimal calculus, copying monuments of 
 different styles taken from prints or from the natural, 
 rational mechanics, descriptive geometry, elements of 
 mineralogy and geology, mechanics as applied to building, 
 stereotomy, perspective, history of the fine arts, practical 
 topography, composition, legal architecture, estimates and 
 surveying. 
 
 There are established in the schools night classes of 
 industrial drawing both ornamental and lineal. These are 
 meant especially for artisans and are suited to the particular 
 character of the various employments of the pupils. 
 
 Artists and amateurs who do not belong to the establish- 
 ment may go to the school during the study hours and 
 freely copy the works which it contains. This freedom 
 allowed for many years by the school was authorized by 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 385 
 
 i 
 
 the Secretary of Justice in a resolution of the 14th of 
 December, 1883. 
 
 Since the year 1849 the school has celebrated periodical 
 exhibitions with the object of making known the advances 
 made by its pupils. 
 
 On the 5th of November, 1881, it celebrated the 20th 
 exhibition and at the same time the first Centenary of the 
 foundation of the establishment. Later on were held those 
 of 1886. 
 
 The galleries of the school are open to the public every 
 Sunday from nine o'clock in the morning till one o'clock 
 in the afternoon, subject to the regulations of the 28th of 
 February, 1884. 
 
 By a decree of the 21st of October, 1879, there were 
 established in the school annual and biennial examinations 
 to stimulate and advance the pupils who have arrived at 
 the higher studies of composition in the branches of archi- 
 tecture, sculpture, drawing of figures and ornamentals, 
 figures and landscape painting, engraving of medals and of 
 prints. These examinations are obligatory upon the matric- 
 ulated and mining pupils and consists of two parts, the 
 formation of a design or idea of the work and of the com- 
 plete working out of the design. 
 
 The annual examinations or competitions form part of 
 the pupils' studies and the works presented in these com- 
 petitions belong to their authors ; the School preserves the 
 designs of those who have obtained the highest qualifica- 
 tion. Into the bienniel competitions only those pupils 
 who are most advanced in composition are admitted. 
 
 The works presented belong to their authors except those 
 which have won prizes. These remain for the benefit of 
 the school whilst their owners receive a gratification not 
 exceeding $400, the amount being fixed by the proper 
 commission. For these examinations there are especially 
 established a prize and an accessit in every year of the 
 
 25 
 
386 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 above mentioned branches. These consist, the first, of a 
 bronze medal and the second, of a diploma. 
 
 The staff of professors in the establishment is both 
 complete and competent, and many young men who make 
 good progress are advanced to take charge of the teaching 
 in the institutes of various States. The School possesses a 
 select library with more than 2,000 volumes in which the 
 pupils may gain a knowledge of the great monuments 
 and all the works ancient and modern on the different 
 subjects. 
 
 The total number of pupils enrolled in the School in the 
 year 1893 was 902, of whom 843 are men and 59 women. 
 The establishment enjoys on the part of the Federal Gov- 
 ernment an annual assignation of $40,045.10 
 
 It can be said that among the Spanish-American nations 
 Mexico is the only one which has founded a national school 
 of fine arts. 
 
 NATIONAL CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC. 
 
 This establishment has for its object the teaching, the 
 cultivation and the progress of the musical art and has 
 succeeded in filling up a want felt by a country where so 
 much musical talent abounds. 
 
 It was founded in the year 1866, by persons belonging 
 to the Directing Committee of the Mexican Philharmonic 
 Society. 
 
 In the beginning the Conservatory was maintained by 
 donations from its members and a subvention on the part 
 of the Government, until it was nationalized, which was 
 done by decree on the 13th of January, 1877, whilst the 
 Philharmonic Society was indemnified for all its expenses, 
 including $17,761, which the small theater of the Conserv- 
 atory cost and which had been inaugurated on the 28th of 
 January, 1874. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 387 
 
 The estimates of disbursements for the official year 
 
 1882 to 1883 reduced the special allowance of the estab- 
 lishment to $7,000. It was determined to withdraw from 
 the new plan of studies all subjects that were foreign to 
 the teaching of music and which were included in the 
 previous programme, as for instance writing, Spanish gram- 
 mar and geography and empowered the President to reor- 
 ganize the establishment with a sum of $25,000. The 
 project of reorganization was placed in the hands of Mr. 
 Alfredo Bablot, who was appointed director of the Conserv- 
 atory on the 1st of July, 1882. It was presented on the 
 30th of November, of the same year; and although the new 
 plan of studies with all the other reforms ought to have 
 been inaugurated at the beginning of the college year of 
 
 1883 in accordance with the regulation of the 27th of July, 
 1882, it was found impossible to carry them into effect 
 except in their essential particulars as the estimated 
 amount of money was not sufficient for the purpose and 
 the establishment was only provisionally organized in the 
 terms laid down by the decree of the 7th of January, 1883. 
 
 The teaching in the Conservatory is free and embraces, 
 according to the above-mentioned project of Mr. Bablot, 
 the following studies : Preparatories, singing, instrumental, 
 higher technical, united, finishing and auxiliary. 
 
 The preparatory studies are: Elements of musical theory 
 and preliminary knowledge of harmony, the solfa written, 
 spoken and sung individually and collectively, elementary 
 theory and harmony. The singing studies are choral sing- 
 ing with voices only (orphean), the choir with accom- 
 paniment, higher solos (monody) and the notes they 
 comprise, the mechanism theory and expression. The 
 instrumental are the piano, obligatory upon those who wish 
 to become organists, improvisation, and higher technical 
 studies, the harp, the organ, bow instruments, wind and 
 percussion instruments. 
 
388 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The higher technical studies consist of harmony both 
 theoretical and practical, composition, accompaniment, 
 esthetics comprising the history of music and the biog- 
 raphies of its celebrated men, acoustics and phonography. 
 The united studies are hall music, symphony, both together 
 and with instruments, united music, vocal and instrumental, 
 which is taught at the same time as classic music and 
 symphony. The auxiliary studies are the writing of 
 music, which embraces the practical writing of the notes, 
 and as a compliment of this lithographical and metal en- 
 graving, the French and Italian languages. The finishing 
 studies consist of the completion of the musical education 
 begun in the previous courses. 
 
 The teaching therefore comprises the following subjects: 
 Elements of musical theory and preliminary knowledge of 
 harmony; solfa; choral singing with voices only, choir 
 singing with accompaniment; choral singing and vocali- 
 zation, knowledge of anatomy, physiology and the hygiene 
 of vocal organs, lyrical declamation,, piano, harp, organ 
 harmony and its accessories ; violin, viola, violoncello, 
 bass violin, flute and like instruments, hautboy and English 
 horn, clarionette, euphonium and similar instruments; saxo- 
 phone, flageolet, bassoon and trombone, trumpet, cornet, 
 harmonious trumpet, bugles, sax-horns and tube, trom- 
 bones and ophicleide instruments of the system of Sax, 
 their like and ones derived from them. Percussion instru- 
 ments, harmony, composition, accompaniment, musical 
 aesthetics, both theoretical and applied, general history of 
 music and the biographies of its great men. Acoustics 
 and phonography. Hall fanfar music, religious music ; 
 symphony music, harmony and mixed music, music with 
 voices and instruments. Musical writing and the French 
 and Italian languages. This plan of studies has been in 
 force, in the establishment since 1883 and has produced 
 admirable results, although it has never been definitely 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 389 
 
 sanctioned but its observation merely authorized as a 
 trial. 
 
 The pupils of the Conservatory are either numerary, 
 supernumerary or hearers. The numeraries are those who 
 undertake to follow the courses of the establishment in 
 the strict order which the plan of studies lays down. The 
 supernumeraries are enrolled as numeraries at the proper 
 time and in accordance with the regulations and are those 
 who only study one or other of the branches of the teach- 
 ins: without following their strict order of studies. In 
 order to be admitted it is necessary besides having the 
 certificate required for any enrollment, to show by docu- 
 mentary evidence or by means of an examination that the 
 candidates have gone successfully through the studies prior 
 to the course they are entering. The hearers are pupils 
 who attend the lessons of any branch without enrolling 
 themselves as numeraries or supernumeraries ; they are not 
 obliged to show their knowledge of any lesson nor to be 
 examined ; but they must submit to the rules and discipline 
 of the establishment. 
 
 To be admitted as a numerary pupil in the first year of 
 preparatory studies the candidate has to present the follow- 
 ing papers : A certificate of good ;conduct, of knowledge 
 of reading and writing and the four rules of arithmetic, or 
 otherwise to undergo an examination in them ; a certificate 
 of vaccination and one showing that he does not suffer 
 from any contagious disease, and proof that his age is not 
 less than eight years. 
 
 As soon as the Conservatory was organized it constituted 
 its orchestra and from it have come forth the larger part 
 of the professionals who compose the orchestras of the 
 theaters of the capital, many of the most distinguished 
 players in the military bands and some of their directors. 
 
 In order to enter the orchestra of the Conservatory, the 
 instrumentalists must have among other qualifications, a good 
 
390 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 conduct, punctual attendance of the courses, the highest 
 qualifications in the yearly examinations, the gift of read- 
 ing music at first sight, fineness of execution and sufficient 
 instrumental ability, and must besides be proposed by the 
 professor of the special branch in which he desires to enter 
 and undergo a special examination. If the pupil fulfills 
 these conditions he is admitted to the orchestra and his ap- 
 pointment is given him in the form of a special diploma, 
 which is also an honorary title and a certificate of ability to 
 enter any symphonic corporation. 
 
 Mr. Bablot on the 1st of September, 1886, advised with 
 the Secretaryship of Justice about the creation of a " Society 
 of Conservatory Concerts " which should be formed of the 
 professors of the establishment and their solo pupils both in- 
 strumental and singing, with the object of giving every year 
 a series of grand public and official concerts, benefit ones 
 and others for payment, for his account and risk. The pro- 
 ceeds of these to be divided among the players and the mu- 
 tual association which they might form. The Secretaryship 
 on the 16th of July, 1887, approved of the basis laid down, 
 seeing that the association in its nature and objects tended to 
 improve and stimulate its members, and co-operated in the 
 advancement of the Conservatory. The first series of con- 
 certs was given in the year 1888. 
 
 The establishment, beingorganizedon so complete a plan of 
 studies and with a staff of professors of well-known artistic 
 reputation and receiving from the Government a yearly sum 
 of more than $45,000 maintains itself in the high position 
 which the present civilization of Mexico demands. The 
 number of persons being educated in the Conservatory in 
 1892 was 1,656, of whom 617 were women and 1,039 men. 
 
 MILITARY COLLEGE. 
 
 This institution, undoubtedly the most important belong- 
 ing to the army, dates from the year 1824, during the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 391 
 
 presidency of Mr. Guadalupe Victoria. It was intended 
 to found one in 1829 in imitation of similar establishments 
 in Europe and the United States, but it was found impossi- 
 ble to fully equip it until the year 1838. At first the 
 college was established in San Carlos de Perote ; afterwards 
 it was translated to the capital of the Republic and 
 installed in the Bethlemite convent, forming part of the 
 Sapper Brigade. 
 
 In 1833 the young institution passed to the building of 
 San Lucas, at present the Military Hospital, and there it 
 remained till 1843, when, by the orders of the Government, 
 it again changed tc the castle of Chapultepec. After the 
 American invasion, in 1,848, the establishment opened its 
 classes in the Rastrillo barracks and the building of San 
 Lucas. From thence it was transplanted in 1869 to the old 
 archepiscopal residence of Tacubaya, where it stayed till 
 1881, when it once more occupied the palace of Chapultepec 
 and where it still is. 
 
 In the Military College all youths who intend to devote 
 themselves to a military life receive instructions and are 
 drilled in the various exercises of the army. Those also 
 who aspire to enter the national navy go through their 
 preparatory studies in the same institution. 
 
 The direction of the studies, the enforcing of the punctual 
 observance of the rules and regulations, as well as all 
 instructions referring to the establishment are in the hands 
 of the Director of the College, who also exercises the powers 
 which the general ordinance appoints to colonels, with 
 bodily authority. 
 
 The Subdirector has charge of the conduct and discipline 
 of the members of the establishment and of the particulars 
 of the service and its administration. 
 
 The College is equipped with a very competent staff of 
 professors, thirty-five in number, with ten masters, four 
 
392 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 assistant-masters and three preparatory ones for physics, 
 chemistry and natural history. 
 
 Professors. 
 
 In order to obtain the position of professor in the College 
 it is necessary to know thoroughly the subject to be taught, 
 both theoretically and practically. 
 
 To be a professor one must also have a title in some 
 science or at least he must know outside of the course he 
 intends to teach and in such a way as to be able to examine 
 in them, two of the subjects which form part of the teach- 
 ing in the establishment. Upon the shoulders of the pro- 
 fessors is laid the duty of teaching both theoretically and 
 practically as well as that, of watching over the preserva- 
 tion of discipline and the conduct of their pupils. They 
 compose the text* of their respective courses of teaching 
 subject to the approbation of the faculty body. The civil 
 prof essors hold within the college the ranks of 1st captains, 
 whilst the military professors maintain the rank which 
 rightfully belongs to them in the army. Those who dur- 
 ing three months fail to fill their chairs on three days with- 
 out a reasonable excuse are referred by the board of 
 directors to the Secretary of War for immediate dismissal. 
 
 The preparatory and assistant masters take, the places of 
 the professors in cases of absence or sickness and with the 
 same authority as those they represent had. 
 
 When the professors, preparatory masters, masters, and 
 assistant masters have efficiently fulfilled their duties with- 
 out being on furlough for more than one month in every 
 five years, and when they have composed the texts of their 
 respective classes and these texts have been adopted for at 
 least three years, then they have the right to retire on pen- 
 sion according to the instructions of the general army 
 ordinance. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 393 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 In order to be a pupil it is necessary, 1st. To be a Mexican 
 either by birth or naturalization; to be from 16 to 18 years 
 of age ; not to have been expelled from any public school 
 or college and to have passed an examination held in the 
 same, showing a sufficient knowledge of arithmetic, alge- 
 bra, Spanish and of first year's French in accordance with 
 the programme of entrance. 2d. To have been vaccinated, 
 to have the necessary bodily fitness for the army certified 
 to by the college medical officer who will base his judgment 
 on the list of causes which exempt from entrance into the 
 
 army. 
 
 The applicant for entrance should address his applica- 
 tion in his own handwriting to the Secretary of War and 
 Navy in the months of October or November of each year. 
 In his letter he should give his name, place of birth and age 
 and at the top a declaration from his father or guardian 
 certifying under the father's or guardian's signature that 
 he agrees to his sou's or ward's entering the army. Along- 
 with the application he should send a copy of his baptismal 
 register as well as certificates of his conduct, studies and 
 diligence. Soldiers' sons can enter as pupils from the age 
 of 15 and they should also send with their application in 
 addition to the documents already mentioned, a copy of the 
 certificate of their father's last situation. Those youths 
 can also enter the institution as pupils who are from 18 to 
 20 years of age if they are acquainted with the non-military 
 sciences taught during the first three study years at the col- 
 lege. They receive too those who have not this knowledge ; 
 but such pupils have not the right to the faculty course of 
 studies and are merely destined for the infantry or cavalry 
 and only pursue the studies which are meant for either an 
 infantry-man or a cavalry-man. The aspirants on being 
 affiliated to the college have their duties imposed on them 
 
394 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 by the superior in accordance with the rule and general 
 ordinance of the army. It is understood of course that 
 they enter the army from the day on which their place is 
 assigned them in the college, and that at all times, what- 
 ever may be the state of their studies, they are obliged to 
 serve as officers in the army if the Supreme Government so 
 directs. 
 
 Those who are intended for the infantry and cavalry are 
 under the obligation of serving as officers at least three years 
 after finishing their respective studies. Those who devote 
 themselves to a faculty career must serve within five years 
 and those who adopt the navy as their profession pass into 
 the naval school on finishing their studies. . 
 
 Pupils who pass successfully in the subjects marked by 
 the regulations for any branch of the army become lieuten- 
 ants in the permanent militia or first midshipmen in the 
 national navy if destined for the sea, whilst those who have 
 successfully gone through their first two years of study 
 become sub-lieutenants of infantry or cavalry. 
 
 In order to become an officer in the army it is essential 
 to be at least nineteen years of age according to the General 
 Ordinance. 
 
 The pupils are fed and clothed in the establishment and 
 are furnished with books, drawing and writing materials 
 and are obliged, when a review is held, to show all the 
 arms, accoutrements, clothes and school materials which 
 have been supplied to them. The text-books also in which 
 they have passed are given to them and remain their own 
 property to the end of every college year in order that 
 they may be able to consult them and refer to them as 
 they advance in their studies. They can take with them 
 when going into the army their clothes for their own use. 
 
 The subjects taught in the establishment for the differ- 
 ent branches of the army and distributed over the various 
 years as follows, are these: 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 395 
 
 Studies of Infantry and Cavalry Officers. 
 
 First Year. Rules for infantry maneuvers and practice 
 of same. Ordinance first year, from the soldier's duties to 
 the duties of the Adjutant (aid-de-camp) including general 
 orders, military and general honors; plane geometry, in 
 space and rectilinear trigonometry. French, landscape 
 drawing, gymnastics and swimming. 
 
 Second Year. Rules for cavalry maneuvers and practice 
 of same and service of cavalry in the field. Ordinance sec- 
 ond year — the whole of the third treatise and documenta- 
 tion, fixed planes and military topography with the 
 corresponding practice, especially in making military 
 journeys and reading charts, universal geography and 
 chiefly Mexico. Topographical drawing, military accounts. 
 
 Third Year. Ordinance third year, the whole of the 
 fourth treatise which comprises the service of troops in 
 the field. Military legislation and laws of war. Transi- 
 tory fortification and encamping. Universal history and 
 especially that of Mexico, fencing and pistol-shooting first 
 year, military hygiene and veterinary medicine. 
 
 Studies of Artillery Officers. 
 
 First Year. Rules for infantry maneuvers and practice 
 of same. Ordinance first year, from the soldier's duties to 
 those of the adjutant, including general orders, military 
 and funeral honors, plane geometry in space and rectilinear 
 trigonometry. French, landscape drawing, gymnastics and 
 swimming. 
 
 Second Year. Rules for cavalry maneuvers with practice 
 of same and service of cavalry in the field. Ordinance 
 second year, the whole of the third treatise and documen- 
 tation. English first year, universal geography and espe- 
 
396 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 daily Mexico ; analytical geometry, infinitesimal calculus; 
 first year water-colored geometrical drawing. 
 
 Third Year. Transitory fortification and encamping. 
 Ordinance third year, the whole of the fourth treatise which 
 comprises the service of troops in the field ; higher algebra 
 and second year of analytical geometry and of infinitesimal 
 calculus ; universal history and especially that of Mexico ; 
 delineated drawing. English second year. 
 
 Fourth Year. Permanent fortification and military 
 bridges, military legislation and laws of war, analytical 
 'mechanics, descriptive geometry. English third year, ma- 
 chine drawing first year. 
 
 Fifth Year. Military hygiene and veterinary medicine ; 
 applied mechanics, physics, machine drawing second year, 
 military accounts, stereotomy. 
 
 Sixth Year. First year of artillery, fencing and pistol- 
 shooting. First year chemistry, mechanical theory of 
 building, knowledge of building materials and practical 
 building, topographical drawing first year. 
 
 Seventh Year. General topography and water measure- 
 ment, second year of artillery, logic and constitutional law, 
 fencing and pistol-shooting second year. 
 
 Studies of Engineers. 
 
 First Year. Eules for infantry maneuvers and practice 
 of same. Ordinance first year, from the soldier's duties to 
 those of the adjutant, including general orders, military 
 and funeral honors ; plane geometry in space and recti- 
 linear trigonometry. French, landscape drawing, gymnas- 
 tics and swimming. 
 
 Second Year. Rules for cavalry maneuvers with prac- 
 tice of same and service of cavalry in the field. Ordinance 
 second year; the whole of the third treatise and documen- 
 tation; analytical geometry and infinitesimal calculus first 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 397 
 
 year; universal geography and especially that of Mexico. 
 English first year; water-colored geometrical drawing. 
 
 Third Year. Transitory fortification and encamping. 
 Ordinance third year, the whole of the fourth treatise 
 which comprises the service of troops in the field; higher 
 algebra and third year of analytical geometry and of in- 
 finitesimal calculus. English second year ; universal history 
 and chiefly that of Mexico ; delineated drawing. 
 
 Fourth Year. Permanent fortification and military 
 bridges. Military legislation and laws of war, analytical 
 mechanics, physics. English third year ; military hygiene 
 and veterinary medicine. 
 
 Fifth Year. Military accounts, fencing and pistol-shoot- 
 ing. First year descriptive geometry, perspective and 
 shading, spherical trigonometry, cosmography and theory 
 of errors; topographical drawing first year. 
 
 Sixth Year. First year of artillery, fencing and pistol- 
 shooting. Topographical drawing second year, general 
 topography, natural history, strategy and tactics. 
 
 Seventh Year. Service of the higher States. Surveying 
 and astronomy, including the theory of eclipses, logic and 
 the elements of constitutional law, geographical drawing 
 and charts. 
 
 Studies of Midshipmen of the National Navy. 
 
 First Year. Eules for infantry maneuvers and practice 
 of same. Ordinance first year, from the soldier's duties 
 to those of the adjutant, including general orders, military 
 and funeral honors, plane geometry in space and rectilinear 
 trigonometry. French landscape drawing, gymnastics and 
 swimming. 
 
 Second Year. Transitory fortification, analytical geome- 
 try and infinitesimal calculus, first year ; universal geog- 
 raphy and especially that of Mexico. English first year; 
 
398 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 delineated and water-colored drawing, military legislation 
 and laws of war. 
 
 Third Year. Fencing and pistol-shooting first year ; an- 
 alytical mechanics, cosmography, universal history and 
 especially that of Mexico. English second year; military 
 hygiene, machine drawing. 
 
 Fourth Year. Fixed planes and military topography with 
 the corresponding practice, especially in making military 
 journeys and reading charts; reckoning, navigation, nau- 
 tical terms and maneuvers, fencing and pistol-shooting 
 second year, physics. English third year; logic and 
 the elements of constitutional law, topographical drawing 
 first year. 
 
 The teaching of applied subjects is both practical and 
 theoretical. The professors therefore of physics, chem- 
 istry and natural history have their cabinets well supplied 
 with everything necessary. In the astronomy class prac- 
 tical lessons in astronomy are given during the five middle 
 months of the year. In the topography class, the pupils, 
 after learning the description and management of the 
 instruments, practice in the open country. 
 
 In the infantry, cavalry and artillery classes the various 
 styles of tactics are practiced. All the pupils go through 
 the maneuvers and shooting practices by being divided 
 among the regular army troops ; those of the artillery also 
 visit the army establishments at the end of their college 
 year. 
 
 The professors of each branch give practices at the times 
 of the year most convenient and when the pupils have well 
 mastered the applied subjects they are studying. When 
 the studies are such that their application must be made 
 outside of the capital then this application is so made, and 
 the pupils visit factories, workshops or other important 
 institutions and this is especially done in the case of those 
 studying mechanics. The exercises in shooting cannons 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 399 
 
 and guns, the making of fortifications and practicing service 
 in the field are all performed in the yearly encampments 
 which are formed from the 15th to the 30th of November 
 at places not more than eight leagues distant from the 
 college. The pupils undertake this expedition on foot in 
 marching columns and along with the regular troops who 
 accompany them for the purpose. 
 
 The course of annual lectures lasts from the 8th of Jan- 
 uary till the 30th of September, and during the last seven 
 days of the college year, the classes are suspended in order 
 that the pupils may prepare for their examinations which 
 begin on the 1st of October, and end on the 12th of 
 November. 
 
 Examinations. 
 
 For the examination of each course, every professor 
 makes his own questions. He divides the subjects, which 
 make up the total of the programmes into a convenient 
 number of sets, in such a way that each set contains ques- 
 tions upon the beginning, the middle, and the end of the 
 course. The questions are such that they can be sufficiently 
 answered within the time allowed for the examination. 
 The committee of judges for each subject consists of three 
 persons, namely, two from the college nominated by the Di- 
 rector and one invited by the Secretary of War from among 
 the professors of the national schools or from the superiors 
 and officers of the army. In order that the examination of 
 each pupil be valid and that the qualification he obtains be 
 strictly in accordance with justice, it is necessary that the 
 three judges, who vote in their committee, be present and 
 that they devote their whole attention to the examination. 
 The passes of the pupils in all the classes are qualified by 
 the series of figures from to 5 which mean respect- 
 ively, failed, poor, fair, good, very good, excellent. A 
 
400 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 pupil passes when he is unanimously voted at least the 
 figure 2 which qualifies him as fair. 
 
 The judges cannot be objected to, and their decisions, 
 when given in accordance with the regulations, are irrevo- 
 cable. 
 
 There are three prizes established for each year of 
 studies. The First Prize consists of an honorary diploma 
 sent by the President of the Eepublic and a set of books, 
 instruments or objects which will be useful in military life; 
 the Second Prize is the diploma only ; Honorable Mention 
 is the third and is made at the public distribution of prizes. 
 The pupils who have obtained the first prize every year 
 without having to repeat any subject and who have ob- 
 served an irreproachable conduct are decorated together by 
 the First Magistrate of the Nation with a gold medal called 
 the faculty merit medal of the first class. Those who ob- 
 tain the second prize under the same conditions receive a 
 silver medal called the faculty merit medal of second 
 class. This decoration is given along with the diploma 
 they have gained. 
 
 Those pupils who have completed their first five years' 
 studies without having failed at the examinations in any 
 subject, and who have besides been well-conducted are styled 
 distinguished pupils. They received their respective nom- 
 inations signed by the Director of the College and wear on 
 their left sleeve above the shield a saw in a square bordered 
 with yellow or gold thread, according as the uniform is the 
 daily or full dress one. They receive also among the papers 
 of their respective companies a gratification of three dollars 
 every holiday. The naming of the pupils for decorations 
 and for distinctions takes place at the solemn distribution 
 of prizes, which is performed on the 1st Sunday of Decem- 
 ber, when the President of the Eepublic, the higher 
 authorities, superiors and officers of the army are invited. 
 
 The grades of Ensign and Midshipmen, of Corporal, 2d 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. . 401 
 
 Sergeant and 1st Sergeant are always given as prizes for 
 the most progress in studies together with a faultless, civil 
 and military conduct. 
 
 LA PAZ COLLEGE. 
 
 This institution owes its origin to the distinguished 
 Basque gentlemen, Messrs. Echeveste, Aldaco and Meave, 
 who founded it in July, 1734, spending on it half a million 
 of dollars. The establishment was intended as a house of 
 refuge and education for poor girls and invalid Spanish 
 widows. The Eector and deputies from the confraternity 
 of Aranzazu, formed by natives of Biscay in Mexico, sent up 
 a petition to the King of Spain in 1735, in which they in- 
 formed him of the erection of the college, its object and the 
 amount of money destined for its support and praying him 
 at the 'same time to issue the necessary royal decree for its 
 opening, and to approve the constitution and statutes drawn 
 up by the confraternity. The King granted their petition 
 in a decree dated the 31st of March, 1753, and in a royal 
 proclamation of the seventh of September of the same year 
 by which he confirmed and approved of the establishment 
 of the new College as well as the constitution which had 
 been drawn up. 
 
 They were finally approved of by a royal proclamation 
 on the 17th of July, 1766. This institution, which was 
 merely laical, was subject to the king of Spain and to the 
 staff, Eector and deputies of the Congregation of Aranzazu, 
 their administration and economical government. The Col- 
 lege funds began to lessen considerably during the last years 
 of the colonial government, for the latter appropriated 
 them by virtue of operations called consolidations and loans 
 and thus occasioned the establishment a loss of $958,000. 
 In later times the Mexican Government at different epochs 
 has employed the funds of the College to the extent of 
 
 26 
 
402 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 $30,000 but this debt, as well as the former one, has been 
 acknowledged by the Government of the Republic in a law 
 dated the 28th of June, 1824. The Confraternity of Aran- 
 zazu was suppressed together with all other congregations 
 by virtue of a law dated the 12th of June, 1879, and thus 
 come to a close the immediate exercise of its patronage of 
 the College which now devolved upon the Nation, and in 
 place of the supreme order of the 6th of January, 1861, 
 was substituted a Directory Committee composed of trust- 
 worthy persons whom the Government appointed to exercise 
 the duties of the suppressed confraternity regarding the in- 
 stitution. A circular of the 18th of April, 1884, determined 
 the reduction of the college property, but another of the 
 6th of April, 1885, revoked this determination in cases 
 where the said property had never been under the admin- 
 istration of the Clergy. The establishment to-day is under 
 the patronage of the First Magistrate of the Nation and en- 
 joys from the Government an allowance of $18,000 yearly 
 to improve the education of the pupils by having recourse 
 to the modern progress of public instruction. In this in- 
 stitution the Government has preserved the internal arrange- 
 ments which were abolished in all other schools out of re- 
 spect to the will of its founders as far as was compatible 
 with the laws and in order not to close the doors upon young 
 orphan and destitute girls and that they might there acquire 
 the necessary education to gain their living honestly and to 
 arm themselves against the dangers to which they are ex- 
 posed by their poverty, ignorance and youth. 
 
 There are departments for boarders and day scholars which 
 are conveniently furnished with the necessaries for learning 
 in the various classes which are held, such as pianos, har- 
 moniums, music and the methods of the most celebrated 
 masters, notable models for drawing and painting, school 
 museums, both national and foreign, etc., etc. 
 
 The regulations put in force in March, 1885, divide the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 403 
 
 instruction into six years, during which the following sub- 
 jeets are taught: Reading, writing, Spanish grammar, origin 
 and progress of the Spanish language; arithmetic, both 
 demonstrative and commercial, metric system, geometry, 
 book-keeping, correspondence, knowledge of national and 
 foreign goods, geography, history, physical sciences, 
 teaching, literature, telegraphy, moral and sacred history, 
 hygiene, English, French, music, natural, lineal and orna- 
 mental drawing, sewing and embroidery. 
 
 The studies being thus extended and made to satisfy the 
 requirements of the age and the aspirations of the pupils, 
 the establishment is now producing the results which might 
 be expected of it, as is clearly proved by the vast number 
 of its pupils who have obtained diplomas- as teachers of 
 public and secondary instruction from the corporation of 
 the capital, and the honorary medals which its staff has 
 won in the universal exhibition of Philadelphia and the 
 well-merited fame for superiority which it has acquired for 
 teaching hand work and embroidery ( over other establish- 
 ments of a like kind). The library of the college is a re- 
 cent institution and has already about 600 volumes which 
 have been presented by private persons and publishers of 
 the capital. 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND.* 
 
 This was founded in 1870 by Mr. Ignacio Trigueros. In it 
 are received, without payment of any fee, all blind children 
 from eight years of age to sixteen of both sexes and who 
 are notoriously poor, and besides their education they re- 
 ceive shelter during the course of their studies. Those who 
 do not wish to be received as pupils may attend without 
 payment at the classes and lectures which are given in the 
 establishment. Young blind persons whose parents are 
 
 * See "Beneficence," page 444. 
 
404 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 able to pay a small monthly sum are likewise admitted 
 according to a provisional arrangement and their fees go to 
 the funds of the establishment. 
 
 The classes established are : Reading, writing, Spanish 
 grammar, arithmetic, geography, geometry, history of Mex- 
 ico, English, French, gymnastics, music, singing and har- 
 mony. The classes of music comprise the piano, clarionet, 
 mandolin, flagelet, hautboy, harp, concertina, stringed and 
 brass instruments. 
 
 There are tailors shops, shoemakers shops, typography, 
 book-binding, carpentry, lace-making, brush-making, to- 
 bacco manufacture, making of paste-board boxes, mats, 
 weaving and linking. They also do needle and crochet 
 work and other hiind-works. Before the year 1878 the 
 Government protected this school in an indirect way through 
 the Benefit Committee, but in that year it was nationalized 
 and its name appeared in the Estimates of Disbursements 
 of the Federation subventioned with a sum of $17,717.35. 
 To-day the allowance amounts to $22,556.70. 
 
 THE SCHOOL FOR DEAF MUTES* 
 
 Was founded in 1866 by the corporation of Mexico on the 
 initiative of D. Ignacio Trigueros, who was then president 
 of the body. Its first director was D. Fernando Huet, a 
 foreigner and a deaf mute from birth. At first this School 
 was not of a merely local character but received pupils 
 from all parts of the couutry and the corporation in a circu- 
 lar dated the 31st of October, 1867, urged the Governors of 
 States to send to the establishment children who had the 
 organic defect of being deaf-mutes and to contribute a 
 convenient amount to their support. 
 
 By a decree of the *29th of November, 1867, the School 
 
 * See " Beneficence." 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 405 
 
 was nationalized and since that time it has remained under 
 the protection of the Government and in direct dependence 
 upon the Department of the Interior. 
 
 To enter this institution it is required that the pupil be 
 from seven to twelve years of age, in good health and vac- 
 cinated. He must also be subjected to an intellectual trial 
 in the same establishment for a period of one month, at the 
 end of which his admittance or rejection is definitely settled. 
 
 The subjects taught comprise reading, writing, grammar, 
 arithmetic, geometry, book-keeping, horticulture, drawing 
 and gymnastics. There are in it lithography and tailor 
 shops, and shoemaker shops as well as shops for the mak- 
 ing of artificial flowers, of hats and ladies' dresses, espe- 
 cially for the female pupils. The teaching employed is the 
 oral system introduced by a young pupil of the school 
 D. Jose Maria Marquez on his return from Europe, whether 
 he was sent by the Government to study during one year 
 the systems of the principal schools of this kind. 
 
 In 1880 a saving box was put up for the pupils in order 
 that in it might be placed the savings made each year out 
 of the allowance of twenty dollars per month, which the 
 estimates assign to each of them for expenses. Since that 
 time the saving box has continued to dispense benefits to 
 the pupils. For when they leave the college they are given 
 their balance as a capital in order that provided with re- 
 sources they may return to the bosom of their family and 
 start themselves in the business they have been taught. 
 
 The number of pupils is 34, of whom 23 are boys and 11 
 girls. The establishment enjoj^s a yearly allowance of 
 $19,092.25. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR ORPHAN BOYS.* 
 
 This School and house of refuge, which was created and 
 placed under the charge of a directing committee in 1877, 
 
 * See " Beneficence," page 446. 
 
406 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 fell under the direction of and became dependant upon the 
 Interior Department on the 1st of August, 1881. The 
 Government of the District sends to it the refugees and 
 it is the duty of the corporation to look after and promote 
 the service of the Establishment. In it are received chil- 
 dren from 10 to 12 years of age, and youths from 12 to 14 
 if they are destitute, and in order that they may devote 
 themselves to some business or art and these may remain 
 and receive board till they are 18 years of age. 
 
 For the admission of a pupil it is necessary that the per- 
 son in whose charge he is should present a written petition 
 to the Director; that the supposed destitute pupil bean 
 orphan and have no inheritance or if he has a father and 
 mother that the latter be poor and the former decrepit or 
 unable to work and in a state of want ; that he should not 
 have any disease which would render his teaching an impos- 
 sibility or injure the other pupils ; that he should be vaccin- 
 ated and that some person, accepted by the Director should 
 guarantee the value of the clothes which may be supplied 
 to the pupil. 
 
 The primary instruction in this school in conformity 
 with the regulation put in force on the 14th of July, 1884, 
 is divided into elementary and higher; and the teaching 
 into daily and nightly. The elementaiy instruction con- 
 sists of: reading, writing, orthography, elements of Span- 
 ish grammer; the four rules of arithmetic for whole 
 numbers, common fractions and decimals, some knowl- 
 edge of morals and politeness, elements of drawing, 
 music and gymnastics. To the higher instruction belong : 
 correct reading in prose and verse, correct writing, 
 Spanish grammar, the higher rules of arithmetic for whole 
 numbers and fractions, the metric system, some knowl- 
 edge of algebra, geometry, geography and history and 
 especially that of the country, duties and rights of the 
 citizen and political organization of the Republic, with re- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 407 
 
 gard to the constitution, some knowledge of hygiene, 
 music and gymnastics. 
 
 The arts and businesses taught in the School are : Litho- 
 graphy, typography, book-binding, weaving, carpentry, 
 tailoring, shoemaking and tinmaking. The heads of the 
 work-shops are forbidden to exact from pupils work beyond 
 their strength and age. As a completion of these studies 
 they are also taught some knowledge of physics, chemistry, 
 and mechanics as applied to the arts and the French and 
 English languages. The Government in its desire to protect 
 every class of establishments of instruction and benevolence, 
 has introduced into this one important improvement. The 
 typographical work-shops, which five j'ears ago were scarcely 
 worth $500, are now with their contents and instruments 
 worth more than $15,000. The dormitories have 338 beds 
 and attract attention by their cleanliness, ventilation and 
 good sanitary condition; the garden, gymnasium, carpen- 
 ter shops and spinning shops, everything in fact is kept in 
 the best state that the advancement and civilization of a 
 people could demand. The Industrial Schools for Orphan 
 Boys has 314 pupils. 
 
 SCHOOL OF JURISPRUDENCE. 
 
 This establishment was founded in conformity with the 
 law governing Public Instruction of December 2, 1867. 
 
 Shortly afterwards the Minister of Justice assigned for 
 its use a large portion of the building known as the old 
 convent of La Encarnacion, but it was not formally opened 
 until Juue 13, 1868. 
 
 Formerly, the study of Jurisprudence was pursued in the 
 colleges of San lldefonso, San Gregorio, San Juan de 
 Letran and the Seminario, this latter being maintained by 
 the clergy. 
 
 In the School of Jurisprudence the students adopt the 
 
408 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 professions of lawyer, notary public and business agent, 
 completing their careers in six years and following the 
 studies herewith mentioned: 
 
 Roman law, civil law, philosophy of law, uncodified 
 laws, legal medicine, code of civil procedure, code of 
 penal procedure, military ordinances, penal law, consti- 
 tutional law, political economy, international law public and 
 private, forensic eloquence, commercial code and adminis- 
 trative law. 
 
 The following order of studies is pursued : First year, 
 Roman and civil law. Second year, second course of 
 Eoman and civil law. Third year, code of civil proceed- 
 ings, uncodified laws and first course of legal medicine. 
 Fourth year, code of penal proceedings, penal law, com- 
 mercial code and second course of legal medicine. Fifth 
 year, constitutional law, first course of political economy 
 and public international law. Sixth year, administrative 
 law, private international law, second course of political 
 economy and forensic eloquence. 
 
 The number of students registered the past year was 199 
 and 178 supernumeraries, the former being composed of 
 those who had spent the five years of preparatory study in 
 the Preparatory School, which are necessary in order to 
 become registered. The latter, which is composed of those 
 who have complied with this requisite, may pursue the 
 studies of Jurisprudence but without enjoying the right to 
 pass examination. 
 
 In addition to the respective professors, the personnel of 
 the institution is composed of a director, secretary, assist- 
 ant secretary, prefect, superintendent and librarian. 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL OF PROFESSORS. 
 
 The Normal School of Professors of Primary Instruction 
 in the City of Mexico was definitely created by decree of 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 409 
 
 December 17th, 1885, and is under the immediate charge 
 of the Department of Justice and Public Instruction. The 
 regulations of the 2d of October, 1886, establish the voca- 
 tion of professor of primary instruction after a course of 
 four years, during which they must pass on the following 
 studies : Advanced reading, recitation and reminiscence 
 exercises, arithmetic and algebra, geometry, rudiments of 
 mechanism, of cosmography, general geography and of Mex- 
 ico ; history of Mexico, rudiments of physic and meteorol- 
 ogy, of general chemistr}', agriculture and industry, 
 rudiments of natural history and physiology, pedagogism, 
 logic, moral and methodology, scholastic organization and 
 discipline and history of pedagogism, Spanish grammar 
 and exercises in composition, French and English, general 
 history, notions of medicine and domestic and scholastic 
 hygiene, rudiments of constitutional rights and political 
 economy, caligraphy and drawing, gymnastics, choral sing- 
 ing, military exercises, empiric observation and practice of 
 methods of teaching in the annexed schools, practice of the 
 teaching in said schools and exercises in critic pedagogism. 
 In order that the apprenticeship be accompanied by the 
 practice, there are established two annexed Normal Schools, 
 one for very small children for boys and girls from four to 
 seven years of age, and the other four primary instruction 
 for children from seven to fourteen years of age. 
 
 The instructions in the former of these institutions is 
 administered in three years, and in six years in the second 
 one. Aspirants to teachership must assist at both plants 
 counting from the first year, in order to observe the meth- 
 ods of teaching, the practices, put them into execution, 
 and then practice them with subjection to the pedagogic 
 precepts. 
 
 In the school for small children the following matters are 
 taught : Gifts, by Frasbel, principles of lesser things, ob- 
 jective calculation up to number ten, notions about the 
 
410 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 three kingdoms of nature, cultivation of language, 
 notions of patriotic and universal history, notions of 
 moral, civic instruction, choral singing, garden works, care 
 of domestic animals, gymnastic plays. 
 
 In the school of primary instruction the courses taught 
 are the following : Reading, writing, arithmetic, rudiments 
 of Spanish grammar, of geography, of general history of 
 Mexico, notions of natural science in the form of lessons 
 on matters, civic instruction, drawing, French and English, 
 practical gymnastics, military exercises, choral singing. 
 
 In order to stimulate the youth to the career of precep- 
 tor, there are established in the Model Schools as many as 
 eighty pensions, assigned in quality of rewards to those 
 who distinguish themselves by their talent and application, 
 the pupils who have obtained their respective titles having, 
 moreover, the perspective of obtaining soon a position in 
 the Official School of the District and Federal Territories. 
 
 These pupils, before their admission to the character of 
 pensioners and after having finished their career, promise 
 to serve the Public Instruction in the District and Federal 
 territories during three years. 
 
 The Governors of the States can pension in this School 
 the pupils whom they consider worthy of it, always when 
 these pupils possess the conditions required for admission, 
 which are: having taught for fourteen years, ability and 
 recognized morality. The expenses are paid by the said 
 Governors. 
 
 When any of the teachers in the model schools are dis- 
 abled owing to sickness, after a continuous service of 
 five years in teaching, they shall enjoy a salary equivalent 
 to one-half of that formerly earned, and shall have, as 
 pension, the entire salary if they have remained thirty 
 years in the service. 
 
 The Model School of preceptors was inaugurated on the 
 24th of February, 1887, and both the first professional 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 411 
 
 course as well as the annexed schools, was opened on the 
 7th of March of the following year. 
 
 The appropriation allowed by the Government for the 
 establishment is $61,612.35 per annum. 
 
 The Model School for preceptors of primary instruction 
 was created by decree of June 4th, 1888, the former Na- 
 tional Secondary School for girls having been consolidated 
 with it. It also immediately depends on the Department 
 of Justice and Public Instruction. In accordance with the 
 respective ordinance of December 21st, 1889, and its 
 reforms of May 25th, 1892, the career of preceptors of 
 primary instruction is made in five years, in which the 
 following matters should be studied: Arithmetic and 
 algebra, caligraphy, geometry, cosmography and geo- 
 graphy of Mexico, physics preceded by notions of medi- 
 cine, notions of chemistry, general geography, history of 
 Mexico, domestic economy and the duties of women, 
 natural history, preceded by the classification of the 
 sciences, notions of political economy and of constitutional 
 rights, theoretical hygiene, pedagogism, comprising rudi- 
 ments of general and descriptive physiology, logic, moral 
 and methodology, scholastic organization and discipline, 
 and history of pedagogism, empiric pedagogic practice, and 
 practice of teaching and pedagogic criticism in the annexed 
 schools, Spanish, French and English, manual labors, 
 music, drawing and gymnastic. There is, moreover in this 
 school an accessory course of knowledges, useful to the 
 pupils that desire to learn the following matters : Book- 
 keeping, drawing from nature, horticulture and gardening 
 Italian, piano, the practice of the art of cooking, aguaril 
 prinling, taxidermy and muscology. 
 
 In order to obtain the corresponding practice in the 
 School, there are in the same establishment two annexed 
 schools, one for the practice of boys and girls of the ages 
 of four and six years, and another one for the primary 
 
412 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 instruction of girls from six to fourteen years of age. 
 The teaching in the school of very small children is made 
 in three years and comprises the same matters as are 
 taught in the annexed one to that of preceptors, of which 
 mention has been made. 
 
 In the school for girls the instruction is given during six 
 years, and comprises the following matters: Heading, 
 writing, arithmetic, rudiments of algebra, geometry, 
 Spanish grammer, geography, general history of Mexico, 
 lessons of matters, morals, civic instructions, drawing, 
 French, English, manual labors, knowledge of machineries 
 proper to be used by females, gymnastics and choral sing- 
 ing. 
 
 There are also in the Model School for Preceptoresses pen- 
 sioned pupils, which are those who, having proved during 
 one year, at least, and after being examined, to have voca- 
 tion and ability, are granted a pension as a stimulant to 
 their talents and reward for their application. Up to 
 eighty pensions can be granted. As to the requisites which 
 the pensioned pupils must fill, pre-eminence enjoyed by the 
 preceptress of primary instruction who have received their 
 titles, and by the preceptresses of model instruction who are 
 disabled by cause of some disease, or who remain in the 
 service of teaching twenty years, are of the same nature as 
 those already stated when treating of the Model School for 
 preceptors. 
 
 The same should be understood respecting the faculties 
 which the State Governments have to pensioning pupils in 
 the school naming to that effect a tutor to the satisfaction 
 of the Director of the establishment. 
 
 This School enjoys an appropriation of $70,500 per 
 annum by the Government. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 LIBRARIES. 
 
 413 
 
 V. The establishment of libraries in Mexico dates from a 
 period long before the conquest by the Spaniards in 1521. 
 It is a well-known fact in history that King Itscoalt caused 
 the disappearance of all the written records of his time in 
 which were set down all the old precedents and customs. 
 This he did in order that the people might not kuow what 
 they were and might despise them on that account. 
 History tells us, too, that the allied Tlaxcaitecas destroyed 
 the library of the city of Texcoco on this being occupied 
 by the conquerors. 
 
 The remainder of the traditional records which survived 
 these disastrous fates were almost entirely done away with 
 by the spirit of fanaticism displayed by the first bishop 
 Zumarraga and other religious who saw in all symbolical 
 writings evidences of superstitious idolatry. Later on some 
 of the historical documents which the initiated Indians had 
 been able to hide were gradually 'brought to light according 
 as the Crown of Castile gave more stability and a better 
 o-overnment organization to its new possessions. 
 
 On the establishment of schools, colleges, and universities 
 and especially convents throughout the country, libraries 
 were founded and many of the latter became famous in 
 time for the variety of books which they contained, books 
 treating of all the sciences, arts and languages which were 
 then known and yet withal there was a great lack of books 
 relating to the languages of the natives. 
 
 When independence was won the Government set about 
 the establishment of a National Library and for that purpose 
 issued the decrees of the 26th of October, 1833, the 30th 
 of November, 1846, and the 12th of September, 1875; but 
 these praiseworthy efforts produced no tangible results at 
 that time for internal revolutions and the foreign interfer- 
 
414 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 ence, of which the country was the victim, had previous 
 calls upon the attention and resources of the administra- 
 tion. In later times, on the re-establishment of the Repub- 
 lic, a new decree sent forth on the 21st of November, 1867, 
 ordered the formation of the Library, and for that object 
 the old church of San Agustin was set apart because by 
 its extent and size it fulfilled all the necessary conditions. 
 For the making of the Library there were assigned to it all 
 the books of the University and of the College of Santos, 
 which had been already suppressed, as well as those of 
 the Cathedral library, books and documents the greater 
 part of which contain matters of supreme interest for the 
 historian and composer. After the necessary changes had 
 been made so as to suit the building for its new purpose, 
 changes which cost the Government very heavy sums, the 
 solemn opening of the establishment took place on the 2d 
 of April, 1884. The chief hall in the National Library is 
 an extensive corridor of some fifty meters long by thirteen 
 wide and thirty-five high. There are on each side of it 
 closing up the arches of the side-chapels and the cross- 
 vaults fifteen cedar shelves, seven and a half meters high, 
 each of them subdivided intoJ;hree, which are distinguished 
 from one another by letters. Placed in the middle of the 
 arch which is above the entrance to the building is a colossal 
 statue of Time in the act of flying, with the feet upon a 
 black globe which tells the hours of a clock. There are 
 two large medallions one on each side of the door, with 
 busts in bas-relief of President Juarez and the Minister D. 
 Antonio Martinez de Castro, who were the men who issued 
 and authorized respectively the decree for the establish- 
 ment of the Library. Facing the doorway at the far end of 
 the hall stands out upon a large bracket the Mexican eagle 
 wrought in stucco and in the middle of a large window 
 covered with frosted glass. Sixteen statues of 2.60 meters 
 high placed upon tall pedestals complete the adornment of 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 415 
 
 the hall. These represent Walmiky, Confucius, Isais,' 
 Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Virgil, St. Paul, Oregen, 
 Dante, Alarcon, Copernicus, Descartes, Cuvier and Hum- 
 boldt. 
 
 The two side naves are formed into galleries divided into 
 eight departments. The ante-chamber through which the 
 hall is entered is paved with colored marble, whilst the 
 vaulted roof is supported on each side by ten columns of cut 
 stone. The building has on its north and south side a garden 
 which contains a railing supported by columns, on the .tops 
 of which are the busts of the following famous men of 
 Mexico: Netzahualcoyotl, poet; D. Manuel Carpio, poet; 
 D. Francisco Sanchez Tagle, poet; Fr. Manuel Navarrete, 
 id.; D. Jose Joaquin Pesado, id.; D. Manuel Eduardo 
 Gorostiza, dramatic author; D. Francisco Javier Clavijero, 
 historian; D.Fernando A. Tezozomoc, id. ; D. Fernando 
 A. Ixtlilxochitl, id.; D. Lucas Alaman, id.; D. Manuel 
 Veytia, id.; D. Fernando Eamirez, antiquarian; Fr. 
 Manuel Najera, philologer ; D. Jose B. Couto, publisher; 
 D. Manuel de la Pena y Peiia, jurisconsult ; D. Carlos de 
 Sigiienza y Gongora, humanist; D. Jose A. Alzate, 
 naturalist; D. Leopoldo Rio de la Loza, chemist; D. 
 Joaquin Cordero, man of letters ; D. Jose M. Lafragua, id. 
 
 The National Library, which began existence with 
 100,000 volumes, has now on its shelves more than 159,000. 
 In addition to the National there are also the following 
 libraries in the Capital: The Lawyers' School Library, 
 with 14,000 volumes ; the Preparatory School Library 
 which has 10,000; that of the General Record, containing 
 8,000; the Engineers' School Library, having 7,000 ; that 
 of the School of Agriculture, with 4,000 ; the Geographical 
 and Statistical Society's Library, having also 4,000 /and 
 those of the Schools of Commerce, Fine Arts, Medicine, 
 the Training School for Men and the Training School for 
 Women, the School of Arts and Professions for Men; that 
 
416 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 of the National Conservatory of Music, the Museum Li- 
 brary on the history of Mexico and that of the Judicial 
 Record, which contain 14,538 volumes, making altogether 
 220,538 volumes contained in the libraries of the city of 
 Mexico which are supported by the Federal Government. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY SOCIETIES. 
 
 There are in the city of Mexico (Federal District) twenty 
 societies of this kind and which have the following names •■ 
 The Geographical and Statistical Society, supported by 
 Federal funds ; the Natural History Society ; the Hidalgo 
 Lyceum ; the Athenaeum Lyceum ; the Academy of Med- 
 icine 'Society; the Academy of the Spanish Language 
 Society ; the Society of the Lawyer's College ; the Engi- 
 neers 7 College Society ; the Mining College Society ; the 
 Agricultural College Society ; the Agricultural Veterinary 
 Ignacio Alvarado Society; the Philolatric Society; the 
 Pharmaceutical Society; the Ex-Mining Pupils Society; 
 the Pedro Escobedo Medical Society; the Antonio Alzate 
 id. ; the Medical Surgeon Francisco Montes de Oca Society ; 
 the Lyceum Morelos Literary Society; the Mexican Ly- 
 ceum Literary Society, and the Mexican Agricultural 
 Society. 
 
 MUSEUMS. 
 
 The first Museum of Antiquities created in Mexico was 
 established at the end of the last century, and some years 
 later /in 1786, there was installed, independent of that one, 
 a botanic garden under the very best possible conditions. 
 
 In April, 1790, another museum was founded for Natural 
 History, which was inaugurated and passed to the public 
 on the 25th of August, of that same year. 
 
 These establishments, notwithstanding their great impor- 
 tance and the precious objects therein contained, were 
 
NATIONAL LIBRARY, CITY OF MEXICO. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 417 
 
 abandoned shortly afterwards to such an extreme that at 
 the close of the period of independence, it might be said 
 that the first of them did not longer exist, and that the 
 others found themselves in the worst state of neglect. 
 
 In November, 1822, the Government took interest in 
 re-establishing the museum of Antiquities in the edifice of 
 the University, occupied to-day by the Conservatory of 
 Music, and a cabinet of Natural History was attached to it, 
 in addition to the conservatory of plants existing in Cha- 
 pultepec at the time, which ceased entirely to exist in 1831. 
 
 In the same year, at the instigation of the Minister of 
 Interior, Sr. Lucas Alaman, both establishments were 
 reformed and united under the name of The National 
 Museum, the law of April 20th being the one that gave it 
 legal creation and that organized it, giving it a Board of 
 Directors. 
 
 Nearly all the monuments were kept on one side of the 
 court, and in two halls of the upper floor the other objects 
 of Natural History and Antiquity were deposited. Among 
 the latter were some of importance, namely, pictures,* of 
 hieroglyphic figures referring to the emigration of Mexicans, 
 several leaves of Maguey paper with writings thereon in the 
 symbolic character of the Aztecs, arms, utensils, objects 
 belonging to their region, idols, jewels, ornaments, etc. 
 
 During the time that this collection was in the university 
 it was successively in charge of the Presbyter Isidro Ignacio 
 Icaza, — Presbyter Isidro Rafael Gondra, — Licentiate Jose 
 Fernando Ramirez, who, in 1854, made a scientific arrange- 
 ment in the establishment, — Licentiate Telesforo Barroso 
 and Mr. D. Bilimek. 
 
 In December, 1865, the Museum was transferred to the 
 place it occupies to-day, and which was formerly the mint. 
 In 1867 the sum of $500 monthly was set apart for the 
 expenses of the establishment and the Director was author- 
 ized to do all he thought convenient for its improvements. 
 
 27 
 
418 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Since the said transfer the aforementioned Mr. Bilimek 
 and Messrs. Ramon I. Alcaraz, Gumesindo Mendoza and 
 Jesus Sanchez, have been Directors of the Museum, and 
 Mr. Francisco del Paso y Troncoso is the present one. To 
 the efforts of these gentlemen we owe the considerable 
 increase of the collections in all branches that we have 
 to-day. 
 
 The establishment is divided into three departments, 
 which are that of natural history, that of archeology and 
 history, and the library. 
 
 The sum of $12,000 is annually appropriated for the 
 purchase of objects, preservation of the same, and for 
 materials and hand works for the repair of the edifice. 
 The staff of employes is as follows: Director, professor of 
 archeology and history, which office is at present filled by 
 the director himself, another of zoology and botany, an as- 
 sistant naturalist for the former of these two last-mentioned 
 branches, — librarian, — treasurer who is also secretary, — 
 draughtsman and photographer, and a door-keeper and 
 taxidermist. 
 
 During the past month of January (1893) 16,795 persons, 
 between natives and foreigners, visited the National 
 Museum of Mexico. 
 
 There is in the country another museum of great impor- 
 tance, rich in carefully selected collections and the variety of 
 its objects. This is the one formed by the Republican Com- 
 mission for geographic researches. This Museum, like the 
 National one, destined for the public, is established in the 
 city of Tacubaya, west of the city of Mexico, and is visited 
 by a great number of natives and foreigners. In another 
 place of this work more information will be given bearing 
 upon the establishment. 
 
 The following museums, dedicated to the studies, are 
 also established in the capital: The Museum of the 
 Academy of San Carlos, the one of the Preparatory 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 419 
 
 School, the one of Engineers, the one of the School of 
 Agriculture, and the one of Medicine. 
 
 In some States of the Republic Museums also exist, the 
 principal ones being the Cabinet Museum of Natural History , 
 of Monterrey (Nuevo Leon), devoted to the study of the 
 public ; as well as the gallery of ancient pictures of 
 Oaxaca, destined for the same purpose, the one of the 
 college of the State of Coahuila in the city of Saltillo, and 
 the one of the college of State of Chihuahua, both for the 
 study of physics and history. 
 
 In the Capital of the State of Guanajuato there are two 
 museums, one for mineralogy in the State College, and 
 the other for natural history, destined for the instruction 
 of the public. In Chilpancingo (Guerrero) there is a Pub- 
 lic Museum, in Guadalajara (Jalisco) the Museum of the 
 School of Engineers, in Morelia (Michoacan) theMichoacan 
 Museum destined for the study of archaeology, ethnology, 
 history and natural sciences. In Puebla the Public Museum 
 for the teaching of drawing, in Hermosillo (Sonora) the 
 Museum, of the State College, and in Merida, the Yucatan 
 Museum for the study of archaeology. These establish- 
 ments are sustained by funds of the States and are continu- 
 ally enriched by valuable acquisitions. 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL MONUMENTS. 
 
 Many are the monuments of this kind existing throughout 
 the Republic of Mexico, distributed over the Federal Dis- 
 trict, also the States of Mexico, Hidalgo, Morelos, Chihua- 
 hua, Sonora, Sinaloa, Durango, Zacatecas, Queretaro, 
 Guerrero, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Puebla, Tabasco, 
 Yucatan, and others. The importance of these treasures of 
 Mexican civilization to the penetrative mind in search of the 
 solution of historical problems, has urged the Government 
 
420 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 to appoint, on the 9th of October, 1885, au Inspector and 
 Preserver of the Archseological Monuments of the country, 
 which appointment devolved upon Sr. Leopoldo Batres. 
 From that date, important explanations and studies have 
 been made in a more formal manner than heretofore by the 
 Inspection, special attention being given to the pyramids 
 and caves of San Juan Teotihuacan, forty kilometers in 
 a northeastwardly direction from the city of Mexico, as 
 also to the Monuments of Tula, State of Hidalgo. 
 
 Among the studies made by the Inspection should be 
 quoted the following: Two monographies, one relating to 
 the celebrated stone known by the name of the " Aztec 
 Calendar," "Monography of Mexican Archaeology," 
 " Fourth Tlalpilli, cycle or period of thirteen years," and 
 another one on top of the ruins of the pyramids of San 
 Juan Teotihuacan, published the same year, and containing 
 nine illustrations, seven lithographs of two tints, and two 
 six-colored chromos representing these, — two fresco paint- 
 ings discovered by Sr. Batres in the excavations practiced 
 in the Toltec City in September, 1884 and 1886. In the 
 opinion of Sr. Batres, the first fresco represents the mouth 
 of hell, and the second one different tribes praying to their 
 divinity for fruits and seeds. 
 
 Another antropological work is entitled " Classification 
 of the Etnic type of the Zapoteca Tribe of the State of 
 Oaxaca and Acolhua of Mexico Valley." It is illustrated 
 with four engravings, and was published in January, 1888, 
 in the scientific Review of Paris " La Nature." Another 
 similar work, bearing upon the classification of the Etnic 
 type of the actual Zapoteca Indian, compared with the 
 cephalic type of a sculpture of their forefathers. This 
 monography contains four lithographic illustrations and 
 was published in Mexico in 1888. 
 
 A chart in which is consigned the situation of the locali- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 421 
 
 ties where the archaeological monuments have been discov- 
 ered, and the races or tribes that inhabit these localities. 
 This chart was printed in the year 1888. 
 
 A work entitled «« Civilization of some of the Different 
 Tribes that inhabited the Mexican Territory." This work is 
 illustrated with thirty-two plates, of which five are chromos 
 of seven tints, and twenty-seven of one single hue. They 
 represent sculptures, pottery, art of polichromes, decorat- 
 ive arts, metallurgy, musical instruments, arms, age of the 
 metals and mythology. In the exposition of these speci- 
 mens search has been made for those which principally 
 characterize the type of each of the tribes or races, each 
 one of these forming groups ranking in accordance with the 
 different civilizations as presented by the Palencana, Za- 
 poteca, Tolteca, Acolhua, Mixteca, Azteca, Tarasca and 
 American. 
 
 JOURNALISM IN MEXICO. 
 
 The Mexican press is not characterized, as is the Ameri- 
 can, by the fitness of the news, nor by the fine character of 
 its articles, like the French, nor does it possess the univer- 
 sality of the English, or debate with the prudence of the 
 Spanish; in short, the Mexican press of to-day differs 
 radically from that of twenty years ago, and it may be 
 aptly stated that its coloring is peculiar and characteristic. 
 
 In that epoch journalism in Mexico recognized no inspi- 
 ration other than that of belligerent politics, the rude, 
 passionate debate of the opposition, saturated with the 
 revolutionary spirit ; financial questions only received atten- 
 tion as a pretext to attack the Government and principles 
 faded from sight in the presence of personalities; internal 
 politics absorbed it completely ; he who sought to impress 
 his inventive and progressive ideas upon the country, was 
 regarded as a species of metaphysician to whom no actual 
 shape would be conceded, nor, was he hardly considered 
 
422 THE RICHES OF MEXICO ' 
 
 worthy of receiving any attention whatever. The journal- 
 ist of this epoch was more Mexican; but less of a journal- 
 ist in the acceptation of the term which prevails to-day. 
 
 It is undeniable that there still exist among our press, 
 and occupying distinguished posts, a few glorious sediments 
 of this period ; but, as a general thesis, the evolution of 
 journalism is already an accomplished fact, not only in the 
 Capital, but throughout the Republic. The development of 
 telegraphs and railroads, which furnished life and strength 
 to the news, has fructified its first element of life; and it is 
 now possible to see in the capital of Mexico, newspapers 
 which, like " El Universal," receive by telegraph, not only 
 items regarding noteworthy occurrences, but also entire 
 discourses, and not alone from the exterior, but also from 
 the most distant parts of the Republic* 
 
 The Mexican press is distinguished for the following 
 general characteristics: it does not discuss party questions, 
 as, in reality, none exist ; the opposition is composed of 
 the enemies or those who cherish an antipathy towards 
 General Diaz, but not towards the political principles which 
 he professes, which are Republican, Democratic ; rare, in- 
 deed, are the partizans of the legendary, monarchical and 
 conservative regime. The press of Mexico gives its atten- 
 tion preferentially to questions of finance and economy, and 
 at times with such vehemence, as in the discussion of the 
 acknowledgement of the English debt, that it almost 
 deviates from the pacific field occupied by journalism. 
 This, however, is exceptional; generally, the questions are 
 treated with vehemence, or hostile acrimony, perhaps, but 
 without abandoning the grounds of science. From this 
 point of view, " El Siglo XIX," the oldest newspaper and 
 
 * The interior service of Mexico is special, and is paid for by each 
 newspaper separately, having established agents and correspondents. 
 The exterior service is common and is paid for pro rata by all the press, 
 with the exception of a few journals of minor importance. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 423 
 
 "with the most glorious history in Mexico, takes precedence. 
 In the opposite camp, in that of the opposition without ces- 
 sation, "El Monitor Republicano " occupies the chief 
 post, and both newspapers receive universal sympathy 
 throughout the Republic, and are the most widely read even 
 under the most critical circumstances. Connected with the 
 first as editor-in-chief, is the most renowned of Mexican 
 economist, that great orator, Mr. Francisco Bulnes, and 
 his notable lieutenant, Mr. Carlos Diaz Dufoo ; for the 
 Monitor, Mr. Enrique Chavarri (Juvenal) furnishes mat- 
 ter (and his articles are the most widely read of any in 
 Mexico), and Mr. Gabriel Gonzalez Mier, who although a 
 young man, has gained considerable distinction in militant 
 politics, and as an elegant and conscientious writer. 
 
 Another characteristic of the journals of Mexico is their 
 exhaustive manner in which they are accustomed to treat 
 scientific questions, and in this respect they do not cede the 
 palm of superiority to either the French or American 
 journals, while they have reached the height attained by the 
 English. 
 
 What is properly called belle-lettres, may be said to be 
 in a state of decadence, and the litterateurs are personified 
 by a half dozen amateurs, who scarcely devote more than 
 a few weak efforts, and a small amount of labor to this 
 branch. The greater portion of the Sunday editions of 
 the Mexican journals is devoted to the reproduction of 
 articles written in Spain [regarding literature, not even 
 displaying common tact in the selection of the matter; 
 the same may also be said of poetry clipped from the 
 Spanish newspapers. This must be understood from a 
 general point of view. 
 
 " El Universal " which, until the close of the year 1889, in 
 which it commenced to figure among the " large press " 
 of Mexico, had passed through a series of mishaps, has, 
 thanks to the financeering ability of its distinguished di- 
 
424 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 rector, who is justly called the " Villetnessant of Mexico," 
 succeeded in placing itself in the vanguard of Mexican 
 journalism. " El Universal " furnishes the most opportune 
 news, is the best conducted, the most modern in form and 
 usually publishes articles of real importance. Among those 
 who write for this paper may be mentioned the learned Dr. 
 Porfirio Parra, chief of the Positivist School, the litterateur 
 Mr. Ignacio M. Luchichi, Mr. Eduardo Noriega, the re- 
 nowned poet, aided by such eminent writers as Mr. Lie. 
 Victoriano Pimentel and Dr. Manuel Flores. 
 
 " El Partido Liberal," a semi-official organ has the most 
 select editorial staff among the press of Mexico, considering 
 the staff as a collective body. Mr. Apolinar Castillo 
 director of this newspaper, is the most universally appreci- 
 ated journalist in Mexico, and enjoys great distinction in 
 both social and political circles. Among the editors of 
 the Partido Liberal are Mr. Manuel Gutierrez Nagera, 
 Bicardo Dominguez, Angel Pola, Adalberto Esteva, and 
 Anacleto Castillon, all of whom are veterans in our news- 
 paper literature. 
 
 "La Patria" was the first newspaper in Mexico to establish 
 a foreign telegraph service. Its director, Mr. Lie. Ireneo 
 Paz, is a politician and litterateur of great renown ; he has 
 written various novels which are very much read in Mexico; 
 and in the period of our political revolutions, and the 
 French intervention, he formed part of that group of valiant 
 literature heroes who, resting at intervals from the fatigues of 
 war, continued to battle with their pens with no less heroism. 
 Of this class of men were Guillermo Prieto, Riva Palacio, 
 Altamirano, Juan de Dios Arias and many others. 
 
 The Catholic, or conservative press, is well represented 
 by " La Voz de Mexico " and "El Tiempo." The first 
 mentioned of these newspapers is considered the highest 
 authority, when treating of religious questions, but it 
 occupies second place when dealing with political subjects. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 425 
 
 El Tienipo is more politic than Catholic, more literary than 
 propagandist, more scientific and modern than its accredited 
 competitor. Both enjoy an extensive circulation through- 
 out the Republic, that of El Tiempo exceeding 50,000 
 copies weekly. Among the Catholic journals must be men- 
 tioned "El Nacional," which is regarded as the quasi-official 
 organ of the aristocracy of Mexico. Its news is select and 
 opportune, both domestic and foreign, and its editorials 
 are among the best written in Mexico. It was founded by 
 the renowned litterateur, Mr. Gonzalo A. Esteva, the 
 present Mexican minister to Italy, and its management is 
 at present in charge of the well known economist, Mr. 
 Gregorio Aldasoro. 
 
 Among the organs of the liberal press, oppositionist, " El 
 Democrata" and " La Repiiblica Mexicana " merit mention.^ 
 The first named is under the management of Mr. Joaquin 
 Clausel, its proprietor being Mr. Francisco R. Blanco, and 
 the second is managed by the noted political writer, Mr. 
 Enrique M. de los Rios. "El Diario Del Hogar," under 
 the direction of Mr. Filomeno Mata, is a paper of aggres- 
 sive opposition, which, like the former ones, is edited by 
 juvenile pens, which do not always deal out justice, in the 
 enthusiasm of their political ideals. Their opposition is 
 apt to be exaggerated, but always sympathetic and in 
 good faith. 
 
 Among the organs of the foreign press in Mexico " The 
 Two Republics " deserves especial mention. This journal 
 was established in 1867, and enjoys the confidence and 
 esteem of natives and foreigners alike. Its editor-in-chief, 
 Mr. J. Mastella Clark, is one of the best informed members of 
 the foreign element in Mexico on matters of interest to the 
 country, and never ventures an opinion on any subject with- 
 out knowing his subject thoroughly. " L'Echo-du-Me- 
 xique," which is the organ of the French colony, edited by 
 Mr. Samson, has taken the place formerly occupied by the 
 
426 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 old " Trait-d'Union," and enjoys a large circulation in 
 the Eepublic. It contains the latest news concerning 
 European affairs, and publishes interesting information 
 relating to Mexican and American matters, which, are 
 very well reproduced in France. The " Correo Espa- 
 fiol," edited by Mr. Juan Miguel Sancho, is one of the 
 most progressive journals in Mexico, and follows very 
 closely in the footsteps of "El Universal." It labors 
 sincerely and energetically for the union of the Spanish- 
 American race. It numbers amongst its editorial talent 
 both Spaniards and Mexicans. " La Germania" which is 
 a journal published in German, is renowned for its pro- 
 fundity and the critical manner in which it deals with 
 strictly scientific subjects and international politics. Its 
 editor, Mr. Isidoro Epstein, is a geographer and litterateur 
 of considerable renown. " II Progresso." This is an 
 Italian-Mexican journal, organ of the Italian colony, 
 recently established, and is well received by the reading 
 public of Mexico. Its first difficulties have been overcome 
 and its progress is constant. Its efforts are directed to- 
 wards the development of commercial relations between 
 Mexico and Italy. 
 
 Scientific Literary Publication. 
 
 The following papers deserve particular mention, as 
 having gained a solid and lasting reputation, viz. : The 
 " Mexican Financier " and " Mexican Trader," the « e Econ- 
 omista Mexican," the " Financial Eeview," the " Mexican 
 Miner," " El Cosmos," " La Escuela Moderna," and the 
 " Mexican Eeview," " The Foro " and " The Agricultural 
 Eeview." 
 
 There are others of importance, but which do not enjoy 
 as large a circulation as the others just mentioned. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 427 
 
 Periodical Publications. 
 
 Those which circulated in the Republic up to the year 
 1892, were: In the State of Aguascalientes, 12; Campeche, 
 6 ; Colima, 3; Coahuila, 10; Chihuahua, 9; Chiapas, 6; 
 Federal District, 133; Durango, 6; Guanajuato, 26; Guer- 
 rero, 4; Hidalgo, 6; Jalisco, 29; Mexico (State), 2; 
 Michoacan, 6; Morelos, 3; Nuevo Leon, 17; Oaxaca, 14; 
 Puebla, 13 ; Queretaro, 3 ; San Luis Potosi, 7; Sinaloa, 6 ; 
 Sonora, 6; Tabasco, 4; Tamaulipas, 16; Tlaxcala, 4; Vera- 
 cruz, 39, making a total of 390 periodical publications in 
 the entire Republic. 
 
 PRIMARY EDUCATION IN THE FEDERAL DISTRICT. 
 
 VI. Article 82 of the reglamentary law of May 21, 1891, 
 which became effective January 4, 1892, provides that 
 there shall be one elementary primary school for boys and 
 one for girls for every four thousand inhabitants. Taking 
 as a basis the census of the capital, which is 326,594, some 
 160 schools would be required in order to comply with the 
 provisions of the law in question. Official statistics show 
 that in January, 1892, there were 62 private free schools, 
 and 195 pay schools with an attendance of 10,355 pupils, 
 corresponding in compliance with the law, to approximately 
 62,136 inhabitants, so that the number of these public 
 schools might be decreased proportionately. Deducting 
 the number of inhabitants for whom the proper number of 
 schools have been provided, viz.: 62,136 from the census 
 above mentioned, would leave some 264,468 inhabitants 
 for whom it was absolutely necessary to furnish schools in 
 the ratio of one for each sex for each four thousand 
 inhabitants. There should, therefore, be some 132 primary 
 schools, of which number the General Government should 
 
428 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 sustain 9 for boys and 13 for girls, while the Local 
 Assembly would be responsible for the maintenance of 57 
 for boys and 53 for girls. 
 
 At the close of the same year (1892), due to the untir- 
 ing energy and strenuous efforts of the Local Assembly, 
 the members of which sacrificed both time and patience 
 in the accomplishment of their task, which was, however, 
 a labor of love, inspired by truly patriotic sentiments, there 
 had been established the following number of schools de- 
 pendant upon the bounty of the Assembly in question, 
 viz.: 
 
 For boys 51 
 
 For girls 50 
 
 Mixed 3 
 
 Night schools for male adults 8 
 
 " « " female adults 1 
 
 Total . 113 
 
 The number of pupils enrolled was 21,159, with an 
 average daily attendance of 10,178. Some 9,807 pupils 
 presented themselves for examination. 
 
 The expense attached to the branch of Public Instruction 
 amounted to $206,130.27 divided as follows: 
 
 Salaries $108,686.11 
 
 Books, furniture, etc 62,423.13 
 
 Rent of houses 35,021.03 
 
 Total. $206,130=27 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 429 
 
 VII. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN THE STATES IN THE YEAR 1890. 
 
 
 Establishments Supported 
 
 by the States' and Cities' 
 
 Governments. 
 
 Average 
 Attend 
 
 Monthly 
 ance. 
 
 Total. 
 
 • STATES. 
 
 For 
 Men. 
 
 o a 
 
 fa o 
 
 •6 
 
 .id 
 
 73 • 
 o 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 21 
 
 
 63 
 
 1,630 
 
 800 
 
 2,430 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 128 
 136 
 
 88 
 130 
 408 
 484 
 269 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 103 
 
 45 
 
 201 
 
 172 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 6 
 
 43 
 167 
 185 
 130 
 233 
 467 
 691 
 441 
 
 1,140 
 
 1,670 
 
 7,284 
 
 4,368 
 
 9,937 
 
 10,276 
 
 18,321 
 
 14,300 
 
 1,300 
 336 
 1,853 
 3,070 
 7,059 
 2,467 
 6,425 
 7,751 
 
 2,440 
 
 
 2,006 
 9,137 
 
 
 7,438 
 
 
 16,996 
 12,743 
 
 
 24,746 
 
 
 22,051 
 
 
 
 
 185 
 50 
 225 
 449 
 758 
 81 
 
 89 
 51 
 53 
 
 87 
 249 
 
 27 
 
 121 
 
 92 
 1 
 
 274 
 222 
 278 
 536 
 1,099 
 109 
 
 12,448 
 4,586 
 13,800 
 16,766 
 30,275 
 3,428 
 
 7,438 
 2,720 
 8,032 
 3,594 
 12,944 
 1,486 
 
 19,886 
 7,306 
 
 
 21,832 
 20,360 
 
 
 43,219 
 
 
 4,914 
 
 
 
 
 106 
 
 125 
 
 45 
 
 95 
 
 165 
 
 352 
 
 221 
 
 354 
 
 141 
 
 62 
 
 14 
 
 33 
 39 
 21 
 
 41 
 
 60 
 
 108 
 
 106 
 
 168 
 
 94 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 161 
 4 
 
 2 
 89 
 
 1 
 
 149 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 300 
 
 168 
 
 66 
 
 136 
 
 227 
 
 549 
 
 328 
 
 671 
 
 251 
 
 91 
 
 28 
 
 5,583 
 
 4,468 
 
 1,521 
 
 6,106 
 
 7,036 
 
 13,516 
 
 7,861 
 
 12,107 
 
 10,929 
 
 2,090 
 
 506 
 
 3,390 
 2,114 
 
 528 
 2,944 
 2,762 
 6,205 
 3,582 
 7,409 
 6,863 
 1,475 
 
 398 
 
 8,973 
 
 
 6,582 
 
 
 2,049 
 
 
 9,050 
 9,798 
 
 
 19,721 
 
 
 11,443 
 
 
 19,516 
 
 Federal District 
 
 Territory of Tepic 
 Terr, of Lower Cal. . 
 
 17,792 
 3,565 
 
 904 
 
 
 5,134 
 
 1,937 
 
 6S2 
 
 7,753 
 
 221,952 
 
 104,945 
 
 326,897 
 
 Public instruction in 1S92. 
 
 There are lacking the data relative to public instruction 
 in the following States: Aguascalientes, Coahuila, Mexico 
 and San Luis Potosi. 
 
430 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 CHAPTEK III. 
 
 The Public Beneficence. 
 
 I. It is to Hernan Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, that 
 we owe the first establishing of a Beneficent Institution in 
 the city of Mexico. It was named the " Hospital de Jesus " 
 and is, up to the present date, engaged in carrying out the 
 work for which it was founded. It is sustained by the en- 
 dowment made it by its founder. 
 
 During the three centuries reign of the Colonial Govern- 
 ment, beneficent institutions of all kinds were established 
 by private individuals, as well as by the clergy and religious 
 orders, which were generally directed by the latter. 
 
 The first of these institutions to be taken in charge by 
 the city council, were those which (up to the date of their 
 expulsion, 1767), were controlled by the Jesuits, and the 
 great wealth accumulated by them during two centuries 
 reverted to the Public Treasury, where a body was formed, 
 named " Temporalidades," to take charge of the funds, 
 which body in turn organized a special Board, known by the 
 name of " Aplicacioner," for the object of distributing the 
 properties and values confiscated among all the remaining 
 beneficent institutions. 
 
 In the course of time other religious orders were sup- 
 pressed, amongst them that of the Order of " Juaninos," 
 which also directed the hospital of " San Juan de Dios." 
 The properties and possessions thus confiscated were 
 applied to charity, that is, they were given in trust to 
 special Boards formed for each institution, or else put in 
 care of the bishops who managed the land already apper- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 431 
 
 taining to the various institutions in virtue of primitive 
 endowments, and legacies, made them by their founders 
 and charitable persons. 
 
 During the struggle for independence and the agitated 
 period which followed, much of the wealth belonging to 
 the beneficent institutions was lost, and those establish- 
 ments which survived, whether through the philanthropic 
 efforts of private individuals or by reason of the protec- 
 tion afforded them by the authorities of the combating 
 forces, may be said to have passed through a veritable 
 crises. 
 
 In 1861 the secularization of the properties destined to 
 beneficent works took place ; at which epoch the city council 
 first took the management of the greater part of the work in 
 hand, as some of the more recently established institutions 
 were directed by the Federal Government, and a few others 
 were in charge of private individuals, until in 1877 a general 
 Administrative Board was formed, which put the institu- 
 tions under the exclusive direction of the City Council and 
 the Government. From the time of this concentrated 
 management the Government in view of the regularity and 
 economy that could be thus exerted, confided all questions, 
 relative to beneficent works, to a Board formed in 1881, 
 called the " General Directory of Charities," which was 
 controlled by a General Manager, appointed by the Depart- 
 ment of the Interior, and the directors of the various 
 institutions who themselves had been appointed by the 
 Department of the Interior, City Council or the scientific 
 Faculty of the Institutions. 
 
 In order to enable the General Directory to carry out its 
 work, a staff of the employes was organized by the general 
 manager, composed of the following personnel : a director, 
 a treasurer, an auditor, two clerks, a janitor and a watch- 
 man. The expenses thus incurred amounted in the way of 
 salaries to $10,240.00 annually, to which sum must be ao-- 
 
432 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 gregated $420.00, the amount assigned for office and minor 
 expenses. 
 
 The institutions of the colonial epoch were established 
 with a view of rendering help to all those that might be 
 suffering from great misfortune — such as sickness, loss of 
 mental faculties, or old age. 
 
 As an example of the natural products of the march of 
 civilization, many establishments can be named, that not 
 only extend assistance to the helpless and infirm, as did 
 those of former days, but that also have in view the devel- 
 opment and advancement of the intellect and morals. 
 Among the most prominent of these are the school of arts, 
 the orphan asylum, asylum for the blind, deaf and dumb 
 asylum, and many others which are mentioned in a special 
 description in another part of this chapter, made with a 
 view of showing the purposes for which the institutions 
 were established, the hardships through which they passed 
 and the final general good which they have done and are 
 still doing. 
 
 One of the first moves made by the General Directory ? 
 was the erecting of an immense store-house, dedicated to 
 the service of all institutions formed upon a charitable 
 basis. The object of this was to purchase, at wholesale, 
 all kinds of alimentary articles, as well as garments, fur- 
 niture, bed clothing, and tools, which same were distrib- 
 uted among the various hospitals, asylums, schools, etc., 
 according to their needs. Besides which the store-house 
 contained a bakery, a candle factory, and a sort of tailor 
 shop where clothing was cut and prepared for making up, 
 which, each in its way, was productive of great economy. 
 
 These innovations were followed by the establishment of 
 a great pharmacy, fitted up in the most perfect manner, 
 containing the best utensils and instruments, and receiving 
 directly from Europe or the United States (whichever 
 proved most advantageous), all its primitive substances. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 433 
 
 The object for which the pharmacy was established and the 
 good derived from it may be easily imagined, which was to 
 prepare all kinds of medicaments, and distribute them to 
 the various apothecaries forming part of each institution ; 
 in fact, many were the economies and great was the good 
 done by the foresight of this body of protectors of charity. 
 
 The preceding refers principally to the management of 
 institutions of public charity, which are under the control 
 of the Government. But, there are some institutions which 
 have been founded by the foreign colonies, railroads, 
 religious societies, and philanthropic individuals, that, being 
 prompted by a proper spirit of charity, demanded by the 
 ends for which they were established, are managed by 
 Private Boards and are carrying on their work in a most 
 approved and good-producing way. 
 
 In accordance with the law of 1881, the General Directory 
 has the entire control of all the possessions pertaiuing to 
 the beneficent institutions which are made up of the fol- 
 lowing: farms, and real estate, endowments and legacies 
 (regardless of their origin), the sum apportioned by Con- 
 gress, the amount of $500.00 daily assigned by the City 
 Council, the moneys aggregating from fines, or taxes 
 imposed by law, in their favor, and a few other minor 
 sources of income. 
 
 The following is a description of the institutions dedi- 
 cated to the different charities. 
 
 HOSPITALS. 
 
 II. Hospital of " San Andres." In the year 1642 the 
 Jesuits erected the edifice which to-day bears the char- 
 acter of a charity hospital, with the object of establishing 
 a novitiate of their order. 
 
 Eio-ht years after its establishment it was closed for 
 economical reasons, and, until 1676, it remained without 
 
434 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 any special application, when Captain Don Andres Carbaj-al 
 donated a large sum to it, which permitted its being re- 
 opened, and a continuation of the education of the noviti- 
 ates, until the year 1714. 
 
 After the expulsion of the Jesuits, the edifice was taken 
 in charge by the Board of " Temporalidades," who did not 
 dedicate it to any special purpose until 1779, when the city 
 was visited by an epidemic of small-pox. In the face of 
 this public calamity the Archbishop, Don Alonzo Nunez de 
 Haro y Peralta, demanded of the Viceroy the permission 
 to have 400 afflicted persons brought to it that they might 
 be properly attended to. 
 
 After the extermination of the epidemic, the above men- 
 tioned prelate proposed that the edifice should be perma- 
 nently converted into a charity hospital, and in 1783, his 
 solicitation was granted; he also proposed that, in order to 
 sustain the staff of employes, the hospital should be given 
 a certain per cent of the revenues, proceeding from lotter- 
 ies, prohibited games, and properties which had belonged to 
 the Jesuits, which same was granted him in the year 1786. 
 
 The sum raised by these means for the maintenance of 
 the hospital in 1790, amounted to $1,454,657.00, which 
 produced a revenue of $66,142.00. 
 
 The hospital remained under the auspices of the Eccle- 
 siastical Government until 1861, at which epoch its 
 revenues were secularized. 
 
 In the same year the care of the sick was left to the 
 charge of the Sisters of Charity, and the direction, until 
 January, 1877, was in the hands of the City Council, at 
 which epoch it was confided to the General Directory, in 
 whose charge it has remained ever since. 
 
 In the course of time many important changes were 
 made in the building, in order that it might be better fitted 
 for the purpose to which it was destined. The opening of 
 Xicotencatl street caused a separation of a part of the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 435 
 
 building, in which were established the General Directory, 
 the Central Pharmacy, the store-house, the bakery, the 
 candle factory, etc. 
 
 The various wards of the hospital are in charge of the 
 most emninent physicians, who, it can be clearly seen from 
 the small renumeration they receive, tender their services 
 for a purely charitable motive ; the Medical Director re- 
 ceiving $50 per month, the other physicians $40, other 
 employes, including the Medical Professors, $717.00, and 
 the attendants and servants $359.00. 
 
 In the year 1861 the revenues of the hospital of San 
 Andres, in accordance with the law of secularization, 
 passed into the hands of the Federal Government. 
 
 " San Juan De Dios " or " Morelos " Hospital. — 
 This institution was founded about the middle of the 16th 
 century by Doctor Pedro Lopez, for the sick mulattoes and 
 half-breeds. It was afterwards called " Hospital de 
 Nuestra Seiiora de los Desamparados," or " Hospital of 
 our Lady of the Forsaken," and was changed into a 
 " Foundling Asylum." 
 
 In the year 1602 Philip III granted to the Monks of the 
 Order of " San Juan de Dios," permission to establish 
 their house in the New World, and they assumed charge of 
 said hospital in the year 1604. 
 
 In the year 1766 part of the building was destroyed by 
 fire, and when, in 1820, the Spanish Parliament abolished 
 all religious orders entrusted with the care and direction of 
 hospitals, all the funds assigned to the maintenance of the 
 " Foundling Asylum " disappeared. 
 
 Later on the noted philanthropist, Don Caspar Ceballos, 
 re-established it at his own expense, and from 1845tol874 
 its direction was entrusted to the Sisters of Charity. 
 
 In the month of July, 1868, persons suffering from ven- 
 ereal diseases, who up to that time were occupying a ward 
 in the hospital of " San Andres," were removed to that of 
 
436 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 " San Juan de Dios," which has since then been set apart 
 to that class of patients, especially women. 
 
 In 1875 its name was changed to that of " Morelos," 
 which it now bears. 
 
 It has supported itself from the proceeds of the dona- 
 tion of its above named benefactor, which amounted to 
 $200,000.00. 
 
 The Arch-Duchess Carlota likewise assisted it, and 
 her last gift was $4,000.00, which she remitted from 
 Europe. 
 
 The average number of patients cared for in the 
 "Morelos" hospital is 150. The salaries of the Medical 
 Director and his three medical assistants amounts to $170.00 
 monthly, and those of all other employes to $453.00; but, 
 nevertheless, the management is tolerably good. 
 
 "San Hip6lito" Hospital. — Since the year 1556 
 Bernardino Alvarez, known for his great charities, pro- 
 posed to relieve the insane, invalid and aged persons from 
 the hardships they experienced in the streets of Mexico. 
 He at first gave them an asylum in his own house, but 
 later on, counting with the assistance of some high digna- 
 taries of the church, he applied for and was granted the 
 land on which this hospital is erected. The founder, as- 
 sisted by a private board, ministered to the wants of the 
 inmates, and, shortly afterwards, this board became a 
 religious order, its statutes being approved by the Pope 
 and the King of Spain. This order was called " Brothers 
 of Charity." It remained in charge of said hospital until 
 1820, when it was uncloistered, and the City Council as- 
 sumed control of the property, notwithstanding which the 
 Brothers continued to care for its interior management until 
 the year 1843. 
 
 Shortly after its establishment the institution was dedi- 
 cated exclusively to the care of the insane. 
 
 The funds received by the City Council for its main- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 437 
 
 tenauce amounted to $187,413.00 in real estate and mort- 
 gages. 
 
 In the year 1724 these funds were, by order of the 
 Government, turned into the Treasury of the State of 
 Mexico, but two years later they were returned to the City 
 Council, which disbursed them until 1842, when they were 
 taken charge of by the office of the " Secular Eevenues 
 of the Clergy," called " Temporalidades," from which 
 they disappeared under the administration of Santa Anna. 
 
 Of late years the City Council and Federal Government 
 have been managing the hospital, as all other charitable 
 institutions. 
 
 Up to the year 1878, the insane were confined in small 
 cells ; but the progress made in this branch of Medical 
 Science demanded alterations which have slowly been 
 carried out. 
 
 The average number of patients cared for is 150, more 
 than one-third of which have become insane through 
 alcoholism. 
 
 The salaries of the doctors in charge amount to $196.66, 
 and those of other employes $207.00. 
 
 Asylum for Insane Women. — Prompted by their relig- 
 ious belief, the conquerors had, during the Colonial Period, 
 determined upon the establishment of a charitable institu- 
 tion of this character. In the seventeenth century, a 
 poor mechanic, called Jose Sayago, assisted by his wife, 
 received in his own house a few insane women, thus savino- 
 them from the mockery and jeers of the people. This 
 charitable action having come to the ears of Archbishop 
 Don Francisco de Aguiar y Seijas, he immediately came to 
 their assistance. He granted them the use of a building m 
 front of the church of " San Gregorio," where the patients 
 were cared for by the congregation of the Divine Savior, 
 until the year 1698. In 1700 this body purchased the 
 house in Canoa street, which was converted into a hospital, 
 
438 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 
 
 which at the present day is dedicated to the treatment of 
 insane women. 
 
 Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits, the properties of the 
 institution were placed in charge of the office of the 
 * 4 Secular Revenues of the Clergy," or " Temporalidades." 
 
 In the year 1800 the building was repaired at a cost of 
 nearly $100,000.00, which were furnished in equal parts by 
 public charities and the Government. 
 
 In 1824, the Asylum had a capital of $101,572.00, besides 
 which unpaid interest was due to the amount of $60,000.00. 
 At that period it passed into the hands of the Federal Gov- 
 ernment, and its funds were merged into those dedicated 
 to public charities. In 1861 they were segregated, and in 
 1863 returned to the Asylum. The Sisters of Charity had 
 the management of its interior workings from 1855 to 1874. 
 
 In the year 1825, the proceeds of a special lottery were 
 assigned to its maintenance, which continued for a number 
 of years. From 1877 to the present time it has been under 
 the care of the General Directory of Public Charities. 
 
 The average number of patients cared for is 180, and the 
 monthly expenses of the management, in the way of salaries 
 to doctors and the other employes, amounts to $281.00. 
 
 " Juarez " Hospital. — The Battle of Padierna, fought 
 against the United States troops, took place on the 23d of 
 August, 1847, and, at the suggestion of Don Urbano 
 Fonseca, the wounded were taken to a part of the convent 
 of " San Pablo," then used as barracks. 
 
 The City Council had contracted with the managers of the 
 " San Andres" hospital for the care of the wounded sent 
 by the police judges, but after the establishment of the 
 temporary hospital for the wounded soldiers, it was de- 
 cided to make it a permanent one, although civilians could 
 be admitted. 
 
 For some time this temporary hospital for the wounded 
 was at " San Hip61ito," but, in 1851, the City Council pur- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 439 
 
 chased the " San Pablo" building, and, the necessary 
 changes and repairs being made, the sick were removed to 
 it. The Sisters of Charity attended to the wounded, and 
 had charge of the interior management of the institution. 
 
 In the year 1867, Don Angel Echevarria, who died in 
 Paris, left the hospital a legacy of 300,000 francs. This, 
 however, was never paid into the city treasury, which has 
 had, inconsequence, to assume the maintenance of the said 
 hospital. 
 
 This hospital has, as heretofore mentioned, always been 
 dedicated to the care of the wounded, whether prisoners or 
 otherwise, remitted by judges of the criminal courts or the 
 police, as also of persons suffering from epilepsy, etc., or 
 contagious diseases. 
 
 ASYLUMS. 
 
 III. " Foundling Asylum." — The founder of this Asy- 
 lum was Don Francisco Antonio Lorenzana, Archbishop of 
 Mexico. A house on " Carmen " square was rented on 
 January 7th, 1767, for the purpose of caring for babies 
 abandoned at birth, as well as those brought by mothers 
 who were unable to give them proper care. On the 21st 
 of the same month the first child was received. 
 
 The founder supplied all the necessary funds, which 
 were considerable, and a few years later the Asylum was 
 removed to a house purchased on Puente de la Merced 
 street, at a cost of $23,000.00. 
 
 In 1774, by decree of Charles III, it was declared a pub- 
 lic institution under the name of " Royal Foundling Asy- 
 lum of St. Joseph," under the management of Archbishops. 
 After the declaration of Independence, it passed into the 
 hands of the clergy, and its management was confided to a 
 Board of Officers and Treasurer, who were appointed by the 
 Archbishop. 
 
440 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 
 
 In the year 1836 its direction was intrusted to a board 
 of ladies, who obtained funds by means of public festivals 
 and collections at the doors of churches. In 1850, these 
 ladies retired, having fulfilled their object, and the institu- 
 tion was placed in charge of one director and a treas- 
 urer. 
 
 Upon the secularization of the property of the clergy, 
 in 1861, the Government appointed a Board of Charities, 
 which took charge of the asylum, and in 1862, the Secretary 
 of the Interior, Don Manuel Doblado, directed that it should 
 be under the control of that Department, which disposition 
 has remained in force up to the present, being as it is sub- 
 ject to the management of the General Directory. 
 
 The properties of the asylum were obtained in the fol- 
 lowing manner: upon the expulsion of the Jesuits and other 
 religious orders, the Board of Adjudicators, then created, 
 gave the Archbishop $30,000.00 to be applied to it ; its 
 founder donated $40,000.00, and the collections during 
 three years amounted to $32,000.00; the interest on this 
 capital produced $14,227.00, so that four years after its 
 foundation, the foundling asylum had a total capital of 
 $116,227.00. A portion of this was remitted to Spain by 
 the Count de Eevillagigedo, and afterwards the expenses 
 were covered by donations. 
 
 In 1810, with the view of enlarging the premises, the 
 asylum purchased, at a cost of $14,000.00, the house bear- 
 ing No. 4, in Puente de la Lena street. 
 
 The donations and legacies left to the Asylum have 
 reached a considerable sum. Mrs. Hipolita Caballero y 
 Desa, by will, deeded it all her property, consisting of nine 
 houses, v&lued at $40,555.00 ; in 1829, she donated $24,- 
 438.00 in her own right, and $40,000.00 as executor of the 
 will of Don Jesus Martinez, besides which two houses, on 
 " Pulqueria de Palacio " street, which had belonged to the 
 Inquisition, were adjudicated to the said asylum, the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 441 
 
 capital of which was then $281,854.27, besides $10,200.00 
 interest due and unpaid. 
 
 Bishop Lizana donated to it jewelry which was sold for 
 $6,136,00, and in the year 1861, Don Jose Maria Eico, left 
 it in his will a legacy of $8,000.00. Don Andres Cervan- 
 tes gave $2,351.00. Don Sabastian Lerdo de Tejada, 
 $2,000.00. Don Francisco Higareda, $4,800.00, and an 
 unknown benefactor $6,000.00, and even in our days, 
 small donations are very frequent. 
 
 It would be useless to refer to the various changes in the 
 politics of the country that affected the property of the 
 asylum. We must, however, recall the generous action of 
 Director Don Manuel Pay no, who, at the time of the 
 alienation of the property of the clergy, to prevent the 
 adjudication of the Institution's property to others, which 
 would have resulted in total loss, had it adjudicated to him- 
 self, maintained it from its own revenues, and, after the 
 war of reformation, restored it to the asylum. The houses 
 were under his management for fifteen years, during which 
 time the capital of the institution was notably increased. 
 
 In the year 1874 it amounted to $678,449.62, some of 
 which, however, was in litigation and suspense, leaving an 
 actual capital of $303,118.42. The monthly rentals 
 amount to $1,081,73; the Asylum received besides $500.00, 
 from the Federal Government, the proceeds of a spe- 
 cial lottery, which, with donations amounted to from $400 
 to $500, and in 1875, the capital resulting from the ex- 
 pulsion of the Sisters of Charity, was assigned to it. 
 
 In 1877 it passed under the control of the General 
 Directory of Charities, which has managed it from that 
 time. 
 
 Poor House. — This institution was founded in 1763 at 
 the suggestion of Don Fernando Ortiz Cortez ; the building 
 was concluded and formally opened in the year 1774. It 
 was enlarged in 1776 at a cost of $17,000.00, and wards 
 
442 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 were opened for the special use of females in a delicate 
 condition. 
 
 One of its greatest benefactors was Don Francisco Ziifiiga, 
 Captain of the Dragoons, who erected the "Patriotic" 
 school, annexed to the asylum, and which was opened in the 
 year 1806, the building of which cost $500,000.00. This 
 same benefactor endowed the institution with $250,000.00, 
 and the Government offered to give it a like sum from the 
 proceeds of the mines, it being understood that the capital 
 bearing three per cent interest to be applied to its main- 
 tenance, should be deposited in the National Treasury. 
 
 The resources of the asylum consisted of various dona- 
 tions ; $200.00 given monthly by the Archbishop Don Alonzo 
 Nunez de Haro, $600.00 by the Chapter of the Cathedral, 
 $100.00 monthly by the City Council, the proceeds of rentals 
 and unoccupied lands designated by the Viceroy. 
 
 This valuable estate disappeared during the war of Inde- 
 pendence, and to maintain the institution it was found neces- 
 sary to let various portions of the asylum and " Patriotic " 
 school, which were combined in 1819, and later on part of 
 it was torn down to provide for the opening of " Provi- 
 dencia " street. 
 
 Under the laws of secularization, or alienation, the 
 lessees took possession of the portions they occupied, thus 
 reducing the asylum to two-thirds of its former size. 
 
 The earthquake of 1845 damaged the building consider- 
 ably, but it was repaired through the support of Don 
 Francisco Fagoasra, to whom was due the establishment of 
 a ward for the care of the blind. 
 
 Up to the time of their expulsion, the Sisters of Charity 
 had charge of the interior management of the asylum. It 
 has since the year 1877 been under the control of the Board 
 of Charities. 
 
 Upon reaching the age of ten years, the children in the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 443 
 
 asylum are transferred to the School of Arts and Trades, 
 where they continue their education and apprenticeship. 
 
 The number of inmates is generally 650, and salaries and 
 wages amount to over $700.00 monthly. 
 
 Lying-in Hospital and Asylum for Infants. — The 
 founders of the asylum for the poor had assigned a ward for 
 the care of women who, either to hide their shame or 
 through misery, came to it to be delivered. This ward was 
 called that of " Secret Child-births. " Great discretion 
 was observed; so much so that the applicants were not 
 asked to give their names. A medical certificate of their 
 condition was sufficient to secure admission. 
 
 This ward was always in a most neglected condition, and 
 the foundation of an actual and effective Lying-in Hospital 
 is due to Princess Carlota, who provided it with everything 
 necevssary to fulfill its object. In the year 1866 the build- 
 ing was concluded, and it was formally opened. The cost 
 of repairs, furniture and instruments, etc., amounted to 
 $14,314.76. 
 
 Tne Constitutional Government continued to add to this 
 institution, and in 1869, Dona Luciana A. de Baz obtained 
 permission to remove to it the sick children, who, up to 
 that time, had been cared for in the " San Andres Hos- 
 pital. " It had been, in honor of its founder, known as 
 "San Carlos Hospital," but its name was now changed 
 to that of " Lying-in Hospital and Asylum for Infants. " 
 There has also been established a ward consisting of six 
 rooms, one for female children suffering from contagious 
 diseases, two for male children, dining room, baths and 
 dispensary and in 1877, following such a noble example, 
 the Veracruz Railway Company erected at its own ex- 
 pense another ward for female children similarly affected. 
 
 For the service of this department, there have been 
 assigned a doctor, two practitioners, a nurse, two helpers 
 and a washwomen. 
 
444 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The infirmary of the hospital intended for the reception 
 of children of both sexes consists of a room for females, 
 another for males and a dining room. 
 
 There are in addition, three rooms, one for the purposes 
 of a general infirmary and two for the use of children, the 
 character of whose sickness requires isolation. 
 
 This department is attended to by a doctor, two practi- 
 tioners, a nurse, two helpers and a washwoman. 
 
 In the lower portion of the building are located the 
 wardrobes, laundries, the chapel, the surgical quarters, 
 the kitchen, the rooms assigned for effecting cures and 
 consultations, also a small garden. 
 
 The department of maternity consists of two wards, one 
 for isolated cases previous to delivery and the other for 
 the use of same during convalescences. 
 
 There are, in addition to this, a ward in which examina- 
 tions are made, two bath rooms with the necessary appar- 
 atus, ten separate rooms for the use of patents during the 
 period of delivery, a habitation for the portress, apothe- 
 cary shop, dining room and an amphitheater provided with 
 a disecting table. 
 
 For the use of this department there have been assigned 
 two doctors, two midwives, two practitioners, five nurses 
 and two washwomen. 
 
 Dr. Eduardo Liceaga, President of the Local Assembly, 
 is the Director of this hospital. 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 IV. School for the Blind. — The object of this institu- 
 tion is not only to educate the blind, but also to minister to 
 their wants during their childhood and youth. The institu- 
 tion was founded in 1870 by Don Ignacio Trigueros, who 
 proposed, by way of example, to educate one of the pupils. 
 The following year, the Government, adopting Trigueros' 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 445 
 
 project, took the school under its protection and destined 
 to it part of the ex-convent of " La Enseiianza." 
 
 The various branches of study duly appear in the portions 
 of this work relating to public instruction. 
 
 The female blind are also educated in this school, but in 
 a department separated from that of the male pupils. 
 
 That portion of the ex-convent devoted to the school was 
 formerly used as a city jail. This, of course, made im- 
 portant reforms and changes indispensable. Among these 
 may be mentioned the erection of a handsome entrance to 
 the institution. 
 
 School of Arts and Trades for Women. — This may 
 be classed among charitable institutions, as the pupils at- 
 tending it receive their food as well as the special educa- 
 tion imparted in it. A part of the convent of " Santa 
 Maria" was assigned for its use. Complete alterations 
 for that purpose were concluded in the year 1874. Two 
 years later the pupils exhibited works of considerable 
 merit at the Municipal Exposition, which was awarded 
 several prizes. 
 
 There are over five hundred pupils in the school.* 
 
 The Industrial School at Santiago. — The poor 
 house is exclusively dedicated to the care of the young and 
 aged indigents, hence for many years youthful transgressors 
 of the law were associated with hardened criminals in the 
 same prisons. Don Eduardo Goroztiza comprehended the 
 obvious evils resulting therefrom and, in the year 1841, 
 determined to establish a Correctional School for the 
 young. 
 
 In this he was assisted by the general Government, the 
 City Council and the District Board, which then existed. 
 
 A department in the poor house was at first assigned to 
 it, but the necessity of separating both institutious becom- 
 
 * Vide: "Public Instruction." 
 
446 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 ing daily more apparent, the building called " Tecparn de 
 Santiago," was leased in 1850, owing to the growth and 
 the increasing necessities of the city of Mexico, and the 
 establishment admitted indiscriminately children guiltless 
 of any delinquency (who, from lack of accommodation, 
 could not be received in the asylum dedicated to them), as 
 also those sent by their families to be disciplined, and a 
 separation of the [guilty from the innocent soon became 
 indispensable o 
 
 Work-shops were established and the institution was then 
 called " The San Antonio Correctional College." 
 
 In the year 1856 the proceeds from licenses of prohibited 
 games and fines resulting therefrom were assigned to the 
 College, which permitted the purchase of the building it 
 occupied at a cost of $4,000.00. In the year 1877, the 
 work-shops and tools were removed from the Poor Asylum 
 to the School of Santiago, and, by direction of the Board 
 of Charities, who then had control of the institution, all 
 children above ten years of age were transferred to it. 
 
 A separation of the two classes of inmates was still more 
 severely felt and in 1879 the Secretary of the Interior as- 
 signed to those undergoing correction a department in the 
 ex-convent of " Santa Maria." 
 
 The salaries aud wages of employes amount at present to 
 $8,122.13, and the number of inmates to 250. 
 
 Correctional School. — Young prisoners undergoing 
 sentence, at first occupied, as has been seen, a department 
 of the Asylum for the Poor, and afterwards ot the " Indus- 
 trial School," until Lawyer Justo Benitez submitted to the 
 consideration of the Board of Public Charities the creation 
 of an Agricultural Colony, to be composed of youths remit- 
 ted by the authorities. This suggestion was adopted by the 
 Supreme Government who contributed $4,000 for that pur- 
 pose, which, together with the funds assigned by the Board 
 of Public Charities, were used in the purchase, at a cost of 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 447 
 
 $10,898.00, of a ranch situated in Coyoacan. This was 
 known as the ranch of the " Camile Fathers," or, " Mo- 
 moluco." In March, 1880, possession was taken and the 
 ninety-two youths undergoing sentence at the Industrial 
 School were transferred thereto. 
 
 Correctional School of Trades and Professions. 
 
 This school was founded in the year 1881, being located in 
 the edifice formerly known as St. Peter and St. Paul's col- 
 lege. To its custody are assigned for instruction, young 
 people under 18 years of age, upon whom gubernative sen- 
 tences have been passed, or who have been taken in charge 
 by request of their parents or guardians, for the purpose 
 of correcting their evil tendencies and teaching them habits 
 of order and industry. The institution is of a military 
 character in its organization, and its correctional corps 
 consists of a body known as the " Workino- Battalion." 
 The scholars who distinguish themselves by their good 
 behavior, are entitled to premiums or works of distinction, 
 and continue to advance to the rank of captain, first or 
 second sergeant, and enjoy the prerogatives of their class. 
 
 The library instruction which they receive is of the most 
 modern character, and is given the pupils for one or two 
 hours daily. 
 
 For the elementary and industrial instruction there are 
 classes and workshops under the direction of competent 
 skilled mechanics and workmen. 
 
 The education of the pupils is based upon primary and 
 second primary classes, and they may pursue other studies 
 or enter the shops. 
 
 There are machine shops, iron working, brass working, 
 carpentry, tailoring and shoe shops. 
 
 V. National Loan Office, "Monte de Piedad." 
 
 In the year 1781, and with the view of benefitting the 
 needy classes, Don Pedro Romero de Terreros, Count of 
 Iiegla, who had acquired immense wealth through the mines 
 
448 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 of Eeal del Monte, decided to open a house where money 
 would be loaned on all pledges. 
 
 In 1775 it was opened to the public in a large building 
 erected on the ground formerly occupied by the Palace of 
 Moctezuma. At first no fixed rate of interest was estab- 
 lished, it being left to the persons who were benefitted to 
 give what they thought fit. These sums were applied to 
 meet expenses. This was not practical and had not a 
 moderate rate of interest been established, the capital 
 destined to such a noble purpose would soon have become 
 exhausted, and as sums of considerable importance bad 
 been lost annually, at the commencement, it was decided to 
 set the interest at the rate of one per cent per month. 
 
 In the year 1857 it was projected to extend the opera- 
 tions of the institution by the establishment of a bank of 
 discount, but this was not carried into effect until 1880. 
 Shortly before that, and through the opening of eight 
 branch houses in the suburbs of the city, the amount of 
 loans had considerably increased. 
 
 The bills issued by the " Monte de Piedad " Bank were 
 well received by businessmen, and its credit was so good that 
 sums amounting to more than half a million of dollars 
 were annually left with it as " confidential deposits." A 
 savings bank was also established, but its operations have 
 always been very limited. 
 
 In the year 1884 the bank failed and it was only 
 through great exertions that the loan office and a few of 
 the branch houses were saved from the wreck ; of these 
 latter, all those established in 1882 in some cities of the 
 interior, were closed. The National Loan Office has now 
 recovered its credit. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 449 
 
 SUMMARY OF THE REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL 
 LOAN OFFICE, FOR THE YEAR 1892. 
 
 Cash on hand February 4th, 1893 $212,620.20 
 
 Liabilities, including $6,525 in bills of the bank not presented 
 for redemption • 527,394.51 
 
 The central office and [the three branch houses have 
 during the year carried on the different operations of the 
 business and loaned in January alone on 26,976 lots $158,- 
 578.00, including $57,512.50, on articles repledged. 
 
 COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF LOANS EFFECTED IN 1891 AND 
 
 1892. 
 
 1891 1892. 
 
 January $184,325 00 $159,057 25 
 
 February 157,437 75 202,004 00 
 
 March 165,823 50 184,336 50 
 
 April.. 147,588 75 155,675 50 
 
 May 193,847 50 176,476 00 
 
 June 197,136 25 167,763 75 
 
 July 211,117 50 202,83125 
 
 August 186,430 00 167,606.00 
 
 September 231,172 00 167,513 25 
 
 October 174,961 75 172,177 50 
 
 November 170,165 25 195,040 75 
 
 December 172,940 00 173,116 50 
 
 $2,192,945 25 $2,123,598 25 
 The total amount loaned during 1892, upon pledges and ob- 
 jects to be sold at public auction was $1,041,930 34 
 
 CENTRAL LABORATORY AND STORE HOUSE. 
 
 VI. For the better and more economical management of 
 all the institutions under the control of the Board of Public 
 Charities, this store house was opened and placed under the 
 direction of a professor of pharmacy, duly licensed, and 
 under an approved bond to the amount of $3,000 00. 
 
 The directors receives a salary of $100.00 monthly, and 
 
 ' 29 
 
450 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 is provided with an assistant having experience in drug-store 
 practice and two subordinates. 
 
 This store house supplies medicines to the local ones at 
 " San Andres" and "Juarez" hospitals, as also to the 
 " Morelos " hospital. This last furnishes them to the 
 " Lying-in hospital and asylum for insane women." 
 Each of these local ones is in charge of a licensed druggist 
 and an assistant; and, in order to facilitate the carrying 
 out of accounts, these pay at stated periods the value of 
 medicines they have received, into the general store-house. 
 These amounts are used to replace exhausted supplies. 
 
 Free Consulting Rooms. — These rooms were opened 
 at the " San Andres " hospital, and patients who prove 
 their absolute poverty are there treated gratis and have 
 their prescriptions filled. 
 
 Four doctors are in attendance and the applicants may 
 consult the one who inspires them with the most confidence, 
 always observing, however, the rules of the establishment. 
 
 Checks, marked from one to 80, are distributed every 
 afternoon among the applicants, who are received and ad- 
 mitted in regular order to the respective consulting rooms. 
 The doctors may perform in this part of the hospital any 
 slight surgical operations they may deem necessary. 
 
 benevolent institutions of the states. 
 
 VII. Rare is the city of ordinary importance in the Re- 
 public that does not contain one or more Benevolent Insti- 
 tutions; generally they-are hospitals and asylums. 
 
 A statement would be too lengthy that would cover the 
 description and history of each one of these establishments, 
 or even make a report of those only which are sustained 
 by the proceeds of rich properties attached to them, or 
 sustained at the expense of the Local Governments or city 
 authorities. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 451 
 
 The following statement will show the great desire of the 
 Governments to throw a generous protection over the 
 destitute and helpless, calling attention to the fact that 
 many of the States do not appear in this enumeration, not 
 owing to the scarcity of these establishments in these States, 
 but because of the slowness of the Governments in not 
 having published the data, or because if said data was pub- 
 lished it has not yet reached us. 
 
 Veracruz. — There are seven Benevolent Institutions in 
 this State, situated in the Cantons of Veracruz, Orizaba, 
 Cordoba, Jalapa, Coatepec, San Andres, Tuxtla and in the 
 City of Tlacotalpam, Misantla and Papantla. 
 
 Directly in charge of these establishments are the 
 Committees of Chanty established in Cordoba, Chicon- 
 tepec, Huatusco, Jalapa, Minatitlan, Orizaba, Papantla, 
 Tanloyuca, Las Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Jalancingo and Mis- 
 antla. 
 
 The capital belonging to the various institutions consists 
 of real estate and money at interest, the total amount 
 of which is $1,163,511.00, and yields a revenue of $36,- 
 024.21. 
 
 The landed property, the revenue from which is used by 
 the Committees of Charity, is worth $513,565.00. 
 
 The properties of the institutions are divided as follows : — 
 
 In Coatepec, two houses, value $2,300 00 
 
 la Cordoba, 13 houses, two farms = 18,746 67 
 
 Jalapa, 16 houses, 1 ranch, 1 farm 26,717 62 
 
 Orizaba, 67 houses, ex -convent of La Concordia, commons of , 
 
 Escamela, and wild lands of San Juan, two cemetaries, the 
 
 "theater Llave," and the ranch of Canal, value 180,119 34 
 
 Veracruz, 121 houses, 2 farms and 1 ranch 487,057 63 
 
 Total $714,94126 
 
 In addition to the sums produced by the various proper- 
 ties and money at interest belonging to the institutions, the 
 local Government and the city authorities donate to the 
 
452 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 establishments from an exceedingly large fund which they 
 hold in trust for this purpose. 
 
 The Hospital of San Sebastian, in the port of Vera- 
 cruz, is probably the first in importance in the entire 
 Eepublic. In it they treat more than five thousand sick 
 annually, only males', as there is in the same city the 
 Loreto Hospital, where they treat 2,200 females each 
 year. 
 
 The cost of maintaining these establishments is $135,000. 
 
 In the port there is also an establishment where the 
 orphans are educated and assistance given to the old and 
 decrepid. It has an endowment of $47,000 annually. 
 
 In Jalapa there are two hospitals, one for males and the 
 other for females, and they are sustained by the revenues 
 derived from the Jauregui market, the money invested 
 belonging to the committee and the donations from the State 
 Government and city authorities. In the year 1886, the 
 building used as a hospital in Tlacolalpam was finished, 
 and its operations are sustained in the same manner as in 
 Jalapa. In Cordova there are also two hospitals, and in 
 the other places where there are Committees of Charity 
 there are also hospitals. 
 
 The endowments that they have are not only sufficient 
 to cover the most necessary expenses, but likewise to allow 
 the constant introduction of improvements, and the capital 
 is still steadily increasing. 
 
 Nuevo Leon. — In Monterrey, which is the Capital of the 
 State, there exists two magnificent benevolent institu- 
 tions, the Hospital Gonzalez and the Institution Leon 
 Ortigoza. 
 
 The first of these were founded by the learned and 
 philanthropic doctor Don Jose Eleuterio Gonzalez, and was 
 built under the exclusive direction of the Government. It 
 was also endowed with the private money of the founder in 
 his will. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 453 
 
 The hospital is supported by Government subsidies and 
 funds paid by those of the patients who can afford it ; it 
 also receives various contributions allowed by the law, and 
 donations from corporations and individuals. The Health 
 Council has the entire direction of this establishment, in 
 which the sick of both sexes are treated. 
 
 There is besides this a department used as a maternity 
 hospital, and also six rooms for the exclusive use of the 
 insane — this last department receives the very best 
 attention. 
 
 There is spent in this hospital $10,000 annually, which 
 exactly covers its necessary expenses. All expenses of 
 keeping the establishment .in repairs, necessary improve- 
 ments and the purchasing of necessary articles, etc., are 
 outside of the above estimate and is all attended to by the 
 Government, with unusual liberality. 
 
 They treat in this hospital, approximately, 1,000 sick 
 annually, the mortality being about ten per cent. 
 
 The Institution of Leon Ortigoza is a private one and is 
 devpted to the care of fifty of the old and decrepid. Its 
 founder was in Europe and there secured the capital nec- 
 essary for its support. According to the wishes of the 
 legatee, the exclusive managers of the institution are Mr. 
 Valentin Eivero y Gaja, either jointly or separately, and 
 their legal successors will have the same powers. 
 
 The institution was inaugurated in 1889. 
 
 Chiapas. — There are hospitals in San Cristobal, L. C, 
 Comitan and Tuxtla ; all are in charge of Committees of 
 Charity, named by the Governor of the State. 
 
 In addition to their joint capital, which is $10,036, and 
 is invested in fourteen countrj' houses and four city houses, 
 the establishments are sustained by an especial tax, which 
 produces $2,000, annually. 
 
 In the Hospital of San Cristobal, L. C, they treat at the 
 very lowest estimate, forty patents daily. 
 
454 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The Hospital of Comitan has a capital of $9,012, which 
 produces close to $1,500 yearly, as it is invested in 
 mortgage bonds bearing from 13 to 20 per cent. 
 
 The Hospital of San Cristobal, L. C, has an income of 
 $18,116.49. Besides its own capital it has set aside for 
 its expenses numerous municipal taxes. 
 
 The Hospital of Tuxtla Gutierrez has a capital of $6,303, 
 which is invested in mortgages at 12 per cent. When 
 there is a shortage in the estimate, it is covered by the 
 city authorities. 
 
 Besides the above mentioned establishments, there is in 
 the city prison a department where they treat the sick pris- 
 oners with great attention. 
 
 The hospital located in San Cristobal, L. C, called 
 " San Juan de Dios," in addition to the capital mentioned, 
 has $3,000, given by the heirs of Mr. Candido Eivero, and 
 $9,000 was added to this by this same gentleman, this is 
 invested in property which he purchased at a judicial sale. 
 The Government of the Republic of Guatamala owes to the 
 Hospital San Juan de Dios the sum of $5,000. 
 
 Of the capital mentioned, lastly, none of the benevolent 
 institutions can obtain the returns from such sums, but the 
 State Governments and City Councils supply the amount 
 that is lacking to cover the running expenses. 
 
 Chiapas is a rich State and the greater part of its in- 
 habitants can afford to educate their sons, and for this 
 reason the preserving of the health of the people, and very 
 few are so poor as to need to ask aid from the State in 
 case of sickness. 
 
 MlCHOACAN, MOEELIA, Z AMOR A, PaTZCUARO, La PlEDAD 
 
 and Tacambaro, all have hospitals whose expenses are cov- 
 ered by donations from the State Government and their 
 respective city authorities, and the proceeds from various 
 funds invested in city and country property, which funds 
 were donated by private parties. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 455 
 
 There is in the Hospital of Moreliu a department devoted 
 to maternity, the construction of which cost $3,216.00. 
 
 The funds devoted to these benevolent institutions pro- 
 duce annually $17,879.50, and there are times when the re- 
 ceipts amount to $22,740.00, when special pains are taken 
 with the collections. 
 
 There is in the Hospital of San Cristobal a department 
 devoted exclusively to the treatment of public women 
 afflicted with syphilis. 
 
 Besides the above mentioned establishments, there is in 
 the capital of the State a pawnshop which was inaugurated 
 in 1881, and there is a capital of about $60,000.00 in this 
 establishment. They make loans on pledges, at the rate 
 of one-half (\°Io) per cent per month, when in the private 
 establishments of this character the rate of interest is six to 
 twelve (6% to 12%) per cent, for the same period of 
 time. 
 
 The School of Arts and Trades is also a benevolent estab- 
 lishment which gives instruction at the same time. It is 
 organized and operated in such a perfect manner, that year 
 by year it shows a handsome profit over expenses. From 
 the surplus derived from the investments of its funds and 
 from the school of instruction, it was proposed at one time 
 to increase the capital of the pawnshop, but the idea was 
 not carried out. The pawnshop not only earns enough to 
 cover all expenses, but pays a considerable profit yearly, 
 hence, in the opinion of the managers of the pawnshop, 
 such a step was not deemed necessary. It is calculated 
 at present, that the capital of the pawnshop is $60,000.00, 
 as above said, while it began its operations with only 
 $35,000.00. 
 
 Tabasco. — There is a hospital in San Juan Bautista, the 
 capital of this State, whose operations cost $15,000.00 
 annually and they treat 1,700 people in the same period of 
 time. This building is very commodious, because they 
 
456 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 have united to the building donated by the Government, 
 other buildings willed for this purpose by Mr. Jose Pulido 
 Carrefio. 
 
 The Government of Tabasco, like the greater part of the 
 other States, was contemplating increasing the donations 
 to this benevolent institution, but it did not do so because 
 it was found that the establishment was giving perfect sat- 
 isfaction with its present financial arrangements for its 
 support. 
 
 Sonora. — There are in this State three hospitals ; one at 
 Hermosillo, Alamos and Guaymas. In addition there is in 
 the city of Hermosillo a pawnshop which yields sufficient 
 profit to slowly improve these establishments. It is diffi- 
 cult to say which of these is the best — but it is sufficient 
 to say that all are satisfying the local needs. 
 
 The hospital of Guaymas was constructed at a cost of 
 $17,112.00, which was furnished by various private parties, 
 the State and City Governments. 
 
 The hospital in Alamos is supported by the people of the 
 town, who have voluntarily subscribed a monthly sum for 
 this purpose. The small amount lacking to carry on the 
 establishment is furnished by the town authorities. 
 
 Guerrero. — The private associations, assisted by the 
 respective city governments, sustain infirmaries and asylums 
 in perhaps all of the towns of this State, where the popu- 
 lation exceeds 5,000. 
 
 In parts of the State where the population is scattered, 
 there are no establishments worthy of mention ; nevertheless, 
 there is not an abandoned infant, orphan or infirm person, 
 but who will receive immediate protection from the local 
 authorities, private associations of charity, or benevolent 
 religious societies. 
 
 Colima. — The City Council of this capital have set aside 
 $10,000.00 annually for the use of the public hospital es- 
 tablished in that place. The philanthropic public donate 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 457 
 
 annually $3,000 or $4,000 for the support of the sick and 
 needy, either young or old. 
 
 Guanajuato. — The capital of this State has property 
 devoted entirely to the use of benevolent establishments 
 
 Valuedat $72,49124 
 
 Silao, a city of the same State, lias • •• 31,136 00 
 
 Leon 61,710 00 
 
 San Miguel Allende 13,129 00 
 
 Total $178,466 24 
 
 Besides these amounts devoted to the Benevolent Institu- 
 tions, the city authorities of Leon donate annually $1,200.00 
 to their local institution; Silao donates $600.00 for the 
 some purpose and there are various other sums which we 
 cannot now name, donated by the city authorities of other 
 places for this good work. 
 
 In addition to the benevolent establishments sustained by 
 the funds and donations before mentioned, there is estab- 
 lished in Leon a pawnshop, whose capital is $30,000.00. 
 It produces a handsome profit which is devoted to' sustain- 
 ing the hospital of «' San Juan de Dios," located in the 
 above mentioned city. 
 
 There are in this State ten hospitals and two poorhouses, 
 one in Guanajuato and the other in Silao. 
 
 There is in Guanajuato a foundling hospital and a home 
 for reformed women. 
 
 The city and State Governments, and notable private par- 
 ties, donate heavily, which sums united with the proceeds 
 derived from their properties, are sufficient to conduct 
 these institutions in a splendid manner. 
 
 Durango. — There are three large benevolent establish- 
 ments in this State — the public hospital, the poorhouse of 
 San Carlos, and the pawnshop. To the first of these the 
 State Government donates $8,200.00 annually, which is 
 
458 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 sufficient to give proper attention to the sick, the wounded 
 and the insane. 
 
 The poorhouse of San Carlos was built and is sustained 
 by private parties. The State Government contributes for 
 its expenses only $1,000,00 annually. A benevolent com- 
 mittee attends to the distribution of the money devoted to 
 these establishments. The same benevolent committee in 
 1873 organized a pawnshop with a small capital, which 
 has been constantly increasing, having now a capital of 
 $30,000.00; the profits from this pawnshop are used for 
 benevolent purposes and for the benefit of the establishments 
 before mentioned. 
 
 Queretaro. — In 1881 there was created a committee 
 which bears the name of Vergara, in whose care is placed 
 all the benevolent institutions, which are sustained by 
 property left by various private benefactors, such as Senora 
 Josef a Vergara, Don Francisco Fagoaga, Don Jose Perez 
 Arce, and several others. 
 
 The State Government gives to the committee annually 
 $10,000\00, which is devoted to the same establishments. 
 
 The capital consists of $52,000.00 invested at various 
 rates of interest, $24,000.00 in houses, and the rest, 
 $85,000, consists in various lands and cash. 
 
 In this hospital they treat 1,200 sick annually, the mor- 
 tality being fifteen per cent. Among the wounded, who 
 constitute a third part of the patients, the mortality is only 
 five per cent. This difference is notable and the cause 
 is undoubtedly due to the fact that the sick do not seek a 
 bed in the hospital until their illness is very grave — 
 frequently they die very soon after entering the hospital. 
 
 In the same city of Queretaro there is an institution 
 where they maintain and educate 120 homeless children, 
 besides which they feed from 90 to 100 poor who do not 
 live in the establishment. 
 
 In the important city of San Juan del Rio, of this State, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 459 
 
 there is a hospital which has $40,000.00 in property and a 
 donation of $1,600 to $1,800 given by the city authorities. 
 This hospital treats 150 sick annually and the expense is 
 approximately $2,000.00 for the same length of time. 
 
 Miss Manuela Gomez de la -Cortina y Adalid left a legacy 
 of $3,000.00 for the foundation of a hospital in the Villa of 
 Colon, district of Toliman. 
 
 Chihuahua. — The activity of the Private Benevolent 
 Committees and the facilities that the inhabitants of this 
 State have for the distribution of the necessaries of life, 
 has relieved the State Government from devoting large 
 sums of money for the sustainment of benevolent insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 The city authorities of the capital of the State have 
 donated $300.00 monthly to the public hospital where they 
 treat fifteen to twenty sick. 
 
 In 1888, Mr. Juan Terrazas, proposed the erection of an 
 orphan asylum and a school of correction, and in a ver}' 
 short time $2,200.00 was collected from private parties to 
 begin the work. 
 
 As an example of the activity of private benevolence, we 
 relate the fact that in the city of Chihuahua, which contains 
 a small number of inhabitants, they collected $10,300.00 
 to help the flood sufferers of Leon and Silao, in the year 
 1888. 
 
 Hidalgo. — There are hospitals in Pachuca, Actopan, 
 Huichapan, Ixmiquilpan, Tula, Tulancingo, Zimapan, and 
 at Atotonilco. 
 
 The hospital in Huichapan is sustained by Mr. Jose Maria 
 Chavez Macotela, and the others by money given by the 
 Municipalities and State Government, which spend in 
 sustaining these places $5,500.00 annually. 
 
 The proceeds from the funds that was given, by the Ha- 
 cienda of Coscotitlan, to the hospital of Pachuca, the gifts 
 
4 GO THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 and the donations of the city covered the rest of the 
 expenses. They treat annually 1,500 to 1,700 sick, among 
 whom the mortality is nine per cent. 
 
 In the Hospital of Zimapan they only treat the wounded 
 sent there by the police or the courts. 
 
 Moreeos. — Each leading town of a district has a hospi- 
 tal but the principal ones are those of Cuernavaca, Yautepec, 
 Cuautla, Tetecala and Tonacatepec. These are sustained 
 by the State Government and city authorities, and are in 
 charge of employes or benevolent committees. 
 
 In the Hospital of Cuernavaca there has been established 
 since 1889, a maternity hospital, which is sustained by a 
 society of ladies, aided by the State Government ; from 
 900 to 1,000 sick are treated annually. The mortality is 
 very high, reaching twenty per cent. 
 
 Jalisco. — Private benevolent societies sustain numerous 
 establishments scattered among the cities and towns of the 
 State. The State Government and city authorities only 
 contribute small amounts to cover the expenses. 
 
 In Guadalajara, the capital of the State, there is a home 
 for the poor, and the hospital of Belem. 
 
 These two establishments were formerly assisted by the 
 Sisters of Charity, of the Catholic clergy, who gave 
 $7,000.00 annually for their sustainment. When the above 
 named were expelled from the country these establishments 
 were left in charge of the Government. 
 
 The Government donated to these establishments a spe- 
 cial tax, derived from leaf tobacco, a third part of the fines 
 and commutation of punishments. 
 
 The founders of these two establishments were the philan- 
 thropists, Alcalde and Cabanas, 
 
 In Lagos, a large and important city in this State, there 
 is a good hospital, sustained by Mr. Lario. In Sayula 
 there is another establishment of the same kind, sustained 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 461 
 
 by a public tax on the city and $1,700.00 annually given 
 by the Government and an especial tax on packages, created 
 especially for the use of this place. 
 
 Mrs Alva y Mazuca left in her will a hacienda, the pro- 
 ceeds from which were to be devoted to sustaining the 
 hospital in Teocaltiche. Besides these establishments enum- 
 erated, there exists in Guadalajara a school of arts and 
 trades, which is not only an educational establishment, but 
 also one of beneficence. 
 
 The management is conferred to a special committee and 
 has for its sustainment the proceeds of $36,000.00, invested 
 at six per cent, and besides it has from the Government 
 $750 monthly. In this establishment they maintain and 
 educate 160 persons. 
 
 Mexico. — Toluca, Jilotepec and Tlalnepantla, have 
 hospitals subject to a benevolent committee, who have 
 charge of the properties belonging to the institution, the 
 proceeds of which, together with the subsidies given by the 
 Government, are devoted to these institutions. 
 
 In Toluca, the capital of the State, there is, besides a 
 hospital, a poorhouse for boys and an asylum for girls. 
 
 These establishments are sustained by $28,000.00 annu- 
 ally and the returns from the property of the benevolent 
 associations $80,000.00, besides $6,500.00, $3,000.00 and 
 $800.00 left in the wills of private parties, to assist the 
 poor in Atla, Camulco y San Felipe, Jocotitlan and Zina- 
 catepec. 
 
 In the hospital of Toluca they treat annually 800 sick. 
 
 In the infirmary they educate 41 indoors and 100 outside, 
 and, in the asylum, 27 girls indoors and 100 outdoors. 
 Both of these establishments have besides pensioned pupils 
 whose numbers vary considerably. 
 
 Aguascalientes. — Six hundred sick are treated annu- 
 ally in the hospital established in the town of the same 
 name. Its annual expense is $6,000.00, which is defrayed 
 
462 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 by the State Government, city authorities and the pro- 
 ceeds of the property of the institution, which are $50.00 
 monthly. 
 
 In the year 1883 there was inaugurated a pawnshop, 
 with money furnished by the Government and several 
 private parties, who let them have it at a rate of five per 
 cent annually ; the proceeds of the pawnshop are not suffi- 
 cient to cover the expenses, but the city and State Govern- 
 ments furnish what is lacking. 
 
 Oaxaca. — A society of ladies attend to the public benev- 
 olent institutions of this State, having for this purpose 
 branch establishments in Tehuantepec andJuchitan. The 
 establishments named above are in Oaxaca, a hospital and 
 an infirmary and a home of correction ; inYautepec a pest- 
 house. 
 
 The proceeds which the society controls cover the neces- 
 sary expenses of the establishments mentioned above and 
 are from $12,000.00 to $14,000.00, and with this small 
 sum they are able to treat more than 2,000 sick in the 
 hospitals, attend to 64 children in the infirmary, and in 
 addition to this they have a department for mendicant and 
 abandoned children in the same infirmary. 
 
 The pest-house of Yautepec was established with the 
 object of attending to strangers who might contract dis- 
 eases on account of the bad hygienic conditions of the coun- 
 try. The Government having learned the cause of so much 
 sickness, it introduced better drainage to the cemeteries, 
 and this at once caused considerable improvement in the 
 public health. 
 
 Tamaulipas. — In the ports of Tampico and Matamoros 
 there are hospitals. In the first named they treat about 
 1,000 sick annually, and in that of Matamoros about 300. 
 
 The city authorities and the Government of the State 
 furnish the necessary funds for sustaining these places. 
 
 In the Ciudad Victoria, the capital of the State, there is 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 463 
 
 not as yet a hospital, but they have already put aside var- 
 ious sums for the erection of one. 
 
 Zacatecas. — The State Governmeut sets aside $75,240 
 to sustain benevolent establishments, which are two pub- 
 lic hospitals, an asylum for boys, an asylum for the poor 
 and a pawnshop. There is, besides, in Jerez or Ciudad 
 Garcia another hospital. 
 
 In the asylum for boys they maintain and educate 400 
 boys, using for this purpose $40,000 annually. Annexed to 
 this establishment is an asylum for girls, where they educate 
 300 and whose expenses are $14,000 annually. These 
 establishments have three pawnshops whose profits are 
 devoted to the sustainment of these institutions, and a small 
 college in Sombrerete, where they educate from 40 to 50 
 children. 
 
 The asylum for the poor is situated on the summit of the 
 Bufa Mountain. The City Government donates the neces- 
 sary sum for the sustaining of fifty or sixty poor. 
 
 The Public Hospital has an endowment of $25,000 and 
 they constantly treat 2,000 sick. 
 
 At present they are building an edifice which will cost 
 $300,000, to be used as a hospital. 
 
 PRIVATE CHARITIES. 
 
 VIII. There are in the Eepublic a number of charita- 
 ble institutions dependent upon and sustained by private 
 charity, of both a religious and secular character. Relative 
 to the said Charities of the City of Mexico, we quote the 
 report of Mr. Francisco Diaz de Leon, for February, 1893, 
 as follows : 
 
 Asylum for Mendicants. During the week of January 
 29th, 1893, in this institution were 69 aged males and 96 
 aged females; boys, 77, and girls, 71, a total of 313. 
 
464 
 
 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 The week of January 30th to February 5th entered the in- 
 stitution three men, three women and two girls, and de- 
 parted therefrom four men and four girls; remaining, 313. 
 The average daily attendance at the school was 98 boys 
 and 68 girls; attending the work rooms, 29 boys and 16 
 girls. 
 
 The Public Dromitory during same week gave shelter to 
 1,065 men and 213 boys. At the Charity Establishment 
 of Tacubaya, about four miles from the city of Mexico, 
 were received 245 poor people and the children of the 
 Charity Schools were fed 180 breakfasts and 186 dinners. 
 
 Mex. A. T. D. Los Siglos. 
 
 INDIANS OF TEHUANTEPEC (OAXACA). 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 465 
 
 CHAPTEE IY. 
 
 HEALTH AND HYGIENE. 
 SANITARY CONDITIONS OF THE MEXICAN REPUBLIC. 
 
 I. There are still many persons who exaggerate the in- 
 salubrity of the Mexican climate, although it is only fair 
 to say that the number is being rapidly reduced. 
 
 The diseases which are most prevalent in the Eepublic 
 are not generally mortal, as for example the " Mai del 
 Pinto," amongst the cutaneous diseases, intermittent fevers, 
 proceeding from malaria, small-pox and dy sentry. Even 
 typhus and pneumonia do not assume the same dangerous 
 charaoter in the whole of the Eepublic, and in most parts 
 they are treated with domestic remedies. 
 
 The differences of climates and altitudes, as well as the 
 diversity of soils, food, ways of living, etc., render it 
 almost impossible to locate the prevalence of these diseases 
 in geographical zones. Thus, we frequently find that after 
 traveling only a short distance, of some twenty kilometres, 
 we reach a physiological condition completely distinct from 
 that which we have left, and with the change all evils per- 
 taining to the latter disappear as if by enchantment. 
 
 Typhus fever, which is so much spoken of by those per- 
 sons who consider our territory so unhealthy, really does 
 not cause the same amount of mortality that it does in other 
 parts. Nor is it found with the same intensity in all classes 
 of society. Typhus fever always follows an unclean con- 
 dition, and for that reason in the ethiology of this disease, 
 three principal causes have been pointed out in Mexico, viz. : 
 1st. The aglomeration of large numbers of people in poorly 
 
 30 
 
466 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 ventilated houses. 2d. Hunger, filth, and the other circum- 
 stances that constitute the so-called physiological poverty. 
 3d. The accumulation of animal refuse or excreta in a 
 state of fermentation. 
 
 Yellow fever is another of the bugbears with which for- 
 eigners have been frightened. This disease did not 
 originate in Veracruz, as is commonly said, but, according 
 to Father Alegro, was brought to that port for the first 
 time in the year 1699 by an English ship containing a con- 
 signment of negro slaves. In 1725, according to Clavigero, 
 yellow fever was as yet unknown in these countries. 
 
 According to Doctor Domingo Orvafianos, the zone with- 
 in which this disease is prevalent is limited to a compara- 
 tively insignificant portion of our territory, and comprises 
 the Canton of Veracruz in the State of that name, the 
 district of Frontera in Tabasco, those of Carmen and Cam- 
 peche in Campeche, and those of Unucuia, Progreso, 
 Timax, Tizimin and Valladolid in Yucatan. 
 
 Doctor Charles Heinemann, who has resided many years 
 in Veracruz, is of the opinion that yellow fever cannot be 
 considered as presenting ail the characterists of a true 
 endemic disease, except in the following towns : Veracruz, 
 Alvarado, Tlacotalpam, Laguna and Campeche. Apart 
 from these localities, the disease rarely makes its appear- 
 ance, and then only in an epidemical form. 
 
 The above will show how unjustifiable is the alarm 
 caused by those people, who, perhaps with evil intentions 
 rather than with scientific knowledge, assert that yellow 
 fever is a continuous menace against the lives of people 
 immigrating to the country. 
 
 Small-pox assumes a serious character only on rare occa- 
 sions, and in certain specific localities : Malaria only causes 
 a limited number of deaths, the greater part of which are 
 amongst the very lowest class of our society ; and the same 
 may be said of dysentery. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 467 
 
 With respect to Pneumonia, it is only found in the cold 
 regions of the country, and our physicians consider it one 
 of the easiest diseases to treat, as it only becomes dangerous 
 when it is complicated with typhus or other diseases of a 
 similar character. 
 
 From the above assertions, the following conclusions are 
 reached : First. That the climate of Mexico is generally 
 temperate. Second. That the climate varies within a very 
 small extent of territory, rendering it exceedingly easy for 
 the immigrant to find the climate which he desires ; and, 
 Finally. That the prevailing diseases in this country are 
 not of a sufficiently dangerous character to alarm any 
 person, nor are they any worse than those found in other 
 healthy localities of this planet. Consequently, it may be 
 inferred that the sanitary conditions of Mexico are excep- 
 tionally favorable. 
 
 II. The development of the medical sciences, and 
 especially that of hygiene, has, in Mexico, as in other 
 countries, brought with it the urgent necessity for the 
 creation of consulting bodies of specialists to whom has 
 been intrusted the cure of the public health. This ex- 
 plains the creation by the Government under General Santa 
 Ana, and in conformity with a law promulgated in the 
 year 1842, of the " Consejo Superior de Salubridad," 
 or, in plain English, the "Chief Board of Health" of 
 Mexico. 
 
 The powers conceded to this body covered, in certain 
 directions, fields entirely foreign to those usually occupied 
 by a Board of Health : as, for instance, the arbitration in 
 the matter of doctor's fees; the scrutiny of the theses sub- 
 mitted by parties aspiring to the title of doctor here in 
 Mexico, etc., so that the accumulation of duties foreign to 
 its purpose, and the want of elements for the concen- 
 trating of itself on the question of the public health, 
 brought it to pass that this last branch was precisely the 
 
468 THE EICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 least looked after, or, it may as well be said at once, 
 entirely neglected. 
 
 Already, however, in 1872, the Government was en- 
 deavoring to give the board a more satisfactory organiza- 
 tion and with this object in view it promulgated, under 
 date of January 25th, a regulatory law in which the three 
 following fundamental ideas were embodied: 
 
 a. The imposing upon the board the combined functions 
 of the care of the public health and the carrying out of the 
 sanitary police regulations connected with the same, with- 
 out granting other powers than those indispensable to the 
 proper performance of said functions. 
 
 b. The granting to the board the independence necessary 
 for the fulfillment of its trust. 
 
 c. The utilizing of its intelligence not merely in matters 
 connected with the health of the city, and with the police 
 regulations inseparable from the same (and having especial 
 reference to the Federal District) but also in all matters in 
 which the Federation might be interested; as, for instance, 
 in the matter of quarantine, of sanitary cordons, of 
 lazarettos, etc. 
 
 There were included from the beginning, in the matters 
 coming under the jurisdiction of the Board, the adminis- 
 tering of vaccine matter, and the examination of the 
 public women, matters which had already been turned over 
 to the Government of the District. 
 
 In order that this scientific body should possess the nec- 
 essary independence for the fulfillment of its trust, its 
 members were directly nominated by the Federal Executive 
 which also reserved to itself the right of removing said 
 members. To the balance of the authorities was conceded 
 the simple right of consulting the Board on matters affect- 
 ing, nearly or remotely, the public health. 
 
 Upon the municipality, as most directly interested in the 
 labors of the board, devolved the duty of administering to 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 469 
 
 its pecuniary necessities ; but this turning out to be impos- 
 sible of fulfillment by reason of the scanty resources at the 
 disposal of said municipality, the General Government 
 came to its aid, decreeing that there should be placed at its 
 disposal for the support of the Board, fifteen per cent of a 
 lottery granted to Mr. Guatimoc Hijar. 
 
 The funds resulting from this arrangement, besides 
 being insufficient, were also exceedingly uncertain, the lot- 
 tery being the property of a private party; the result 
 being that the Ministry of the Interior did, in 1873, call 
 the attention of both Houses of Representatives to the ab- 
 solute necessity of guaranteeing the existence of the Board 
 and of furnishing it with the wherewithal for the carrying 
 out of its mission, which could only be done by assigning 
 to it special allowances out of the general budget. 
 
 The Board originally occupied a ruinous portion of the 
 hospital of San Andres ; it had neither library nor the 
 necessary apparatus or instruments in its laboratory ; but 
 the Government, when it issued the decree of 1872, sup- 
 plied these wants, assigning to the board a roomy depart- 
 ment in the School of Mines, placing at its disposal a 
 library filled with the latest works on hygiene, and furnish- 
 ing its laboratories with the instruments and supplies indis- 
 pensable for chemical analysis and studies, and for the 
 practice of medicine generally. 
 
 In the same building was also established the General 
 Vaccination Office. 
 
 On the 20th of April of same year the Minister of the 
 Interior gave his approval to the rules and regulations of 
 the Board, drawn up by its members. 
 
 In spite of the slender subsidy enjoyed by the Board 
 ($8,000 yearly) and of its very recent organization, it 
 immediately undertook and carried out most important 
 labors, as for instance that of the medical statistics; that 
 of the rules and regulations for the medical men connected 
 
470 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 with the civil registry ; that of the inspection of food and 
 drink ; of the regulations of cemeteries ; of inspection of 
 factories, etc. 
 
 The well-known philanthropist, Don Miguel Mufioz, has 
 the honor of having introduced vaccination into Mexico. 
 On various occasions the municipality arranged for the 
 vaccination of the children of the city; on various others 
 the Government of the District took the task upon itself ; 
 and on others again, it was intrusted to private practi- 
 tioners; the result being that for want of system in the 
 application of the remedy it was impossible either to insure 
 its proper distribution, or to obtain the statistics necessary 
 for the perfection of the treatment and for the study of its 
 effects when applied on a large scale. Meanwhile, the 
 infant population was decimated by small-pox ; more than 
 300 children died monthly from this scourge ; and the 
 Government finally intrusted Doctor Munoz with the organ- 
 ization of this important branch of the service. An 
 Inspector General was appointed and other steps were taken 
 of so energetic a nature that 14,500 persons were vaccin- 
 ated in one year, the majority being children. The 
 mortality due to small-pox very soon diminished, so much 
 so that in one of the years following that of which we are 
 speaking there were only registered thirteen victims of 
 the plague in question. 
 
 In colonial times public opinion was not sufficiently ad- 
 vanced to consider the sanitary inspection of public women 
 as one of those duties called for by the laws of public 
 health. The Republican Government, on taking posses- 
 sion, initiated certain measures calculated to combat the 
 ravages made in said public health by venereal diseases, 
 commissioning sundry medical men to make domiciliary 
 visits to the prostitutes. Experience soon showed that 
 this measure was inadequate, but the disturbed condition 
 of public affairs prevented the organization of a sanitary 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 471 
 
 inspection until the Government became consolidated. 
 This department was then turned over to the district 
 authorities, as regards its administrative side and to a com- 
 mittee of doctors as regards its scientific side ; the Board 
 of Health being charged with the duty of inspecting the 
 results of the committee's labors. 
 
 The sale of vaccine matter ; the fines imposed on recal- 
 citrant and evasive prostitutes; the license paid by the 
 same women, and a subsidy of $1,000 annually, granted 
 by the Municipality, supplied the chief Board of Health in 
 1875 (the period when the lottery which assigned 15 per 
 cent to the Board became extinct), with $5,400 per annum, 
 the General Government supplying, by charges to various 
 accounts, the sum necessary to complete the $14,733 which 
 the expenses of the Board called for. 
 
 The Board, ever since the department of vaccination was 
 confided to it, has made most laudable efforts to establish 
 the habit of vaccination among the people, even going to the 
 extent, in its desire to avail itself of all possible means, of 
 encouraging the furnishing of private information regard- 
 ing the birth of children ; a doctor being sent immediately 
 on receipt of such information to apply the vaccine matter. 
 Certain doctors were commissioned to visit periodically the 
 towns in the district for the purpose of vaccinating the 
 children, with the result that the epidemics of small-pox, so 
 devastating in former years, have now entirely ceased. 
 
 As regards the work of sanitation, it was not at once put 
 under the control of the Board, the public women for 
 instance being looked after by the doctors attached to the 
 various police stations. 
 
 The budget laws of the Republic put the expenses of vac- 
 cinnation under a special heading, obliging the Government 
 to make the Chief Board of Health entirely independent 
 of the Charity Commissioners. One of the principal 
 motives for this arrangement lies in the fact that the Board 
 
472 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 has the inspection of the establishments intrusted to the 
 commissioners, which inspection would naturally amount 
 to nothing, were the former under control of the latter. 
 The board is now under the control of the Ministry of the 
 .Interior, and the vaccination inspectorship has been 
 abolished, its duties . being performed by the doctors 
 attached to the police stations, or, in places outside of the 
 capital, by doctors specially commissioned for the purpose. 
 
 The Board is, and always has been, hard-working. In 
 1879, just as soon as the means at its disposal and its re- 
 cent organization permitted, it commenced a serious special 
 study of typhus. In its capacity of a consulting board it 
 studied also and at the same time the medical conditions of 
 the capital; the adulteration of food and drink, and 
 the epizootics and enzootics which attack animals, and 
 especially cattle. It decided sundry questions in legal 
 medicine submitted to it by the criminal courts, notably 
 sundry cases of suicide by poisoning, a class which hap- 
 pened to be just then pretty numerous, owing to the loose 
 way in which poisons were being sold. 
 
 In July, 1879, special regulations were issued in con- 
 nection with vaccination, and the Sanitary Inspectorship 
 came under exclusive control of the Board. This Inspect- 
 orship took in during the year 1879-1880, $9,226, its ex- 
 penses amounting to $8,373. The principal items of receipt 
 consisted of $3,320 produced by the assignation houses ; 
 $2,036 by the public houses of prostitution, and $2,563 by 
 licenses granted to prostitutes. 
 
 For convenience sake it was also arranged that the 
 Board should be independent of the Charity Commission, 
 that body having to exercise functions of a general nature, 
 which it could not do were it to continue dependent on an 
 institution entirely local. 
 
 The Board was organized in a manner suited to the 
 performance of the various functions iutrusted to it. It 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 473 
 
 named special committees for each department, enabling 
 it to compile tables of medical statistics. Among other 
 important work it called the attention of the Government 
 and the public to the great mortality amongst children, 
 which reaches as high as 50 per cent (or 37 per cent of 
 the entire mortality) between the time of birth and the 
 age of twelve , and it drew up tabulated statements regard- 
 ing the prevailing diseases, which enabled it to demonstrate 
 that the gastro-intestinal class accounted for the greatest 
 number of victims, 2,204 out of 4,577 deaths being attribut- 
 able to the class in question. 
 
 As the Statistical Department is of recent creation and 
 its labors will have to be brought into intimate connection 
 with those of the general statistics of the city and of the 
 Eepublic, it is not possible as yet to draw from it any very 
 exact results ; but there is no question as to the importance 
 of even the approximate conclusions which it affords. 
 
 In the matter of mortality the Board draws up its annual 
 statistics in 8 tabulated statements, as follows : 
 
 Mortality in General, under which heading comes sex 
 and age, the last named being divided into : from birth 
 to 1 year, from 1 to 3 years, 3 to 7, 7 to 12, 12 to 25, 25 
 to 50, 50 to 70 and from 70 to 90 and over. 
 
 Table of Mortality by Disti-icts. The City is divided 
 into 8 large and 33 smaller districts, making it possible to 
 determine the complaints which predominate in each one of 
 them. 
 
 Table of Deaths in Charitable Institutions, which are 
 deducted from the general number of deaths in the district 
 where they happen to be situated. 
 
 Table of Deaths Arranged According to Callings, being 
 a summary of the principal diseases. 
 
 Thanks to these labors the Board has succeeded in estab- 
 lishing, amongst other valuable conclusions, the following: 
 that the cause of the great mortality amongst infants is 
 
474 THE EIGHES OF MEXICO 
 
 the incompetence of persons acting as inidwives ; a generally 
 prevailing practice of artificial bringing up, which would 
 lessen were there a registry for wet-nurses under the im- 
 mediate supervision of the chief Board of Health ; the bad 
 quality of the milk consumed in the capital, much of it 
 coming from cows affected with tuberculosis, and being 
 also adulterated by the vendors ; and finally alcoholism in 
 the parents, a most common vice amongst the lower 
 classes. 
 
 The average duration of life in the capital has also been 
 fixed, it having been 24.5 in 1876, and having varied little 
 since. 
 
 The Sanitary Inspectorship has its offices in the Hospital 
 Morelos. It is in charge of three medical men, a director 
 and two assistants. Three registers are kept; one of the 
 examinations made daily ; another of the women who go 
 to the hospital to be cured ; and another called the book of 
 histories, wherein are inscribed the names, antecedents, 
 and more noteworthy personal circumstances of the fallen 
 women who register. From this last book could be drawn 
 interesting data for compiling the history of prostitution in 
 Mexico, and studying its causes, chief amongst which are 
 the bad treatment of orphans and the deficient education of 
 women. 
 
 Amongst the matters of general interest dealt with by 
 the Board the following deserve special mention : 
 
 Transportation or Dead Bodies. — The following 
 regulations have received the approval of the Board : The 
 transportation of the bodies of persons who have suc- 
 cumbed to some infectious disease ; like typhus, typhoid 
 fevers, small-pox, yellow fever, cholera, etc., etc., is 
 strictly prohibited. When death is due to other causes the 
 transportation of the body is permitted, provided cer- 
 tain requisites determined by the Board of Health are com- 
 plied with. The bodies of persons dying of yellow fever 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 475 
 
 can only be transported by the trains to places 
 which, on account of their altitude, are beyond the 
 reach of infectiou. The bodies must be placed in a 
 casket of lead, zinc or galvanized iron, the sides of 
 which must be three millimeters thick; the casket 
 will be filled with sawdust and sulphate of zinc 
 or with a mixture of powdered charcoal and tan. 
 This casket will be hermetically sealed and placed within 
 another of wood, the sides of which must be at least three 
 centimeters thick, and must be fastened with screws and 
 nails. The coffin will be placed in a box-car which will be 
 attached to the end of the train, and will not stop in any 
 station, but will be taken directly to its destination, it being 
 strictly prohibited to open the coffin. The railroad will 
 have cars specially intended for this purpose which will be 
 disinfected each time they are used and which will be kept 
 in a separate deposit. Before carrying the body the rail- 
 road must obtain a permit from the authorities and a 
 medical certificate. If the body come from abroad it will 
 only be received after the consul has certified that all these 
 requisites have been complied with. 
 
 Epidemics. — The Board has also drawn up a set of 
 sanitary measures for the preventing of the entry of 
 epidemics, whether by the coast ports or whether by the 
 frontier cities of the Republic ; another set for the avoidance 
 of the contamination of one interior town by another ; and 
 yet another to check the advances of epidemics in towns 
 already attacked. 
 
 Just as soon as the Ministry of the Interior learns that 
 any of the countries which are in communication with 
 Mexican ports have been attacked by some epidemic, it 
 advises the authorities in order that they may see to the 
 carrying out of the measures of quarantine or sanitary 
 cordon ordered after consultation with the Chief Board 
 of Health. As, in 1885, this class of measures was 
 
476 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 had recourse to in order to stop the entry of cholera which 
 had developed in some parts of Spain, Italy and France. 
 At the beginning of the year in question the disease abated 
 and the authorities and the Board then gave orders that only 
 vessels corning from infected ports should be subjected to 
 quarantine. The circular of July 26, 1885, containing 
 instructions, was based upon the report presented by the 
 Board on May 16th of the same year. 
 
 Shortly afterwards the same body added to its report 
 the classification of objects susceptible or not susceptible in 
 the matter of carrying contagion, so that only in the case 
 of the former should there be required a strict disinfection 
 in the quarantine stations. The board urged upon the Gov- 
 ernment in February of 1886, the desirability of keeping 
 disinfecting stores in the quarantine stations, and defines 
 the requisites which these should possess. 
 
 The quarantine stations are kept up by the General 
 Government, although really this duty appertains to the 
 local government. It assigns, for example, $2,000 to the 
 Bagdad station and $1,000 to the Acapulco station for the 
 completion of the building in Koqueta ; it opened the new 
 station in Tehuantepec, and took charge of the one on the 
 island of Sacrificios, which had been placed at its disposal 
 by the Municipality of Veracruz through the intervention 
 of the Ministry of War. 
 
 The very recent organization of the board and its labors 
 made it advisable that the Federal Government should take 
 charge of the department of public health throughout the 
 Eepublic, leaving to the sanitary committees which at first 
 had charge of the department in question, the putting into 
 effect of the decrees of the chief Board of Health. 
 Amongst other reasons that led to this arrangement may be 
 enumerated the uniformity of action called for, whether in 
 the direction of preventive measures, or of those intended 
 to reduce the development of epidemics to a minimum, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 477 
 
 the facilities at the disposal of the Government for obtain- 
 ing technical advice from scientific notabilities and for 
 acting upon and enforcing the recommendations made to it. 
 According to the aforementioned law of 16th July, 1885, 
 the preventive measures indicated by the chief Board of 
 Health were as follows : 
 
 QUARANTINE . 
 
 Every vessel arriving at a Mexican port must be visited 
 by the local Board of Health, and cannot commence its 
 operations until authorized by said Board. Where there 
 is no Board the inspection will be made by two or three 
 medical men. 
 
 The members of the Board, or the medical men, will 
 examine the bill of health brought by the vessel, and will 
 inform themselves as to the ports touched at by the vessel 
 and the sanitary condition on board; also as to whether 
 there have been or are any cases of sickness of more or 
 less seriousness. 
 
 When the vessel has touched at some infected port, or 
 has come from one without any case of the epidemic having 
 made its appearance on board, it will be placed for seven 
 days under observation, always provided that the passage 
 has lasted more then eight days ; if it has not lasted that 
 long the vessel will be under observation for the number of 
 days necessary to complete fifteen from the time of its 
 leaving the infected port. 
 
 Where cases of sickness have occurred on board, the 
 passengers are subjected to ten days observation, and if 
 there are actually sick people on board they can only be 
 disembarked in ports where the quarantine station is well 
 furnished with necessaries. The sick, upon convalescence, 
 will be subjected to ten days observation. The clothes 
 and movables on board the vessel shall be also disin- 
 
478 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 fected (and if it has brought sick people the vessel itself 
 shall be disinfected) at the quarantine station, and in 
 stoves heated to 110 degrees Centigrade, or by means of 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
 INSPECTION ON THE NORTHERN FRONTIER AND IN COMMU- 
 NICATION WITH GUATEMALA. 
 
 In the case of an epidemic in the United States, the 
 transit of passengers and goods will only be permitted by 
 way of Matamoros, New Laredo, Piedras Negras, Paso del 
 Norte and Nogales. At these points passengers will be 
 examined and their clothes and baggage disinfected. 
 
 The sanitary stations will be isolated from all habitations 
 and will consist of a lazaretto for the sick, isolated in its 
 turn from the other departments of the station ; also of the 
 stove and of the disinfecting rooms. With a certificate 
 issued by these sanitary stations, passengers, and the sick 
 who have already been cured, can pass through to the 
 frontier towns. 
 
 Individuals who present only some of the symptoms of 
 the epidemic can either return north to the States or be 
 treated in the sanitary stations. The dead will be cremated 
 and their clothes reduced to ashes. 
 
 There will be in every sanitary station three doctors, two 
 of whom will attend to the inspection of the passengers and 
 the putting to them of such questions as may be considered 
 necessary, while the other will, in the lazaretto, look after 
 such as turn out to be sick. Where trains have come from 
 infected points, or have touched at them, they will not be 
 allowed to proceed to the towns, but passengers and freight 
 will be transferred at the sanitary station, after having 
 been properly disinfected, and the vehicles will be returned 
 to the United States. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 479 
 
 The disinfection will be carried out in the sanitary sta- 
 tions by the same methods as are practiced in the ports. 
 
 As regards Guatemala, all communication will be stopped 
 with that Republic the moment any epidemic breaks out 
 there. 
 
 MEANS FOR PREVENTING THE INFECTING OF ONE TOWN IN 
 THE REPUBLIC BY ANOTHER. 
 
 The first towns invaded by an epidemic will be isolated 
 from the rest of the Republic, provided they are self-sus- 
 taining, and that their topographical situation and com- 
 mercial relations admit of it. The isolation will be affected 
 by means of a sanitary cordon at one league distant from 
 the town, the crossing of which cordon by freight or pas- 
 sengers shall be rigorously prevented. 
 
 MEASURES FOR CHECKING THE RAVAGES OF THE DISEASE. 
 
 The following have been prescribed by the chief Board 
 of Health for enforcement in infected towns. 
 
 The sewers shall be cleansed, refuse burnt, and streets, 
 fountains and waterways kept in the highest state of clean- 
 liness ; the inhabitants shall be urged to emigrate, the Gov- 
 ernment will see that there is a sufficient stock of medicines, 
 and there shall be established a preventive medical service 
 and relief committees. The doctors attached to the service 
 shall visit the suburbs to look after the cleanliness of same, 
 and visit also the bouses of the poorer classes to see that 
 they carry out the hygienic measures formulated by the 
 Board. The Relief Committees will collect the sums de- 
 voted to the poor, will make arrangements with the drug 
 stores for the furnishing of medicines to the necessitous 
 sick, will buy clothes, medicines and food for proper dis- 
 
480 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 tribution amongst the poor and will establish provisional 
 hospitals. There shall be established also a nocturnal 
 medical service at the police stations or at such other 
 points as shall be considered convenient. This service shall 
 be entirely free of charge to those who may avail them- 
 selves of it. 
 
 All large gatherings shall be carefully avoided ; the 
 troops in barracks shall be distributed about as much as 
 possible; crowding in jails shall be avoided, and the hours 
 of attendance at the public schools shall be lessened. The 
 markets shall be scrupulously inspected ; the sale of second- 
 hand beds, bed-clothes and cast-off clothes shall be pre- 
 vented ; work shall be stopped in all factories where organic 
 materials easy of decomposition are used, and the sites for 
 burying-grounds for the victims of the epidemic shall be 
 chosen at a lonsj distance from towns. In the already 
 existing burying-grounds a portion or place shall be set 
 aside for said victims, and their graves shall have a depth 
 of not less than two meters. 
 
 There shall be a medical man in every cemetery to certify 
 to the deaths. No religious ceremony shall be celebrated 
 in the presence of the corpses, nor shall any corpse remain 
 in a dwelling-house over twenty-four hours. 
 
 Notice shall be given to the authorities by every doctor, 
 manager, director, proprietor, factory owner, etc., of any 
 case of cholera which shall present itself in the establish- 
 ment under their charge. The authorities will see to it that 
 there be furnished to families such assistance, hygienic 
 instructions, medical treatment and medicines as they may 
 stand in need of. 
 
 Under no circumstances will the sick be permitted to 
 feed in hotels, inns, colleges or any other edifice where 
 crowding is inevitable. 
 
 The law containing these provisions bears date July 16th, 
 1885, and it also contains others relating to private persons, 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 481 
 
 to the mode of disinfecting houses, to the care of the sick, 
 preventive measures, etc. 
 
 Disinfection. Reference has been made to the classifi- 
 cation made by the Board of materials and merchandise 
 which should be disinfected in the lazarettos and sanitary 
 stations. This classification is the same as that prescribed 
 by Art. 53 of the Regulations of the Maritime Sanitary 
 Police iu France. 
 
 According to this last classification, merchandise and 
 other articles come under three headings: — 
 
 Susceptible articles, requiring disinfection, comprise bag- 
 gage and articles of personal use, rags, waste, hides, skins, 
 feathers, bristles, animal remains, wools and raw silk. 
 
 Less compromising articles, in whose case disinfection 
 is optional, comprise cotton, linen and unmanufactured 
 hemp. 
 
 Unsusceptable articles, whose disinfection would be su- 
 perfluous, comprise newly manufactured goods, grain and 
 other alimentary substances, lumber, resins, ore and 
 all merchandise and articles not included in the first class. 
 
 THE SANITARY CODE. 
 
 In 1886 the Chief Board of Health' undertook the for- 
 mation of a Sanitary Code, which should comprise all the 
 measures tending to hygienic uniformity, thoroughness, 
 and good service, not only in the capital but in the entire 
 Republic, and which should serve as a guide to the San- 
 itary Boards and authorities in all matters in any way con- 
 nected with the public health. Three years later, in 1889, 
 the results of the Board's labors were presented to the 
 Ministry of the Interior, and shortly afterwards the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies adopted the Code with hardly any mod- 
 ification, giving it the force of a law. This body of legis- 
 
 31 
 
482 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 lation contains many excellent items which will undoubtedly 
 have a most beneficial effect upon the general health of the 
 Republic. 
 
 HEALTH CONGRESS. 
 
 The American Health Association which holds annual 
 meetings in Charleston invited the Board of Health of 
 Mexico to assist at the last of its reunions, an invitation 
 which was accepted by the sending of two specialists, 
 members of the last named body. 
 
 One of the most distinguished members of the Board was 
 commissioned by the Government to proceed to Berlin and 
 there study the system of Dr. Koch for the treatment of 
 tuberculosis, communicating the results here afterwards. 
 
 In December of 1892 there met in Mexico a body of 
 foreign medical men, Americans and Canadians, who were 
 accorded an excellent reception in the capital of the Re- 
 public and brilliant, ovations in most of the capitals of tlie 
 States passed through by them on the way. The medical 
 fraternity of Mexico were invited by their confreres to 
 assist at their next meeting, which has already begun in the 
 city of Chicago. 
 
 SANITARY POLICE. 
 
 III. In Mexico the Federal Executive has been charged 
 with the duty of formulating, in conformity with the public 
 convenience, the measures bearing on the public health, and 
 the States Government in conjunction with the Boards 
 of Health enforce said measures, and formulate and enforce 
 such others as the circumstances of each locality call for. 
 
 In the Federal District the Chief Board of Health is in 
 charge of public hygiene, extending its influence over the 
 rest of the Republic by means of branch establishments and 
 through the State Boards. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 483 
 
 On December 18th, 1889, the Board authorized the Ex- 
 ecutive to issue the Sanitary Code already mentioned, and 
 which had been drawn up by the Board and by the special 
 committees appointed for that purpose, said Code being in 
 force in the Federal District and Territories in the points 
 affecting each, and in the entire Republic in the points 
 affectino" sanitary matters connected with the maritime and 
 frontier ports of entry, with the foreign relations of the 
 Federation and those with its States, with the relations of 
 said States to each other, and in short all sanitary matters 
 of general interest. In the exercise of this authorization 
 the = Executive issued on July 15th, 1891, the Sanitary Code 
 which began to be in force on 1st August of same year. 
 According to this law, the Sanitary Service of the 
 Republic is in the hands of the Federal Executive, the 
 Governors of States, and the administrative authorities and 
 employes as defined by law generally. The Sanitary Ad- 
 ministration, as regards its agents, is divided into Federal 
 and Local. Under the first beading come the Minister of 
 the Interior as supreme chief of the Department; the Chief 
 Board of Health; the Health Boards of the ports and 
 frontier towns; the Federal authorities and functionaries 
 resident in the State and specially commissioned by the 
 Minister of the Interior, and all sanitary agents specially 
 appointed for any part of the Republic. 
 
 Under the second come, in the States, those functionaries 
 and authorities who make the private laws of same, with 
 that liberty of legislating granted them by the Constitution. 
 The Sanitary Aministration in the city of Mexico con- 
 sists of the Minister of the Interior, the Government of 
 the District, the Municipality, the Chief Board, the In- 
 spectors of Markets, of street cleaning, etc., the Medical 
 departments of the police stations and the Inspector of 
 the same, the Sanitary Inspectors of the District, the con- 
 sulting surgeon of the Civil Courts, the Directors and 
 
484 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 Surgeons of the Public Hospitals, and the Inspectors of 
 the public women; in the Prefectures of the Federal Dis- 
 trict, the Inspectors who are under the orders of the 
 Prefect and Municipality ; and in the territories of Lower 
 California and Tepic the Sanitary Inspectors under the 
 orders respectively of the Jefes Politicos of La Paz, Todos 
 Santos and Tepic, and these Inspectors and agents who 
 may be appointed by the Municipalities, the Prefectures, 
 and the Sub-Prefectures. 
 
 THE CHIEF BOARD OF HEALTH. 
 
 The chief Board of Health is composed of six sanitary 
 physicians, of whom five are civil and one military; of a 
 lawyer, a veterinary surgeon, a chemist, and an engineer* 
 all of whom have votes ; and, besides, of the employes for 
 the technical and special work intrusted to the Board. 
 
 In the ports the Boards of Health are composed of a 
 medical man who will officiate as president, of the captain 
 of the port, and of such persons as the municipality of the 
 place shall appoint, and the Governor of the State or Jefe 
 Politico of the Territory shall accept. 
 
 In the frontier towns the Boards of Health are composed 
 like those of the ports, with the exception of that part which 
 refers to the captain of the port. 
 
 The President of the Eepublic, through the intervention 
 of the Ministry of the Interior, has the right to appoint 
 and dismiss freely the sanitary officials and agents, whether 
 Federal or local, and whether belonging to the Federal 
 District or to the Territories of Tepic and Lower Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 SANITARY SERVICE IN THE PORTS. 
 
 In connection with the sanitary service in the ports, it is 
 provided that foreign yessels destined for ports of the 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS!.- 4S5 
 
 Republic shall furnish themselves with l a certificate of 
 health which shall be issued by the Mexican consuls, and 
 for which two dollars shall be charged, and Mexican ves- 
 sels leaving any port of the Republic bound for foreign 
 parts shall carry the proper certificate and also a doctor, 
 who shall be immediately responsible for the vessel. The 
 certificates issued shall be as follows: • Glean, when no sick- 
 ness of importance is about ; or suspicious and foul accord- 
 ing to circumstances. Certificates issued abroad under any 
 other heading, will be considered as coming under foul. 
 
 Maritime quarantine is in order in case of Asiatic cholera, 
 of yellow fever, or of any other sickness which may be 
 qualified as alarming, and the quarantine is divided into 
 strict and observation only. The existence of sick people 
 on board during the voyage or at the time of arrival, calls 
 for the former, and passengers, crew, baggage and 
 merchandise must be purified in the lazaretto to which they 
 may be transferred for purposes of disinfection. The lat- 
 ter is called for by the mere fact of procedure from an in- 
 fected or suspicious locality, or the having touched at some 
 port in the same conditions, and consists in prohibiting free 
 communication during the time that the incubation of the 
 disease lasts, and in the disinfection of such clothing and 
 other objects as may be considered needful. 
 
 LAND QUARANTINE. 
 
 Land quarantine and sanitary cordons shall be established 
 in case of Asiatic cholera or other epidemics which come 
 under the head of alarming, and are dealt with in specially 
 provided places where the proper disinfection is carried out. 
 To avoid the introduction across the frontier of foreign 
 cattle or the remains of the same, which may be the means 
 of transmitting epizootics to animals or sickness to human 
 beings, it is provided that they shall come furnished with a 
 
486 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 certificate vised by the Mexican consul resident in the State 
 whence the shipment is made, and there is, furthermore, 
 places provided for a department of veterinary surgery in 
 those on the frontier and in those ports where the importa- 
 tion is largest. 
 
 MEDICAL STATISTICS. 
 
 The compiling of those medical statistics which include 
 data regarding births, marriages, deaths, the movements of 
 sick in the hospitals and of the infect o-contagious diseases, 
 is intrusted to the general board of statistics and to the 
 Federal Sanitary Officers, who collect data from all the 
 hospitals in the .Republic and from all medical men whose 
 duty it is to issue medical certificates of the deaths which 
 occur in their practice, with the right to collect the corre- 
 sponding fees. 
 
 The compilation in the capital includes sanitary dispo- 
 sitions in connection with schools and dwelling houses; 
 with food and drink ; with churches, theaters and other 
 places of reunion ; with the interior hygiene of factories, 
 workshops, warehouses and other establishments which 
 may be dangerous or inconvenient ; with the sales of medi- 
 cines and other substances of industrial use in apothecary 
 shops, drugstores and other similar establishments ;• with 
 the practice of medicine in its different branches; with 
 inhumation, exhumation and transportation of dead bodies; 
 with all infectious and contagious diseases ; with epizootics 
 and the sanitary policing of animals; with dairies, 
 slaughter-houses, and meat from outside the capital; with 
 markets, refuse-heaps, and public works which affect 
 hygiene. The Sanitary Administration in other parts of 
 the Federal District and in the Territories establishes 
 identical dispositions which are carried into effect as far as 
 the elements at hand will permit. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 487 
 
 DRAINAGE OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO. 
 
 IV. In the Valley of Mexico, and by consequence in the 
 capital of the Republic, the public health is intimately con- 
 nected with the drainage of this locality, which has been 
 going on ever since colonial times. 
 
 The Federal District is situated in the southern portion of 
 the lands known as the " Valley of Mexico," and is limited 
 to the southwest and west by sundry mountains ; contains 
 within its area a part of the great lake of Texcoco, into 
 which flows on its western side and by means of canals, the 
 foul water from Mexico, Tacubaya, Mixcoac, San Angel, 
 Tacuba, Atzcapotzalco and other towns. The bottom of 
 this lake forms the lowest level of the valley, so that there 
 accumulate in it all the refuse waters which, spreading over 
 its wide surface, produce noxious emanations affecting the 
 health of the inhabitants of the Federal District. There 
 have been times when the atmosphere has been so charged 
 with miasma as to cause a sickening odor perceptible all 
 over the capital ; but even when this is not the case the 
 influence of the lake is none the less pernicious ; witness 
 the prevailing diseases in the exceptionally healthy climate 
 of the capital. In addition to the evils described this lake 
 is a continual menace to Mexico, because the level of the 
 city being only forty centimeters above that of the lake, 
 the currents in the time of heavy rains take the direction of 
 the former and cause inundations accompanied by serious 
 loss and an increase of sickness. 
 
 The projected drainage works tend to afford an outlet 
 for the excess waters of the lake outside the valley, in 
 which there also exist the lake of Xochimilco, with an area 
 of thirty-six kilometers and 480 meters square, and that of 
 Chalco, with twenty-five square kilometers. These two 
 lakes are separated by a causeway which unites the towns 
 
488 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 of Tlaltenango and Tulyehualco ; their waters are sweet, in 
 contradistinction to ^hose of Lake Texcoco, which are salt. 
 
 From the times of Moctezuma I, or Ylhuicamina, up to 
 1603, there were six great inundations in the capital which 
 disastrously affected life and property. In 1607 the Viceroy 
 Montes Claros made extensive repairs in the causeways, 
 dikes, sluices, etc., to avoid inundations, but no general 
 work was projected until the Viceroyship of Don Luis de 
 Velazco, who called together the most skilled men he could 
 find for consultation as to the best plan for completely 
 doing away with the inundation. It was decided on that 
 occasion to drain the lake of San Cristobal by means of 
 the canal of Huehuetoca, as is recorded in a Governmental 
 Act of 23d of October,^ 1607. The work was directed by 
 that able mathematician, Juan Sanchez, a Jesuit priest, and 
 was carried out by the famous hydrographer, Enrico Mar- 
 tinez. The Viceroy Velazco continued on his own account 
 this important work of drainage on the 28th of November, 
 1607. 
 
 From that time to the present every Government has 
 dedicated considerable sums of money to both the con- 
 servation of the work already begun and to the momentary 
 defense of the city against the overflows of Texcoco. 
 These last labors do not completely meet the evil, although 
 the municipality of the capital has had to expend on 
 them some thousands of dollars yearly. 
 
 The real beginning of this work may be said to date 
 from 1885, in which year a plan was formulated by the 
 local assembly in conjunction with the Government for con- 
 tinuing the general work of drainage, to cost, according to 
 the calculations of Engineer Luis Espinosa, $4,000,000.00. 
 For the carrying out of the work there was created a 
 board composed of property owners, charged with the 
 organization and direction of the same, and with the 
 administration of the funds devoted to the purpose. This 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 439 
 
 board was given complete power, it being merely required 
 to adjust the work to the plans approved by the Secretary- 
 ship of Fomentation. The Municipal Treasury was unable, 
 unassisted, to provide the sum necessary for the work, and 
 the General Government consequently came to its assistance 
 with $200,000 yearly. To furnish this sum to the Munic- 
 ipality, the tolls ceded to it by the General Government 
 for the local needs of the city were, by an act of the 11th 
 December, 1885, increased from twenty-eight to forty per 
 cent. The Municipality for its part also sets aside the sum 
 of $200,000 for the drainage works. 
 
 On the second January, 1886, there were issued the 
 rules and regulations of the Board of Management of the 
 works. This last consists of five property owners with 
 votes, and five substitutes appointed directly by the Execu> 
 tive, which reserves to itself the right of removal. The 
 rules and regulations defined the powers and attributes of 
 the Board, and the mode of administering and distributing 
 the funds. They provide that the responsibility of adminis- 
 tration shall fall personally upon the city collector, and on 
 the accountant and cashier of the same office, jointly and 
 severally. On the first of January, 1886, the said office 
 commenced to receive the sums which by the aforemen- 
 tioned law of December 11th, belonged to it ; but it did not 
 immediately hand them to the Managing Board already 
 appointed, because there had been presented to the Depart- 
 ment of Colonization, Industry and Commerce, a new plan 
 of drainage, and the Government appointed a committee of 
 engineers to decide as to its merits; the Board had, conse- 
 quently, to await the decision of the above Department, and 
 up to June of 1886 it limited itself to preserving the works 
 of Tequisquiac, and laid out a canal along the eastern 
 limits of the city, known as San Lazaro, to the Lake of 
 San Cristobal, this piece of work being common to both 
 the original drainage plan and the one which was being 
 
490 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 examined. This last having been rejected, the Department 
 of Colonization, Industry and Commerce determined that 
 the works should continue in conformity with the plan 
 approved on September 30, 1879, but with some modifica- 
 tions. The plan in question divides the work of drainage 
 into three parts, namely, the cut of Tequisquiac, the 
 tunnel of Zumpango, and the grand canal through which 
 the waters will run when they have once left the valley of 
 Mexico. 
 
 The Board of Directors having in charge the drainage of 
 the valley, has just published a report of the work which 
 has been accomplished in the direction up to October 1st, 
 1892. 
 
 Accompanying same are four explanatory plans ; the 
 first is a hydrographic chart of the valley of Mexico, con- 
 taining a sketch of the grand canal and tunnel for the 
 drainage of same, in comformity with the projected plan 
 for the execution of this work ; the second shows the 
 longitudinal profile of the Tequixquiac tunnel ; the third, the 
 longitudinal profile of the grand canal; and the fourth, a 
 section of the tunnel. 
 
 This report contains a hasty summary of the various 
 projects formulated for the accomplishment of this great 
 work up to the present time, which is now in charge of a 
 Board of Directors appointed by the President of the 
 Kepublic. 
 
 The present plan of drainage is designed to meet two 
 distinct objects : 1st, to receive the dirty waters and the 
 sewage of the city of Mexico and conduct same beyond the 
 valley; 2d, to govern the waters in the entire valley, and 
 conduct outside the limits of same, when necessity requires, 
 those which might cause damage therein. 
 
 This plan, as will be seen by the hydrographic chart at- 
 tached to the report, is divided into three parts : a canal 
 which starts from the San Lazaro gate, and whose total 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 4 ^ 
 
 lomntude is 47 kilometers, 580 meters, terminating near 
 the'town of Zumpango, where the tunnel beg.ns, extend- 
 ing northward in a continuous line, for some 10,021 meters, 
 79 centimeters, terminating in a discharge outlet which ex 
 tends for 3 kilometers and possesses a mean depth ot lb 
 
 xx\ pi" PI'S 
 
 Shortly after taking charge of these works, the Board of 
 Directors of the drainage of the valley, gave the contract 
 for the completion of same to Messrs. Read & Campbell, 
 who were finally obliged to rescind their contract at the 
 beginning of the present year, after having invested con- 
 sitferable sums of money in the work. 
 
 This firm has continued to lend their aid to the work up 
 to the present moment, but only in the capacity of managers 
 aud under the direction of the Board. 
 
 The actual condition of the enterprise at the end of last 
 September, was as follows : 
 
 Grand Canal. 
 
 .... 6,666,000c. m 
 
 Total excavation 
 
 Tunnel. 
 The galleries, excepting Nos. 8 and 11, are already com- 
 pleted. 
 
 The faces of the advance galleries reach an extension of 6,200 m. 
 
 The portion already furnished 
 
 DRAINAGE AND SEWERS. 
 
 With the general works for the drainage of the valley are 
 intimately linked those of the draining and cleansing of 
 the city of Mexico, within its own limits. Up to date its 
 system of sewers has been very imperfect, rendering 
 difficult the passage of the sewage to the canal which con- 
 ducts same to Texcoco. Important works have already been 
 
492 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 commenced, however, to obviate this drawback. ■ On the 
 2d of May, 1888, the Municipality authorized its finance 
 and public works committees to arrange for the establish- 
 ment of pumps, with their motors, which should perma- 
 nently work at the drainage of the city. The city engineer 
 formulated a plan which was accepted by the committees, 
 and there were at once ordered from London four centri- 
 fugal pumps with a horizontal discharge, four engines, 
 two boilers, and such other machinery as was deemed 
 necessary. 
 
 On the site fixed upon for the setting up of the engines 
 a deep excavation was made for the laying of foundations 
 with that solidity which the weight of the pumps called 
 for, and the necessary masonry work was executed. The 
 spot chosen for their establishment was close to the canal 
 of San Lazaro, east of the city, and there a dike was con- 
 structed so that the pumps might discharge their waters 
 into those of the canal itself, thereby giving a more rapid 
 flow to these last. Each pump takes the water for its 
 discharge from a sewer into which the drains of the city 
 empty. 
 
 The principal object of the setting up of these pumps 
 was the immediate establishment of a system of drainage 
 for the city which should harmonize with the general drain- 
 age of the valley. One of the results has been an imme- 
 diate improvement in the hygienic conditions of said city, 
 and a lessening of partial inundations, formerly so fre- 
 quent, and due to the bad system of sewers, and to their 
 complete absence in certain streets. The establishment 
 of these pumps cost $110,564.24. It has permitted the 
 construction of those large collecting sewers which are to 
 cross the city from east to west and form connection with 
 the Tequisquiac tunnel as also with the Grand Canal, which 
 will serve for the direct, removal of the water. 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 493 
 
 CEMETERIES. 
 
 The law of 30th January, 1857, provided that all the 
 cemeteries of the Kepublic should come under the care and 
 management of the civil authorities, no interference with 
 them being permitted to the priest of any religion. 
 
 The old practice of the Catholic clergy of burying the 
 dead in the atri6, and even in the interior of the churches, 
 was abolished. 
 
 In virtue of these resolutions an active watch is kept 
 over the cemeteries, as the laws of hygiene demand. 
 
494 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 CHAPTEK Y. 
 
 PUBLIC SECURITY. 
 
 I. As a result of a long and sad revolutionary epoch, of 
 a period pregnant with political reconstruction, the social 
 elements of the lower strata of society were, judging from 
 the stand-point of civilization, at a very low ebb: lack of 
 order, immorality, in fact, crime was in Mexico almost the 
 rule of the day, and this not alone on the highways, but 
 even in some of the largest cities. 
 
 The stability of the political institutions and the advent 
 of the era of peace, established a period of reconstruction 
 which, naturally, was the beginning of the reform of cus- 
 toms protecting the morality and persecuting vices and 
 crimes. 
 
 Two periods are especially marked out during this new 
 epoch which is almost coincident with the triumph of the 
 Tuxtepec revolution. In the first all efforts were devoted 
 to the preservation of order in the cities ; in the second, 
 which may be termed the railway period, every attention 
 was directed to securing safety on the public road. The 
 first brought with it the reform of the antiquated police 
 system in which the men used to be drawn from the lowest 
 classes of society and who were almost exclusively armed 
 with the old Spanish sabre. In their place was substituted 
 the city police in accordance with European methods of 
 management. In the second, during which decided steps 
 were taken to clear the highways of bandits, highwaymen, 
 robbers and assassins, the rural police and excisemen 
 were constituted. To both of these bodies Mexico owes 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 495 
 
 great benefits. The duties of the latter were limited 
 almost exclusively to guarding against the passing of con- 
 traband articles and to protecting the railway traffic. 
 
 Thanks to these measures the Secretary of the Interior 
 was in 1886 able to say as follows: "It is satisfac- 
 tory to be able to assure you that for many years 
 the atrocious crime of highway robbery has entirely 
 ceased, and that there are no longer arty public robbers on 
 the road, as was the case formerly when they were the 
 constant terror of our highways. It is necessary, however, 
 to point out, although it is with pain I do so, that in the 
 beginning, immediately after the establishment of our 
 great railroads, attacks were made under a new form more 
 cruel and atrocious than ever. The robbers used every 
 means to throw the train off the line, in order that when 
 this was once done, they might possess themselves of the 
 baggage, merchandise, etc." Mr. Romero Rubio spoke 
 thus upon the occasion of a recent wreckage and robbery 
 on the Central Railway, and which caused great indigna- 
 tion in Mexico among all classes of society. This indigna- 
 tion found vent in the application of article 29 of the 
 Constitution, which sets forth, that, in cases of invasion, of 
 grave disturbances of the public peace or any others 
 which greatly endanger society or place it in conflict, the 
 competent authorities may suspend the guarantees which 
 the Constitution grants, with the exception of those 
 which secure life to a man. With this as its groundwork, 
 the terrible decree of the 17th of May, 1886, was sent 
 forth, which struck terror into all evil-doers and utterly 
 did away with railway robbers. 
 
 The energy with which Mexico proceeds against robbers 
 may be seen from the following extract from the law 
 referred to : " Article 1. The guarantee granted in part of 
 article 13, the first part of article 19, and articles 20 and 
 21 of the Federal Constitution are suspended for road 
 
496 THE RICHES OP MEXICO 
 
 robbers exclusively. Art. 2. Road robbers are: I. Those 
 with whom the intention of stopping trains on a 
 public road or with the intention of robbing the passengers 
 or the goods which are being conveyed therein, take 
 away, destroy, change or burn the sleepers, rails, 
 screws, switches, or the plants which secure them, 
 bridges, tunnels, platforms, buildings or any other work 
 belonging to a railway. II. Those who with the said 
 intention cut or interrupt communications by destroy- 
 ing, burning or rendering useless the posts, wires 
 and apparatus used in the railway telegraphic system. 
 III. Those who with the purpose of committing a mis- 
 demeanor against persons of property, uncouple, render 
 useless or destroy the locomotives, wagons, tenders or 
 other transport carriages on a railway, or place on the road 
 hindrances or obstacles which would prevent the passage of 
 trains or throw them off the line. IV. Those who, on the 
 public roads, whether these be highways or railways, attack 
 travelers or passengers with the intention of robbing, 
 wounding, killing or causing any other damage either 
 to goods or person. Art. 3. The robbers comprised 
 in numbers I, II and HI of the preceding article 
 if caught in the act shall suffer the punishment of 
 death, without farther trial or proceeding ', than the mere 
 drawing up of a record by the chief of the appre- 
 hending force, in which record shall be set forth the fact 
 that they were taken in the act, and the identification of 
 their persons. Those who are not caught in the very act but 
 are included in any of the four divisions of article 2 of this 
 law shall be summarily and verbally tried by the authorities 
 whose agents have made the apprehension, whether such 
 authorities be the political ones of the Districts or the 
 Military Commanders of the Federation or of the States. 
 The duration of the trial can in no case exceed the peremp- 
 tory and unprorogable time of fifteen days during which 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 497 
 
 the accused can present their proofs and defenses which are 
 their rights. Within the said period sentence of death 
 shall be pronounced if the crime be proved, and if the case 
 fall under numbers I, II or III of the above mentioned 
 article 2, or under number IV of same and if from the act 
 death or a grievous wound has resulted. When neither 
 death nor a grievous wound has been the result in the case 
 of number IV then a penalty of 10 years -imprisonment 
 shall be imposed. 
 
 This has not been the only occasion on which in Mexico 
 the suspension of guarantees was proclaimed against the 
 enemies of society and the disturbers of public order. In 
 1869, owing to the alarming spread of brigandage, Mr. 
 Juarez was forced to issue a decree on the 12th of April, 
 and later on for like reasons were sent forth in succession 
 the decrees dated the 12th of March, 1871, which was also 
 promulgated by Mr. Juarez, the 3d of May, 1873, the 28th 
 of April, 1875, and the 9th of May, 1876, all issued by Mr. 
 Lerdo de Tejada. 
 
 THE RURAL POLICE. 
 
 II. In order that the action of the police might be ex- 
 tended to the surveillance of the greater part of the national 
 highways and especially to those not frequented by travel- 
 ers and on which the merchandise traffic is greatest, laws 
 were made on the 5th of May, 1861, and the 21st of Jan- 
 uary, 1867, which created and fitted out a body of rural 
 police. From the year 1867 the Government made use of 
 the light-armed troops which had fought for the Eepublic 
 and formed from them bodies of police in order to clear 
 the country of the robbers and other bandits which the 
 leno-thy struggle against French intervention had left as a 
 legacy to the Nation. The different bodies of rural police 
 which have been organized, one after another have been 
 
 32 
 
498 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 called by various names, as the Guard of Commerce, the 
 Guard of Mexico, the Third Body of Horse Carbineers, the 
 Guard of Tepegi del Rio, the Fixed Squadron of Public 
 Security of Tepic, etc. These all rendered important serv- 
 ices to the Union Government in the campaign against 
 invaders and traitors and in the revolutionary movements 
 which have taken place in the various States of the Repub- 
 lic. When peace was once firmly established, it fulfilled 
 its duties as country police with all due regularity and 
 order. 
 
 The men who form this body are enlisted as volunteers 
 by a perfect contract, the fulfillment of which the Govern- 
 ment guarantees and which is made upon certain determined 
 conditions. The body is notable for its spirit of honor and 
 its competence as well as for its discipline, active and 
 timely watchfulness in the discharge of its duties and has 
 now come to be regarded as one of the institutions of the 
 public administration of Government. Since the 1st of 
 April, 1869, a General Inspectorship has been placed over 
 the rural bodies of police. By this means the Department 
 of the Interior communicates orders to the chiefs of the 
 corps and watches over their organization and good service. 
 A regulation issued on the 24th of June, 1880, curtailed 
 the powers of inspection and laid upon the Interior De- 
 partment, all duties relating to contracts for the pur- 
 chase of arms, horses and accoutrements. The result was 
 that the inspectorship came to form a section of the said 
 Department. The vigilance of the Federal rural police 
 extends not merely to the Federal District, but also to the 
 high-roads which communicate with the various States, to 
 the roads that join these high-roads, and even to the 
 capitals of the States and their districts. This police body 
 is ever ready with its assistance in those places where its 
 presence is needed, for the Governors are constantly com- 
 municating to the Interior Department all events which may 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 499 
 
 give rise to any considerable disorder, so that they may at 
 once secure the co-operation of the rural forces. 
 
 THE CITY POLICE OF MEXICO. 
 
 III. Organization. The police body is under the direc- 
 tion of a special office, which again, is under the charge of 
 a functionary called the General Inspector of Police, who in 
 his turn is subject to the District Government. The organi- 
 zation of the police is as follows : 1 general inspector, 1 
 secretary, 8 chiefs with their respective secretaries and em- 
 ployes to correspond with the eight divisions into which the 
 city is divided ; 8 doctors with their respective practition 
 ers for the same divisions ; 1 faculty inspector for the 
 service of the commissaries ; 1 commander of reserved 
 police and special agents. There are also inspectors' assist- 
 ants, clerks, employes, subalterns, etc. ; a body of foot and 
 horse police with its respective commanders, officers, etc. 
 
 For police duty the city of Mexico is at present divided 
 into eight divisions which are subaltern police stations. 
 Each one of them has at its head an inspector or chief and 
 in addition a doctor and practitioner. The inspectors settle 
 the cases which are clearly evident of any misdemeanor or 
 crime which comes under their notice. But in more im- 
 portant cases they advise the District Government and send 
 such cases on to it. They also send on the depositions to 
 the proper judges, and thus in almost every case they take 
 the first steps and make the first arrangements for the trial. 
 Each special commissary section has for its medical service 
 a doctor and three practitioners with various assistants who 
 are meritorious and pupils of the School of Medicine. Each 
 medical section is supplied with three stretchers made of 
 iron and very light, with which to carry the wounded to the 
 police station, where the wounds are dressed, and from 
 thence the injured are taken to their destination within the 
 
500 THE RICHES OF MEXICO 
 
 space of three hours. It has also a well supplied case of 
 surgical instruments and the proper apparatus and imple- 
 ments for doctors. The Listerian method of treatment has 
 been unanimously adopted in the eight medical sections. 
 The doctors attend their sections from 11 to 12 o'clock 
 in the morning and from 6 to 7 in the evening, in order 
 that they may visit extraordinary cases and attend to 
 the business of their stations, to which they must also 
 repair whenever they are required by the commissary. 
 There are always in the sections a practitioner on guard 
 and another as a reserve, who are relieved every 24 hours, 
 beginning at 7 o'clock at night to give assistance in cases 
 of accidents. The practitioners of each section are always 
 present during the early hours of the night. The com- 
 missary doctors send every day duplicate and detailed 
 accounts to the visiting inspector and to the District Gov- 
 ernment, in which are set forth, the name of the wounded 
 person, the kind of wound, the time at which he entered 
 the Commissary office, and was taken cured to the proper 
 Commissary or sent to the hospital, if the case was seri- 
 ous, the mode of cure, and services lent, certificates of 
 deaths that have taken place, of the sick who have asked 
 admission into the hospital. These doctors hold a meeting 
 every eight days under the presidency of the Visiting 
 Inspector in order to discuss matters that have come under 
 their notice, and to propose to the Government the improve- 
 ments that may be found necessary to introduce into the 
 service. 
 
 As has been already said, there is an Inspector over the 
 Medical Section of the Commissary whose duty it is to 
 see to the punctual discharge of all their duties and to 
 authorize the resolutions proposed for the improvement of 
 the service. 
 
 The foot police perform the police service of the city 
 and are made up of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 8 com- 
 
AND ITS INSTITUTIONS. 501 
 
 manders, 82 officers, 1,800 policemen and 130 assistants. 
 The body is being continually improved, drilled, and 
 disciplined. 
 
 The rule for the foot police, that is to say their duties 
 regarding the apprehension of criminals, their watchfulness 
 over the sanitary arrangements, health and interests of 
 their beat, their assistance to the citizen, and particularly 
 to the helpless, the sick or the traveler, are all laid down 
 in the "Advices," which are properly and duly imparted 
 to them and according to which they must at present act. 
 
 The mounted police consist of 350 men who are divided 
 into companies. For their military drill there is an 
 academy established, attended to by corporals and sergeants, 
 and for their instruction as troopers there is a practical 
 school of teaching established in their own barracks. 
 
 There is established in Mexico at the present day, as has 
 been said at the beginning, an excellently organized force of 
 'police for the prevention of crime, and which renders very 
 useful services to society. It is commonly called the re- 
 serve, and exercises a constant watchfulness over suspicious 
 persons and undertakes delicate tasks in which its members 
 avoid the espionage upon their acts to which the ordinary 
 police- are liable, inasmuch as these latter wear their uni- 
 forms and are in all cases easily recognized. The men of 
 this body are especially suited for their duties owing to 
 their intimate knowledge of the locality, and the persons 
 their antecedents, intelligence and honest} 7 . Such is, in 
 short, the organization of the police of Mexico City, which 
 serves as a model for the organization of those in the ma- 
 jority of the State capitals and large cities of the Union. 
 
 °-<e>^ 
 
502 THE RICHES OF MEXICO. 
 
 Before passing to the second part of this work where we 
 will display the sketch of the riches of our productions, 
 namely, industry, commerce, mining and agriculture, we 
 must duly thank Mr. Ireneo Paz, one of the most enlight- 
 ened litterateur and scientific men of Mexico, for his 
 valuable assistance in the performing of this work. We 
 are in debt to Mr. Paz for much interesting data concern- 
 ing the productions of our Country. That undoubtedly 
 will prove very useful for those that desire to know the 
 productive facilities of our territory and invest in Mexican 
 
 enterprises. 
 
 The Author. 
 
IKDEX. 503 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. Mexico and Her Revolutions 7 
 
 II. Era of Peace 10 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Department op Foreign Affairs. 
 
 I. The Existent Treaties before the French Intervention 12 
 
 II. Frontier Matters — Agreements relative to Boundary-lines 
 With the United States — Agreements relative to the Boun- 
 daries of Guatemala 14 
 
 III. Commercial Treaties — Norway and Sweden — France — 
 Great Britain — The Japanese Empire — Equator — The Do- 
 minican Republic — Italy — United States . . 28 
 
 IV. Extradition Treaties — The United States — Belgium — 
 Spain — Great Britain. , 36 
 
 V . International Agreements. — Telegraphic Arrangement be- 
 tween Mexico and Guatemala — International Agreement 
 
 relative to the Publication of Custom House Duties 40 
 
 VI. Claims — United States — Spain — Guatemala — Economic 
 
 Regulations 41 
 
 VII. Mexican Diplomatic Body — Diplomatic Representations — 
 
 Consular Agencies 46 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Interior Department 
 
 I. General Works.... 55 
 
 II. Postal Service. — Written Correspondence — Periodical Pub- 
 lications — All prints not embraced in the Former Classes — 
 Diverse Matter — New Postal Code — Economic Regulations. 55 
 III. Universal Postal Union — Postal Congress of Lisbon 64 
 
504 INDEX. 
 
 IV. Postal Conventions — United States — French Eepublic — ■ 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland — German Empire 68 
 
 V. Mail Steamers — Imperial German Mail Harrison Line — 
 New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company — General 
 French Company of Steam Transports — General Transatlan- 
 tic Company — West Indian and Pacific Steamship Company 
 — Transatlantic Steamship Company of Barcelona — Harrison 
 Steamship Line — New York, Mobile and Mexico Steamship 
 Company — Line of Steamers between Progreso, New Orleans 
 and New York — Line of Mr. Joaquin Redo — Steamship 
 Company of the Pacific Coast — Line of Steamers of Mr. 
 James N. Porch — Line of Mr. Eobert R. Symon — Line of 
 Mr. Manuel Romero combined with the Steamers of the Span- 
 ish Transatlantic Company — Pacific Mail Company — Mexi- 
 can Company of Navigation of the River Grijalva — Company 
 of Navigation on the Rivers of -Sotavento of Veracruz 70 
 
 VI. Postal Statistics , 79 
 
 VII. Conclusion 83 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Department op Justice. 
 
 I. Federal Juridical Power — Supreme Court — Circuit Courts 
 
 and District Judicatures 85 
 
 II. Right of Habeas Corpus (Ley de Amparo) 89 
 
 III. Code of Proceedings in the Federal Jurisdiction 91 
 
 IV. Code of Commerce 91 
 
 V. Civil Code and its Code of Proceedings . 93 
 
 VI. Penal Code and its Code of Proceedings 95 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Department op Colonization, Industry and Commerce. 
 
 I. Great Impulse to the Affairs of this Department — Geography — 
 
 Geographical Exploring Committee 96 
 
 II. Department of Natural History 102 
 
 III. Statistics — General Management of the Bureau of Statistics. . 105 
 
 IV. Cartography 113 
 
 V. Observatories — The Central Magnetic Meteorological Obser- 
 vatory — The Meteorological Astronomical Observatory of 
 Mazatlan — The National Astronomical Observatory of Ta- 
 cubaya *— The Central Astronomical Observatory 116 
 
 VI. Public Monuments — Monument of Columbus — Hypso- 
 graphic Monument — Monument to Cuauthemoc — Monu- 
 ment of Chapultepec . .... 132 
 
INDEX. 505 
 
 PAGE 
 
 VII. Weights and Measures — Contracts Relative to Weights and 
 
 Measures — The International Metric Convention.. . 140 
 
 VIII. Mexican National Currency > 147 
 
 IX. Exhibitions — Exhibition of Philadelphia — The Exhibitions 
 
 of New Orleans : Paris exhibition 155 
 
 X. National Exhibitions. — General Exhibition of the Industry 
 of Mexico — The National Exhibition of Mexico of the year 
 1875 — The Merida Exhibition — The Puebla Exhibition — 
 The Toluca Exhibition — Monterrey Industrial Exhibition — 
 The Queretaro Exhibition — Guadalajara Exhibition — Arti- 
 cles Awarded Prizes. — Commercial Museum of Guadalajara 163 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Department op Public Works. , 
 
 I. The New Secretaryship. — The law of May 8th, 1891 — Begin 
 its labors in the month of July, 1891 170 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Treasury and Public Credit Department. 
 
 I. The Public Debt 172 
 
 II. Loans ] 75 
 
 III. Bailroad Debt 176 
 
 IV. National Debt 180 
 
 V. Actual Condition of the Public Treasury ' , 182 
 
 VI. Mexico Revenues and Expenditures 184 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 War Department. 
 
 I. Work of Organization 186 
 
 II. General Ordinance. — Recruiting — Recruits — Army Disburse- 
 ments — Term of Service — Generals — Retirement — Pro- 
 motion — Morality , 189 
 
 III. Organization of the War Department. — General Organiza- 
 tion of the Army — The Special Body of the Staff — Body 
 of Engineers and Military College — Body of Artillery — 
 Establishments for making War Materials — Military 
 Schools — Infantry — Cavalry — Military Medical Body — 
 Medical Military Practice School — The Police Body of the 
 Army — National Battalion of Invalids — The Reserve of 
 Commanders and Officers — Military Tribunals and Police.. 198 
 
 IV. Military Tribunal their Organization and Competency. — The 
 Court of Inquiry — Military Judicial Police — Crimes, Mis- 
 demeanors and Penalty . . 226 
 
506 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 V. Latest Changes in the Code of Military Justice — Tribu- 
 
 nals — Of Appeals — Of Penalties 236 
 
 VI. National Navy and Organization Works — The present Ad- 
 ministration of the Navy — The National Fleet 240 
 
 VII. The Standing Army 249 
 
 BOOK II. 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION AND POPULATION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Geographical Description of Mexico. 
 
 I. Situation and boundaries 253 
 
 II. Mountain System — Valleys — Elevation of the principal 
 mountains 256 
 
 III. Geological Formation — Volcanoes 259 
 
 IV. Geological Commission of Mexico 263 
 
 V. Natural Wonders — "Barranca de las tres Penas " — Falls 
 
 of Juanacatlan — Falls of Regla — Grotto of Cacahuamilpa — 
 
 Geysers of " San Andres " and "Cuescomate." 264 
 
 VI. Hydrographic System — Rivers — Lakes — Temperature of 
 
 Different Waters of Mexico 265 
 
 VII. Climate — Temperature and Barometric Pressure — Hot, 
 Temperate and Cold Lands — Mean Temperature of the 
 Three Zones — Humidity — Rains — Winds — Humidity of the 
 Winds in the Valley of Mexico — Temperature of the Winds. 267 
 VIII. Meteorological Observations — General Summary 276 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 The States. 
 
 I. Political Division. — Territorial Extension — Astronomical 
 position of the capitals - 277 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Population and Races. 
 
 I. Beginning of the Mexican Civilisation. — Ancient civiliza- 
 tion — Ruins — Immigrations — Ancient Monuments 282 
 
 II. Inhabitants of Anahuac — Statistics 286 
 
 III. Population of the States. — Population of the principal 
 
 cities — Density of Population ... 288 
 
INDEX. 507 
 
 PAGE 
 
 IV. Predominant Races. — The Indian in different social strata — 
 His road to civilization and progress — The Spanish 
 American 295 
 
 V. Etnographic Description. — Spaniard residents in Mexico 297 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Immigration and Colonization. 
 
 I. Primary Laws 302 
 
 II. Laics in Force Governing Immigration — Decree of 15th 
 
 December, 1883 — Rights and duties of immigrants 305 
 
 Foreigners and Naturalization. — Expatriation — Conditions for 
 naturalization in the Republic — Certificates of naturaliza- 
 tion — Rights and duties of the foreigners 308 
 
 III. Immigratory Movement. — Movement of passengers at the 
 different ports — Table of immigration — Foreign immi- 
 gration and indegnous labor 315 
 
 IV. Colonies. — First steps — Colonizing companies — Colonies 
 " Manuel Gonzalez," " Porfirio Diaz " — " Carlos Pacheco." — 
 " Fernandez Leal" — "Topolobampo" — Table of the colon- 
 ies — Concession for colonization from 1878 to 1891 — Purchase 
 and sale contracts of uncultivated lands — Unoccupied Gov- 
 ernment Lands 321 
 
 BOOK III. 
 SOCIAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Religion. 
 
 I. Religion — Religious Teaching 335 
 
 II. Catholic Religion — The Clergy in the end of the XVIII 
 Century — Rents and properties — Constitution of 1824 — 
 Ecclesiastical Corporation in the Federal District in 1856 — 
 " Desamortizatism " Law — " Nationalization Law " 335 
 
 III. Legal Dispositions Concerning Religions 340 
 
 IV. Economical Organization of the Catholic Religion (priest- 
 hood) 343 
 
 V. Protestant Religion — Protestant Missions in 1892 — (The 
 Field — The Workers — Churches — Schools — Publishing In- 
 terests — properties) — Historical of the Protestant Churches in 
 
508 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 Mexico — American Church Missionary Society, — Protestant 
 Episcopal Missionary and Churches — The Presbyterian Mis- 
 sion — Methodist Episcopal Church — Baptist Church — 
 " American Friends Society " 346 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Public Instruction. 
 
 I. Education in the time of Aztecs — During the Spanish Domi- 
 nation — After Independence— Preliminary laws in Education 
 
 and Instruction ,.....-. 350 
 
 II. Compulsory Education 355 
 
 III. Pedagogical Congress —First Congress of Instruction — 
 Second Congress — Instruction Law in force in the Federal 
 District — Superior Board of Public Instruction — Prizes to 
 
 the Professors 356 
 
 IV. Superior Instruction in the Federal District — School of Medi- 
 cine — National Medical Institute of Mexico — National Mex- 
 ican Medical Congress — National School of Engineers — Na- 
 tional School of Agriculture and Veterinary Surgery — Higher 
 School of Commerce and Administration — National School 
 of Arts and Trades for Men — National School of Arts and 
 Trades for Women — Correctional School of Trades and 
 Prof essions — National School of Fine Arts — National 
 Conservatory of Music — Military College— (Professors — 
 Pupils — Studies of Infantry and Cavalry Officers — Studies of 
 Artillery Officers — Studies of Engineers — Studies of Mid- 
 shipmen of the National Navy — Examinations) — "La Paz " 
 College for Young Ladies — National School for the Blind — 
 School for the Deaf Mutes — Industrial School for Orphan 
 Boys — School of Jurisprudence — Normal School of Pro- 
 fessors • • 263 
 
 V. Libraries — Scientific and Literary Societies — Muse urns -r- 
 Archseological Monuments — Journalism in Mexico— (Scien- 
 tific Literary Publications — Periodical Publications) 413 
 
 VI. Primary Education in the Federal District — Public Instruc- 
 tion in the States in the year 1890 and 1 892 427 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 Public Beneficence. 
 
 I. History of Beneficence 430 
 
 II. Hospitals — Hospitals of «San Andres " — " Morelos " — 
 "San Hipolito Asylum for Insane men — Asylum for Insane 
 women — " Juarez " • • 433 
 
INDEX. 509 
 
 PAGE 
 
 III. Asylums — Foundling Asylum — Poor House — Lying-in Hos- 
 pital and Asylum for Infants 439 
 
 IV. Schools — School for the Blind — School of Arts and Trades 
 for Women — The Industrial School at Santiago — Correc- 
 tional School — Correctional School of Trades and Professions 444 
 
 V. National Loan Office " Monte de Piedad " 447' 
 
 VI. Central Laboratory — Store House — Free Consulting Eooms. 449 
 
 VII. Benevolent Institutions of the States — Veracruz, Nuevo 
 
 Leon, Chiapas, Michoacan, Tabasco, Sonora, Guerrero, Col- 
 
 ima, Guanajuato, Durango, Quer6taro, Chihuahua, Hidalgo, 
 
 Morelos, Jalisco, Mexico, Aguascalientes, Oaxaca, Tamau- 
 
 lipas, Zacatecas 450 
 
 VIII. Private Charities 463 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Health and Hygiene. 
 
 I. Sanitary Conditions of the Mexican Republic — Typhus 
 
 Fever — Yellow Fever — Small-pox — Pneumonia ... 465 
 
 II. Creation and History of the Chief Board of Health — Sta- 
 tistical Department — The Sanitary Inspectorship — Epi- 
 demics — Quarantine — Inspection of the Northern Frontier 
 and in communication with Guatemala — Means for pre- 
 venting the infection of one town by another — Measures 
 for checking the ravages of the disease — The Sanitary 
 Code — Health Congress 467 
 
 III. Sanitary Police — Organization of the Board of Health — 
 Sanitary service in the Ports — Land Quarantine — Medical 
 Statistics 482 
 
 IV. Drainage of the " Valley of Mexico" — Drainage and sew- 
 ers — Cemeteries , 487 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Public Security. 
 
 I. Public Security before the Peace — Railway Period — Law of 
 
 17th May, 1886, against criminals 494 
 
 II. The Rural Police 497 
 
 III. The City Police of Mexico — Organization — Foot Police — 
 Detectives 499 
 
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