LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
 
 Chap........ Copyright No. 
 
 Shelf...XX6 T 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
SECONn nopy, 
 
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING 
 
 AND 
 
 MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Showing How to Manage Locomotive in Running Different 
 Ki?ids of Trams with Econoi?iy and Dispatch j Giving 
 Plain Descriptions of Valve- Gear, Injectors, Brakes, 
 Lubricators, and Other Locomotive Attachments j 
 Treating on the Economical Use of Fuel a?id 
 Steam; and Presenting Valuable Direc- 
 tions about the Care, Ma?iageme?it, 
 and Repairs of Locomotives 
 and their Connectio?is. 
 
 BY 
 
 ANGUS SINCLAIR, 
 
 Member of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers; of the American 
 
 Railway Master Mechanics' Association ; of the American 
 
 Society of Mechanical Engineers, etc. 
 
 TWENTY-FIRST EDITION, REWRITTEN. 
 FIRST THOUSAND. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 JOHN WILEY & SONS. 
 
 London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 
 
 1899. 
 
 L . 
 
 I 
 

 27905 
 
 Copyright, 1899, 
 
 BY 
 
 ANGUS SINCLAIR. 
 
 TWOCOPiEo DECEIVED. 
 
 ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK. 
 
 V^O'Xk-Uw*. 15^44 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 While ' following the occupation of a locomotive 
 engineer, I often observed peculiarities about the 
 working of my engine, while running, that I did not 
 entirely understand. As I was perfectly aware, even 
 before making my first trip on a locomotive engine, 
 that there is no effect without a cause, I never felt 
 satisfied to accept any thing as incomprehensible 
 without investigation, and fell into the habit of noting 
 down facts about the working of the engine, with the 
 view of studying out, at leisure, any thing which was 
 not quite clear. When, some years ago, I abandoned 
 engine-running to take charge of the round-house at 
 the mechanical headquarters of the Burlington, Cedar 
 Rapids, and Northern Railway, in Iowa, the practice 
 of keeping notes was continued. The work connected 
 with the ordinary repairing of running-engines, the 
 emergency repairing executed to get engines ready 
 hurriedly to meet the. traffic demands on a road then 
 chronically short of power, and diagnosing the nu- 
 
1V PREFACE. 
 
 merous diseases that locomotives are heir to, provided 
 ample material for voluminous notes. Those notes 
 formed the raw material from which this book was 
 constructed. 
 
 The original intention was, to publish a book on 
 Locomotive Engine Running alone, and the first por- 
 tion of the work was prepared with that idea in view ; 
 but, before the articles were finished, I joined the 
 editorial staff of the American Machinist. The cor- 
 respondence in the office of that paper convinced me 
 that an urgent demand existed, among engineers, ma- 
 chinists, and others, for plainly given information 
 relating to numerous operations connected with the 
 repairing and maintenance of locomotives. To meet 
 this demand, the chapters on " Valve-Motion " and all 
 the succeeding part of the book were written. Most 
 of that matter was originally written for the pages of 
 the American Machinist, but was afterwards re-ar- 
 ranged for the book. 
 
 In preparing a book for the use of engineers, fire- 
 men, machinists, and others interested in locomotive 
 matters, it has been my aim to treat all subjects dis- 
 cussed in such a way that any reader would easily 
 understand every sentence written. No attempt is 
 made to convey instruction in any thing beyond ele- 
 mentary problems in mechanical engineering, and all 
 problems brought forward are treated in the simplest 
 manner possible. 
 
PREFACE. v 
 
 The practice of applying to books for information 
 concerning their work, is rapidly spreading among the 
 engineers and mechanics of this school-spangled coun- 
 try; and this book is published in the hope that its 
 pages may furnish a share of the needed assistance. 
 Those men, who, Socrates-like, search for knowledge 
 from the recorded experience of others, are the men, 
 who, in the near future, will take leading places in 
 our march of national progress. To such men, who 
 are earnestly toiling up the steep grade of Self-help, 
 this book is respectfully dedicated. 
 
 Angus Sinclair. 
 
 New York City, 
 
 Jan. i, 1885. 
 
PREFACE TO TWENTY-FIRST EDITION. 
 
 It is now over fourteen years since the first edition 
 of this book was published, and the time has arrived 
 when it was necessary to rewrite the whole of it or 
 permit Locomotive Engine Running to fall into the 
 condition of an ancient story. There probably was 
 no decade in the world's history when engineering of 
 all kinds made so much progress as it did from 1889 
 to 1899. The science of locomotive engineering has 
 kept pace with the advance movement, and has made 
 a book on the management of the locomotive revised 
 ten years ago a back number. My constant endeavor 
 in rewriting the book has been to keep it up to the 
 times, to make it just as modern as the hundred-ton 
 locomotive. 
 
 The testimony of many railroad men has con- 
 vinced me that Locomotive Engine Rtmning has been 
 cherished as a guide and counsellor by thousands 
 who were interesting themselves in the most efficient 
 methods of handling and caring for the locomotive- 
 engine. It has been my aim in the work just finished 
 to make the book as useful to future generations as it 
 has been to those of the past. 
 
 I have not attempted to describe the construction 
 and management of compound locomotives, because 
 
viii PREFA CE. 
 
 the subject is so comprehensive that it would have 
 doubled the size of the book. When the different 
 designers of compound locomotives have established 
 permanent forms, I may do for that kind of locomo- 
 tive what I have done for the single-expansion engine. 
 In connection with the publication of the twenty 
 first edition, I wish to acknowledge valuable assist 
 ance received from Mr. Fred. M. Nellis, the well 
 known expert on air-brakes, who wrote the greater 
 part of the chapter on that subject. 
 
 Angus Sinclair. 
 
 New York, March i, 1899. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction xiii 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Engineers and their Duties 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 How Engineers Are Made 12 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Inspection of the Locomotive 24 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Getting Ready for the Road 33 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Running a Fast Freight Train 42 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Getting up the Hill 59 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Finishing the Trip „ 71 
 
 ix 
 
X CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 i PAGE 
 
 Hard-steaming Engines 79 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Shortness of Water 93 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 Boilers and Fire-boxes 115 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 Accidents to the Valve-motion 125 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Accidents to Cylinders and Steam-connections 146 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 Off the Track — Accidents to Running-gear 156 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Connecting-rods, Side-rods and Wedges 167 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 Valve-motion 185 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 The Shifting-link 218 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 Setting the Valves 236 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 The Westinghouse Air-brake 247 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tractive Power and Train Resistance 309 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 Draft Appliances 321 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 Combustion 332 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 Steam- and Motive-power 353 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 Sight-feed Lubricators 369 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 Examination of Firemen for Promotion 381 
 
To face p. xiii. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 DESIGNING OF LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 The purpose of the locomotive engine is to trans- 
 form the energy of fuel by the medium of steam into 
 the work of pulling railroad trains. The leading aim 
 of good designers is to plan locomotives that will do 
 the greatest amount of work with the least expenditure 
 of fuel, and will at the same time be safe, convenient 
 to handle, strong and durable. The two most impor- 
 tant parts of the locomotive are the boiler and the cylin- 
 ders. These are like the stomach and the heart of the 
 human machine. In the boiler the steam is generated, 
 and it is used in the cylinders, transmitting the resulting 
 power to the driving wheels. In a well-designed loco- 
 motive, the boiler is made large enough to supply all 
 the steam required by the cylinders no matter how hard 
 the engine may be worked or how fast it may be run. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ORDINARY LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 In most of the engravings to be found at this part of 
 the book the outlines and principal parts of an ordinary 
 eight-wheel locomotive are shown. Plate A is a side 
 elevation of the engine, and shows all the outside parts 
 that can be seen by a person standing near the engine. 
 The cylinder and steam chest are, however, shown in 
 
 xiii 
 
XIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 cross section giving the view of these parts that would 
 be obtained if they were cut down through the center 
 as one might cut a water-melon lengthwise, or as train 
 men sometimes see Westinghouse brake apparatus cut 
 to show the working of the parts. It is for the same 
 purpose that this cylinder and steam-chest are seen cut 
 open in the drawing. The upper part in Plate B repre- 
 sents the boiler and fire-box of the engine cut in cross- 
 section. The lower figure is a plan of the engine with 
 the boiler removed, but with the outlines of the fire-box, 
 mud-ring, and the grates in place. This view shows 
 the engine as we would see it, after the boiler was re- 
 moved, by standing on the frame and looking down- 
 ward. In the left-hand view of Plate C, the engine 
 appears as it is seen from behind when the tender is 
 taken away. The right-hand view is a transverse sec- 
 tion through the smoke-box, cylinders, and center pin 
 of the truck. This is what would be seen if the front 
 of the engine were sliced clean through these parts. 
 
 BOILER AND FIRE-BOX. 
 
 A locomotive boiler is peculiar in having the furnace 
 and boiler all inclosed in one shell. The fire-box is an 
 oblong box of steel sheet about T 5 ¥ inch thick. A 
 water space about 3J inches wide intervenes between 
 the fire-box and the outside shell, the two being securely 
 fastened together by stay-bolts about -J inch thick and 
 4 inches apart. The small circles seen on the side of 
 the fire-box in the figures represent the stay-bolts. 
 
 The boiler of the engine shown is of the wagon-top 
 kind. That is, the waist or barrel of the boiler is 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XV 
 
 straight in the front portion, but towards the fire-box 
 the diameter increases and the top of the fire-box is 
 raised considerably above the boiler. The object of 
 
 the wagon-top enlargement is to increase the space for 
 holding steam. The dome in this form of boiler is 
 nearly always placed on the wagon-top. The purpose 
 
XVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of the dome is to raise the inlet of the " dry-pipe" 
 which carries the steam to the cylinders, away as far as 
 possible above the water level. 
 
 As the top of most of inside fire-boxes is flat, it needs 
 to be supported or the pressure of steam inside would 
 bend it down and tear the sheets. In this boiler the 
 crown-sheet is supported by crown-bars whose ends may 
 be seen above the fire-box in Plate B. These in turn 
 are reinforced by sling-stays binding them to the outer 
 shell. These sling-stays can be seen above the crown- 
 bars. Stay-bolts bind the crown-sheet and the crown- 
 bars securely together. The tubes or flues that 
 connect the fire-box and the smoke-box are about 
 two hundred in number, and are generally 2 inches di- 
 ameter. These flues form so many small chimneys to 
 carry away the hot gases from the fire ; and being sur- 
 rounded by the water inside the boiler, the heat is 
 quickly given up to the water. This " multi-tubular" 
 arrangement of the boiler enables the steam to be 
 generated with great rapidity, 
 
 HOW STEAM MOVES THE ENGINE. 
 
 When a locomotive is ready for raising steam, the 
 boiler is filled with water till the crown-sheet of the 
 fire-box is well covered. When the water in the boiler 
 begins to get low, this crown-sheet is the first part ex- 
 posed to the fire to become uncovered, and great care 
 must be exercised to prevent this while there is fire in 
 the fire-box, for the dry sheets are quickly destroyed 
 when exposed to a hot fire. 
 
 The water being put in to cover the crown-sheet, a 
 fire is started in the fire-box and steam is quickly raised, 
 
INTRODUCTION. xvil 
 
 When the engineer gets ready to move the engine, he 
 puts the reverse lever 20 (Plate B) in forward or back 
 motion, which puts the eccentric-rod 12 or 12' opposite 
 the bottom rocker-pin and gives one of the rods the 
 power to operate the slide-valve 33 (Plate A) for the 
 direction the engine is intended to be run. The engi- 
 neer then carefully pulls the throttle-lever 51, which 
 opens the throttle-valve 88 and admits steam into the 
 stand-pipe 87. The throttle-valve which closes this 
 stand-pipe is a double-seated poppit-valve formed of 
 two flat circular pieces joined by a stem, one piece 
 being smaller than the other so that it can pass through 
 the upper hole but close the lower one. When the 
 throttle-valve is moved, steam passes in above and below 
 the valve. This arrangement makes a partly balanced 
 valve which is easily moved. Steam passes through 
 the stand-pipe 87 into the dry-pipe 86, thence through 
 the branch pipe 85 in the smoke-box seen in Plate C 
 to the steam-pipes 84, which lead it through the cylin- 
 der saddle into the steam-chests 66, 33, 33'. The open- 
 ings where the steam-pipes are jointed upon the saddle 
 are marked 84 in Plate B. In Plate A, the steam-chest 
 66 is represented with the valve 33 uncovering the for- 
 ward port, through which the steam passes into the 
 cylinder 1, pushing the piston 64 towards the back 
 head. This movement is imparted through the piston- 
 rod 65 and main rod 3 to the crank-pin 5, which turns 
 the driving-wheels. The crank-pin is seen on the lower 
 quarter. The left-hand side of this engine is shown. 
 As the cranks are set at fight angles to each other with 
 the right-hand crank leading, the right-hand crank on 
 this engine would now be on the back center. 
 
XV111 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It will be seen that the back end of the cylinder is 
 open to the exhaust, as the escaping steam is free to 
 pass through the port shown white up to the cavity 
 under the valve 33 and thence into the opening of the 
 exhaust-pipe. When the piston moves a little farther 
 towards the back head, the valve will close the back 
 port and open the front one to the exhaust, letting the 
 steam in the front end of the cylinder escape. The 
 parts can be seen more clearly in Plate D. If a draw- 
 ing of the cylinder be made and patterns of the piston 
 and valve be cut out of thick paper, they can be moved 
 so that a student can obtain a clear idea of how the 
 steam gets into and out of the cylinder. 
 
 ESCAPE OF EXHAUST STEAM. 
 
 Returning to Plate B : When the steam passes into 
 the exhaust passage under the valve, it goes through a 
 cavity in the saddle and emerges at 81 into the exhaust 
 pipe 80, finally escaping at the nozzle 81 and passing 
 to the atmosphere through the stack 25. As each puff 
 passes through the stack it exerts a sort of pumping 
 action on the smoke-box, tending to create a vacuum. 
 This draws the fire-gases rapidly through the tubes and 
 creates the forced draft on the fire required for rapid 
 steam-making. The amount of vacuum created is con- 
 trolled to some extent by the diameter of the nozzle, 
 If the nozzle is small the steam escapes with increased 
 rapidity, thereby tending to increase the pull on the fire. 
 
 DRAFT ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 The locomotive shown has an extension smoke-box 
 the purpose of which is to arrest sparks. Set at an 
 
introduction: xix 
 
 angle in front of the tube openings there is a plate 82 
 called the diaphragm. The object of this plate is to 
 regulate the draft through the different rows of flues. 
 When the gases from the fire, which tend to fly 
 upwards, are not controlled in their movement, there 
 is a rush through the upper rows of tubes, and the 
 lower ones do not do their share of steam-making. 
 The diaphragm plate partly obstructs the upper 
 tubes, and if it is set right makes the flow of 
 gases uniform. The petticoat-pipe performs similar 
 functions where it is used. When the sparks pass 
 through the tubes they strike the diaphragm and are 
 projected forward in the extension and lie undisturbed 
 away from the direct line of draft, which is strongest 
 below the smoke-stack. A netting marked 83 83 83 
 helps to prevent the sparks from being drawn out of 
 the smoke-box. There are various ways of arranging 
 the netting, and it is generally put in to give as much 
 area as possible. 
 
 NAMES OF PARTS. 
 
 The names of nearly all the parts of the locomotive 
 maybe learned by finding the numbers in the first three 
 plates and identifying them by means of the following 
 list: 
 
 1. Cylinders. 
 
 2. Main driving-axle. 
 
 3. Main rod. 
 
 4. Side rod. 
 
 5. Main crank-pin. 
 
 6. Truck-wheels. 
 
XX IN TROD UC TION. 
 
 7. Main driving-wheels. 
 
 8. Back driving or trailing wheels. 
 
 9. Fire-box. 
 
 10. Expansion braces. 
 
 11. Eccentrics. 
 
 12. Eccentric-rods. 
 
 13. Link. 
 
 14. Rocker. 
 
 15. Link-hanger. 
 
 16. Horizontal arm of lifting-shaft. 
 
 17. Lifting, or tumbling-shaft. 
 
 18. Upright arm of lifting-shaft. 
 
 19. Reach-rod. 
 
 20. ) 
 
 21. v Reversing-lever. 
 
 22. ) 
 
 23. Barrel, or waist of boiler. 
 
 24. Smoke-box. 
 
 25. Chimney or smoke-stack. 
 
 26. Water spaces. 
 
 27. Grate. 
 
 28. Furnace-door. 
 
 29. Ash-pan. 
 
 30. Front ash-pan damper. 
 
 31. Back ash-pan damper. 
 
 32. Frames. 
 337 Main valve. 
 
 34. Valve-stem. 
 
 35. Head-light. 
 
 36. Head-light reflector. 
 
 37. Head-light lamp. 
 
 38. Pilot. 
 
introduction: xxi 
 
 39. Sand-box. 
 
 40. Sand-pipes. 
 
 41. Bell. 
 
 42. Dome. 
 
 43. Cab. 
 
 44. Safety-valve. 
 
 45. Safety-valve lever. 
 
 46. Whistle. 
 
 47. Whistle-lever. 
 
 48. Draw-bar. 
 
 49. Coupling-pin. 
 
 50. Safety-chains. 
 
 51. Throttle-lever. 
 
 52. Injector. 
 
 53. Injector steam-pipe. 
 
 54. Injector feed-pipe. 
 
 55. Injector check-valve. 
 
 56. Running-board. 
 
 57. Hand-rail. 
 
 58. Equalizing-lever. 
 
 59. Driving-springs. 
 
 60. Counterbalance weights. 
 
 61. Driving-wheel guard. 
 
 62. Guide-bar. 
 
 63. Cross-head. 
 
 64. Piston. 
 
 65. Piston-rod. 
 
 66. Steam-chest. 
 
 67. Rubbing-plate for balanced valve. 
 
 68. Steam-chest relief-valve. 
 
 69. Hopper of extension smoke-box. 
 
 70. Smoke-box door. 
 
xxii INTRODUCTION, 
 
 71. Cylinder-cocks. 
 
 72. Cylinder-cock lever. 
 
 73. Cylinder-cock shaft. 
 
 74. Truck-spring. 
 
 75. Truck-frame. 
 
 76. Truck equalizing-lever 
 yy. Truck wheel-guard. 
 
 78. Truck check-chain. 
 
 79. Push-bar. 
 
 80. Exhaust-pipes. 
 
 81. Exhaust-nozzle. 
 
 82. Diaphragm. 
 
 83. Wire-netting. 
 
 84. Steam-pipe. 
 
 85. T-pipe. 
 
 86. Dry-pipe. 
 
 87. Throttle-pipe. 
 
 88. Throttle-valve. 
 89 Throttle-stem. 
 
 90. Throttle bell-crank. 
 
 91. Steam-gauge. 
 
 92. Steam-gauge lamr;. 
 
 93. Whistle-lever. 
 
 94. Gauge-cocks. 
 
 95. Foot-board. 
 
 96. Truck center-bearing, 
 
 97. Truck center-plate. 
 
 98. Truck center-pin. 
 
 99. Whistle-shaft. 
 
 100. Suction-pipes. 
 
 101. Foot-steps of cab. 
 
 102. Hand-holds of cab. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XXlll 
 
 103. Front door of cab. 
 
 104. Water-gauge. 
 
 105. Stand for oil-cans. 
 
 106. Drip for gauge-cocks. 
 
 107. Injector-valve. 
 
 108. Oil-cup for oiling main valves. 
 
 109. Handle for opening valves in sand-box. 
 no. Handle for opening front damper, 
 in. Bell-crank for opening front damper. 
 
 112. Rod for opening front damper. 
 
 113. Mud-plugs. 
 
 CYLINDER AND STEAM-CHEST. 
 
 The leading details of the locomotive's mechanism 
 ,nay be more clearly studied from succeeding plates. 
 
 y/////////////////////^^^^^ 
 
 Plate D 
 
xxiv IN TROD UC TION . 
 
 Plate D gives a cross-section of the cylinder and steam* 
 chest. The principal parts are ; 
 
 1. Cylinder. 
 
 2. Front cylinder-head. 
 
 3. Back cylinder-head. 
 
 4. Front casing-cover. 
 
 5. Back casing-cover. 
 
 6. Cylinder-gland. 
 
 7. Cylinder-gland packing. 
 
 8. Wood-lagging. 
 
 9. Casing. 
 
 10. Steam-chest. 
 
 11. Steam chest cover. 
 
 12. Steam-chest packing-gland. 
 
 13. Gland-ring. 
 
 14. Steam-chest casing. 
 
 15. Side of chest-casing. 
 
 16. Slide-valve. 
 
 17. Valve-yoke. 
 
 18. Steam-chest joint. 
 
 19. Oil-pipe stem. 
 
 pistons. 
 
 The piston which works in the cylinder is shown \\ 
 enlarged form in Plate E. The purpose of the piston 
 head is to fill the cylinder bore tight enough to 
 prevent steam blowing through between the walls of 
 the cylinder and the piston-head, and yet be loose 
 enough to move freely with as little friction as possible. 
 There are various forms of piston-heads, and three kinds 
 are shown in Plate E. Figure 1 is what is known as a 
 solid head with two grooves round the outside into 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XXV 
 
xxvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 which packing-rings are sprung in. Packing-rings are 
 made of a good quality of cast-iron turned a little 
 larger than the bore of the cylinder, and a piece cut out 
 which permits the ring to be compressed when the 
 piston is put into the cylinder. The rings then press 
 the sides of the cylinder and soon form a steam-tight 
 connection. 
 
 In Figure 2 a piston-head is shown with what is 
 known as spring packing. The packing-rings are not 
 made to spring, but are kept up to the cylinder-walls by 
 separate small springs secured inside the body of the 
 piston-head and held in tension by a stud. 
 
 Figure 3 illustrates the most common form of piston 
 in use. The packing-rings are made with spring to them 
 as in Figure I, but they are carried on T-ring or bull- 
 ring 9, which fits on the piston-spider and is held in 
 place by the follower-plate 2. 
 
 The piston consists of the following parts : 
 
 1. Head. 
 
 2. Follower-plate. 
 
 3. Follower-bolts. 
 
 4. Follower-bolt socket. 
 
 5. Piston-rod. 
 
 6. Rod key-way. 
 
 7. Piston-rod nut. 
 
 8. Packing-rings (cast-iron)., 
 
 9. Bull-ring. 
 
 10. Composite packing-rings 
 
 11. Packing-spring. 
 
 12. Spring stud and nuts. 
 
introduction: xxvi 
 
 LINK MOTION. 
 
 Plate F, gives a very clear illustration of the link 
 motion and its connections on the right-hand side of a 
 Baldwin locomotive as they appear when the piston is on 
 the forward center, and the engine is in full gear forward. 
 
 The principal parts shown are : 
 
 1. Axle. 
 
 2. Eccentric. 
 
 3. Forward half of eccentric-strap. 
 
 4. Back half of eccentric-strap. 
 
 5. Eccentric-rod (forward motion). 
 
 6. Eccentric-rod (backward motion), 
 
 7. Expansion link, back half. 
 
 8. Expansion link, front half. 
 
 9. Expansion-link filling-block. 
 
 10. Expansion-link saddle. 
 
 11. Expansion-link sliding-block. 
 
 12. Link-hanger. 
 
 13. Tumbling-shaft, 
 
 14. Counterbalance-spring. 
 
 15. Tumbling-shaft bracket. 
 
 16. Reach-rod. 
 
 17. Upper rocker-arm. 
 
 18. Rocker-box. 
 
 19. Valve-rod. 
 
 RUNNING GEAR. 
 
 Plates G, H, I and J illustrate details of the frames, 
 springs and equalizers, the arrangement of which 
 requires to be carefully studied by those who are con- 
 
XXV111 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
IN TR OB UC TION. XXIX 
 
 nected with the running of locomotives, for a great part 
 of the failures that happen to modern locomotives arise 
 from accidents to some part of the running gear. 
 
 By referring back to Plate B, it will be seen that the 
 frames, driving-wheels, and truck with their minor parts 
 form a carriage which carries the boiler and cylinders. 
 When this carriage is properly designed we have a 
 good riding locomotive. To bring this about the whole 
 of the running gear, as this part of the engine is called, 
 must work harmoniously together. Pressing upon the 
 upper half of the different axle-journals are bearings of 
 brass or some other soft metal on which the weight of 
 the engine rests. The bearing is in an axle-box which 
 is made strong enough to protect the brass bearing and 
 to withstand the shocks of the hard service. The driv- 
 ing axle-boxes are held firm in oblong formations on 
 the frames called jaws, and secured so that the box 
 can rise and fall freely a certain distance. On the top 
 of the axle-box and spanning the frame is a casting 
 called a stirrup on which the driving-spring rests. On 
 one end hangers connect the spring to the frame, taking 
 their part in holding up the whole of the weight resting 
 on the wheels, and on the other end connecting with 
 the equalizing beam which tends to transmit any severe 
 shock over all the connecting wheels. 
 
 In Plate G, class C is the frame of an eight-wheel 
 engine, class D is the frame of a mogul engine, and 
 class E is the frame of a consolidation engine. 
 
 The principal parts are : 
 
 1. Top rail of frame and pedestals. 
 
 2. Front rail of frame. 
 
 3. Front top of mogul and consolidation frame. 
 
XXX 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 s 
 
IN TROD UCTION. 
 
 XXXI 
 
XXX11 
 
 INTROD UCTION. 
 
IN TROD UCTION. 
 
 XXXlll 
 
XXXIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 4. Bottom of mogul and consolidation frame. 
 
 5. Middle brace. 
 
 6. Back brace. 
 
 * 7. Buffer-block. 
 8. Pedestal-wedge. 
 »9. Wedge-bolt. 
 
 10. Pedestal-shoe. 
 
 Above 9 is the pedestal-binder, the figure for which 
 has been omitted. 
 
 The principal arrangements shown in Plates H, I and 
 J are: Figure 1 is spring and equalizer arrangement of 
 an ordinary eight-wheel engine with both springs on 
 top of axle-boxes. Figure 2 shows a spring arrange- 
 ment for an eight-wheel locomotive where only one 
 spring can be placed above the frames. Figures 3 to 9 
 show a variety of arrangements for springs and equal- 
 izers that embrace nearly all requirements. 
 
 The following parts are shown : 
 
 1. Forward driving-spring. 
 
 2. Second driving-spring. 
 
 3. Third driving-spring. 
 
 4. Fourth driving-spring. 
 
 5. Fifth driving-spring. 
 
 6. Forward-truck equalizer. 
 
 7. 8, 9, 10. Different kinds of equalizers. 
 
 11. Equalizer-link. 
 
 I 2. Equalizer-fulcrum. 
 
 13. Spring-hanger. 
 
 14. Spring-stirrup. 
 
 15. Truck center-pin. 
 
 16. Transverse equalizer. 
 
 In Plate K are shown the form of construction of a 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 XXXV 
 
XXXVI IN TR OB UC TION. 
 
 four-wheel engine-truck and of a two- wheel pony-truck. 
 The principal parts are : 
 
 1. Center-pin. 
 
 2. Swing-bolster. 
 
 3. Swing-bolster cross-tie. 
 
 4. Swing-bolster hanger. 
 
 5. Truck- frame. 
 
 6. Truck-pedestal. 
 
 7. Truck binder-brace. 
 
 8. Equalizer. 
 
 9. Spring-hanger. 
 
 10. Axle. 
 
 11. Wheel. 
 
 12. Radius bar. 
 
 13. Radius-bar brace. 
 
 14. Truck-frame. 
 
 15. Spring-stirrup. 
 
 16. Spring-seat. 
 
 17. Safety-strap. 
 
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 ENGINEERS AND THEIR DUTIES. 
 
 ATTRIBUTES THAT MAKE A GOOD ENGINEER. 
 
 The locomotive engine which reaches nearest per- 
 fection, is one which performs the greatest amount of 
 work at the least cost for fuel, lubricants, wear and 
 tear of machinery and of the track traversed : the 
 nearest approach to perfection in an engineer, is the 
 man who can work the engine so as to develop its best 
 capabilities at the least cost. Poets are said to be 
 born, not made. The same may be said of engineers. 
 One man may have charge of an engine for only a few 
 months, and yet exhibit thorough knowledge of his 
 business, displaying sagacity resembling instinct con- 
 cerning the treatment necessary to secure the best per- 
 formance from his engine : another man, who appears 
 equally intelligent in matters not pertaining to the lo- 
 comotive, never develops a thorough understanding of 
 the machine. 
 
2 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING, 
 
 There are few lines of work where the faculty of 
 concentrating the mind to the work on hand is so 
 valuable as in that of running a locomotive. A man 
 may be highly intelligent and be well endowed with 
 general knowledge, but on a locomotive he will make a 
 failure, unless his whole attention while on duty, is de- 
 voted to the duties of taking the locomotive and train 
 over the division safely on time. The man, who lets 
 outside hobbies or interests take much of his time 
 while running a locomotive, is likely to get into many 
 scrapes. 
 
 HOW ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL ARE 
 ACQUIRED. 
 
 A man who possesses the natural gifts necessary for 
 the making of a good engineer, will advance more 
 rapidly in acquiring mastery of the business than does 
 one whom Nature intended for a ditcher. But there 
 is no royal road to the knowledge requisite for making 
 a first-class engineer. The capability of handling an 
 engine can be acquired by a few months' practice. 
 Opening the throttle, and moving the reverse lever, 
 require but scanty skill ; there is no great accomplish- 
 ment in being able to pack a gland, or tighten up a 
 loose nut ; but the magazine of practical knowledge, 
 which enables an engineer to meet every emergency 
 with calmness and promptitude, is obtained only by 
 years of experience on the footboard, and by assidu- 
 ous observation while there. 
 
ENGINEERS AND THEIR DUTIES. 
 
 PUBLIC INTEREST IN LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS. 
 
 Ever since the incipiency of the railroad system, a 
 close interest has been manifested by the general pub- 
 lic in the character and capabilities of locomotive engi- 
 neers. This is natural, for no other class of men hold 
 the safe-keeping of so much life and property in their 
 hands. 
 
 IGNORANCE VERSUS KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 Two leading pioneers of railway progress in Europe 
 took diametrically opposite views of the intellectual 
 qualities best calculated to make a good engineer. 
 George Stephenson preferred intelligent men, well 
 educated and read up in mechanical and physical sci- 
 ence ; Brunei recommended illiterate men for taking 
 charge of engines, on the novel hypothesis that, hav- 
 ing nothing else in their heads, there would be abun- 
 dant room for the acquirement of knowledge respecting 
 their work. In every test of skill, the intelligent men 
 proved victors. 
 
 ILLITERATE ENGINEERS NOT WANTED IN AMERICA. 
 
 No demand for illiterate or ignorant engineers has 
 ever arisen in America. Many men who have spent 
 an important portion of their lives on the footboard 
 have risen to grace the highest ranks of the mechani- 
 cal and social world. The pioneer engines, which 
 demonstrated the successful working of locomotive 
 power, were run by some of the most accomplished 
 mechanical engineers in the country. As an engine 
 
4 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 adapted to the work it has to perform, the American 
 locomotive is recognized to have always kept ahead of 
 its compeers in other parts of the world. No incon- 
 siderable part of this superiority is due to the fact, 
 that nearly all the master mechanics who control the 
 designing of our locomotives have had experience in 
 running them, and thereby understand exactly the 
 qualities most needed for the work to be done. 
 
 GROWING IMPORTANCE OF ENGINEERS' DUTIES. 
 
 The safe and punctual operation of our railroads has 
 always depended to a great extent, and always will de- 
 pend, upon the discriminating care and judgment of the 
 engineer. Every year sees the introduction of new 
 appliances for the purpose of increasing the safety of 
 train operating, but no automatic appliances will ever 
 enable a man to run a locomotive safely if he is 
 deficient in judgment, care, and intelligence. The 
 increasing amount of train mechanism every year im- 
 poses new responsibilities upon the locomotive engine- 
 men. The tendency is to require the engineer to 
 understand not only everything about the locomotive, 
 but every detail of air-brake mechanism, and also that 
 of train signals, heating apparatus, lighting appliances 
 and every other train attachment. He is gradually 
 coming to fill on a train the position that a chief engi- 
 neer holds on a steamer. 
 
 INDIVIDUALITY OF AMERICAN ENGINEERS. 
 
 Writing on the fitness of various railroad employes 
 for their duties, that eminent authority, Ex-Railroad 
 
ENGINEERS AND THEIR DUTIES. 5 
 
 Commissioner Charles F. Adams says: " In discuss- 
 ing and comparing the appliances used in the prac- 
 tical operating of railroads in different countries, there 
 is one element, however, which can never be left out 
 of the account. The intelligence, quickness of per- 
 ception, and capacity for taking care of themselves, — 
 that combination of qualities, which, taken together, 
 constitute individuality, and adaptability to circum- 
 stances, — vary greatly among the railroad employes of 
 different countries. The American locomotive engi- 
 neer, as he is called, is especially gifted in this way. 
 He can be relied on to take care of himself and his 
 train under circumstances which in other countries 
 would be thought to insure disaster." 
 
 NECESSITY FOR CLASS IMPROVEMENT. 
 
 While American locomotive engineers can confi- 
 dently invite comparison between their own mechani- 
 cal and intellectual attainments and those of their 
 compeers in any nation under the sun, there still re- 
 mains ample room for improvement. If they are not 
 advancing, they are retrograding. The engineer who 
 looks back to companions of a generation ago, and 
 says that we know as much as they did, but no more, 
 implies the assertion that his class is going backward. 
 On very few roads, and in but rare instances, can this 
 grave charge be made, that the engineers are falling 
 behind in the intellectual race. On the contrary, 
 there are signs all around us of substantial work in the 
 cause of intellectual and moral advancement. 
 
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 THE SKILL OF ENGINEERS INFLUENCES OPERATING 
 EXPENSES. 
 
 No class of railroad -men affects the expenses of 
 operating so directly as engineers do. The daily 
 wages paid to an engineer is a trifling sum compared 
 to the amount he can save or waste by good or bad 
 management of his engine. Fuel wasted, lubricants 
 thrown away, supplies destroyed, and machinery 
 abused, leading to extravagant running repairs, make 
 up a long bill by the end of each month, where en- 
 ginemen are incompetent. Every man with any spark 
 of manliness in his breast will strive to become master 
 of his work ; and, stirred by this ambition, he will 
 avoid wasting the material of his employer just as 
 zealously as if the stores were his own property ; and 
 only such men deserve a position on the footboard. 
 
 The day has passed away when an engineer was 
 regarded as perfectly competent so long as he could 
 take his train over the road on time. Nowadays a 
 man must get the train along on schedule time to be 
 tolerated at all, and he is not considered a first-class 
 engineer unless he possesses the knowledge which ena- 
 bles him to take the greatest amount of work out of the 
 engine with the least possible expense. To accom- 
 plish such results, a thorough acquaintance with all de- 
 tails of the engine is essential, so that the entire ma- 
 chine may be operated as a harmonious unit, without 
 jar or pound ; the various methods of economizing heat 
 must be intimately understood, and the laws which 
 
ENGINEERS AND THEIR DUTIES. 7 
 
 govern combustion should be well known so far as they 
 apply to the management of the nre. 
 
 METHODS OF SELF-IMPROVEMENT. 
 
 To obtain this knowledge, which gives power, and 
 directly increases a man's intrinsic value, young en- 
 gineers and aspiring firemen must devote a portion of 
 their leisure time to the form of self-improvement relat- 
 ing to the locomotive. Socrates, a sagacious old Greek 
 philosopher, believed that the easiest way to obtain 
 knowledge was by persistently asking questions. 
 Young engineers can turn this system to good account. 
 Never feel ashamed to ask for information where it is 
 needed, and do not imagine that a man has reached the 
 limit of mechanical knowledge when he knows how to 
 open and shut the throttle-valve. The more a man 
 progresses in studying out the philosophy of the loco- 
 motive and its economical operation the more he gets 
 convinced of his own limited knowledge. A young 
 engineer who seeks for knowledge by questioning his 
 elders must not feel discouraged at a rebuff. Men 
 who refuse to answer civilly questions asked by juniors 
 searching for information are generally in the dark 
 themselves, and attempt by rudeness to conceal their 
 own ignorance. 
 
 OBSERVING SHOP OPERATIONS. 
 
 The system in vogue in most of our States, especially 
 in the West, of taking on men for firemen who have 
 received no previous mechanical training leaves a wide 
 field open for engineering instruction. Such men can- 
 
8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 not spend too much time watching the operations go- 
 ing on in repair-shops; every detail of round-house 
 work should be closely observed ; the various parts of 
 the great machine they are learning to manage should 
 be studied in detail. No operation of repairs is too 
 trifling to receive strict attention. Where the machin- 
 ists are examining piston-packing, facing valves, reduc- 
 ing rod-brasses, or lining down wedges, the ambitious 
 novice will, by close watching of the work, obtain 
 knowledge of the most useful kind. Looking on will 
 not teach him how to do the work, but interesting 
 himself in the procedure is a long step in the direction 
 of learning. Repairing of pumps and injectors is in- 
 teresting work, full of instructive points which may 
 prove invaluable on the road. 'The rough work per- 
 formed by the men who change truck-wheels, put 
 new brasses in oil-boxes, and replace broken springs 
 is worthy of close attention ; for it is just such work 
 that enginemen are most likely to be called upon to 
 perform on the road in cases of accident. To obtain 
 a thorough insight into the working of the locomo- 
 tive, no detail of its construction is too trifling for 
 attention. The unison of the aggregate machine de- 
 pends upon the harmonious adjustment of the various 
 parts; and, unless a man understands the connection 
 of the details, he is never likely to become skillful in 
 detecting derangements. 
 
 WHERE IGNORANCE WAS RUIN. 
 
 I knew a case where the neglect to learn how minor 
 work about the engine was done proved fatal to the 
 
ENGINEERS AND THEIR DUTIES. 9 
 
 prospects of a young engineer. A new engine-truck 
 box had been adopted shortly before he went running; 
 and, although he had often seen the cellar taken down 
 by the round-house men when they were packing the 
 trucks, he never paid close attention to how it was 
 done. As the new plan was a radical change from the 
 old practice, taking down the new cellar was a little 
 puzzling at first to a man who did no': know how to do 
 it. One day this young engineer took out an engine 
 with the new kind of truck, and a journal got running 
 hot. He crept under the truck among snow and 
 slush to take the cellar down for packing ; but he 
 struggled half an hour over it, and could not get the 
 thing down. Then the conductor came along, to see 
 what was the matter; and, being posted on such work, 
 he perceived that the yoflng engineer did not know 
 how to take the cellar out of the box. The conductor 
 helped the engineer to do a job he should have needed 
 no assistance with. The story was presently carried 
 to headquarters with additions, and was the means of 
 returning the young engineer to the left-hand side. 
 
 PREJUDICE AGAINST STUDYING BOOKS. 
 
 There is a silly prejudice in some quarters against 
 engineers applying to books for information respecting 
 their engines. Engineers are numerous who boast 
 noisily that all their knowledge is derived from actual 
 experience, and they despise theorists who study 
 books, drawings, or models in acquiring particulars 
 concerning the construction or operation of the loco- 
 motive parts. Such men have nothing to boast of. 
 
IO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 They never learn much, because ignorant egotism 
 keeps them blind. They keep the ranks of the mere 
 stopper and starter well filled. 
 
 THE KIND OF KNOWLEDGE GAINED FROM BOOKS. 
 
 The books on mechanical practice which these ultra- 
 practical men despise contain in condensed form the 
 experience and discoveries that have been gleaned 
 from the hardest workers and thinkers of past ages. 
 The product of long years of toilful experiment, where 
 intense thought has furrowed expansive brows, and 
 weary watching has whitened raven locks, is often 
 recorded on a few pages. A mechanical fact which an 
 experimenter has spent years in discovering and eluci- 
 dating can be learned and tested by a student in as 
 many hours. The man who despises book-knowledge 
 relating to any calling or profession rejects the wis- 
 dom begotten of former recorded labor. 
 
 The study of good books relating to the locomotive 
 will teach the young engineer many things about his 
 engine that can be verified by practice. If anything 
 in a book induces an engineer to think for himself, 
 and sets him to observing and investigating, it is cer- 
 tain to do him good. 
 
 MODELS AND CROSS-SECTIONS. 
 
 A highly instructive and interesting means of self- 
 instruction that can be reached by most ambitious en- 
 gineers and firemen is the study of models and cut 
 cross-sections of locomotive mechanism. Many divi- 
 sion brotherhood rooms used by engineers and fire- 
 
ENGINEERS AND THEIR DUTIES. II 
 
 men have models and cross-sections of valve gear, 
 lubricators, brake mechanism, etc. These appliances 
 offer invaluable aid to men anxious to learn about the 
 working of the parts they represent, and constant use 
 ought to be made of them. 
 
 Valve gears are a favorite study with young engi- 
 neers, and information about their arrangement and 
 action can be studied to the greatest advantage by the 
 aid of a model. The chapters on valve motion, far- 
 ther on in this book, are made as plain as simple 
 words and clear wood-cuts can make them ; but the 
 subjects treated will be much easier understood if 
 they are studied with a model at hand for reference. 
 Two or three studious engineers or firemen can give 
 great help to each other by forming a class to study a 
 model together by the aid of the chapters on valve 
 gear. When that part is mastered, they will be likely 
 to study the Westinghouse air-brake and other parts 
 in the same way. The union of two or three to- 
 gether for the purpose of mutual study yields a form 
 of strength that is certain to have a sustaining influ- 
 ence throughout the life of those participating. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 HOW LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS ARE MADE. 
 
 RELIABLE MEN NEEDED TO RUN LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 Locomotive engine running is one of the most 
 modern of trades, consequently its acquirement has 
 not been controlled by the exact methods associated 
 with ancient guild apprenticeships. Nevertheless, 
 graduates to this business do not take charge of the 
 iron horse without the full meed of experience and 
 skill requisite for performing their duties successfully. 
 The man who runs a locomotive engine on our crowded 
 railroads has so much valuable property, directly and 
 indirectly, under his care, so much of life and limb 
 depending upon his skill and ability, that railroad 
 companies are not likely to intrust the position to 
 those with a suspicion of incompetency resting upon 
 them. 
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF RUNNING LOCOMOTIVES AT NIGHT, 
 AND DURING BAD WEATHER. 
 
 In the matter of speed alone there is much to learn 
 before a man can safely run a locomotive. During 
 daylight a novice will generally be half out in estima- 
 ting speed; and his judgment is merely wild guess- 
 
 12 
 
HOW LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS ARE MADE. 1 3 
 
 work, regulated more by the condition of the track 
 than by the velocity his train is reaching. On a 
 smooth piece of track he thinks he is making twenty- 
 five miles an hour, when forty miles is about the cor- 
 rect speed: then he strikes a rough portion of the 
 road-bed, and concludes he is tearing along at thirty 
 miles an hour, when he is scarcely reaching twenty 
 miles; since the first lurchy spot made him shut off 
 twenty per cent of the steam. At night the case is 
 much worse, especially when the weather proves un- 
 favorable. On a wild, stormy night the accumulated 
 experience of years on the footboard, which trains a 
 man to judge of speed by sound of the revolving 
 wheels, and to locate his position between stations 
 from a tree, a shrub, a protruding bank, or any other 
 trifling object that would pass unnoticed by a less cul- 
 tivated eye, is all needed to aid an engineer in work- 
 ing along with unvaried speed without jolt or tumult. 
 On such a night a man strange to the business can- 
 not work a locomotive and exercise proper control 
 over its movements. He may place the reverse-lever 
 latch in a certain notch, and keep the steam on; he 
 can regulate the injector after a fashion, and watch 
 that the water shall not get too low in the boiler ; he 
 can shut off in good season while approaching stations, 
 and blunder into each depot by repeatedly applying 
 steam ; but he exerts no control over the train, knows 
 nothing of what the engine is doing, and is constantly 
 liable to break the train in two. A diagram of his 
 speed would fluctuate as irregularly as the profile lines 
 of a bluffy country. This is where a machinist's skill 
 
14 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 does not apply to locomotive-running until it is sup- 
 plemented by an intimate knowledge of speed, of 
 facility at handling a train and keeping the couplings 
 intact, and of insight into the best methods of econ- 
 omizing steam. 
 
 These are essentials which every man should pos- 
 sess before he is put in charge of a locomotive on the 
 road. The great fund of practical knowledge which 
 stamps the first-class engineer is amassed by general 
 labor during years of vigilant observation on the foot- 
 board, amidst many changes of fair and foul weather. 
 
 As passing through the occupation of fireman was 
 the only way men could obtain practical knowledge of 
 engine-running before taking charge, railroad officials 
 all over the world gradually fell into the way of re- 
 garding that as the proper channel for men to traverse 
 before reaching the right-hand side of the locomotive. 
 
 KIND OF MEN TO BE CHOSEN AS FIREMEN. 
 
 As the pay for firemen rules moderately good, even 
 when compared with other skilled labor; and as the 
 higher position of engineer looms like a beacon not 
 far ahead, — there is always a liberal choice of good 
 men to begin work as firemen. Most railroad com- 
 panies recognize the importance of exercising judg- 
 ment and discretion in selecting the men who are to 
 run as their future engineers. Sobriety, industry, and 
 intelligence are essential attributes in a fireman who 
 is going to prove a success in his calling. Lack in 
 any one of these qualities will quickly prove fatal to a 
 fireman's prospects of advancement. Sobriety is of 
 
HOW LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS ARE MADE. 1 5 
 
 the first importance, because a man who is not strictly 
 temperate should not be tolerated for a moment 
 about a locomotive, since he is a source of danger to 
 himself and others; industry is needed to lighten the 
 burden of a fireman's duties, for oftentimes they are 
 arduous beyond the conception of strangers ; and 
 wanting in the third quality, intelligence, a man can 
 never be a good fireman in the wide sense of the 
 word, since one deficient in mental tact never rises 
 higher than a human machine. An intelligent fire- 
 man may be ignorant of the scientific nomenclature 
 relating to combustion, but he will be perfectly famil- 
 iar with all the practical phenomena connected with 
 the economical generation of steam. Such a man 
 does not imagine that he has reached the limit of 
 locomotive knowledge when he understands how to 
 keep an engine hot and can shine up the jacket. 
 Every trip reveals something new about his art, every 
 day opens his vision to strange facts about the won- 
 derful machine he is learning to manage. And so, 
 week by week, he goes on his way, attending cheer- 
 fully to his duties, and accumulating the knowledge 
 that will eventually make him a first-class locomotive 
 engineer. 
 
 FIRST TRIPS. 
 
 A youth entirely unacquainted with all the opera- 
 tions which a fireman is called upon to perform finds 
 the first trip a terribly arduous ordeal, even with some 
 previous experience of railroad work. When his first 
 trip introduces him to the locomotive and to railroad 
 
1 6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 life at the same time, the day is certain to be a record 
 of personal tribulation. To ride for ten or twelve 
 hours on an engine for the first time, standing on 
 one's feet, and subject to the shaking motion, is in- 
 tensely tiresome, even if a man has no work to do. 
 But when he has to ride during that period, and in 
 addition has to shovel six or eight tons of coal, most 
 of which has to be handled twice, the job proves no 
 sinecure. Then, the posture of his body while doing 
 work is new ; he is expected and required to pitch 
 coal upon certain exact spots, through a small door, 
 while the engine is swinging about so that he can 
 scarcely keep his feet ; his hands get blistered with 
 the shovel, and his eyes grow dazzled from the re- 
 splendent light of the fire. Then come the additional 
 side duties of taking water, shaking the grates, clean- 
 ing the ash-pan, or even the fire, where bad coal is 
 used, filling oil-cans, and trimming lamps, to say 
 nothing of polishing and keeping things clean and 
 tidy. By the time all these duties are attended to 
 the young fireman does not find a great deal of leisure 
 to admire the passing scenery. 
 
 POPULAR MISCONCEPTION OF A FIREMAN'S DUTIES. 
 
 A great many idle young fellows, ignorant of rail- 
 road affairs, imagine that a fireman's principal work 
 consists in ringing the bell, and showing himself off 
 conspicuously in coming into stations. They look 
 upon the business as being of the heroic kind, and 
 strive to get taken on as firemen. If a youth of this 
 kind happens to succeed, and starts out on a run of 
 
HOW LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS ARE MADE. 1 7 
 
 one hundred and fifty miles with every car a heavy 
 engine will pull stuck on behind, his visions of having 
 reached something easy are quickly dispelled. 
 
 Like nearly every other occupation, that of fireman 
 has its drawbacks to counterbalance its advantages; 
 and the drawbacks weigh heaviest during the first ten 
 days. The man who enters the business under the 
 delusion that he can lead a life of semi-idleness must 
 change his views, or he will prove a failure. The man 
 who becomes a fireman with a spirit ready and willing 
 to overcome all difficulties, with a cheerful determina- 
 tion to do his duty with all his might, is certain of 
 success; and to such a man the work becomes easy 
 after a few weeks' practice. 
 
 LEARNING FIREMEN'S DUTIES. 
 
 Practice, combined with intelligent observation, 
 gradually makes a man familiar with the best styles 
 of firing, as adapted to all varieties of engines; and 
 he gets to understand intimately all the qualities of 
 coal to be met with, good, bad, and indifferent. As 
 his experience widens, his fire management is regu- 
 lated to accord with the kind of coal on hand, the 
 steaming properties of the engine, the weight of the 
 train, the character of the road and of the weather. 
 Firing, with all the details connected with it, is the 
 central figure of his work, the object of pre-eminent 
 concern ; but a good man does not allow this to pre- 
 vent him from attending regularly and exactly to his 
 remaining routine duties. 
 
1 8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 A GOOD FIREMAN MAKES A GOOD ENGINEER. 
 
 There is a familiar adage among railroad men, that 
 a good fireman is certain to make a good engineer; 
 and it rarely fails to come out true. To hear some 
 firemen of three months' standing talk, a stranger 
 might conclude that they knew more about engine- 
 running than the oldest engineer in the district. 
 These are not the good firemen. Good firemen learn 
 their own business with the humility born of earnest- 
 ness, and they do not undertake to instruct others in 
 matters beyond their own knowledge. It is the man 
 who goes into the heart of a subject, who understands 
 how much there is to learn, and is therefore modest 
 in parading his own acquirements, that succeeds. 
 
 LEARNING AN ENGINEER'S DUTIES. 
 
 When a fireman has mastered his duties sufficiently 
 to keep them going smoothly, he begins to find time 
 for watching the operations of the engineer. He 
 notes how the boiler is fed; and, upon his knowledge 
 of the engineer's practice in this respect, much of his 
 firing is regulated. The different methods of using 
 the steam by engineers, so that trains can be taken 
 over the road with the least expenditure of coal, are 
 engraven upon the memory of the observant foreman. 
 Many of the acquirements which commend a good 
 fireman for promotion are learned by imperceptible 
 degrees, — the knowledge of speed, for instance, which 
 enables a man to tell how fast a train is running on 
 all kinds of track, and under all conditions of weather. 
 
HOW LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS ABE MADE. 1 9 
 
 There would be no use in one strange to train service 
 going out for a few runs to learn speed. He might 
 learn nearly all other requisites of engine-running 
 before he was able to judge within ten miles of how 
 fast the train was going under adverse circumstances. 
 The same may be said of the sound which indicates 
 how an engine is working. It requires an experienced 
 ear to detect the false note which indicates that 
 something is wrong. Amidst the mingled sounds 
 produced by an engine and train hammering over a 
 steel track, the novice hears nothing but a medley of 
 confused noises, strange and meaningless as are the 
 harmonies of an opera to an untutored savage. But 
 the trained ear of an engineer can distinguish a strange 
 sound amidst all the tumult of thundering exhaust, 
 screaming steam, and clashing steel, as readily as an 
 accomplished musician can detect a false note in a 
 many-voiced chorus. Upon this ability to detect 
 growing defects which pave the way to disaster 
 depends much of an engineer's chances of success in 
 his calling. This kind of skill is not obtained by a 
 few weeks' industry : it is the gradual accumulation 
 of months and years of patient labor. 
 
 LEARNING TO KEEP THE LOCOMOTIVE IN RUNNING 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 As his acquaintance with the handling and ordinary 
 working of the locomotive extends, the aspiring fire- 
 man learns all about the packing of glands, and how 
 they should be kept so as to run to the best advan- 
 
20 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 tage: he displays an active interest in everything 
 relating to lubrication, from the packing of a box- 
 cellar to the regulating of a rod-cup. When the 
 engineer is round keying up rods, or doing other 
 necessary work about his engine, the ambitious fire- 
 man should give a helping hand, and thereby become 
 familiar with the operations that are likely to be of 
 service when he is required to draw upon his own 
 resources for doing the same work. 
 
 Of late years the art of locomotive construction has 
 been so highly developed, the amount of strain and 
 shocks to which each working part is subjected has 
 been so well calculated and provided against, that 
 breakages are really very rare on roads where the 
 motive power is kept in first-class condition. Conse- 
 quently, firemen gain comparatively small insight, on 
 the road, into the best and quickest methods of dis- 
 connecting engines, or of fixing up mishaps promptly, 
 so that a train may not be delayed longer than is 
 absolutely necessary. A fireman must get this infor- 
 mation beyond the daily routine of his experience. 
 He must search for the knowledge among those 
 competent to give it. Persistent inquiry among the 
 men posted on these matters ; observation amidst 
 machine-shop and round-house operations; and care- 
 ful study of locomotive construction, so that a clear 
 insight into the physiology of the machine may be 
 obtained, — will prepare one to meet accidents, armed 
 with the knowledge which vanquishes all difficulties. 
 Reflecting on probable or possible mishaps, and calcu- 
 lating what is best to be done under all contingencies 
 
HOW LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS ARE MADE. 21 
 
 that can be conceived, prepare a man to act promptly 
 when a break-down occurs. 
 
 METHODS OF PROMOTION ON OUR LEADING ROADS. 
 
 In the method of promotion of firemen consider- 
 able diversity of practice is followed by the different 
 railroads. On certain roads, with well-established 
 business, and little fluctuation of traffic, firemen begin 
 work on switch-engines, and are promoted by senior- 
 ity, or by selection through the various grades of 
 freight trains, thence to passenger service, from 
 whence they emerge as incipient engineers. A more 
 common practice, and one almost invariably followed 
 in the West, is for firemen to begin as extra men, in 
 place of firemen who are sick or lying off. From 
 firing extra, they get advanced, if found competent and 
 deserving, to regular engines. Then, step by step, 
 they go ahead to the best paying runs, till their turn 
 for being "set up" comes round. Passenger engines 
 are not fired by any but experienced men, but the 
 oldest firemen do not always claim passenger-runs. 
 For learning the business of engine-running freight 
 service is considered most valuable* and many ambi- 
 tious firemen prefer the hard work of a freight engine 
 on this account. 
 
 NATURE OF EXAMINATION TO BE PASSED. 
 
 When a fireman has obtained the experience that 
 recommends him for promotion, on nearly all well- 
 
22 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 regulated roads he is subjected to some form of exami- 
 nation before being put in charge of an engine. In 
 some cases this examination is quite thorough. The 
 tendency to require firemen to pass such an ordeal is 
 extending, and its beneficial effect upon the men is 
 unquestioned. The usual form of examination is, for 
 officers connected with the locomotive department to 
 question the candidate for promotion on matters re- 
 lating to the management of the locomotive, and how 
 he would proceed in the event of certain mishaps 
 befalling the engine. Parties belonging to the traffic 
 department propound questions relating to road-rules, 
 train-rights, understanding of time-card, and so on. 
 
 A common practice among progressive railroad 
 companies is to subject their firemen to an examina- 
 tion, with questions and answers similar to those given 
 in the form of examination adopted by the Travel- 
 ing Engineers' Association and published in another 
 chapter of this book. The questions and answers 
 are given to show to the candidate for promotion 
 the scope of knowledge he is expected to possess. 
 The prevailing practice in carrying on the examina- 
 tion is to vary the questions enough to find out that 
 the fireman has not merely committed the words of 
 the answer to memory without understanding the 
 subject. A careful study of this book will give a 
 candidate for promotion good sound knowledge of 
 all the questions that will be asked, and will enable 
 him to prove to the examiners that his acquaintance 
 with the working of the locomotive is sufficient for 
 dealing with all difficulties likely to arise. 
 
HOW LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS ARE MADE. 2$ 
 
 A good practice for firemen who read this book is 
 to note what is recommended to be done in case of 
 accidents or emergencies and study how the recom- 
 mendations could best be carried out on the locomo- 
 tives they are acquainted with. Try to give a practical 
 application of every recommendation. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 INSPECTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE INSPECTORS. 
 
 On well-managed railroads, where the system of 
 pooling locomotives prevails, there is a locomotive 
 inspector employed, whose duty it is to thoroughly 
 examine every available point about every engine that 
 arrives at his station, and find out what repairs are 
 needed, and to detect the incipient defects which lead 
 to disaster on the road. Some roads that do not 
 practice pooling have an inspector who examines every 
 engine. These inspectors are not employed to ex- 
 empt engineers from looking over their engines, but 
 merely to supplement their care. In some cases en- 
 gineers are brought sharply to task if they overlook 
 any important defect which is discovered by the in- 
 spector. 
 
 GOOD ENGINEERS INSPECT THEIR OWN ENGINES. 
 
 The engineer who has a liking for his work, and 
 takes pride in making his engine perform its part so 
 as to show the highest possible record, does not re- 
 quire the fear of an inspector behind him as an incen- 
 
 24 
 
INSPECTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. 2$ 
 
 tive to properly examine his engine, and keep it in 
 the best running- order. He recognizes the fact that 
 upon systematic and regular inspection of the engine 
 while at rest depend in a great measure his success 
 as a runner and his exemption from trouble. 
 
 WHAT COMES OF NEGLECTING SYSTEMATIC 
 INSPECTION OF LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 The man who habitually neglects the business of 
 inspecting his engine, and leaves to luck his chances 
 of getting over the road safely, soon finds that the 
 worst kind of luck is always overtaking him on the 
 road. A careful man may have a run of bad luck 
 occasionally, but the careless man meets with nothing 
 else. Among a great many men who have failed as 
 runners, I can recall numerous cases where carelessness 
 about the engine was the only and direct cause which 
 led them to failure. One of the most successful en- 
 gineers that ever pulled a throttle on the Erie Rail- 
 road was asked by a young runner to what cause he 
 attributed his extraordinary good fortune. His reply 
 was, " I never went out without giving my engine a 
 good inspection." This man had been running nearly 
 half a century, and never needed to have his engine 
 hauled to the round-house. 
 
 CONFIDENCE ON THE ROAD DERIVED FROM 
 INSPECTION. 
 
 When a locomotive is thundering over a road ahead 
 of a heavy train in which may be hundreds of human 
 beings, the engineer ought to understand that the 
 
26 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 safety of this freight of lives depends to a great extent 
 upon his care and foresight. As the train rushes 
 through darkened cuttings, spans giddy bridges, or 
 rounds curves edged by deep chasms, no one can 
 understand better than the engineer the importance of 
 having every nut and bolt about the engine in good 
 condition, and in its proper place. The consciousness 
 that everything is right, the knowledge that a thor- 
 ough inspection at the beginning of the journey 
 proved the locomotive to be in perfect condition, give 
 a wonderful degree of comfort and confidence to the 
 engineer as he urges his train along at the best speed 
 of the engine. 
 
 INSPECTION ON THE PIT. 
 
 Between the time of an engine's return from one 
 trip and its preparation for another a thorough ex- 
 amination of all the machinery and running-gear 
 should be made while the engine is standing over a 
 pit. Monkey-wrench in one hand, and a torch in the 
 other if necessary, the engineer ought to enter the 
 pit at the head of the engine, and make the inspection 
 systematically. The engine-truck, with all its connec- 
 tions, comes in for the first scrutiny. Now is the time 
 to guard against the loss of bolts or screws, which 
 leads to the loss of oil-box cellars on the road. This 
 is also the proper time to examine the condition of 
 the oil-box packing. The engineers of my acquaint- 
 ance who are most successful in getting trains over 
 the road on time attend to the packing of the truck- 
 boxes themselves. Nothing is more annoying on the 
 
INSPECTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. 2J 
 
 road than hot boxes. They are a fruitful source of 
 delay and danger, and nothing is better calculated to 
 prevent such troubles than good packing and clear oil- 
 holes. The shopmen who are kept for attending to 
 this work are sometimes careless. They can hardly 
 be expected to feel so strongly impressed with the 
 importance of having boxes well packed as the en- 
 gineer, who will be blamed for any delay. He should, 
 therefore, know from personal inspection that the 
 work is properly done. 
 
 When the engineer is satisfied that the truck, pilot- 
 braces, center-castings, and all their connections are 
 in proper condition, he passes on to the motion. His 
 trained eye scans every bolt, nut, and key in search of 
 defects. The eccentrics are examined, to see that set- 
 screws and keys are all tight. Men who have wrestled 
 over the setting of eccentrics on the road are not likely 
 to forget this part. Eccentric-straps are another point 
 of solicitude. A broken eccentric-strap is a very com- 
 mon cause of break-down, and these straps very seldom 
 break through weakness or defect of the casting. In 
 nearly all cases the break occurs through loss of bolts, 
 or on account of oil-passages getting stopped up. The 
 links are carefully gone over, then the wedges and ped- 
 estal-braces come in for an examination which brings 
 the assurance that no bolts are missing or wedge-bolts 
 loose. Passing along, the careful engineer finds many 
 points that claim his attention ; and when he gets 
 through he feels comfortably certain that no trouble 
 from that part of the engine will be experienced during 
 the coming trip. The runners who do not follow this 
 
28 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 practice are not aware of how much there is to be seen 
 under a locomotive when the examination is undertaken 
 in a comprehensive manner. 
 
 OUTSIDE INSPECTION. 
 
 In going round the outside of the engine the most 
 important points for examination are the guides and 
 the rods. Guide-bolts, rod-bolts, and keys, with the 
 set-screws of the latter, are the minutiae most likely to 
 give trouble if neglected. In going about the engine 
 oiling, or for any other purpose, it is a good thing to 
 get in the habit of searching for defects. When a man 
 trains himself to do this, it is surprising how natural 
 it comes to make running inspections. As he oils the 
 eccentric-straps, he sees every bolt and nut within 
 sight ; as he drops some oil on the rods, he identifies 
 the condition- of the keys, set-screws, or bolts; while 
 oiling the driving-boxes, the springs can be conveniently 
 examined ; and when he reaches the engine-trucks 
 with the oil-can he is sure to be casting his searching 
 eyes over the portions of the running-gear within 
 sight. 
 
 OIL-CUPS. 
 
 The oil-cups should be carefully examined, to see 
 that they are in good feeding order. A great many 
 feeders have been invented, which guarantee to supply 
 oil automatically ; but I have never yet seen the cup 
 which could long dispense with personal attention. 
 And this does not apply to locomotives alone, but to 
 all kinds of machinery. The worst sort of oil-cup will 
 
INSPECTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. 2g 
 
 perform its functions fairly in the hands of a capable 
 man, and the most pretentious cup will soon cease to 
 lubricate regularly if the engineer neglects it. The 
 oil-cups should be cleaned out at regular intervals : 
 for mud, cinders, and dust work in; and they some- 
 times retain glutinous matter from the oil, which forms 
 a sticky mixture that prevents the oil from running. 
 The eccentric-strap cups and the tops of the driving- 
 boxes should receive similar attention. 
 
 In looking round an engine it is a good plan to watch 
 the different oil-cups to see that they are not working 
 loose. Many cups that are strewed over the country 
 could be saved by a little more attention. A cup flying 
 off a rod when an engine is running fast becomes 
 a dangerous projectile. I have known several cases 
 where cups went back through the cab window. I 
 have also seen several cases where cups worked off 
 the guides or cross-head, and got between the guides, 
 doing serious damage. One instance was that of an 
 engine out on the trial trip. It smashed the cross- 
 head to pieces, and let the piston through the cylinder- 
 head. 
 
 INSPECTION OF RUNNING-GEAR. 
 
 A sharp tap with a hammer on the tread of the cast- 
 iron wheel will produce a clear, ringing sound if the 
 wheel is in good order. The drivers can generally be 
 effectively inspected by the eye. If oil be observed 
 working out between the wheel and axle, attention is 
 demanded ; for the wheel may be getting loose. Mois- 
 ture and dirt issuing from between the tire and wheel 
 
30 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING, 
 
 indicate that the former is becoming loose, and this is 
 a common occurrence when the tires are worn thin. 
 When a wheel is running so that the flange is cutting 
 itself on the rail, something is wrong, which also de- 
 mands immediate attention. Oblique travel of wheels 
 may be produced by various causes. If the axles of 
 the driving-wheels are not secured at right angles to 
 the frames, and parallel with each other, the wheels will 
 run tangentially to the track, according to the inclina- 
 tion of the axles. Violent strains or concussions, such 
 as result from engines jumping the track about switches, 
 sometimes spring the frames, and twist the axle-box 
 -jaws away from their true position enough to cause 
 cutting of flanges without disabling the engine. Tires 
 wearing unevenly in consequence of one being harder 
 than the other produce a similar effect Where there 
 are movable wedges forward and aft of the boxes, the 
 wheels are often thrown out of square by unskillful 
 manipulation of these wedges. Engineers running en- 
 gines of this kind should leave the forward wedges 
 alone. Sometimes the center-pin of the engine-truck 
 gets moved from the true central position, leading the 
 drivers toward the ditch. Diagnosing the cause of 
 wheel-cutting is no simple matter, and it is a wise plan 
 for engineers to allow the shopmen to devise a remedy. 
 
 ATTENTIONS TO THE BOILER. 
 
 On our well-regulated roads engineers are not re- 
 quired to inspect their boilers; as expert boiler-makers, 
 who can readily detect a broken stay-bolt or broken 
 brace, have to make periodical examinations. But a 
 
INSPECTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. 3 1 
 
 prudent engineer will keep a sharp lookout for indica- 
 tions that show weak points about any part of the 
 boiler or fire-box. This department cannot receive too 
 much vigilance. A seam or stay-bolt leaking is a sign 
 of distress, and should receive immediate attention. 
 Leaks under the jacket should never be neglected, 
 although they are hard to reach ; for they may proceed 
 from the beginning of a dangerous rupture. A leak 
 starting in the boiler-head should make the engineer 
 ascertain that none of the longitudinal braces have 
 broken. I once had some rivet-heads on my boiler-head 
 start leaking, and presently the water-glass broke. 
 After shutting off the cocks, I found that the boiler- 
 head was bulged out. I reduced the pressure on the 
 boiler as quickly as possible. When the boiler was 
 inspected, it was found that two of the longitudinal 
 braces were broken, and the head-sheet was bent out 
 two inches. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ATTENTIONS. 
 
 If an engineer is going to take out an engine the 
 first time after it has been in the shop for repairs, it 
 is a good plan to examine the tank to see if the work- 
 men have left it free from bagging, greasy waste, and 
 other impediments, which are not conducive to the free 
 action of pumps or injectors. Keeping the tank clean 
 at all times saves no end of trouble through derange- 
 ment to feeding-apparatus.. The smoke-box door 
 should be opened regularly, and the petticoat-pipe and 
 cone examined. These things wear out by use, and it 
 is better to have them renewed or repaired before they 
 
32 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 break down on the road. A cone dropping down 
 through failure of the braces makes a troublesome 
 accident on the road. I have known of several cabs 
 being badly damaged by fire through the cone dropping 
 down and closing up the stack. Where engines have 
 extended smoke-boxes, the nettings and deflectors 
 must be inspected at frequent intervals. 
 
 REWARD OF THOROUGH INSPECTION. 
 
 To go over an engine in the manner indicated, re- 
 quires perseverance and industry. The work will, 
 however, bring its full reward to every man who prac- 
 tices the care and watchfulness entailed by regular and 
 systematic inspection. It is the sure road to success. 
 He who regards his work from a higher plane than 
 that of mere labor well done, will experience satisfac- 
 tion from the knowledge, that, understanding the 
 nobility of his duties, he performed them with the 
 vigor and intelligence worthy of his responsible calling. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 GETTING READY FOR THE ROAD. 
 
 RAISING STEAM. 
 
 It used to be the universal custom, that, when an 
 engine arrived from a trip, the fire was drawn, and the 
 engine put into the round-house for ten or twelve 
 hours before another run was undertaken. During 
 this period of inaction, the boiler partly cooled down. 
 When the engine was wanted again, a new fire was 
 started in time to raise steam. The system of long 
 runs, introduced on many roads, has changed this ; 
 and engines are now generally kept hot, unless they 
 have to be cooled down for washing out, or repairs. 
 When an engine comes in off a trip, the fire is cleaned 
 from clinkers and dead cinders, and the clean fire 
 banked. It is found that this plan keeps the tem- 
 perature of the boiler more uniform than is possible 
 with the cooling-down practice, and that the fire-box 
 sheets are not so liable to crack, or the tubes to become 
 leaky. 
 
 Where it is still the habit to draw the fire at the end 
 of each trip, a supply of good wood is kept on hand 
 for raising steam. On some roads the fires in the 
 
 33 
 
34 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 locomotive fire-boxes are kindled by oil or greasy 
 waste. To raise steam from a cold boiler, some 
 theorists recommend the starting of a fire mild enough 
 to raise the temperature about twenty degrees an hour. 
 The exigencies of railroad service prevent this slow 
 method from being practicable, and the ordinary prac- 
 tice is to raise steam as promptly as possible when it 
 is wanted. 
 
 PRECAUTIONS AGAINST SCORCHING BOILERS. 
 
 The first consideration before starting a fire in a 
 locomotive is to ascertain that the boiler contains the 
 proper quantity of water. The men who attend to 
 the starting of fires should be instructed not to depend 
 upon the water-glass for the level of the water, but to 
 see that it runs out of the gauge-cocks. I have known 
 several cases where boilers were burned through those 
 firing up being deceived by a false show of water in 
 the glass, and starting the fire when the boiler was 
 empty. If the boiler has been filled with water through 
 the feed-pipes by the round-house hose, care should 
 be taken to see that the check-valves are not stuck up. 
 Where there is sand in the water, it frequently hap- 
 pens, that, in filling up with a hose, all the valves get 
 sanded, and do not close properly. When there is 
 steam on the boiler, this source of danger will generally 
 be indicated at once by the steam and water blowing 
 back into the tank; but, where the boiler is cold, the 
 water flows back so silently and slowly, that the crown- 
 sheet may be dry before the peril is discovered. 
 
GETTING READY FOR THE ROAD. 35 
 
 STARTING THE FIRE. 
 
 The water being found or made right, the next con- 
 sideration is the grates. Before throwing in the wood, 
 all loose clinkers left upon the grates should be cleaned 
 off: care should be taken, to see that the grates are in 
 good condition, and connected with the shaker-levers. 
 This is also the time to see that no accumulation of 
 cinders is left on the brick arch, the water-table, or in 
 the combustion-chamber, should the engine be pro- 
 vided with either of these appliances. 
 
 fireman's first duties. 
 
 On most roads the engineer and fireman are re- 
 quired to be at their engine from fifteen minutes to half 
 an hour before train-time. A good fireman will reach 
 the engine in time to perform his preliminary duties 
 deliberately and well. He will have the dust brushed 
 off from the cab-furnishing and from the conspicuous 
 parts of the engine, the deck swept clean, the coal 
 watered, and the oil-cans ready for the engineer. His 
 fire is attended to, and its make-up regulated, — the 
 kind of coal used, the train to be pulled, and the char- 
 acter of the road on the start. With a level or down 
 grade for a mile or two on the start the fire does not 
 need to be so well made up as when the start is made 
 on a heavy pull. But every intelligent fireman gets to 
 understand in a few weeks just what kind of a fire is 
 needed. It is the capability of perceiving this and 
 other matters promptly that distinguishes a good from 
 an indifferent fireman. When a young fireman pos- 
 
36 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 sesses these " true workman " perceptions, and is of 
 an industrious, aspiring disposition, anxious to become 
 master of his calling, he will prove a reliable help to 
 the engineer; and his careful attention to the work will 
 insure comfort and success on every trip. There must 
 be a certain amount of work done on the engine, to get 
 a train along; and if the fireman cannot do his part 
 efficiently it will fall upon the engineer, who must get 
 it done somehow. 
 
 SAVING THE GRATES. 
 
 An important duty, which is never neglected by first- 
 class firemen, before taking the engine away from the 
 round-house, is that of looking to the grates, and seeing 
 that the ash-pan is clean. When grates get burned, 
 in nine cases out of ten it happens through neglecting 
 the ash-pan. Some varieties of bituminous coal have 
 an inveterate tendency to burn the grates. Such coal 
 usually contains an excess of sulphur, which has a 
 strong affinity for iron, and at certain temperatures 
 unites with the surface of the grates, forming a sul- 
 phuret of iron. Neglecting the ash-pan, and letting 
 hot ashes accumulate, prepares the way for bad coal to 
 act on the grates. Keeping the ash-pan clear of hot 
 ashes is the best thing that can be done to save grates, 
 since that prevents the iron from becoming hot enough 
 to combine with sulphur. 
 
 SUPPLIES. 
 
 Before starting out the fireman ought to ascertain 
 that all the supplies necessary for the trip are in the 
 
GETTING READY FOR THE ROAD. 37 
 
 boxes; that the requisite flags, lanterns, and other sig- 
 nals are on hand, and that all the lamps are trimmed. 
 He should also know to a certainty that all his fire-irons 
 are on the tender, that the latter is full of water, and 
 that the sand-box is full of sand. 
 
 These look like numerous duties as preliminary to 
 starting, but they are all necessary ; and the fireman 
 who attends to them all with the greatest regularity 
 will be valued accordingly. Nearly all firemen are am- 
 bitious to become engineers. The best method they 
 can pursue, to show that they are deserving of promo- 
 tion, is to perform their own duties regularly and well. 
 A first-class fireman will save his wages each trip over 
 the expenditure made by the mediocre fireman : a per- 
 sistently bad fireman should be sent to another calling 
 without delay. Few railroad companies can afford the 
 extravagance of a set of bad firemen. 
 
 engineer's first duties. 
 
 Try the water. That is the most important call upon 
 the engineer when he first enters the cab. If the en- 
 gine has a glass water-gauge, he should ascertain by 
 the gauge-cocks if the water-level shown in the glass 
 be correct. A water-glass is a great convenience on 
 the road, but it should only be relied on as an auxiliary 
 to the gauge-cocks. Many engineers have come to 
 grief through reposing too implicit confidence in the 
 water-glass. Engineer Williams was considered one of 
 the most reliable men on the A. & B. road. With an 
 express train he started out on time one morning; and 
 he had run only two miles when the boiler went up in 
 
38 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 the air, with fatal results to both occupants of the cab. 
 An examination of the wreck showed unmistakable evi- 
 dence of overheated sheets. Circumstantial evidence 
 indicated that the glass had deceived the engineer by 
 a false water-level. When he pulled out, the fire-box 
 sheets, which were of copper, became weakened by the 
 heat, so that the crown-sheet gave way ; the reaction 
 of the released steam tearing the boiler to pieces. 
 Numerous less serious accidents originating from the 
 same cause might be cited. 
 
 REACHING HIS ENGINE IN GOOD SEASON. 
 
 An engineer who has a proper interest in his work, 
 and thoroughly appreciates the importance of it, will 
 reach his engine in time to perform the duties of 
 getting her ready for the road leisurely, without rush 
 or hurry. Although a good fireman may relieve the 
 engineer of many preliminary duties, the engineer him- 
 self should be certain that the necessary supplies and 
 tools are on the engine, and that water is in the tank, 
 and the sand-box filled. 
 
 OILING THE MACHINERY. 
 
 Oiling the machinery is such an important part of an 
 engineer's work, and the success of a fast run is so de- 
 pendent upon this being properly done, that it should 
 never be performed hurriedly. Although practice with 
 short stoppages at stations may have got an engineer 
 into the way of rushing round an engine and oiling at 
 express speed, it is no reason why the first oiling of the 
 trip should not be carefully and deliberately attended 
 
GETTING READ Y FOR THE ROAD. 39 
 
 to when there is an opportunity. In addition to filling 
 oil-cups, lubricators, and oil-boxes, this is a good time 
 to complete the inspection, which assures the engineer 
 that everything about the engine is in proper running 
 order. When anything in the way of repairs has 
 been done to the engine since she came off the last 
 trip, special attention has generally to be given to the 
 parts worked at. New wheels require close care with 
 the packing of the boxes ; rod-brasses reduced entail 
 an additional supply of oil to the pins for the first few 
 miles; guides closed should insure a free supply of oil 
 till it is found that the cross-heads run cool. 
 
 QUANTITY OF OIL THAT DIFFERENT BEARINGS NEED. 
 
 While oiling, the engineer should bear in mind that 
 it is of paramount importance that the rubbing-sur- 
 faces receive lubrication sufficient to keep them from 
 heating; but, while making sure that no bearings 
 shall run dry, lavish pouring of oil should be avoided. 
 There are still too many cases to be noticed, of men 
 pouring oil on the machinery without seeming to com- 
 prehend the exact wants. We are constantly seeing 
 cases where oil-cups waste their measure of oil through 
 neglect in adjusting the feeders. A steady supply, 
 equal to the requirements, is what a well-regulated 
 cup provides. With the ordinary quality of mineral 
 oil, six drops will lubricate the back end of a main rod 
 for one mile when the engine is pulling a load. This 
 applies to eight-wheel engines on passenger service. 
 Heavier small-wheeled engines will require a quarter 
 more oil. Guides can be kept moist with five drops 
 
40 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 of oil to the mile. A dry, sandy road will require a 
 more liberal supply. With good feeders, properly 
 attended to, the supply can equal the demand with 
 close accuracy. An oil-cup which runs out the oil 
 faster than it is needed, wastes stores, besmears every- 
 thing with a coating of grease, and is likely to leave 
 the rubbing-surfaces to suffer by running dry before 
 it can be replenished. A cup in that condition also 
 advertises the engineer to be incompetent. 
 
 LEAVING THE ENGINE-HOUSE. 
 
 Before moving the engine out of the house, the 
 cylinder-cocks should be opened so that water, or the 
 steam condensed in warming the pipes and steam- 
 chest, may escape. After ringing the bell, and giving 
 workmen employed about the engine time to get out 
 of the way, the throttle should be opened a little, and 
 the engine moved out slowly and carefully. If there 
 is a sufficient pressure of steam in the boiler, and the 
 engine refuses to move, something is wrong. Never 
 force an engine. Any work which may have been 
 performed upon it while in the house will probably 
 indicate the nature of the defect. The most common 
 cause of stalling engines in the house is a miscalcula- 
 tion of the piston-travel, permitting it to push against 
 the cylinder-head. Sometimes, however, the setting 
 of the valves is at fault. I knew a case where the 
 machinist connected the backing-up eccentric-strap 
 with the top of the link, and the mistake was not dis- 
 covered till they attempted to move the engine out of 
 the house. Another blunder, the result of gross care- 
 
GETTING READY FOR THE ROAD. 41 
 
 lessness, was where a cold-chisel was left in the steam- 
 chest. But a more representative case was that which 
 happened to Engineer Amos, on the B. & C. road. 
 His engine had the piston-packing set up ; and the 
 following morning, when he tried to take it out of the 
 house, it would not pass a certain point. Thinking 
 that the packing was set up rather tight, he backed 
 for a start, determined to make it go over on the run. 
 He succeeded, too, but a hammer which had been left 
 in the cylinder went out through the cover. 
 
 While running from the round-house to the train, 
 is a good time to carefully watch the working of the 
 various parts of the engine. Should any defects exist, 
 they are better to be detected now than after the en- 
 gine is out with a train. The brakes can be tested 
 conveniently at this time, and the working of the in- 
 jectors tried. All these matters are regularly attended 
 to by the successful engineer: they are habitually 
 neglected by the unlucky man, and misfortune never 
 loses sight of him. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 RUNNING A FAST FREIGHT TRAIN. 
 
 RUNNING FREIGHT TRAINS. 
 
 By far the greater proportion of American locomo- 
 tive engineers are employed on freight service.' On 
 most roads, the freight engines constitute from 
 seventy-five to ninety per cent of the whole locomo- 
 tive equipment. On this kind of service, locomotive 
 engineers learn their business by years of hard prac- 
 tice in getting trains over the road as nearly as pos- 
 sible on time. On the best of roads, there is much 
 hardship to be undergone, working ahead through 
 every discouragement of bad weather or hard-steaming 
 engines. The man who brings the most energy, good 
 sense, and perseverance to his aid, will come out most 
 successfully above these difficulties. 
 
 Every department of locomotive engine running has 
 difficulties peculiar to itself. Every kind of train 
 needs to be handled understanding^, to show the 
 best results ; but, I think, getting a heavy fast freight 
 train on time, over a hilly road, having a single track, 
 requires the highest degree of locomotive engineering 
 skill. Therefore, I have selected that form of train 
 
 as the first subject of description. 
 
 42 
 
RUNNING A FAST FREIGHT TRAIN. 43 
 
 THE ENGINE. 
 
 The engine that takes the train over the road is a 
 ten-wheeler with cylinders 18 X 26 inches, driving- 
 wheels with 62-inch centers, and a total weight of 
 130,000 pounds. The steam-pressure carried on the 
 boiler is 180 pounds per square inch, and the heating- 
 surface and grate-area are sufficiently liberal to make 
 steam freely at high or low speed. The tractive 
 power of the engine at slow speed is about 20,000 
 pounds. 
 
 THE TRAIN. 
 
 This consists of 20 cars weighing about 700 tons. 
 
 THE DIVISION. 
 
 The physical character of the country, which is roll- 
 ing prairie, makes the road undulatory, — up hill, then 
 down grade, with occasional stretches of level track. 
 Some of the gradients rise to fifty feet to the mile, 
 extending over two miles without sagging a foot. 
 Sound steel rails, well tied, are supported by a 
 graveled road-bed, making an excellent track, and 
 presenting a good opportunity for fast running where 
 high speed is needed. The train is run on card-time, 
 stopping about every twelve miles- Like most 
 Western roads, the stations are unprotected by 
 signals ; and the safety of trains is secured mostly 
 by vigilance on the part of the engineer and other 
 train-men. 
 
44 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 PULLING OUT. 
 
 When the engineer gets the signal to go, he drops 
 the reverse lever into the full forward notch, gives the 
 engine steam gently, with due care to avoid breaking 
 couplings, and applies sand. A slight sprinkling of 
 sand only is dropped on the rails, which keeps the 
 engine from slipping while getting the train under 
 way. A clear, level fire is burning over the grates 
 before the start is made, and this suffices till the most 
 crowded switches are passed : so, when the signal to 
 start is given, the fireman closes the fire-door, and 
 opens the damper; these duties not preventing him 
 from keeping a lookout for signals. 
 
 HOOKING BACK THE LINKS. 
 
 As the engine gets the train into motion, the engi- 
 neer gradually hooks up the links. This is not done 
 by a sudden jerk as soon as the engine will move, with 
 the steam cutting off short. He waits for that till the 
 train is well under the control of the engine, hooking 
 up gradually. Some men think that it is best to get 
 the valves up to short travel as soon as possible, with- 
 out reflecting that it is better for the motion to let the 
 engine be going freely before hooking up short. I 
 have often seen men coming into terminal stations 
 with a heavy fire and the safety-valves blowing, and 
 the engine toiling slowly along with the links hooked 
 up to eight inches cut. In cases of this kind, a runner 
 may better work the engine well down, so that the 
 valve will travel freely over the seat. By doing so 
 
RUNNING A FAST FREIGHT TRAIN. 4$ 
 
 when the engine is working slow and heavy, there will 
 be less wear to the valves, and less danger of breaking 
 a valve yoke. It is only in cases where there is an 
 advantage in saving steam, that benefit is derived 
 from working the engine close hooked back. There 
 is a right time for all things, and working steam ex- 
 pansively is no exception to the rule. If, however, 
 the start has been made with a light fire, the engineer 
 ought to lose no time in getting the links well notched 
 back to give the fireman an opportunity to make up 
 his fire. While starting from stations it is all-impor- 
 tant that engineer and fireman should co-operate to- 
 gether. 
 
 WORKING THE STEAM EXPANSIVELY. 
 
 At the right time, our engineer gets the reverse 
 lever notched up ; for he knows, that to obtain the 
 greatest amount of work out of the engine, with the 
 least possible expenditure of fuel, with a heavy freight 
 train, the links must be hooked back as far as can be 
 done consistently with making the required speed. 
 Some engines will not steam freely when run close 
 back if they are burning coal that needs a strong 
 draught. This is the exception, however, and most 
 engines will steam best in this position ; and many of 
 those that fail to steam well cutting off short are not 
 properly fired, or the draught appliances need adjust- 
 ing. Most firemen who run with a heavy fire fail 
 worst with engines that steam indifferently when 
 notched close up. Engineers should give this their 
 attention, and do everything possible to make the en- 
 
46 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 gine steam while working with the lever as near the 
 center notch as can be done while handling the train. 
 
 ADVANTAGE OF CUTTING OFF SHORT. 
 
 When the links are notched close towards the 
 center, the travel of the valves is so short that they 
 close the steam-ports shortly after the beginning of 
 the stroke, at six, nine, or twelve inches of the 
 piston's travel, as the case may be, permitting the 
 steam to push the piston along the remainder of the 
 stroke by its expansive power. Steam at a high 
 pressure is as full of potential energy as a compressed 
 spiral spring, and is equally ready to stretch itself out 
 when the closing of the port imprisons it inside the 
 cylinder; and, by this act of expanding, it exerts 
 immense useful energy, which would escape into the 
 smoke-stack unutilized if the cylinders were left in 
 communication with the boiler till the release took 
 place. Suppose, for instance, that a boiler-pressure 
 of 14 tons which this engine can develop is exerted 
 upon the piston from the beginning to the middle of 
 the stroke, and is then cut off. During the remainder 
 of the stroke, the steam will continue to press upon 
 the piston with a regularly diminishing force, till, at 
 the end of the stroke, if release does not take place 
 earlier, it will still have a pressure of seven tons. The 
 work performed by the steam during the latter part 
 of the stroke is pure gain, due to its expansive prin- 
 ciple. If the steam is cut off earlier, at a third or 
 fourth of the piston travel, the gain will be corre- 
 spondingly great. With the slide-valve link-motion 
 
 
RUNNING A FAS 7 1 FREIGHT TRAIN. 47 
 
 used on locomotives, the steam cannot be held to the 
 end of the stroke ; but the principle of expansion 
 holds good during the period the steam is held in the 
 cylinders after the cut-off. 
 
 The observing engineer of any experience does not 
 require to have the advantages of working his engine 
 expansively impressed upon his attention. His fuel- 
 record has done that more eloquently than pen can 
 write. 
 
 DISADVANTAGE OF CUTTING OFF TOO SOON. 
 
 Working the steam expansively is, like nearly every- 
 thing else in engineering, subject to modifications. 
 With some steam-engines the steam cannot be ex- 
 panded more than two or three times before the loss 
 due to cylinder condensation becomes greater than the 
 gain from expansion. No locomotives can be worked 
 economically cutting off shorter than quarter stroke, 
 and some engines do better if the steam is permitted 
 to follow the piston a little farther before the cut- 
 off takes place. 
 
 BOILER-PRESSURE BEST FOR ECONOMICAL WORKING. 
 
 There is a close and constant relation between the 
 boiler-pressure carried, and the useful work obtained 
 from expansion of steam. The higher the pressure, 
 the greater elasticity the steam possesses. The ten- 
 dency of modern steam-engineering is, to employ in- 
 tensely high boiler-pressure, expanding the steam by 
 means of a succession of cylinders, so that it is re- 
 duced to low tension before escaping into the atmos- 
 
48 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 phere, or into the condenser, as the case may be. 
 Wonderfully economical results have been obtained in 
 this manner, — results which can never be approached 
 in locomotive practice while the ordinary slide-valve 
 is used. But, while we cannot hope to rival the 
 record of high-class automatic cut-off engines, their 
 methods can teach us useful lessons. 
 
 It is advisable to keep the steam constantly close to 
 the blowing-off point. During a day's trip, consider- 
 ably less water will be evaporated when a tension of 
 200 pounds is carried, than will be required with a 
 pressure of 140 pounds or under. And, where less 
 water is evaporated, a smaller quantity of fuel will be 
 consumed in doing the work. Running with a low 
 head of steam is a wasteful practice, for several good 
 reasons. The comparatively light pressure upon the 
 surface of the water allows the steam to pass over 
 damp, or mixed with a light watery spray, which di- 
 minishes its energy ; since the wet steam contains less 
 expansive medium than dry steam. It requires nearly 
 the same expenditure of fuel to evaporate water at the 
 pressure of the atmosphere alone, that it does to make 
 steam at the higher working tensions : consequently, 
 the work obtained by the expansion of the high- 
 pressed steam is clear gain over the results to be ob- 
 tained by working at a low pressure. This is a very 
 important principle in economical steam-engineering. 
 Engineers who are accustomed to making long runs 
 between water-tanks, when every gallon is needed to 
 carry them through, know that their sure method of 
 getting over the dry division successfully, is to carry 
 
RUNNING A FAST FREIGHT TRAIN 49 
 
 steam close to the popping-point, link up to the most 
 economical point of cut-off, and see that no loss occurs 
 through the safety-valves. 
 
 RUNNING WITH LOW STEAM. 
 
 There are engineers who habitually carry merely 
 sufficient steam to get them along on time, under the 
 mistaken belief that they are working economically. 
 John Brown runs steadily, and takes as good care of 
 his engine as any man on the A. & B. road ; but he 
 dislikes to hear the steam escaping from the safety- 
 valves, and prevents it from doing so by habitually 
 using steam thirty pounds below the blowing-pressure. 
 The consequence is, that he always makes a bad record 
 on the coal-list, compared with the other passenger 
 men. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF THE FIRE. 
 
 The engine has moved only a few rods from the 
 station when the steam shows indications of blowing 
 off; and then the fireman sets to work, — not to pile a 
 heap of coal indiscriminately into the fire-box. That 
 is the style of the dunce whose natural avocation is 
 grubbing stumps. Ours is a model train, and a model 
 fireman furnishes the power to keep it going. He 
 throws in from one to three shovelfuls at each firing, 
 scattering the coal along the sides of the fire-box, 
 shooting a shower close to the flue-sheet, and dropping 
 the required quantity under the door. With the quick 
 intuition of a man thoroughly master of his business, 
 our model fireman perceives at a glance, on opening 
 
50 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 the door, where the thinnest spots are ; and they are 
 promptly bedded over. The glowing, incandescent 
 mass of fire, which shines with a blinding light that 
 rivals the sun's rays, dazzles the eyes of the novice, who 
 sees in the fire-box only a chaotic gleam : but the ex- 
 perienced fireman looks into the resplendent glare, 
 and reads its needs or its perfections. The fire is 
 maintained nearly level ; but the coal is supplied so 
 that the sides and corners are well filled, for there the 
 liability to drawing air is most imminent. With this 
 system closely followed, there is no difficulty expe- 
 rienced in keeping up a steady head of steam. But 
 constant attention must be bestowed upon his work by 
 the fireman. From the time he reaches the engine, 
 until the hostler takes charge at the end of the jour- 
 ney, he attends to his work, and to that alone ; and 
 by this means he has earned the reputation of being 
 one of the best firemen on the road. His rule is, 
 to keep the fire up equal to the work the engine 
 has to do, never letting it run low before being re- 
 plenished, never throwing in more coal than the keep- 
 ing up of steam calls for. The coal is broken up 
 moderately fine, a full supply being prepared before 
 the fire-door is opened ; and every shovelful is scat- 
 tered in a thin shower over the fire, — never pitched 
 down on one spot. Some men never acquire the art 
 of scattering the coal as it leaves the shovel ; and, as 
 a result, they never succeed in making an engine steam 
 regularly. Their fire consists of a series of coal- 
 heaps. Under these heaps, clinkers are prematurely 
 formed ; and between them spaces are created, through 
 
RUNNING A FAST FREIGHT TRAIN. 51 
 
 which cold air comes, and rushes straight for the tubes, 
 without assimilating with the gases of combustion, as 
 every breath of air which enters the fire-box ought to 
 do. 
 
 CONDITIONS THAT DEMAND GOOD FIRING. 
 
 Roads that are hilly require far more skillful man- 
 agement to get a train along than is called for on level 
 roads, and the greater part of the extra dexterity is 
 needed from the fireman. To get a heavy train up a 
 steep hill, it is generally run at a high speed before 
 reaching the grade, so that the momentum of the 
 train can be utilized in climbing the ascent. Running 
 for a hill is a particularly trying time on the fireman ; 
 for the engine is rushing at a high speed, and often 
 working heavily. This ordeal must be prepared for 
 in advance, by having the fire well made up, and kept 
 at its heaviest by frequent firing. When the engine 
 gets right on to the grade, toiling up with decreasing 
 speed, every pound of steam is needed to save doub- 
 ling, and steady watchfulness is required to prevent a 
 relapse of steam; but the danger of the engine " turn- 
 ing ' ' the fire is not nearly so great as it was when 
 running fast for the hill. 
 
 HIGHEST TYPE OF FIREMAN. 
 
 The highest type of fireman is one who, with the 
 smallest quantity of fuel, can keep up a good head of 
 steam without wasting any by the safety-valves. He 
 endeavors to strike this mean of successs by keeping an 
 even fire; but it sometimes happens, that the closest 
 
52 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 care will not prevent the steam from showing indica- 
 tions of blowing off. When this is the case, he keeps 
 it back by closing the dampers, or, if that is not suffi- 
 cient, opens the door a few inches. Immense harm is 
 done to tubes and fire-boxes by injudicious firing. 
 
 When the train is ready to start, there is a glowing 
 fire on the grates, sufficient to keep up steam until the 
 reverse-lever is notched back after the train has 
 worked into speed. With heavy freight trains this 
 firing is made sufficient, so that the door has not to be 
 opened until the tremendous exertion of starting is 
 over. When the time for replenishing the fire arrives, 
 the good fireman knows either from instruction or by 
 observation that the effect of throwing fresh coal into 
 the burning mass of the fire-box is similar to that of 
 pouring a dipperful of cold water into a boiling kettle. 
 The cold coal cools the fire, and if thrown in in large 
 quantities its tendency is to depress the burning 
 mass for a brief time below the igniting-point. A 
 small quantity of cold water does not check the boiling 
 of a kettle much, and three or four shovelfuls of coal 
 are little felt on the fire of a big locomotive ; so our 
 man throws in only a few scoopfuls at a time, is quite 
 deliberate in applying each charge, scattering it over 
 the surface of the burning mass, so that each portion 
 of fresh supply quickly gives up its hydrocarbon gases 
 and becomes a vital addition to the bed of incandescent 
 fuel. This bed of glowing fuel, on which the fresh 
 coal is thrown, being comparatively thin, a supply of 
 air passes through sufficient to provide the necessary 
 oxygen to the hydrocarbons released, and the gases 
 
RUNNING A FAST FREIGHT TRAIN. 53 
 
 are burnt with the high generation of heat of which 
 they are capable. 
 
 SHAKING THE GRATES. 
 
 Should indications appear that the fire is not receiv- 
 ing sufficient air, our fireman gently shakes the grates, 
 an operation which is repeated during the trip at 
 intervals sufficient to keep the fire as clean as possible. 
 No act marks the poor fireman so strongly as his 
 method of shaking grates. He does the work so vio- 
 lently and so frequently that a great deal of fuel is 
 wasted. The fire is perniciously disturbed, and unless 
 it is very heavy, holes are made which admit the cold 
 air. Good coal requires no more grate-shaking than 
 what will prevent clinkers from hardening between 
 the grate-openings. Coal that contains a great deal of 
 ash will be burned to greater advantage when the 
 grates are shaken lightly and frequently, and this 
 shaking should be done by short, quick jerks. The 
 long, slow movement that some men give the grates, 
 in shaking, merely moves the clinkers resting upon 
 them. The purpose of shaker-grates is to provide a 
 means of breaking the clinker, so that it will fall into 
 the ash-pan and permit the dead ashes to fall. 
 
 AT STOPPING-POINTS. 
 
 When approaching a stopping-place, our fireman 
 takes care to have sufficient fuel in the fire-box, so that 
 he will not have to begin firing until the start is made. 
 When this has not been done, a fresh supply of coal 
 should be applied while the engine is standing at the 
 
54 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 station. The common practice of throwing open the 
 door and beginning to fire as soon as the throttle is 
 open, is very hard on fire-boxes, because the cold 
 air drawn through the door strikes the fire-box sheets 
 and tubes, contracting the metal and tending to pro- 
 duce leakage. Firing just as a train is pulling out of 
 a station is bad for another reason — at that time the 
 fireman ought to be looking out for signals. 
 
 FIRES TO SUIT THE WORK TO BE DONE. 
 
 The good fireman maintains the fire in a condition 
 to suit the work the engine has to do. At parts of the 
 road where there are grades that materially increase 
 the work to be done, he makes the fire heavier to suit 
 the circumstances, but this is done gradually, and not 
 by pitching a heavy charge of fresh coal into the fire- 
 box at one time. This system of firing keeps the tem- 
 perature of the boiler as even as possible, and has the 
 double result of being easy on the boiler and using 
 coal to the best advantage. From the time he reaches 
 the engine until the hostler takes charge at the end of 
 the journey, this fireman attends to his work, and to 
 his work alone. It is only by concentrated attention 
 to the work to be done that a fireman can do it in a 
 first-class manner. 
 
 There are circumstances where the method of firing 
 described would not be a success, because certain 
 coals and certain engines require special treatment. 
 But, in a general way, the methods described are 
 those of the most successful firemen. 
 
RUNNING A FAST FREIGHT TRAIN. 55 
 
 SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF GOOD FIREMEN. 
 
 It is not necessary that a man should be deeply read 
 in natural philosophy to understand intimately what 
 are actually the scientific laws of the business of firing. 
 Mr. Lothian Bell, the eminent metallurgist, somewhere 
 expresses high admiration for the exact scientific meth- 
 ods attained in their work by illiterate puddlers. Al- 
 though they knew nothing about chemical combina- 
 tions or processes they manipulated the molten mass 
 so that, with the least possible labor, the iron was sep- 
 arated from its impurities. In a similar way, firemen 
 skillful in their calling have, by a process of induction, 
 learned the fundamental principles of heat-develop- 
 ment. By experiments, carefully made, they perceive 
 how the greatest head of steam can be kept up with 
 the smallest cargo of coal ; and they push their percep- 
 tions into daily practice. 
 
 If an accomplished scientist were to ride on the 
 engine, observing the operations of a first-class fireman, 
 he would find that nearly all the carbon of the coal 
 combined with its natural quantity of oxygen to pro- 
 duce carbon dioxide, thereby giving forth its greatest 
 heat-power; and that the hydrocarbons, the volatile 
 gases of the coal, performed their share of calorific 
 duty by burning with an intensely hot flame. He 
 would find that these hydrocarbon gases, although 
 productive of high-power duty when properly con- 
 sumed, were ticklish to manage just right, for they 
 would pass through the tubes without producing flame 
 if they were not fully supplied with air; and, if the 
 supply of air were too liberal, it would reduce the 
 
56 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 temperature of the fire-box below the igniting-point 
 for these gases, which is higher than red-hot iron, and 
 they would then escape in the form of worthless 
 smoke. Our model fireman manages to consume these 
 gases as thoroughly as they can be consumed in a loco- 
 motive fire-box. 
 
 THE MEDIUM FIREMAN. 
 
 John Barton is considered a first-class fireman by 
 some men. He works hard to keep up steam, and is 
 never satisfied unless the safety-valves are screaming. 
 He carries a heavy fire all the time; and, when the 
 pop-valves rise, he pulls the door open till they sub- 
 side, gets in a few shovelfuls more coal, closes the door 
 till the steam blows off again, and repeats the opera- 
 tion of throwing open the door. This man has learned 
 only the half of his business. He has got through his 
 head how to keep up steam, but he has not acquired 
 the more delicate operation of keeping it down wisely 
 and well. Training with an intelligent engineer 
 anxious to make a good fuel-record, will, in a few 
 months, improve Barton wonderfully. Barton is the 
 medium fireman. 
 
 THE HOPELESSLY BAD FIREMAN. 
 Behind him comes Tom Jackson, the man of indis- 
 criminately heavy firing. Tom's sole aim is to get 
 over the road with the least possible expenditure of 
 personal exertion. He tumbles in a fire as if he were 
 loading a wagon, the size of the door being his sole 
 gauge for the lumps. When the fire-box is filled to 
 the neighborhood of the door, he climbs up on the 
 
RUNNING A FAST FREIGHT TRAIN. $7 
 
 seat, and reclines there till the steam begins to go 
 back through drawing air; then he gets down again, 
 and repeats the filling-up process, intent only on get- 
 ting upon the seat-box with as little delay as possible. 
 
 Some men are so constituted that they never make 
 good firemen, no matter how much they may try. 
 The average bad fireman is, however, of that quality 
 because he never tries to be a good one. The average 
 bad fireman is careless about how his work is done ; 
 indifferent about how his inferiority may cause delay 
 to trains, annoyance to the engineer, or expense to 
 the company. All he cares for is to get through his 
 work with as little personal exertion as possible. It 
 often happens that his efforts to shirk the most nec- 
 essary part of his work greatly increase his labors be- 
 fore a trip is finished ; yet he will go through the same 
 performance on the next run. 
 
 When called to go out on a run, the poor fireman 
 reaches the engine-house just as it is time to start for 
 the train. He pitches some coal into the fire-box, and 
 sweeps the cab and waters the coal as the engine is on 
 its way to the starting-point. As soon as the engine 
 pulls out, working hard to force the train into speed, 
 this fireman pulls open the fire-door and throws in a 
 heavy load of coal. Steam begins to go back and the 
 engineer shuts off the injector. As the fire burns 
 through, the steam comes up ; and just as the engineer 
 finds it necessary to start the injector again, the fire- 
 man jerks open the fire-door and pitches in eight or 
 ten shovelfuls of coal as fast as he can drop it inside 
 the door ; then he climbs up on the seat and waits for 
 
58 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNTNG. 
 
 the black smoke ceasing to flow from the stack as the 
 signal to get down and repeat his method of firing. 
 
 Finding that the engine is not steaming freely un- 
 der his treatment, he gets down reluctantly and tears 
 up the fire by violent use of the shaking-lever. When 
 the train reaches a stopping-place, this kind of fire- 
 man occupies himself looking at the sights, and pays 
 no attention to the fire until the signal to start is given, 
 when he throws open the door again and repeats the 
 operation of firing followed at the first start. 
 
 By this method of firing small mounds of coal are 
 dropped promiscuously over the grates. In interven- 
 ing spots the grates are nearly bare, and cold air 
 passes through without meeting carbon to feed upon, 
 and not sufficiently heated to ignite with the volatile 
 compounds distilling from the mounds. The product 
 is worthless smoke. Each mound is a protection for 
 the formation of clinker, which grows so rapidly that 
 the shaking-bar has to be frequently toiled on to let 
 sufficient air through the fire to make steam enough for 
 making slow time. 
 
 The result of this fireman's way of working is irri- 
 tation all round. Towards the end of the trip he is 
 overworked, throwing the extra coal needed and the 
 hard shaking of grates. At every stopping-place he 
 has to crawl beneath the engine to clean the ash-pan, 
 and is fortunate if the grates are not partly burned. 
 The practical result for this man's employers is that 
 he has burned from 25 to 35 per cent more coal than 
 a first-class fireman would need for doing the same 
 work. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 GETTING UP THE HILL. 
 
 SPECIAL SKILL AND ATTENTION REQUIRED TO GET 
 A TRAIN UP A STEEP GRADE. 
 
 In the last chapter, some details were given of the 
 methods pursued in starting out with a heavy fast 
 freight train. Where a train of that kind has to climb 
 heavy grades, special skill and attention are needed in 
 making the ascent successfully. 
 
 GETTING READY FOR THE GRADE. 
 
 The track for the first two miles from the starting- 
 point is nearly level, permitting the engineer and fire- 
 man to get ready for a long pull not far distant. At 
 the second mile-post a light descending grade is 
 reached, which lasts one mile, and is succeeded by an 
 ascending grade two and a half miles long, rising fifty- 
 five feet to the mile. 
 
 WORKING UP THE HILL. 
 
 At the top of the descending grade, the engineer 
 hooks up the links, using a light throttle while the 
 train is increasing in speed, until the base of the 
 
 59 
 
60 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 ascent is nearly reached, when he gets the throttle full 
 open, letting the engine do its best work in the first 
 notch off the center. By this time the train is swing- 
 ing along thirty miles an hour, and is well on to the 
 hill before the engine begins to feel its load. Decrease 
 of speed is just becoming perceptible when the valve- 
 travel gets the benefit of another notch, and the en- 
 gine pulls at its load with renewed vigor. But soon 
 the steepness of the ascent asserts itself in the labor- 
 ing exhausts ; and the reverse-lever is advanced another 
 notch, to prevent the speed from getting below the 
 velocity at which the engine is capable of holding the 
 train on this grade. While the engineer is careful to 
 maintain the speed within the power of his locomotive, 
 he is also watchful not to increase the valve-travel faster 
 than his fire can stand it ; for, were he to jerk the lever 
 two or three notches ahead at the beginning of the pull, 
 the chances would be that he would " turn " its fire, or 
 tear it up so badly that the steam would go back on him 
 before he got half a mile farther on. Before the train 
 is safe over the summit, it will probably be necessary to 
 have the engine working down to 2 i inches : but the 
 advance to this long valve-travel is made by degrees ; 
 each increase being dependent upon, and regulated by, 
 the speed. The quadrant is notched to give the cut- 
 off at 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, and 23 inches. Repeated 
 experiments, carefully watched, have convinced the 
 engineer of this locomotive that its maximum power 
 is exerted in the 21 -inch notch; so he never puts the 
 lever down in the "corner" on a hill. A great many 
 engines act differently, however, showing increased 
 
GETTING UP THE HILL. 6 1 
 
 power for every notch advanced. If the cars in the 
 train should prove easy running, — and there are great 
 differences in cars in this respect, — it may not be 
 necessary to hook the engine below 15 inches, or even 
 12 will suffice for some trains; but this can only be 
 determined by seeing how the engine holds the speed 
 in the various notches. 
 
 WHEEL-SLIPPING. 
 
 As the engine gets well on to the grade, and is ex- 
 erting heavy tractive power, the wheels are liable to 
 commence slipping ; and it is very important that they 
 should be prevented from doing so. An ounce of pre- 
 vention is known to be worth a pound of cure ; and it 
 pays an engineer to assure himself that no drips from 
 feed-pipes, or cylinder-cocks, or from any other foun- 
 tain, are -dropping upon the rails ahead of the driving- 
 wheels. There is no use telling an engineer of the 
 decreased adhesion which the drivers exert on half-wet 
 rails, from what they do on those that are clean and 
 dry. Knowing the difference in this respect, every 
 engineer should endeavor to prevent the wetting of the 
 rails by leaks from his engine ; for hundreds of engines 
 get " laid down " on hills from slipping induced by this 
 very cause. 
 
 HOW TO USE SAND. 
 
 The first consideration in this regard is to have clean, 
 dry sand, and easy-working box valves. Then the en- 
 gineer should know how far the valves open by the 
 distance he draws the lever. In starting from a station, 
 
62 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 or working at a point where slipping is likely to com- 
 mence, the valves should be opened a little, and a slight 
 sprinkling of sand dropped on the rails. This often 
 serves the purpose of preventing slipping just as well 
 as a heavy coating of sand. And it has none of the 
 objectionable features of thick sanding. Trains often 
 get stalled on grades by the sand-valves being allowed 
 to run too freely. It is not an uncommon occurrence 
 for engineers to open the valves wide, and let all the 
 sand run upon the rails that the pipe will carry, so that 
 a solid crust covers each rail, and every wheel on the 
 train gets clogged with the powdered silica ; and, after 
 the train has passed over, a coating is left for the next 
 one that comes along. 
 
 The wheels scatter their burden of powdered sand 
 into the axle-boxes, and it grinds its way inside the 
 rod-brasses, and part of it gets wafted upon the guides ; 
 and in all these positions it is matter decidedly in the 
 wrong place. And this body of sand under the wheels 
 increases the resistance in the same way as a wagon is 
 harder to pull among gravel than it is on a clean, hard 
 road : the indiscreet engineer complains about the train 
 being stiff to haul ; and the chances are, that he goes 
 twice up the hill before the whole train is got over. 
 Uncle Toby's plan is, when pulling on a heavy grade, 
 to open the valve enough to let the drivers leave a 
 slight white impression on the rails. If they slip, he 
 gives a few particles more sand, but decreases the 
 supply again so soon as the drivers will hold with the 
 diminished quantity. Uncle Toby seldom needs to 
 double a hill. 
 
GETTING UP THE HILL. 63 
 
 These remarks are for the use of men running en- 
 gines with the common sand-boxes and valves. The 
 modern locomotives have automatic devices which 
 place the sand where it will do the most good and does 
 not cause waste and annoyance by dropping an over- 
 supply. 
 
 All efficient engineers are careful not to have their 
 sanding-apparatus in the condition that only one sand- 
 pipe is feeding. That is a common cause of broken 
 crank-pins and side-rods. 
 
 SLIPPERY ENGINES. 
 
 These remarks apply to ordinary engines with ordi- 
 nary rail-conditions. Occasionally we find an engine 
 inveterately given to slipping, and no conditions seem 
 able to keep it down. Such an engine is as ready to 
 whirl its wheels as an ugly mule is to kick up its heels, 
 and upon as little provocation. With a dirty, half-wet 
 rail, an engine of this kind loses half its power. The 
 causes that make an engine bad for slipping are various. 
 Excess of cylinder-power or very hard steel tires, are 
 the most frequent causes of slipping ; but badly worn 
 tires sometimes produce a similar effect ; or the blame 
 may rest in a short wheel-base, deficiency in weight, or 
 in too flexible driving-springs. To get a slippery 
 engine over the road when the rails are moist and 
 dirty, requires the exercise of unmeasured patience 
 by the engineer. The tendency of an engine to slip 
 may be checked to some extent by working with the 
 lever well ahead towards full stroke, and throttling 
 the steam. This gives a more uniform piston-pres- 
 
64 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 sure than is possible while working expansively. Of 
 two evils, it is best to choose the least. The smallest 
 in this case is losing the benefits of. expansion, and 
 getting over the road. 
 
 FEEDING THE BOILER. 
 
 Some engineers claim that the most economical re- 
 sults can be obtained from an engine by running with 
 the water as low as possible, consistent with safety. 
 They hold, that, so long as the water is sufficiently 
 high to cover the heating-surfaces, there is enough to 
 make steam from ; and the ample steam-room remain- 
 ing above the water assures a more perfect supply of 
 dry steam for the cylinders than can be had from the 
 more contracted space left above a high water-line. 
 Old engineers, running locomotives furnished with en- 
 tirely reliable feeding-apparatus, may be able to carry 
 a low water-level advantageously, especially with light 
 trains and level roads; but with ordinary men, aver- 
 age injectors, and the common run of roads a high 
 water-level is safest. With a high water-level the 
 temperature of the boiler can be kept nearly uniform ; 
 for the increased volume of water holds an accumu- 
 lated store of heat, which is not readily affected by 
 the feed. And the surplus store is convenient to draw 
 upon in making the best of a time-order, or in getting 
 over a heavy grade. Then, if the injectors fail, a full 
 boiler of water often enables a man to examine the 
 delinquent feeding-apparatus, and set it going; 
 whereas, with low water, the only resource would be 
 to dump the fire. 
 
GETTING UP THE HILL. 65 
 
 The right-hand injector is used most for feeding the 
 boiler, but several times during each trip the left-hand 
 injector is called into service, a thing necessary to 
 keep it in good working order. On a heavy grade one 
 injector will not supply all the water necessary for 
 steam-making, and the other is put to work. This is 
 generally done when the slow, heavy pull begins and 
 the steam reaches near to the blowing-off point. Dur- 
 ing the remainder of the ascent, the water is supplied 
 as liberally as it can be carried ; and the top of the 
 grade finds the engine with a full boiler. This en- 
 ables the engineer to preserve a tolerably even boiler 
 temperature ; for in running down the long descent 
 which follows, where the engine runs several miles 
 without working steam, the injectors can be shut off, 
 and sudden cooling of the boiler avoided. The pres- 
 ervation of flues and fire-box sheets depends very 
 much upon the manner of feeding the water. Some 
 men are intensely careless in this matter. In climb- 
 ing a grade, they let the water run down till there is 
 scarcely enough left to cover the crown-sheet when 
 they reach the summit. Then they dash on the feed, 
 and plunge cold water into the hot boiler, which is 
 then peculiarly liable to be easily cooled down, owing 
 to the limited quantity of hot water it contains. The 
 fact of having the steam shut off, greatly aggravates 
 the evil; for there is then no intensity of heat passing 
 through the flues to counteract the chilling effect of 
 the feed-water. If it is necessary to feed while run- 
 ning with the steam shut off, the blower should be 
 kept going ; which will, in some measure, prevent the 
 
66 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 change of temperature from being dangerously sud- 
 den. There will probably be some loss from steam 
 blowing off, but this is the smaller of two evils. 
 
 Engineers are not likely to feed the boiler too 
 lavishly when working hard, for the injection of cold 
 water instantly shows its effect by reducing the steam- 
 pressure. But this is not the case when running with 
 the throttle closed. The circulation in the boiler is 
 then so sluggish, that the temperature of the water 
 may be reduced many degrees, while the steam con- 
 tinues to show its highest pressure. 
 
 Writers on physical science tell us that the tempera- 
 ture of water and steam in a boiler is always the same, 
 and varies according to pressure ; that, at the atmos- 
 phere's pressure, water boils at 212 degrees, and pro- 
 duces steam of the same temperature. At 10 pounds 
 above the atmospheric pressure, the water will not 
 evaporate into steam until it has reached a tempera- 
 ture of 240 degrees, and so on : as the pressure in- 
 creases, the temperature of water and steam rises. 
 But under all circumstances, while the water and 
 steam remain in the same vessel, their temperature is 
 the same. This is an acknowledged law of physical 
 science ; yet every locomotive engineer of reflection, 
 who has run on a hilly road, knows that circumstances 
 daily happen where the law does not hold good. 
 
 CAREFUL FEEDING AND FIRING PRESERVE BOILERS. 
 
 A case where the conservative effect of careful firing 
 and feeding was strikingly illustrated once came under 
 the author's notice. During the busiest part of the 
 
GETTING UP THE H1<LL. 6y 
 
 season, the fire-box of a freight engine belonging to a 
 Western road became so leaky that the engine was 
 really unfit for service. Engines, like individuals, 
 soon lose their reputation if they fail to perform their 
 required duties for any length of time. This engine, 
 "29," soon became the aversion of trainmen. The 
 loquacious brakeman, who can instruct every railroad- 
 man how to conduct his business, but is lame respect- 
 ing his own work, got presently to making big stories 
 out of the amazing quantity of water and coal that 
 "29" could get away with, and how many trains she 
 would hold in the course of a trip. The road was 
 suffering from a plethora of freight and extreme scar- 
 city of engines ; and on this account the management 
 was reluctant to take this weakling into the shop. So 
 the master mechanic turned "29" over to Engineer 
 Macleay, who was running on a branch where delays 
 were not likely to hold many trains. Mac deliberated 
 about taking his "time" in preference to the engine, 
 which others had rejected, but finally concluded to 
 give the bad one a fair trial. The first trip convinced 
 the somewhat observant engineer that the tender fire- 
 box was peculiarly susceptible to the free use of the 
 pump, and to sudden changes of the fire's intensity of 
 heat. So he directed the fireman to fire as evenly as 
 possible, never to permit the grates to get bare enough 
 to let cold air pass through, to keep the door closed 
 except when firing, to avoid violent shaking of the 
 grates, and never to throw more than two or three 
 shovelfuls of coal into the fire-box at one time. His 
 own method was, to feed with persistent regularity, to 
 
68 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 go twice over heavy parts of the division in preference 
 to distressing the engine by letting the water get low, 
 and then filling up rapidly. This system soon began 
 to tell on the improved condition of the fire-box. The 
 result was that within a month after taking the en- 
 gine, Mac was pulling full trains on time; and this 
 he continued to do for five months, till it was found 
 convenient to take the engine in for rebuilding. 
 
 OPERATING THE DAMPERS. 
 
 According to the mechanical dictionary, a damper 
 is a device for regulating the admission of air to a 
 furnace, with which the fire can be stimulated, or the 
 draught cut off, when necessary. Some runners regard 
 locomotive dampers in a very different light. They 
 seem to think the openings to the ash-pan are merely 
 holes made to let air in, and ashes out ; that doors are 
 placed upon them, which troublesome rules require to 
 be closed at certain points of the road to prevent 
 causing fires. Those who have made their business a 
 study, however, understand that locomotive dampers 
 are as useful, when properly managed, as are the 
 dampers of the base-burner which cheers their homes 
 in winter weather. To effect perfect combustion in 
 the fire-box, a certain quantity of oxygen, one of the 
 constituents of common air, is required to mix with 
 the carbon and carbureted hydrogen of the coal. The 
 combination takes place in certain fixed quantities. 
 If the quantity of air admitted be deficient, a gas of 
 inferior calorific power will be generated. On the 
 other hand, when the air-supply is in excess of that 
 
GETTING UP THE HILL. 69 
 
 needed for combustion, the surplus affects the steam- 
 producing capabilities of the fire injuriously; since it 
 increases the speed of the gases, lessening the time 
 they are in contact with the water-surface, and a 
 violent rush of air reduces the temperature of portions 
 of the fire-box below the heat at which carbureted 
 hydrogen burns. 
 
 LOSS OF HEAT THROUGH EXCESS OF AIR. 
 
 In the fire-boxes of American engines, where double 
 dampers are the rule, far more loss of heat is occa- 
 sioned by excess of air than there is waste of fuel 
 through the gases not receiving their natural supply 
 of oxygen. The blast from the nozzles creates an im- 
 petuous draught through the grates ; and when to this 
 is added the rapid currents of air impelled into the 
 open ash-pan by the violent motion of the train, the 
 fire-box is found to be the center of a furious wind- 
 storm. The excess of this storm can be regulated by 
 keeping the front damper closed, and letting the 
 engine draw its supply of air through the back damper. 
 When the fire begins to get dirty, and the air-passages 
 between the grates become partly choked, the forward 
 damper can be opened with advantage. So long as an 
 engine steams freely with the front damper closed, it 
 is an indication that there is no necessity for keeping 
 it open. With vicious, heavy firing, all the air that 
 can be injected into the fire-box is needed to effect 
 indifferently complete combustion ; and the man who 
 follows this -wasteful practice cannot get too much air 
 through the fire. Consequently, it is only with 
 
70 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 moderately light firing that regulation of draught can 
 be practiced. Running with the front damper open 
 all the time is hard on the bottom part of the fire-box, 
 and the ever-varying attrition of cold wind is respon- 
 sible for many a leaky mud-ring. 
 
 LOSS OF HEAT FROM BAD DAMPERS. 
 
 In Europe, where far more attention has been de- 
 voted to economy of fuel than has been bestowed 
 upon the matter this side of the Atlantic, locomotives 
 are provided with ash-pans that are practically air- 
 tight, and the damper-doors are made to close the 
 openings. In many instances, the levers that operate 
 the dampers have notched sectors, so that the quan- 
 tity of air admitted may equal the necessities of the 
 fire. European locomotives, as a rule, show a better 
 record in the use of their fuel than is found in Ameri- 
 can practice; and a high percentage of the saving is 
 due to the superior damper arrangements. 
 
 Imagine the trouble and expense there would be with 
 a kitchen stove that had no appliance for closing the 
 draught ! Yet some of our locomotive-builders turn 
 out their engines with practically no means of regulat- 
 ing the flow of air beneath the fire. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 FINISHING THE TRIP/ 
 
 RUNNING OVER ORDINARY TRACK. 
 
 The hill which our train encounters nearly at the 
 beginning of the journey is the hardest part of the 
 division. The style in which it is ascended shows 
 what kind of an engine pulls the train, and it tests in 
 a searching manner the ability of the engineer. Our 
 engine has got over the summit successfully ; and the 
 succeeding descent is accomplished with comfort to 
 the engine, and security to the train. And so the rest 
 of the trip goes on. The train speeds merrily along 
 through green, rolling prairies, away past leafy wood- 
 lands and flowery meadows : it cuts a wide swath 
 through long cornfields, startles into wakefulness the 
 denizens of sleek farmhouses, and raises a rill of ex- 
 citement as it bounds through quiet villages. But 
 every change of scene, every varied state of road-bed, 
 — level track, ascending or descending grade, — is pre- 
 pared for in advance by our enginemen. Their engine 
 is found in proper time for each occasion, as it requires 
 the exertion of great power, or permits the conservation 
 of the machine's energy. Over long stretches of un- 
 
 71 
 
72 LOCOMOTItVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 dulatory track the train speeds ; each man attending 
 to his work so closely that the index of the steam- 
 gauge is almost stationary, and the water does not 
 vary an inch in the glass. This is accomplished by 
 regular firing and uniform boiler-feeding, two oper- 
 ations which must go together to produce creditable 
 results. 
 
 STOPPING-PLACES. 
 
 There are few stops to be made, and these are mostly 
 at water-stations. Here the fireman is ready to take 
 in water with the least possible delay; and, while he is 
 doing so, the engineer hurries around the engine, feel- 
 ing every box and bearing, and dropping a fresh sup- 
 ply of oil where necessary. And, while going thus 
 around, he glances searchingly over the engine, his 
 eye seeking to detect absent nuts, or missing bolts 
 or pins : anything wrong may now be observed and 
 remedied. 
 
 At the coaling-stations the fireman finds time to 
 rake out the ash-pan, and the engineer bestows upon 
 the engine and tender a leisurely inspection besides 
 oiling around. 
 
 KNOWLEDGE OF TRAIN-RIGHTS. 
 
 Next to studying the idiosyncrasies of his engine, 
 our model engineer prides himself on his intimate 
 acquaintance with the details of the time-table. The 
 practice becoming so common on our best-regulated 
 railroads, of examining candidates for promotion to the 
 position of engineer on their knowledge of the time- 
 
FINISHING THE TRIP. 73 
 
 table, has a very salutary effect upon aspiring firemen, 
 and induces them to acquire familiarity with the rules 
 governing train-service, which they never forget. 
 
 Our engineer is well posted on all the rules relating 
 to the movement of trains; his mind's eye can glance 
 over the division, and note meeting or passing points; 
 and the relative rights of each train stand blazoned 
 forth in bold relief before his mental vision. This 
 knowledge regulates his conduct while nearing sta- 
 tions ; for, although every stopping-point is ap- 
 proached cautiously, those places where trains may be 
 expected to be found are run into with vigilant care- 
 fulness, the train being under perfect control. De- 
 pending blindly upon conductors and brakemen to 
 keep safe control of the train at dangerous points is 
 opening the gate of trouble. An engineer is jointly 
 responsible with the conductor for the safety of his 
 train, and he should make certain that every precau- 
 tion is taken to get over the road without accident. 
 
 On some roads the rules require the engineer to 
 show his train-orders to the fireman. No rule ought 
 to be necessary to insure this practice being regularly 
 followed. Two heads are better than one when mem- 
 ory of where trains are to be met is concerned. Not 
 a few engineers have escaped forgetting train-orders 
 by showing them to the fireman. 
 
 PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN APPROACHING 
 AND PASSING STATIONS. 
 
 Running past stations where trains are standing side- 
 tracked, requires to be done with special care, particu- 
 
74 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 larly in the case of passenger trains; for, at such 
 points, there is danger of persons getting injured by 
 stepping inadvertently past a car or a building, in 
 front of a moving train. This peril is guarded against 
 by reducing the speed as far as practicable, after 
 whistling to warn all concerned, by ringing the engine- 
 bell and keeping a sharp lookout from the cab. 
 
 THE BEST RULES MUST BE SUPPLEMENTED BY 
 GOOD JUDGMENT. 
 
 Rules framed by the officers of our railways for the 
 guidance of employes are always safe to follow as far 
 as they go, and neglect of their behests will soon en- 
 tail disaster. But circumstances sometimes arise in 
 train-service to which no rule applies, and the men in 
 charge must follow the dictates of their judgment. 
 This happens often, especially on new roads; and the 
 men who prove themselves capable of wrestling suc- 
 cessfully with unusual occurrences, of overcoming dif- 
 ficulties suddenly encountered, are nature's own rail- 
 roaders. It is this practice of acting judiciously and 
 promptly, without the aid of codified directions, which 
 gives to American railroadmen their striking indi- 
 viduality, known to the men of no other nation fol- 
 lowing the same calling. European railway servants 
 carry ponderous books of "rules and regulations" in 
 their pockets, and these rules are expected to furnish 
 guidance for every contingency ; so, when an engine- 
 driver or guard gets into an unusual dilemma, he 
 turns over the pages of his rule-book for counsel and 
 direction. The American engineer or conductor under 
 
FINISHING THE TRIP. 75 
 
 similar circumstances takes the safe side, and goes 
 ahead. 
 
 OPERATING SINGLE TRACKS SAFELY. 
 
 For many years to come the great majority of our 
 railroads will be single tracks, as they now are. The 
 operating of single-track roads is only done safely by 
 the exercise of unsleeping vigilance on the part of all 
 concerned in the movement of trains. Delays some- 
 times occur through mistaken excess of caution, as in 
 the case of an engineer in Iowa, who mistook the lan- 
 tern of a benighted farmer for the headlight of an 
 approaching train, and backed to the nearest telegraph- 
 station ; or that of a conductor in Michigan, who side- 
 tracked his train to let the evening star pass. Such 
 mistakes make pleasantry among trainmen, but all 
 acknowledge that it is better to err on the safe side 
 than to run recklessly into danger. 
 
 CAUSES OF ANXIETY TO ENGINEERS. 
 
 The anxiety upon the part of the engineer is not 
 occasioned by fear for his personal safety, though that 
 doubtless has its influence ; but it is the knowledge, 
 born of observation and experience, that blind adher- 
 ence to orders, no matter what the circumstances, or 
 from whom emanating, may not only cost him his life, 
 but may involve the lives of many others, — the lives 
 of people believing in him, and trusting in him, and 
 as unconscious of danger as they are helpless to avoid 
 it. 
 
76 LOCOMOTTVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 ACQUAINTANCE WITH THE ROAD. 
 
 Next in importance to knowing well how to manage 
 the engine, and intimate familiarity with the time-table 
 and its rules, comes acquaintance with the road. In 
 the light of noonday, when all nature seems at peace, 
 when every object can be seen distinctly, the work of 
 running over a division is as easy as child's play. But 
 when thick darkness covers the earth, when the fitful 
 gleam of the headlight shines on a mass of rain, so 
 dense that it seems like a water wall rising from the 
 pilot, or when blinding clouds of snow obliterate every 
 bush and bank, it is important that the engineer should 
 know every object of the wayside. A person unac- 
 customed to the business, who rides on a locomotive 
 tearing through the darkness on a stormy night, sees 
 nothing around but a black chaos made fitfully awful 
 by the glare from the fire-box door. But even in the 
 wildest tempest, when elemental strife drowns the 
 noise of the engine, the experienced engineer attends 
 to his duties calmly and collectedly. A cutting or 
 embankment, a culvert or crossing, a tree or bush, is 
 sufficient to mark the location ; and every mile gives 
 landmarks trifling to the uninitiated, but to the trained 
 eye significant as a lighted signal. One indicates the 
 place to shut off steam for a station, another tells that 
 the train is approaching a stiff-pull grade ; and the 
 enginemen act on the knowledge imparted. And so 
 the round of the work goes. Working and watching 
 keep the train speeding on its journey. Nothing is 
 left to chance or luck : every movement, every varia- 
 
FINISHING THE TRIP. 77 
 
 tion of speed, is the effect of an unseen control. As 
 a stately ship glides on its voyage obedient as a thing 
 of life to the turn of the steersman's wheel ; so the 
 king of inland transportation, the locomotive engine, 
 the monarch of speed, the ideal of power in motion, 
 pursues its way, annihilating space, binding nations 
 into a harmonious unit, and all the time submissive to 
 the lightest touch of the engineer's hand. 
 
 To get a freight train promptly over the road day 
 after day, or night after night, an engineer must know 
 the road intimately, not only marking the places where 
 steam must be shut off for stations or grades, but every 
 sag and rise must be engraved on his memory. Then 
 he will be prepared to take advantage of slight descents 
 to assist in getting him over short pulls, where, other- 
 wise, he would lose speed ; and the same knowledge 
 will avail him to avoid breaking the train in two while 
 passing over the short depressions in the track's align- 
 ment, called sags in the West. 
 
 FINAL DUTIES OF THE TRIP. 
 
 With an engine properly fired, there is but little 
 special preparation needed for closing up the trip with- 
 out waste of fuel. The fire is regulated so that a head 
 of steam will be retained sufficient to take the engine 
 into the round-house after the fire-box is cleaned out. 
 In drawing the fire, the blower should be used as spar- 
 ingly as possible ; for its blast rushes a volume of cold 
 air through the flues, which is apt to start leaks. Many 
 engineers find flues, or stay-bolts, which were dry at 
 the end of one trip, leaking when the engine is taken 
 
78 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING, 
 
 out for the next run. In nine cases out of ten, the 
 cause has been too much blower. So soon as the ash- 
 pan is cleaned out the dampers should be closed so 
 that the fire-box and flues may cool down gradually. 
 
 PULLING PASSENGER TRAINS. 
 
 The enginemen who acquire the art of taking a fast 
 freight train over the road on time will experience no 
 difficulty in handling passenger trains after a little ex- 
 perience. All the rules that apply to handling freight 
 trains are suitable for passenger trains with very little 
 modification. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 HARD-STEAMING ENGINES. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF LOCOMOTIVES STEAMING FREELY. 
 
 As the purpose of a locomotive engine attached to 
 a train is to take that train along on time, and as 
 engines are generally rated to pull cars according to 
 their size, it is of the utmost importance that they 
 should make steam freely enough to keep up an even 
 pressure on the boiler while the cylinders are drawing 
 the supply necessary to maintain speed. A locomo- 
 tive that does not generate steam as fast as the cylin- 
 ders use it is like a lame horse on the road, a torture 
 to itself and to every one connected with it. 
 
 ESSENTIALS FOR GOOD-STEAMING ENGINES. 
 
 To steam freely, an engine must be built according 
 to sound mechanical principles. The locomotives 
 constructed by our best manufacturers, the engines 
 which keep the trains on our first-class roads moving 
 like clock-work, are designed according to proportions 
 which experience has demonstrated to be productive 
 of the most satisfactory results for power and speed, 
 combined with economy. There are certain charac- 
 
 79 
 
80 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 teristics common to all good makers. The valve- 
 motion is planned to apply steam to the pistons at 
 nearly boiler-pressure, with the means of cutting off 
 early in the stroke, and retaining the steam long 
 enough in the cylinders to obtain tangible benefits 
 from its expansive principle. Liberal heating-surface 
 is provided in the boiler, its extent being regulated by 
 the size of the cylinders to be supplied with steam. 
 With a good valve-motion, and plenty of heating- 
 surface served with the products of good coal, an 
 engine must steam freely if it is not prevented from 
 doing so by malconstruction or adjustment of minor 
 parts, or by the wasting of heat in the boiler or in the 
 cylinders. 
 
 An engine of that kind will steam if it is managed 
 with any degree of skill. But as the best lathe ever 
 constructed will turn out poor work under the hands 
 of a blundering machinist, so the best of locomotives 
 will make a bad record when run without care or skill. 
 Regular feeding — the water supplied at a rate to equal 
 the quantity evaporated, which will maintain a nearly 
 level gauge — is an essential point in successful running. 
 It is hardly second in importance to skillful firing. 
 
 CAUSES DETRIMENTAL TO MAKING STEAM. 
 
 When an engine is steaming badly, almost the first 
 action of an experienced engineer is to examine the 
 draught appliances in the smoke-box. These appli- 
 ances are designed to regulate the pull of the draught 
 upon the fire so that the gases of combustion will pass 
 evenly through all the tubes, and to prevent the 
 
HARD-STEAMING ENGINES. 8 1 
 
 throwing of sparks. The two duties do not always 
 harmonize, and the deflector-plate in front of the 
 tubes is frequently set more with a view to the pre- 
 vention of spark-throwing than to the regulating of 
 the draught. When this is done, the engine will not 
 steam freely. A medium point should be found in 
 which the draught will receive no more interruption 
 than what is necessary to make the flow of the gases 
 uniform through the tubes. If the engine is firecj 
 properly under this condition, there' is not likely to be 
 much cause for complaint from spark-throwing. 
 
 PETTICOAT-PIPE. 
 
 The petticoat-pipe performs, in relation to draught, 
 functions of a similar nature to those performed 
 by the tubes of an injector in inducing the flow of 
 water; and its efficiency is reduced by the same 
 disturbing agencies. This pipe must have a size in 
 proportion to the diameter of the stack, and it must 
 be set so that it shall deliver the exhaust-steam to 
 make a straight shoot through the stack. When 
 these conditions are properly arranged, the exhaust- 
 steam goes through the stack like a piston, leaving 
 a vacuum behind. The petticoat-pipe is a device 
 confined mainly to American locomotives ; and its 
 purpose is the same as the deflector in engines hav- 
 ing open stacks: to regulate the draught in the 
 smoke-box so that the currents of hot gases are drawn 
 uniformly through the flues, the top, bottom, and 
 sides getting about the same heating intensity as 
 passes through the middle rows. The opportunity 
 
82 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 for the exhibition of good firing depends greatly upon 
 the petticoat-pipe being constructed properly, and 
 secured at the right position. It is impracticable to 
 lay down a positive rule for dimensions and best posi- 
 tion of these pipes, for engines of the same pro- 
 portions frequently require different petticoat-pipe 
 arrangements to make them steam freely. When 
 engines with sufficient heating-surface do not steam 
 freely, the trouble nearly always lies in malpropor- 
 tioned or badly set petticoat-pipes, or badly set 
 deflectors. Sometimes a very small change in the 
 position of this deflector or pipe will have a wonderful 
 effect upon the steaming qualities of the engine. If 
 the pipe is set too high, most of the draught will pass 
 through the lower flues; and the upper rows will be- 
 come filled with soot, and many of them are likely to 
 get choked with fine ashes, which remains there for 
 want of draught to force it out. Should it be too low, 
 the bottom rows of flues will suffer from the effect of 
 defective draught. When the petticoat-pipe is just 
 right, the flues will look uniformly clean inside, which 
 can be ascertained by a close inspection of the smoke- 
 box. In addition to making the engine lose the ben- 
 efit of its full heating-surface, a badly arranged petti- 
 coat-pipe concentrates the draught so % much that it 
 tears the fire to pieces at one particular point ; and the 
 only resource for the man who wishes to keep up 
 steam is to fire heavily, thereby preventing cold air 
 from being drawn through the crevices. 
 
HARD-STEAMING ENGINES. 83 
 
 THE SMOKE-STACK. 
 
 The ordinary purpose of the smoke-stack to convey 
 the smoke and exhausted gases to the atmosphere. If 
 it is intended to perform its functions in a straightfor- 
 ward manner, it is made several inches' less diameter 
 than the cylinders, and its highest altitude rises from 
 14 to 15 feet above the rail. The stack is a simple 
 enough article to look at, yet a vast amount of inven- 
 tive genius has been expended upon attempts to ex- 
 pand its natural functions. Attempts have been made 
 to utilize it as an apparatus for consuming smoke, and 
 hundreds of patents hang upon it as a spark-arrester. 
 Patentees, in pushing their hobby, seem occasionally 
 to forget that a locomotive requires some draught, as 
 a means of generating steam ; and stacks are fre- 
 quently so hampered with patent spark-arresters that 
 the means of making steam are seriously curtailed. 
 Were it not for the danger of raising fires by spark- 
 throwing, it would be more economical to use engines 
 with clear smoke-stacks ; and the extended front end, 
 with open stack, is a good move in this direction. 
 
 OBSTRUCTIONS TO DRAUGHT. 
 
 Every obstruction to free draught entails the use of 
 strong artificial means to overcome it. The usual re- 
 sort is contracted nozzles, which induce a sharp blast, 
 and use up more fuel than would be required with an 
 open passage to the atmosphere. ' Among the obsta- 
 cles to free steaming, that come under the category of 
 obstructed draught, may be placed a wide cone fast- 
 
84 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 ened low, and netting with fine meshes. When the 
 draught-passage is interrupted to a pernicious extent 
 by spark-arresting appliances, their effects can be per- 
 ceived on the fire when steam is shut off ; for the flame 
 and smoke prefer the fire-box door to the stack as a 
 means of exit. Sometimes steam-making is hindered 
 by the netting getting gummed up with spent lubri- 
 cants and dirt from the cylinders. Cases occur where 
 this gum has to be burnt off before free draught can 
 be obtained. Waste soaked with coal-oil will gener- 
 ally burn off the objectionable coating. 
 
 THE EXTENDED SMOKE-BOX. 
 
 By this arrangement the spark-arresting device is 
 transferred from the smoke-stack to the smoke-box, 
 and the exhaust-steam escapes direct to the atmos- 
 phere, without meeting obstruction from a cone or 
 netting. The netting is generally an oblong screen, 
 extending from above the upper row of flues to the 
 top of the extended smoke-box, some distance ahead 
 of the stack. This presents a wide area of netting for 
 the fire-gases to pass through. The draught through 
 the flues is regulated by an apron or diaphragm-plate, 
 extending downwards at an acute angle from the 
 upper part of the flue-sheet. With the long exhaust- 
 pipe used with the extended smoke-box, the tendency 
 of the exhaust is to draw the fire-gases through the 
 upper row of flues. The diaphragm-plate performs 
 the same duties here, of regulating the draught 
 through the flues equally, as the petticoat-pipe does 
 with the diamond-stack. It is of great consequence, 
 
HARD-STEAMING ENGINES. 85 
 
 for the successful working of the engine, that the 
 draught should be properly regulated: otherwise there 
 will be trouble for want of steam. 
 
 When an engine having an extended smoke-box 
 does not steam properly, experiments should be made 
 with the diaphragm fastened at different angles, till 
 the point is reached where equal draught through the 
 flues is obtained. Closing the nozzles, as a means of 
 improving the steaming of such an engine, is certain 
 to make matters worse. 
 
 STEAM-PIPES LEAKING. 
 
 The blowing of steam-pipe joints in the smoke-box 
 is very disastrous to the steaming qualities of a loco 
 motive. This has a double action against keeping up 
 steam. All that escapes by leaking is so much 
 wasted, and its presence in the smoke-box interrupts 
 the draught. 
 
 If the steam-pipe joints are leaking badly, they can 
 be heard when the fire-door is open and the engine 
 working steam. Some experienced engineers can de- 
 tect the action of leaky steam-pipe joints on the fire ; 
 but the safest way to locate this trouble is by opening 
 the smoke-box door, and giving the engine steam. 
 
 DEFECTS OF GRATES. 
 
 Grates that are fitted so close as to curtail the free 
 admission of air below the fire prevent an engine from 
 steaming freely. The effect of this will be most ap- 
 parent when the fire begins to get dirty. The ten- 
 dency of locomotive-designers for many years has been 
 
86 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING, 
 
 to increase the grate area as much as possible, so that 
 sufficient air might easily be admitted to supply the 
 combustion needs of heavy working engines. In many 
 cases small grates might be made more efficient if they 
 had a greater proportion of air-opening and less solid 
 cast iron. I once knew of an engine's steaming being 
 very seriously impaired by two or three fingers in one 
 section of grate being broken off. The engine 
 steamed well with a light fire, till, in dumping the fire 
 at the end of a journey, the men knocked some of the 
 fingers off. Next trip it seemed a different engine. 
 Nothing but heavy firing would keep up an approach 
 at working-pressure. I experimented with the petti- 
 coat-pipe without satisfaction, assured myself that no 
 leaks existed among the pipes; the stack, with its 
 connections, was faultless; and the engineer was 
 puzzled. The defect was discovered by watching the 
 effect of the blast upon the fire. Signs of air-drawing 
 were often to be seen at the point where the broken 
 fingers were. This was where the mischief lay. Too 
 much cold air came through, unless the opening were 
 bedded over by a heavy fire. 
 
 A drop-grate that did not close properly had a sim- 
 ilar effect upon another engine which came under the 
 author's notice ; and a change, which shut the opening, 
 effected a perfect remedy. 
 
 TEMPORARY CURES FOR LEAKY TUBES. 
 
 Leaky tubes or stay-bolts may sometimes be dried 
 up temporarily by putting bran, or any other sub- 
 stance containing starch, in the feed-water. Care 
 
HARD-STEAMINC ENGINES. S7 
 
 must be taken not to use this remedy too liberally, 
 or it will cause foaming. It is, however, a sort of 
 granger resort, and is seldom tried except to help an 
 engine to the nearest point where calking can be done. 
 
 GOOD MANAGEMENT MAKES ENGINES STEAM. 
 
 No engine steams so freely but that it will get short 
 under mismanagement. The locomotive is designed 
 to generate steam from water kept at a nearly uniform 
 temperature. If an engine is pulling a train which 
 requires the evaporation of 1,500 gallons of water 
 each hour, there will be 25 gallons pumped into the 
 boiler every minute. When this goes on regularly, 
 all goes well; but if the runner shuts the feed for five 
 minutes, and then opens it to allow 50 gallons a min- 
 ute to pass through the pump, the best engine going 
 will show .signs of distress. Where this fluctuating 
 style of feeding is indulged in, — and many careless 
 runners are habitually guilty of such practices, — no 
 locomotive can retain the reputation of doing its work 
 economically. 
 
 INTERMITTENT BOILER-FEEDING. 
 
 The case of Fred Bemis, who still murders locomo- 
 tives on a road in Indiana, is instructive in this re- 
 spect. Fred was originally a butcher; and, had he 
 stuck to the cleaver, he might have passed through 
 life as a fairly intelligent man. But he was seized 
 with the ambition to go railroading, and struck a job 
 as fireman. He never displayed any aptitude for the 
 business, and was a poor fireman all his time through 
 
88 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 sheer indifference. But he had no specially bad 
 habits; and, in the course of years, he was "set up." 
 He had the aptitude for seeing a thing done a thou- 
 sand times without learning how to do it. All his 
 movements with an engine were spasmodic. Starting 
 from a station with a roaring fire and full boiler, the 
 next stopping-point loomed ahead ; and to get there 
 as soon as possible was his only thought. He would 
 keep the reverse-lever in the neighborhood of the 
 "corner," and pound the engine along. The pump 
 would be shut off to keep the steam from going back 
 too fast, till the water became low: then the feed 
 would be opened wide, and the steam drowned down. 
 In vain a heavy fire would be torn to pieces by vig- 
 orous shaking of the grates. The steam would not 
 rally, and he would crawl into the next station at a 
 wagon pace. A laboring blower and shaker-bar would 
 resuscitate the energies of the engine in a few minutes 
 if the flues and fire-box were not leaking too badly, 
 and the injector would provide the water for starting 
 on ; but no experience of delay and trouble seemed 
 capable of teaching Bemis the lesson how to work the 
 engine properly. He soon became the terror of train- 
 men, and the boiler-makers worked incessantly on his 
 fire-box. But he is still there, although he will not 
 make an engineer if he runs for a century. 
 
 TOO MUCH PISTON CLEARANCE. 
 
 On one of our leading railroads a locomotive was 
 rebuilt, and fitted with the extension smoke-box, 
 which was an experiment for that road, and conse- 
 
HARD-STEAMING ENGINES. 89 
 
 quently was looked upon with some degree of distrust. 
 When the engine was put on the road, it was found 
 that it did not steam satisfactorily. Of course, it was 
 at once concluded that the draught arrangements were 
 to blame ; and experiments were made, with the view 
 of adjusting the flow of gases through the tubes to 
 produce better results. The traveling engineer of the 
 road had charge of the job, and he proceeded indus- 
 triously to work at locating the trouble. He tried 
 everything in the way of adjusting the smoke-box 
 attachments that could be thought of, but nothing 
 that was done improved the steaming qualities of the 
 engine. He then proceeded to search for trouble in 
 some other direction. The result of his examination 
 was the discovery that the engine was working with 
 three-fourth inch clearance at each end of the cylin- 
 ders. This, he naturally concluded, entailed a serious 
 waste of steam ■ so he had the clearance reduced to 
 one-fourth inch. When the engine got out after this 
 change, it steamed very satisfactorily , and the exten- 
 sion smoke-box is no longer in disrepute on that road. 
 This is no uncommon cause for waste of steam. In 
 the last year of the nineteenth century, I knew of en- 
 gines turned out by a first-class locomotive builder 
 that had nearly one inch piston clearance at each end 
 of the cylinder. 
 
 BADLY PROPORTIONED SMOKE-STACKS. 
 
 Mistakes are frequently made when the open stack 
 is adopted, as is practicable with the extended smoke- 
 box, of making the stack too wide for the exhaust. 
 
9° LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 This leads to deficiency of draught for the steam that 
 is passing through the stack, because the steam does 
 not fill the stack like a piston creating a clean vacuum 
 behind it. Where an engine with an extended smoke- 
 box fails to steam freely, attention should be directed 
 to the proportion of stack diameter to the size of cyl- 
 inders. 
 
 THE EXHAUST NOZZLES. 
 
 Locomotives, with their limited heating-surface, re- 
 quire intense artificial draught to produce steam rap- 
 idly. Many devices have been tried to stimulate 
 combustion, and generate the necessary heat ; but 
 none have proved so effectual and reliable as con- 
 tracted exhaust orifices. As the intermittent rush of 
 steam from the cylinders to the open atmosphere es- 
 capes from the contracted openings of the exhaust- 
 pipe, it leaves a partial vacuum in the smoke-box, 
 into which the gases from the fire-box flow with amaz- 
 ing velocity. As the area of the exhaust nozzles is 
 increased, the pressure of steam passing through be- 
 comes lessened, and the height of the vacuum in the 
 smoke-box is decreased. Consequently, with wide 
 nozzles, the velocity of the gases through the flues is 
 slower than with narrow ones ; for there is less suction 
 in the smoke-box to draw out the fire products : and, 
 where the gases pass slowly through the flues, there is 
 more time given for the water to abstract the heat. 
 Any change or arrangement which will retain the 
 gases of combustion one-tenth of a second longer in 
 contact with the heat-extracting surfaces, will won- 
 
HARD-STEAMING ENGINES. 9 1 
 
 derfully increase the evaporative sendee of a ton of 
 coal. Experiments with the pyrometer, an instru- 
 ment for measuring high temperatures, have shown 
 that the gases passing through the smoke-box vary 
 from 500 degrees up to 1000 degrees Fahrenheit; and 
 they show that increase of smoke-box temperature 
 keeps pace with contracted nozzles. From this, en- 
 gineers can understand why lead gaskets do not keep 
 blower-joints in a smoke-box tight, the melting-point 
 of lead being 627 degrees. 
 
 Inordinately contracted nozzles are objectionable in 
 another way. They cause back pressure in the cylin- 
 ders, and thereby decrease the effective duty of the 
 steam. Double nozzles are preferable to single ones; 
 because with the latter the steam has a tendency to 
 shoot over into the other cylinder, and cause back- 
 pressure. 
 
 Engineers anxious to make a good record, try to 
 run with nozzles as wide as possible. Contracted 
 nozzles destroy power by back pressure : they tear the 
 fire to pieces with the violent blast, and they hurry 
 the heat through the flues so fast that its temperature 
 is but slightly diminished when it passes into the 
 atmosphere. The engineer who, by intelligent care, 
 reduces his smoke-box temperature 100 degrees, 
 is worthy to rank as a master in his calling. 
 
 The other day an engineer came into the round- 
 house, and said, "You had better put 3j-inch nozzles 
 in my engine : I think she will get along with that in- 
 crease of size." He had been using 3j-inch nozzles. 
 The change was accordingly made. When he re- 
 
92 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 turned from the next trip, he expressed a doubt about 
 the advantage of the change. But it happened that 
 his own fireman was off, and a strange man was sent 
 out, who, although a good fireman, failed to keep up 
 steam satisfactorily. On the following trip, however, 
 the fireman who belonged to the engine, returned, and 
 found no difficulty in getting all the steam required. 
 But this fireman is one who would stand far up among 
 a thousand competitors. Considerable practice and 
 intelligent thoughtfulness, combined with unfailing 
 industry, have developed in this man an excellence in 
 fire management seldom attained. He follows a 
 unique system, which seems his own. It is the 
 method of firing light carried to perfection. His coal 
 is all broken down fine, and lies within easy reach. 
 His movements are cool and deliberate, no hurry, no 
 fuss. When he opens the door, his loaded shovel is 
 ready to deposit its cargo over the spot which a glance 
 shows him to be the thinnest portion of the fire. On 
 the parts of the run where the most steam is needed, 
 he fires one shovelful at brief intervals, keeping it up 
 right along. In this way the steam never feels the 
 cooling effect of fresh fire, for the contents of the fire- 
 box are kept nearly uniform. This plan is the near- 
 est possible approach to the work done by the auto- 
 matic stoker, which has been made an entire success 
 with stationary boilers and is a thorough preventive 
 of smoke. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 SHORTNESS OF WATER. 
 
 TROUBLE DEVELOPS NATURAL ENERGY. 
 
 TROUBLE and affliction are known to have a purify- 
 ing and elevating effect upon human character; diffi- 
 culties encountered in the execution of work, develop 
 the skill of the true artisan; and trouble on the road, 
 or accidents to locomotives, furnish the engineer with 
 opportunities for developing natural energy, ingenuity, 
 and perseverance, if these attributes are in him, or 
 they publish to his employers his lack of these impor- 
 tant qualities. 
 
 One of the most serious sources of trouble that an 
 engineer can meet with on the road, is shortness of 
 water. 
 
 SHORTNESS OF WATER A SERIOUS PREDICAMENT. 
 
 Deficiency of steam with a locomotive that is ex- 
 pected to get a train along on time, is a very trying 
 condition for an engineer to endure. But a more 
 trying and more dangerous ordeal, is want of water. 
 Where steam is employed as a means of applying 
 power, water must be kept constantly over the heat- 
 
 93 
 
94 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 ing-surfaces while the fire is incandescent, or their de- 
 struction is inevitable. With a boiler which evaporates 
 water rapidly, and in such large quantities as that of 
 the locomotive, the most perfect feeding apparatus is 
 necessary. Nearly all locomotives are well supplied 
 in this respect. Good injectors provide the engineer 
 with excellent appliances for feeding the boiler under 
 ordinary circumstances. But conditions sometimes 
 occur where the most reliable of injectors fail to force 
 water into the boiler. 
 
 HOW TO DEAL WITH SHORTNESS OF WATER. 
 
 When from any cause he finds the boiler getting 
 short of water, the engineer should resort to all known 
 methods within his power to overcome the difficulty, 
 by removing the obstacle that is preventing the feed- 
 ing apparatus from operating. But, while doing so, 
 the safety of his fire-box and flues should not be over- 
 looked for a moment. The utmost care must be 
 taken to quench the fire before the water gets below 
 the crown-sheet. This can be performed most effect- 
 ually by knocking the fire out ; but sometimes the 
 temporary increase of heat, occasioned by the act of 
 drawing the fire, is undesirable ; and, in such a case, 
 the safest plan is to dampen the fire by throwing wet 
 earth, or fine coal saturated with water, upon it. Or 
 a more urgent case still may intervene, when drench- 
 ing the fire with water is the only means of saving the 
 sheets from destruction. This should be a last re- 
 sort, however ; for it is a very clumsy way of saving 
 the fire-box, and is liable to do no small amount of 
 
SHORTNESS OF WATER. 95 
 
 mischief. Cold water thrown upon hot steel sheets, 
 causes such sudden contraction, that cracks, or even 
 rupture, may ensue. 
 
 WATCHING THE WATER-GAUGES. 
 
 As "burning his engine" is the greatest disgrace 
 that can professionally befall an engineer, every man 
 worthy of the name guards against a possibility of 
 being caught short of water unawares, by frequent 
 testing of the gauge-cocks. It is not enough to have 
 a good-working water-glass. If an engineer is am- 
 bitious to avoid trouble, he runs by the gauge-cocks, 
 using the glass as an auxiliary. Careful experiments 
 have demonstrated the fact that the water - glass, 
 working properly, is a more certain indication of the 
 water-level than gauge-cocks ; for, when the boiler is 
 dirty, the water rises above its natural level, and 
 rushes at the open gauge-cock. This can be proved 
 when water is just below a gauge-cock level. If the 
 cock is opened slightly, steam alone passes out ; but 
 when the full opening is made water comes. But 
 water will not come through a gauge-cock unless the 
 water-level is in its proximity ; and an engineer can 
 tell, when his gauge shows a mixture of steam, that 
 the water shown is not to be relied upon. It is not 
 "solid." On the other hand, a water-glass out of 
 order sometimes shows a full head of water when the 
 crown-sheet is red-hot. 
 
9*> LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 WHAT TO DO WHEN THE TENDER IS FOUND 
 EMPTY BETWEEN STATIONS. 
 
 The most natural cause for injectors ceasing to 
 work is absence of water from the tender. This con- 
 dition comes round on the road occasionally, where 
 engineers neglect to fill up at water-stations, or where 
 there are long runs between points of water-supply. 
 When an engineer finds himself short of water, and 
 the means of replenishing his tank too distant to 
 reach, even with the empty engine, he should bank 
 or smother the fire, and retain sufficient water in the 
 boiler to raise steam on when he has been assisted to 
 the nearest water-tank. This will save tedious delay, 
 especially where an engine has no pumps. Occasion- 
 ally, from miscalculations or through accidents, the 
 fire has to be quenched, and insufficient water is left 
 in the boiler to start a fire on safely. In this event, 
 buckets can be resorted to, and the boiler filled at the 
 safety-valves, should there be no assistance or means 
 of pumping up. Every possible means should be 
 exhausted to get the engine in steam before a runner 
 requests to have his engine towed in cold. 
 
 A TRYING POSITION. 
 
 I once knew a case where an engineer inadvertently 
 passed a water-tank without filling his tender. He 
 had a heavy train, and was pushing along with a heavy 
 fire, on a severe, frosty night, when every creek and 
 slough by the wayside was lost in heavy ice. Pres- 
 ently his pump stopped working, and he spent some 
 
SHORTNESS OF WATER. 97 
 
 time trying to start it before he discovered that the 
 tender was empty. By the time this fact became 
 known, his boiler-water was low, and a heavy fire kept 
 the steam screaming at the safety-valves. He had no 
 dump-grate, and the fire was too heavy to draw. It 
 seemed a clear case of destroying the fire-box and 
 flues. But he was a man of many resources. First, 
 he tried to get water through the gauge-cock — he had 
 only one gauge — to quench the fire, but found the 
 plan would not work. Then he filled up the fire-box 
 nearly to the crown-sheet with the smallest coal on 
 the tender, and partly smothered the fire. He then 
 partly opened the smoke-box door, and started for 
 the water-station. After getting the engine going, 
 he hooked the reverse-lever in the center and kept 
 the throttle wide open, to make the most of the 
 steam-supply. He saved his engine. 
 
 WATCHING THE STRAINERS. 
 
 When the top of a tank is in bad order and permits 
 cinders and small pieces of coal to fall through rivet- 
 holes or through seams, the engineer may look out 
 for grief with his pumps or injectors. On the first 
 signs of the water failing, he should examine the 
 strainers; and he will probably find that these copper 
 perforations, which stand like wardens guarding the 
 safety of the pumps and injectors, have accumulated 
 a mass of cinders that obstructs the flow of the water. 
 
98 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 INJECTORS. 
 
 Although the injector is not theoretically so efficient 
 as a good pump, practically it has proved itself the 
 best means of feeding water to locomotive boilers that 
 has ever been tried. When a well-made injector is 
 used regularly, it is more reliable than any form of 
 pump, is more easily examined and repaired when it 
 gets out of order, is less liable to freeze or to sustain 
 damage from accidental causes, and it regulates the 
 quantity of water required as well as the ordinary 
 pump, and better than any pump actuated by the 
 machinery of the engine, when the speed of a train is 
 irregular. The injector also possesses the important 
 advantage that it raises the temperature of the feed- 
 water to approach the temperature of the boiler, there- 
 by avoiding shocks and strains to metal that very cold 
 water is likely to impart. 
 
 So long as injectors were imperfectly understood, 
 and were used with no regularity, they retained the 
 name of being unreliable ; but so soon as they began 
 to be made the sole feeding medium for locomotive 
 boilers, they had to be worked regularly, and kept in 
 order, which quickly made their merits recognized. 
 
 INVENTION OF THE INJECTOR. 
 
 The boiler-feed injector was invented by Henri 
 Giffard, an eminent French scientist and aeronaut. 
 Its successful action was discovered during a series of 
 experiments, made with the view of devising light 
 machinery that might be used to propel balloons. 
 
SHOKTXESS OF WATER. 99 
 
 Although Giffard designed the most perfect balloon 
 that was ever constructed, the injector was not used 
 upon it ; and the invention was laid aside and almost 
 forgotten. During the course of a sea-voyage, Giffard 
 happened to meet Stewart of the engineering firm, 
 Sharp, Stewart & Co., of Manchester, England. In 
 the course of a conversation on the feeding of boilers, 
 Giffard remembered his injector, and mentioned its 
 method of action. Stewart was struck with the 
 simplicity of the device, and undertook to bring it out 
 in England, which he shortly afterwards did, represent- 
 ing the interests of the inventor so long as the original 
 patents lasted. By his advice, William Sellers & Co., 
 of Philadelphia, were given control of the American 
 patents. Seldom has an invention caused so much 
 astonishment and wild speculation among mechanics, 
 and even among scientists, as the injector did for the 
 first few years of its use. Scientists were not long in 
 discovering the philosophy of the injector's action, but 
 that knowledge spread more slowly among mechanics. 
 It was regarded as a case of perpetual motion — the 
 means of doing work without power, or, as Americans 
 expressed it, by the same means a man could raise 
 himself by pulling on his boot-straps. 
 
 PRINCIPLE OF THE IN'JECTOR'S ACTION. 
 
 Although the mechanism of the injector is very 
 simple, the philosophy of its action is not so easily 
 understood as the principles on which a pump raises 
 water and forces it into the boiler. On beginning to 
 investigate the action of the injector, it appears a phys- 
 
100 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 ical paradox, the finding that steam at a given pressure 
 leaves a boiler, passes through several tortuous and 
 contracted passages, raises several check-valves, and 
 then forces water into the boiler against a pressure 
 equal to that' which the steam had when it first began 
 the operation. At first acquaintance, the operation 
 looks as if it had a strong likeness to perpetual motion, 
 but closer investigation will show that the steam which 
 raises and forces the water by passing through an in- 
 jector performs mechanical work as truly as the steam 
 that pushes a piston which moves a pump-plunger. A 
 current of any kind, be it steam, air, water, or other 
 matter, has a tendency to induce a movement in the 
 same direction of any body with which it comes in 
 contact. Thus, we are all familiar with the fact that 
 a current of air called wind, passing over the surface 
 of a body of water, sets waves in motion, and dashes 
 the water high up on the shore away above its original 
 level. In the same way a jet of steam moving very 
 rapidly, when injected into a body of water under 
 favorable conditions, imparts a portion of its motion 
 to the water, and starts it with momentum sufficient 
 to overcome a pressure even higher than the original 
 pressure of the steam. The locomotive blast, blowers, 
 steam siphons, steam jets, jet exhausters, vacuum ejec- 
 tors, and argand burners, are all common instances of 
 the application of the principle of induced currents. 
 
 VELOCITY OF STEAM AND OF WATER. 
 
 At a boiler-pressure of 140 pounds per square inch 
 steam passes into the atmosphere with a velocity of 
 
SHORTNESS OF WATER. lO'i 
 
 1920 feet per second. When steam at this speed 
 strikes like a lightning-flash into the tubes of the in- 
 jector, it becomes the ram which forces the water 
 towards the boiler; but its power is opposed by the 
 tendency of the water inside the boiler to escape 
 through the check-valve. The velocity with which 
 water will flow from a vessel is known to be equal in 
 feet to the square root of the pressure multiplied by 
 12.19. Accordingly, in the case under consideration, 
 the water inside of the boiler would tend to escape at 
 a speed of 144 feet per second. This represents 
 the resistance at the check-valve. The mechanical 
 problem, then, to be worked out by the injector is to 
 transform the energy of hot steam moving at a high 
 velocity into the momentum possessed by a heavier 
 and colder mass of water. In the operation the steam 
 yields up a portion of its heat and the greater part of 
 its velocity, but it keeps a current of water flowing fast 
 enough to overcome the static resistance at the check- 
 valve. 
 
 TEMPERATURE OF INJECTED WATER. 
 
 A common delivery temperature of the water forced 
 through an injector is 160 degrees Fahr. Taking the 
 feed-water at 55 degrees Fahr., we find that the steam 
 used in operating the injector imparts 105 degrees 
 Fahr. to the feed-water before putting it into the 
 boiler. One pound of steam at 140 pounds boiler- 
 pressure contains 1224 heat units reckoned above zero. 
 When the hot steam speeding at a high velocity 
 
102 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 strikes the feed-water, part of the heat is converted 
 into the mechanical work required to put the water in 
 motion, but there still is left heat sufficient to raise 
 about II pounds of water to the temperature of 160 
 degrees. One pound of steam, therefore, communi- 
 cates to 1 1 pounds of water the motion required for 
 overcoming the resistance encountered at the check- 
 valve. The steam moving at a speed of 1920 feet per 
 second having imparted motion to a body eleven times 
 its own weight, itself in the meantime having become 
 a portion of the mass, the velocity of the feed-water 
 would be 1920-7- 12 = 170 feet per second. When 
 the reduction of speed due to friction of the pipes and 
 other resistances is considered, there still remains 
 momentum enough in the water to raise the check- 
 valve. 
 
 Although 160 degrees is about the average heat of 
 the water delivered by lifting injectors, instruments 
 can be designed so that they will heat the water much 
 higher. With non-lifting injectors the feed-water is 
 nearly always delivered at a higher temperature than 
 with the other kind. 
 
 ELEMENTARY FORM OF INJECTOR. 
 
 There are numerous forms of injectors in use, but 
 they are all developments of the elementary arrange- 
 ment of parts shown in the annexed illustration, Fig. I. 
 Steam at a high velocity passes from the boiler into 
 the tube A, and striking the feed-water at B, is itself 
 condensed, but imparts momentum to the water to 
 
SHORTNESS OF WATER. 103 
 
 send it rushing along into the delivery-pipe E with 
 sufficient force to raise the check-valve against the 
 pressure inside and pass into the boiler. As the cur- 
 rent of water could not be started into rapid motion 
 against the constant pressure of the check-valve, an 
 
 Fig. i. 
 
 overflow opening is provided in the injector, through 
 which the water can flow unchecked till the necessary 
 momentum is obtained, when the overflow-valve is 
 closed. 
 
 In a lifting injector the parts are so designed that, 
 in starting, a jet of steam passes through the combin- 
 ing tube B at sufficient velocity to create a vacuum in 
 the water-chamber XX, and the water is drawn into 
 this place from the feed-pipe as if by the suction of a 
 pump. The steam-jet then striking the water starts it 
 into motion. If too much steam is admitted for the 
 quantity of water passing, air will be drawn in through 
 the overflow opening, mixing with the water and re- 
 ducing its compactness, while some uncondensed steam 
 will pass through with the water. This will reduce the 
 force of impact of the feed-water upon the boiler check, 
 and when it becomes so light that the momentum of 
 feed-water is no greater than the resistance inside the 
 boiler, the injector will break. On the other hand, 
 when the quantity of water supplied is too great for 
 
104 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 the steam to put into high motion, part will escape 
 through the overflow-valve. In some forms of injectors, 
 separate appliances are used for raising the water from 
 the forcing chamber to the source of supply. 
 
 As the successful operating of the injector is depend- 
 ent on the feed-water promptly condensing the steam 
 which supplies the power, water of a very high tem- 
 perature cannot be fed by an injector. A certain 
 amount of live steam must be condensed by the feed- 
 water to impart the momentum necessary to make the 
 latter overcome the resistance at the check-valve. 
 When the feed-water becomes hotter than ioo degrees 
 Fahr. a point is soon reached where it takes such a 
 large body of water to condense the steam that there 
 is not the required velocity generated to force the feed- 
 water into the boiler. 
 
 All deviations from the elementary form of injector 
 shown are made for the purpose of extending the ac- 
 tion of the instrument under varied conditions, for 
 making it work automatically under different pressures 
 of steam, and for increasing its capacity for raising the 
 water to be used above its natural level. 
 
 CARE OF INJECTORS. 
 
 When an engineer finds that an injector refuses to 
 work, his first resort should be the strainer. That gets 
 choked with cinders or other impurities so frequently 
 that no time should be lost in examining it. One day 
 when I was running a round-house, an engineer came 
 in breathless, with the information that his engine was 
 
SHORTNESS OF WATER. 105 
 
 blocked in the yard, and he must dump his fire, as he 
 could not get his injector to work. The thermometer 
 stood at twenty degrees below zero, and an Iowa bliz- 
 zard was blowing ; so the prospect of a dead engine in 
 the yard meant some distressingly cold labor. I asked, 
 the first thing, if he had tried the strainer; and his an- 
 swer was that the strainer was all right, for the injector 
 primed satisfactorily, but broke every time he put on a 
 head of steam. I went out to the engine, and had the 
 engineer try to work the injector. By watching the 
 overflow stream, I easily perceived that the injector 
 was not getting enough water, although it primed. An 
 examination showed that the strainer was full of cin- 
 ders, and the injector went to work all right as soon as 
 the obstruction to the water was removed. 
 
 THE MOST COMMON CAUSES OF DERANGEMENT. 
 
 Sand and cinders are the most common causes of 
 failure with injectors, as they are indeed with all water- 
 feeding apparatus. A very common cause of failure of 
 injectors is leakage of steam through throttle-valve or 
 check-valve, keeping the tubes so hot that no vacuum 
 can be formed to make it prime. A great many injec- 
 tor-checks have been turned out too light for ordinary 
 service, while others are made in a shape that will 
 always leave the valve away from the seat when they 
 stop working. Then the engineer has to run forward 
 and pound the check with a hammer to keep the steam 
 from blowing back, and that soon ruins the casting. 
 Check-valves set in a horizontal position are worthless 
 with water that contains grit. 
 
106 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 HOW TO KEEP AN INJECTOR IN GOOD ORDER. 
 
 To preserve a good working injector, the engineer 
 should see that the pipes and joints are always per- 
 fectly tight. Of course it is difficult to keep them tight 
 when they are subjected to the continual jars a loco- 
 motive must stand; but injectors cannot be depended 
 on where there is a possibility of air mixing with the 
 water. Leaky joints or pipes are particularly trouble- 
 some to lifting injectors; for air passes in, and keeps 
 the steam-jet from forming a vacuum. At first the 
 injector will merely be difficult to start ; but as the 
 leaks get worse there will be no starting it at all. 
 Then, the air mixing with the water is detrimental to 
 the working of all injectors, as its tendency is to de- 
 crease the speed of the water. The compact molecules 
 of water form a cohesive body, which the steam can 
 strike upon with telling force to keep it in motion. 
 When the water is mixed with air it lacks the element 
 of compactness, and the steam-jet strikes a semi-elastic 
 body which does not receive momentum readily. This 
 mixture of steam and air does not act solidly on the 
 check-valve, but makes the water pass in with a bub- 
 bling sound, as if the valve were'moving up and down ; 
 and the stream of water breaks very readily when it is 
 working in this way. 
 
 COMMON DEFECTS. 
 
 As maintaining unbroken speed on the water put in 
 motion is the first essential in keeping an injector in 
 good working order, anything that has a tendency to 
 
SHORTNESS OF WATER. I07 
 
 reduce that speed will jeopardize its action. A variety 
 of influences combine to reduce the original efficiency 
 of an injector. Those with fixed nozzles are constructed 
 with the orifices of a certain size, and in the proportion 
 to each other which experiment has demonstrated to 
 be best for feeding with the varied steam-pressures. 
 When these orifices become enlarged by wear the in- 
 jector will work badly, and nothing will remedy the 
 defect but new tubes. The tubes sometimes get loose 
 inside the shell of the injector, and drop down out of 
 line. The water will then strike against the side of 
 the next tube, or on some point out of the true line, 
 scattering it into spray which contains no energy to 
 force itself into the boiler. A machinist examining a 
 defective injector should always make sure that the 
 tubes are not loose. Injectors suffering from incrusted 
 water-passages will generally work best with the steam 
 low. In districts where the feed-water is heavily 
 charged with lime salts, it is common for injectors to 
 get so incrusted that the passages are almost closed. 
 
 Joints about injectors that are kept tight by packing 
 must be closely watched. Many an injector that failed 
 to work satisfactorily has been entirely cured by pack- 
 ing the ram-gland. 
 
 CARE OF INJECTORS IN WINTER. 
 
 During severe frosty weather an injector can be 
 kept in order without danger of freezing ; but it needs 
 constant watching and intelligent supervision. 
 
 To keep an injector clear of danger from frost, it 
 should be fitted with frost-cocks so that all the pipes 
 
108 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 can be thoroughly drained. Bends in the pipes, 
 where water could stand, should be avoided as far as 
 possible ; and where they cannot be avoided, the low- 
 est point should contain a drain-cock. 
 
 To operate an injector successfully, thoughtful care 
 is requisite on the part of the engineer; and where 
 this is given, the injector will prove itself a very eco- 
 nomical boiler-feeder. 
 
 The injectors principally used in American locomo- 
 tives are the Sellers, the Nathan, the Rue Little 
 Giant, and the Metropolitan. All are good reliable 
 boiler-feeders, and all are made to wear well under the 
 rough service met with on locomotives. 
 
 THE SELLERS INJECTOR. 
 
 When the Giffard injector was first introduced into 
 this country by William Sellers & Co., Philadelphia, 
 it was a rather defective boiler-feeder ; but that firm 
 effected great improvements and led the way for mak- 
 ing the injector the popular boiler-feeder it is to-day. 
 They made the instrument self-adjusting, and im- 
 proved its design so that it would feed automatically 
 however much the pressure of the boiler varied, and 
 finally they perfected it so that, should anything hap- 
 pen to interrupt its working, it would automatically 
 restart itself. The latest development of the injector 
 is shown by a sectional view in Fig. 2 (see next page). 
 
 This instrument will start at the lowest steam- 
 pressures with water flowing to it, and will lift the 
 water promptly even when the suction-pipe is hot. 
 At 10 pounds steam-pressure it will lift the water 2 
 
SHORTNESS OF WATER. ICO, 
 
 feet ; at 30 pounds, 5 feet ; and at all ordinary pres- 
 sures, say 60 pounds and over, it will lift from 12 to 
 18 feet. It can be used as a heater for the water 
 supply by simply closing the waste-valve and pulling 
 out the steam-lever. 
 
 By reference to the cut it will be seen that this 
 injector consists of a case A provided with a steam- 
 inlet B, a water-inlet C, an outlet D through which 
 
 Fig. 2. — Sellers. 
 
 the water is conveyed to the boiler, an overflow open- 
 ing E, a lever F by which to admit steam, stop and 
 start its working, a hand-wheel G to regulate the 
 supply of water, and an eccentric lever H to close the 
 waste-valve when it is desired to make a heater of the 
 injector. Its operation is as follows: 
 
 The water-inlet C being in communication with 
 water supply, the valve a is open to allow the water to 
 enter the chamber /. Steam is admitted to the cham- 
 ber B, and the lever F is drawn out to lift the valve b 
 
HO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 from its seat and permit the steam to enter the an- 
 nular lifting steam-nozzle c through the holes d d. 
 The steam issuing from this nozzle passes through the 
 annular combining tube e and escapes from the instru- 
 ment partly through the overflow opening f and 
 partly through the overflow openings provided in the 
 combining tube £-£•', through the overflow chamber J 
 and passage E E, and produces a strong vacuum in 
 the water chamber / which lifts the water from the 
 source of supply, and the united jet of steam and 
 water is, by reason of its velocity, discharged into the 
 rear of the receiving end of the combining tube g. 
 The further movement of the lever F withdraws the 
 spindle h until the steam-plug i is out of the forcing 
 nozzle K y allowing the steam to pass through the 
 forcing nozzle K and come in contact with the annular 
 jet of water which is flowing into the combining tube 
 around the nozzle K. This jet of water has already 
 a considerable velocity, and the forcing steam jet 
 imparts to it the necessary increment of velocity to 
 enable it to enter the boiler through the delivery tube 
 j and boiler check k. 
 
 If from any cause the jet should be broken — say 
 from a failure in the water supply — the steam issuing 
 from the forcing nozzle K into the combining tube g 
 will escape through the overflows m and n and inter- 
 mediate openings with such freedom that the steam, 
 which will return through the annular space formed 
 between the nozzle AT and combining tube^-, and escape 
 into the overflow chamber through the opening/, will 
 not have sufficient volume or force to interfere with 
 
SHORTNESS OF WATER. Ill 
 
 the free discharge of the steam issuing from the annular 
 lifting steam-nozzle and escaping through the same 
 overflow F, and hence the lifting steam-jet will always 
 tend to produce a vacuum in the water-chamber /", 
 which will again lift the water when the supply is 
 renewed, and the combined annular jet of steam and 
 water will be forced into the combining tube g against 
 the feeble current of steam returning, when the jet 
 will again be formed and will enter the boiler as before. 
 In actual practice on a locomotive the movement of 
 the lever Fm starting the injector is continuous. 
 
 NATHAN MFG. CO.'S IMPROVED MONITOR INJECTOR. 
 
 One of the most successful and enduring injectors 
 in use is the Monitor, the distinguishing feature of 
 which originally was that the injector is constructed 
 with fixed nozzles, that insure great durability, com- 
 bined with certainty of action. The injector shown 
 in Fig. 3 is an improvement on the old Monitor, the 
 radical change being that this injector is operated by 
 a single lever. Any one who has studied the opera- 
 tion of the injector already described will have no 
 difficulty in perceiving how the new Monitor works. 
 It will be seen that steam is admitted from the top to 
 the tube that forms the body of the injector, and the 
 water from below. To start the injector, the water- 
 valve W\s opened. The main lever 5 is then pulled 
 out a short distance to lift the water; when the water 
 begins to escape through the overflow the lever 5 is 
 steadily drawn back, which puts the injector working 
 
112 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 at its maximum power. The quantity of feed required 
 is graduated by the valve W. 
 
 When it is desired to use the injector as a heater, 
 close the valve H and pull out the lever S all the way, 
 At other times the valve H must be kept open. 
 
 Steam 
 
 Fig. 3. — Nathan's Monitor. 
 
 With a boiler pressure of 30 pounds this injector 
 will lift the water 5 feet 2 and at ordinary working 
 pressure the steam will have power to lift the water to 
 a height not likely to arise in locomotive practice. 
 
 LITTLE GIANT INJECTOR. 
 
 This injector, made by the Rue Manufacturing Co., 
 is a highly efficient boiler-feeder, and a very simple 
 apparatus. The construction is clearly seen in the 
 engraving. A unique feature about this injector is 
 
SHORTNESS OF WATER. 
 
 "3 
 
 the movable combining tube adjusted by a lever, 
 causing the feed to be exactly suited to the service. 
 Moving the lever towards A tends to cut off the feed, 
 and moving towards B increases it. To work the 
 injector, the combining tube lever is set in position to 
 admit sufficient water to condense the steam from the 
 starting valve. The starting valve is then opened 
 
 A 
 
 Water Overflow 
 
 Fig. 4. Little Giant. 
 
 slightly till the water begins to escape from the over- 
 flow, when it is opened full. The feed is then regu- 
 lated by the combining tube lever. To use this 
 injector as a heater, the overflow is closed by the 
 combining tube being moved up against the discharge, 
 and opening the starting valve sufficiently to admit 
 the quantity of steam required. 
 
 The Metropolitan 1898 locomotive injector is a 
 double-tube injector, and great care has been taken in 
 designing same to have the chambers and the form of 
 the shell such as to procure the greatest possible 
 steam range. This injector consists of two sets of 
 tubes, — a set of lifting tubes, which lifts the water 
 and delivers it to the forcing set of tubes under pres- 
 
U4 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 sure, which in turn forces the water into the boiler. 
 The lifting set of tubes act as a governor to the forcing 
 tubes, delivering the proper amount of water required 
 for the condensation of the steam, thus enabling the 
 injector to work without any adjustment under a great 
 range of steam pressure, handle very hot water, and 
 
 Fig. 5. — Metropolitan. 
 
 admit of the capacity being regulated for light or 
 heavy service under all conditions. 
 
 The Metropolitan 1898 locomotive injector starts 
 with 30 lbs. steam pressure, and without any adjust- 
 ment of any kind will work at all steam pressures up 
 to 300 lbs. ; in fact, at all steam pressures and under 
 all conditions its operation is the same, and it is im- 
 possible for part or all of the water to waste at the 
 overflow. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 BOILERS AND FIRE-BOXES. 
 
 CARE OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. 
 
 The present tendency of steam engineering, in the 
 effort to increase the work performed in return for 
 every pound of fuel consumed, is to employ steam of 
 very high pressure. The greater the initial pressure 
 of the steam, the greater are the advantages to be de- 
 rived from its expansive principle. To resist success- 
 fully the enormous aggregate of pressure to which 
 locomotive boilers are subjected, a well-constructed, 
 strong boiler is absolutely necessary ; and the various 
 railroad companies throughout the country meet the 
 required conditions in an admirable manner, as is evi- 
 denced by the remarkable exemption of such boilers 
 from serious accidents. Although the locomotive is 
 the most intensely pressed boiler in common use, that 
 supreme disaster, an explosion, is of rare occurrence, 
 considering the vast number of boilers doing service 
 all over the continent. This result is due to constant 
 care in the construction, in the maintenance, and in 
 the management of the locomotive boiler. Like the 
 conservation of liberty, eternal vigilance is the price 
 of safety. 
 
 "5 
 
1 6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 FACTOR OF SAFETY. 
 
 There is perfect safety in using a boiler so long as 
 a good margin of resisting power is maintained above 
 the tendency within to tear the sheets asunder. This 
 margin is very low for locomotive boilers generally, 
 hence the greater necessity for care in maintenance 
 and management. Years ago the mechanical world 
 established by practice a rule making one-fifth of the 
 ultimate strength of a boiler its safe working-pressure. 
 That is, a boiler carrying 200 pounds working-pressure 
 should be capable of withstanding a tension of 1000 
 pounds to the square inch before rupture ensues. 
 Locomotive practice in this country does not provide 
 much more than half of that margin of safety. When 
 deterioration or accident reduces this margin, danger 
 begins. 
 
 DIFFERENT FORMS OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. 
 
 A great variety of boilers has been tried at various 
 times for locomotives, but the searching tests of ex- 
 perience and the survival of the fittest have led our 
 designers to make use of about four forms. The most , 
 popular form is the wagon-top boiler, which has an 
 enlargement of the shell over the fire-box and is 
 sloped gradually to the diameter of the barrel. What 
 makes this form of boiler popular is that it provides 
 liberal space for steam above the fire-box, and this 
 tends to supply the throttle-valve with steam that is 
 dry and free from water. 
 
BOILERS AND FIRE-BOXES. WJ 
 
 The straight boiler, which has no wagon-top, is popu- 
 lar among some superintendents of motive power be- 
 cause it is said to be a particularly strong form of 
 boiler. 
 
 The Belpaire boiler is a favorite on some roads. Its 
 chief merit is that the fire-box crown and outside shell 
 are made flat and they can be bound together with 
 stay-bolts that are under straight tension. 
 
 ANTHRACITE-BURNING BOILERS. 
 
 Anthracite coal burns so slowly that a large grate 
 area is necessary to burn the fuel fast enough to make 
 the required quantity of steam. That is why the 
 peculiarity of anthracite-burning locomotives is to have 
 huge fire-boxes. 
 
 Ever since railroad operating in the State of Penn- 
 sylvania began inventors have been laboring to design 
 forms of fire-boxes that would provide greater grate 
 area than was possible with a fire-box curtailed in 
 breadth by the width of frames and in length by the 
 spread of the driving-axles. These contracted condi- 
 tions were first overcome by Ross Winans, who put a 
 long overhanging fire-box behind the back driving- 
 wheels. The same practice was followed by Zerah 
 Colburn in the designing of locomotives for the Erie ; 
 but he went further than Winans and spread the fire- 
 box outside the line of the frames. He was the orig- 
 inator of what is now generally known as the Wootten 
 fire-box. This name originated through patents 
 granted to John E. Wootten of the Philadelphia & 
 Reading for the combination of a wide fire-box ex- 
 
Il8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 tending outside of the frames, a combustion-chamber 
 and a brick wall therein. 
 
 That kind of fire-box has been found very useful 
 for burning anthracite slack. Outside of the Reading 
 system most of the wide fire-boxes, or "Mother 
 Hubbards," as trainmen call them, have no com- 
 bustion-chamber, and therefore the right name for 
 them would be Colburn fire-boxes. 
 
 STAY-BOLTS. 
 
 A very important thing about a locomotive boiler is 
 getting the fire-box secured in such a way that the 
 least possible stresses are set up to tear the fire-box 
 and the boiler-shell apart. The fire-box must neces- 
 sarily be made with flat surfaces. The steam-pressure 
 inside tends to push the outside and inside of the fire- 
 box apart, and this has to be resisted by stay-bolts 
 which are generally placed about four inches apart. 
 The continual changes of temperature expands and 
 contracts the inside of the fire-box more than the out- 
 side, and this movement is resisted by the stay-bolts. 
 The continual moving action gradually weakens these 
 stay-bolts, until a time comes when they break. Con- 
 stant vigilance is necessary to detect broken stay-bolts. 
 It is safe to say that ninety per cent of locomotive- 
 boiler explosions are due to broken stay-bolts. This 
 will indicate how important it is that unceasing atten- 
 tion should be devoted to detecting the deterioration 
 of stay-bolts. The only sure preventive of accidents 
 from broken stay-bolts is to have hollow stay-bolts, 
 
BOILERS AND FIRE-BOXES. 119 
 
 or solid ones drilled from the outside deep enough to 
 cause leakage when fracture takes place. 
 
 BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 
 
 Certain mechanical empirics and impractical quasi- 
 scientists have at various times attempted to surround 
 the cause of boiler explosions with a halo of mystery. 
 But our most accomplished scientists who have made 
 the subject a special study, and our best mechanical 
 experts who have devoted years of patient experiment 
 and research to the investigation of boiler explosion, 
 attribute the terrible phenomenon to intelligible causes 
 alone. The conclusions of the practical part of the 
 mechanical world are well summed in one sentence in 
 one of the annual reports of the Master Mechanics' 
 Association. It says, " Explosions originate from 
 over-pressure : it matters not whether the whole 
 boiler, or a portion of it, is too weak to resist the 
 pressure." 
 
 PRESERVATION OF BOILERS. 
 
 The preservation of a boiler depends very much 
 upon the care and attention bestowed upon it by the 
 engineer, and no other person is so much interested 
 in its safety. To prevent undue strains from being 
 put upon the boiler, the engineer should see that the 
 safety-valves and the steam-gauge are kept in proper 
 order. To secure this, the steam-gauge should be 
 tested at least once a month. The rule established 
 on well-conducted roads, prohibiting engineers from 
 
120 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 interfering with safety-valves, is a very judicious one; 
 and no persons are more interested in its strict observ- 
 ance than the engineers themselves. 
 
 CAUSING INJURY TO BOILERS. 
 
 Some men are idiotic enough to habitually screw- 
 down safety-valves, that the engine may be able to 
 overcome heavy grades without doubling. This is 
 criminal recklessness, and all trainmen are interested 
 in its suppression. Low water has often been blamed 
 falsely as the cause of disaster to boilers ; a theory 
 having prevailed that permitting the water to become 
 low led to the generation of an explosive gas which 
 no sheet could withstand. That theory was exploded 
 long ago ; but, nevertheless, it is certain that low 
 water paves the way for explosions by deteriorating 
 the fire-box sheets, and destroying stay-bolts. A 
 careful engineer watches to prevent his engine from 
 getting "scorched" even slightly; for the smallest 
 scorching may yield a harvest of trouble, even after 
 many days. The danger of scorching is most immi- 
 nent when an engine is foaming badly from the effects 
 of impurities in the feed-water or in the boiler. At 
 such a time the water rises so lavishly with the steam, 
 that the gauges are no indication of the true water- 
 level. The steam must be shut off to find the true 
 level of the water. Where this trouble is experienced, 
 the engineer should err on the safe side, even though 
 untold patience is needed to work the engine along 
 with the boiler full of water. 
 
BOILERS AND FIREBOXES. 121 
 
 DANGERS OF MUD AND SCALE. 
 
 Mud within the boiler, and scales adhering to the 
 heating-surface, are dangerous enemies to the pres- 
 ervation of boilers ; and engineers should strive to 
 prevent their evil effects by rooting them out so far as 
 practicable. Much can be banished by washing out 
 frequently ; and scale can, to some extent, be pre- 
 vented by selecting the softest water on the road. If 
 water in a tank is so hard that it makes soap curdle 
 instead of lather when a man attempts to wash with it, 
 that tank should be avoided as far as possible. 
 
 BLOWING OFF BOILERS. 
 
 The sudden cooling down of boilers, by blowing 
 them off while hot, is a most pernicious practice, 
 which is responsible for many cracked sheets and 
 broken stay-bolts. It also tends to make a boiler 
 scale the heating-surfaces rapidly. Every time a 
 boiler is blown out hot, if the water contains calcare- 
 ous solution, a coat of mud is left on the heating-sur- 
 faces, which dries hard while the steel is hot. If a 
 piece of scale taken from a boiler periodically sub- 
 jected to this blowing-out process be closely examined, 
 it will be found to consist of thin layers, every one 
 representing a period of blowing off just as plainly as 
 the laminae of our rocks indicate the method of their 
 formation. When a boiler must be cooled down 
 quickly for washing out or other purposes, the steam 
 should be blown off and the boiler gradually filled up 
 with water. Then open the blow-off cock, and keep 
 
122 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 water running in about as fast as it runs out until the 
 temperature gets even with the atmosphere. The 
 boiler may now be emptied without injury. Or an- 
 other good plan is to blow off about two gauges of 
 water under a pressure of forty or fifty pounds of 
 steam, then cool down the boiler gradually, to prepare 
 for washing. 
 
 Although the dangers of blowing off hot boilers, 
 and then rushing in cold water to wash out, are well 
 known and acknowledged, yet the practice is still 
 followed on many roads where more intelligent action 
 might be expected. 
 
 OVER-PRESSURE. 
 
 Should it happen from any cause that the safety- 
 valves fail to relieve the boiler, and the steam runs up 
 beyond a safe tension, the situation is critical; but the 
 engineer should not resort to any method of giving 
 sudden relief. To jerk the safety-valve wide open at 
 such a time is a most dangerous proceeding. A dis- 
 astrous explosion lately occurred to a locomotive 
 boiler from this cause. The safety-valves had been 
 working badly ; and, while the engine was standing on 
 a side track, they allowed the steam to rise consider- 
 ably above the working-pressure. When the engineer 
 perceived this, he threw open the safety-valve by 
 means of a relief-lever, and the boiler instantly went 
 into fragments. Cases have occurred where the quick 
 opening of a throttle-valve has produced a similar re- 
 sult. The proximate cause of such an accident was 
 the violent motion of water and steam within the 
 
BOILERS AND FIRE-BOXES. 1 23 
 
 boiler, induced by the sudden diminution of pressure 
 at one point ; but the real cause of the disaster was a 
 weak boiler, — a boiler with insufficient margin of re- 
 sisting power. The weakest part of a boiler is its 
 strongest point. This may seem paradoxical, but a 
 moment's reflection will show that the highest 
 strength of a boiler merely reaches'to the point where 
 it will give out. Hence engineers should see that a 
 boiler is properly examined for unseen defects so soon 
 as signs of distress appear. Leaky throat-sheets or 
 seams, stay-heads dripping, or incipient cracks, are 
 indications of weakness; and their call should be at- 
 tended to without delay. 
 
 RELIEVING OVER-PRESSURE. 
 
 When an engineer finds the steam rising beyond a 
 safe pressure, he should reduce it by opening the 
 heaters, starting the injectors, dampening the fire, or 
 even by blowing the whistle. The whistle offers a 
 convenient means of getting rid of superfluous steam, 
 and its noise can be stopped by tying a rag between 
 the bell and the valve-opening. 
 
 BURST TUBES. 
 
 Should any boiler attachment, such as a check- valve 
 or blow-off cock, blow out or break off, no time 
 should be lost in quenching the fire. That is the first 
 consideration. A burst tube will generally save an 
 engineer the labor of extinguishing the fire. In this 
 case an engineer's efforts should be directed to reduc- 
 ing the pressure of steam as quickly as possible, so 
 
124 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 that he may be able to plug the flue before the water 
 gets out of the boiler. Tube-plugs and a rod for 
 holding them are very requisite articles ; but, in driv- 
 ing tube-plugs, care must be exercised not to hammer 
 too hard, or a broken tube-sheet may result. Plugs 
 are often at hand without a rod to hold them. In 
 such an emergency a hard wooden rail can be used; 
 the plug being fastened to the end by means of nails 
 and wire, or even wet cord. Where no iron plug is 
 available, a wooden plug driven well in, away from 
 the reach of the fire, may prevent a burst tube from 
 leaking, and enable the engine to go along; but 
 wooden plugs are very unreliable for such a purpose. 
 They may hold if the rupture in the tube should be 
 some distance inside ; but, should the cause of leaking 
 be close to the tube-sheet, a wooden plug will burn 
 out in a few minutes. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 ACCIDENTS TO THE VALVE-MOTION. 
 
 RUNNING WORN-OUT ENGINES. 
 
 Some of our most successful engineers, the men 
 who pull our most important trains daily on time, 
 attribute their good fortune in avoiding delays, to 
 training they received in youth, while running or 
 firing worn-out engines that could only be kept going 
 by constant attention and labor. In such cases men 
 must resort to innumerable makeshifts to get over the 
 road ; they have frequently to dissect the machinery 
 to remedy defects ; they learn in the impressive school 
 of experience how a broken-down engine can best be 
 taken home, and how breaking down can best be pre- 
 vented. Firemen and young engineers generally feel 
 aggrieved at being assigned to run on worn-out 
 engines, — the scrap-heaps, as they are called: but the 
 man who has not passed through this ordeal has missed 
 a Golconda of experience ; his potentialities are petri- 
 fied without reaching action. 
 
 CARE AND ENERGY DEFY DEFEAT. 
 
 Among a certain class of seafaring men the captain 
 of a ship who fails from any cause to bring his vessel 
 
 125 
 
126 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 safely into port is regarded as disgraced; and, there 
 fore, a true sailor will use superhuman efforts to pre- 
 vent his ship from becoming derelict, often preferring 
 to follow it to the bottom rather than abandon his 
 trust. In many instances the sentiments and tradi- 
 tions of seamen teach railroadmen valuable lessons. 
 The sacrifice of life is not desired or expected of 
 engineers in their care of the vessel they command ; 
 but every engineer worthy of the name will spare no 
 personal exertion, will shrink from no hardship, that 
 will be necessary to prevent his charge from becoming 
 derelict. Once I heard a hoary engineer, who had 
 become gray on the footboard, make the proud boast, 
 " My engine never was towed in." His calm words 
 conveyed an eloquent sermon on care and persever- 
 ance. He had been in many hard straits, he had 
 been in collisions, he had been ditched with engines, 
 but had always managed to get them home without 
 assistance. 
 
 WATCHING THE EXHAUST. 
 
 What the beating pulse is as an aid to the physician 
 in diagnosing diseases, the sound of the exhaust is to 
 the engineer as a means of enabling him to distinguish 
 between perfective and defective working of the loco- 
 motive. The ability to detect a slight derangement 
 by the sound of the exhaust, can only be acquired by 
 practice in watching those steam-notes day after day, 
 as they play their tune of labor through the smoke- 
 stack. When the steam-ports are even, and the valves 
 correctly set, with tight piston-packing, and valves free 
 
ACCIDENTS TO THE VALVE-MOTION. 1 27 
 
 from leaks, the notes of the exhaust will sound forth 
 in regular succession in sharp, ringing, clear tones, 
 every puff seeming to cut the steam clean off at the 
 top of the stack. There is a long array of defects 
 represented in the journey from this case of apparently 
 perfect steam performance, to that where the exhaust- 
 steam escapes as an unbroken roar mixed with uncer- 
 tain, wheezy coughs. 
 
 ' THE ATTENTIVE EAR DETECTS DETERIORATION 
 OF VALVES. 
 
 The deterioration of piston-packing, and the round- 
 ing of valve-seats, which produce an asthmatic exhaust, 
 may be followed in their downward course if the 
 engineer gets into the habit of listening to the exhaust, 
 and marking its changes. It is very important that 
 he should do so. The man whose ear from long 
 practice has become sensitive to a false tone of the 
 exhaust, needs not to make experiments, by applying 
 steam to the engine while it stands in various posi- 
 tions, in order to find out where a blow comes from, — 
 whether it is in the pistons or in the valves. 
 
 LOCATING THE FOUR EXHAUST SOUNDS. 
 
 Leaning out of the cab-window, he watches the 
 crank as it revolves, and compares the noise made by 
 the blowing steam with the crank position. When 
 pulling on a heavy grade is an excellent time for 
 noting imperfections in the working of valves and 
 pistons; for the movements are comparatively slow, 
 while the pressure of steam on the working-parts is so 
 
128 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 heavy that any leak sounds prominently forth. The 
 engineer observing perceives that the four sounds of 
 the exhaust, due to each revolution of the drivers, 
 occur a few inches before the crank reaches, first, the 
 forward center, second, the bottom quarter, third, the 
 back center, fourth, the top quarter. The first and third 
 position exhausts emit the steam from the forward 
 and back strokes of the right-hand piston : the second 
 and fourth exhausts are due to discharges of the steam 
 that has been propelling the left-hand piston. With 
 these facts impressed upon his mind, he will under- 
 stand, that if an intermittent blow occurs during the 
 periods when the crank is traveling from the forward 
 center to the bottom quarter, or from the back center 
 to the top quarter, the chances will be that the right- 
 hand piston needs to be examined. For the greatest 
 pressure of steam follows the piston just after the 
 beginning of each stroke, and that is the time a blow 
 will assert itself. Should the blow occur while the 
 right-hand crank is moving from the bottom quarter 
 to the back center, or from the top quarter to the 
 forward center, it will indicate that the left-hand 
 piston is at fault. For at these periods the left-hand 
 cylinder is receiving its greatest pressure of steam. 
 
 IDENTIFYING DEFECTS BY SOUND OF THE STEAM. 
 
 It is generally understood that an intermittent or 
 recurring blow belongs to the pistons, and that a con- 
 stant blow comes from the valves. But sometimes 
 the valves blow intermittently, being tight at certain 
 points of the travel, and leaky at other points. To 
 
ACCIDENTS TO THE VALVE-MOTION. 120, 
 
 distinguish between the character of these blows is 
 sometimes a little difficult except to the thoroughly 
 practiced ear. The sound of the blow can be heard 
 best when the fire-box door is open, and the novice 
 should not fail to listen for it under that condition. 
 The valve blow is a sort of wheeze, with the sugges- 
 tion of a whistle in it : the piston makes a clean, 
 honest blow, which would break into a distinct roar 
 if enough steam could get through. But a whistling 
 sound in the exhaust is, by no means, a certain indi- 
 cation of the valves blowing through ; for sometimes 
 the nozzles get clogged up with a gummy substance 
 from the lubricating oils, and a distinct whistling 
 exhaust results therefrom. With a watchful ear, the 
 progress of degeneration in the valves can be noted 
 day after day ; for it is a decay which goes on by 
 degrees, — the inevitable slow destruction that friction 
 inflicts upon rubbing surfaces. Pistons are more 
 erratic in their calls for attention. With them it is 
 quite common for a stalwart blow to start out without 
 any warning, the cause generally being broken pack- 
 ing-rings. The various kinds of steam packing seem 
 more liable to have broken rings than the old-fashioned 
 spring packing, but they generally run longer with 
 less attention. 
 
 ACCIDENTS PREVENTED BY ATTENDING TO THE 
 NOTE OF WARNING FROM THE EXHAUST. 
 
 The habit of closely watching the exhaust is likely 
 to prove serviceable in more ways than in keeping 
 the engineer posted on the condition of the steam- 
 
130 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 distribution gear. Its sound often acts as a danger 
 alarm, which should never go unheeded. Many an 
 engine has gone home on one side, and not a few 
 have been towed in cold, through accidents to the 
 valve-gear, which could have been prevented had the 
 engineer attended to the warning voice of a false ex- 
 haust. The nuts work off an eccentric-strap bolt ; 
 and it drops out, letting the strap open far enough to 
 cause an uneven valve-travel. If the engineer hears 
 this, and stops immediately to examine the ma- 
 chinery, he is likely to detect the defect before the 
 strap breaks. Again, one side of a valve-yoke may 
 have snapped, leaving the other side to bear the load ; 
 or bolts belonging to different parts of the links or 
 eccentric-straps may be working out, — so that the 
 uniformity of the valve-travel is affected ; and the 
 same result may be produced by the eccentrics get- 
 ting loose. Young engineers, to whom these pages 
 are addressed, should make up their minds that an 
 engine never exhausts an irregular note without 
 something being the matter which does not admit of 
 running to a station before being examined. It may 
 only be an eccentric slipped a little way, a mishap 
 that is not calculated to result disastrously ; but, on 
 the other hand, it is probably something of a more 
 dangerous character. 
 
 NEGLECTING A WARNING. 
 
 Engineer Joy of the D. & E. road went in with a 
 broken eccentric-strap. Questioning him about the 
 accident brought out the fact that, in starting from a 
 
ACCIDENTS TO THE VALVE-MOTION. I3I 
 
 station, he heard the engine make two or three 
 curious exhausts ; but he was running on a time- 
 order, and did not wish to cause delay by stopping 
 to examine the engine. But he had not gone half a 
 mile when he found it necessary to stop and discon- 
 nect- the engine, and by doing so held an express 
 train forty minutes. 
 
 HOW AX ECCENTRIC-STRAP PUNCHED A HOLE 
 IN A FIRE-BOX. 
 
 A representative case of neglecting a plain warning 
 happened on an Illinois road some time ago. John 
 Thomas was pulling a freight train up a grade, when, 
 to use his own words, " The engine began to exhaust 
 in the funniest way you ever heard. She would get 
 on to three legs for an engine length or so, then she 
 would work as square and true as she ever did, but 
 only for a few turns, when she got to limping again." 
 This runner knew that something was wrong, and he 
 determined to examine the engine at the next stop- 
 ping-point. But delays in such a case are full of 
 peril. When he got over the grade and shut off 
 steam, there was a tumultuous rattling of the reverse- 
 lever, succeeded by a fearful pounding about the 
 machinery ; a tearing up of road-bed sent a shower of 
 sand and gravel over the train ; then a scream from 
 escaping steam and water drowned all other noises, 
 and the engine was enveloped in a cloud of blinding 
 vapor. The forward bolt of one of the eccentric- 
 strap rods had worked out and allowed the end of the 
 rod to drop on the track. Then it doubled up and 
 
132 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 tore away the whole side of the motion ; and part of 
 a broken eccentric-strap knocked a hole in the fire- 
 box. Here was the progress towards destruction: 
 A small pin got lost, which permitted the nut of an 
 important bolt to unscrew itself; then this bolt, with 
 many a warning jar and jerk, escaped from its place 
 in the link ; and the conditions for a first-class break- 
 down had come round. 
 
 INTEREST IN THE VALVE-MOTION AMONG 
 ENGINEERS. 
 
 Whenever locomotive engineers congregate in the 
 round-house, in the lodge or division-room, a fruitful 
 theme of conversation and discussion is the valve- 
 motion. Curious opinions are often heard expressed 
 upon this complex subject. There are comparatively 
 few men who understand it properly: but it has a 
 fascination which attracts all alike, the wise and the 
 ignorant ; and the man who is altogether uncertain 
 about the true meaning of lap and lead, expansion 
 and compression, is generally more loquacious on 
 valve-motion than the engineer who has made the 
 subject an industrious study. 
 
 TROUBLE WITH THE VALVE- MOTION. 
 
 However well each may understand his business, in 
 one respect all engineers are in perfect harmony ; that 
 is, in hating to encounter trouble with the valve-gear 
 on the road. The valves being the lungs of the 
 machine, any injury or defect to their connections 
 strikes at a vital organ. With a good valve-motion, 
 
ACCIDENTS TO THE VALVE-MOTION. 133 
 
 and valves properly set, the steam is distributed so 
 that nearly an equal amount is admitted through 
 each port in regular rotation ; the release taking place 
 in even succession. This makes the exhaust-notes 
 uniform in pitch and period. A sudden departure 
 from this uniformity indicates that something is 
 wrong with the valve-motion. It should be the sig- 
 nal to stop and institute a searching examination. 
 In doing so, avoid jumping at conclusions regarding 
 the cause of the irregularity, and coolly examine, 
 separately, each part whose motion influences the 
 valve-travel. 
 
 A WRONG CONCLUSION. 
 
 Fred Bemis missed his luck by jumping too readily 
 at conclusions. Something happened to his engine; 
 and he stopped by compulsion, and found it would 
 not move either way. He felt certain that both ec- 
 centrics on one side had slipped; and, considering 
 kimself equal to setting any number of eccentrics, he 
 got down and fixed them in what he supposed was 
 the proper position. But, on trying to move the en- 
 gine, he found it still refused to go. He kept work- 
 ing at those eccentrics without result till his water 
 got low, and he was compelled to dump the fire ; the 
 consequence being that the engine went cold, and was 
 towed home. When an examination was made, it 
 was found that a broken valve-yoke was the cause of 
 trouble. 
 
134 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 LOCATING DEFECTS OF THE VALVE-MOTION. 
 
 When anything goes wrong with the valve-motion, 
 the first point of investigation is, to find out which 
 side is at fault. This can be ascertained by opening 
 the cylinder-cocks, and giving the engine steam. 
 With the reverse-lever in forward motion, the forward 
 cylinder-cocks should show steam when the crank-pins 
 are traveling below the axle, and the back cocks 
 should blow when the pins make their similar revolu- 
 tion above the axle. Any departure from this method 
 of steam- distribution will make one side work against 
 the other. When the engineer has satisfied himself 
 on which side the defect lies, he will do well to thor- 
 oughly examine the eccentrics with their straps and 
 rods, the links with their hangers and saddles, the 
 rocker-box and -arms with all the bolts and pins con- 
 necting these articles. What might be regarded as a 
 trifling defect, sometimes makes an engine lame. I 
 have known a loose valve-stem key put an engine 
 badly out of square. Eccentric-rods, slipping, often 
 produce this effect. When the eccentrics are found 
 in the proper position, the rocker-box secure in the 
 shaft, and all the bolts, pins, and keys in good order, 
 and in their proper positions, the fault may be looked 
 for in the steam-chest. 
 
 POSITION OF ECCENTRICS. 
 
 With engines where keys are not used to secure the 
 eccentrics to the shaft, their slipping on the road is 
 a common occurrence. Eccentric-strap oil-passages 
 
ACCIDENTS TO THE VALVE-MOTION. 1 35 
 
 getting stopped up, or neglect in not oiling these 
 straps or the valves, puts an unnecessary tension on 
 the eccentrics, which often results in their slipping on 
 the shaft. Engineers ought to mark the proper posi- 
 tion for eccentrics on the shaft ; so that, when slipping 
 happens, it can be adjusted without the delay that 
 often occurs in calculating the right position. When 
 the crank-pin is on the forward center, the body of 
 the go-ahead eccentric is above the axle, and the body 
 of the back-up eccentric is below the axle, each of the 
 eccentrics being advanced about -^ of the revolution 
 from the right angle position towards the crank-pin ; 
 or, to state it more accurately, the center of the 
 eccentric is advanced a horizontal distance to equal 
 the lap and lead of the valve. If the valve had neither 
 lap nor lead, the eccentrics would stand exactly at 
 right angles to the crank. As it is, both of them have 
 a tendency to hug the crank; the eccentric which 
 regulates the distribution of steam following the 
 crank. Every engineer should familiarize himself 
 with the correct position of eccentrics, so that, when 
 trouble happens with the valve-gear on the road, he 
 will experience no difficulty in grappling with the 
 mishap. 
 
 METHOD OF SETTING SLIPPED ECCENTRICS. 
 
 The slipping of one eccentric is a trifling matter, 
 which can be quickly remedied if the set-screws are in 
 a position where they can be reached conveniently. 
 If it is a go-ahead eccentric, set the engine on the 
 center of the disabled side, — no matter which center, 
 
13^ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 — put the reverse-lever in the back notch of the 
 quadrant, and scratch a line with a knife on the valve- 
 stem close to the gland. Then put the lever in the 
 forward notch, and move the slipped eccentric till the 
 line appears in the point where it was made. Fasten 
 the set-screws, and the engine will be found true 
 enough to proceed with the train. Care must be taken 
 in moving the eccentric to see that the full part is not 
 placed in the same position as the other one, or they 
 will both be set for back motion. A back-up eccentric 
 slipped, while the go-ahead one remains intact, can 
 be adjusted in a similar way ; the scratch on the valve- 
 stem being made with the engine in full forward mo- 
 tion, and the adjustment of the eccentric done in full 
 back motion. The philosophy of this method is, that 
 the valve is in nearly the same position at the begin- 
 ning of the stroke for the forward or back motion; 
 and the position of the eccentric which has not 
 moved is used to find the proper place for the one 
 which slipped. 
 
 Should the unusual circumstance of both eccentrics 
 on one side slipping overtake an engineer, he will have 
 to pursue a different method of adjustment. The 
 most systematic plan is to place the engine on the for- 
 ward center, and set the go-ahead eccentric above the 
 axle, and the back-up eccentric below the axle. With 
 the reverse-lever in the forward notch, advance the 
 top eccentric till the front cylinder-cock shows steam, 
 which can be ascertained by blocking the wheels, and 
 slightly opening the throttle. That will put the go- 
 ahead eccentric near enough to the proper position for 
 
ACCIDENTS TO THE VALVE-MOTION. 1 37 
 
 running. For the back-up eccentric, pull the reverse- 
 lever into back-motion, and turn the eccentric towards 
 the crank-pin till steam appears at the front cylinder- 
 cock ; and that part of the motion will be right. Or 
 the back-up eccentric can be set by the forward eccen- 
 tric in the manner described where one eccentric has 
 slipped. 
 
 SLIPPED ECCENTRIC-RODS. 
 
 Where slotted rods are used, they frequently slip, 
 making the engine lame. The cause of trouble in 
 such a case can be identified by moving the engine 
 slowly, with the cylinder-cocks open. The disturb- 
 ance to the regularity of the valve's motion caused 
 by a slipped rod will admit steam prematurely on one 
 end of the cylinder, while it delays the admission on 
 the other end. The valve is made to travel more on 
 one side of the exhaust center than on the other. 
 Lengthening or shortening the valve-stem has a sim- 
 ilar effect, but this makes the engine lame in both 
 gears ; while the slipping of an eccentric-rod only 
 makes the engine lame in the motion that the rod be- 
 longs to. This is subject to a slight modification, 
 however; for the back-motion eccentric being badly 
 out of square, will affect the correctness of the for- 
 ward motion, when the engine is working close hooked 
 up. But in full motion it will not be perceptible. 
 
 DETECTING THE CAUSE OF A LAME EXHAUST. 
 
 If in moving the engine ahead slowly, with the 
 cylinder-cocks open, it is found that steam is admitted 
 
138 LOCOMOTIVh ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 to the cylinder before the piston has nearly reached 
 the center or dead point, or that the back cylinder- 
 cock does not show steam till after the piston has 
 passed the back center, the eccentric-rod is too long. 
 The rod being too short produces precisely an opposite 
 effect. The steam arrives late on the back stroke, and 
 ahead of time on the forward stroke. This is differ- 
 ent from the action of the steam where an eccentric 
 has slipped. In that case, there will be pre-admission 
 of steam before the beginning of both strokes, or 
 post-admission, that is, late arrival of steam, for both 
 strokes. Take a go-ahead eccentric for example. If 
 it slips backward on the shaft, its effect will be to 
 delay the admission of steam till after the beginning 
 of each stroke; and, if it slips forward, the result will 
 be to accelerate the lead of the valve opening the 
 steam -port before the piston has reached the com- 
 mencement of each stroke. 
 
 WHAT TO DO WHEN ECCENTRICS, STRAPS, OR RODS 
 
 BREAK. 
 
 When either of these accidents happens, the safest 
 plan is to take down both straps and rods on the de- 
 fective side. Some engineers leave the back-up eccen- 
 tric strap and rod on, when the forward strap or rod 
 has broken ; but it is a little risky under certain con- 
 ditions. After getting the eccentric straps and rods 
 down, drop the link-hanger away from the tumbling- 
 shaft, disconnect the valve-stem, and tie the valve-rod 
 to the hand-rail. Then set the valve in the middle of 
 the seat, so that it will cover both the steam-ports, 
 
ACCIDENTS TO THE VALVE-MOTION. 1 39 
 
 and hold it in that position by pinching the stem with 
 the gland, which is done by screwing up the gland ob- 
 liquely. Take down the main rod, and block the 
 cross-head securely at the back end of the guides. 
 Good hard-wood blocking prepared beforehand should 
 be used for this purpose, and it ought to be fastened 
 with a rope or marline. A neater plan for holding 
 the cross-head in place is described by Frank C. Smith, 
 in the Torch. He says, " Have the blacksmith make 
 a hook out of a piece of inch and a half round iron; 
 also a piece about fifteen inches long by one and a 
 half thick, and four inches wide, with a hole through 
 the centre for the shank of the hook to pass through. 
 This shank is threaded for a nut. Now, when it is 
 necessary to block a piston, get it to the back end, 
 pass the hook around the wrist of the cross-head, and 
 the other end through the straight piece which bears 
 against the yoke supporting the back end of the 
 guides ; run up a nut on the shank of the hook, hard 
 against the cross-piece, and the piston is secured." 
 The piston being properly fastened, it is a wise sup- 
 plement to the work to tie the cylinder-cocks open, 
 or to take them out altogether. The engine is now 
 ready to proceed on one side. 
 
 Young engineers can not be too strongly impressed 
 with the necessity for having the cross-head properly 
 secured before trying to move the engine. I have re- 
 peatedly known of serious damage being caused by 
 placing too much confidence in weak blocking. Tak- 
 ing out the cylinder-cocks is a wise security against 
 accidents of this kind ; for, should a little steam be 
 
HO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 passing through the valve, it has a port of escape 
 without putting heavy pressure on the piston. 
 
 DIFFERENT WAYS OF SECURING THE CROSS-HEAD. 
 
 In regard to the method of securing the piston 
 when one side of an engine is taken down, there is 
 considerable diversity of opinion among engineers. 
 Some men maintain that the proper and quick plan is, 
 merely to move the piston to one end of the cylinder, 
 pushing the valve in the same direction, so that the 
 steam-port will be open at the end away from the 
 piston. This will keep the cylinder full of steam, and 
 hold the piston from moving. But, if by any accident 
 the valve should be moved to the opposite end of the 
 seat, steam would get to the wrong end of the cylin- 
 der, and the piston would certainly smash out the 
 head. Another risky plan, practiced by men economi- 
 cal of work, is to place the valve on the center of the 
 seat, and let the piston go without fastening. These 
 slipshod methods do not pay. 
 
 When it is decided to push the piston to the back 
 end of the cylinder it should not be pushed far enough 
 to permit the packing-rings to drop into the counter- 
 bore. It should not be forced back of its ordinary 
 travel. This can be identified by the travel of the 
 cross-head on the guides. A small block that will 
 cover the extent of the counter-bore should be in- 
 serted between the cross-head and the back of the 
 guides. 
 
ACCIDENTS TO THE VALVE-MOTION. H l 
 
 BROKEN TUMBLING-SHAFT. 
 
 This accident is very serious; but it need not dis- 
 able the engine, although it will lessen the engineer's 
 power to manage it freely. To get the engine going, 
 calculate the position the links must stand in to pull 
 the train, and cut pieces of wood to fit between the 
 block and the top and bottom of the links, so that the 
 latter may be kept in the required position. For 
 forward motion, there will be short pieces in the top, 
 and long pieces in the bottom. When back motion 
 is needed, reverse the pieces of wood. A common 
 plan is to use one piece of wood, working the engine 
 in full gear. 
 
 The same treatment will keep an engine going when 
 the tumbling-shaft arms, the reach-rod, the link- 
 hanger, or the saddle-pin breaks. The failure of a 
 link-hanger or saddle-pin will only necessitate the 
 blocking of one side. 
 
 BROKEN VALVE- STEM, OR VALVE -YOKE. 
 For a valve-stem broken, the eccentric-strap or link 
 need not be interfered with. If the break is outside 
 the steam-chest, take down the valve-stem rod, and 
 set the valve on the middle of the seat ; take down 
 the main rod, and secure the piston as previously di- 
 rected. With a valve-stem broken inside the chest, 
 or a valve-yoke broken, a little additional work is 
 necessary. The steam-chest cover must now come 
 up, and the valve be secured in its proper place by 
 pieces of wood, or any other material that will keep it 
 from moving; and the stuffing-box must be closed, to 
 
H 2 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 prevent escape of steam through the space vacated by 
 the valve-stem. 
 
 TO SECURE A BROKEN VALVE-STEM. 
 When metallic packing is used in valve-stem, the 
 best way to hold it from moving when that side is dis- 
 connected is to remove the oil-cup and screw in a set- 
 screw that will pinch the stem and hold it tight. A 
 better way is to carry a bracket that will fit the gland- 
 studs at one end and the keyhole at the other, and 
 use that to prevent the valve-stem from moving. 
 
 WHEN A ROCKER-SHAFT OR LOWER ROCKER-ARM 
 BREAKS. 
 
 A broken rocker-shaft, or the fracture of the lower 
 arm, entails the taking down of both eccentrics and 
 the link, besides the main rod, and the securing of the 
 valves and piston. The breaking of an upper rocker- 
 arm is equivalent to a broken valve-stem, and requires 
 the same treatment. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ACCIDENTS TO VALVE-MOTION. 
 
 Accidents to the valve-seat, such as the breaking of 
 a bridge, can be fixed for running the engine home on 
 one side, by covering the ports, and stripping that 
 side of the engine, just as had to be done for a broken 
 valve-yoke. If a serious break in a bridge occurs, it 
 is indicated by a tremendous blow through the ex- 
 haust port, out by the stack. A mishap of much less 
 consequence than a broken bridge is a " cocked " 
 valve, and the small mishap is very liable to be mis- 
 taken for the greater one. Where the yoke is tight- 
 
ACCIDENTS TO THE VALVE-MOTION. 1 43 
 
 fitted, or out of true with the line of the stem, some 
 engines have a trick of raising the valve away from the 
 seat, and holding it there. This generally happens 
 going into a station ; and, when steam is applied in 
 starting out, an empty roar sounds through the stack. 
 Moving the valve with the reverse-lever by quick jerks 
 will generally reseat a cocked valve, but sometimes it 
 gets stuck so fast that it has to be hammered out of 
 the yoke. 
 
 When a locomotive shows the symptoms which in- 
 dicate a broken valve, a broken bridge, or a cocked 
 valve, the engineer should exhaust every means of 
 testing the matter from the outside before he begins 
 an interior inspection by raising the steam-chest cover. 
 If jerking the valve with the reverse-lever, or moving 
 the engine a little, will not stop the blow, he should 
 disconnect the valve-stem, and shake the valve by that 
 means. 
 
 When a valve breaks, disabling its side of the en- 
 gine so badly that it cannot be used, the valve should 
 be taken out, and a piece of strong pine-plank secured 
 over the ports. 
 
 BROKEN STEAM-CHEST COVER. 
 A very serious and troublesome accident, which may 
 come under the head of steam-distribution gear, is the 
 breaking of a steam-chest or of a steam-chest cover. It 
 takes skillful management to get an engine along when 
 this has happened. The most effectual way to restrain 
 loss of steam when a chest or cover has broken, is to 
 slack up the steam-pipe, and slip a piece of iron plate, 
 lined with sheet-rubber, leather, canvas, or any other 
 
144 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 substance that will help to make a steam-tight joint, into 
 the lower joint of the steam-pipe. If this is properly 
 done, it ends the trouble, when the joints are tight- 
 ened up. But the difficulties in the way of loosening 
 steamp-pipe joints in a hot smoke-box are often in- 
 surmountable, especially when the nuts and bolts are 
 solid from corrosion, which is generally the case where 
 they have not been touched for months. In such a 
 case it is better to resort to the more clumsy contriv- 
 ance of fitting pieces of wood into the openings to the 
 steam-passage, and bracing them in place by means of 
 the steam-chest bolts. A man of any ingenuity can 
 generally, by this means, save himself the humiliation 
 of being towed home, and yet avoid spending much 
 time over the operation. When the engineer has suc- 
 ceeded in securing means for preventing the escape of 
 steam, the main rod must be taken down, and the 
 valve-stem rod disconnected from the rocker-arm. In 
 this instance the piston needs no further attention, 
 after the main rod has been disconnected ; for there 
 will be no ingress of steam to the cylinder to endanger 
 its safety. 
 
 STEAM-PIPE BURST. 
 
 The breaking of a steam-pipe in the smoke-box is 
 even a more harassing mishap than a burst steam- 
 chest or cover. The only remedy for this is the fast- 
 ening of an iron plate to the top joint of the steam- 
 pipe, thereby closing up the opening. A heavy plug 
 of hard wood may be driven into the ^opening, and 
 braced there for a short run ; but such a stopper is 
 
ACCIDENTS TO THE VALVE-MOTION. 145 
 
 hard to keep in place, owing to the shrinkage caused 
 by the intense heat of the smoke-box. 
 
 TESTING THE VALVES. 
 
 An experienced engineer will most easily determine 
 the existence of leaks between the valves and their 
 seats when the engine is working, and the indications 
 of that weakness have already be noticed. But it 
 sometimes happens that a man wishes to test the con- 
 dition of the valves when the engine is at rest. This 
 can be most readily accomplished by placing the engine 
 so that the rocker-arm stands in the vertical position. 
 Open the smoke-box door so that the exhaust nozzles 
 can be seen. Now block the wheels, and give the 
 engine steam. If the valve blows, the steam will be 
 seen issuing from the nozzle on the side under exam- 
 ination. As the tendency of a slide-valve is to wear 
 the seat concave, it sometimes happens that a valve is 
 tight on the centre, yet leaky in other positions. Mov- 
 ing the valve with the reverse-lever as far as can be 
 done without opening the steam-port, will sometimes 
 demonstrate this. The cranks should be placed on 
 the eighths positions when the valves are being tested. 
 
 TO IDENTIFY BLOW FROM BALANCING-STRIPS. 
 
 When balancing-strips on top of valve leak, the 
 easiest way to find out which side is at fault is to place 
 the valve in the middle of the seat aud open the 
 throttle lightly. That position puts the hole in the 
 valve over the exhaust port and the escaping steam 
 has an open road to the atmosphere. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ACCIDENTS TO CYLINDERS AND STEAM CON- 
 NECTIONS. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF THE PISTON IN THE TRAIN OF 
 MECHANISM. 
 
 The piston is an autocratic member of the machine. 
 For thousands of miles it toils to push the engine 
 ahead, everything going smoothly so long as it is con- 
 fined to its recurring journey ; but let any attachment 
 break, or a key fly out that will increase the piston's 
 travel, and away the piston goes, right through a 
 cylinder-head. 
 
 CAUSES THAT LEAD TO BROKEN CYLINDER-HEADS. 
 
 The causes which most commonly lead the piston 
 to smash out cylinder-heads, are broken cross-heads, 
 broken piston-rods, and broken main-rods. A main 
 crank-pin or wrist-pin breaking, is almost certain to 
 leave one end of the cylinder a wreck. These may be 
 termed the major causes for breaking out cylinder- 
 heads; but there are numerous minor causes, which 
 are scarcely less destructive. A piston-rod key be- 
 gins to work loose. It is hammered down occasion- 
 
 146 
 
ACCIDENTS TO CYLINDERS, ETC. 147 
 
 ally, which does not improve its fit ; and some day it 
 jumps out altogether, letting the piston go on a voy- 
 age of discovery. A machinist of the careless sort has 
 been examining a piston's packing, and, in screwing 
 up the follower-bolts, one of them gets a twist too 
 much. Drilling out a follower-bolt is a troublesome 
 operation, so Mr. Careless lets it go. On the road 
 this head drops out, and a broken cylinder-head is the 
 consequence. One of the worst causes of breakage to 
 a cylinder that I have ever seen, was caused by the 
 packing-ring of the piston catching in the steam-pas- 
 sage. Part of the ring broke off, and wedged itself 
 between the advancing piston and the cylinder. The 
 wedge split the cylinder open, and the remainder of 
 the piston acted like a pulverizer upon the fragment 
 of the cylinder. 
 
 BROKEN CYLINDER-HEADS OFTEN PREVENTABLE. 
 
 The causes which eventually lead to broken cylin- 
 der-heads often originate from preventable strains. 
 Thus, cross-heads are frequently fractured by main- 
 rod connections pounding; and weaknesses, that ulti- 
 mately bring crank-pins to disaster, originate in a sim- 
 ilar way. A loose piston-key is liable to crack the 
 piston-rod, if it does not give trouble by jumping out. 
 Loose guides have a tendency to spring piston-rods, 
 and throw unnecessary strain upon them. Pistons lined 
 out of true are dangerous for the same reason. And so 
 the list of potential accidents grows. Like the steady 
 water-drop that wears into the adamantine rock, tri- 
 
1 48 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 fling defects, assisted by time's action, prove stronger 
 than the most massive machine. 
 
 When anything happens to permit the piston to 
 break out a cylinder-head the engine can be put in 
 running trim by taking off the valve-rod and the main- 
 rod, and setting the valve on the center of the valve- 
 seat. Blocking the cross-head is unnecessaty, if the 
 break will allow the escaping steam to pass through ; 
 for then no further tension can be put upon the piston 
 to cause further damage. If, by an extraordinary 
 freak of good luck, a piston-rod breaks without causing 
 other damage, the cylinder-head must be taken off, 
 and the piston removed. Then cover the ports, and 
 take down the main-rod on that side. Or, if the cross- 
 head is all right, the main-rod may be left untouched. 
 When the cross-head breaks, it generally entails taking 
 out the piston, centering the valve, and taking down 
 the main-rod on that side. 
 
 WHEN A MAIN-ROD BREAKS. 
 
 With a broken main-rod which does not knock out 
 the cylinder-head, the main-rod and valve-rod should 
 be taken down, the valve secured on the center of the 
 seat, and the cross-head blocked with the piston at 
 the back end of the cylinder. 
 
 CRANK-PIN BROKEN. 
 
 For a broken main crank-pin, the above method of 
 stripping the engine will do with the addition of taking 
 down both side-rods. An accident which disables one 
 side-rod, requires that the other one shall be taken 
 
ACCIDENTS TO CYLINDERS, ETC. 149 
 
 down also, or there will be trouble when the engine is 
 attempted to be run with one side-rod. The rod 
 might go all right so long as no slipping happened. 
 But, if the engine began to slip while passing over 
 the center, the side-rod would have no leverage on 
 the back-crank to slip its wheel ; and a broken rod or 
 crank-pin would almost certainly ensue. 
 
 BROKEN SIDE-ROD. 
 
 A broken side-rod, that is not accompanied by other 
 damage, requires both side-rods to be taken down. 
 All the inconvenience arising from this is, that the 
 engine is more liable to slip. But, with dry rails, the 
 ordinary eight-wheel engine can get along very well 
 without its side-rods. 
 
 With six- or eight-wheel connected engines different 
 treatment is necessary. In case the back section of a 
 side-rod of a six- or eight-wheel connected locomotive 
 should break it would be necessary to take down the 
 same section on the other side. If the front side-rod 
 of a six connected or consolidation engine broke, it 
 would be all right to take down the same section on 
 the other side. In case the middle section side-rod of 
 a consolidation engine it is generally necessary to take 
 down all the side-rods. 
 
 THROTTLE DISCONNECTED. 
 
 Any accident to the throttle-valve or its attachments, 
 which deprives the engineer of power to shut off steam, 
 is very dangerous, and calls for prompt action. Lose 
 no time in reducing the head of steam to fifty or sixty 
 
150 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 pounds, or to the pressure where the engine can easily 
 be managed with the reverse-lever. 
 
 With the aid of a power-brake, an engineer can get 
 along fairly with a light train, after an accident has 
 happened which prevents the closing of the steam from 
 the cylinders ; but constant vigilance and thoughtful 
 labor are needed. 
 
 WHAT CAUSES A DISCONNECTED THROTTLE. 
 
 The most common causes of trouble with the 
 throttle are the breaking or working out of one of the 
 bolts that operate the valve within the dome, the 
 breaking of a valve-rod, or working off of nuts that 
 should secure the connection. Where the throttle 
 fails with the valve closed, and the engineer finds it 
 necessary to take the dome-cover off to prevent his 
 engine from being hauled in, he will generally find the 
 trouble to lie with the connections mentioned, or with 
 the bolts belonging to the bell-crank, that is located 
 near the bottom of the stand-pipe. Sometimes the 
 nuts on the top of the throttle-valve stem work off : 
 but, in such a case, there is no difficulty in opening 
 the valve ; it is when the engineer wants to close it, 
 that the discomfiture comes in. Some steam-pipes 
 are provided with a release-valve near the throttle, to 
 relieve the pipe from intense back-pressure when the 
 engine is reversed. The sudden reversing of an en- 
 gine sometimes jerks this valve out of its seat, leaving 
 an open passage between the boiler and steam-chest. 
 This acts like a mild case of unshipped throttle, and 
 must be controlled in a similar way. 
 
ACCIDENTS TO CYLINDERS, ETC. 15 1 
 
 BURSTING A DRY PIPE. 
 
 The bursting of a dry pipe is similar in effect to the 
 action of a throttle becoming disconnected while open ; 
 and it may ever prove harder to control, according to 
 the size of the opening. Engineer Halliday had a 
 trying time with a case of this kind. While swinging 
 along the E., F. & G. road, with a heavy train of 
 freight, a herd of horses ran in from an open crossing- 
 gate, and started up the track just in front of the 
 engine. As there was a bridge a short distance ahead, 
 Halliday reversed the engine in his anxiety to prevent 
 an accident. The train stopped for an instant, when 
 the engine began to push it back. Halliday tried to 
 throw the lever to the center, but never before had he 
 felt such a psessure acting upon it. Again and again 
 he tried to throw the lever over; but every time it 
 proved too formidable a struggle, and the catch found 
 its way into the full-back notch. Meanwhile the train 
 was gaining speed in the wrong direction, and a pas- 
 senger train was not many miles behind. Beginning 
 to realize the true state of affairs, Halliday called for 
 brakes, opened the fire-box door, closed the dampers, 
 and started the injector. Then he directed the fireman 
 to throw some bucketfuls of water upon the fire, while 
 he tied down the whistle-lever, letting the steam blow. 
 The promptest means for reducing the pressure of steam 
 were now in operation, and his next move was to try 
 the reverse-lever again. Both men grasped the lever 
 and, by a combined effort, forced it past the center; 
 and Samson's hair was cut. It was afterwards found 
 
152 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 that a long rent had opened in the dry pipe, letting 
 the full boiler-pressure upon the valves, which moved 
 hard through being dry ; the hot gases pumped through 
 them in reverse motion, having licked off every trace 
 of lubricating unguent. 
 
 OTHER THROTTLE ACCIDENTS. 
 
 Cases of serious trouble resulting from accidents to 
 throttle-connections would be easy to multiply. Two 
 incidents with similar originating conditions, but with 
 very different results, will suffice. Engineer Phelps 
 was pulling a full train of coal over rails that were nei- 
 ther wet nor dry, and had just enough frost upon them 
 to be wicked. He was having a bad time slipping, but 
 was working patiently along, when the throttle became 
 disconnected with the valve open. The engine at once 
 started on a whirl of slipping that threatened disaster, 
 but it was immediately controlled by the engineer pull- 
 ing the reverse-lever to the center notch. Engineer 
 Cook of the F., G., & H. road, was not so fortunate 
 when the stem of his throttle-valve broke on a slippery 
 day. As the wheels began spinning round, Cook lost 
 his head, and kept working at the throttle-lever to 
 try to stop. Seeing this was of no avail, he grasped 
 the sand-lever, and tugged vigorously at the valves. 
 A season of tumult succeeded; and, when the engine 
 stopped presently, it was found to be a deplorable 
 wreck. It was hard to tell, from the look of the ruin, 
 what part of the locomotive broke first ; but the crank- 
 pins on one side were cleaned off, and the piston was 
 out through the cylinder-head. The side-rod on the 
 
ACCIDENTS TO CYLINDERS, ETC. 153 
 
 other side broke close to the strap, and was twisted up 
 like a spiral spring. 
 
 POUNDING OF THE WORKING-PARTS. 
 
 It is good for an ambitious young engineer, who 
 desires to thoroughly master his calling, to walk occa- 
 sionally into the room where a well-managed automatic 
 cut-off engine is at work, and watch its smooth, noise- 
 less movements. There he may find an ideal of how 
 .an engine should run. The nature of the work per- 
 formed by a locomotive engine prevents it from being 
 operated noiselessly, and the smoothness of its action 
 must always compare unfavorably with a well-con- 
 structed stationary- engine ; but the connections which 
 transmit the power of a locomotive should be free from 
 knock or jar, if they are properly proportioned, and 
 skillfully put together. 
 
 SOME CAUSES OF POUNDING. 
 
 To an engineer with a well-regulated mind, a pound 
 about the engine is a source of continual irritation. If 
 a pound arises from a cause which can be remedied by 
 an engineer, the careful man will soon perform the 
 necessary work to end the noise. Sometimes the 
 origin of a pound is hard to discover : very often it is 
 beyond the power of the engineer to stop it. Some 
 makes of locomotives always pound when working in 
 full gear. With such an engine, a nervous engineer 
 will fuss, pushing up wedges until they stick fast, and 
 cause no end of grief to get them down again. He 
 will key up the main-rod connections till they run hot, 
 
154 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING.' 
 
 and he will prophesy that the engine is going to pieces. 
 But the engine hangs together all the same, and is only 
 suffering from want of lead, or want of compression. 
 Where an engine is deficient in the cushioning to the 
 piston, due to compression or lead, the momentum of 
 the piston and connecting-rod is suddenly checked at 
 the end of each stroke. The concussion to these 
 working-parts is so great that pounding will be pro- 
 duced. As the engine gets hooked towards the center, 
 this pounding will cease, because compression and the 
 lead opening increase as the motion is notched back. 
 The most common causes for pounding with loco- 
 motives are worn main-rod connections, and driving- 
 boxes too loose in the jaws, or the brasses loose in the 
 driving-boxes. If side-rods are out of tram, or have 
 the brasses badly worn, they sometimes pound when 
 passing the centers. A cross-head will pound when 
 the guides are worn very open. This last defect is 
 liable to cause a bent piston-rod. A piston makes a 
 tremendous pound when a badly connected rod allows 
 it to touch a cylinder-head, and a very ominous pound 
 is produced when the spider gets loose on the piston- 
 rod, and a piston-rod loose in the cross-head will make 
 itself heard all over the engine. 
 
 LOCATING A MYSTERIOUS POUND. 
 
 Several years ago a very troublesome and mysterious 
 pound caused the writer a great deal of annoyance. 
 He was running an old engine, with cylinders that had 
 been bored out until no counter-bore was left. The 
 piston had worn a seat leaving a small ridge at the end 
 
ACCIDENTS TO CYLINDERS, ETC. 155 
 
 of its back travel. The main rod was taken down one 
 day ; and, in putting it up again, the travel of the 
 piston was slightly altered. The engine started out 
 with a pound, and kept it up. If any of my readers 
 have been working an engine that seemed to hang 
 together merely by luck, away on construction work 
 on the wild prairies, with no machine-shops in the rear 
 to appeal to for aid or counsel, with all his own repair- 
 ing to do without tools or skilled assistance, they will 
 understand the difficulty experienced in locating that 
 pound at the back end of the cylinder. 
 
 A cylinder loose on the frame, or a broken frame, 
 will jar the whole machine ; and both of these defects 
 are serious, and demand increased care in taking the 
 engine along with the train. Loose driving-box 
 brasses produce a pound which is sometimes difficult 
 to locate. In searching for the cause of a pound, it is 
 a good plan to place the engine with one of the cranks 
 on the quarter, block the wheels, and have the fireman 
 open the throttle a little, and reverse the engine with 
 the steam on. By closely watching in turn each con- 
 nection, as the steam through the piston gives a pull 
 or a thrust to the cross-head, the defect which causes 
 the pound may be located. Never run with a serious 
 pound inside of a cylinder. It is an almost certain 
 indication that a smash is imminent. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 OFF THE TRACK.— ACCIDENTS TO RUNNING-GEAR. 
 
 GETTING DITCHED. 
 
 There is something pathetic in the spectacle of a 
 noble locomotive, whose speed capabilities are so won- 
 derful, lying with its wheels in the air, or sunk to the 
 hubs in mud or gravel. Kindred sights are, a ship 
 thrown high and dry upon the beach, away from the 
 element that gives it power and beauty ; or a monster 
 whale, the leviathan of the deep, lying stranded and 
 helpless upon the shore. 
 
 Few engineers have run many years without getting 
 their engine off the track in some way, — over the ends 
 of switches, by jumping bad track, or getting into 
 the ditch through some serious accident, collision or 
 otherwise. Most of them have felt that shock of the 
 engine thumping over the ties, and momentarily won- 
 dered in what position it was going to stop; doing all 
 in their power, meanwhile, to stop, and prevent 
 damage. 
 
 DEALING WITH SUDDEN EMERGENCIES. 
 
 Of course, an engineer's first duty is to conduct his 
 engine in a way that will avoid accident so far as 
 
 156 
 
OFF THE TRACK. 157 
 
 human foresight can aid in doing so ; but, when an 
 accident is inevitable, his next duty is to use every 
 exertion towards reducing its severity. The most 
 common form of serious accident occurring on our 
 railroads is a collision. Rear-end collisions occur most 
 frequently, although head-to-head collisions annually 
 claim many victims. When an accident of this kind is 
 impending, the engineer generally has but a few seconds 
 of warning; but these brief seconds well utilized often 
 save many lives, and impress the principal actor with 
 the stamp of true heroism. Rounding a curve at a 
 high speed, an engineer perceives another train 
 approaching. Quick as thought he shuts off steam, 
 applies the brake, and opens the sand-valves. This 
 will take about ten seconds' time; and, if the engine 
 is running thirty miles an hour, the train will pass over 
 forty-four feet each second. Assuming that no reduc- 
 tion of speed has taken place till all the appliances for 
 stopping are in operation, four hundred and forty feet 
 will be passed over as a preliminary to stopping. With 
 the automatic Westinghouse brake, application and 
 retarding power are almost simultaneous. To reverse 
 the engine when driver-brakes are in use is to cause 
 sliding of wheels without helping to stop the train 
 quickly. Until he has applied all means of reducing 
 speed, an engineer rarely or never consults his own 
 safety, however certain death may be staring him in 
 the face. But after the brakes are known to be doing 
 their work, aided by sanded rails, personal safety is 
 considered. A glance at the position of the two trains 
 tells if they are coming violently together; and the 
 
158 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 engineer jumps off, or remains on the engine, as he 
 deems best. This applies to trains equipped with 
 continuous brakes. 
 
 STOPPING A FREIGHT TRAIN IN CASE OF DANGER. 
 
 With freight trains where the means of stopping are 
 not immediately under the hand of the engineer, he 
 must call for brakes on the first indication of danger, 
 and do all that a reversed engine £an achieve to aid in 
 stopping the train. Where a driver-brake is used, the 
 engineer will have to watch the reversed engine ; be- 
 cause the wheels will soon begin sliding, even on thick 
 sand, and their retarding power will be seriously 
 diminished. To prevent this, the engineer should let 
 off the driver-brake, and open the cylinder-cocks, till 
 the wheels begin to revolve, when the brake may be 
 applied again. Working and watching in this way 
 greatly assist in stopping a train, and preventing the 
 flattening of wheels. 
 
 SAVING THE HEATING-SURFACES. 
 
 Should the engine get into the ditch, the engineer's 
 first duty is to save the engine from getting burned, 
 unless saving of life, or protecting the train, demands 
 his attention. If the engine is in a position where the 
 flues or fire-box crown will be left without water, the 
 fire should be quenched as quickly as possible. Sand 
 or gravel thrown over the fire, and then saturated 
 with water, is a good and prompt way of extinguish- 
 ing the fire. 
 
OFF THE TRACK. I $9 
 
 GETTING THE ENGINE ON THE TRACK. 
 
 It can be understood in a few minutes after derail- 
 ment whether or not the engine can be put back on 
 the track without assistance. Sometimes a pull from 
 another engine is all that is required: again, nothing 
 can be done without the aid of heavy tools to raise it 
 up. In this case, no time should be lost in sending 
 for the wrecking outfit. It often happens that an en- 
 gine gets off the track while switching among sidings, 
 and sinks down in the road-bed so as to be helpless. 
 In an event of this kind, jacking up a few inches will 
 often enable the engine to work back to the rails. 
 Before beginning to hoist with the screw-jacks, some 
 labor can generally be saved by putting pieces of iron 
 between the bottom of the driving-boxes and the 
 pedestal-braces. As the wheels begin to rise out of 
 the gravel, pieces of plank or wooden wedges should 
 be driven under them to hold good every inch raised. 
 Where the attempt is made to work an engine on the 
 rails by means of wrecking- frogs, wooden filling should 
 be laid down crosswise to prevent the wheels from 
 sinking between the ties, should they slip off the 
 frogs. Where jacking up has to be resorted to, there 
 is often difficulty experienced in getting up the engine- 
 truck ; as raising the frame usually leaves the truck 
 behind in the mire. The best plan is to jack up the 
 front of the engine to the desired level, then with a 
 rail well manned pry up the truck, and hold it in posi- 
 tion by driving shims under the wheels. An engine 
 
l6o LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 will generally go on the rails easiest the way it comes 
 off. 
 
 When a derailed engine is being pulled on the track 
 by another engine, the work should be done carefully, 
 and with proper deliberation. When everything is 
 made ready for a pull, some men act as if the best 
 plan was to start both engines off with full throttle ; 
 and this often leaves the situation worse than it was at 
 first. When truck-wheels stand at an angle to the 
 track, it is often necessary to jerk them in line by 
 attaching a chain or rope to one side. A wrecking- 
 frog should be laid in front of the wheel outside the 
 rail, and blocking before the inside wheel, sufficient to 
 raise the tread of the wheel above the level of the 
 rail. Then move ahead slowly, and the chances are 
 that the wheels will go on the rails. Sometimes the 
 easiest way is to open the track at a joint, move it 
 aside to the line of the wheels, and spike it there, then 
 draw or run the engine on. 
 
 Having an engine off the track is a position where 
 good judgment is more potent than a volume of writ- 
 ten directions. 
 
 UNDERSTANDING THE RUNNING-GEAR. 
 
 The driving-wheels, axles, boxes, frames, with the 
 trucks and all their attachments, are somewhat dirty 
 articles to handle. The examination of how they are 
 put together, and how they are hanging together, is 
 pursued under soiling circumstances. Perhaps this is 
 the reason these things are studied less than they 
 ought to be. To creep under a greasy locomotive to 
 
ACCIDENTS TO RUNNING-GEAR. l6l 
 
 examine wheels, axles, and truck-boxes is not a digni- 
 fied proceeding by any means ; but it is a very useful 
 one. The running-gear is the fundamental part of the 
 machine, and its whole make-up should be thoroughly 
 understood. The builds of trucks are so multifarious 
 that no specified directions can be given respecting 
 accidents happening to them. There is, therefore, 
 the greater need for an engineer's familiarizing him- 
 self with the make-up of his running-gear, so that 
 when an accident happens he will know exactly what 
 to do. Disraeli said: " There is nothing so likely to 
 happen as the unexpected." This applies very aptly 
 to railroad engineering. Industrious accumulation of 
 knowledge respecting every part of the machine is the 
 proper way to defy the unexpected. 
 
 BROKEN DRIVING-SPRING. 
 
 The running-gear of some engines is so arranged 
 that, in case a driving-spring breaks on the road, it 
 can readily be replaced if a spare spring is carried. 
 With the average run of engines, however, and the 
 accumulating complication of brake-gear attached to 
 the frames, the replacing of a driving-spring is a tedious 
 operation, that would involve too much delay with an 
 engine attached to a train. Consequently engineers 
 seldom attempt to change a broken spring. They 
 merely remove the attachments likely to shake out of 
 place, and block the engine up so as to get home 
 safely. When a forward driving-spring breaks, it is 
 generally best to take the spring out with its saddle 
 and hangers. Then run the back drivers up on wedges 
 
1 62 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 to take the weight off the forward drivers, and put a 
 piece of hard wood or a rubber spring between the top 
 of the box and the frame. Now run the forward 
 drivers on the wedges, which will take the weight off 
 the back drivers, and with a pinch-bar pry up the end 
 of the equalizer till that lever stands level, and block 
 it in that position by jamming a piece of wood be- 
 tween it and the frame. For a back driving-spring, 
 this order of procedure should be reversed. A back 
 driving-spring is often hard to get out of its position ; 
 and it sometimes can be left in place, as it is not very 
 liable to cause mischief. 
 
 Where a spring drops its load through a hanger 
 breaking, the mishap can occasionally be remedied by 
 chaining the spring to the frame. Should this prove 
 impracticable, the same process must be followed *s 
 that which was made necessary by a broken spring. 
 
 EQUALIZER BROKEN. 
 
 For a broken equalizer, all the pieces likely to shake 
 off, or to be caught by the revolving wheels, must 
 come out ; and both driving-boxes on that side must 
 be blocked on top with wood or rubber. Where good 
 screw-jacks are carried, it will often prove time-saving 
 to raise the engine by jacking up at the back end of 
 the frame instead of running it up on wedges. Where 
 the wedge plan is likely to prove easiest, it must be 
 adopted only on a straight track; and then too much 
 care cannot be used to prevent the wheels from leav- 
 ing the rails. 
 
ACCIDENTS TO RUNNING-GEAR. 1 63 
 
 ACCIDENTS TO TRUCKS. 
 
 The breaking of an engine-truck spring which trans- 
 mits the weight to the boxes by means of an equal- 
 izer, requires that the equalizer should be taken out, 
 and the frame blocked above the boxes. This block- 
 ing above the boxes is necessary to prevent the two 
 unyielding iron surfaces, which would otherwise come 
 together, from hammering each other to pieces. 
 Wood or rubber has more elasticity, and acts as a 
 spring. Whatever may be the form of truck used, if 
 the breaking of a spring allows the rigid frame to drop 
 upon the top of one or more boxes, it must be raised, 
 and a yielding substance inserted, if the engine is to 
 be run even at a moderate speed, and the engineer 
 wishes to avoid further breakage. Sometimes truck- 
 springs, especially with tanks, are so arranged that 
 the removal of one will take away the support of the 
 frame at that point. In such a case, a cross-tie or 
 other suitable piece of wood must be fitted into the 
 place to support the weight which the spring held up. 
 
 BROKEN PONY-TRUCK CENTER PIN. 
 
 When the center pin of a pony-truck breaks the 
 best remedy is to put in a new one. If that is not at 
 hand, jack up the front of the engine and block down 
 the cross equalizer at back of long equalizer enough 
 to prevent forward end from striking pony-axle. 
 
164 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 BROKEN FRAME. 
 
 A broken truck-frame can generally beheld together 
 by means of a chain, and a piece of broken rail or 
 wooden beam to act as a " splice." Should a truck- 
 wheel or axle break, it can be chained up to enable 
 the engine to reach the nearest side track where new 
 wheels may be procured, or the broken parts fastened 
 so that the engine may proceed carefully home. The 
 back wheel of an engine-truck can be chained up se- 
 curely to a rail or cross-tie placed across the top of the 
 engine-frame. If an accident happens to the front 
 wheels, and it proves impracticable to get a sound pair, 
 the truck should be turned round when a side track is 
 reached. An accident to the wheels or axle of a 
 tender-truck can be managed in the same way as an 
 engine-truck, but the cross-beam to support the 
 chained weight must be placed across the top of the 
 tender. A bent axle or broken wheel that prevents a 
 truck from following the rail, can be run to the nearest 
 side track by fastening the wheels so that they will 
 slide on the rails. 
 
 BROKEN DRIVING AXLES, WHEELS, AND TIRES. 
 
 Accidents of this nature often disable the engine en- 
 tirely ; but sometimes the breakage occurs in such a 
 way that the engine can run itself home, or into a side 
 track, by good and careful management. Driving- 
 axles generally break in the box, or between the box 
 and the wheel. When this happens to a main driving- 
 axle, or when anything happens to the forward driving- 
 
ACCIDENTS TO RUNNING-GEAR. 1 65 
 
 wheel or tire of such a serious nature that the engine 
 can not be moved until the wheel is raised away from 
 the rail, the engineer's first duty is to take down the 
 main rod on that side, and secure the piston, then to 
 take down both of the side rods. Cases could be cited 
 where engineers have brought in engines with broken 
 axles without disconnecting any thing, but these men 
 did not take the safe side by a long way. 
 
 The rods being disconnected, run the disabled wheel 
 up on a wedge or block of wood, and secure it in the 
 raised position by driving blocking between the axle- 
 box and the pedestal-brace. To get the box high 
 enough in the jaws, it is sometimes necessary to remove 
 the spring and saddle from the top of the box. A 
 wheel may break and not fall to pieces, but still be 
 dangerous to use, except for moving along slowly. A 
 tire may break, and yet remain on the wheel, only re- 
 quiring the most careful handling. On the other 
 hand, the breaking of a wheel or tire may render the 
 wheel useless, when it must be raised from the rail the 
 same way as was recommended for a broken axle, and 
 the same precautions in regard to stripping that side 
 of the engine must all be taken. In the event of an 
 accident happening which disables both forward driv- 
 ers, they must both be raised from the rails, and the 
 engine pulled in, the truck and hind drivers supporting 
 the weight. Both side-rods must come down. 
 
 The breaking of back driving-axles, or accidents to 
 wheels or tires, is very difficult to manage; because 
 the weight must be supported in some way. The first 
 act when such a mishap occurs, is to take down both 
 
1 66 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 side-rods. If the engine can be moved to the nearest 
 side track without further change, take it there ; now 
 jack up the back part of the engine, and fasten two 
 pieces of rail by chaining or otherwise to the frames of 
 the engine, their ends resting on the tank-deck, so 
 that, when the jacks are lowered, the tank will help to 
 support the hind part of the engine. 
 
 I have seen a case where one piece of rail was 
 pushed into the draw-bar casting, and it held the en- 
 gine up through a journey of seventy miles. If one 
 of the back driving-wheels can be used, it lessens the 
 weight that has to be borne by any lever contrivance. 
 When one wheel is disabled, it must be blocked up in 
 the jaws; and, should both wheels be rendered use- 
 less, they must both be held up, so that as much as 
 possible of the weight may be thrown upon the for- 
 ward drivers. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 CONNECTING-RODS, SIDE-RODS, AND WEDGES. 
 
 CARE OF LOCOMOTIVE RODS. 
 
 WHEN it is found that an engineer runs his engine 
 for months on arduous train service, and has no trouble 
 with his rods, he may safely be credited with knowing 
 his business, and attending to it skillfully. In regard 
 to the keeping of the machinery in working-order, the 
 engineer's duties are mostly of a supervisory nature. 
 When piston-rings get blowing, when guides need 
 closing, or when injectors get working badly, he re- 
 ports the matter; and the work is done so that the 
 defect is remedied. With the rods it is different. 
 Although he does not file the brasses himself, he ex- 
 erts great influence, for good or evil, in the way he 
 manipulates the keys, and by the care he takes of the 
 rods. Injudicious keying of rods is responsible for 
 more accidents than the mistakes in any other one di- 
 rection, with, perhaps, the exception of the current 
 mistake of the hind brakeman, who supposes there is 
 no use in going back to flag when his train has stopped 
 between stations. 
 
 167 
 
1 68 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTING-RODS. 
 
 The functions of rods being to transmit the motion 
 of the pistons to the running-gear, they have very 
 heavy duty to perform. The conflicting strains and 
 shocks to which a locomotive is subjected while run- 
 ning over a rough track at high speed, are, in many 
 instances, sustained by the rods : hence it is of special 
 importance that this portion of the motion should be 
 kept in good order. Main rods convey the power de- 
 veloped in the cylinders to the crank-pins by a succes- 
 sion of pulls and thrusts equal in vigor to the aggregate 
 of steam-pressure exerted on the piston. To endure 
 this alternating tension and compression without in- 
 jury to the working-parts, it is of the utmost impor- 
 tance that the connections should be close fitted, yet 
 free enough to prevent unnecessary friction. In fitting 
 up main-rod brasses, it does not matter in what posi- 
 tion the crank stands, so long as it is convenient for 
 doing the work. But, if the engine has been in ser- 
 vice since the pins were turned, they should be cali- 
 pered through their horizontal diameter when the 
 crank is on the center; since it is well known that the 
 pins have a tendency to wear flat on the sides at right 
 angles to the crank's length. The back ends of the 
 main-rod brasses should befitted brass to brass; for 
 that form of doing the work makes the most secure 
 job, and gives the connection all the advantages of a 
 solid box, preventing the straps and brasses from being 
 knocked out of shape by hammering each other, — a 
 result that surely follows the open brasses method of 
 
CONNECTING-RODS, SIDE-RODS, ETC. 169 
 
 fitting back ends of main-rods. Leaving the forward 
 end brasses a little open is not injurious to that con- 
 nection, because the line of strain is not so varied as 
 that of the back end. 
 
 EFFECTS OF BAD FITTING. 
 
 When the work of fitting a set of back-end brasses 
 is completed, they should be put in the strap, and 
 tried on the pin. If, after being keyed close together, 
 they revolve on the pin without pinching, the fit is not 
 too tight. It is of the greatest consequence, in fitting 
 rod-brasses, to ascertain, beyond doubt, that the 
 brasses have been bored out true, and that they fit in 
 the strap so that the line of strain shall be in line with 
 the cross-head and crank-pins. It occasionally happens, 
 through bad workmanship, that when the back end of 
 a rod is keyed up, and the front end not connected, 
 the rod does not point straight to the cross-head pin, 
 but in a line some distance to the right or left. The 
 distance may be very small, yet sufficient to cause no 
 small amount of trouble. By some pinching and jam- 
 ming, a rod in this condition can be connected up; 
 but it is almost sure to run hot. And a rod in this 
 condition will never run satisfactorily till it is taken 
 down and fitted by a competent machinist. The back 
 end may be all right, and the forward end suffering 
 from oblique fitting. This is even more common than 
 the first case, and the effect is the same. A rod in 
 this condition, besides displaying a tendency to run 
 hot, will keep jerking the cross-head from side to side 
 on the guides, and will probably make the cross-head 
 
I70 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 chafe the guides at certain points. Rods never run 
 cool, and free from jar, unless they are fitted to trans- 
 mit the power in a direct line between the pins. 
 
 STRIKING POINTS AND CLEARANCE. 
 
 Before putting up main rods, the striking points of 
 the pistons should be located and marked on the 
 guides. Then, when the rods are put up, the clearance 
 should be divided equally between the two ends. The 
 identification of these points is of greater interest to 
 the engineer who is running the engine than to any 
 other person ; for upon their correctness the success of 
 his running may, to some extent, depend. An engine 
 may go out with the clearance badly divided, and run 
 all right for a few days, and the driving of a key may 
 then cause the piston to strike the head. A forcible 
 instance of this kind once came under my observation. 
 A careless machinist, in working on main-rod brasses, 
 had mixed the liners, and shortened the rod, till the 
 piston began to touch the back head. When the 
 engine was working light, there was just a slight jar; 
 but, when the load was heavy, the jar became a distinct 
 pound. The engineer could not locate the knock, and 
 was disposed to think it was in the driving-box. One 
 day that he slipped the engine badly, steam began to 
 issue from the back cylinder-head, which was cracked 
 by a blow from the piston. The cause of the pound 
 was then discovered. When by a blunder of this kind 
 the piston is permitted to lap over the counter-bore it 
 will nearly always result in the packing-rings getting 
 torn so that they break. 
 
CONNECTING-RODS, SIDE- RODS, ETC. \J\ 
 
 WATCHING RODS ON THE ROAD. 
 
 When an engineer starts out with an engine after 
 the rod-brasses have been filed, he should make them 
 a special object of attention. If he cannot shake the 
 connection laterally with his hands when there is room 
 for movement within the collars, he should slack up 
 the key till he can do so; for some one has made a 
 mistake in fitting. So long as the rod passes the 
 center without jar when the engine is working hard in 
 full gear, the brasses are tight enough. After running 
 a few miles with newly fitted brasses, the rod will 
 generally need keying up ; for liners that were com- 
 paratively loose when put up, get driven compactly 
 together, leaving lost motion. Although a connection 
 may be put together brass to brass, there is still some 
 work left for the engineer to do in the way of keying. 
 To do keying correctly needs considerable sagacity, 
 especially in the case of side-rods. In the case of 
 back ends of main rods, the key should be got down 
 as soon as possible, to hold the brasses immovably in 
 the strap ; but, after this point is reached, there should 
 be no more hammering on the key. Some men 
 persist in pounding down keys that are already snug, 
 and the effect of their blows is to spring the brass out 
 of shape. A key acts as a wedge, which it is; and, 
 when the taper is slight, the blow imparted by a ham- 
 mer roughly used, exerts an immense force in driving 
 it down. Something must yield; and the brass gets 
 sprung towards the pin, presenting a ridge for a rub- 
 bing surface, which heats, and causes delay. After 
 
172 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 the key is once driven tight home, its work is finished. 
 If the pin then indicates lost motion, the rod should 
 be taken down, and the brasses reduced. In the case 
 of main rods, this should be done at the first signs of 
 pound ; for lost motion entails heavy shock upon the 
 moving parts. The front end of main rods requires 
 to be very carefully watched, and the connection kept 
 free from jar. Where this part is kept regularly oiled, 
 and free from lost motion, it gives scarcely any trouble ; 
 but let the wrist-pin of the common cross-head once 
 get cut through neglect, and it is a difficult matter 
 getting it in good running-order again. The style of 
 cross-head where the pin is part of the casting, although 
 greatly used, is a most awkward article to fit up and 
 keep in shape. The form of cross-head which works 
 between two guide bars, and has its axis in line with 
 the piston-rod, is becoming deservedly popular. 
 
 SIDE-RODS. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to dispense with 
 side-rods, and they certainly are a troublesome part of 
 the machinery to keep right ; but no better means of 
 connecting driving-wheels has yet been devised. The 
 first method of coupling driving-wheels together, so 
 that more than one pair might be available for adhe- 
 sion, was by means of cogs and gearing. This was im- 
 proved on by an endless chain working over pocketed 
 pulleys ; but even this was an extremely crude device, 
 — working with tumultuous jerks, and a noise like a 
 stamping-mill. One of the first real improvements, 
 which George Stephenson effected on the locomotive, 
 
CONNECTING-RODS, SIDE-RODS, ETC, 173 
 
 was the inventing of side-rods. An essential element 
 in locomotive construction needed to make side-rods 
 run with safety, is, that all the wheels connected shall 
 be of the same circumference. There is a practice on 
 some roads of putting new tires on wheels just as they 
 come from the rolling-mill, without putting them in 
 the lathe. Such tires are seldom accurate in size; 
 and they cause no end of trouble, especially to side- 
 rods. This is one of the economical practices that 
 does not pay. 
 
 ADJUSTMENT OF SIDE-RODS. 
 
 To connect driving-wheels so that they will run to- 
 gether in perfect harmony, after ascertaining that they 
 are the same size, the next point is to secure the crank- 
 pins at an equal distance from the centers of the 
 wheels. When this is done, and the wheels are 
 trammed parallel to the line of motion, the rods will 
 move on a plane with the centers of the crank-pins 
 exactly the same distance apart as are the centers of 
 the driving-axles. The rods can be adjusted to the 
 greatest advantage with the steam raised, so that the 
 heat of the boiler will make the frames about the same 
 length as when the engine is at work. The expansion 
 due to the heat of the boiler is short when measured 
 by a foot-rule, but it affects the smooth action of the 
 side-rods to a remarkable extent. 
 
 Before tramming for the side-rods, it is necessary to 
 have the driving-box wedges set up just tight enough 
 to let the driving-boxes move vertically in the jaws 
 without sticking. The distance between the centers 
 
174 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 of the driving-axles and the centers of the crank-pins 
 having now been found equal, the rods are fitted up ; 
 each connection being secured a close fit to the pin, 
 with the brasses held brass to brass. With the brasses 
 bored out exactly to the size of the crank-pins, and the 
 rods accurately fitted, a connection could be made 
 which would bind the two sets of drivers to move as 
 an unbroken unit, were it not for the disturbing element 
 which appears in the shape of rough track. With un- 
 even track and worn wheel-tires, a tremendous tension 
 is put on the rods where the connections are closely 
 fitted. Provision is made for this source of danger by 
 leaving the brasses of the back pins loosely fitted. A 
 yielding space is left between the brass and the pin, 
 not between the brass and the key or strap. The latter 
 connections must be perfectly snug, or the strap will 
 soon be pounded out of shape. 
 
 In the case of ten-wheel and consolidation engines, 
 the brasses of all wheels behind the leading pair should 
 be bored out one-sixty-fourth larger than the pins, 
 which will generally be sufficient. In case a pin is 
 sprung, — which is no rare circumstance, — room enough 
 must be left in the brass to let the pin pass over its 
 tightest point without pinching. The center is the 
 proper position to put up side-rods on. Some men 
 like to fit side-rods with the cranks on the eighths posi- 
 tion ; holding that there the greatest strain comes on, 
 and, consequently, that there fitting up should be 
 done. That is a mistaken idea; for rods may be put 
 together on the eighths, and yet bind the pins badly 
 in passing the centers. On the other hand, if they 
 
CONNECTING-RODS, SIDE-RODS, ETC. 175 
 
 pass the centers easily, they will go round the remain- 
 der of the circle without danger. 
 
 KEYING SIDE-RODS. 
 
 When it is necessary for an engineer to key up side- 
 rods, he should select a place where the track is 
 straight, and as even as possible. Then he should put 
 t'he cranks on the center, and take care that he can 
 move the connections laterally after the job is done. 
 If he now moves the engine so that the cranks are on 
 the other center, and finds that the rod connections can 
 still be moved, that side is all right. If the other side 
 be treated in a similar manner, his rods are not likely 
 to give trouble. With a worn-out engine and rough 
 road-bed, it is a difficult matter to preserve the true 
 mean between loose and tight side-rod connections. 
 But, in a case of doubt, the loose side is the safe side. 
 Yet most engineers are inclined to err on the side of 
 danger, for they will generally tighten up the rods to 
 prevent them from rattling. On a Western road, 
 where solid-ended brasses were adopted, it was often 
 amusing to hear the engineers protesting against the 
 noise the side-rods made when the brasses began to get 
 worn. They would rattle from one end of the division 
 to the other; but they would not break pins, or frac- 
 ture themselves, and tear the cab to pieces, or ditch a 
 train, as happens so often from other rods being keyed 
 to prevent noise. Sprung crank-pins and broken side- 
 rods are very often the result of injudicious keying. 
 
176 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING, 
 
 DIFFICULTY IN LOCATING DEFECTS. 
 
 A locomotive . has so many parts that bear a close 
 relation to each other, and that are so sympathetic 
 when one of the parts becomes disordered, that it is 
 sometimes a difficult matter to immediately locate a 
 complaint. One of the signs of a defect, in many of the 
 parts, or one of the consequences of it, is a " pound," 
 — a complaint that we hear of in a locomotive about 
 as frequently, and with the same feeling, as we do of 
 malaria in the individual. 
 
 POUNDING IN DRIVING-BOXES AND WEDGES. 
 
 But we will deal now with the pounds in a locomo- 
 tive, and will take the location in which we find the 
 most and serious ones, — namely, in the driving-boxes 
 and wedges, — and see why they pound, and what will 
 prevent them from doing so. The cause we will find, 
 if in the wedges, is due to a rocking of the box in 
 them, or from causes arising from imperfect fitting 
 when they were put up, or lined up when the engine 
 was in the shop. This fitting of wedges on a locomo- 
 tive that has done service is a matter of importance in 
 the immediate present and future working of the parts 
 themselves, and of other parts of the locomotive as 
 well. On stripping a locomotive that has done much 
 service, it will be found that the working of the wedges 
 on the face of the pedestal has worn it hollow, or 
 pounded furrows on it, or has done both. This occurs 
 so frequently on the "live " wedge side, that it may 
 be taken as the rule, rather than the exception, to find 
 
CONNECTING-RODS, SIDE-RODS. ETC. 177 
 
 the pedestal in this condition. While it does not 
 happen so frequently on the " dead " wedge side as on 
 the other, it will be found there also if the wedge has 
 not been held by a fastening to the pedestal, or securely 
 fitted between the top of the frame and the pedestal 
 binder-brace. This defects will be found on the back 
 of the wedge also, and are produced by the same cause 
 and same motion as those on the pedestal face. These 
 defects are the most frequent cause of the driving-box 
 pounding, or of the wedges rocking ; since thereby the 
 wedges get thrown out of parallel to each other, when 
 it becomes necessary to adjust them during the service 
 of the locomotive. 
 
 In refitting wedges, these defects should be re- 
 moved, the pedestal face carefully straightened its 
 entire length, and the wedge-back fitted to it. It is 
 not only necessary that the pedestal face should be 
 smooth, but that it should be straight its entire 
 length. If not, when it becomes necessary to adjust 
 the wedge, if the pedestal is high on the top end, the 
 wedge is thrown out at the top, binding the box at 
 that point, and allowing it to swing at the bottom. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF HAVING WEDGES PROPERLY FITTED. 
 
 With the pedestal face in a proper condition to 
 avoid displacement of the wedge, when moved to dif- 
 ferent positions on it, we should consider what will be 
 the method of lining the wedges, and what duty they 
 have to perform. This duty is merely to take up the 
 lost motion between the pedestal and boxes; and 
 that, from their shape, they readily do from time to 
 
178 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 time. While this duty is simple, the wedges ought 
 to do it without affecting any of the other parts of the 
 locomotive, — a condition of perfection that can be 
 reached only by having all the wedges perfectly par- 
 allel with the pedestals and with each other. If the 
 first condition is not complied with, the result, as 
 stated, will be the box swinging in the wedges. If 
 the latter, then with the varying position of the boxes 
 in the pedestal due to the engine settling on the 
 springs, or to the change of position from the motion 
 of the springs when the locomotive is running, we will 
 have a varying distance between the centers of the 
 wheels and length for the side-rods. 
 
 Many of the complaints we hear of rods not working 
 properly are owing to this defect in wedges not being 
 parallel, by which the distances are varied, and a strain 
 thrown upon the rods that not only affects them, but 
 causes them in turn to bind the boxes against the 
 wedges by trying to compress or extend to a length 
 varying as often as the motion of the springs. While 
 the motion of the springs is not much in proportion to 
 the length of the wedges, and the varying distance be- 
 tween centers of wheels is in ratio to that proportion, 
 if the wedges are not parallel, we must remember 
 how often the motion is occurring, and that, no mat- 
 ter how slight the strain upon the rods may be, we 
 are putting it on a part of the locomotive that requires 
 the minutest adjustment to enable it to do its work 
 properly and safely. 
 
CONNECTING-RODS, SIDE-RODS, ETC 179 
 
 INFLUENCE OF HALF-ROUND BRASSES. 
 
 Driving-boxes fitted with a half-round brass have a 
 tendency to close at the bottom. This tendency is 
 continuous, and becomes most marked as the brass 
 wears down, relieving the box of the strain put upon 
 it by the tight-fitting brass. With a properly fitted 
 brass, and a collar put up in good shape, the box can 
 not close much : still, there will be enough looseness 
 to cause a slight pounding. During the first few days' 
 service of a locomotive after new driving-brasses of 
 this shape are put in, the compression on the brass, 
 resulting from the weight of the engine, tends to close 
 the bottom of the box, and permits the box to rock. 
 This evil may be, to some extent, prevented by fitting 
 the wedges slightly closer at the bottom. This clos- 
 ing of the box at the bottom is not only an evil and 
 annoyance in itself by causing pounding, but is a 
 further source of trouble by hastening the forming of 
 a shoulder on the top of the wedge. The tendency at 
 all times is for the axle-box to wear a shoulder at the 
 top and bottom of its travel, even when the box re- 
 tains its proper shape ; but, when it is distorted by 
 closing at the bottom, the rubbing surfaces are put out 
 of the true plane, and wear takes place much more 
 rapidly. While the springs retain their position, and 
 impart to the axle-box a fixed range of motion, no 
 serious effect is felt from the worn wedges. But when 
 the locomotive is passing over rough frogs or bad rail- 
 joints, where the motion of the spring is increased, the 
 frame pounds down upon the box, which for a moment 
 
l8o LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 becomes fastened in the narrow space between the 
 shoulders of the wedges ; and an effort is needed for 
 the box to relieve itself, and allow the spring to re- 
 sume its motion. This causes the engine to ride hard 
 in some instances, where the condition of the track 
 makes the box catch frequently. Sometimes the box 
 will be unable to relieve itself without assistance, and 
 much loss of time and annoyance result when the 
 wedge has to be pulled down to relieve the box. 
 
 The forming of the shoulder on top and bottom of 
 the wedge may be anticipated and prevented by plan- 
 ing the part where the ridges form, leaving a face just 
 the length of the box plus the space covered by the 
 motion of the springs. Not only does this aid in pre- 
 venting the box from forming a shoulder, but it also 
 reduces the first cost of fitting the wedges by reducing 
 the surface to be squared and finished true. 
 
 POSITION OF BOXES WHILE SETTING UP WEDGES. 
 
 With the wedges in a proper condition when the 
 locomotive enters service, we yet must care for them 
 and adjust them from time to time, when it is neces- 
 sary to take up the lost motion between the pedestals 
 and boxes. When doing this work, it is important 
 that the position and condition of the driving-box 
 should be considered. The position of the box should 
 be such that the wedge may be set up to the proper 
 degree of tightness with certainty and without much 
 labor. It is important that awheel position be found 
 where the box would not be moved by the wedge 
 when the latter is being adjusted. This position will 
 
CONNECTING-RODS, SIDE-RODS, ETC l8l 
 
 be found where the box is up against the dead wedge, 
 since the lost motion will then be between the box 
 and the wedge to be moved. To get all the driving- 
 boxes in that position at one time is a difficult matter, 
 if it is to be done by pinching the wheels. The posi- 
 tion of the rods decides the direction of their action 
 on the wheel by the thrust or pull upon the crank-pin. 
 If the rod is above the wheel center, pinching behind 
 the back wheel will force both the wheels and boxes 
 on that side up against the dead wedge ; but, should 
 the rod be below the wheel center, similar work with 
 the pinch-bar will draw the forward box away from 
 the dead wedge, the side rod doing this by pulling on 
 the crank-pin, — this is always supposing the dead 
 wedge to be in the front pedestals. The best posi- 
 tion, therefore, to get an engine into for setting up all 
 the wedges, is with the side-rods on the upper eighths ; 
 for then pinching behind the back wheels will push all 
 the boxes up to the dead wedges. The work can 
 then be done v/ithout putting unnecessary strain upon 
 the wedge-bolts, which are often found with the cor- 
 ners of the heads rounded off, and the thread injured 
 to such an extent that it will not screw through the 
 binder-brace, — a condition of matters nearly always 
 caused by trying to force up wedges without putting 
 the engine in the proper position. If the wedge-bolt, 
 from faulty construction, or through injury, is unable 
 to move up the wedge, driving is resorted to, by which 
 means it is battered on the end ; and the jarring of 
 each blow causes the ashes and dirt on top to fall be- 
 hind the wedge, throwing it out of parallel, and intro- 
 
1 82 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 ducing material that will cause the wedge to cut. The 
 ashes and dirt that accumulate so readily on the top of 
 wedges and boxes cause no end of trouble, although 
 the fact is not generally recognized ; and it will gener- 
 ally be fruitful labor to have these parts well cleaned 
 off before beginning to set up wedges. Many com- 
 plaints that are made of wedges not being properly 
 adjusted, proceed from the disturbance that follows 
 grit introduced between the wedge and box. 
 
 NECESSITY FOR KEEPING BOXES AND WEDGES 
 CLEAN. 
 
 The growing practice of close and stated inspection 
 of locomotives to detect defects, before waiting for 
 them to develop into breakages that cause trouble and 
 delay to trains, will give especially good results if ap- 
 plied to boxes and wedges. If the wedges are taken 
 down and examined at regular intervals, the ridges 
 that appear so readily on the face, when oil-grooves 
 are cut on the sides of the driving-box, can be 
 smoothed off before they cause distortion of the sur- 
 face. This is also a good time for a thorough clean- 
 ing of the pedestals and box, and the oil-holes can be 
 examined and opened out properly. Work of this 
 kind often prevents boxes getting hot on the road, 
 with all the entailed delay and expense, which fre- 
 quently include changing engines if the train must be 
 pushed on. One turn of a hot box will often wear a 
 brass more than the daily running for two years. 
 
CONNECTING-RODS, SIDE-RODS, ETC. 1 83 
 
 TEMPERATURE OF THE BOX TO BE CONSIDERED. 
 
 One condition of the box to be considered, when 
 adjusting wedges, is its temperature at the time the 
 work is done, and what that will be when the engine 
 is in service. Adjusting wedges is often done as a 
 preliminary step in lining and adjusting side-rods ; and 
 this is done on many roads on the shop-day when the 
 locomotive is in for washing-out and periodical re- 
 pairs. At that time, the engine being cold, the boxes 
 will be at their lowest temperature, and, consequently, 
 at their smallest dimensions. Allowance should then 
 be made with the wedges for some expansion of the 
 boxes. Another condition that should be considered, 
 is how the box has been running. A box that has 
 been running hot or warm, generally compels the 
 wedge to be lowered to allow for extra expansion. 
 When this box has been repacked, or otherwise cared 
 for, the wedge is again set up. While doing this, it 
 should be remembered that a box that has been run- 
 ning hot is liable to be distorted, and its journal 
 bearing injured, so that it is likely to run warm for 
 some time, till the brass comes to a smooth bearing. 
 If the wedge will not permit the box to expand, it 
 binds the journal, and is likely to run still hotter, and 
 is liable to stick in the jaws. 
 
 SMALL DISORDERS THAT CAUSE ROUGH RIDING. 
 
 Many complaints are made about pounds in driving- 
 boxes and wedges, when the trouble really exists else- 
 where. Boxes with driving-spring saddles whose foot 
 
1 84 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 is but the width of the top or spring-band, will oft- 
 times, if the band is not rounded where it rides on the 
 saddle, or is not fitted with a pin or other center bear- 
 ing, tip on the box with each motion of the spring. 
 Or, if the saddle is moved from its worn seat on the 
 top of the box, it will rock and pound. Again, ob- 
 structions in the bearing of the spring equalizer that 
 will prevent the full motion of the springs, and bring 
 them to a sudden stop, will produce a motion resem- 
 bling that caused by a stuck box. Attention to de- 
 tails that are sometimes considered the crude parts of 
 a locomotive, will often prove highly beneficial to the 
 working of the locomotive ; and especially is this the 
 case with the parts that transmit the motion of the 
 springs. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 THE VALVE - MOTION. 
 
 THE LOCOMOTIVE SLIDE-VALVE. 
 
 THE nature of the service required of locomotive 
 engines, especially those employed on fast-train ser- 
 vice, makes it necessary that the steam-distribution 
 gear shall be free from complication ; and, for con- 
 venience in working the engine, it is essential that 
 means should be provided for reversing the motion 
 promptly without endangering the working - parts. 
 The valve-gear should also be capable of regulating 
 the admission and exhaust of steam, so that the en- 
 gine shall be able to maintain a high rate of speed, or 
 to exert a great tractive force. These features are 
 admirably combined in the valve-gear of the ordinary 
 locomotive. Designers of this form of engine have 
 given great consideration to the merit of simplicity. 
 Numerous attempts have been made to displace the 
 common D slide-valve, but every move in that direc- 
 tion has ended in failure. 
 
 INVENTION AND APPLICATION OF THE SLIDE-VALVE. 
 
 The slide-valve, in a crude form, was invented by 
 Matthew Murray of Leeds, England, towards the end 
 
 185 
 
I 86 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 of last century ; and it was subsequently improved 
 by Watt to the D form. It received but little appli- 
 cation in England till the locomotive era. Oliver 
 Evans of Philadelphia appears to have perceived the 
 advantages possessed by the slide-valve, for he used 
 it on engines he designed years before locomotives 
 came into service. The D slide-valve was better 
 adapted for high-speed engines than anything tried 
 during our early engineering days, but it was on 
 locomotives where it first properly demonstrated its 
 real value. The period of necessity brought the 
 slide-valve into prominence ; and the galaxy of me- 
 chanical genius that heralded the locomotive into 
 successful operation recognized its most valuable feat- 
 ures, and it soon obtained exclusive possession of that 
 form of engine. Through good and evil report, and 
 against many attempts to displace it, the slide-valve 
 has retained a monopoly of high-speed reversible 
 engines. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE SLIDE-VALVE. 
 
 The slide-valve in common use is practically an 
 oblong cast-iron box, which rests and moves on the 
 valve-seat. In the valve-seat, separated by partitions 
 called bridges, are three ports, those at the ends 
 being the openings of the passages for conveying 
 steam to and from the cylinders, while the middle 
 port is in communication with the blast-pipe, which 
 conveys the exhausted steam to the atmosphere. On 
 the under side of the valve is a semicircular cavity, 
 which spans the exhaust-port and the bridges when 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 
 
 18 7 
 
 the valve stands in its central position. When the 
 steam within the cylinder has performed its duty of 
 pushing the piston towards the end of the stroke, the 
 valve cavity moves over the steam-port, and allows 
 the steam to pass into the exhaust-port, thence into 
 the exhaust-pipe. The cavity under the valve thus 
 acts as a door for the escape of the exhaust steam. 
 This is a very convenient and simple method of 
 educting the steam ; and the process helps to balance 
 the valve, since the rush of escaping steam striking 
 the under part of the valve tends to counteract the 
 pressure that the steam in the steam-chest continually 
 exerts on the top of the valve. 
 
 PRIMITIVE SLIDE-VALVE. 
 
 In its primitive form the slide-valve was made 
 merely long enough to cover the steam-ports when 
 placed in the central position, as shown in Fig. 6. 
 
 Quarter Size. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 With a valve of this form, the slightest movement 
 had the effect of opening one end so that steam 
 would be admitted to the cylinder, while the other 
 
155 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 end opened the exhaust. By such an arrangement 
 steam was necessarily admitted to the cylinder during 
 the whole length of the stroke; since closing at one 
 end meant opening at the other. There were several 
 serious objections to this system. It was very diffi- 
 cult to give the engine cushion enough to help the 
 cranks over the centers without pounding, and a small 
 degree of lost motion was sufficient to make the 
 steam obstruct the piston during a portion of the 
 stroke. But the most serious drawback to the short 
 valve was that it permitted no advantage to be taken 
 of the expansive power of steam. For several years 
 after the advent of the locomotive the boiler-pressure 
 used seldom exceeded fifty pounds to the square 
 inch. With this tension of steam there was little 
 work to be got from expansion with the conditions 
 under which locomotives were worked ; but, so soon 
 as higher pressures began to be introduced, the loss 
 of heat entailed by permitting the full- pressure steam 
 to follow the piston to the end of the stroke became 
 too great to continue without an attempted remedy. 
 A very simple change served to remedy this defect 
 and to render the slide-valve worthy of a prominent 
 place among mechanical appliances for saving power. 
 
 OUTSIDE LAP. 
 
 The change referred to, which so greatly enhanced 
 the efficiency of the slide-valve, consisted in lengthen- 
 ing the valve-face, so that, when the valve stood in 
 the center of the seat, the edges of the valve ex- 
 tended a certain distance over the induction ports, as 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 
 
 189 
 
 in Fig. 7. This extension of the valve is called out- 
 side lap, or simply lap. The effect of lap is to close 
 the steam-port before the piston reaches the end of 
 the stroke, and the point at which the steam-port is 
 closed is known as the point of cut-off. When the 
 steam is cut off and confined within the cylinder, it 
 pushes the piston along by its expansive energy, 
 doing work with heat that would be lost were the cyl- 
 inder left in communication with the steam-chest till 
 the end of the stroke. 
 
 Quarter Size 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 When a slide-valve is actuated by an eccentric con- 
 nected directly with the rocker-arm or valve-stem, the 
 point of cut-off caused by the extent of lap, remains 
 the same till a change is made on the valve, or on the 
 throw of the eccentric, unless an independent cut-off 
 valve be employed. Locomotives having the old hook 
 motion worked under this disadvantage ; because the 
 hook could not vary the travel of the valve, which is 
 the method usually resorted to for producing a vari- 
 able cut-off. The link and other simple expansion 
 gears perform their office of varying the cut-off in this 
 way. 
 
190 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 SOME EFFECTS OF LAP. 
 
 In addition to cutting off admission of steam before 
 the end of the stroke, lap requires the valve to be set 
 in such a way that it has also the effect of leading to 
 the exhaust-port being opened before the end of the 
 stroke. The point where the exhaust is opened is 
 usually known as the point of release. The change 
 which causes release to happen before the piston com- 
 pletes its stroke, leads to the closure of the exhaust- 
 port before the end of the return-stroke is reached, 
 which imprisons the steam remaining in the cylinder, 
 causing compression. Where a valve has no inside 
 lap, release and compression happen simultaneously; 
 that is, the port at one end of the cylinder is opened 
 to release the steam, and that at the other end is 
 closed, letting the piston compress any steam remain- 
 ing in the cylinder into the space left as piston clear- 
 ance. 
 
 INSIDE LAP. 
 
 In some cases the inside edges of the valve cavity 
 do not reach the edges of the steam-ports when the 
 valve is on the middle of the seat, but lap over on the 
 bridge a certain distance, as shown by the dotted lines 
 in Fig. 7. This is called inside lap, and its effect 
 upon the distribution of steam is to delay the release. 
 By this means it prolongs the period of expansion, 
 and hastens compression on the return stroke. Inside 
 lap is an advantage only with slow-working engines. 
 When high speed is attempted with engines having 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. I9I 
 
 much inside lap, the steam does not have enough time 
 to escape from the cylinders, and the back pressure 
 and compression become so great as to be very detri- 
 mental to the working of the engine. As locomotive 
 engineers have it, the engine is " logy." 
 
 THE EXTENT OF LAP USUALLY ADOPTED. 
 
 In locomotive practice, the extent of lap varies ac- 
 cording to the character of service the engine is in- 
 tended to perform. With American standard gauge 
 engines, the lap varies from ■§- inch to \\ inch. For 
 high-speed engines, the extent of lap ranges from -J 
 to \\. Freight engines commonly get f to f outside 
 lap, and from ^ to J inside lap. With a given travel, 
 the greater the lap the longer will the period for ex- 
 pansion be. 
 
 FIRST APPLICATION OF LAP. 
 
 Lap was applied to the slide-valve in this country 
 before its advantage as an element of economy was 
 understood in Europe. As early as 1829, James of 
 New York used lap on the valves of an engine used 
 to run a steam-carriage; and in 1832 Mr. Charles W. 
 Copeland put a lap-valve on a steamboat engine, and 
 his father understood that its advantage was in pro- 
 viding for expansion of the steam. Within a decade 
 after our first steam-operated railroad was opened, 
 the lap-valve became a recognized feature of the 
 American locomotive , but the cause of the saving of 
 fuel, effected by its use, was not well comprehended. 
 Many enlightened engineers attributed the saving to 
 
192 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 the early opening of the exhaust, brought about where 
 outside lap was used, which they theorized reduced 
 back pressure on the piston ; and in that way they 
 accounted for the enhanced economy resulting from 
 the application of lap. It was not till Colburn ap- 
 plied the indicator to the locomotive, that the true 
 cause of economy was demonstrated to be in the addi- 
 tional work taken from the steam by using it expan- 
 sively. 
 
 THE ALLEN VALVE. 
 
 An improvement on the plain D slide-valve has 
 been effected in a simple and ingenious manner in the 
 Allen valve, which is receiving considerable favor for 
 high-speed locomotives. This valve is shown in Fig. 
 8. The valve has a supplementary steam-passage, A, 
 
 A f cast above the exhaust cavity. The valve and seat 
 are so arranged, that, so soon as the outside edge of 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 1 93 
 
 the valve begins to uncover the steam-port at B, the 
 supplementary passage begins receiving steam at C; 
 and this gives a double opening for the admission of 
 steam to the port when the travel is short. As the 
 travel of the valve is always short when an engine is 
 running at high speed, the advantage of this double 
 opening is very great ; for it has the effect of admit- 
 ting the steam promptly at the beginning of the stroke, 
 and maintaining a full pressure on the piston till the 
 point of cut-off. 
 
 ADVANTAGES OF THE ALLEN VALVE. 
 
 With an ordinary valve cutting off at six inches, 
 and having five inches eccentric throw, the port 
 opening seldom exceeds f inch. It is a hard matter 
 getting the full pressure of steam through such a small 
 opening in the instant given for admission. If an 
 Allen valve is used with that motion, the opening will 
 be double, making f inch, which makes an important 
 difference. The practical effect of a change of this 
 kind is that an engine will take a train along, cutting 
 off at six inches with the Allen valve, when, with the 
 ordinary valve, the links would have to be dropped to 
 eight or nine inches. The valve can be designed to 
 work on any valve-seat, but the dimensions given in 
 Fig. 8 are those that have been found most satisfac- 
 tory with our large passenger engines. In designing 
 an Allen valve for an old seat, it is sometimes advis- 
 able to widen the steam-ports a quarter of an inch 
 or more, by chamfering off the outside edges that 
 amount. Care must be taken to prevent the valve 
 
194 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 from traveling so far as to put the supplementary port 
 over the exhaust-port, for that would allow live steam 
 to pass through. The proper dimensions can best be 
 schemed out on paper before making the required 
 change on the seat. 
 
 DISADVANTAGES OF THE ALLEN VALVE. 
 
 The disadvantages of the Allen valve are that it re- 
 quires care and attention in setting and adjustment. 
 The valve gives practically double-lead opening; but 
 through the blunder of having the opening at C too 
 great at the beginning of the stroke many locomotives 
 have suffered so much from excessive lead that the 
 Allen valve has been abandoned as a failure. In 
 other cases there was no opening at C when the piston 
 was beginning the stroke. Failures of a device be- 
 cause those in charge were deficient in common sense 
 is an old story. 
 
 CASE WHERE THE ALLEN VALVE PROVED ITS VALUE. 
 
 On one of the leading railroads in this country, an 
 engineer was running a locomotive on a fast train 
 where it was a hard matter making the card-time. A 
 few minutes could be saved by passing a water-station ; 
 but this was done at serious risk, for the tender would 
 nearly always be empty by the time the next water- 
 station was reached. The master mechanic of the 
 road determined to equip this engine with the Allen 
 valve : and, after the change was made, there was no 
 risk in passing the water station ; for there always was 
 a good margin of water in the tank when the next 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 195 
 
 watering-place was reached. The engine seemed to 
 steam better, because the work was done with less 
 steam ; and there was a decided saving of fuel. The 
 change made the engine smarter, and there seems to 
 be no limit to the speed it can make. This valve can 
 be applied to any locomotive with trifling expense. 
 When an engine is designed specially for the Allen 
 valve, the steam ports and bridges are usually made a 
 little wider than for the ordinary valve. The only 
 real difficulty in adopting the valve is getting the cast- 
 ing properly made, so that the supplementary port 
 will not be too rough for the passage of steam, and 
 the thin shell will be strong enough to stand the 
 pressure. 
 
 INSIDE CLEARANCE. 
 
 For high-speed locomotives, where there is great 
 necessity for getting rid of the exhaust steam quickly, 
 the valves are sometimes cut away at the edges of the 
 cavity, so that, when the valve is placed in the middle 
 of the seat, it does not entirely cover the inside of 
 either of the steam-ports. This is called inside clear- 
 ance. In many instances inside clearance has been 
 adopted in an effort to rectify mistakes made in de- 
 signing the valve-motion, principally to overcome de- 
 fects caused by deficiency of valve-travel. The fastest 
 locomotives throughout the country do not require 
 inside clearance, because their valve-motion is so de- 
 signed that it is not necessary. Inside clearance in- 
 duces premature release, and diminishes the period of 
 
196 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 expansion. Consequently inside clearance wastes 
 steam, and ought to be avoided. 
 
 LEAD. 
 
 There are certain advantages gained, in the working 
 of a locomotive, by having the valves set so that the 
 steam-port will be open a small distance for admission 
 of steam, when the piston is at the beginning of the 
 stroke. This opening is called lead. On the steam 
 side of the valve the opening is called steam-lead : on 
 the exhaust side it is called exhaust-lead. Lead is 
 generally produced by advancing the eccentric on the 
 shaft, its effect being to accelerate every event of the 
 valve's movement; viz., admission, cut-off, release, 
 and compression. In the most perfectly constructed 
 engines, there soon comes to be lost motion in the rod 
 connections and in the boxes. The effect of this lost 
 motion is to delay the movement of the valves; and, 
 unless they are set with a lead opening, the stroke of 
 the piston would in some instances be commenced be- 
 fore steam got into the cylinder. It is also found, in 
 practice, that this lost motion would cause a pounding 
 at each change in the direction of the piston's travel, 
 unless there is the necessary cushion to bring the 
 cranks smoothly over the centers. Without cushion, 
 the change of direction of the piston's travel is effected 
 by a series of jerks that are hard on the working-parts. 
 So long as the lead opening at the beginning of the 
 stroke is not advanced enough to produce injurious 
 counter-pressure upon the piston, it improves the 
 working of the engine by causing a prompt opening 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 1 9? 
 
 for steam admission at the beginning of the stroke. 
 This is the time that a full steam-pressure is wanted 
 in the cylinder, if economical working be a considera- 
 tion. A judiciously arranged lead opening is there- 
 fore an advantage ; since it increases the port opening 
 at the proper time for admitting steam, tending to 
 give nearly boiler-pressure in the cylinder at the be- 
 ginning of the stroke. With the shifting link-motion, 
 the amount of lead opening increases as the links are 
 hooked back towards the center notch ; the magnitude 
 of the increase, in most cases, being in direct propor- 
 tion to the shortness of the eccentric-rods. A com- 
 mon lead opening in full gear with the shifting link is 
 yV inch, which often increases to f inch in the center 
 notch. The tendency of wear and lost motion is to 
 neutralize the lead, so that when a locomotive motion 
 gets worn, increasing the lead will generally improve 
 the working of the engine. 
 
 NEGATIVE LEAD. 
 
 Lead opening, however, has its disadvantages. 
 When the eccentric-rods are short the lead opening 
 increases so rapidly, as the links are notched up tow- 
 ards the center, that it has become the custom on 
 some roads to set the valves of high-speed engines 
 lapping all over the port at the beginning of the 
 stroke. This practice is called setting the valves with 
 negative lead, and it increases the efficiency and 
 power of the engine when running very fast. It is 
 very common to find the valves set with -^ inch nega- 
 tive lead. 
 
I98 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 OPERATION OF THE STEAM IN THE CYLINDERS. 
 
 As the work performed by a steam-engine is in di- 
 rect proportion to the pressure exerted by the steam 
 on the side of the piston which is pulling or pushing 
 on the crank-pin, it is important that the steam should 
 press only on one side of the piston at once. Hence, 
 good engines have the valves operated so that, by the 
 time a stroke is completed, the steam, which was 
 pushing the piston, shall escape and not obstruct the 
 piston during the return stroke, and so neutralize the 
 steam pressing upon the other side. When an engine 
 is working properly, the steam is admitted alternately 
 to each side of the piston ; and its work is done 
 against a pressure on the other side not much higher 
 than that of the atmosphere. 
 
 BACK PRESSURE IN THE CYLINDERS. 
 
 When, from any cause, the steam is not permitted 
 to escape promptly and freely from the cylinder at the 
 end of the piston stroke, a pressure higher than that 
 of the atmosphere remains in the cylinder, obstructing 
 the piston during the return stroke, and causing what 
 is known as back pressure. There is seldom trouble 
 for want of sufficient opening to admit steam to the 
 cylinders, for the pressure is so great that the steam 
 rushes in through a very limited space ; but, when the 
 steam has expanded two or three times, its pressure 
 is comparatively weak, and needs a wide opening to 
 get out in the short time allowed. This is one reason 
 why the exhaust-port is made larger than the admis- 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 1 99 
 
 sion-ports. Nearly all engines with short ports suffer 
 more or less from back pressure, but the most fruitful 
 cause of loss of power through this source is the use 
 of extremely contracted exhaust nozzles. Were it 
 not for the necessity of making a strong artificial 
 draught in the smoke-stack, so that an intense heat 
 shall be created in the fire-box, quite a saving of power, 
 now lost by back pressure, would be effected by hav- 
 ing the exhaust opening as large as the exhaust-pipe. 
 This not being practicable with locomotives, engineers 
 should endeavor to have their nozzles as large as pos- 
 sible consistent with steam-making. 
 
 Engines with very limited eccentric throw will often 
 cause back pressure when hooked up, through the 
 valve not opening the port wide enough for free ex- 
 haust. 
 
 Locomotives suffering from excessive back pressure 
 are nearly always logy. The engine can not be urged 
 into more than moderate speed under any circum- 
 stances ; and all work is done at the expense of lavish 
 waste of fuel, for a serious percentage of the steam- 
 pressure on the right side of the piston is lost by pres- 
 sure on the wrong side. It is like the useless labor a 
 man has to do turning a grindstone with one crank, 
 while a boy is holding back on the other side. The 
 weight of obstruction done by the boy must be sub- 
 tracted from the power exerted by the man to find the 
 net useful energy exerted in turning the grindstone. 
 In the same way, every pound of back pressure on a 
 piston takes away a pound of useful work done by the 
 steam on the other side. 
 
200 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 Excessive lead opening acts in the same way, since 
 it lets steam into the cylinder to obstruct the piston 
 before it reaches the end of the stroke. 
 
 EFFECT OF TOO MUCH INSIDE LAP, 
 
 Engines that have much inside lap to the valves are 
 likely to suffer from back pressure when high speed is 
 attempted. The inside lap delays the release of the 
 steam ; and, where the piston's velocity is high, the 
 steam does not escape from the cylinder in time to 
 prevent back pressure. 
 
 RUNNING INTO A HILL. 
 
 Most of engineers are familiar with the tendency of 
 some engines to "run into a hill." That is, so soon 
 as a hill is struck, they suddenly slow down till a cer- 
 tain speed is reached, when they will keep going. 
 This is generally produced by back pressure, its ob- 
 structing effect being reduced when the engine is mov- 
 ing slow. The cause is nearly always too much lead- 
 opening. 
 
 COMPRESSION. 
 
 The necessity which requires lap to be put on a 
 slide-valve to produce an early cut-off, in its turn 
 causes compression, by the valve passing over the 
 steam-port, and closing it entirely for a limited period 
 towards the end of the return stroke. As the cylinder 
 contains some steam which did not pass out while the 
 exhaust-port was open, this is now squeezed into a 
 diminishing space by the advancing piston. In cases 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 201 
 
 where too much steam was left in the cylinders through 
 contracted nozzles or other causes, or where, through 
 mistaken designing of the valve-motion, the port is 
 closed during a protracted period, the steam in the 
 cylinder gets compressed above boiler tension, and loss 
 of useful effect is the result. Under proper limits, 
 the closing of the port before the end of the stroke, 
 and the consequent compression of the steam remain- 
 ing in the cylinder, have a useful effect on the work- 
 ing of the engine by providing an elastic cushion, 
 which absorbs the momentum of the piston and its 
 connections, leading the crank smoothly over the 
 centre. Where it can be so arranged, the amount of 
 compression desirable for any engine is the degree 
 that, along with the lead, will raise the pressure of the 
 cylinder up to that of the boiler at the beginning of 
 the stroke. When this can be regulated, the com- 
 pression performs desirable service by cushioning the 
 working-parts, thereby preventing pounding, and by 
 filling up the clearance space and steam passages, by 
 that means saving live steam. Compression probably 
 does some economical service by reheating the cylinder, 
 which has a tendency to get cooled down during the 
 period of release, and by re-evaporating the water, 
 which forms by condensation of steam in the cool cylin- 
 der. 
 
 Engines that are running fast require more cushion- 
 ing than those that run slow, or at moderate speeds. 
 The link-motion, by its peculiarity of hastening com- 
 pression when the links are hooked up, tends to make 
 compression a useful service in fast running. 
 
202 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 DEFINITION OF AN ECCENTRIC. 
 
 The reciprocating motion which causes the valves 
 to open and close the steam-ports at the proper pe- 
 riods, is, with most locomotives, imparted from ec- 
 centrics fastened upon the driving-axle. An eccentric 
 is a circular plate, or disk, which is secured to the 
 axle in such a position that it will turn round on an 
 axis which is not in the center of the 'disk. The dis- 
 tance from the center of the disk to the point round 
 which it revolves is called its eccentricity, and is half 
 the throw of the eccentric. Thus, if the throw of an 
 eccentric requires to be 5 inches, the distance between 
 the center of the driving-axle and the center of the 
 eccentric will be 2-J- inches. The movement of an ec- 
 centric is the same as that of a crank of the same 
 stroke, and the eccentric is preferred merely because 
 it is more convenient for the purposes to which it is 
 applied than a crank would be. 
 
 EARLY APPLICATION OF THE ECCENTRIC. 
 
 On the early forms of locomotives, a single ec- 
 centric was used to operate the valve for forward 
 and back motion. The eccentric was made with a 
 half circular slot, on which it could be turned to the 
 position needed for forward or back motion. It was 
 held in the required position by a stop-stud fastened 
 on the axle. Several forms of movable eccentrics 
 were invented, and received considerable application 
 during the first decade of railroad operating; but the 
 best of them provided an extremely defective revers- 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 203 
 
 ing motion. The first engineer to apply two fixed 
 eccentrics as a reversible gear was William T. James 
 of New York, who made a steam carriage in 1829, and 
 worked the engine with four eccentrics, — two for each 
 side. The eccentrics were connected with a link, but 
 the merits of that form of connection were not then 
 recognized here ; for it was not applied to locomotives 
 till it became popular in England, and was reintro- 
 duced to this country by Rogers. The advantage of 
 the double fixed eccentrics seemed, however, to be 
 recognized from the time James used them; for the 
 plan was adopted by our first locomotive builders. 
 The first locomotive built by Long, who started in 
 1833 what was afterwards known as the Norris Lo- 
 comotive Works, Philadelphia, had four fixed eccen- 
 trics. 
 
 RELATIVE MOTION OF PISTON AND CRANK, SLIDE- 
 VALVE, AND ECCENTRICS. 
 
 When a locomotive is running, the wheels turn with 
 something near a uniform speed ; but any part which 
 receives a reciprocating motion from a crank or eccen- 
 tric travels at an irregular velocity. Fig. 9 shows the 
 relative motion of the crank-pin and piston during a 
 half revolution. The points in the path of the crank- 
 pin marked A, 1, 2, B, 3, 4, C, are at equal distances 
 apart. The vertical lines run from them to the points 
 a, b, c, d, e, represent the position of the piston in re- 
 lation to the position of the crank-pin. That is, while 
 the crank-pin traverses the half-circle, ABC, to make 
 a half revolution, the piston, guided by the cross-head, 
 
204 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 travels a distance within the cylinder equal to the 
 straight line A C. The crank-pin travels at nearly 
 uniform speed during the whole of its revolution, but 
 the piston travels with an irregular motion. Thus, 
 while the crank-pin travels from A to i, the piston 
 travels a distance equal to the space between A and a. 
 
 By the space between the lines, it will be seen that 
 the piston travels slowly at the beginning of the stroke, 
 gets faster as it moves along, reaches its highest 
 velocity about half stroke, then slows down towards 
 the end till it stops, and is ready for the return stroke. 
 
 ATTEMPTS TO ABOLISH THE CRANK. 
 
 Certain mechanics and inventors have been terribly 
 harassed over this irregular motion of the piston, and 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 205 
 
 numerous devices have been produced for the purpose 
 of securing a uniform motion to the power transmitted. 
 These inventions have usually taken the shape of 
 rotary engines. Probably the fault these people find 
 with the reciprocating engine is one of its greatest 
 merits, for the piston stopping at the end of each 
 stroke permits an element of time for the steam to get 
 in and out of the cylinder. 
 
 VALVE MOVEMENT. 
 
 The valve travels in a manner similar to the piston ; 
 although its stroke is much shorter, and its slow 
 movement is towards the limit of travel. The small 
 circle in the figure shows the orbit of the eccentric's 
 center, and the valve-travel is equal to the rectilinear 
 line across the circle. If the valve opened the steam- 
 ports at the outside of its travel, the slow movement 
 at that point would be an objection, since the opera- 
 tion of opening would be slow : but the valve opens 
 the ports towards the middle of its travel, when its 
 velocity is greatest ; and, the nearer to the mid travel 
 the act of opening is done, the more promptly it will 
 be performed. This has a good deal to do with mak- 
 ing an engine " smart " in getting away from a station. 
 
 EFFECT OF LAP ON THE ECCENTRIC'S POSITION. 
 
 With the short valve without lap used on the earli- 
 est forms of locomotives, the eccentric was set at right 
 angles to the crank or " square " on the dotted line e, 
 Fig. 10. The least movement of the eccentric from its 
 middle position had the effect of opening the steam- 
 
206 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 ports. One advantage about an eccentric set in this 
 position, was that it opened and closed the ports when 
 moving the valve at its greatest velocity. Lengthen- 
 ing the valve-face by providing lap entails a change in 
 the location of the eccentric; for, were it left in the 
 right-angle position, the steam-port would remain cov- 
 ered till the eccentric had moved the valve a distance 
 equal to the extent of the lap on one end, and the 
 piston would begin its stroke without steam. 
 
 ANGULAR ADVANCE OF ECCENTRICS. 
 
 The change made on the eccentric location is to ad- 
 vance it from e to F, being a horizontal distance equal 
 
 d 
 
 Fig. io. 
 
 to the extent of lap and lead, and known as the angu- 
 lar advance of the eccentric. The centers F and B 
 represent the full part, or ''belly," of the forward and 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 207 
 
 back eccentrics in the position they should occupy, 
 where a rocker is employed, when the piston is at the 
 beginning of the backward stroke. It will be per- 
 ceived that the eccentrics both incline towards the 
 crank-pin, and the eccentric which is controlling the 
 valve follows the crank-pin. Thus, when the engine 
 is running forward, /^'follows the crank: when she is 
 backing, B follows. 
 
 It is a good plan for an engineer to make himself 
 familiar with the proper position of the eccentrics in 
 relation to the crank, for the knowledge is likely to 
 save time and trouble when anything goes wrong with 
 the valve-motion. With this knowledge properly di- 
 gested, a minute's inspection is always sufficient to 
 decide whether or not anything is wrong with the 
 eccentrics. 
 
 ANGULARITY OF CONNECTING-ROD. 
 
 In following out the relative motion of the piston 
 and crank, we discover a disturbing factor in what is 
 called the angularity of the connecting-rod, which has 
 a curiously distorting effect on the harmony of the 
 motion. When the piston stands exactly in the mid- 
 travel point, the true length of the main rod will be 
 measured from the center of the wrist-pin to the center 
 of the driving-axle. If a tram of this length be 
 extended between these points, this will be found 
 correct, as every machinist accustomed to working on 
 rods knows. Now, if the back end of the tram should 
 be raised or lowered towards the points where the 
 center of the crank-pin must be when the crank stands 
 
208 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 on the top or bottom quarter, it will be found that the 
 tram point will not reach the crank-pin center, but will 
 fall short a distance in proportion to the length of the 
 main rod. The dotted lines a! and b' in Fig. 1 1 show 
 
 Fig. ii. 
 
 how far a rod 7J times the length of the crank falls 
 short. A shorter rod will magnify this obliquity, 
 while a longer rod will, reduce it. 
 
 EFFECT ON THE VALVE-MOTION OF CONNECTING- 
 ROD ANGULARITY. 
 
 As the opening and closing of the steam-ports by 
 the valves are regulated by the eccentrics, which are 
 subject to the same motion as the crank, following it 
 at an unvarying distance, it is evident that their 
 tendency will be to admit and cut off steam at a certain 
 position of the crank's movement. If the motion is 
 planned to cut off at half stroke, it will be apparent, 
 that, in the backward stroke, the piston will be past 
 its mid-travel before the crank-pin reaches the quarter, 
 so that end of the cylinder will receive steam during 
 more than half the stroke. On the forward stroke of 
 the piston, however, the crank-pin will reach the 
 quarter before the piston has attained half travel ; the 
 consequence being, that in this case steam is cut off 
 too early. The disturbing effect of the angularity of 
 the connecting-rod on the steam distribution thus tends 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 20O, 
 
 to make the cut-off later in the backward stroke than 
 in the forward stroke, resulting in giving the forward 
 end of the cylinder more steam than what is admitted 
 in the back end. The link-motion provides a con- 
 venient means of correcting the inequality of valve, 
 opening due to the connecting-rod angularity, the 
 details of which will be explained farther on. 
 
 AIDS TO THE STUDY OF VALVE-MOTION. 
 
 An engineer or machinist who wishes to study out 
 this peculiarity of connecting-rod angularity, will find 
 that the use of a tram or long dividers will help him 
 to comprehend it better than any letter-type descrip- 
 tion. All through the study of the valve-motion, 
 there are numerous difficult problems encountered. 
 The use of a good model will be found an invaluable 
 aid to the study of the valve-motion, and every 
 division of engineers or firemen should make a 
 combined effort to furnish their meeting-room with 
 a model of a locomotive valve-motion. In no way 
 can the spare time of the men connected with 
 locomotive running be better employed than in the 
 wide range for study presented by a well-devised 
 model. Great aid can be obtained in the study of the 
 valve-motion from good books devoted to the subject, 
 and they will impart more information than can be 
 obtained by mere contact with the locomotive. The 
 valve and its movements are surrounded with so many 
 complicated influences, that an intelligent man may 
 work for years about a locomotive, doing valve setting 
 occasionally, and other gang-boss work, yet, unless he 
 
2IO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 studies the valve-motion by the aid of the drawing* 
 board, or by models, which admit of changing sizes 
 and dimensions, he may know less about the cause of 
 certain movements than the bright lad who has been a 
 couple of years in the drawing-office. The man who 
 thinks he can study the valve-motion, and understand 
 its philosophy, by merely running the engine, deceives 
 himself. The engineer who never looks at a book or 
 a paper in search of information about his engine, 
 knows very little about anything not visible to the 
 eye. Yet many men of this stamp, by looking wise, 
 and by exercising a judicious use of silence, pass 
 among their fellows as remarkably profound. But let 
 a fireman, in quest of locomotive knowledge, put a 
 question to such a man, and he is immediately silenced 
 with a " You ought to know better" answer. 
 
 Where the use of a model cannot be obtained, any 
 one beginning the study of the valve-motion can assist 
 himself by making a cross-section of the valve and its 
 seat, similar to those published, on a strip of thin wood 
 or thick paper. By slipping the valve on the seat, its 
 position at different parts of the stroke can be com- 
 prehended more clearly than by a mere description. 
 With a pair of dividers to represent the motion of the 
 eccentric, and strips of wood to act as eccentric, and 
 valve rod and rocker, and some tacks to fasten them 
 together, a helpful model can be improvised on a table 
 or board. By the time a student gets a rig of this 
 kind going, he will see his way to contrive other 
 methods of self-help. 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 211 
 
 EVENTS OF THE PISTON STROKE. 
 
 By the aid of Fig. 10, we will trace the relative 
 movements of the crank and eccentric connections. 
 For the sake of simplicity, the eccentric is represented 
 as connecting directly with the rocker-arm. 
 
 The crank-pin being at the point A, or the forward 
 center, the piston must be in the front of the cylinder, 
 or at the beginning of the backward stroke. Owing to 
 the angular advance already referred to, the eccentric 
 center is at F\ and, being a certain distance ahead of 
 the middle position, it has pushed the lower arm of the 
 rocker from a to b, drawing back the top arm, which, 
 in its turn, has moved the valve so that it is just be- 
 ginning to admit steam at the forward port, i. As the 
 crank-pin goes round, the eccentric follows it, opening 
 the steam-port wider till the eccentric reaches the 
 point of its travel nearest A, the limit of the throw. 
 When the eccentric is at this point of its throw, the 
 valve must be at the outside of its travel ; and there- 
 fore the steam-port is wide open. By this time the 
 crank-pin is getting close up towards the quarter. 
 After passing this point, the forward eccentric begins 
 to draw the bottom rocker-pin towards the axle, and 
 to push the valve ahead, this being the point where 
 the valve changes its direction of motion, just as the 
 piston returns when the crank-pin passes the center. 
 When F reaches the point B, the valve is in the same 
 position it occupied at the beginning of the stroke; 
 but, as it is traveling in the opposite direction, a very 
 small movement more closes the port, cutting off steam. 
 
212 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 When this happens, the crank-pin has reached the 
 point x. When F gets to g, it is on the central point 
 of its throw; so the valve must then be on the middle 
 point of its travel, with the exhaust cavity just cover- 
 ing the outside edges of the bridges, the forward edge 
 being ready to put the steam-port, i f in communica- 
 tion with the exhaust cavity. This releases the steam 
 from the forward end of the cylinder ; and at the same 
 moment the inside edge of the valve covers the back 
 port, k, causing the piston-head to compress any steam 
 left in the back part of the cylinder. When the piston 
 reaches the beginning of the forward stroke, the ec- 
 centric F has got to the point /, and the valve is be- 
 ginning to admit steam for the return stroke, the 
 events of which are similar to those described. 
 
 In actual practice, the steam distribution is a little 
 different from the manner that has been followed ; for 
 the link-motion provides the means of equalizing the 
 cut-off, making it uniform for both strokes. This 
 changes the events of the strokes a little ; but the 
 student who engraves in his mind the movements as 
 they are represented in the diagram, will not be far 
 astray. 
 
 WHAT HAPPENS INSIDE THE CYLINDERS WHEN AN 
 ENGINE IS REVERSED. 
 
 Many men who have a fair understanding of the ac- 
 tion of steam in an engine's cylinders during ordinary 
 working, have no idea of the operations performed in 
 the cylinders when a locomotive is running in reverse 
 motion. All men who have had anything to do with 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 21 3 
 
 train service know, that, when an engine is reversed, 
 the action works to stop the train, even if the locomo- 
 tive should have no steam on the boiler; but just in 
 what way this result comes round they can not clearly 
 perceive. In hopes of throwing light upon this sub- 
 ject for those who have not studied it out, we will 
 follow the events of a stroke in reversed motion, as 
 we did in the ordinary working. 
 
 EVENTS OF THE STROKE IN REVERSED MOTION. 
 
 Supposing an engine to be running ahead, and the 
 necessity arises for stopping suddenly, and the reverse- 
 lever is pulled into the back notch. When the crank- 
 pin is on the forward center, and therefore the piston 
 at the forward end of the cylinder, about to begin its 
 backward stroke, the valve has the forward port open 
 a distance equal to the amount of lead, as in Fig. 10. 
 But, as the back-up eccentric has control of the valve, 
 the latter is being pushed forward ; and it closes the 
 forward port just as the piston begins to move back. 
 This shuts off all communication with the forward end 
 of the cylinder; and the receding piston creates a 
 vacuum behind it, just as a pump-plunger does under 
 similar circumstances. At this time the back end of 
 the cylinder is open to the exhaust, and the piston 
 pushes out the air freely to the atmosphere. By the 
 time the piston travels about two inches, the valve 
 gets to its middle position ; and, immediately after 
 passing that point, it opens the forward end of the 
 cylinder to the exhaust, and closes the back port. 
 When this event happens, the vacuum in the forward 
 
214 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 end of the cylinder gets filled with hot gases, that 
 rush in from the smoke-box; and the receding piston 
 keeps drawing air into the cylinder in this way during 
 the remainder of the stroke, and air from that quarter 
 seldom gets in without bringing a sprinkling of cin- 
 ders. The back steam-port is closed only during about 
 two inches of the stroke, while the lap of the valve is 
 traveling over it. About the time the piston reaches 
 four inches of its travel, the back steam-port is open 
 to the steam-chest, and the piston forces the air 
 through the steam-pipes into the boiler during the re- 
 mainder of the stroke. The forward stroke is merely 
 a repetition of the backward stroke described. 
 
 When it is necessary to reverse a locomotive, it is a 
 better plan to hook the lever clear back than to have it 
 a notch or two past the center, as some men persist in 
 doing, under the mistaken belief that they are in some 
 way saving their engine from harsh usage. When the 
 link is reversed full, the cylinders are merely turned 
 into air-pumps. When the links are put near the cen- 
 ter, the travel of the valve is reduced ; and the periods 
 when the piston is creating a vacuum in one end of 
 the cylinder, and compressing the air in the other, are 
 prolonged. The result is, that, when the exhaust is 
 opened in the first case, the gases rush in violently 
 from the smoke- box, carrying a heavy load of cinders: 
 in the other case, the piston compresses the air in the 
 cylinder so high that it jerks the valve away from its 
 seat in trying to find outlet. This causes the clatter- 
 ing noise in the steam-chest, so well known in cases 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 215 
 
 where engines are run without steam while the reverse- 
 lever is near the center. 
 
 A locomotive with the piston-packing in bad order 
 will not hold well running in reverse-motion. Some 
 kinds of piston-packing do not seem to act properly 
 when the engine is reversed, especially at low speed. 
 Where a valve has much inside lap, there will be a 
 vacuum in one end of the cylinder, and compressed 
 air in the other end. With piston-packing that re- 
 quires pressure to expand it, the void at one end of 
 the cylinder may neutralize the pressure at the other 
 by drawing the air through the piston. This would 
 be most liable to happen where the lever was kept 
 near the center. 
 
 PURPOSE OF RELIEF -VALVE ON DRY PIPE. 
 
 Should the throttle-valve close so tight that the 
 compressed air from the cylinders cannot pass into 
 the boiler, there is danger of bursting the steam-chest 
 or some part of the steam-pipes. The compressed air 
 will lift most of the throttle-valves far enough to pre- 
 vent any great danger from this source. In some 
 engines a relief-valve is secured in the dry pipe, which 
 provides a passage for this compressed air. When 
 the cylinder-cocks of an engine are opened when the 
 motion is reversed, they form an outlet to the com- 
 pressed air, and also admit air to the sucking end 
 without letting the piston draw air so freely through 
 the nozzles. Many cylinder-cocks are now made so 
 
2l6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 that they will open automatically to permit the piston 
 to draw air through them. The reversed engine will 
 stop nearly as well with the cylinder-cocks opened as 
 when they are closed, and it is much more easily 
 handled with the cocks opened. Where the cocks 
 are kept closed, the rush of hot air from the smoke- 
 box laps every trace of oil from the valve-seat, and a 
 heavy pressure — frequently above that of the boiler — 
 is present in the steam-chest. When the engine stops 
 under these circumstances, its tendency is to fly back ; 
 and an engineer has some difficulty in controlling it 
 with the reverse-lever till a few turns empty the chest 
 and pipes. 
 
 USING REVERSE-MOTION AS A BRAKE. 
 
 Numerous attempts have been made to utilize the 
 reversed engine as a brake for stopping the train, and 
 even by this means to save some of the power lost in 
 stopping. Chatelier, a French engineer, experimented 
 for many years on this mechanical problem. He in- 
 jected a jet of water into the exhaust-pipe, which sup- 
 plied low-tension steam to the cylinder, instead of hot 
 gas or air coming through the smoke-box. This was 
 pumped back into the boiler on the return stroke. 
 Thus the act of stopping a train was used to compress 
 a quantity of steam, converting the work of stopping 
 into heat, which was forced into the boiler and retained 
 to aid in getting the train into speed again. Modifi- 
 cations of this idea produce the car-starters that pass 
 so frequently through our Patent Office. 
 
THE VALVE-MOTION. 21 7 
 
 As a means of conserving mechanical energy, the 
 Chatelier brake was not a success; but, in the absence 
 of better power brakes, it met with some applications 
 in Europe. Some of our mountain railroads use it, 
 under the name of the water-brake, as an auxiliary to 
 the Westinghouse automatic brake. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 THE SHIFTING LINK. 
 
 EARLY REVERSING MOTIONS. 
 
 In the engineering practice of the world, before the 
 locomotive and marine engines came into use, there 
 was no need for devices to make engines rotate in 
 more than one direction. When the need for a rever- 
 sible engine first arose, it was met by very crude 
 appliances. Locomotives were kept at work, earning 
 money for their owners, which were reversed by the 
 man in charge stopping the engine, and by means of a 
 wrench changing the position of the eccentric by hand. 
 A decided improvement on the wrench was the mova- 
 ble eccentric, which was held in forward or back gear 
 by stops ; the operation of reversing being done by a 
 treadle or other attachment located near the engineer's 
 position. A serious objection to this form of reversing 
 gear was, that the abrasion of work enlarged the slot 
 ends, and wore out the stops, leading to inaccuracy 
 and frequent breakage. A somewhat better form of 
 reversing motion was a fixed eccentric, with the means 
 at the end of the eccentric-rod for engaging with the 
 top or bottom of a rocker-shaft, which operated the 
 valve-stem. This was the form of reversing motion 
 
 218 
 
THE- SHIFTING LINK. 2 1 9 
 
 used on the early Baldwin engines. Numerous other 
 appliances, more or less defective, were experimented 
 with before the double fixed eccentrics were intro- 
 duced. Till the link was applied to valve-motion, the 
 double eccentrics — an American invention — were the 
 most important improvement that had been made on 
 the locomotive valve-motion since the incipiency of 
 the engine. The V-hook, in connection with the 
 double eccentrics, made a fair reversing motion in 
 comparison to anything that had preceded it. The 
 objection to the hook was, that, when the necessity 
 arose for reversing the engine while in motion, much 
 difficulty was experienced in getting the hook to catch 
 the pin. As a simple, prompt, and certain reversing 
 motion, the link was readily acknowledged to be far 
 superior to anything that had previously been tried. 
 
 INVENTION OF THE LINK. 
 
 There is no doubt but the link was first applied to 
 a steam engine by William T. James of New York, a 
 most ingenious mechanic, who also invented the double 
 eccentrics. James experimented a great deal about 
 the period from 1830 to 1840, with steam carriages 
 for common roads ; and it was in this connection that 
 he invented the link. His work having proved a 
 commercial failure, the improvements on the valve- 
 motion were not recognized at the time; although 
 the probability is that Long, who started the Norris 
 Locomotive Works of Philadelphia, and brought out 
 the double eccentrics upon the locomotives built there, 
 
220 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 was indebted to James for the idea of a separate 
 eccentric for each direction of engine movement. 
 
 The credit of inventing the ordinary shifting link is 
 due to William Howe of Newcastle, England. This 
 inventor was a pattern-maker in the works of Robert 
 Stephenson & Co., and he invented the link in 1842 
 in practically its present form. The idea of Howe 
 was to get out an improved reversing motion ; and he 
 made a pencil-sketch of the link, to explain his views 
 to his employers. The superintendent of the works 
 was favorably disposed to the invention, and ordered 
 Howe to make a pattern of the motion, which was 
 done; and this was submitted to Stephenson, who 
 approved of the link, and directed that one should be 
 tried on a locomotive. Although Stephenson gave 
 Howe the means of applying his invention, he does 
 not seem to have perceived its actual value, for the 
 link was not patented ; and Stephenson never failed 
 to patent any device which he thought worth pro- 
 tecting. 
 
 The link-motion was applied to a locomotive con- 
 structed for the Midland Railway Company, and proved 
 a success from the day it was put on. Seeing how 
 satisfactorily the invention worked, Robert Stephen- 
 son paid Howe twenty guineas (one hundred and five 
 dollars) for the device, and adopted the link as the 
 valve-gear for his locomotives. This is how the shift- 
 ing link comes to be called the "Stephenson link" 
 and the credit for this invention was not extravagantly 
 paid for. 
 
 The capability which the link possesses of varying 
 
THE SHIFTING LINK. 221 
 
 the steam admission and release, did not appear to be 
 understood by the inventor ; nor was the mechanical 
 world aware, for some time after the link was brought 
 into use, that it could be employed to adjust the in- 
 equality of steam distribution, due to the angularity 
 of the connecting rod. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE SHIFTING LINK. 
 
 As usually constructed for American locomotives, 
 the link is a slotted block curved to the arc of a circle, 
 with a radius about equal to the distance between the 
 center of the driving-axle and the center of the rocker- 
 pin. The general plan of the link-motion is shown in 
 Fig. 12. Fitted to slide in the link-slot is the block 
 which encircles the rocker-pin. The eccentric-rods are 
 pinned to the back of the link ; the forward eccentric- 
 rod connecting with the top, and the back-up eccentric- 
 rod with the bottom, of the link. Bolted to the side 
 and near the middle of the link is the saddle, which 
 holds the stud to which the hanger is attached ; this, 
 in its turn, connecting with the lifting arm, which is 
 operated by the reversing rod that enables the engi- 
 neer to place the link in any desired position. 
 
 ACTION OF THE LINK. 
 
 Regarded in its simplest form, the action of the link 
 in full gear is the same upon the valve movement as 
 a single eccentric. When the motion is working, as in 
 the figure, with the eccentric-rod pin in line with the 
 rocker-pin, it will be perceived that the movement can 
 not differ much from what it would be were the eccen- 
 
222 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 trie-rod attached to the rocker. Here the forward 
 eccentric appears as controlling the movement of the 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 valve. Putting the link in back motion brings the end 
 of the backing eccentric-rod opposite the rocker-pin, 
 
THE SHIFTING LWK. 223 
 
 the effect being that the back-up eccentric then oper- 
 ates the valve. When the link-block is shifted toward 
 the center of the link, the horizontal travel of the 
 rocker-pin is decreased ; consequently, the travel of 
 the valve is reduced ; for, with ordinary engines, the 
 travel of the valve in full gear equals the throw of the 
 eccentrics, the top and bottom rocker-arm being of 
 the same length. The motion transmitted from the 
 eccentrics, and their means of connection with the link, 
 make the latter swing as if it were pivoted on a center 
 which had a horizontal movement equal to the lap and 
 lead of the valve. The extremities of the link, or 
 rather the points opposite the eccentric-rods, swing a 
 distance equal to the full throw of the eccentric. The 
 variation of valve-travel that can be effected by the 
 link, is from that of the eccentric throw in full gear 
 down to a distance in mid gear which agrees with the 
 extent of lap and lead. The method of obtaining these 
 various degrees of travel is by moving the link so that 
 the block which encircles the rocker-pin shall approach 
 the middle of the link. 
 
 When an engine is run with the lever in the center 
 notch, the supply of steam is admitted by the lead- 
 opening alone. In full gear the eccentric, whose rod- 
 end is in line with the rocker-pin, exerts almost ex- 
 clusive control over the valve movement ; but, as the 
 link-block gets hooked towards the center, it comes to 
 some extent under the influence of both eccentrics. 
 
 A thoughtful examination of Fig. 12 will throw 
 light on the reason why the proper position of a slipped 
 eccentric can be determined by the other eccentric 
 
22 \ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 when the engine is on the center. In the cut, the 
 crank-pin is represented on the forward center ; and in 
 that position the eccentric centers are both an equal 
 distance in advance of the main shaft center. It will 
 be evident now that the valve must occupy practically 
 the same position for forward or back gear, as each of 
 the eccentric-rods reaches the same distance forward. 
 Putting the motion in back gear would bring the back- 
 up eccentric-rod pin to the position now occupied by 
 the pin belonging to the forward eccentric-rod. 
 
 VALVE-MOTION OF A FAST PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 Reducing the travel of the valve by drawing the re- 
 verse-lever towards the centre of the quadrant, and 
 consequently the link-block towards the middle of the 
 link-slot, not only hastens the steam cut-off, but it 
 accelerates in a like degree every other event of steam 
 distribution throughout the stroke. To explain this 
 point, let us take the motion of a well-designed engine 
 in actual service, which has done good economical 
 work on fast train running. The valve-travel is 
 five inches, lap one inch, no inside lap, lead in full 
 gear -^ inch, point of suspension T 9 g- inch back of cen- 
 ter of link. 
 
 EFFECT OF CHANGING VALVE-TRAVEL. 
 
 When this engine is working in full gear, the steam 
 will be freely admitted behind the piston till about 
 eighteen inches of the stroke, when cut-off takes 
 place ; and the release or exhaust opening will begin 
 
THE SHITTING LINK. 225 
 
 at about twenty-two inches of the stroke, giving four 
 inches for expansion of steam. Now, if the links of 
 this engine are hooked up so that the cut-off takes 
 place at six inches of the stroke, the steam will be 
 released at sixteen inches of the stroke ; and at that 
 point compression will begin at the other end of the 
 cylinder. 
 
 WEAK POINTS OF THE LINK-MOTION. 
 
 This attribute which the link-motion possesses, of 
 accelerating the release and compression along with 
 the cut-off, is detrimental to the economical operating 
 of locomotives that run slow. High-speed engines 
 need the pre-release to give time for the escape of the 
 steam before the beginning of the return stroke ; and 
 the compression is economically utilized in receiving 
 the heavy blow from the fast-moving, reciprocating 
 parts, whose direction of motion has to be suddenly 
 changed at the end of each stroke, and in helping to 
 raise the pressure promptly in the cylinder at the be- 
 ginning of the stroke. A locomotive, on the other 
 hand, that does most of its work with a low-piston 
 speed, would not suffer from backpressure if the steam 
 were permitted to follow the piston close to the end of 
 the stroke; and a very short period of compression 
 would suffice. If the engine, whose motion we have 
 been considering, instead of releasing at sixteen 
 inches, could allow the steam to follow the piston to 
 twenty-two inches of the stroke, after cutting off at 
 six inches, a very substantial gain of power would en- 
 sue. And this would be well supplemented by avoid- 
 
226 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 ing loss of power, did compression not begin till within 
 two inches of the return stroke. 
 
 WHY DECREASING THE VALVE-TRAVEL INCREASES 
 THE PERIOD OF EXPANSION. 
 
 Increase of expansion follows reduced valve-travel, 
 from a similar cause to that which produces expansion 
 when lap is added to the edge of a slide-valve. When 
 the valve is made with the face merely long enough to 
 cover the steam-ports, there can be no expansion of 
 the steam ; for, so soon as the valve ceases to admit 
 steam, it opens the steam-port to the exhaust. When 
 lap is added, however, the steam is inclosed in the 
 cylinder, without egress for the time that it takes the 
 lap to travel over the steam-port. An arrangement of 
 motion which will make the valve travel quickly over 
 the port, has a tendency to shorten the period for ex- 
 pansion ; while making the valve travel slowly over the 
 port, has the opposite effect, and protracts expansion. 
 A valve with, say, five inches travel, has a compara- 
 tively long journey to make during the stroke of the 
 piston ; and the lap-edges will pass quickly over the 
 steam-ports, — much more quickly than they will when 
 the travel is reduced to three inches. In a case of this 
 kind, there is more than the mere reduction of travel 
 to be considered. Suppose the valve has one inch lap 
 at each end. When it stands on the middle of the 
 seat, it has a reciprocating motion of two and one-half 
 inches at each side of that point to make. At the be- 
 ginning of the stroke, it has been drawn aside one 
 inch (we will ignore the lead), but still has one and 
 
THE SHIFTING II NIC. 22/ 
 
 one-half inch to travel before it begins to return. On 
 the other hand, when the travel is reduced to three 
 inches, the valve has only one and one-half inch to 
 travel away from the center; and, one inch being 
 moved to draw the lap over the port, there only re- 
 mains one-half inch for the valve to move before it 
 must begin returning. This entails an early cut-off; 
 for the valve must pass over the ports with its slow 
 motion, and be ready to open the port on the other 
 end, before the return stroke. Thus a travel of five 
 inches draws the outside edge of the valve one and 
 one-half inch away from the outside of the steam- 
 ports, three inches travel only draws it one-half inch 
 away, and a greater reduction of travel decreases the 
 opening in like proportion. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF ECCENTRIC THROW ON THE VALVE. 
 
 As reducing the travel of the valve diminishes the 
 port opening, a point is reached in cutting off early in 
 the stroke where the port opening is hardly any more 
 than the port opening due to the lead. This is what 
 makes long steam-ports essential for a successful high- 
 speed locomotive. The best-designed engines give an 
 exceedingly limited port opening at short cut-offs, and 
 badly planned motion sometimes seriously detracts 
 from the efficiency of the engine, by curtailing the 
 opening at the point where a very brief time is given 
 for the admission of steam. The magnitude of the 
 eccentric throw exerts a direct influence on the port 
 opening when cutting off early. A long throw tends 
 to increase the opening, while a short throw reduces 
 
228 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 it. The long-throw eccentric will draw the valve 
 farther away from the edge of the steam-port, when 
 admitting steam for the same point of cut-off, than a 
 short-throw eccentric will movents valve. For an or- 
 dinary 17 X 24 inch locomotive, the throw of eccentric 
 should not be less than five inches, unless the engine 
 is intended entirely for slow running. There are 
 many engines running with eccentric throw less than 
 five inches, but they are invariably slow unless the 
 valve lap is very short. With an ordinary lap, an en- 
 gine having an eccentric throw of \\ inches needs so 
 much angular advance to overcome the lap, and pro- 
 vide lead, that the rectilineal motion of the eccentric 
 is very meagre at the beginning of the stroke. That 
 is, the center of the eccentric is traveling downward 
 in its circular path, which gives little motion to the 
 valve, just as the crank gives decreased motion to the 
 cross-head when near the centers. 
 
 HARMONY OF WORKING-PARTS. 
 
 Hitherto we have regarded the link as merely per- 
 forming the functions of transmitting the motion of 
 the eccentrics to the valves, with the additional capabil- 
 ity of reducing the travel at the will of the engineer. 
 Otherwise, the motion of the link is intensely com- 
 plex; and its movements are susceptible to a multi- 
 tude of influences, which improve or disturb its action 
 on the valve. A good valve-motion is planned ac- 
 cording to certain dimensions of all the working-parts; 
 and any change in their arrangement will almost inva- 
 riably entail irregularities upon the link's movement, 
 
THE SHIFTING LINK. 229 
 
 which will radically affect the distribution of steam. 
 A link-motion schemed for an eccentric throw of 4J 
 inches will not work properly if the throw be increased 
 to five inches; a link with a radius of 57 inches can 
 not be changed with impunity for one of 60 inches. 
 Any change in the position of the tumbling-shaft or 
 rocker-arms distorts the whole motion, and any alter- 
 ation in the length of the rods or hangers has a simi- 
 lar effect. That the link may perform its functions 
 properly, all its connections must remain in harmony. 
 
 ADJUSTMENT OF LINK. 
 
 A very important feature of the link is its property 
 of adjustability, which serves to neutralize the distort- 
 ing effect of the connecting-rod's angularity. As has 
 already been explained, the angularity of the main 
 rod tends to delay the cut-off during the backward 
 stroke, while it is accelerated in the forward stroke. 
 With the ordinary length of connections, this irregu- 
 larity would seriously affect the working of the engine. 
 But it is almost entirely overcome by the link, which 
 can be suspended in a way that will produce equality 
 for the period of admission and point of cut-off for both 
 strokes in one gear. Perfect equalization of admission 
 and cut-off for both gears has been found impossible 
 with the link-motion ; and designers are generally sat- 
 isfied to adjust the forward motion, and permit the 
 back motion to remain untrue. The point about the 
 link which exercises the most potent influence on ad- 
 justing the cut-off, is the position of the saddle, or of 
 its stud for connecting the hanger. This stud is called 
 
2 JO LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 the point of suspension. Raising the saddle away 
 from the center of the link will effect adjustment of 
 steam admission ; but in locomotive practice the sad- 
 dle is nearly always located in the middle of the link, 
 there being practical objections against raising it. 
 Equalization of steam distribution is produced by plac- 
 ing the hanger-stud or point of suspension some dis- 
 tance back of the center line of the link-slot, the dis- 
 tance varying from to \ inch. 
 
 Moving the hanger-stud affects the link's movement 
 in a way that is equivalent to temporarily lengthening 
 the eccentric-rod during a portion of the piston-stroke. 
 The length of the tumbling-shaft arms, the length of 
 hanger, the location of the rockers and tumbling-shaft, 
 the radius of link, and length of rods, all exercise in- 
 fluence on the accurate adjustment of the valve- 
 motion. 
 
 SLIP OF THE LINK. 
 
 In equalizing the valve-motion, and overcoming the 
 discrepancy of steam admission, due to the angularity 
 of the connecting-rod by moving the link-hanger stud 
 away from the center of the slot, a new distortion is 
 introduced. The link-block being securely fastened 
 to the bottom of the rocker-pin, moves in the fixed 
 arc traversed, by that pin, which is nearly horizontal. 
 The action of the eccentric-rods on the link, on the 
 other hand, forces the latter to move with a sort of 
 vertical motion at certain parts of the stroke, making 
 it slip on the block. Moving the hanger-stud back 
 tends to increase this slip, which will become excess- 
 
THE SHIFTING LINK. 23 1 
 
 ive enough to seriously impair the efficiency of the 
 motion if not kept within bounds by the designer. 
 Where the slip is very great, the motion will not be 
 serviceable, a consideration which can never be over- 
 looked ; for the block will wear rapidly, producing 
 lost motion, a very undesirable defect about any part 
 of a link-gear. With the long rods which prevail in 
 locomotive practice, designers have no difficulty in 
 keeping the slip within practical bounds ; but with 
 marine engines it is sometimes necessary to sacrifice 
 equality of steam admission to the reduction of the 
 slip. The greatest amount of slip is in full gear, and 
 it diminishes as the link-block is moved towards the 
 center. 
 
 Placing the eccentric-rod pins back of the link-arc, 
 as is almost universally done in this country, has a 
 tendency to make the link slip on the block ; and care 
 has to be taken not to locate these pins farther back 
 than is actually necessary for other requirements of 
 the link-motion's adjustment. Auchincloss, who is a 
 recognized authority for designing of link-motion, 
 gives four varieties of alterations capable of reducing 
 the slip when it is found too great for practicable 
 motion. His resorts are, either to increase the angu- 
 lar advance, reduce the travel, increase the length of 
 link, or shorten the eccentric-rods. One or a com- 
 bination of these methods may be adopted, as the de- 
 signer finds most convenient. 
 
232 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 RADIUS OF LINK. 
 
 Among the constructing engineers who plan link 
 motion, there is considerable diversity of opinion 
 about what radius of link helps to produce the best 
 valve-motion. The distance between the center of 
 axle and center of lower rocker-pin may be accepted 
 as approximately correct, although some designers 
 slightly increase beyond these points. On the other 
 hand, the locomotives sent out from a leading build- 
 ing establishment have the radius of link drawn f inch 
 per foot short of the distance between the axle and 
 rocker; and the claim has been made, that the arrange- 
 ment produces an excellent motion. 
 
 A committee of the American Master Mechanics' 
 Association have placed themselves on record on this 
 subject by asserting that the distance between the 
 centers of axle and rocker-pin is the proper radius for 
 the link. That same committee recommended that 
 the link-motion should be planned to give as long a 
 link-radius as possible, subject to the first-mentioned 
 conditions. 
 
 It must be noted that the middle of the link-slot is 
 the radius arc. I knew of a case where the links for 
 an altered locomotive were finished out of the true 
 radius through the edge of the slot being taken as the 
 radius-curve. 
 
 INCREASE OF LEAD. 
 
 Most of the men who are at all familiar with the 
 valve-motion are aware of the fact that, with the shift- 
 
THE SHIRTING LINK. 
 
 233 
 
 ing link, the lead increases as the link is notched 
 towards the center. Where the valve has y^-inch 
 lead in full gear, it is no unusual thing to find it in- 
 crease to J-inch lead opening at mid gear. The 
 phenomenon is better known than its cause is under- 
 stood. 
 
 The relative positions of link and eccentric centers 
 of an engine, when the crank is on the forward center, 
 are shown in Fig. 13 ; the link being represented with 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 the block in the center, which represents mid gear. It 
 will be observed that the centers of the eccentrics f 
 and b, from which the rods receive direct influence, 
 are both some distance ahead of the center of the 
 axle, the one above, the other below. The eccentric- 
 straps to which the rods are connected sweep round 
 the eccentric circles, and are controlled thereby. 
 When the link is moved up or down, each eccentric- 
 rod pin, where it attaches to the link, describes the 
 arc of a circle with a radius drawn from its own eccen- 
 tric. If both rods were worked with a radius from 
 the axle-center, the link could be raised and lowered 
 when the engine stands on the dead center without 
 moving the rocker-pin at all ; but, under the existing 
 arrangement, the link is influenced directly by one or 
 other of the eccentrics, whatever position in the link 
 
234 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 the block may stand. When the engine is standing 
 on the forward center, with the link in mid gear, as 
 shown in Fig. 13, it will be readily perceived that the 
 block stands at its farthest point away from the axle ; 
 for the rods are so placed to reach their greatest hor- 
 izontal distance ahead, and consequently in this posi- 
 tion the lead opening is greatest. If the link be now 
 lowered, the backing eccentric-rod will immediately 
 begin to pull the link back : and, as the pin of the 
 forward eccentric-rod approaches the central line of 
 motion, it will also keep drawing the link back ; so 
 that, by the time the link is in full gear, the lead 
 opening will be considerably reduced. 
 
 When the engine stands on the back dead center, 
 as shown in Fig. 14, the eccentric centers will be on 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 the other side of the axle, and the eccentric-rods will 
 be crossed. While in mid gear, the link-block is 
 drawn closer to the axle than it would be in any other 
 position of the link; and consequently the lead open- 
 ing is greatest. If the link be now lowered, the for- 
 ward eccentric-rod will approach its horizonal position, 
 and consequently reaches farther on the central line of 
 motion, so it will push the link-block away from the 
 axle, thereby decreasing the lead. Pulling the link 
 into back gear has a similar effect. 
 
THE SHIFTING LINK. 235 
 
 The tendency of a link-motion to increase the lead 
 towards the center is made greater by shortening the 
 eccentric-rods. Increasing the throw of eccentric in- 
 clines to accelerate the lead towards the center, since 
 it throws the eccentric centers farther apart. For 
 slow running, hard-pulling locomotives, where increase 
 of lead is a disadvantage, the tendency to increase the 
 lead is sometimes restrained in fonvard gear by reduc- 
 ing the angular advance of the backing eccentric. 
 This expedient is, however, not necessary where 
 proper care and intelligence have been bestowed in 
 the original design of the motion- 
 In studying this part of the valve-motion, a young 
 machinist or engineer will obtain valuable assistance 
 by cutting a link template out of a piece of paste- 
 board, and using strips of wood as eccentric-rods. 
 With these he can test on a drawing-board or table 
 the various positions of the link, and note, in a way 
 that is easily understood, the effect of changing the 
 link into different positions. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 SETTING THE VALVES. 
 
 THE MEN WHO LEARN VALVE- SETTING. 
 
 MOST of intelligent machinists engaged on engine- 
 work make it an object of ambition to learn to set 
 valves ; and the operation is mastered as soon as the 
 opportunity offers. It has been a practice in numerous 
 shops for those who have the work of valve-setting to 
 do, to invest the operation with fictitious mystery, to 
 patiently disseminate the belief that valve-setting is 
 an exceedingly difficult matter. Cases sometimes 
 arise where the squaring of an engine's valves is really 
 an arduous task, requiring intimate familiarity with 
 delicate methods of adjustment ; but valve-setting, as 
 it is usually practiced in building establishments, in 
 repairing-shops, and in round-houses, is merely a 
 matter of plain measurement. 
 
 A man may be a first-class engineer without know- 
 ing how to set valves, and familiar acquaintance with 
 the operation will not increase his ability in managing 
 his engine when merely getting a train over the road 
 on time is the consideration ; but the method of valve- 
 setting is so closely associated with an intelligent ap- 
 
 236 
 
SETTING THE VALVES. 237 
 
 preciation of the valve-motion's philosophy, that most 
 of engineers who take an extended interest in their 
 business, wish to acquire the knowledge of how the 
 valves are set. 
 
 BEST WAY TO LEARN VALVE-SETTING. 
 
 The best way to learn valve-setting is by taking part 
 in the work. Whatever can be said in books on a 
 subject of this kind, provides but an indifferent sub- 
 stitute for going through the actual operations. But 
 a man's ambition to learn may exceed his opportunities ; 
 so, for those who cannot get a gang boss to direct them 
 into the art of valve-setting, this description will be 
 made as plain as possible. 
 
 When an engine's valve-motion is designed, the 
 sizes of the different parts are arranged ; and, if this 
 business is done by a competent engineer, there will 
 only be trifling changes necessary in valve-setting. 
 
 PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS. 
 
 Let us suppose the engine to be an ordinary eight- 
 wheel locomotive, with cylinders 17 X 24 inches. Let 
 us assume that the top and bottom rocker-arms are 
 straight, of equal length, and that the eccentric-rods 
 are connected to the link so as to be opposite the block 
 in full gear. This will make the extreme travel of 
 valve equal the eccentric's throw. We will now look 
 round to see that everything connected with the 
 motion is ready for valve-setting. 
 
 First, it is necessary to see that the wedges are 
 properly set up to hold the driving-boxes in about the 
 
238 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 same position they will occupy when the engine is at 
 work. 
 
 CONNECTING ECCENTRIC-RODS TO LINK. 
 
 In looking over the motion, it is well to note that 
 the eccentric-rods are properly connected, — the for- 
 ward eccentric-rod with the top, the backward eccen- 
 tric-rod with the bottom, of the link. When the crank- 
 pin is on the forward center, the eccentrics will occupy 
 the position they appear in, in Fig. 15, where the rods 
 
 / // v 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 are open, and nearly horizontal. The full parts of 
 both eccentrics are advanced towards the crank-pin, 
 so that the centers of the eccentrics are advanced from 
 a perpendicular line drawn through center of axle, a 
 horizontal distance equal to the lap and lead. When 
 the crank-pin is on the back center, the eccentric 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 centers will be behind the axle, and the rods will be 
 crossed as they are seen in Fig. 16. The reason why 
 
SETTING THE VALVES. 
 
 239 
 
 the rods must be crossed when the crank is in this 
 position, is, that the forward eccentric center is below 
 the axle, and the backward eccentric center is above. 
 As the forward eccentric-rod maintains its connection 
 with the top of the link, and the backward eccentric- 
 rod is at the opposite end, crossing of the rods is in- 
 evitable. This fact is worth imprinting on the mem- 
 ory, for I have known of several cases where men got 
 the rods up wrong by putting them open when the 
 engine stood with the crank on the back center. 
 
 MARKING THE VALVE-STEM. 
 
 In ordinary practice, valves are set with the steam- 
 chest cover down, and the position of the valve on the 
 seat is identified by marks on the valve-stem. Before 
 the cover is put down, the valve is placed as in Fig. 
 17, just beginning to open the forward steam-port; a 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 thin piece of tin being generally used to gauge the 
 opening. When the valve stands in this position, a 
 tram is extended from a center punch-mark c, on the 
 stuffing-box, straight along the valve-stem as far as it 
 will reach ; and the point, here located at a, is marked. 
 The valve is then moved forward till it begins to un- 
 cover the back port, when another measurement is 
 
240 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 made with the tram, which locates the point b on the 
 valve-stem. Whatever position the valve may stand 
 on, it may now be identified by the tram. When the 
 tram cuts the space half-way between a and b, the 
 valve stands in the middle of the seat. 
 
 Some machinists do not believe in tramming from 
 the stuffing-box, as the point is liable to be moved in 
 tightening down the steam-chest cover. These gen- 
 erally measure from a point on the cylinder casting, 
 but that practice has its drawbacks. 
 
 LENGTH OF THE VALVE-ROD. 
 
 To prove the correct length of the valve-rod, the 
 rocker-arm is set at right angles to the valve-seat, 
 which is its middle position. The valve must now 
 stand on the middle of the seat, which will be indicated 
 by the tram point reaching the dividing point between 
 a and b. Should the valve not be right when the 
 rocker is in its middle position, the rod must be altered 
 to put it right. 
 
 ACCURACY ESSENTIAL IN LOCATING THE DEAD- 
 CENTER POINTS. 
 
 Before proceeding to set the valves, a machinist can 
 not be too careful in locating the exact dead centers. 
 Some men conclude, because there is little motion to 
 the cross-head close to the end of the stroke, that a 
 slight movement of the wheel to one side or the other 
 is of little consequence, and makes no perceptible 
 difference in the relative positions of piston and valve. 
 This is a serious mistake; for, although the piston is 
 
SETTING THE VALVES. 2^1 
 
 moving slowly, the eccentric is proceeding at its 
 ordinary speed, and the valve is moving fast. The 
 loose, quick methods of finding dead-centers followed 
 occasionally are not conducive to exactness, and nothing 
 but accuracy is permissible in valve-setting. 
 
 FINDING THE DEAD-CENTERS. 
 
 The best way of finding the true center is by moving 
 the cross-head a measured distance round its extreme 
 travel, recording the extent of movement on the driv- 
 ing-wheel tire, whose motion is uniform ; then bisect- 
 ing the distance between the marks on the tire, when 
 the dividing-line will indicate the true center. 
 
 Thus : Turn the wheels forward till the cross-head 
 reaches within one-half inch of its extreme travel, as 
 shown in Fig. 18. From a point a on the guide-block 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 extend a tram on the cross-head, and mark the ex- 
 treme point reached b. Put a center-punch mark c on 
 the wheel-cover, or other convenient fixed point, and 
 from it extend a tram on the edge of the tire, and 
 scratch an arc d. Now, with tram in hand, watch the 
 
242 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 cross-head, and have the wheels moved forward slowly. 
 When the cross-head passes the center, and moves 
 back till the tram extending from a will reach the point 
 b, stop the motion. Again tram from the wheel-cover 
 point, and describe a second arc on the tire, which will 
 be at e, now moved to the position which d occupied 
 when the previous measurement was taken. With a 
 pair of dividers bisect the distance between d and e. 
 Mark the dividing-point C with a center-punch, and 
 put a chalk-ring round it. When the wheel stands so 
 that the tram will extend from c to C, the engine will 
 be on the forward dead-center. 
 
 All the other centers must be found by a similar 
 process. 
 
 TURNING WHEELS AND MOVING ECCENTRICS. 
 
 When a measurement is going to be made for fore 
 gear, the wheels must be turned forward ; and, when 
 it is for the back gear, they must be turned backward. 
 Enough movement of the wheel must be given to take 
 up the lost motion every time the direction of move- 
 ment is changed. In moving an eccentric, it should 
 also be turned far enough in the opposite direction to 
 take up the lost motion. 
 
 SETTING BY THE LEAD-OPENING. 
 
 Put the reverse-lever in the full forward notch, and 
 place the engine on the forward center. If the lead- 
 opening in full gear is to be -^ inch, advance the for- 
 ward eccentric till the point a (Fig. 17) on the valve- 
 
SETTING THE VALVES. 243 
 
 stem is that distance away from the tram-point. Throw 
 the reverse-lever into the full backward notch, turn the 
 wheels forward enough to take up the lost motion, 
 then turn them back to the forward center. Move 
 the backward eccentric (if it needs moving) till the tram, 
 extended on the valve-stem, strikes the same point 
 that it reached for the forward motion. It will be 
 noted here that the valve occupies the same position 
 for fore and back gear when the engine is on the 
 center. Put the reverse-lever in the forward notch 
 again, and turn the wheels ahead till the back center 
 point is reached. Now tram the valve-stem again, 
 and, if the lead-opening be the same for both gears as 
 it was on the forward center, that part of the setting 
 is right. It is a good plan to go over the points a 
 second time to prove their correctness. But it is not 
 likely that the lead-opening at the back end will be 
 right on the first trial. Instead of having the correct 
 lead, the valve will probably lap over the port, being 
 what workmen call " blind," or it will have too much 
 lead. Let us assume that our valve is T ^- inch blind. 
 This indicates that the eccentric-rod is too long. We 
 shorten the rod till the valve is at the opening-point, 
 and, on turning the engine to the forward center again, 
 we will find that the valve there has lost its lead. But 
 our change has adjusted the valve movement, so that 
 on each center the valve is just beginning to open the 
 steam-port. Advancing the eccentric to give one end 
 J-g- inch lead will now have the same effect upon the 
 other end; and, assuming that the back motion has 
 been subjected to similar treatment with a like result, 
 
244 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 the lead-opening on that side is right. This process 
 must now be repeated with the other side of the engine. 
 
 ASCERTAINING THE POINT OF CUT-OFF. 
 
 The lead openings being properly arranged, we will 
 proceed to examine how the valves cut off the steam ; 
 for it is important that about the same supply of 
 steam should be furnished to each cylinder and to 
 each end of the cylinders. The angularity of the con- 
 necting-rod tends to give a greater supply of steam to 
 the forward than to the back end of the cylinder; but 
 this inequality is, as has already been explained, 
 usually rectified by locating the hanger-stud a certain 
 distance back of the link arc. 
 
 To prove the cut-off, we will try the full gear first. 
 Put the reverse-lever in the full forward notch, start- 
 ing from the forward center, and turn the wheels 
 ahead. The motion of our engine has been designed 
 so that the cut-off in full gear shall happen at 18 
 inches of the stroke. With tram in hand, watch the 
 movement of the valve as indicated by the stem marks. 
 As the piston moves away from the forward end of 
 the cylinder, the valve will keep opening till nearly 
 half stroke is reached, when it will begin to return, 
 slowly at first, but with increasing velocity as the 
 point of cut-off is reached. When the point a, Fig. 
 17, gets so that it will be reached by the tram ex- 
 tended from c, the motion must be stopped; as that 
 indicates the point of cut-off. Now measure on the 
 guide how far the cross-head has traveled from the 
 beginning of the stroke, and mark it down with chalk. 
 
SETTING THE VALVES. 245 
 
 Then turn the wheels in the same direction past the 
 back center, and obtain the cut-off for the forward 
 stroke in the same manner. The cut-off for the other 
 cylinder will be found in precisely the method de- 
 scribed. 
 
 In addition to trying the cut-off in full gear, it is 
 usually tested at half stroke and at 6 inches, or with 
 the reverse-lever in the notches nearest to these points. 
 Some men begin at the first notch, and follow the 
 point of cut-off in every notch till the center is reached, 
 and do the same for back gear. 
 
 ADJUSTMENT OF CUT-OFF. 
 
 From various causes, it often happens that the cut- 
 off is unequal in the two strokes, or one cylinder may 
 be getting more steam than the other. Suppose, that, 
 on one side of the engine, the valve is cutting off at 
 18-J inches in forward gear, while at the other side it 
 is cutting off at 17-J inches of the stroke. The most 
 ready way to adjust that inequality is by shortening 
 one link-hanger and lengthening the other till a mean 
 is struck. Where the discrepancy is smaller, it is ad- 
 justed by lengthening the hanger at the short side. 
 
 A harder inequality to adjust is where the valve 
 cuts off earlier for one end of the cylinder than for the 
 other. In new work this is readily overcome by the 
 saddle-stud, but such a change is seldom admissible 
 in old work. When the points of cut-off have been 
 noted down, it will frequently happen, that, instead 
 of both ends cutting off at 18 inches, one end will show 
 the cut at 17 inches, while the other goes to 19 inches. 
 
246 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING- 
 
 This indicates something wrong, and demands a search 
 for the origin of the unequal motion. First ascertain 
 if the rocker-arm is not sprung. If that is all right, 
 examine the link, which is probably sprung out of its 
 true radius. To straighten the rocker-arm is an easy 
 matter, but not so with case-hardened links ; although 
 some men are very successful in springing them back. 
 Where it is impracticable to remedy an unequal cut-off 
 by correcting the origin of the defect, several plans 
 may be resorted to for obtaining the required adjust- 
 ment. One of the most common resorts is to equalize 
 the forward motion by throwing out the back motion. 
 Putting the rocker-arm away from its vertical position 
 when the valve is in the middle of the seat, by short- 
 ening or lengthening the valve-rod, provides a means 
 of adjustment. Sometimes the equality of lead open- 
 ing is sacrificed to obtain equality of cut-off. The 
 changes necessary to obtain adjustment of a distorted 
 motion can only be successfully arranged by one who 
 has experience in valve-setting or in valve-motion de- 
 signing. 
 
 In many shops the cut-off is adjusted for the point 
 where the engine does most of the work, — say at from 
 J to \ of stroke. Other master mechanics direct the 
 equalization to be made for half stroke, while some 
 take the mean between the half stroke and the ordi- 
 nary working notch. 
 
 The final adjustments in valve-setting ought to be 
 made when the engine is hot. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 
 
 INVENTION OF THE WESTINGHOUSE ATMOSPHERIC 
 BRAKE. 
 
 In this exacting age the traveling public are much 
 more disposed to find fault with systems that do not 
 provide against fatalities resulting from human falli- 
 bility than to commend the perfection of appliances 
 which annually save more lives than would be lost in 
 a sanguinary war. The Westinghouse brake has per- 
 formed this life-saving service, yet its great conserving 
 merit has been but feebly appreciated outside of rail- 
 road circles. During the decade between i860 and 
 1870 America became a reproach among nations for 
 the frequency and disastrous nature of its railroad 
 accidents. To-day fewer railroad travelers in America 
 lose their lives by accidents beyond their own control 
 than the travelers in any country under the sun. The 
 credit of this immunity from fatal accidents is almost 
 entirely due to the successful operation of the West- 
 inghouse and other brakes that followed the line sug- 
 gested by this invention. 
 
 247 
 
248 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 DISTINCT CLASSES OF INVENTIONS. 
 
 Inventions may be divided into two distinct classes. 
 Far the more numerous class are those which effect 
 improvements on recognized appliances. The other 
 is the rare and more valuable class to which belongs 
 the original inventor who devises an entirely new 
 method for performing a desired operation. Among 
 this class of inventions may be noted Watt's separate 
 condenser, which first rendered the steam-engine a 
 commercial success; the multitubular boiler of Nathan 
 Read, which made a high-speed locomotive practica- 
 ble; and the air-brake of Westinghouse, which made 
 fast traveling safe by putting the train-speed under 
 the control of the engineer. 
 
 BENEFITS CONFERRED ON TRAINMEN BY GOOD 
 BRAKES. 
 
 To the traveling public the air-brake has proved a 
 source of satisfaction by assuring exemption from 
 accidents, but its greatest blessing has been conferred 
 upon trainmen. Being the greatest sufferers from 
 railway accidents, their risks of life and limb are 
 greatly reduced; and the agonizing helplessness that 
 used to be so often experienced with trains that could 
 not be stopped in time to avoid a disaster is almost 
 unknown on our well-managed roads. Mind has 
 become victor in its conflict with matter. When 
 necessary, an engineer can run a train at a high 
 velocity over crowded lines without having to shut off 
 Steam within a mile of each point where there may be 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 249 
 
 another train obstructing the track, or without having 
 to risk his life in order to keep up speed. People 
 unacquainted with the inside operating of railroads 
 have no idea of the difficulties trainmen had to con- 
 tend with in getting fast trains over the road before 
 continuous brakes were supplied. The train had to 
 be run on schedule time, and all points where trains 
 might be expected had to be approached with care. 
 This meant reduced speed; and speed could not be 
 reduced in short distances, so the risk had to be taken 
 of violating one rule to comply with another. 
 
 PROMINENT FEATURES OF THE WESTINGHOUSE 
 QUICK-ACTION AUTOMATIC AIR-BRAKE. 
 
 This chapter of the present edition of this book, as 
 will be noted in the following pages, is almost wholly 
 devoted to an analysis and description of the new 
 quick-action brake-mechanism and kindred appliances 
 which modern demand has made necessary in the safe 
 operation of railway trains. 
 
 With the introduction of the original Westinghouse 
 brake, commonly known as the non-automatic or 
 " straight-air " brake, a degree of safety in the move- 
 ment of railway trains was made practicable beyond 
 anything previously attained, and for a time answered 
 the requirements of train-braking as then understood. 
 
 Greater safety, as well as other conditions, de- 
 manded a brake automatic in its character to the 
 extent of possessing functions in its operation that 
 would to the greatest degree provide ajainst human 
 fallibility. The introduction of the automatic air- 
 
250 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 brake into general railway service met with more or 
 less opposition, purely upon the ground that " the 
 'straight air' brake was good enough"; but this 
 objection rapidly disappeared as the automatic brake 
 became better understood and its value as compared 
 with the older form appreciated, and the " straight 
 air " brake is now almost wholly obsolete. 
 
 Time and progress in the art of railway operation, 
 however, have developed new conditions and require- 
 ments in train-braking, which have been fully met, as 
 has been practically demonstrated, by the introduc- 
 tion of the new quick-action automatic form of brake- 
 mechanism, which will be found illustrated and clearly 
 explained herein. 
 
 ESSENTIAL PARTS OF THE WESTINGHOUSE IMPROVED 
 QUICK-ACTION AUTOMATIC BRAKE. 
 
 The Westinghouse improved quick-action automatic 
 brake consists of the following essential parts: 
 
 1st. The Steam-engine and Pump, which furnishes 
 the compressed air. 
 
 2d. The Main Reservoir, in which the compressed 
 air is stored. 
 
 3 d . The Engineer ' s Brake and Equalizing D is charge - 
 valve, which regulates the flow of air from the main 
 reservoir into the brake-pipe for releasing the brakes, 
 and from the main train- or brake-pipe to the atmos- 
 phere for applying the brakes. 
 
 4th. The Main Train- or Brake-pipe, which leads 
 from the main reservoir to the engineer's brake and 
 
7HE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 2$I 
 
 equalizing discharge-valve, and thence along the train, 
 supplying the apparatus on each vehicle with air. 
 
 5th. The Auxiliary Reservoir, which takes a supply 
 of air from the main reservoir, through the brake-pipe, 
 and stores it for use on its own vehicle. 
 
 6th. The Brake-cylinder, which has its piston-rod 
 attached to the brake-levers in such a manner that 
 when the piston is forced out by air-pressure the 
 brakes are applied. 
 
 7th. The Improved Quick-action Automatic Triple 
 Valve, which is suitably connected to the main train- 
 pipe, auxiliary reservoir, and brake-cylinder, and is 
 operated by the variation of pressure in the brake- 
 pipe (1) so as to admit air from the auxiliary reservoir 
 (and under certain desirable conditions, as will be 
 explained hereafter, from the train-pipe) to the brake- 
 cylinder, which applies the brakes, at the same time 
 cutting off communication from the brake-pipe to the 
 auxiliary reservoir, or (2) to restore the supply from 
 the train-pipe to the auxiliary reservoir, at the same 
 time letting the air in the brake-cylinder escape, 
 which releases the brakes. 
 
 8th. The Couplings, which are attached to flexible 
 hose, and connect the train-pipe from one vehicle to 
 another. 
 
 9th. The Air-gauge, which, being of the duplex 
 pattern, shows simultaneously the pressure in the 
 main reservoir and the train-pipe. 
 
 10th. The Pump-governor, which regulates the sup- 
 ply of steam to the pump, stopping it when the maxi- 
 mum air-pressure desired has been accumulated in the 
 train brake-pipe and reservoirs. 
 
252 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 AUTOMATIC FEATURE OF THE BRAKE. 
 
 The automatic action of the brake is due to the 
 construction of the triple valve, the primary parts of 
 which are a piston and slide-valve. A moderate re- 
 duction of air-pressure in the train-pipe causes the 
 greater pressure remaining stored in the auxiliary 
 reservoir to force the piston of the triple valve and its 
 slide-valve to a position which will allow the air in the 
 auxiliary reservoir to pass directly into the brake- 
 cylinder and apply the brake. A sudden or violent 
 reduction of the air in the train-pipe produces the 
 same effect, and in addition to this causes supplemen- 
 tal valves in the triple valve to be opened, permitting 
 the pressure in the train-pipe to also enter the brake- 
 cylinder, augmenting the pressure derived from the 
 auxiliary reservoir about 20 per cent, producing prac- 
 tically instantaneous action of the brakes to their 
 highest efficiency throughout the entire train. When 
 the pressure in the brake-pipe is again restored to an 
 amount in excess of that remaining in the auxiliary 
 reservoir, the piston and slide-valve are forced in the 
 opposite direction to their normal position, opening 
 communication from the train-pipe to the auxiliary 
 reservoir, and permitting the air in the brake-cylinder 
 to escape to the atmosphere, thus releasing the brakes. 
 
 TO APPLY THE BRAKE. 
 
 If the engineer wishes to apply the brake, he moves 
 the handle of the engineer's brake-valve to the right, 
 which first closes a port, retaining the pressure in the 
 main reservoir, and then permits a portion of the air 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 2$$ 
 
 in the train-pipe to escape. To release the brakes, 
 he moves the handle to the extreme left, which allows 
 the air in the main reservoir to flow freely into the 
 brake-pipe, restoring the pressure and releasing the 
 brakes. A valve called the conductor s valve is 
 placed in each car, with a cord running throughout 
 the length of the car, and any of the trainmen, by 
 pulling this cord, can open the valve, which allows the 
 air to escape from the train-pipe, applying the brake. 
 When the train has been brought to a full stop in this 
 manner, the valve should then be closed. Should the 
 train break in two, the air in the brake-pipe escapes 
 and the brakes are applied instantaneously to both 
 sections of the train. The brakes are also automati- 
 cally applied should a hose or pipe burst. It will 
 therefore be seen that any reduction of pressure in the 
 train-pipes applies the brakes, which is the essential 
 feature of the automatic brake. 
 
 CUT-OUT COCKS. 
 
 An angle-cock is placed on each end of the train- 
 pipe, and is closed before separating the couplings, 
 thus preventing the application of the brakes when 
 the cars are uncoupled. A stop-cock is also placed in 
 the branch pipe leading from the main train-pipe to 
 the quick-action triple valve, and one in the main 
 train-pipe near the engineer's brake-valve, and within 
 convenient reach of the engineer. The former is for 
 the purpose of cutting out or rendering inoperative 
 the brake on any particular car which may have 
 become disabled through damage, and the latter for 
 
254 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 cutting out the engineer's brake-valve upon all but 
 the leading engine where two or more engines are 
 coupled in the same train. It is desirable to use the 
 plain automatic triple valve for locomotive driver and 
 tender brakes, and its illustration in this connection 
 will be noted in Fig. 19, and in greater detail in Figs. 
 20, 21, and 22. 
 
 Following will be found details and descriptions of 
 detached portions of the apparatus, with complete in- 
 structions for its proper use and maintenance. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE 8-INCH AIR-PUMP. 
 
 The construction of the 8-inch air-pump is clearly 
 shown in cross-section in Fig. 19. A steam-cylinder 
 3 and air-cylinder 5 are joined together by a center- 
 piece 4, which forms the bottom head of the steam- 
 cylinder and the top head of the air-cylinder, while 
 suitable stuffing-boxes 56 therein encircle the piston- 
 rod 10, the lower end of which is attached to air-piston 
 11, and the upper end to the steam-piston, each of 
 which is provided with suitable packing-rings. Suit- 
 ably arranged valves in the walls of the steam-cylinder 
 3 and its upper head 2, to which further reference will 
 be made, admit steam alternately above and below the 
 steam-piston 10, forcing it upward and downward, 
 giving a similar movement to the air-piston, while air 
 from the outside atmosphere is drawn alternately 
 through the air-inlets and receiving- valves 31 and 33 
 and forced under pressure through the discharge-valves 
 32 and 30 into chamber 5, and thence to the main 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 
 
 255 
 
 Air Inlet 
 
 Fig. 19.— Eight-inch Air-Pump. 
 
256 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 reservoir through pipes connecting at the union swivel 
 
 53- 
 
 The main steam-valve 7 is formed of two pistons of 
 unequal diameter mounted upon opposite ends of a 
 rod, the upper one occupying cylindrical bushing 25, 
 and the lower one bushing 26, each of these bushings 
 having two series of port-holes for the admission of 
 steam to, and its exhaust from, the steam-cylinder by 
 a reciprocating movement of the main valve. Connec- 
 tion with the source of steam-supply is made to the 
 union nut 54, and with steam in chamber m the ten- 
 dency of the main valve on account of the greater 
 diameter of its upper piston is to move upward, thus 
 providing for its upward movement and for the ad- 
 mission of steam to the upper side of the steam-piston 
 10 and its exhaust from the lower side. The opposite 
 or downward movement is accomplished at the proper 
 moment by the combined action of steam-pressure 
 upon the upper surface of the lower piston of the main 
 valve and reversing-piston 23, the stem of the latter 
 extending through the bushing 22 in which it operates, 
 and bearing upon the top of the main steam-valve. 
 Pressure upon the upper side of reversing-piston 23 is 
 regulated by a small slide-valve 16 in the central 
 chamber e of the upper steam-cylinder head 2, to 
 which steam-pressure is conducted from chamber m 
 through port h. This valve is given motion by a rod 
 17 which extends through bushing 19 in the upper 
 head and into the hollow main piston-rod 10, and is 
 provided with a button-head on its lower end and a 
 shoulder n just below the top head; the plate 18 on 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 2$? 
 
 the steam-piston alternately strikes this shoulder and 
 button-head as the steam-piston 10 approaches the 
 top or bottom head of the steam-cylinder. 
 
 OPERATION OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 Steam from the boiler being admitted to chamber 
 m forces the main valve upward, which uncovers the 
 lower series of ports in bushing 25 and, entering the 
 steam-cylinder above the main piston 10, drives it 
 downward, while steam used on the previous upward 
 stroke is discharged from the under side of the lower 
 main-valve piston through the lower series of ports in 
 bushing 26, which were also uncovered by this upward 
 movement of the main valve, thence through a suit- 
 ably arranged passage f l f l shown in dotted lines com- 
 municating with exhaust-chamber g, whence it is 
 discharged by a pipe connected at union swivel 57 
 through the smoke-box and -stack to the atmosphere. 
 As the main piston reaches the termination of its 
 downward stroke plate 18, striking the button-head 
 on the lower end of the reversing- valve rod 17, draws 
 the rod and its valve 16 downward, uncovering port a 
 in the upper head and admitting steam above revers- 
 ing-piston 23, which forces it and the main valve 7 
 downward to the position shown in the cut and per- 
 mits steam from above the main piston 10 to be dis- 
 charged through the upper series of port-holes in 
 bushing 25, thence through passage ff to exhaust- 
 chamber g and the atmosphere, while live steam is 
 admitted from chamber m through the upper series of 
 ports in bushing 26 to the under side of main piston 
 
258 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 10, driving it upward until plate 18 strikes the shoulder 
 n of reversing-rod 17, which pushes valve 16 upwards, 
 and brings the small exhaust-cavity in its seat oppo- 
 site ports b and <:, exhausting the pressure from above 
 reversing-piston 23 into exhaust-passage ff, which 
 permits the main valve to again move upward, as pre- 
 viously described. 
 
 OPERATION OF THE AIR-COMPRESSOR. 
 
 The upward movement of air-piston 1 1 causes the 
 lower receiving-valve 33 to lift and air to be drawn 
 through the series of inlet-ports in the under side of 
 the valve-chamber cap 34, thence past the valve and 
 through port/ 1 to the cylinder; the downward move- 
 ment of the air-piston closes receiving-valve 33, and 
 compresses the air contained in the cylinder to a point 
 in excess of that which may already be stored in the 
 main reservoir, which lifts discharge-valve 32 and per- 
 mits the compressed air to flow into chamber s and to 
 the main reservoir through pipes connected at union 
 swivel 53. The downward movement of the air-piston 
 similarly causes air to be drawn into the upper end of 
 the cylinder through the upper air-inlet ports to 
 chamber v through upper receiving- valve 31 and 
 passage p. The air on this side of the air-piston in 
 being compressed during the upward stroke closes the 
 receiving-valve and, raising upper discharge-valve 30, 
 is forced into chamber t, and thence through com- 
 munication-port r to chamber s and the main reser- 
 voir. 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 2 59 
 
 LIFT OF AIR-VALVES AND FIT OF BUSHINGS. 
 
 The lift of the receiving-valves should be ^ of an 
 inch, and that of the discharge-valves \ inch. It is 
 most important that the prescribed amount of lift of 
 air-valves be maintained, and if exceeded by wear 
 from action, which will ultimately occur, should not 
 be permitted to become excessive, in which event 
 valves and seats may both be ruined by pounding 
 upon each other, while prompt attention may save 
 both and prevent disagreeable pounding. 
 
 In renewing bushing 43 the shoulders upon which 
 it rests in position should be carefully ground in to 
 prevent leakage of air past them ; then adjust set-screw 
 46, when cap-nut 29 may be screwed firmly, but not 
 harshly, upon it. 
 
 EFFICIENCY OF THE 8-INCH PUMP. 
 
 With 125 pounds steam-pressure the 8-inch pump 
 when in good condition will compress o to 70 pounds 
 pressure of air in a standard main reservoir 26% inches 
 diameter by 34 inches long (outside measurement) — 
 about 9 cubic feet capacity — in 88 seconds, and from 
 20 to 70 pounds in 62 seconds. 
 
 The efficiency of the pump and its condition may 
 therefore be readily ascertained at any time desired. 
 If other reservoirs are used than of the dimensions 
 given, the duty may be calculated in exact proportion. 
 
 THE 9J-INCH IMPROVED AIR-PUMP. 
 
 As will be seen by reference to Figs. 20, 21, and 
 22, the valve-motion of the pump consists of two 
 
26o 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 Main Valve Sunning 
 
 £X 
 
 9XIxcn Air Pump. 
 Fig. 20. 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 26 1 
 
 pistons 77 and 79 of unequal diameter mounted on 
 rod 76, while a slide-valve 83, of the D type, held in 
 position between them, provides for the distribution 
 of steam to the upper and lower sides of main steam- 
 piston 65, as required. Steam enters the pump at X f 
 where a suitable stud and nut admits of the direct 
 attachment of the pump-governor, and by means of 
 passages a and a 1 and port a 1 is admitted to slide- 
 valve chamber A between the two pistons 77 and 79, 
 where, by reason of the greater area of the former, 
 tends to force it to the right to the position in which 
 the valve is shown in Fig. 20, thus admitting steam to 
 the under side of main piston 65 through port b and 
 passages b x and b\ forcing it upward, while the steam 
 previously used on the opposite side in forcing the 
 main piston downward is exhausted to the atmosphere 
 through passage c, port c\ cavity B of the slide-valve 
 83 port d and passages d 1 and d 1, at the connection 
 F, from whence it is conveyed by suitable pipe to the 
 smoke-box of the locomotive. 
 
 In Fig. 21 is illustrated an outside view of main- 
 valve bushing 75, showing the several ports and steam- 
 passages therein, of which port / communicates be- 
 tween chamber E in the main-valve head 85 and 
 exhaust passage/ 1 and hence is in constant communi- 
 cation with the outside atmosphere, relieving the 
 pressure on the surface of main-valve piston 79 ex- 
 posed to chamber E. A reversing valve 72 operates 
 in chamber C in the center of the steam-cylinder head, 
 steam being supplied thereto from slide-valve cham- 
 ber A through ports e and e\ and which is given 
 
262 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 motion through the medium of a rod 71 extending 
 into the space k of the hollow main piston-rod. The 
 duty of this valve is that of admitting steam to and 
 exhausting it from space D between main-valve piston 
 j j and the head 84, and is shown in Fig. 22, in posi- 
 tion to exhaust the steam previously used, from the 
 space D through port h (Fig. 21), port k\ reversing- 
 valve cavity H, and ports f and/ 1 to the main ex- 
 haust-ports d, d\ and d*. 
 
 OPERATION OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 It will at once be apparent, having described how 
 the surface of main-valve pistons yy and 79 exposed 
 in chambers D and E respectively being free from 
 pressure other than the outside atmosphere, that the 
 steam on the opposite side in chamber A is exerting 
 a force in both directions, but the total force toward 
 the right is greater by the sum of the steam-pressure 
 in chamber A multiplied by the difference between 
 their areas. This effect, however, is reversed when 
 the main piston, approaching the upward termination 
 of its stroke, strikes the shoulder/ of the reversing- 
 valve rod 71, forcing the rod and its valve 72 upward, 
 causing the admission of steam from chamber C to 
 chamber D through ports g and g 1 (Fig. 21), thus 
 balancing the pressure on both sides of main-valve 
 piston yy, when the steam in chamber^, acting upon 
 the effective area presented to it, of main-valve piston 
 79, forces it to the left, and live steam is again 
 admitted to the upper side of main steam-piston 65, 
 exhausting from the opposite side, and forcing it 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 263 
 
 downward until at the lower termination of its stroke 
 the button-head on the lower end of the reversing- 
 valve stem 71 comes in contact with reversing- valve 
 plate 69, again moving reversing-valve 72 to the posi- 
 tion shown in Fig. 20, completing the cycle of its 
 movement. 
 
 OPERATION OF THE AIR-CYLINDER. 
 
 Coincident with the reciprocal movements of the 
 main steam- and air-pistons, air from the outside 
 atmosphere is drawn alternately into the respective 
 ends of the air-cylinder 63 through the screened inlet 
 106 at W, chamber F, and receiving-valves 86 to the 
 left, Fig. 20, and from thence discharged under pres- 
 sure through discharge-valves 86 to the right, Fig. 20, 
 to chamber G and the main reservoir, to which the 
 pump should be connected by ij-inch pipe at Z. 
 The lift of receiving- and discharge-valves 86 should 
 be -^2 of an inch. 
 
 The same care should be given this pump as that 
 recommended for the 8-inch. The admonition, how- 
 ever, to use only a moderate quantity of oil in both 
 the steam- and air-cylinders will bear repeating. 
 Ample provision is made for drainage by means of 
 two cocks, 105, located in the steam-passages a and b*. 
 
 The larger sizes of pipe-connections for this pump 
 have necessitated the manufacture of a suitable i-inch 
 throttle-valve, 1 -inch pump-governor, and ij-inch 
 reservoir union. 
 
264 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 THE IMPROVED ENGINEER'S BRAKE AND EQUALIZING 
 DISCHARGE-VALVE, WITH FEED-VALVE ATTACH- 
 MENT. 1892 MODEL. 
 
 Mechanically the engineer's brake and equalizing 
 discharge-valve provides for a lack of skill, in so far 
 as such device can be made automatic, but it is essen- 
 tial that the engineer should be possessed of a degree 
 of skill and judgment which will enable him to operate 
 the brakes of his train in a judicious manner, by using 
 them with care and moderation in making ordinary 
 stops, and only in case of actual emergency to make 
 a quick application. The attention of the engineer is 
 therefore especially directed to the description of the 
 new engineer's brake and equalizing discharge-valve, 
 and the instructions relating to the proper method of 
 operating the quick-action automatic brakes. 
 
 In the construction of the new engineer's brake and 
 equalizing discharge-valve, with feed-valve attach- 
 ment, illustrated in Figs. 23, 24, and 25, two impor- 
 tant improvements have been made, one operative 
 and the other constructive. 
 
 OPERATIVE CHANGES. 
 
 In operation this valve is so arranged that when 
 the handle is in " running position " the pressure in 
 the train-pipe is automatically cut off when it reaches 
 70 pounds, regardless of any higher pressure that may 
 be in the main reservoir, and any loss in the train- 
 pipe due to leakage is automatically supplied. The 
 amount of excess pressure to be carried in the main 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 265 
 
 reservoir for the purpose of recharging and releasing 
 promptly is regulated by the pump-governor, which 
 is adjusted to stop the pump when the maximum 
 pressure has been reached therein. The construction 
 of the previous engineer's brake and equalizing dis- 
 charge-valve is such that when the handle is in " run- 
 ning position " the regulation of pressure in the 
 train-pipe is dependent upon the operation of the 
 pump-governor, and the amount of excess pressure in 
 the main reservoir is controlled by what is called an 
 excess-pressure valve, but which is more accurately 
 described as a valve for creating a predetermined 
 difference of pressure between the main reservoir and 
 train-pipe. This valve is usually so adjusted that 
 when a pressure in the main reservoir of 20 pounds in 
 excess of that in the train-pipe is reached it will open 
 and supply air to the train-pipe, but no communica- 
 tion between the main reservoir and the train-pipe 
 exists until this difference in pressure is secured. It 
 is therefore evident that when the handle of the en- 
 gineer's valve is returned to " running position," after 
 having been placed in " position for releasing brakes " 
 (in which latter position the pressure in the main 
 reservoir and train-pipe equalizes), it is necessary to 
 accumulate an excess pressure of 20 pounds in the 
 main reservoir, before air can pass the excess-pressure 
 valve, to supply any deficiency in the train-pipe due 
 to leakage or the charging of auxiliary reservoirs. 
 
 From the above explanation it will be seen that the 
 differences in operation between these two valves are: 
 
 First. — With the new valve air is automatically 
 
266 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 supplied to the train-pipe until 70 pounds pressure is 
 reached, if there is a pressure of 70 pounds or greater 
 in the main reservoir. Train-pipe pressure in the 
 previous valve is regulated by the pump-governor. 
 We therefore dispense with the pump-governor for 
 the purpose of controlling the train-pipe pressure with 
 the new valve. 
 
 Second.— With the new valve, when the handle is 
 in " running position," provision is made for con- 
 stantly supplying the train-pipe with air for any loss 
 of pressure due to leakage at the pipe-joints or from 
 other sources. With the old valve it is necessary to 
 have an excess pressure in the main reservoir of not 
 less than 20 pounds before air can be supplied to the 
 train-pipe, for the purpose of compensating for leak- 
 ages when the handle of the valve is in " running 
 position." 
 
 Third. — With the new valve the only duty of the 
 pump-governor is to regulate the degree of excess 
 pressure in the main reservoir, and as this may, and 
 often should, be varied within considerable limits, the 
 sensitive and delicate operation of the pump-governor 
 is not essential. A desired variation of excess pres- 
 sure is readily had by an adjustment of the tension- 
 nut of the governor-spring. With the old valve the 
 governor regulates train-pipe pressure, and accurate 
 adjustment is imperative to accomplish effective'b rak- 
 ing. Excess pressure is regulated by the tension of a 
 spring controlling an excess-pressure valve, and cannot 
 be changed except by the substitution of different 
 springs and a readjustment of the pump-governor. 
 
THE WESTING j/0 USE AIR-BRAKE. 2bj 
 
 CONSTRUCTIVE CHANGES. 
 
 Constructively the principal feature of the new 
 valve is an opportunity for the removal of all of the 
 operative portions for inspection or repair without 
 breaking or disturbing any of the pipe-connections. 
 The main rotary valve and its seat are made of differ- 
 ent metals, which reduces the effect of wear to a 
 minimum. 
 
 Pipe-connections must be made to the main reser- 
 voir at X y to the train-pipe at F, to the equalizing- 
 reservoir at T, and to the duplex gauge at R and W 
 respectively for main-reservoir and train-pipe pres- 
 sures. The gauge-pipe from R should be extended 
 to the air-pump governor, which latter device should 
 be set to stop the pump at about 85 to 100 pounds 
 pressure, thus providing for an excess pressure in the 
 main reservoir of 15 to 30 pounds above standard 
 train-pipe pressure of 70 pounds per square inch. 
 The amount of excess pressure required depends upon 
 the length of trains and character of the road — whether 
 level or with long and severe grades. Ordinarily 15 
 to 20 pounds excess pressure is ample for the safe 
 operation of brakes on the ordinary railway. 
 
 RELEASE POSITION. 
 
 While the handle is in position 1, " for releasing 
 brakes," air from the main reservoir enters the brake- 
 valve at X y passing through ports A, A, thence 
 through port a in the rotary valve 43 to the port b in 
 its seat 33, thence upward into cavity c of the rotary 
 
268 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
THE WEST1NGH0USE AIR-BRAKE. 269 
 
 valve, and finally to ports /and I 1 and the train-pipe 
 at Y. Port / in the rotary valve and e in its seat are 
 in register in this position, and admit air to chamber 
 D above equalizing-piston 47, and, passing thence 
 through ports s and s f charges the small equalizing- 
 reservoir connected at T. 
 
 RUNNING POSITION. 
 
 The train-pipe and auxiliary reservoirs of the brake- 
 apparatus being charged, the handle 38 of the brake- 
 valve being moved to 2, " position while running," 
 ports a and b y andy and ^, are no longer in communi- 
 cation, and air then reaches the train-pipe through 
 port j in the rotary valve 43 and ports /and/ 1 in its 
 seat 33, passing thence through feed-valve 63 to port 
 i, ports / and /' to the train-pipe, and continues to 
 flow thereto until the pressure in chamber B upon 
 diaphragm 72 exceeds the resistance of spring 68, 
 and, forcing the diaphragm and its attachments down- 
 ward, feed-valve 63 closes until such time as by reason 
 of any leaks in the train-pipe the pressure therein has 
 been reduced below 70 pounds, 'when the valve 63 is 
 again automatically pushed open by the diaphragm 
 rising, replenishing train-pipe pressure. Equalizing- 
 port g is now in communication with chamber D, 
 maintaining train-pipe pressure therein, through ports 
 l\ /, and cavity c in the rotary valve 43. The neces- 
 sary adjustment of spring 68 is readily accomplished 
 by means of adjusting-nut 70, to which access is had 
 by the removal of cap check-nut 71. 
 
270 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 APPLICATION OF BRAKE — SERVICE-STOP. 
 To apply brakes, the handle 38 of the valve is 
 moved to position 4, " application of brake — service- 
 stop," bringing into conjunction port / (a groove in 
 the under side of rotary valve 43) and ports e and h 
 (the latter also a groove) in its seat, causing air to any 
 desired extent to be discharged to the atmosphere 
 from the chamber D above piston 47 and the equaliz- 
 ing-reservoir through the large direct-application and 
 exhaust port k, thus reducing the pressure above piston 
 47 and causing that in the train-pipe below to force 
 it upwards from its seat, permitting air to flow from 
 the train-pipe through ports m> /*, and rC to the 
 atmosphere through exhaust-connection 51. 
 
 LAP POSITION. 
 The desired reduction of pressure in chamber D 
 being made, the handle of the valve is moved back- 
 ward to position 3, " on lap." It must be borne in 
 mind that after the handle of the valve has been 
 moved to lap position air will continue to flow from 
 exhaust-fitting 51 until the pressure in the train-pipe 
 has been reduced to an amount approximating that in 
 chamber D. Ordinarily a reduction of 6 to 8 pounds 
 pressure by the gauge from chamber D is sufficient to 
 apply the brakes in the first instance slightly, and will 
 cause a corresponding reduction of train-pipe pressure 
 by the rising of piston 47, which latter, when such 
 reduction has taken place, is automatically forced to 
 its seat by the preponderance of pressure on its upper 
 surface from air remaining in chamber D. 
 
THE WESTJNGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 2J\ 
 
 RELEASE OF BRAKES. 
 
 The release of the brakes is effected by moving the 
 valve-handle 38 to " position for releasing brake," 
 causing air from the main reservoir to again freely flow- 
 to the train-pipe, forcing the triple-valve pistons to 
 release position and exhausting air used in applying 
 the brakes, and recharging the auxiliary reservoirs. 
 While the handle of the valve is in this position a 
 "warning-port" of quite small size causes air from 
 the main reservoir to be discharged to the atmosphere 
 with considerable noise, attracting the engineer's 
 attention to his neglect to move the valve-handle to 
 V running position." The engineer must move the 
 handle of the brake-valve from position 1 to position 
 2 prior to the accumulation of the maximum pressure 
 of 70 pounds allowed in the train-pipe, so that the 
 feed-valve attachment may properly perform its func- 
 tions of governing train-pipe pressure; otherwise the 
 privileged pressure in the train-pipe may be consider- 
 ably augmented, which must be carefully avoided. 
 With trains of ordinary length it will be found that the 
 brakes can be readily released and the auxiliary reser- 
 voirs promptly recharged by simply returning the 
 handle to " running position " (2). 
 
 APPLICATION OF BRAKE — EMERGENCY-STOP. 
 
 For an emergency application the handle 38 of 
 the brake-valve is moved to the extreme right, posi- 
 tion 5, " application of brake — emergency-stop," 
 when "direct-application and exhaust port" k and 
 
272 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 " direct-application and supply port " / are brought 
 into conjunction by means of a large cavity c in the 
 under surface of the rotary valve 43, thus admitting of 
 the quick discharge from the train-pipe of a large vol- 
 ume of air to the atmosphere, causing the quick action 
 of the brakes. Such action, however, should be em- 
 ployed only in an emergency. A reduction of 20 to 
 25 pounds pressure in the train-pipe at the brake- valve 
 is sufficient to apply the brakes to their maximum, 
 and any further reduction of pressure is consequently 
 a waste of air. It will be noted that this valve is 
 manipulated in the same manner as the preceding 
 pattern, and that additional instructions in this respect 
 are unnecessary. 
 
 By preparing a diagram of tracing-cloth or gelatine 
 similar to Fig. 26, and placing it in a reversed position 
 on Fig. 24, where it may be rotated on a center, the 
 foregoing explanation may be followed with ease by 
 those interested. 
 
 THE QUICK-ACTION TRIPLE VALVE. 
 
 A perspective view of the arrangement of the aux- 
 iliary reservoir, passenger-car brake-cylinder, air-pipes, 
 and quick-action triple valve (the latter in cross-sec- 
 tion and mounted on the front cylinder-head) is 
 shown in Fig. 28. A larger view of the triple valve 
 in cross-section is shown in Fig. 29, a transparent 
 view of the slide-valve in Fig. 29^ and of the slide- 
 valve seat in Fig. 29^, to which references will be made 
 in the following explanation of their purpose and func- 
 tions. 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 
 
 273 
 
 The quick-action triple valve is wholly automatic in 
 principle, that feature existing in the construction of 
 
 Fig. 28. — Quick Action Passenger Car Brake Apparatus. 
 
 the plain automatic triple valve by which its mechan- 
 ism could be " cut out " or made inoperative, or per- 
 
 Fig. 28a. — Freight Car Brake. 
 
 mitting the use of the " straight-air " or non-automatic 
 form of brake, being entirely omitted. 
 
274 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 PURPOSE OF THE QUICK-ACTION TRIPLE VALVE. 
 
 As its name implies, the quick-action triple valve is 
 designed to facilitate rapidity of action of the brakes 
 upon railway trains, particularly those of considerable 
 length, where desired. Simultaneous action, as nearly 
 as possible, is quite necessary to avoid shock conse- 
 quent upon link or draw-bar slack between cars. Such 
 action, however, is only necessary in an emergency, 
 its ordinary action for service applications of the brake 
 being in entire harmony with that of the old-style 
 triple valves, either method of application being en- 
 tirely dependent upon the rapidity with which the air 
 is discharged from the train-pipe, and consequently 
 under the control of the engineer. Under each car in 
 the main train-pipe is a drain-cup forming a tee, from 
 which a branch pipe extends to the triple valve, to 
 which it is connected at A, and a stop-cock is placed 
 in this branch pipe for the purpose of rendering in- 
 operative the brakes upon any particular car when 
 occasion requires, by reason of accident to the brake- 
 gear or apparatus, leaving the main train-pipe un- 
 obstructed to supply air to the remaining vehicles. 
 The opening B communicates with a chamber in the 
 cylinder-head, from which a pipe leads to the auxiliary 
 reservoir. The opening C communicates with a port 
 in the cylinder-head, through which air is conducted 
 to and from the brake-cylinder. 
 
 PROCESS OF CHARGING. 
 
 Air from the main reservoir on the engine, being 
 discharged into the train-pipe by the operation of the 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 2J$ 
 
 engineer's brake-valve, enters the triple valve at A, 
 and passes thence through ports ee and gg to piston- 
 chamber h, forcing the piston 4 to the normal posi- 
 tion shown, which it occupies when brakes are released, 
 uncovering feed-port t, permitting the air to pass by 
 the piston, thence through port k to chamber a#, 
 occupied by the slide-valve 3, from which it has free 
 egress at opening B to the auxiliary reservoir, charg- 
 ing the latter to the same pressure as that in the 
 train-pipe. 
 
 THE SLIDE-VALVE AND GRADUATING- VALVE. 
 
 That portion of the stem of the piston 4 between 
 the shoulders u and c is semicircular in form, and 
 passes between two flanges of the slide-valve 3, the 
 length of the latter being slightly less than the dis- 
 tance between these shoulders, permitting a limited 
 movement of the piston without moving the slide- 
 valve. The arrangement of the ports in the latter will 
 be clearly understood by reference to the transparent 
 view in Fig. 29^. It will also be observed that a corner 
 of the slide-valve opposite ports s and z is cut away, 
 for reasons that will appear later. A graduating-valve 
 7 is attached to and moves with the stem of the 
 piston 4, and extends into a suitably made recess in 
 the slide-valve, opening and closing port z in the 
 slide-valve. Under ordinary conditions of operating 
 the brakes, by a slight reduction of pressure in the 
 train-pipe the movement of piston 4 in cylinder h is 
 limited to the distance between the knob j and the 
 end of the graduating-stem 21, the spring 22 resisting 
 
276 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 further movement, but which may be compressed by 
 the piston, permitting the latter to traverse the entire 
 
 Fig. 29^. 
 
 Fig. 29. — Quick Action Triple Valve. 
 
 length of cylinder h if a rapid discharge of 10 to 12 
 pounds pressure or more is made from the train-pipe. 
 
 GRADUATED APPLICATION OF THE BRAKES. 
 
 To apply the brakes gently, a slight reduction of 6 
 to 8 pounds pressure in the train-pipe is made, caus- 
 ing the greater pressure remaining in the auxiliary 
 reservoir, with which chamber m is in constant com- 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 277 
 
 munication, to force piston 4 to the right, closing 
 feed-port i, and moving the graduating-valve away 
 from its seat in port z until the shoulder u on the 
 piston-stem, engaging the slide-valve 3, moves it with 
 the piston until the latter is stopped in its traverse 
 by knob /meeting the graduating-stem 21, the spring 
 22 resisting further movement. In this position port 
 z is opposite port r in the valve-seat, and air from the 
 auxiliary reservoir passes into the brake-cylinder 
 through ports w, z, r, r, and C, forcing the piston 
 outward and applying the brakes. The pressure in 
 the auxiliary reservoir having now been reduced by 
 expansion into the brake-cylinder to an amount 
 slightly less than that in the train-pipe, piston 4 is 
 forced to the left and graduating-valve 7 to its seat, 
 closing port z, the slide-valve remaining stationary, 
 retaining the pressure in the brake-cylinder. Further 
 reductions of pressure in the train-pipe, as may be 
 desired to apply the brakes with greater force, causes 
 the piston 4 to again move to the right against grad- 
 uating-stem 21, pulling graduating-valve 7 from its 
 seat, admitting additional pressure from the auxiliary 
 reservoir to the brake-cylinder until entirely equalized 
 in each, or to about 50 pounds, from an original pres- 
 sure of 70 pounds in the auxiliary reservoir. This 
 effect is caused by a reduction of air-pressure in the 
 train-pipe of about 20 pounds, from which it will be 
 seen that any further reduction is a waste of air, and 
 that the force with which the brakes may be applied 
 is proportionate to the reduction of pressure in the 
 train-pipe within this limit. 
 
278 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 TO RELEASE BRAKES. 
 
 The action of the brakes just described is that used 
 in ordinary station stoppages, and is termed a " ser- 
 vice application," and is caused, as will have been 
 observed, by a gradual discharge of pressure from the 
 main train-pipe at the engine. 
 
 The brakes are released by admitting pressure to the 
 train-pipe, which forces piston 4 to the left to the 
 position shown, permitting pressure in the brake- 
 cylinder to escape to the atmosphere through ports 
 C, r y r, and exhaust-ports n and p, the latter being 
 cored to the atmosphere around the valve-body. 
 
 QUICK-ACTION APPLICATION OF THE BRAKES. 
 
 To apply the brakes with their full force, a quick 
 reduction of the pressure in the train-pipe of 10 to 12 
 pounds is made, causing the piston 4 to move through 
 the entire length of its cylinder, h, compressing grad- 
 uating-spring 22, and bringing port s in the slide-valve 
 opposite port r in its seat, admitting pressure from 
 the auxiliary reservoir to the brake-cylinder, at the 
 same time the removed corner of the slide-valve 3, 
 before referred to, uncovers port t in its seat, admit- 
 ting auxiliary-reservoir pressure above piston 8, forcing 
 it downward and emergency-valve 10 from its seat, 
 while train-pipe pressure, lifting check-valve 15, 
 rushes to the brake-cylinder through the openings 
 made, in a large volume, uniting with that from the 
 auxiliary-reservoir, giving a pressure on the piston of 
 about 60 pounds per square inch, from 70 pounds 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 279 
 
 auxiliary-reservoir and train-pipe pressure, or about 20 
 per cent greater than from a service application of the 
 brakes. The check-valve 15 closing when the pressure 
 is equalized prevents pressure from the brake-cylinder 
 re-entering the train-pipe. A restoration of pressure 
 in the train-pipe releases the brakes, as already 
 described, port t being brought into communication 
 with exhaust-port n of the slide-valve, permitting the 
 air used in forcing piston 8 downward to escape to the 
 atmosphere, and spring 12 then restores emergency- 
 valve 10 to its seat. This action of the brake-appa- 
 ratus, as will have been noted, causes a local reduction 
 of train-pipe pressure under each car, by discharging 
 this air into the cylinder for braking purposes, instead 
 of having it to wholly pass to the atmosphere at the 
 engine, as was necessarily the case with the plain form 
 of automatic-brake apparatus, economizing in the use 
 of air-pressure and producing practically instantaneous 
 action of the brakes throughout an indefinite length 
 of train, but they should be used in this manner in 
 cases of emergency only. 
 
 THE LEAKAGE-GROOVE. 
 
 To prevent the application of brakes from a slight 
 reduction of pressure caused by leakage in the train- 
 pipe, an oval groove is cut in the bore of the car- 
 cylinder -g 9 ¥ of an inch in width and -£ T of an inch in 
 depth, and of such length that the. piston must travel 
 3 inches before the groove is covered by the packing- 
 leather. A small quantity of air, such as results from 
 a leak, passing from the triple valve into the brake- 
 
280 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 cylinder, may have the effect of moving the piston 
 slightly forward, but not sufficiently to close the 
 groove, which permits the air to escape to the atmos- 
 phere past the piston. If, however, the brakes are 
 applied in the usual manner the piston will be rapidly 
 moved forward, notwithstanding the slight leak, and 
 will cover the groove. It is very important that the 
 groove shall be of the dimensions given. 
 
 CARE OF THE TRIPLE VALVE. 
 
 The triple valve should be drained occasionally of 
 any moisture that may accumulate, by the removal of 
 the bottom plug. In an " emergency " action of the 
 brakes, when, as previously stated, air from the train- 
 pipe is vented into the brake-cylinder, the strong cur- 
 rent of air toward the triple valve carries with it any 
 foreign matter in the air-pipes, and which lodging in 
 the conical strainer 16, at the union of the branch pipe 
 and the triple valve, may clog the meshes of the 
 strainer and prevent the free passage of air, and should 
 therefore be cleaned occasionally, but which may be 
 largely avoided if the hose, when not coupled to that 
 on adjoining vehicles, is placed in its dummy coupling 
 and the air-pipes have been carefully blown out with 
 steam previous to their erection on the car. Should 
 a continuous leak manifest itself at the exhaust-port 
 of the triple valve or the pressure-retaining valve, it 
 will usually be found to be due to the presence of dirt 
 on the seat of the emergency-valve 10, which should 
 be cleaned. 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 28 1 
 
 THE PLAIN AUTOMATIC TRIPLE VALVE. 
 
 The construction and operation of the plain auto- 
 matic triple valve is substantially the same as that of 
 the quick-action form, the quick-action valves being 
 omitted, and pressure used only from the auxiliary 
 reservoir in applying the brakes, and will not, there- 
 fore, require specific description. 
 
 It is desirable that this triple valve be perpetuated 
 for use with locomotive driving-wheel and tender 
 brakes, to give a slightly slower action to the brakes 
 thereon in cases of emergency action of the quick- 
 action apparatus on cars. 
 
 As constructed formerly, the handle could be turned 
 from a horizontal position, which it occupies when the 
 brakes are operated as automatic, to a vertical posi- 
 tion, permitting the use of the non-automatic brake, 
 but as this is now practically obsolete, a lug is cast 
 upon this handle which permits it to be turned only 
 to an intermediate position, in which the brakes are 
 inoperative or shut off on that particular vehicle. To 
 drain the cup of moisture, slack the bottom nut a few 
 turns, let any water escape, and screw it up again. 
 A tender drain-cup should invariably be located in 
 the main train-pipe on the tender to catch and retain 
 moisture, which would otherwise pass to the train- 
 brake apparatus. A cock in this cup readily provides 
 for letting out the moisture, which should be done 
 frequently. 
 
282 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 THE PUMP-GOVERNOR. 
 
 The construction of the pump-governor is illustrated 
 in cross-section in Fig. 30. Its purpose is to auto- 
 
 > To Pump 
 
 Fig. 30. — Pump Governor. 
 
 matically shut off the supply of steam to the pump 
 when the air-pressure has reached the limit allowable. 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 283 
 
 OPERATION OF THE PUMP-GOVERNOR. 
 
 The simplicity of construction of the governor is 
 such that the following description of its mechanism 
 will make it readily understood. By reference to Fig^ 
 30 it will be seen that suitable provisions are made 
 for attaching the end Y of the governor directly to 
 the steam-pipe union connection of the air-pump, the 
 opposite end X being piped to the source of steam- 
 supply. Another pipe-connection, with union swivel 
 70 at W, is also made and extended to a fitting in 
 the engineer's brake-valve. This fitting, it will be 
 observed, is tapped into a port of the brake-valve 
 which is always in direct communication with the main- 
 reservoir pressure, and which, acting upon the under- 
 side of the flexible diaphragm 67, forces it upwards 
 against the resistance of the regulating-spring 66 
 when the desired pressure has been reached, lifting a 
 valve from its seat, admitting air-pressure on top of 
 piston 53, forcing steam-valve 51, with which it is 
 connected by a stem, to its seat, shutting off the sup- 
 ply of steam. A reduction of air-pressure in the main 
 reservoir by applying brakes causes a reverse move- 
 ment of the governor, the air-valve closing, and the 
 pressure contained in the chamber above piston 53 
 leaking away past its edges to the atmosphere through 
 the exhaust-connection 60 in cylinder 57. Spring 56 
 then forces the piston upward, opening the steam- 
 valve 51, and permitting steam to again pass to the 
 pump. Any necessary adjustment of the regulating- 
 spring 66 is readily made by means of nut 65, 
 
284 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 THE PRESSURE RETAINING- VALVE. 
 
 The pressure retaining-valve, Fig. 31, is a device 
 
 for use onty on long and steep gradients. This is a 
 
 weighted valve connected to the exhaust-port of the 
 
 triple valve with a suitable pipe, and provided with 
 
 Fig. 31. — Pressure Retaining Valve. 
 
 a small cock, the handle of which, in the horizontal 
 position shown, where it should be placed in descend- 
 ing long grades, allows the air issuing from the 
 exhaust-port of the triple valve, when brakes are 
 releasing, to pass through port b and to raise the 
 weighted valve 20, passing thence to the atmosphere 
 through the small conical-shaped port c. The weighted 
 valve 20 is of sufficient dimensions that a force of 15 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 28$ 
 
 pounds pressure per square inch on the surface ex- 
 posed in port b is required to raise it, making it 
 obvious that in the position shown 15 pounds pressure 
 of air is retained in the brake-cylinder, holding the 
 train in check, while the mechanism of the triple 
 valves, being in release position, enables the prompt 
 recharging of the auxiliary reservoirs. On slight 
 grades or a level the handle should be turned down, 
 bringing ports b, a, e in communication with each 
 other, permitting the free exhaust of air to the atmos- 
 phere without passing the weighted valve, and there- 
 fore entirely releasing the brakes. 
 
 TRAIN-SIGNALING APPARATUS. 
 
 The compressed-air train-signaling apparatus is in- 
 tended for the easy and certain transmission of signals 
 from the train to the engineer, taking the place of the 
 old bell-cord, which, upon trains of any considerable 
 length, is quite unsatisfactory. 
 
 A separate line of f-inch pipe extends throughout 
 the entire train, and is united between the various 
 vehicles with hose and couplings, the same as in the 
 air-brake system, but the couplings, being of slightly 
 different proportions, cannot be united with the air- 
 brake couplings. 
 
 THE CAR DISCHARGE-VALVE. 
 
 A car discharge-valve, Fig. 32, is located at some 
 convenient position on each car, preferably above the 
 door and opposite the hole through which the old bell- 
 
286 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 cord passed, and is connected by means of pipe to the 
 main signal-pipe under the car. A comparatively light 
 cord passing through the car is attached to the lever 
 
 o Signal Eipe 
 
 Fig. 320.— A Whistle. Fig. 32.— Car Discharge Valve. 
 
 of the car discharge-valve, and, extending to the plat- 
 form, is fastened in a suitable manner, enabling the 
 use of the signal from any part of the car. 
 
 THE SIGNAL-VALVE. 
 
 A signal-valve, Fig. 34, may be attached by means 
 of lugs on the upper cap to the right running-board 
 of the engine under the cab. Suitable pipe-connec- 
 tions are made with the main signal-pipe and the 
 
THE WES TING I/O USE AIR-BRAKE. 
 
 287 
 
 signal- 
 which 
 in the 
 
 valve at Y, and at X to the small signal-whistle, 
 latter may be located in some convenient place 
 engine-cab. 
 
 TTT-7^ B 
 
 Fig. 33. — Pressure Reducing Valve. 
 
 REDUCING-VALVE. 
 
 A reducing- valve, Fig. 33, is connected by means 
 of pipes to the main reservoir of the air-brake system 
 and admits pressure therefrom to the signal-pipe, to 
 
288 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 which it is also connected, reduced to 40 pounds pres- 
 sure per square inch. This valve should be located 
 at some point of moderate warmth, in the engine-cab 
 if possible. 
 
 To WMsEle 
 
 Fig. 34. — Signal Valve. 
 
 HOW TO GIVE SIGNALS. 
 
 Signals are transmitted to the engineer from the 
 train by pulling the signal-cord on any car, thus open- 
 ing the car discharge-valve and causing a slight and 
 short discharge of air, which reduces the pressure 
 in the main signal-pipe and its connections, thus 
 automatically operating the signal-valve* on the en- 
 gine ; air is discharged through a small whistle in the 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 289 
 
 cab, sounding blasts corresponding to each pull of the 
 cord from the train, and which may be given at the 
 rate of one per second, a rule which should be gen- 
 erally observed, as too frequent and long discharges 
 of air at the car discharge-valve will somewhat confuse 
 them. A little practice will soon enable the operator 
 to make all necessary signals with entire accuracy. 
 
 OPERATION OF THE PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVE. 
 
 In the pressure-reducing valve spring 13 forces 
 diaphragm 1 1 upward, pushing valve 4 from its seat, 
 permitting pressure to flow from main reservoir to and 
 charging the signal-pipes. The resistance of spring 
 13 is such that when the signal-pipe has been charged 
 to 40 pounds pressure this pressure, acting upon the 
 exposed upper surface of diaphragm 11, forces it 
 downward, and spring 6, pushing valve 4 to its seat, 
 prevents further ingress of air until required by the 
 operation of the signal. This valve should occa- 
 sionally be cleansed of the gummy deposit sometimes 
 found to collect on the working-parts, which causes a 
 sluggish operation, but which may be largely avoided 
 if a good oil is sparingly used for lubricating the air- 
 cylinder of the pump, and if the main reservoir is 
 drained at intervals of its accumulation of water and 
 oil. 
 
 OPERATION OF THE CAR DISCHARGE-VALVE. 
 
 On the car discharge-valve a compound lever 5, to 
 which a signal-cord is fastened, when pulled pushes 
 open valve 3, permitting a small quantity of air to 
 
29O LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 escape from the signal-pipe, to a branch of which it is 
 attached, causing the whistle to sound on the engine. 
 
 OPERATION OF THE SIGNAL- VALVE. 
 
 In the signal-valve the two compartments A and 
 B are separated by a diaphragm 12, and the diaphragm- 
 stem attached thereto extends through bushing 9, its 
 end forming a valve on seat 7, which prevents the 
 egress of air to the whistle when seated. A small 
 portion of the diaphragm-stem 10 fits bushing 9 
 snugly, while just below its upper surface a cylindrical 
 groove is cut in the* stem and its lower end milled in 
 triangular form. Pressure enters the signal-valve at 
 Y y and, passing through port d, fills chamber A, and 
 through port c, past stem 10, fills chamber B. A 
 sudden reduction of pressure in the signal-pipe reduces 
 the pressure in chamber A on top of diaphragm 12, 
 when the greater pressure in chamber B, acting on its 
 under surface, forces it upward, momentarily permit- 
 ting a portion of the air in the signal-pipe and cham- 
 ber B to escape to the whistle, giving a signal to the 
 engineer. 
 
 It will be observed that a discharge of air from the 
 signal-pipe causes the air-whistle to sound on the 
 engine, and it is therefore apparent that all signal- 
 pipes should be perfectly tight, otherwise signals may 
 be given when not intended. 
 
 The Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. 
 
 The high-speed brake has been designed to meet 
 the exceptional requirements of regular trains which 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 2gi 
 
 are scheduled to run at much higher average rates of 
 speed than have heretofore prevailed in passenger- 
 train service. No arguments, or even statements of 
 fact, concerning the special conditions attending such 
 unusually speeded trains will be necessary to make it 
 clear to those operating them that the most efficient 
 means of promptly reducing speed is of the greatest 
 importance, if it can be secured by employing simple 
 and reliable appliances. The term reliable is used in 
 the most literal and extreme sense of its application 
 to mechanics, as the brake service upon such trains 
 requires that the brake-apparatus shall be character- 
 ized by this quality above all others. 
 
 The high-speed brake will stop passenger trains in 
 emergencies in about 30 per cent less distance than is 
 required with the best brakes heretofore used. 
 
 The brake-apparatus is the standard Westinghouse 
 quick-action with a pressure-regulating attachment. 
 
 The addition of pressure-regulating devices to the 
 existing quick-action brake fixtures for both locomo- 
 tives and cars is all that is required to convert them 
 into high-speed brakes. 
 
 The superior stopping capacity is obtained by in- 
 creasing the standard air-pressure of 70 pounds to 
 about no pounds. 
 
 THE HIGH-SPEED BRAKE-APPARATUS. 
 
 The apparatus of the high-speed brake is very sim- 
 ple. It consists of the quick-action air-brake appa- 
 ratus, as ordinarily applied to a passenger car—and 
 which is so familiar as to need no further explanation. 
 
292 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 — to which is added an automatic reducing-valve that 
 is adapted to be secured quite readily to the car-sills 
 or to any point in the vicinity of the brake-cylinder, 
 to which it is connected by means of suitable piping. 
 It is therefore only necessary to add this pressure- 
 reducing valve to the quick-action brake apparatus 
 already in use upon any passenger car provided with 
 standard brake-gear to convert the apparatus into the 
 high-speed brake. 
 
 This automatic pressure-reducing valve is so con- 
 structed that it remains inert in all service applications 
 of the brake unless, at any time, the brake-cylinder 
 pressure becomes greater than 60 pounds per square 
 inch (for which the pressure-reducing valve is ordi- 
 narily adjusted), in which case the reducing-valve 
 operates to promptly discharge from the brake-cylin- 
 der so much air as is necessary to restrict the cylinder- 
 pressure to 60 pounds. It will thus at once be 
 apparent that the maximum brake-cylinder pressure, 
 in all service applications of the brakes, is restricted 
 to 60 pounds, regardless of the air-pressure normally 
 carried in the train-pipe and auxiliary reservoirs. In 
 an emergency application of the brakes the violent 
 admission of a large volume of air to the brake-cylin- 
 der (only made possible by the quick-action feature of 
 locally venting the train-pipe) raises the pressure more 
 rapidly than it can be discharged through the capacious 
 service-port of the reducing-valve, and the port thereby 
 becomes partially closed, restricting the discharge of 
 air from the brake-cylinder in such a manner that 
 the pressure in the brake-cylinder does not become 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 293 
 
 reduced to 60 pounds until the speed of the train has 
 been very materially decreased. 
 
 In order to cause this high-speed brake apparatus 
 to become practically effective for producing the in- 
 creased stopping efficiency, the pressure of the air 
 carried in the train-pipe and auxiliary reservoirs is in* 
 creased from 70 pounds (the customary standard) to 
 about no pounds per square inch. With this pres- 
 sure in the train-pipe and auxiliary reservoirs an 
 emergency application of the brakes almost instantly 
 fills the brake-cylinders with air at nearly 85 pounds 
 pressure, thereby increasing the braking force from 
 about 90 per cent (the customary standard) to about 
 125 per cent of the weight of the car. Or, in other 
 words, the pressure of the brake-shoes upon the 
 wheels is about 40 per cent greater at this instant 
 than is realized by the mere use of the quick-action 
 brake. The air-pressure immediately begins to escape 
 from each brake-cylinder through the automatic re- 
 ducing-valve, and continues to do so until the brake- 
 cylinder pressure becomes 60 pounds, which is there- 
 after retained until the brakes are released by the 
 engineer. 
 
 RECORD OF THE PRACTICAL OPERATION OF THE 
 HIGH-SPEED BRAKE. 
 
 The high-speed brake apparatus was introduced 
 into practical service upon the tl Empire State Ex- 
 press " trains of the New York Central & Hudson 
 River Railroad five years ago, and has continued in 
 most satisfactory service since that time. We under- 
 
294 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 stand that during all that time, while the brake- 
 apparatus has rendered exceptionally efficient service, 
 not a single case of slid flat wheels has been reported 
 from the cars of those trains. 
 
 Early in October, 1894, a system of experiments 
 with the high-speed brake, in comparison with the 
 ordinary quick-action brake, was made upon a passen- 
 ger train of six cars upon the Pennsylvania Railroad. 
 These experiments were made upon a falling grade of 
 about 30 feet to the mile, and uniformly demonstrated 
 that, at a speed of 60 miles per hour, the emergency- 
 stops with the high-speed brake are more than 450 
 
 Plain Automatic Brake 
 
 III |tT .^^ ff 
 
 Quick.ActionJBrake 
 
 ] 
 
 m 
 
 High SpeedJBrake 
 
 rir finmrrriff 
 
 Fig. 35. — Relative Stopping Power of the Plain Automatic, 
 Quick-action, and High-speed Brakes. 
 
 feet shorter than with the ordinary quick-action brake. 
 Since that time the V Congressional Limited " trains 
 of the Pennsylvania Railroad, running between New 
 York and Washington, have been equipped with the 
 high-speed brake apparatus, which has operated in a 
 most efficient and highly satisfactory manner. 
 
 The record of the high-speed brake upon the fast 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 2g$ 
 
 trains of the New York Central and Pennsylvania 
 railroads has not only demonstrated the superior 
 efficiency of this brake-apparatus, but also fully justi- 
 fies our confidence in the thoroughly practical and 
 reliable character of the apparatus. 
 
 The progress in train-stopping during a period of 
 ten years, in which such strides have been made in 
 the speed of passenger transportation, is interestingly 
 illustrated by the diagram, Fig. 35, drawn to scale, 
 representing the stops made with the different types 
 of air-brakes. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE AUTOMATIC REDUCING- 
 VALVE. 
 
 Fig. 36 shows a vertical cross-section and Fig. 37 a 
 horizontal cross-section through the slide-valve of the 
 reducing-valve, which in practice is attached to some 
 convenient point on the car or engine by its bracket 
 X, and is connected to the brake-cylinder by piping 
 thereto, Fig. 37, at Z. It will be manifest that cham- 
 ber d is at all times in communication with the brake- 
 cylinder and that piston 4 will be subject to whatever 
 pressure may be therein, while an adjusting-spring 1 1, 
 on its opposite side, provides resistance to its move- 
 ment downward, which is limited to chamber c, or 
 until it strikes the upper surface of spring-case 3. 
 This resistance can be readily varied by adjusting-nut 
 12 as may be required. Combined with piston 4 is 
 its stem 6, fitted with two collars, between which 
 slide-valve 8 is carried and moved coincident with the 
 movement of piston 4 when subjected to air-pressure 
 
296 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 Fig. 36. — Automatic 
 Reducing- Valve. 
 
 t - 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 2C)J 
 
 from the brake-cylinder and such pressure is in excess 
 of the resistance of spring n. Slide-valve 8 is repre- 
 sented by cross-hatched lines in Figs. 37, 38, and 39, 
 and is fitted with a triangular-shaped port b in its 
 face, which is always in communication with chamber 
 d, while a rectangular form of port a is arranged in 
 its seat and is always in communication with the out- 
 side atmosphere at exhaust-opening Y. 
 
 NORMAL POSITION OF THE REDUCING SLIDE-VALVE. 
 
 In Figs. 36 and 37 the slide-valve 8 and its piston 
 4 are shown in the normal position occupied so long 
 as the pressure in the brake-cylinder does not exceed 
 60 pounds per square inch when used with passenger- 
 car brakes, or 50 pounds when used with driver- 
 brakes, suitable adjustment for either pressure being 
 made by compressing or releasing the tension on 
 spring 11. It will be noted that port b in the slide- 
 valve 8 and port a in its seat in this position are not 
 in register, and the pressure is therefore retained in the 
 cylinder until the release of the brakes is effected in 
 the usual manner. 
 
 POSITION OF SLIDE-VALVE, SERVICE 
 APPLICATION. 
 
 When the pressure in the brake-cylinder exceeds 
 60 pounds, with an ordinary service application of the 
 brakes the pressure acting on piston 4 moves it down- 
 ward slightly until port b in the slide-valve and port a 
 in its seat are brought into register, as in Fig. 38, 
 enabling the surplus air to be vented to the atmos- 
 
298 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 phere, when spring 1 1 forces the piston and slide- 
 valve to their normal position, as in Figs. 36 and 37, 
 closing the exhaust and retaining 60 pounds pressure 
 in the cylinder. The area of ports a and b is such 
 that in performing the function just described they 
 
 Fig. 38. — Position of Ports— Service Stop — Pressure 
 Exceeding 60 Pounds in Brake Cylinder. 
 
 are enabled to discharge the surplus air from the 
 brake cylinder to the atmosphere quite as rapidly as 
 it enters the brake-cylinder through a port in the 
 slide-valve of the triple valve of somewhat smaller 
 area. 
 
THE WESTIXGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 
 
 299 
 
 POSITION OF SLIDE-VALVE, EMERGENCY 
 APPLICATION. 
 
 The position taken by the piston 4 and slide-valve 
 8 in an emergency application of the brakes is shown 
 in Fig. 39. The violent admission of air to the 
 
 Fig. 39. — Position of Ports — Emergency Stop. 
 
 brake-cylinder suddenly drives piston 4 throughout its 
 entire traverse, until it rests on spring-case 3, when 
 the apex of port b in the slide-valve is brought into 
 conjunction with port <?, and a comparatively restricted 
 exhaust of the brake-cylinder air takes place while the 
 
300 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 train is at its highest speed, gradually increasing as 
 the pressure on piston 4 is lessened, and slowly moves 
 the slide-valve upwards in a degree proportional with 
 the reduction of speed of the train, until, finally clos- 
 ing, the desired pressure is retained in the brake- 
 cylinder until released in the ordinary manner. In 
 performing this function air-pressure in a large volume 
 is discharged into the brake-cylinder from both the 
 auxiliary reservoir and train-pipe through openings 
 largely in excess of the area of ports a and b, which 
 latter are consequently unable to discharge it to the 
 atmosphere with equal rapidity, enabling piston 4 to 
 be quickly driven throughout its entire possible 
 traverse, and the apex of port b is presented to port a, 
 giving an area through which the excess air is slowly 
 discharged to the atmosphere, but gradually increas- 
 ing in a required degree as the piston and slide-valve 
 ascend to their normally closed position. 
 
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 The high-speed brake should be operated by the 
 engineer precisely in the same manner as if he were 
 operating a train fitted with the ordinary quick-action 
 automatic brake. Whatever the pressure carried in the 
 train-pipe, a reduction of 20 pounds therein will fully 
 apply the brake, and a further reduction of this pressure 
 is merely a waste of air. The auxiliary reservoirs of 
 the cars fitted with high-speed brake apparatus, when 
 operated as a high-speed-braked train, are charged 
 with a high pressure to a degree that will admit of 
 three successive full applications of the brake, each 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 301 
 
 equivalent to an ordinary full-service application of 
 the quick-action brake, without recharging the reser- 
 voirs. 
 
 ROAD-WORK. 
 
 CARE OF THE AIR-PUMP. 
 
 In starting the pump the throttle should be opened 
 slowly, so that the condensation may pass off and the 
 pump get heated up. There are a great many opin- 
 ions as to how the pump should be regulated. Some 
 advocate the use of the wide-open throttle and others 
 the moderately open throttle. We do not think, 
 however, that either of these is safe to follow; but 
 the better way would be to run the pump according 
 to the way the train will demand. Perhaps a fairly 
 good rule to follow would be to use the throttle so 
 that the governor will occasionally shut the pump off. 
 
 OIL. 
 
 The quantity of oil that should be fed to the pump 
 cannot be set down at any arbitrary amount. The 
 demand of the train will regulate this. If the train is 
 long or the train-pipe leaking, more air will be re- 
 quired ; in which event more oil, of course, should be 
 fed to the pump. 
 
 PISTON-SWAB. 
 
 It has been found by long practice that it is better 
 to use a swab of candle-wicking, or some other like 
 material, around the piston-rod between the two 
 stuffing-boxes. This swab will catch considerable oil 
 
302 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 and condensation coming from the steam-cylinder, 
 and not only lubricate the packing in the stuffing- 
 boxes, but will also follow along the rod on down 
 through into the air-cylinder, where the lubricant will 
 serve a double duty. This will do away with any 
 great quantity of oil being fed into the air-cylinder 
 direct. However, if it should be necessary to give 
 the air-cylinder more lubricant than is furnished by 
 the swab, a little oil may be put in through the little 
 cup on top of the cylinder placed there for that pur- 
 pose. Under no circumstances should oil be sucked 
 in through the air-inlets. , 
 
 REPAIRING PUMP ON THE ROAD. 
 
 The air-pump is now so nearly perfect in its con- 
 struction and operation that very little, if any, work 
 upon it by the engineer is required on the road ; and 
 trains are run nowadays so thick and fast that there is 
 little opportunity offered for the engineer to do any 
 repairs, of any considerable extent, upon the air-pump 
 should it be demanded. For this reason a longer dis- 
 cussion of the care of the air-pump would be useless 
 here. 
 
 Handling of Freight and Passenger Trains 
 Partially or Wholly Equipped with Air- 
 brakes. 
 
 passenger trains. 
 
 The chief thing to look out for in successful hand- 
 ling of passenger trains is to so apply and release the 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 303 
 
 brakes that no shock will be experienced by the pas- 
 sengers in the train. 
 
 RUNNING TEST. 
 
 After the train has been gotten fairly under way a 
 slight reduction of train-pipe pressure should be made 
 for a running test. The engineer can thus tell by the 
 retardation or holding back of the train just how good 
 the air-brakes are holding. 
 
 In applying brakes care should be taken to reduce 
 train-pipe pressure 5 or 6 pounds, just enough to take 
 up the slack, and then add to the braking power as 
 the nature of the stop requires. The release should 
 be made shortly before the train comes to a full stop. 
 The recoil or disagreeable shock will thus be avoided, 
 but will be felt back in the cars, though not on the 
 engine, if this point is neglected. 
 
 The emergency-stop should never be used except 
 in case of actual emergencies. This does not mean 
 that emergencies are at water-tanks, coal-chutes, or 
 other places where merely accurate stops are required. 
 
 In case the emergency application is required the 
 brake-valve handle should be placed in emergency 
 position and left there. Do not try to save air in an 
 emergency-stop, but rather be sure that you get 
 stopped. 
 
 FREIGHT TRAINS. — TESTING. 
 
 All brakes should be cut in and tested. If any are 
 found defective they may then be cut out. Be sure 
 
304 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 to test brakes at the terminal of the road before 
 starting out. 
 
 In making tests a train-pipe pressure of at least 60 
 pounds should be had before any attempt at testing 
 is made. In applying brakes for the test reduce the 
 train-pipe pressure from 15 to 20 pounds, but no 
 more. Then have the inspectors or the trainmen go 
 along the train and note the piston-travel of each car. 
 Should this travel be less than 4 inches or more than 
 8 inches, it should be brought within these limits. 
 Before the testing all the hand-brakes should be 
 known to be off. 
 
 Do not expect a few air-brakes to do all the work 
 on a long train. No doubt some of the hand-brakes 
 (those right back of the air-brake cars) will be needed 
 to assist. It might be well to bear in mind that the 
 leakage from train-pipe will assist the engineer in 
 applying brakes. His applications should be made 
 with this in mind. 
 
 HAND-BRAKES. 
 
 Hand-brakes on the rear end of a partially equipped 
 air-braked train should never be used except to stop 
 the train when backing up. 
 
 GATHERING SLACK. 
 
 In making an application of brakes on a partially 
 or fully equipped air-braked freight train great care 
 should be taken in gathering the slack. A close 
 watch should be therefore kept on the air-gauge to see 
 that about 5 or 6 pounds of train-pipe pressure is 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 305 
 
 drawn off in the initial reduction. The engineer 
 should then wait for the crowding sensation which 
 tells him that the slack is bunched before he makes a 
 further application. Air-brakes should never be re- 
 leased on a freight train before it is brought to a full 
 stop. 
 
 SAGS AND KNOLLS. 
 
 The handling of a freight train over an uneven road 
 is a very difficult matter. Where sags and knolls 
 exist there is great danger of the train breaking in two 
 unless the engineer exercises great care and judgment 
 in controlling the slack of his train. 
 
 In passing through a sag a light application of the 
 brakes just before the engine reaches it, or using a 
 little steam as the engine passes beyond it, prevents 
 the shock which is the cause of the train breaking in 
 two. 
 
 In passing over the summit of a short knoll or of 
 a " let-up " on the generally descending grade steam 
 should be used to stretch the train just before the 
 summit is reached, or air-brake applied as the engine 
 passes the summit. 
 
 In making stops at water-tanks with long air-braked 
 freight trains the better course perhaps is to cut off 
 the engine before taking water. However, if proper 
 care and judgment be exercised, this will not be 
 necessary. 
 
 BREAK-IN-TWOS. 
 
 Should the engineer at any time feel the brakes 
 applied on his train from any unknown cause he 
 
306 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 should immediately shut off steam and place his brake- 
 valve handle on lap. This will prevent the broken 
 sections (for his train has probably broken in two) 
 from getting separated and running together. 
 
 ECONOMY IN USE OF AIR. 
 
 The engineer should endeavor to have a high main- 
 reservoir pressure at all times, and make his stops and 
 hold his train without going to the full limit of 20 
 pounds application each time. 
 
 REVERSING. 
 
 The locomotive should never be reversed when the 
 air-brakes are applied. Actual tests have demon- 
 strated that a good air-brake will hold more than a 
 locomotive reversed. It has also been proved that 
 the engine reversed and air-brakes applied at the same 
 time will slide the driving-wheels. 
 
 USE OF SAND. 
 
 In using sand in making stops the sand should 
 reach the rail before the brakes are applied, or early 
 in the stage of application, and not after the brakes 
 have been fully applied and train is running by. In 
 using sand in the latter case flat wheels will surely 
 result. 
 
 DOUBLE-HEADER TRAINS- 
 
 When two or more locomotives are used on the 
 head end of the same train, the first engine should do 
 the braking; the other engine being cut out with the 
 
THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE. 307 
 
 cock below the brake-valve. The pumps on all en- 
 gines, however, should be kept running in case of 
 emergency, or in case a simultaneous charging by all 
 engines be desired. 
 
 In stopping for coal or water on an up-grade the 
 last engine should be served first and the first engine 
 last. On the down-grade this order should be 
 reversed. 
 
 RETAINING- VALVES. 
 
 Retaining-valves should be used on all freight and 
 passenger trains running down heavy grades. It 
 might be well, in order to be on the safe side, to use 
 the retaining-valves even though the engineer could 
 possibly drop the train down the grade without their 
 assistance. 
 
 Retaining-valves on the locomotive- and tender- 
 brakes, and so placed as to be within easy reach of 
 the engineer, have proved to be of great value in 
 holding in the slack of long trains, especially in mak- 
 ing accurate stops at coal-chutes, switches, and water- 
 tanks. 
 
 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 Carry 70 pounds train-line pressure. 
 
 Watch the slack carefully in applying brakes on 
 freight trains, especially those partially equipped, and 
 in releasing use steam gradually and carefully until 
 you are sure rear brakes are off and slack of train is 
 stretched. 
 
 Never use the emergency unless it is actually de- 
 manded. 
 
308 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 Always figure to make your stops and hold your 
 train down grades with a little less than your full 
 brake power. 
 
 Run the pump just fast enough to supply the train, 
 and let the governor shut it off occasionally. 
 
 Release brakes on passenger trains in time to allow 
 the trucks to adjust themselves and avoid the dis- 
 agreeable shock to passengers. 
 
 Always test brakes before leaving a terminal and 
 after the train has been cut in two and coupled up 
 again. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 TRACTIVE POWER AND TRAIN RESISTANCE. 
 
 HOW TO CALCULATE THE POWER OF LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 The practice of tonnage-rating, which has been 
 steadily growing in favor for the last few years, has 
 set many officials, outside of the mechanical depart- 
 ments, to figuring upon the power of locomotives, and 
 on the trains all kinds of engines ought to haul over 
 certain divisions. To meet this demand I have deter- 
 mined to write particulars by which any man, know- 
 ing the first four rules of arithmetic, can figure out for 
 himself the tonnage that any locomotive can haul on 
 any grade or curve. The information to be given is 
 found in other engineering-books, but many railroad- 
 men do not know where to look for the technical data 
 they need. 
 
 HORSE-POWER OF STEAM-ENGINES. 
 
 The power capacity of steam-engines is generally 
 expressed in horse-power, which is a measurable 
 quantity and is based on the arbitrary measure of one 
 horse-power being equal to the effort of raising 33,000 
 pounds one foot per minute. That is the unit used 
 
 309 
 
310 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 for measuring the power transmitted by nearly all 
 kinds of prime motors and machines. It is sometimes 
 applied to locomotives, but for a variety of reasons 
 the horse-power capacity of a locomotive does not 
 convey to the ordinary railroad mind its capacity for 
 hauling different kinds of trains. The utility of a 
 locomotive for train-pulling has to be expressed in a 
 different way. 
 
 HOW PRACTICAL RAILROADMEN ESTIMATE POWER 
 OF LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 When practical railroadmen know the size of cylin- 
 ders, the diameter of driving-wheels, the weight rest- 
 ing upon them, and the boiler dimensions, they 
 understand what kind of service the engine is adapted 
 for, and in a general way what weight of train it will 
 haul. A general idea of power is, however, a guess 
 which may be considerably away from the truth. 
 Guessing is not a good basis for designing or estimat- 
 ing the power of a locomotive, and so methods have 
 been devised for figuring out the power and speed 
 that certain dimensions will develop which are as cor- 
 rect and reliable as any other engineering rules. It 
 has become customary to reckon the power of a loco- 
 motive by the tractive force the driving-wheels will 
 exert upon the rail — that is, the resisting weight 
 which the engine will start from a state of rest. 
 
 ADHESION AND TRACTIVE POWER. 
 
 The tractive force is the power which the pistons of 
 a locomotive are capable of exerting through the driv- 
 
TRACTIVE POWER AXD TRAIX RESISTANCE. 311 
 
 ing-wheels to move engine and train. The efficiency 
 of the engine's tractive power is dependent upon the 
 adhesion of the wheels to the rails. When adhesion 
 is insufficient, the power transmitted through the 
 pistons and rods will slip the wheels, and no useful 
 effect will result. To prevent the slipping of locomo- 
 tive driving-wheels, it is necessary to put resting upon 
 them at least four times in weight the force available 
 for turning them. If the weight is five or six times 
 the piston power, the engine will do its work with 
 less annoyance from slipping than would be the case 
 with less weight. To prevent slipping on unwashed, 
 greasy rails, more than double the adhesion would 
 be necessary for that required on dry, clean rails. 
 This cannot often be done, but the sand-box provides 
 the means for obtaining adhesion when the rails are 
 in bad order. 
 
 FIGURING PARTICULARS OF TRACTIVE POWER. 
 
 Let us calculate the tractive power of the kind of 
 engine most commonly used for hauling heavy passen- 
 ger and fast freight trains, which has cylinders 19 X 26 
 inches, driving-wheels 69 inches diameter, with a 
 working pressure of 2CO pounds to the square inch. 
 The method by which the traction of a locomotive is 
 calculated is to square the diameter of the cylinders 
 in inches, multiply that by the length of the stroke in 
 inches, and divide by the diameter of the driving- 
 wheels in inches. The product of that sum will be 
 the power exerted by the engine for every pound of 
 pressure that reaches the cylinders from the boiler. 
 
312 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 A rule established by the Railway Master Mechanics' 
 Association makes out that 85 per cent of the boiler- 
 pressure is a fair average of what pressure will be 
 available in the cylinders at slow speed. 
 
 Follow that rule and the formula whereby we have 
 described the method for finding out the tractive 
 power of this particular locomotive would be 
 
 1 ~ D > 
 
 which means 
 
 d= diameter in inches squared; 
 L = the length of stroke in inches; 
 p = the mean effective pressure on piston ; 
 D = the diameter of the driving-wheels in inches; 
 T = the equivalent tractive force at the rails in 
 pounds. 
 
 To apply this rule in practice, we find that d* 
 means multiply 19 by itself, or square, so we have 19 
 X 19 = 361 X 26 (the stroke in inches) = 9386 X 
 170 (mean effective pressure) = 1,595,620 -r- 69 (the 
 diameter in inches of driving-wheels) = 23,125. This 
 gives 23,125 pounds as the power exerted at the cir- 
 cumference of the wheels, from which a deduction of 
 about 10 per cent is usually made for internal friction. 
 We have assumed the boiler-pressure to be 200 
 pounds and have used 85 per cent of it. 
 
 The formula described seems at first sight theoreti- 
 cal, and not based on a good philosophical foundation ; 
 but it is merely a short way, and agrees in results 
 
TRACTIVE POWER AND TRAIN RESISTANCE, 313 
 
 with more detailed methods of calculation. It agrees 
 with another plan which is more in favor with civil 
 engineers. That is, to ascertain the foot-pounds of 
 work the engine is doing during each revolution of the 
 driving-wheels. By dividing the total thus found by 
 the circumference of the drivers in feet the force 
 exerted through each foot which the engine moves is 
 found. 
 
 CIVIL engineers' method of calculating 
 
 TRACTIVE POWER. 
 
 Taking the same engine that we have figured on, 
 with pistons 19 inches diameter, the area of one pis- 
 ton is 283.5294 square inches. This is multiplied by 
 the mean average pressure of the steam, giving 
 283.5294 X 170 = 48,199.9980, which gives the ag- 
 gregate pressure exerted by the steam on one piston. 
 Multiplying that by 2 to take in both pistons, we have 
 96,399.9960 X 4i feet (the stroke moved in a full 
 revolution of the driving-wheels) = 417.733.3160 -7- 
 18.0642 (the circumference of the driving-wheels in 
 feet) = 23,125 pounds tractive force, the same as by 
 the other rule. 
 
 There are several other methods of calculating 
 locomotive tractive power, but they need not be 
 described, as they bring precisely the same figures as 
 those found. 
 
 FINDING THE HORSE-POWER OF A LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 When people wish to find the horse-power developed 
 by a locomotive at various speeds, the steam-engine 
 
3 14 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 indicator is usually employed to show the mean effec- 
 tive pressure inside of the cylinders. To explain the 
 process to be followed, we will draw on our own ex- 
 perience with a representative locomotive pulling a 
 fast passenger train. 
 
 The writer took indicator-diagrams to find out the 
 amount of work done by the locomotive in taking the 
 Empire State Express over the New York Central 
 Railroad. The details were published in Locomotive 
 Engineering, June, 1892. A very common speed was 
 60 miles an hour. The engine had cylinders 19 X 24 
 inches, and driving-wheels 78 inches diameter. The 
 indicator-diagram proved that the average cylinder- 
 pressure at 60 miles an hour was 53.7 pounds per 
 square inch. The horse-power is calculated in the 
 following manner: 
 
 283.5294 square inches piston area; 
 53.7 pounds M.E. pressure; 
 
 15,225.5 pressure on one piston; 
 2 pistons; 
 
 30,451 pressure transmitted from both cylinders: 
 4 feet piston-travel in each revolution; 
 
 121,804 
 
 260 revolutions per minute; 
 
 31,669,040 -f- 33,000 = 959 horse-power. 
 
 That method of calculation, of course, applies to 
 all locomotives, and can be used when the area of 
 piston, revolutions per minute, and mean effective 
 cylinder-pressure are known. 
 
TRACTIVE POWER AND TRAIN RESISTANCE. 3 1 5 
 
 In the case recorded the mean effective cylinder- 
 pressure was little more than 33.5 per cent of the 
 boiler-pressure. When the same engine was running 
 at 37.1 miles an hour, making 160 revolutions per 
 minute, the M.E.P. was 59.2 pounds, and 37 was the 
 percentage of boiler-pressure. At 20 revolutions per 
 minute the mean effective pressure would be little 
 short of the 85 per cent of boiler-pressure of the 
 master mechanics' rule, but it would gradually de- 
 crease as the piston speed increased. 
 
 The work that a locomotive has to do in pulling a 
 train is described under the heading of Train Resist- 
 ances. 
 
 TO CALCULATE THE POWER OF COMPOUND 
 LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 To calculate the tractive power of compound loco- 
 motives, it is necessary first to know what the mean 
 effective pressure on the pistons is in every case, and 
 any attempt at a theoretical exposition of the methods 
 for arriving at this information by calculation is very 
 unsatisfactory and inaccurate, for this reason: In the 
 case of the two-cylinder compound there are too 
 many unknown quantities, among which are the vol- 
 ume of receiver, pressure of live steam through reduc- 
 ing-valve, and the amount of back-pressure. In the 
 case of the four-cylinder compound there is no 
 receiver, but the element of back-pressure is present 
 on the high-pressure piston. For these reasons cal- 
 culated pressures are not reliable for finding the power 
 of this type of engine. The indicator furnishes the 
 
3l6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 means to arrive at the correct mean effective pressure, 
 and the formula for a two-cylinder compound when 
 the mean effective pressure is known is 
 
 d* X M.E.P . X s 
 
 in which d* = diameter of low pressure squared, 
 M.E.P. = mean effective pressure, s = stroke in 
 inches, and D = diameter of driving-wheel. In the 
 absence of indicator-cards showing cylinder-pressures 
 for a given boiler-pressure, approximate results may 
 be had by taking the mean effective pressure in the 
 high-pressure cylinder at 70 per cent of boiler-pres- 
 sure, which for 200 pounds boiler-pressure would be 
 140 pounds. If the reducing-valve gives steam to 
 the low-pressure cylinder so as to equalize the work 
 on both the pistons, the low pressure cylinder will 
 have a mean effective pressure of about 60 pounds for 
 a ratio of cylinder of 2.3, which is the ratio between 
 23- and 35-inch cylinders. Referring the mean effec- 
 tive pressure to terms of the low-pressure cylinder, 
 we have 
 
 140 
 60 -| =60 + 61 = 121 pounds. 
 
 Placing the values in the formula, the tractive power 
 equals 
 
 35 a X 121 X 32 
 
 2 X 55 
 
 = 43, 120 pounds. 
 
 If a deduction of 7 per cent for internal friction is 
 made, the net tractive power is about 40,000 pounds. 
 
TRACTIVE POWER AND TRAIN RESISTANCE. 317 
 
 The tractive power of the four-cylinder compound is 
 also found by taking mean effective pressures known 
 to have been found in service. These may be taken 
 at 44 and 46 per cent of the boiler-pressure for the 
 high- and low-pressure cylinders, respectively, which 
 for 200 pounds gauge-pressure equals 88 and 92 
 pounds mean effective pressure. Taking, for an ex- 
 ample, an engine with high-pressure cylinders 18 
 inches diameter, low-pressure cylinders 30 inches 
 diameter, stroke 30 inches, and diameter of drivers 55, 
 inches, the ratio of cylinder areas is 2.j f j\ and again 
 referring the pressures to the low-pressure cylinder 
 
 88 
 we have 92 -f- = 123 pounds mean effective 
 
 pressure in the low-pressure cylinders. Placing these 
 values in the formula, which in this case is somewhat 
 different from the other, owing to the fact that there 
 are now two cylinders to consider instead of one, we 
 have 
 
 30 2 X 123 X 30 , 
 = 60,300 pounds. 
 
 Taking out 7 per cent for friction, as before, the tract- 
 ive power is about $6,000 pounds. For their four- 
 cylinder compounds the Baldwin Locomotive Works 
 take § of the boiler-pressure for the mean effective 
 pressure in the high-pressure cylinder, and \ for the 
 mean effective pressure in the low-pressure cylinder; 
 for two-cylinder compounds take f of the boiler-pres- 
 sure for the mean effective pressure for the high-pres- 
 sure cylinder. The variation between high- and 
 
3l8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 low-pressure cylinders in the two-cylinder type will, 
 of course, be compensated by the reduced mean effect- 
 ive pressure in the low-pressure cylinder. 
 
 RESISTANCES OF TRAINS. 
 
 The work which a locomotive performs in pulling a 
 train is expended in overcoming the resistance due to 
 wheel-friction, gradients, curves, and atmospheric or 
 wind pressure. Ever since railroad trains began to be 
 operated engineers have been striving to devise 
 formulae for showing the train resistance at various 
 speeds. From what we have found out in investigat- 
 ing this subject we do not believe that it is possible 
 to devise a formula that will show an approximation 
 of the resistance due to different kinds of trains at 
 different speeds when train-tons are the basis of calcu- 
 lation. 
 
 The character and the load of the cars have a 
 decided influence upon the resistance per ton of the 
 train. Thus records made on the Chicago, Burlington 
 & Quincy by the aid of the dynamometer-car and in- 
 dicator-diagrams taken from the locomotive showed 
 that with a train of loaded freight cars weighing 940 
 tons, running at a speed of 20 miles an hour, the 
 average resistance on a straight, level track was 5-J 
 pounds to the ton. A train of empty freight cars 
 weighing 340 tons run at the same speed showed an 
 average resistance of about 12 pounds to the ton. 
 
 There is good reason for believing that the heavier 
 the cars in a train are loaded the smaller the ton re- 
 sistance is, just as was cited in the case of the loaded 
 
TRACTIVE POWER AND TRAIN RESISTANCE. 319 
 
 and empty cars. A particularly heavy train of freight 
 cars, weighing, with engine and tender, 3428 tons, 
 pulled over the* New York Central, to test the power 
 of a new type of locomotive, indicated that the resist- 
 ance at 20 miles an hour was about 4 pounds per ton. 
 
 We have collected a great mass of information con- 
 cerning the resistance of trains, and careful study of 
 the facts convinces us that to show an approximation 
 of the resistance of different kinds of trains it is 
 necessary to treat every one separately. The late 
 A. M. Wellington, of the Engineering News, devoted 
 a great deal of study to the subject of train resistances, 
 and in his day was probably the best living authority 
 thereon. In 1892 the author took steam-engine in- 
 dicator-diagrams from an engine pulling the Empire 
 State Express, and in publishing them made some 
 deductions about the resistance of the train. Mr. 
 Wellington took the figures presented and compared 
 them with records made by William Stroudley with 
 express trains on the London, Chatham & South 
 Coast Railway. From that and other data he worked 
 up a diagram of train resistances particulars of which 
 will be given. 
 
 While investigating the power of locomotives re- 
 quired to pull certain heavy fast express trains Mr. 
 S. A. Vauclain, of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, 
 carried on a series of independent experiments, and 
 he found the train resistances a little less than those 
 formulated by Wellington; but he expressed the belief 
 that Wellington's figures were near enough for all 
 practical purposes. 
 
320 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 From the facts which we have obtained from 
 dynamometer-car records and other sources that may 
 be relied on to be nearly correct we have worked out 
 the two lines added to the Wellington and Vauclain 
 formulae given in the subjoined table: 
 
 RESISTANCE PER TON OF 2000 POUNDS. 
 
 Miles per Hour. 
 
 IO 
 
 20 
 
 3° 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 Resistance in pounds per ton. 
 Heavy passenger train : 
 
 4-5 
 
 6 
 
 9-5 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 II 
 
 12.5 
 17 
 
 17 
 13 
 
 19 
 15 
 
 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 5.8 
 7-5 
 
 9.2 
 
 TI 
 
 ". 3 
 
 14 
 
 Empty freight cars .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 These figures apply to trains running on a straight, 
 level track on a calm day. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 DRAFT APPLIANCES. 
 
 ORDINARY ARRANGEMENTS FOR CREATING DRAFT. 
 
 The capacity of the boiler for generating steam 
 with great rapidity was what made high-speed loco- 
 motives a possibility. The filling of the boiler with 
 small flue-tubes and the employing of a strong arti- 
 ficial draft were the principal means used in making 
 the locomotive boiler a success. Various methods 
 were for a time tried in maintaining the strong draft 
 necessary; but it is now generally admitted that the 
 emission of the exhaust-steam through the smoke- 
 stack is the most efficient and simple means of creat- 
 ing the pull on the fire necessary to generate the great 
 volume of steam used by the cylinders of a locomo- 
 tive. 
 
 The ordinary arrangement of draft appliances is as 
 simple as it is efficient. Referring to the illustration 
 Fig. 40, the fuel rests on the grates uu> and receives 
 through the grate-openings the air necessary to sustain 
 and stimulate combustion. The gases released from 
 the burning fuel pass up into the body of the fire-box 
 BB, thence into the flue-tubes xxx to the smoke-box 
 
 321 
 
322 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 CC, from whence they pass to the atmosphere by the 
 smoke-stack D. In traversing this route the fuel- 
 gases impart the greater portion of their heat to the 
 water surrounding the sheets and flues; and the greater 
 the proportion of the heat imparted to the water the 
 greater is the efficiency of the boiler. There is a 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 remarkable difference in the faculty of boilers for 
 absorbing the heat of the fire-gases, and not a little of 
 this difference is due to the design and arrangement 
 of the draft appliances. 
 
 Locomotive engineers and firemen do not design or 
 make the draft appliances of the engines they operate; 
 
DRAFT APPLIANCES. $2$ 
 
 but they have a great deal to do with adjustments of 
 the same, and an intelligent study of the action of 
 the draft appliances may often save them from much 
 unnecessary labor, and the company from useless 
 expense. 
 
 ACTION OF THE DRAFT-CREATING FORCES. 
 
 When a locomotive is at work the steam passes 
 through the exhaust-pipe a through the nozzle b> and 
 shoots up through the stack like a projectile, the 
 velocity depending on the pressure of the steam re- 
 leased, and on the size of the nozzle-opening through 
 which it has to pass. The greater the quantity of 
 steam passing through the cylinders, the greater, 
 under ordinary circumstances, will be the draft in- 
 duced. 
 
 Draft by the exhaust-steam passing from the 
 exhaust-pipe through the smoke-stack appears to be 
 created in two ways. The steam acts partly on the 
 surrounding air or gases it passes through to induce a 
 current by friction of the particles; or, on the other 
 hand, its compact volume fills the smoke-stack like a 
 piston, inducing draft by leaving a partial vacuum 
 behind like the action of a pump-plunger. Whether 
 the current be induced by friction or by the piston- 
 like action, the air in the smoke-box is rarefied, and 
 there being only one means of ingress to fill the par- 
 tial void, the pressure of the atmosphere forces air 
 through the grates into the fire in its passage to the 
 smoke-box by way of the tubes. 
 
 Inducing a current by friction is the principle the 
 
324 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING, 
 
 steam-jet works on, and when that is the mode of the 
 exhaust action in maintaining draft the nozzle is 
 merely an enlarged jet-opening. There is no doubt 
 that when the exhaust-steam acts like a plunger in the 
 smoke-stack to leave a partial vacuum behind, a more 
 perfect draft can be maintained with the same steam 
 velocity than where the draft is created by friction; 
 yet the latter practice of draft induction is largely fol- 
 lowed in American locomotives. In ordinary work- 
 ing at moderately high piston speed the exhaust acts 
 in both ways. At low speed the plunger action alone 
 ought to provide the required draft. 
 
 DIFFERENT WAYS OF PASSING EXHAUST-STEAM INTO 
 THE STACK. 
 
 Under whatever conditions a locomotive is worked, 
 the intensity of draft created by a given volume or 
 velocity of exhaust-steam will depend, to a great 
 extent, upon the way the nozzle or nozzles and their 
 connections pass the steam into the stack. If the 
 steam passes centrally into the stack in a compact 
 form, and expands on its passage just enough to fill 
 the stack at its base, a low tension of exhaust-steam 
 will serve to leave a comparatively high vacuum 
 behind, which will instantly be filled by the gases that 
 pass through the flues. This perfect action of the 
 exhaust-steam in creating draft is not so general as it 
 ought to be. 
 
 In Fig. 41 the escaping steam is shown expanding 
 sufficiently to fill the stack just as it enters the base 
 casting. When this happens, the stack acts like a 
 
DRAFT APPLIANCES. 
 
 325 
 
 is sometimes 
 
 such a form 
 
 not fill the 
 
 half way up. 
 
 pump-barrel delivering a full charge at each stroke. 
 In such a case, a stackful of 
 gas is pumped out of the 
 smoke-box with every ex- 
 haust, and the vacuum 
 necessary for making steam 
 will be maintained with a 
 low velocity of exhaust- 
 steam, which means that a 
 large nozzle may be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The steam 
 delivered in 
 that it does 
 stack till it is 
 
 The exhaust-steam in this 
 case will pump only about 
 a half stackful out of the smoke-box with each puff of 
 steam, and the necessary vacuum will be maintained 
 partly by the pumping action and partly by friction 
 of the escaping steam on the gases. A higher steam 
 velocity is required to create the needed draft in this 
 case. 
 
 Fig. 42 illustrates a defect of exhaust action very 
 common where double nozzles are used. Its effect is 
 similar to that mentioned in the last paragraph; but 
 in some cases it is much worse, for the exhaust-steam 
 hugs the side of the stack the whole way up, and by 
 that means loses a portion of its draft-creating power. 
 This same effect sometimes comes from a single nozzle 
 being set out of plumb. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
326 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 Fig. 43 illustrates another pernicious form of bad 
 adjustment. In this case the steam strikes wide at 
 the base of the stack, and delivers some of its volume 
 
 Fig. 42. Fig. 43. 
 
 into the smoke-box, which impairs the efficiency of 
 the pumping action. 
 
 Although in these illustrations I have used only the 
 open stack, the defects pointed out apply equally well 
 to engines having low nozzles, petticoat-pipes, and 
 diamond stacks. 
 
 EXHAUST-PIPES AND NOZZLES. 
 
 The first function of an exhaust-pipe is to convey 
 the used steam from the cylinders. The form that 
 will carry off the steam so that the least possible 
 
DRAFT APPLIANCES. Z 2 7 
 
 degree of back-pressure is left to obstruct the piston 
 is the best for locomotives. The best form that can 
 be used will cause considerable back-pressure at high 
 piston speeds. When the exhaust-pipe is designed to 
 open at the bottom of the smoke-box, it is necessary 
 to use double nozzles, to prevent the presence of 
 severe back-pressure in the cylinders caused by the 
 steam passing through the exhaust pipes from one 
 cylinder into the other. The two pipes come together 
 below in such a shape that this cannot be prevented. 
 
 When double nozzles are used with a high exhaust- 
 pipe, the greatest possible care should be taken to 
 adjust the nozzles to deliver the steam as nearly cen- 
 tral in the stack as possible. When an engine having 
 this arrangement is not steaming satisfactorily, it is a 
 good plan to watch how the steam strikes in the stack. 
 
 Where a high exhaust-pipe is used, it is best to 
 employ a single nozzle. Careful experiments have 
 proved that a well-designed exhaust-pipe ending in a 
 single nozzle gives the best results in creating draft ; 
 but unless the exhaust-pipe is large and properly 
 shaped, the engine is likely to suffer from back-pres- 
 sure in the cylinders. 
 
 It might naturally be supposed that the arrange- 
 ment of exhaust which produced the highest vacuum 
 would produce the best results in steam-making; but 
 that is not always the case. Very carefully conducted 
 experiments, carried out to find the relative value of 
 different draft appliances, showed decidedly that a 
 lower smoke-box vacuum would keep up steam with 
 a well-arranged single nozzle than with any form of 
 
328 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 double nozzle. The tendency of the double nozzle 
 was to make an uneven vacuum in the smoke- box. 
 That is, there would be a higher vacuum near the 
 place where the exhaust steam passed than at any 
 other part of the smoke-box. This would in its turn 
 lead to the gases crowding towards a certain part of 
 the tube-openings, and have the same effect as a badly 
 adjusted diaphragm-plate. 
 
 THE PETTICOAT-PIPE. 
 
 Where low nozzles are employed, a petticoat-pipe 
 must intervene to convey the steam centrally to the 
 stack. With this combination, the size and shape of 
 the petticoat-pipe must be adapted to the size of 
 nozzles, diameter of stack, and height of smoke-box. 
 In addition to being useful for leading the steam into 
 the smoke-stack, the petticoat-pipe has proved an 
 efficient means of equalizing the draft through the 
 tubes. Unless some regulating device is used to make 
 the gases of combustion pass evenly through the tubes, 
 the stronger rush of the draft will be through the upper 
 rows, and in consequence the lower rows will get 
 choked up with cinders and soot. The petticoat-pipe 
 when properly adjusted is a remedy for this. There 
 is a certain position where the petticoat-pipe will 
 produce the best steaming results, and a very small 
 change from that position will affect the steaming 
 qualities injuriously. A very small change will result 
 in making a big rush of gas through a few tubes, while 
 the others get very little heat to make steam with. 
 
DRAFT APPLIANCES. Z 2 9 
 
 SMOKE-STACKS. 
 
 A recognized rule among us in smoke-stack design- 
 ing has been to make the stack of a diameter one inch 
 less than the diameter of the cylinder. There is really 
 no proper connection between the diameters of cylin- 
 der and smoke-stack; but the rule worked fairly well 
 with diamond stacks, where an inch or two of difference 
 in the diameter of the stack was of little consequence. 
 The diameter and shape of the petticoat-pipe was 
 what had to be carefully watched with a diamond 
 stack. 
 
 With an open stack the case is different. The 
 function of the stack is to pass out the gases that are 
 drawn through the grates and flues, and therefore its 
 size ought to bear some relation to the cross-section 
 of flues or to the grate area. To cause the exhaust- 
 steam from a single nozzle to produce draft by the 
 pumping action, the stack must be small enough to 
 permit the compact exhaust-steam to fill it at the base. 
 When the stack is too large for this, an increased 
 exhaust velocity is required to keep up steam. A 
 reduction of stack area away below the diameter of the 
 cylinder will generally permit of the enlarging of the 
 nozzle. 
 
 Where the diamond stack is used, the size and shape 
 of the cone and its attachments make a material differ- 
 ence in the steaming qualities of a locomotive, but it 
 is merely a case of great or greater obstruction to the 
 draft. The tendency is to improve the cone by 
 abolishing it altogether; but where that remedy is not 
 
33° LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 in order, it should be constructed and set so that the 
 gases will not rebound into the cylindrical part of the 
 stack after striking the cone. Where the cone is set 
 low in the diamond this is liable to happen. When 
 the lower angle of the diamond is formed flat, the 
 tendency is to cause an eddy of the escaping gases, 
 which is detrimental to free steaming. 
 
 THE EXTENSION SMOKE-BOX AND DIAPHRAGM-PLATE. 
 
 The purpose of these appliances has been explained 
 fully on preceding pages. The extension front is put 
 on to form a receptacle for sparks ; and the diaphragm- 
 plate acts as a guide to lead the sparks forward beyond 
 the point of strong exhaust suction. 
 
 The diaphragm is likewise used to regulate the draft 
 through the tubes, and when properly designed it does 
 this work very successfully. It should not, however, 
 be forgotten that the diaphragm is a necessary evil, the 
 same as the cone in the diamond stack, and that under 
 the best possible arrangement it is still an obstruction 
 to draft. Where it can be made to perform its func- 
 tions of clearing the lower rows of tubes with the least 
 possible obstruction to draft, there the engine will 
 steam most freely, other things being equal. Not a 
 little of the trouble experienced to make engines with 
 extension fronts steam freely has arisen through stupid 
 design and arrangement of the diaphragm. I hap- 
 pened upon a case which illustrates this point. On a 
 first-class road, celebrated for its advanced style of 
 machinery, there was an engine that was noted as a 
 poor steamer. A shrewd engineer took this engine 
 
DRAFT- APPLIANCES. 33 I 
 
 out, one day, because his regular engine was held in 
 for repairs. The engine steamed badly from the start, 
 and the train was got over the road by slow torture. 
 This engineer, however, knew his business, and as the 
 engine was of the same class as the one he ran daily, 
 he saw no reason why she should not steam equally as 
 well. At the end of the division he opened the smoke- 
 box door for inspection, and the diaphragm was found 
 so far down and so close to the tube-sheet that the 
 draft was badly obstructed. He had it raised to what 
 he considered the proper position, and on the return 
 journey the engine steamed admirably, and threw no 
 fire. On returning to his starting-point, this engineer 
 went to the master mechanic in charge and explained 
 the experience he had gone through with the engine. 
 Was he commended for his intelligence and zeal ? 
 By no means. He was told that he had no right to 
 touch the diaphragm. It was set in the standard 
 position, and standards on this road are like the laws 
 of the Medes and Persians — unchangeable. It looked 
 like a case of devotion to standards run to seed. A 
 very slight change in the diaphragm-plate often affects 
 the steaming of an engine as materially as a small 
 change in the position of a petticoat-pipe. 
 
CHAPTER XXL 
 COMBUSTION. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF COAL ECONOMY. 
 
 THE coal account of the locomotive department 
 constitutes a very important element in railroad ex- 
 penditures; it makes a heavy drain upon every railroad 
 in the country. A saving of 15 per cent in the coal 
 account of a railroad might often have been the means 
 of keeping a company solvent that went into the hands 
 of a receiver. A bad fireman generally wastes more 
 than 15 per cent over the quantity of fuel used by a 
 good fireman. We are told that the man who makes 
 two blades of grass grow where one blade used to grow 
 is a benefactor of the human race. As the quantity 
 of coal provided for the use of mankind is limited, 
 and the means of cultivating a fresh supply are not 
 apparent, it would seem that the man who makes one 
 pound of coal do the work that has generally called for 
 the consumption of one and a half pounds is worthy 
 of a share of the admiration accorded to the industrious 
 agriculturist. There are locomotives in the country 
 where the coal consumed, in the generation of steam, 
 is used as economically as knowledge and skill com- 
 
 332 
 
COMBUSTION. 333 
 
 bined can effect, but these cases are not so common as 
 they ought to be. Much has been said and written of 
 late years about proper methods of firing, founded on 
 correct conceptions of the laws that regulate combus- 
 tion, but a great many of our locomotives continue to 
 be fired in a way that violates Nature's laws, and a 
 senseless waste of coal is the result. The opportuni- 
 ties for firemen mending their ways and earning the 
 distinction of being public benefactors, to say nothing 
 of being better worthy of employment, are innumer- 
 able. 
 
 There are gratifying evidences that the modern en- 
 gineer or fireman is striving to acquire the knowledge 
 and the skill that make him thoroughly master of his 
 business. For the help of such men the following 
 chapter has been prepared. 
 
 MASTERING THE PRINCIPLES. 
 
 To properly comprehend what happens to keep a 
 fire burning, we must understand something about the 
 laws of Nature as they are explained under the science 
 of chemistry. Practical men are generally easily 
 repelled by the strange names which they meet with 
 in reading anything where chemical terms are used. 
 An engineer or fireman who is ambitious to learn the 
 principles of his business ought to attack the hard 
 words with a little courage and perseverance, when it 
 will be found that the difficulties of understanding 
 them will vanish. 
 
334 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC FIRING. 
 
 A man may become a good fireman without know- 
 ing anything about the laws of Nature that control 
 combustion. This frequently happens. If he becomes 
 skillful in making an engine steam freely, while using 
 the least possible supply of fuel, he has learned by 
 practice to put in the coal and to regulate the admis- 
 sion of air in a scientific manner. That is, he puts in 
 the exact quantity of fuel to suit the amount of air 
 that is passing into the fire-box, and in the shape that 
 will cause it to produce the greatest possible amount 
 of heat. When this degree of skill is attained by men 
 ignorant of Nature's laws, it is attained by groping in 
 the dark to find out the right way. A man who has 
 acquired his skill in this manner is not, however, per- 
 fectly master of the art of firing, for any change of 
 furnace arrangement is likely to bewilder him, and he 
 has to find out by repeated trying what method of 
 firing suits best. He is also liable to waste fuel use- 
 lessly, or to cause delay by want of steam when any- 
 thing unusual happens. 
 
 KNOWLEDGE IS POWER. 
 
 A knowledge of the laws of combustion teaches a 
 man to go straight to the correct method, and the 
 information possessed enables him to deal intelligently 
 with the numerous difficulties which are constantly 
 arising owing to inferior fuel, obstructed draft due to 
 various causes, and to viciously designed fire-boxes 
 and smoke-boxes. To illustrate: Engineer West was 
 
combustion, 335 
 
 pulling a passenger train one day, and his grates got 
 stuck. He ran as far as he could till he could do 
 nothing more for want of steam, then he stopped and 
 cleaned the fire; loss of time over one hour with an 
 important train. Engineer Thomas, on the same road, 
 had a similar experience with the grates; but he 
 understood combustion, and knew that all the fire 
 wanted was air put in so that it would strike the fire 
 before it passed into the flues. He got an old scoop 
 and rigged it in the fire-box door slanting towards the 
 surface of the fire. He did not need to clean the fire, 
 and he went in nearly on time. He could not get air 
 to mix with the fire through the grates, so he devised 
 a plan to inject it above the fire. 
 
 ELEMENTS THAT MAKE UP A FIRE. 
 
 The nature of fuel, the composition of the air that 
 fans the fire, and the character of the gases formed by 
 the burning fuel, and the proper proportions of air to 
 fuel for producing the greatest degree of heat, are the 
 principal things to be learned in the study of the laws 
 relating to combustion. 
 
 All things are composed from about sixty-five ele- 
 mentary substances, which have combined together to 
 form the immense variety of substances found in and 
 around the globe. A simple substance or element is 
 something out of which nothing else can be got, no 
 matter how finely it may be divided, or to what 
 searching tests it may be subjected. Elements unite 
 together to form compounds, or combine with com- 
 pounds to form other compound substances. When 
 
33^ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 elements or compounds combine to form new sub- 
 stances, they always do so in fixed proportions by 
 weight; and if there is any excess of any substance 
 present it does not combine, but remains unused. It 
 is important to remember this, as it has a direct bear- 
 ing upon the economy of fuel. A few of the principal 
 elements are oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, 
 sulphur, iron, copper, mercury, gold, and silver. We 
 will have to deal principally with the four first men- 
 tioned. 
 
 The elements which perform the most important 
 functions in the act of combustion are oxygen and 
 carbon. Carbon is the fuel, and oxygen is the sup- 
 porter of combustion. Combustion results from a 
 strong natural tendency that oxygen and carbon have 
 for each other, but they cannot unite freely till they 
 reach a certain high temperature, when they combine 
 very rapidly, with violent evolution of light and heat. 
 
 FUEL AND ITS COMBINING ELEMENTS. 
 
 All the fuel used for steam-making is composed of 
 carbon, or the compounds of carbon and hydrogen. 
 Carbon is the principal element found in trees and in 
 all woody fiber, and is the fundamental ingredient of 
 all kinds of coal. The ordinary run of American 
 bituminous coal contains from 50 to 80 per cent of 
 fixed carbon, which is the coke, and from 12 to 35 per 
 cent of volatile substances, which burn with a lurid 
 flame, and supply the ingredients of coal-gas. These 
 inflammable compounds are known as hydrocarbons, 
 being combinations of hydrogen and carbon. Anthra- 
 
COMBUSTION. 337 
 
 cite coal differs from other coals in the fact that it 
 consists principally of fixed carbon, with but little 
 volatile matter. Good anthracite contains as high as 
 90 per cent of pure carbon. 
 
 All the air required for furnace combustion is taken 
 from the atmosphere, which consists of a mixture of 
 1 pound of oxygen to 3.35 pounds of nitrogen; or, by 
 volume, 1 cubic foot of oxygen to 3.76 cubic feet of 
 nitrogen. Nitrogen is an inert, neutral gas that gives 
 no aid in sustaining life or in promoting combustion; 
 but it passes into the furnace with the oxygen, and 
 has to be heated to the same temperature as the other 
 gases. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 In treating of combustion it is constantly necessary 
 to speak of measuring gases by weight. How air and 
 other gases can be weighed as if they were sugar or 
 tea seems a puzzle to many men not acquainted with 
 laboratory work; but they must take it for granted 
 that these things are done. 
 
 Before dealing with the action of the air on the fuel 
 resting on the grates, we might mention that scientists 
 have devised a scale of measurement of heat, which is 
 just as necessary for the comprehension of combustion 
 as ordinary weights and measures are for mercantile 
 purposes, The amount of heat necessary to raise the 
 temperature of one pound of water, at its greatest 
 density, one degree Fahrenheit is called a heat-unit, 
 or sometimes a thermal unit. This is equivalent in 
 mechanical energy to the power required for raising 
 
33& LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 772 pounds one foot high. The enormous amount of 
 mechanical energy present in each pound of good coal 
 will be understood from a small calculation. A pound 
 of good coal properly burned generates about 14,500 
 heat-units. Then 14,500 multiplied by 772, the 
 number of foot-pounds in each heat-unit, gives 
 11,194,000 foot-pounds, which is sufficient energy to 
 raise the weight of one ton more than one mile high. 
 Little more than 10 per cent of this energy is ever 
 utilized by being converted into the work of driving 
 machinery. 
 
 APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF COMBUSTION TO A 
 TIRE-BOX. 
 
 Having mentioned the leading elements that take 
 part in keeping a fire burning, we will now apply the 
 operation to the work done in the fire-box of a loco- 
 motive. Let us take a common form of engine, such 
 as that shown in Fig. 40, page 322, with a fire-box 
 72 X 35 inches, which makes about 17 square feet of 
 grate area. The engine starts with a fairly heavy train, 
 and has to keep up a running speed of 40 miles an 
 hour. To maintain steam for this work the engine 
 burns 60 pounds of coal per mile, which is equal to 
 2400 pounds per hour. This requires that about 141 
 pounds of coal must be burned on each square foot of 
 grate surface every hour, a very rapid rate of combus- 
 tion, but a rate common enough on many railroads. 
 As shown in the cut referred to, the engine is of the 
 kind most commonly found pulling our passenger 
 
COMB US tion. 339 
 
 trains, which have no other means of admitting air to 
 the fire except through the ash-pan. 
 
 HEAT VALUE OF THE PROPER ADMIXTURE OF AIR. 
 
 When the air, drawn violently through the grates 
 by the suction of the exhaust, strikes the glowing fuel, 
 the oxygen in the air separates from the nitrogen and 
 combines with the carbon of the coal. It has been 
 mentioned that elements unite in certain fixed propor- 
 tions. In some cases the same elements will combine 
 in different proportions to form different kinds of 
 products. If the supply of air is so liberal that there 
 is abundance of oxygen for the burning fuel, the 
 carbon will unite in the proportion of 12 parts by 
 weight (one atom) with 32 parts by weight of oxygen 
 (two atoms). This produces carbonic acid, an in- 
 tensely hot gas, and therefore of great value in steam- 
 making. If, however, the supply of air is restricted 
 and the oxygen scarce, the atom of carbon is con- 
 tented to grasp one atom of oxygen, and the combina- 
 tion is made at the rate of 12 parts by weight of carbon 
 to 16 parts by weight of oxygen, producing carbonic- 
 oxide gas, which is not nearly so hot as carbonic-acid 
 gas. It makes a very important difference in the 
 economical use of fuel which of these two gases is 
 formed in the fire. 
 
 One pound of carbon uniting with oxygen to form 
 carbonic- acid gas generates 14,500 units of heat, or 
 sufficient to raise 85 pounds of water from the tank 
 temperature to the boiling-point. On the other hand, 
 when one pound of carbon unites with oxygen to form 
 
340 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 carbonic- oxide gas, only 4500 heat-units are gen- 
 erated, or sufficient to raise 26 J pounds of water from 
 the temperature of the tank to the boiling-point. The 
 same quantity of fuel, it must be remembered, is used 
 in both cases, the only difference being that less 
 oxygen is in the fire mixture. 
 
 VOLUME OF AIR NEEDED TO FEED A FIRE. 
 
 Our engine using 2400 pounds of coal per hour has 
 to burn 2\ pounds per minute on each square foot of 
 grate. A very large volume of air has to pass through 
 the grates to supply all the oxygen necessary to com- 
 bine with the quantity of coal mentioned. The com- 
 bining proportions of carbon and oxygen to form 
 carbonic acid being 12 to 32, the combustion of each 
 pound of carbon requires 2f pounds of oxygen. It 
 takes 4.35 pounds of atmospheric air to supply one 
 pound of oxygen; therefore at the least calculation it 
 will take more than 1 \\ pounds of air to provide the 
 gas essential to the economical combustion of each 
 pound of coal. But practice has demonstrated that 
 where combustion is rapid the fuel must be saturated 
 with the air that contains the oxygen, bathed in it, as 
 it were; otherwise a large portion of the furnace-gases 
 will pass away uncombined with the element that gives 
 them any heating value. So it is estimated that at 
 least 20 pounds of air must be passed through the 
 grates of a locomotive to supply the oxygen for each 
 pound of coal burned. At this rate our engine must 
 draw in 20 X 2 -J = 46.66 pounds of air per minute 
 through every foot of grate area. One pound of air, 
 
COMBUSTION. 341 
 
 at ordinary temperature and atmospheric pressure, 
 occupies about 13 cubic feet; so it takes over 600 
 cubic feet of air to pass every minute through each 
 square foot of grate. This volume of air would be 
 sufficient to fill a cylinder 18 X 24 inches nearly one 
 hundred and seventy times. Or, to put it another 
 way, if there were no obstruction to the passage of air 
 through each foot of grate, a trunk of air over 600 
 feet long has to pass into the fire every minute.. As 
 more than half the opening is obstructed by the iron 
 and coal, a column at least 1200 feet long has to be 
 admitted each minute. With some forms of grates 
 the openings are much more restricted, and conse- 
 quently the inward rush of air must be faster in pro- 
 portion. 
 
 VELOCITY OF THE FIRE-GASES. 
 
 There are several practical objections to the 'air 
 blowing through the grates like a hurricane. The 
 high speed of the gases lifts the smaller particles of 
 the fuel and starts them toward the entrance of the 
 flues, helping to begin the action of spark-throwing. 
 Where they find a thin or dead part of the fire, the 
 gases pass in below the igniting-temperature,. or tend 
 in spots to reduce the heat below the igniting-point, 
 and go away unconsumed, at the same time making a 
 cold streak in the fire-box, chilling the flues or other 
 surface touched,. and starting leaks and cracks. Then 
 the great volume of air has, under ordinary circum- 
 stances,, to be heated up to the temperature of the 
 fire-box, and a considerable part of the heat produced 
 
34 2 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNN'ING. 
 
 from the coal has to be used up doing this before any 
 of it can be utilized in steam-making. When a large 
 volume of gas is employed it must be passed through 
 the furnace and tubes at a high velocity, the result 
 being that there is not sufficient time* for the heat to 
 be imparted to the water; consequently the gases pass 
 into the stack at a higher temperature than would be 
 the case if the movement of the gases were slower. 
 One can get a good personal illustration of this by 
 passing his hand through the flame of a gas-burner. 
 
 A thoughtless remedy so readily tried with locomo- 
 tives that do not steam freely is the use of smaller 
 nozzles. That produces bad results in two ways. It 
 causes increased back-.pressure in the cylinders through 
 the restrictions put upon the escape of the steam, thus 
 reducing the power that the engine can exert and 
 causing more steam to be used to perform a given 
 measure of work. It also increases the velocity of the 
 fire-gases, with the result that less of the heat is im- 
 parted to the water in the boiler. 
 
 Our engine is drawing in 600 cubic feet of air per 
 minute through each square foot of grate, that is, 
 600 X 17 equals 11,200 cubic feet for the whole grate 
 area. The act of combustion is turning 40 pounds 
 of coal per minute into gas, adding about 300 cubic 
 feet more to the volume. This cloud of gas has to 
 pass out through 202 two-inch flues that give a total 
 opening of 485 square inches, equal to 3.36 square 
 feet. The body of gas reduced to this diameter makes 
 a column over 3400 feet long, so it must pass through 
 at a velocity of at least 3400 feet per minute. 
 
COMB ITS TI'ON. 343 
 
 THREATENED LOSS OF HEAT. 
 
 From these figures it will be understood that in 
 firing loss of heat is threatened from two opposite 
 directions. If there is not enough air admitted, a gas 
 of inferior heating power will be generated, and a 
 waste of heat will take place equal to the difference 
 between 26^ pounds of water evaporated by the heat 
 from one pound of coal burned as carbonic oxide, and 
 85 pounds of water evaporated when the same weight 
 of coal is burned to carbonic-acid gas. If the admis- 
 sion of air is greater than what is necessary, heat will 
 be wasted in proportion to the quantity needed to 
 raise the temperature of the superfluous air up to the 
 heat of the furnace. Those who have noted the 
 difference in the fuel needed to heat a small and a 
 large room thirty or forty degrees may readily under- 
 stand the quantity of coal that must be wasted raising 
 about 1000 degrees the temperature of the blizzard of 
 extra air that is often passing through the fire-box of 
 a locomotive. Then, as has been mentioned, an extra 
 supply of air causes an increased speed of draft, and 
 this prevents the sheets and flues from abstracting as 
 much heat as they would if the speed of the gases 
 were slower. 
 
 IGNITING-TEMPERATURE QF THE FIRE. 
 
 The igniting-temperature of the fire has been 
 repeatedly mentioned. Everybody meets daily with 
 illustrations of the fact that fuel will not burn till it 
 has been raised to a certain heat.. If you put a piece 
 
344 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 of wood or coal on the fire it remains unchanged for a 
 time till the temperature at which it combines with 
 oxygen is reached, when it begins to burn. The point 
 of heat at which it begins to burn is called the ignit- 
 ing-temperature. Different kinds of fuel have differ- 
 ent igniting-points. Coal-gas does not burn below 
 a red heat of iron, and carbon has a still higher ignit- 
 ing-point. If you take a piece of iron, heated dim 
 red, and try to light an illuminating-gas jet with it 
 you will not succeed. Increase the heat till the iron 
 approaches orange color, and it will then light the gas. 
 From this it will be learned that the igniting-tempera- 
 ture of hydrocarbon-gas is about the cherry heat of 
 iron. As the igniting-temperature of carbon is still 
 higher, it will be understood that coal must be kept 
 at a higher temperature still to make it burn. 
 
 When wood, coal, or gas will not begin to burn 
 outside till they have been raised to the heat men- 
 tioned, it may be readily understood that they will not 
 burn in a locomotive fire-box if they are not up to the 
 igniting-temperature. As the active portion of the 
 fire is constantly distilling gases from the fuel that rise 
 upwards, and require a high temperature for their 
 combustion, it will readily be seen that a great waste 
 of heat must happen when the temperature of any 
 part of the fire-box gets so low that the gases pass 
 away unconsumed. So the fireman ought to make it 
 his business to see that the fuel in any part of the 
 fire-box is not permitted to fall below the temperature 
 of combustion. It may be said or believed that the 
 heat in the fire-box is so high that it is always up to 
 
COMBUSTION. 345 
 
 the igniting-temperature. This would be a mistake. 
 The rush of cold air is so great that a thin part of the 
 fire readily permits air that is not up to the igniting- 
 temperature to pass through, and it chills all the gas 
 it touches. When a heavy charge of coal is thrown 
 into the fire-box, the cold material reduces for a time 
 part of the fire-box below the igniting-temperature, 
 and the gases distilled by the hot fire beneath are 
 ruined by the cold place they have to go through 
 above, and they pass into the flues in the shape of 
 worthless smoke and coal-gas. The fire-box sheets 
 abstract the heat so quickly that waste will occur 
 from the fuel close to the sheets, or the gases passing 
 up beside them, getting below the igniting-tempera- 
 ture, unless the fireman watches to see that a bright 
 fire is kept up in the vicinity of the sheets. 
 
 BURNING ANTHRACITE COAL. 
 
 Thus far we have considered principally the condi- 
 tions met with in burning carbon alone, such as may 
 be encountered in burning coke, or in the firing of 
 anthracite-coal-burning engines. Anthracite burns 
 more slowly than bituminous coal, and consequently 
 a larger grate area has to be provided in order that 
 sufficient coal may be burned to keep up the steam 
 required. As cylinders of a given size draw from the 
 boiler the same volume of steam per minute, no 
 matter what kind of coal is used, and as soft coal which 
 burns freely produces about the same quantity of 
 steam per pound consumed as anthracite which burns 
 slowly, means must be devised to make the hard-coal- 
 
34-6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 burning engine consume the same quantity per minute 
 as the other, and no better way has been found than 
 that of making a large fire-box. 
 
 Anthracite coal has to be fired to suit the size of the 
 lumps used. If the coal is in coarse lumps weighing 
 in the neighborhood of eight pounds each, a thick fire 
 must be carried, for the lumps lie so open that the air 
 would pass so freely through that it would chill the 
 fire-box. A thin fire of this kind of coal cannot be 
 carried in a locomotive furnace, for the same reason 
 that you cannot keep a fire burning in a small stove 
 with three or four big lumps of hard coal. In firing 
 lump coal of large size, even when a thick fire is car- 
 ried, constant care has to be exercised to prevent loss 
 of heat from excessive quantities of air passing through 
 holes. There is a constant tendency for air-passages 
 to form close to the sheets, and good firemen provide 
 against this by keeping the fire heavier close to the 
 sheets than at other parts. When too much air is 
 admitted through the fire, the tendency is to reduce 
 parts of the fire-box below the igniting-temperature, 
 with the results already mentioned. 
 
 Firing with large lumps is wasteful both with 
 anthracite and bituminous coal. 
 
 When the smaller-broken qualities of anthracite 
 coal are used, a very large grate area is necessary, 
 because the fire must be burned thin, and a thin fire 
 will not stand the action of a sharp exhaust unless the 
 blast is divided over a wide area. The man who makes 
 a highly successful fireman with hard coal, whether 
 it be in lumps or of the small quality, is constantly on 
 
combustion. 347 
 
 the lookout for spots where an oversupply of air is 
 beginning to work through, and he promptly checks 
 this by applying fresh coal at the proper point. 
 
 BURNING BITUMINOUS COAL. 
 
 The burning of bituminous coal is a much more 
 complex operation than that of burning anthracite. 
 The volatile gases in this kind of coal contain great 
 heat-generating power, but they are difficult to burn 
 so that none of the heating elements will be lost. 
 Average bituminous coal contains 65 per cent of car- 
 bon and 25 per cent of hydrocarbons. About J by 
 weight of the latter is hydrogen-gas, which makes the 
 hottest fire that can be burned; but it ignites only at 
 a very high temperature, as has been alluded to, and 
 if the fire-box or any part of it gets cooler than this 
 all or a part of the gas passes away unconsumed. In 
 that case there is direct loss by the gas not being used 
 to create heat, and also loss due to the work done by 
 the burning carbon in gasifying the hydrocarbons. 
 To turn a solid into a gas uses up heat in the same 
 way that evaporating water into steam does. 
 
 To burn, hydrogen-gas unites in the proportion of 
 two parts by weight (two atoms) to sixteen parts by 
 weight of oxygen (one atom), and the product is 
 water. It may appear strange that water is formed 
 by the burning of a fire; but such is the case, and a 
 tremendous heat is evolved by the operation. The 
 water passes away in the form of colorless steam ; but 
 when it touches a cool place the vapor instantly con- 
 denses into water. When a fire is newly lighted in 
 
34-8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 the fire-box of a locomotive the drops of water that 
 may be seen oozing out of the smoke-box joints is the 
 water formed from the hydrogen of the fuel. 
 
 HEAT VALUE OF THE VOLATILE GASES. 
 
 The combustion of each pound of hydrogen-gas, if 
 it combines with eight pounds of oxygen taken from 
 the air, produces about 62,000 heat-units, or enough 
 to raise about 365 pounds of water from the tank 
 temperature to the boiling-point. It will be noted 
 that one pound of hydrogen calls for eight pounds of 
 oxygen (2 to 16) for perfect combustion, while each 
 pound of carbon requires only 2§ pounds of oxygen 
 (12 to 32). As the hydrocarbon-gases are released at 
 the top of the fire, it is difficult getting this very large 
 volume of air needed for combustion to the proper 
 place, unless means are taken for admitting air above 
 the fire. 
 
 Where there is much volatile gas in the coal, it is 
 an economical arrangement to admit air above the 
 fuel; but the means of its admission ought to be under 
 the control of the fireman, or there is likely to be loss 
 of heat by the ingress of cold air when it is not. 
 needed. 
 
 It is important in the economical combustion of 
 coal to keep the fire as bright on the top as possible. 
 Experimenters on combustion have found that " the 
 efficiency of fuel to heat by radiation depends directly 
 upon the luminosity of the products of combustion." 
 That means that a smoky or cloudy fire wastes a great 
 part of the heat, because the heat rays cannot strike 
 
COMBUSTION. 349 
 
 the heating surfaces. The " luminosity" or bright- 
 ness of the flames of a fire is said to be due to the 
 free carbon liberated by the hydrocarbons of the flame 
 being heated up to the temperature of the flame itself. 
 The solid particles becoming incandescent act like 
 tiny incandescent gas-lights, each particle of free car- 
 bon throwing off heat and light in all directions until 
 consumed and converted into carbonic-acid gas. This 
 free carbon is the last component of the flame to burn, 
 and it only burns at a very high temperature ; so if 
 the fire-box is not maintained very hot there will be 
 little bright flame, the volatile gases will pass off as 
 smoke, and those burned will lose part of their value 
 through not being able to send through the mist of 
 smoke their steam-making rays. 
 
 HEAT LOSSES THAT RESULT FROM BAD FIRING. 
 
 Our engine is laboring along with a heavy, thick fire 
 on the grates. The air that passes up into the fire 
 has the atoms of oxygen seized on by the glowing 
 carbon first encountered, and the heat generated keeps 
 distilling the hydrocarbon-gas from the green coal 
 above. There being no means of admitting air above 
 the fire, and there being very little oxygen left in the 
 air after it has worked up through the body of the burn- 
 ing fuel, the volatile gases fail to receive their supply 
 of oxygen, and with their great steam-making possi- 
 bilities they pass away in the form of worthless smoke 
 and unconsumed coal-gas. The fire being so thick 
 and compact that the air cannot diffuse freely through 
 the mass, a considerable part of the solid carbon does 
 
350 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 not receive its full share of oxygen, so it passes away 
 in the inferior heating condition of carbonic oxide. 
 
 An inferior fireman, who maintains a thick fire, will 
 often use up an enormous quantity of coal without 
 making an engine steam freely. This is caused by 
 the air failing to reach the 25 per cent of the fuel that 
 exists as hydrocarbons, and which is in consequence 
 utterly wasted; and because part of the solid carbon 
 is burned to carbonic oxide, which produces 4500 heat- 
 units, as compared with 14,500 heat-units that would 
 result from the carbon being consumed as carbonic- 
 acid gas. A fire run in this wasteful manner is always 
 smoky, and the fire-box looks dull and cloudy, with a 
 tendency for the sheets to hold a covering of soot. 
 Other losses due to a smoky fire have already been 
 explained. 
 
 Some firemen have acquired the habit of firing at 
 times when the fire-door ought to be kept closed. 
 As soon as the engineer opens the throttle to pull out 
 of a station these men begin filling up the fire-box. 
 Cold air is pumped through the flues without any need 
 for it, and the charge of fresh coal put in at the wrong 
 time helps add to the chilling effect. When approach- 
 ing a heavy pull these men generally let the fire get 
 thin, and then they are ready to begin shoveling in- 
 dustriously when the engine is toiling hard up the 
 grade. 
 
 EFFECT OF SMALL NOZZLES. 
 
 Thick, heavy firing, with all the losses described, is 
 not always caused by ignorance or want of skill on the 
 
COMBUSTION, 35 1 
 
 part of the fireman. It is very frequently the case 
 that an engine will not steam freely unless a heavy 
 fire is carried. This state of things is nearly always 
 due to the use of very small nozzles, which make the 
 blast so sharp that a thin fire could not be used, as the 
 fierce rush of air would be constantly tearing holes in 
 places through which the cold air would pass directly 
 into the flues. When an engine does not steam 
 freely, the tendency always is to call for smaller 
 nozzles; yet it often happens that the nozzles are 
 already too small for free steaming. The diverse 
 character of the coal supplied on most roads is re- 
 sponsible for great waste of fuel. With the average 
 coal an engine will steam while using a large nozzle. 
 But occasionally some cars of coal will be sent in that 
 contains a large percentage of slate and other incom- 
 bustible material. When an engine gets a tenderful 
 of this stuff, there will be trouble in making steam 
 freely enough to take the train along on time. The 
 men know that a sharp blast would help them in such 
 a case, and it is natural that they should be ready 
 always to provide against this emergency. 
 
 BOILER-DESIGNING. 
 
 The mistakes and prejudices of enginemen often 
 lead to the use of extravagantly small nozzles; but 
 what in most cases makes the use of small nozzles 
 necessary is badly proportioned locomotives. Where 
 the cylinders are too large for the boiler, or where the 
 fire-box is badly proportioned, the defect must be 
 overcome by employing small nozzles. 
 
35 2 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING, 
 
 For burning bituminous coal economically means 
 should be provided for regulating the supply of air 
 above and below the fire, the same to be under con- 
 trol of the fireman. The dampers should also be so 
 constructed that the supply of air through the grates 
 could be regulated to suit the needs of the fire. A 
 light fire could often be carried if the fireman could 
 restrict the air to the exact volume wanted. If greater 
 attention were directed to this part of locomotive con- 
 struction, firemen would feel more encouraged to find 
 out what supply of air best suited a fire for the 
 economical combustion of coal. 
 
 A good brick arch when properly cared for is a very 
 valuable aid to economical combustion. The great 
 mass of hot brick helps to maintain the temperature 
 of the fire-box even, and is often the means of raising 
 gases to the igniting-temperature before they pass into 
 the flues. Projected as it is into the middle of the 
 fire-box, it lengthens the journey of part of the fire- 
 gases and acts as a mixer of the elements that must 
 combine to effect combustion. 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 STEAM AND MOTIVE POWER. 
 
 In the previous chapter we have mentioned that 
 the heat value of coal is measured by the number of 
 heat-units it contains, and that each heat-unit repre- 
 sents 772 foot-pounds of work, or the energy required 
 to raise 772 pounds one foot. According to the 
 figures given, each pound of coal contains an enormous 
 amount of possible work energy. The operating of 
 the locomotive, and of all other steam-engines, is a 
 process of transforming the heat energy of coal into 
 mechanical work. In some kinds of engines driven 
 by hot air or gas the operation of converting heat 
 into work is done without the use of steam. A 
 greater proportion of the heat energy can be utilized 
 in that way; but there are mechanical obstacles which 
 prevent such systems from being used where much 
 power is required. 
 
 CONVENIENCE OF STEAM FOR CONVERTING HEAT 
 INTO WORK. 
 
 Steam, the vapor of water, has been found the most 
 convenient medium for transforming the energy of 
 
 353 
 
354 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 coal into the useful work of pulling railroad trains, 
 and of driving other kinds of machinery. Water has 
 the greatest heat-absorbing capacity of any known 
 substance, which makes it an excellent means of con- 
 verting heat into work; but it has some peculiarities 
 which readily lead to great loss of energy if not care- 
 fully controlled. If we follow the circle of operations 
 which the burning of coal for steam-making purposes 
 sets going, we shall meet at every move heat losses 
 which show us why so small a portion of the entire 
 heat energy of coal reaches the crank-pins that turn 
 the wheels of the engine. But an intelligent study of 
 the losses will also help an engineer to restrain them 
 to the lowest possible limit. 
 
 HEAT USED IN EVAPORATING WATER. 
 
 Suppose we take one pound of water at a tempera- 
 ture of 40 Fahr., and apply heat to it in an open 
 vessel. If we put a thermometer in the water, we 
 shall find that the temperature will rise rapidly till it 
 reaches 212 , the boiling-point at the pressure of the 
 atmosphere. Then the mercury stops rising, but the 
 water keeps absorbing the heat and turning into steam. 
 It takes rather more than 5-J times the quantity of heat 
 to evaporate the whole of the pound of water into 
 steam that it took to raise the temperature from the 
 tank temperature to the boiling-point; for, although 
 it is not shown by the thermometer, the converting of 
 the pound of water from the boiling-point into steam 
 uses up 965.7 heat-units, that being called the latent 
 heat of steam at atmospheric pressure. In raising the 
 
STEAM AND MOTIVE POWER. 355 
 
 water to the boiling-point — from 40 to 212 — 172 
 heat-units were used, and in vaporizing the water 
 965.7 units, making in all 1 137.7 heat-units, which 
 are expended in evaporating one pound of water under 
 the pressure of the atmosphere alone, which is 14.7 
 pounds to the square inch. Steam formed under this 
 light pressure fills 1644 times the space occupied by 
 the water it was made from. The volume of steam 
 varies nearly inversely as the pressure, so that when 
 the steam is generated under the pressure of two 
 atmospheres it fills only 822 times the space that the 
 water did. Every step in the increase of pressure 
 reduces the volume of the steam in like proportion. 
 Steam at 150 pounds per square inch gauge-pressure 
 is only 173 times the volume of the water. Steam 
 gauge-pressure is the pressure above the atmosphere; 
 absolute pressure is reckoned from the vacuum-line. 
 
 LITTLE EXTRA HEAT NEEDED FOR MAKING HIGH- 
 PRESSURE STEAM. 
 
 If the pound of water, instead of being left to boil 
 in an open vessel, had been put into a boiler where a 
 pressure of 165 pounds absolute was put upon it, that 
 being equal to a gauge-pressure of 150 pounds, the 
 result would have been different. When heat was 
 now applied, the mercury would keep rising till the 
 temperature of 365.7 was reached before the water 
 would begin to boil. To raise it to the boiling-point 
 under this pressure, 330.4 heat-units would be put in 
 the water, and then the addition of 855.1 more heat- 
 units would convert the whole pound of water into 
 
35^ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 steam, the total expenditure of heat being 1 185.5 
 heat-units. From this it will be seen that while the 
 generating of steam at atmospheric pressure, which 
 gives no capacity to speak of for doing work, calls for 
 an expenditure of 1 137.7 heat-units, raising the steam 
 to the high gauge-pressure of 150 pounds takes only 
 1 185.5 heat-units. Steam of 100 pounds gauge-pres- 
 sure uses up 1 177 heat-units, so that it takes very little 
 more heat to raise the steam to the higher pressure 
 where it has the power of doing much more work than 
 to the lower pressures. A study of these facts will 
 show why it is most economical to use steam of high 
 pressure. 
 
 CONDITIONS OF STEAM. 
 
 Steam formed in ordinary boilers, where only suffi- 
 cient heat is applied to evaporate the water, is called 
 saturated steam. It is also sometimes spoken of as 
 dry steam or anhydrous steam. Saturated steam 
 contains only just sufficient heat to maintain it in a 
 gaseous condition, and the least abstraction of heat 
 causes a portion of the steam to fall back into water, 
 when it loses its power of doing work. This is why 
 it is important that steam cylinders and passages 
 should be well protected from cold. The condensa- 
 tion of steam that goes on in badly lagged cylinders 
 wastes a great deal of fuel. 
 
 When heat is applied to steam that is not in con- 
 tact with water, the steam absorbs more heat and is 
 said to be superheated. Superheated steam has a 
 greater energy than saturated steam in proportion to 
 
STEAM AND MOTIVE POWER. 35/ 
 
 the amount of heat added. The practical advantage 
 of superheated steam is that it does not turn into 
 water in the cylinder so readily as saturated steam. 
 
 METHODS OF USING STEAM. 
 
 Having got steam raised to 150 pounds gauge- 
 pressure, which is almost 165 pounds absolute, the 
 next move is to use it to the best advantage, so that 
 the greatest possible amount of work will be got out 
 of every pound of steam generated. In ordinary cir- 
 cumstances, the higher the temperature of steam 
 admitted into the cylinders of a steam-engine, and the 
 lower the temperature at which it is passed out by the 
 exhaust, the greater will be the economy, if the re- 
 duction of temperature has been due to the conver- 
 sion of heat into mechanical work. 
 
 That the steam passed into the cylinders may be 
 used to the best possible advantage, the ordinary prac- 
 tice is to cause the expansive force of the steam to do 
 all the work practicable. As has been already men- 
 tioned in a former chapter, high-pressure steam is like 
 a powerful spring put under compression, and is ever 
 ready to stretch out when its force is directed against 
 anything movable. In that way it pushes the piston 
 when the valve is cutting off admission of steam before 
 the end of the stroke is reached. We shall try to show 
 how such practice is economical. 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 
 
 To find out what is going on in the inside of the 
 cylinders of an engine, to show accurately how the 
 
358 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 steam is distributed, the use of the steam-engine indi- 
 cator is necessary. The indicator consists essentially 
 of a small steam-cylinder, whose under side is con- 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 nected by pipes to the 
 main cylinder of the en- 
 gine under inspection. 
 Inside the indicator-cylin- 
 der is a nicely fitting 
 piston, whose upper move- 
 ment is resisted by a spring 
 of known strength. The 
 piston - rod passes up 
 through the top of the 
 indicator-cylinder; and its 
 extremity is connected with 
 mechanism for operating a 
 
 pencil, and marking on a card a diagram whose lines 
 coincide with the movement of the indicator-piston. 
 
STEAM AND MOTIVE POWER. 359 
 
 Fig. 44 gives perspective and sectional views of the 
 Tabor indicator, an instrument well adapted for ap- 
 plication to locomotives. The card to be marked is 
 fastened in the paper drum attached to the indicator. 
 This drum receives a circular motion from a cord which 
 is operated by the cross-head of the locomotive, and the 
 connection is so arranged that the drum will begin to 
 move round just as the main piston begins its stroke. 
 The circular motion of the drum is continued till the 
 piston reaches the end of its stroke, when the drum 
 reverses its movement, and returns to the exact point 
 from which it started. Now the indicator-cylinder 
 being in communication with the main cylinder, when 
 the latter begins to take steam, the pressure will be 
 applied to the indicator-piston, which was pushed 
 upward, at the same time transmitting its movement 
 to the pencil. The indicator-piston will rise and fall 
 in accordance with the steam-pressure in the cylinder: 
 and the circular movement of the drum coinciding with 
 the cross-head movement, the pencil will describe a 
 diagram which represents the pressure inside the main 
 cylinder at the various points of the stroke. 
 
 THE INDICATOR-DIAGRAM. 
 
 Fig. 45 is a very good diagram taken from a loco- 
 motive cutting off at about 37 per cent of the stroke 
 and running at 150 revolutions per minute. A is the 
 atmospheric line traced before steam is admitted to 
 the indicator. Fis the vacuum-line traced according 
 to measurement, 14.7 pounds below the atmospheric 
 line. DE is the admission-line, D being the point 
 
360 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 where the valve opens to admit steam. EF is the 
 steam-line, beginning at the point of change in direc- 
 tion of the admission-line. The steam-line in this 
 diagram drops down before tfce point of cut-off is 
 reached, through the steam admission not being rapid 
 enough to keep it up. FG is the expansion-line traced 
 after the steam is cut off. At the point G the exhaust 
 takes place, and the exhaust-line is from G to the end 
 
 Fig. 45- 
 
 of the stroke. HI is the line of counter-pressure, and 
 is high or low according to the quantity of steam left 
 in the cylinder by the exhaust. The use of small 
 nozzles always causes a high counter-pressure line. 
 The compression-line begins at /, the point where the 
 valve closes, and runs up to D, the pressure rising as 
 the steam left in the cylinder, after the valve closes, 
 gets pressed by the piston into small space. 
 
 For an exhaustive and easily understood treatise on 
 the indicator our readers are referred to Hemenway's 
 " Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy," 
 published by John Wiley and Sons, New York. 
 
STEAM AND MOTIVE POWER. 
 
 36l 
 
 PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATION OF STEAM-USING. 
 
 Suppose the steam in our boiler is raised to 165 
 pounds absolute pressure, and we apply it under 
 different conditions to do work in the cylinder ZZ 
 shown in Fig. 46, which is 16 inches diameter and has 
 
 ATM08PHERIC LINE* 
 VACUUM LINE ♦»-* — Q. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 a stroke of 24 inches. The diagram above the cylin- 
 der represents the action of steam in the cylinder. 
 The vertical lines represent the steam at different 
 
3^2 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 points of the piston's stroke. If the cylinder were 
 filled with steam at boiler-pressure during the entire 
 stroke of the piston, the diagram of work would 
 resemble the rectangle ACEB. Using the steam in 
 this way is impracticable, but an approximation to it 
 is possible, and it will serve to illustrate the subject. 
 Ignoring the quantity needed to fill the clearance- 
 spaces, the steam from one pound of water, which is 
 called a pound of steam, would just be sufficient to fill 
 the cylinder once. 
 
 CURVE OF EXPANDING STEAM. 
 
 Instead of permitting the steam to follow the piston 
 unimpeded during the whole stroke, we will cut it off 
 at 6 inches or one quarter stroke, as shown in the 
 illustration Fig. 46, where the valve Y is closing the 
 port j/, just as the piston X has moved one quarter the 
 stroke. The piston will now be pushed the remainder 
 of the stroke by the expansive force of the steam, the 
 latter falling in pressure as the space to be filled in- 
 creases, and obeying what is called Mariotte's law, 
 the pressure varying inversely as the volume. By the 
 time the piston has moved to half stroke, the steam is 
 filling twice the space it was in when cut-off took 
 place, and accordingly its pressure has fallen to the 
 point b, which represents 82.5 pounds to the square 
 inch. At the end of the stroke, when release takes 
 place, the pressure has fallen to 41.25 pounds. We 
 find by calculation that the average pressure on the 
 piston when the steam was cut off at quarter stroke 
 was 98.42 pounds to the square inch. In this case 
 
STEAM AND MOTIVE POWER. 363 
 
 just one quarter the quantity of steam was drawn from 
 the boiler that was taken when steam followed full 
 stroke, yet with the small quantity of steam the 
 average pressure on the piston was considerably more 
 than half of what it was when four times the volume 
 of steam was used. 
 
 The description of the action of the steam does not 
 represent with any degree of accuracy what actually 
 takes place; but it gives the facts closely enough to 
 indicate how steam can be saved or wasted. 
 
 EFFECTS OF HIGH INITIAL AND LOW TERMINAL 
 PRESSURE. 
 
 All engineers who have given the economical use of 
 steam intelligent study agree that the proper way to 
 use steam in a cylinder is to get it in as near boiler- 
 pressure as possible, so that the greatest possible ratio 
 of expansion may be obtained while doing the neces- 
 sary work. Where this practice is not followed, the 
 steam is used wastefully. Locomotives that are run 
 with the throttle partly closed, when by notching the 
 links back it could be used full open, are throwing 
 away part of the fuel-saving advantages that high 
 pressure offers. 
 
 For this practice the engineers are not in every case 
 to blame, for many locomotives are constructed with 
 valve motion so imperfectly designed that the engines 
 will not run freely when they are linked close up. 
 With the small nozzles made necessary to force the 
 steam-making in small boilers, the back cylinder-pres- 
 sure is so great that the high compression, resulting 
 
3°4 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 from an early valve-closure, prevents the engine from 
 running at the speed required. 
 
 From whatever cause it originates, the practice of 
 running with the throttle partly closed causes much 
 waste of fuel. A few examples will be given: 
 
 The diagram shown in Fig. 47 was taken from a 
 locomotive running at 192 revolutions per minute. 
 The boiler-pressure was 145 pounds, and the initial 
 pressure on this card is 136 pounds. This high cylin- 
 der-pressure was obtained by keeping the throttle- 
 valve full open. The driving-wheels were 68 inches 
 diameter, and the engine was running close on forty 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 miles an hour and was developing, with 18 X 24-inch 
 cylinders, sufficient power to haul a train weighing 300 
 tons at the rate of fifty miles an hour. Steam was 
 cut off at about seven inches of the stroke, expanded 
 down to 2$ pounds above the atmospheric line, and 
 showed an average back-pressure of 4 pounds. The 
 
STEAM AND MOTIVE POWER. 
 
 365 
 
 work was done using at the rate of 21.5 pounds per 
 horse-power per hour — very economical work. 
 
 Diagram Fig. 48 shows about the same power as 
 the other one; but it was taken with the steam partly 
 throttled, and cutting off at iof inches. In this case 
 it will be noted that the initial pressure is only 102 
 pounds, that the terminal pressure is 31 pounds above 
 the atmosphere, and that the counter-pressure is 7 
 pounds. In this case the work is done by using steam 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 at the rate of 25.8 pounds per horse-power per hour, 
 which is 16.6 per cent more steam than was used with 
 the other way of working. There was no reason what- 
 ever for working the engine in this manner, except the 
 careless practice that some runners get into. 
 
 A still worse case is shown by the diagram Fig. 49. 
 Here the engine, which was running at 176 revolutions 
 per minute, was worked cutting off at half stroke, and 
 the average steam-pressure kept down by throttling. 
 
366 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 Consequently the initial pressure is low, the terminal 
 pressure and the back-pressure high. This condition 
 of working calls for the use of a large volume of steam 
 to perform the work. The initial pressure is 109 
 pounds, the terminal pressure 45 pounds, and the 
 back-pressure 11 pounds. The engine while working 
 this way used steam at the rate of 32 pounds per 
 horse-power per hour, or 33 per cent more than was 
 used in the first case. These are examples taken from 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 the ordinary working of locomotives. They are no 
 mere theories. They are the record of accurate 
 measurements and are as trustworthy as the indications 
 of the steam-gauge. Using 33 per cent more steam 
 than what is absolutely necessary is just throwing 
 away one-third of the coal put into the fire-box. 
 
 To put the matter in a more concrete form : If the 
 engine from which diagram Fig. 47 was taken was 
 running 33.3 miles to the ton of coal, only 2J.J miles 
 to the ton would be made when using the steam shown 
 
STEAM AND MOTIVE POWER. 367 
 
 in diagram Fig. 48 and only 22.3 miles when diagram 
 Fig. 49 was the record of the steam consumed. 
 
 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 There are some disadvantages to working with wide 
 extremes of pressure in a cylinder. The temperature 
 tends to change with changes of pressure, and this 
 leads to loss through condensation of the steam in the 
 cylinder. In the working of the simple engine we 
 have been dealing with, where steam of 165 pounds 
 absolute pressure was used, the steam enters the 
 cylinder at about 365 ° Fahr., and escapes close to 
 atmospheric pressure at a temperature of about 220 . 
 The metal of the cylinder inclines to maintain an even 
 temperature at some average point between the high 
 admission and the low exhaust temperatures. When 
 the steam enters the cylinder it goes into a compara- 
 tively cool chamber, and the metal of the cylinder 
 walls and heads draws some heat from the incoming 
 steam. The portion of the steam robbed of its heat 
 becomes spray, and helps to dampen the steam that 
 continues to pass into the cylinder. As the events of 
 the stroke go on, and release of pressure takes place 
 after the opening of the exhaust-port, the steam 
 which became condensed in the beginning of the 
 stroke is ready to flash back into steam under the 
 release of pressure. If this happens as the steam is 
 passing into the exhaust-port, it draws heat from the 
 cylinder-metal to aid in the act of vaporization, the 
 whole of this heat being carried up the chimney. The 
 heat thus carried away from the cylinder-metal has to 
 
368 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 be returned by the incoming steam of next stroke, and 
 causes the initial condensation spoken of. Compres- 
 sion helps to prevent condensation by heating the 
 cylinder at the end where steam is about to enter. 
 
 Another disadvantage of the locomotive cylinder is 
 that the opportunities for using the steam expansively 
 are very limited. 
 
 To provide a remedy for the losses due to cylinder 
 condensation, and to provide better means of using 
 the steam expansively, compound locomotives have 
 been brought into use. A compound locomotive, 
 while expanding the steam more than can be done 
 with a simple engine, has a much more even tempera- 
 ture throughout the two strokes in which the steam is 
 used. If there is condensation and revaporization of 
 steam in the high-pressure cylinder, it passes into the 
 low-pressure cylinder and is there used to do useful 
 work. In a compound engine the work is more evenly 
 distributed throughout the stroke than in a simple 
 engine, consequently the strains and shocks given to 
 the machinery are less. This ought to make the com- 
 pound a durable machine. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 SIGHT-FEED LUBRICATORS. . 
 
 The introduction of sight-feed lubricators for oiling 
 the valves and pistons of locomotives is one of the most 
 important improvements carried out in the last quarter 
 of the nineteenth century. 
 
 EARLY METHODS OF STEAM-CHEST LUBRICATION. 
 
 When locomotives were first put into service it was 
 supposed that the low-pressed steam employed would 
 supply sufficient moisture to lubricate the rubbing 
 surfaces and prevent cutting. That plan did not work 
 long and oil-cups were put on the steam-chests. A de- 
 cided improvement on the steam-chest cup was the 
 placing of oil-cups in the cab, with pipes to lead the 
 lubricant to the steam-chest. 
 
 All those mentioned were crude methods at the best. 
 The sight-feed lubricator was introduced in the prog- 
 ress of improvement, and appealled so strongly to 
 those who appreciated the lubrication requirements of 
 slide-valves and pistons that it soon became a recog- 
 nized necessity of a properly equipped locomotive. 
 
 For several years the merits of the sight-feed lubri- 
 cator for locomotives were more apparent than real. 
 
 3 6 9 
 
37° LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 One watching the regulated number of oil-drops pass- 
 ing each minute from the lubricator into the oil-pipe 
 naturally supposed that the same number of drops were 
 passing with the same regularity into the steam-chest. 
 
 MISTAKES ABOUT ACTION OF SIGHT LUBRICATORS. 
 
 There is now reason for believing that a great part 
 of the time the oil kept dropping into the oil-pipes, 
 which acted as reservoirs, until a reduction of steam 
 in the steam-chest permitted the steam passing through 
 the lubricator to overcome the pressure in the steam- 
 chest and force the oil into that chest. 
 
 The principle of the sight-feed lubricator is that 
 water condensed from a steam connection with the 
 boiler passes below a body of oil standing in the oil- 
 chamber, and owing to the lighter specific gravity of 
 the oil pushes out a drop of oil for every drop of water 
 that passes into the chamber. The water being heavier 
 than oil, naturally keeps the body of oil floating upon 
 it. The oil that is forced towards the oil pipes has 
 behind it the pressure due to the steam connection 
 with the boiler, and it was assumed that the boiler 
 pressure through the lubricator would always be suf- 
 ficient to overcome the steam-chest pressure. In prac- 
 tice, however, it became known that the steam direct 
 from the boiler operating the lubricator was sometimes 
 so reduced in pressure, through restricted passages and 
 other causes, that the steam in the steam-chest opposed 
 the flow of oil, and pushed it upwards from the steam- 
 chest instead of permitting it to pursue its course. 
 This defect did not become very apparent until ex- 
 
SIGHT-FEED LUBRICATORS. 2)7 l 
 
 treme steam boiler-pressure became common practice. 
 Several special devices have been perfected to over- 
 come this difficulty, particulars of which will be given 
 later. 
 
 THE NATHAN AND THE DETROIT LUBRICATORS. 
 
 There are many kinds of sight-feed lubricators in 
 use for different kinds of engines; but for locomotives 
 there are only two varieties, the Nathan and the Detroit, 
 which are well known. Both these lubricators use the 
 Gates invention of the up-feed of a drop of oil rising 
 through a glass tube of water by virtue of its lighter 
 gravity. 
 
 Both these lubricators feed oil to the valves and 
 pistons whether the engine is using steam or not. 
 Both require about the same handling to be success- 
 fully operated, and I shall ignore all other makes and 
 consider only these two. 
 
 LOCATION. 
 
 The best location of the lubricator to secure satis- 
 factory results, will largely depend upon the style of 
 boiler and the location of cab-fittings. On engines 
 with large foot-plates the best location is over the 
 middle of end of boiler. In this position feeds are in 
 plain view of both enginemen, and irregular working 
 or stoppage will be noticed at once upon engines where 
 the boiler extends well into or through the cab ; or 
 with Colburn boilers, where the cab is ahead of the 
 fire-box, the lubricator should be placed with the 
 cylinder feed-glasses in line lengthwise with the boiler 
 
37 2 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 and air-pump, feed- and oil-glass facing the engineer. 
 The bracket supporting the lubricator should be suf- 
 ficiently heavy to prevent vibration. 
 
 STEAM-SUPPLY AND PIPING. 
 
 The early practice was to connect the steam-pipe 
 of the lubricator to the turret, when one was used. 
 It is now admitted that a better plan is to make an 
 independent connection with the boiler for the lubri- 
 cator steam-pipe. The favorite plan now is to connect 
 the steam-pipe with the top of the boiler and to make 
 it not less than \ inch inside diameter. 
 
 TO OPERATE SIGHT-FEED LUBRICATORS 
 SUCCESSFULLY. 
 
 The following rules contributed by John A. Hill to 
 Locomotive Engineering are safe to follow by those 
 interested in keeping lubricators in good working 
 order: 
 
 1. Fill the cup with oil through the filling-plug, 
 and be sure you strain the oil. A very small piece of 
 waste, stick or other foreign matter will stop the feed. 
 
 2. Open steam- valve admitting steam to the con- 
 densing-chamber. It is always best to fill the cup 
 when the engine goes in or at the end of the trip. 
 Before the engine is taken from the house open the 
 steam-valve, or if the cup is empty close water-valve 
 and open steam-valve. This allows for condensation, 
 and the glasses are full of water. 
 
SIGHT-FEED LUBRICATORS, 373 
 
 3. Never open feed- valves below the glasses unless 
 the glass is full of water. 
 
 4. On the back of each cup, just over the supporting 
 stud, there is a valve known as the water-valve. This 
 admits water from the condensing-chamber to the 
 bottom of the cup. Open this after the glasses are 
 full of water, and before time to start the feed. 
 
 5. Open feed-valves below the glasses, admitting 
 the number of drops per minute that has been found 
 necessary for your work. A large engine requires 
 more oil than a small one, and where there is bad 
 water, and foaming or priming in consequence, more 
 oil will be needed. 
 
 6. To stop the feed close the valves below the 
 glasses. Leave all the others alone. On some roads 
 the engineer is instructed to close the feed-valves to 
 stop feeding. 
 
 7. To refill the cup close the water- valve ; this 
 shuts off the pressure from the lower part of the cup. 
 Then close the feed-valves below the glasses, and draw 
 off the water at plug below the cup. It is best to 
 draw this into a cup, as when a pipe is connected it is 
 hard to tell when the water is all out and good oil 
 running to waste. 
 
 8. Just as soon as you fill the cup and replace the 
 filling-plug, open the water-valve whether you want 
 to start the feed or not. 
 
 9. In the Nathan never close the valves on top of 
 the glass gauges except when a glass breaks ; then close 
 the one over the broken glass and the feed-valve under 
 it, and use the hand oil-cup for that side. This in no 
 
374 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 way interferes with the feeds of the rest of the cup, be 
 there one or two. 
 
 In the Detroit there are check-valves over the 
 glasses, so that when one breaks the top connection is 
 automatically closed, and it is only necessary to close 
 the feed-valve. Use the hand-cup for that side. 
 These valves also protect the tops of the glasses, 
 prevent their cutting away and breakage. As these 
 valves are always working in oil they will not lime up 
 and will positively close in case of breakage of glass. 
 
 10. Always carry extra glasses and gaskets. To 
 replace a broken glass, first shut off the steam from the 
 cup altogether, then close the water-valve. If it is a 
 Nathan, unscrew the packing-nuts on the broken glass, 
 knock it out, and if on the road put the nuts in a pail 
 of water to cool them. Take a wrench and unscrew 
 the box of the valve on top of glass and drop the new 
 glass in from the top; hold it partly up, slip on a new 
 gasket, then the upper nut (notice that the threads are 
 up), then the lower nut, another gasket, and drop the 
 glass into lower fitting. Replace the valve and box 
 and tighten up the packing-nut — not too tight at first. 
 Open water-valve and valve over glass. Wait until it 
 fills with water, then open the feed. 
 
 If the cup is a Detroit, shut it off from the boiler 
 and close the water-valve in feed-valve. Take off 
 packing-nuts as before, and then with a wrench take 
 out the feed-valve box and put glass in from the bot- 
 tom. Get the nuts and gaskets on right and replace 
 valve, proceeding as before. 
 
 11. Always clean the lubricator at least once in two 
 
SIGHT-FEED LUBRICATORS. 37$ 
 
 weeks. Do this by opening every valve in it wide 
 open except the filling plug, and then turn on steam. 
 
 12. Don't try to put in a glass while running. 
 Don't use old gaskets. 
 
 SIGHT-FEED CHOKED UP. 
 
 If the feed gets choked up, shut the water sight- 
 valve between condenser and oil-tank, open the drain- 
 cock at bottom of cup, and the steam pressure will 
 blow everything in sight-feed up into oil-tank, carrying 
 the obstruction out with it. In the same way the 
 steam-feed or chokes can be cleaned out. In this 
 case, shut steam-feed from boiler and open the throt- 
 tle so that steam-chest pressure will come into cup. 
 That will blow the obstruction in choke down into 
 sight-feed glass and leave the passage clear. 
 
 TO PREVENT OVER-PRESSURE INSIDE LUBRICATOR. 
 
 Both lubricators are made of bronze and tested at 
 a pressure of 300 pounds per square inch, yet we often 
 find them badly distorted from over-pressure. This 
 is because some one has filled the lubricator with cold 
 oil without opening the water-valve. The oil is there- 
 fore confined without any opening and the heat ex- 
 pands it, and bulging out of the sides to increase the 
 space results. When the water-valve is opened this 
 can never happen. 
 
 THE NATHAN LUBRICATOR. 
 
 One perspective view of the Nathan Lubricator is 
 shown in Fig. 50, and below are given the names of 
 the principal parts: 
 
37 6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE\RUNN1NG. 
 
 A Filling-plug. 
 
 B Steam-valve. 
 
 C C C Regulating-valves. 
 
 D Water-valves. 
 
 E Water-condenser. 
 
 FFF Safety-valves. 
 
 Hand-oilers. 
 
 W Waste-cock. 
 
 The steam-chest attachment for use in connection 
 with the " Nathan " pattern of locomotive lubricators, 
 to give extra pressure in forcing the oil into the 
 steam-chest, consists of a casing, attached at one end 
 directly to the oil-plug on top of the steam-chest, 
 and at the other end to the oil-pipe leading to the 
 lubricator. The casing is provided with a perma- 
 nently open, very small passage (choke-plug), through 
 which the oil from the lubricator passes. To main- 
 tain a clear opening in the choke-plug at all times, a 
 cleaning-needle is provided for, which can be entered 
 into the choke-plug at any time, without discon- 
 necting any joints or removing any parts, and 
 thereby removing obstructions. The casing is also 
 provided with a valve-controlled by-passage of con- 
 siderably larger area than that of the choke-plug. 
 This passage is normally closed, and is to be opened 
 only in connection with the hand oilers, in case these 
 latter do not operate freely enough through the 
 choke-plug. The construction of the lubricator proper 
 differs from the usual construction only in that the 
 choke-plugs are removed from the lubricator and the 
 main steam-supply and the equalizing steam-passages 
 
SIGHT-FEED L UBRICA TORS. 
 
 377 
 
 Fig. 50, 
 
37^ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 and tubes are enlarged. The advantages of this new 
 arrangement are that the equalization being done near 
 the point of the final oil-delivery, it is effected much 
 more evenly, with the result of a steady, uniform feed 
 under all conditions. There being no choke-plug in 
 the lubricator and the full volume of the hollow pipes 
 being utilized for maintaining boiler-pressure between 
 lubricator and final oil-delivery point, the preponder- 
 ance of pressure is always from the lubricator side, 
 which, under certain conditions, was not the case with 
 the former construction. 
 
 Another advantage is in the fact that the attachment 
 is very simply applied, is accessible at all times, and 
 doos not require any extra and inaccessible pipe-con- 
 nections and boiler-joints, which are liable to get leaky 
 and cause even breaks, which then cannot be repaired 
 except by sending the engine to the shops. 
 
 DETROIT LUBRICATOR. 
 
 Two views of the Detroit Triple Locomotive-Cylin- 
 der lubricator (Figs. 51 and 52) are shown. The 
 lubricator consists of the following parts, whose names 
 are of the most importance to know : 
 
 A Oil reservoir. 
 
 BB Hand-feeds. 
 
 C Steam-inlet pipe. 
 
 D Water-valve. 
 
 E E Drain-valves. 
 
 F Water-condensing chamber. 
 
 To overcome the difficulty of the steam-pressure in 
 the cylinders being so strong that the steam from the 
 
SIGHT-FEED LUBRICATORS. 
 
 379 
 
 boiler operating the lubricator would not force the oil 
 into the steam-chest, the Detroit Lubricator Company 
 adopted what is known as the Tippet Attachment. 
 This provides for an increased pressure by introducing 
 
 into the oil-pipes an extra current of steam direct 
 from the dry pipe. It calls for a plug on top of steam- 
 chest with a -g- 3 ¥ -inch opening. The back pressure in 
 the oil-pipe is all admitted through this small opening, 
 
3 8o 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 and as the area of the pipe leading from the dry pipe is 
 much larger a stronger current comes through the oil- 
 pipe to force the oil into the steam-chest. As the 
 
 i^@H^t 
 
 extra pressure comes from the dry pipe, the shutting 
 of the throttle-valve closes it off and prevents ex- 
 cessive feed of oil when the engine is not working 
 steam. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 
 
 NEARLY all railroad companies now employ travel- 
 ing engineers to supervise the work done by engine- 
 men. These men are peculiarly well fitted to tell what 
 an engineer ought to know before he is put in charge 
 of a locomotive. At one of the conventions of the 
 Association of Traveling Engineers a committee re- 
 ported on a form of questions which should be put 
 to firemen who are candidates for promotion or to 
 engineers desiring employment. 
 
 It is not intended that the questions should be put 
 as printed, but it gives a good idea of the kind of 
 knowledge respecting his business which the future 
 engineer is expected to be possessed of. I give the 
 questions and answers, but I should advise men pre- 
 paring for examination to study both while looking at 
 the locomotive itself. Look at the question without 
 the answer, and try by looking at the engine to make 
 up an answer. If you cannot do so, then the answer 
 given may be studied, and the chances are that you 
 will learn something you did not know before. A 
 careful reading of the whole book before beginning to 
 
 381 
 
3^2 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING, 
 
 study the questions and answers will be of much 
 help. It is not necessary that the man under exami- 
 nation should answer the questions in the words 
 given. If he shows that he understands what has to 
 be done, it will be satisfactory no matter what words 
 he uses. 
 
 The answers are modified by Mr. C. B. Conger 
 from a set furnished by Mr. M. M. Meehan to Loco- 
 motive Engineering, New York. 
 
 Q. — 1. What is a locomotive ? 
 
 A. — A steam-engine placed on wheels and produc- 
 ing power to move itself and draw cars on a railway. 
 For convenience in operating, there are two high- 
 pressure engines coupled to the same wheels. 
 
 Q. — 2. What are your first duties when going out 
 of the house with an engine ? 
 
 A. — To see that there is sufficient water in the 
 boiler, that gauge-cocks and water-glass are working 
 properly, fire-box and flues tight, the fire in good 
 order, ash-pan clean, that there are proper tools on 
 the engine for use in regular service, also for cases of 
 accident. If I did not bring the engine in last trip, I 
 should inspect the engine thoroughly for any defects 
 that might cause troubles on the trip; look on the 
 report-book and see what work the last man reported, 
 and note what work has been done. 
 
 Q. — 3. What tools do you consider necessary ? 
 
 A. — All the tools usually supplied on this road for 
 regular service, firing-tools included ; such tools and 
 blocking as are required in case of accident; oil-cans 
 and signal-lamps. 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOB PROMOTION. 383 
 
 Q. — 4. What supplies ? 
 
 A. — Coal, water, sand, oil, waste, packing, extra 
 glass globes, and any material you must use regularly 
 on the trip. 
 
 Q. — 5. How do you locate a pound in an engine ? 
 
 A. — Place the engine on the top quarter, block 
 driving-wheels, have the fireman give engine a little 
 steam and reverse her; watch all points on that side 
 where she is liableto pound. If the axle pounds in 
 box, you can see the wheel-hub move without moving 
 box ; if wedge is down or pedestal-bolts loose, the 
 box will move sidewise on the shoe and wedge. If it 
 is not located in the boxes or rods, look at key hold- 
 ing piston-rod in cross-head, or spider may be loose 
 on piston-rod. It is difficult to locate this trouble 
 unless you have once heard it, as the pound is not 
 always the same at each end of the stroke ; it de- 
 pends on how the spider or piston is fastened on 
 the rod. 
 
 Q. — 6. If pound is in the rods, can you always 
 locate it ? 
 
 A. — Yes, in the way just mentioned. 
 
 Q. — 7. How would you commence to key up a 
 mogul or ten-wheel engine ? 
 
 A. — Place engine on center, so pins would be the 
 same distance apart as centers of axles, to get the 
 side-rods the exact length ; key up the middle con- 
 nection of side-rod first, then the front and back, as 
 they can more easily be adjusted the proper length. 
 For main rod, stand on the quarter; if the crank-pins 
 are not worn out of round, any position will do. 
 
3^4 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 Q. — 8. If the pound is in the wedges, can you set 
 them up and get them right the first trial ? 
 
 A. — Most always. 
 
 Q. — 9. How do you do this ? 
 
 A. — Have the engine on straight track, so the 
 boxes would not cramp the wedges; place that side 
 on the top quarter, give engine steam or pinch wheel 
 to move box away from wedge and against shoe ; set 
 wedge up till it is tight between box and jaw of 
 frame, then draw it down about one-eighth of an inch, 
 so box can move up and down freely. Or have two 
 helpers ; take pinch - bars. Use one each side of 
 driver; when both raise at once, wheel and box will 
 raise. Set up wedge till box sticks, then slack it 
 down till box moves freely. 
 
 Q. — 10. Will an engine pound if pedestal-bolts 
 are loose ? 
 
 A. — Yes. With a Baldwin engine or any build 
 that has the brace bolted to hook over bottom of 
 jaws; if bolts work loose it will let the brace and 
 wedge down. If there is a large bolt runs from one 
 jaw to the Qther, like the Manchester or Rhode Isl- 
 and engines, the wedge cannot drop down, as it is 
 held up by the thimble which goes on the pedestal- 
 bolt between the jaws, but the jaws will spread apart 
 if bolt gets loose, and let box pound. 
 
 Q. — 11. Where wedge-bolts are broken, how do 
 you keep the wedge in position? 
 
 A. — If there is a jam-nut on wedge-bolt on top of 
 pedestal-brace, and bolt breaks on top of this nut, it 
 can be spliced by running the nut up over the break 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 385 
 
 and putting a washer equal to half the thickness of 
 nut between it and the brace, thus having half the 
 nut each side of break; this will hold the wedge 
 from going either up or down. Or a nut of the right 
 size can be put between the wedge and brace and tied 
 with a piece of wire through the hole in nut. This 
 will hold wedge from coming down. 
 
 Q. — 12. If follower-bolts are loose, will it make a 
 pound? 
 
 A. — Yes; loose bolt will strike forward cylinder- 
 head. 
 
 Q. — 13. How do you detect this trouble? 
 
 A. — It is worse when running shut off than when 
 working steam, as the live steam takes up all lost mo- 
 tion in main rod, so piston does not travel far enough 
 to allow follower-bolt to strike, unless it is a bad case. 
 You will hear it when passing front center on that 
 side only. Hook her up on center and it will stop it 
 sometimes. 
 
 Q. — 14. How do you remedy it? 
 
 A. — Take off cylinder-head and tighten up loose 
 bolt and take out any broken one. 
 
 Q. — 15. If cylinder-packing is blowing through, 
 how do you tell which side it is on? 
 
 A. — It is easy to tell which side of the engine the 
 blow is on, as steam will come out of both cylinder- 
 cocks on that side at the same time while engine is 
 blowing, but it is hard to tell just whether it is the 
 valve or packing that is blowing. The packing gen- 
 erally blows all the time valve has steam-port un- 
 covered during the stroke of piston ; hook her up in 
 
386 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 six inches and packing will only blow the first half of 
 the stroke. The sound of a blow in the packing is a 
 little different from that of the valve. 
 
 Q. — 1 6. Will steam come out of both cylinder- 
 cocks on the same side at the same time? 
 
 A. — Yes, if steam-port is open. 
 
 Q. — 17. If valve is cut and blowing, can you locate 
 the trouble? 
 
 A. — If valve blows steady, it is easily located; if 
 only one end of the seat is cut, or the seat is cut 
 hollow, it is not so easy. A sure way to settle a 
 doubtful case as to the valve or packing needing at- 
 tention is to stand the engine where she blows badly, 
 with reverse-lever so she takes steam through back 
 port; take off forward cylinder-head and give her 
 steam. If it blows out forward steam-port, it is the 
 valve ; if around the piston, the packing needs atten- 
 tion. 
 
 Q. — 18. And which side is it on? 
 
 A. — Steam will generally come out of both cylinder- 
 cocks on that side when engine is working steam. 
 Place engine so valve covers both ports and give her 
 steam ; if steam comes out of cylinder-cocks while in 
 this position, the leak is on that side. 
 
 Q. — 19. Will steam come into cylinder if valve is 
 tight and stands in the middle of its travel — that is, 
 covering both steam-ports? 
 
 A. —No. 
 
 Q. — 20. Can you locate the trouble if steam-pipe 
 is leaking? How? 
 
 A. — There will be a steady blow as soon as the 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 387 
 
 throttle is opened ; the steam will come into the front 
 end and afterward escape through the stack, while a 
 leak from the valves or packing will blow out of ex- 
 haust-nozzle and straight up the stack the same as a 
 blower. If it leaks at the back side of the bottom 
 joint, it will blow back into the flues and affect the 
 draft. A leaky exhaust-pipe will affect the engine's 
 steaming, also, as the steam will not all go out at the 
 nozzle and up the stack, as it should, but blow out 
 into the front end and deaden the draft instead of in- 
 creasing it. To locate the particular joint that is 
 leaking, open the smoke-box and examine joints; the 
 fine soot and cinders will be on the tight joints, but 
 will be blown away from the leaking one. 
 
 Q.- — 21. If exhaust gets out of square on the trip, 
 what does it indicate? 
 
 A. — That something is wrong with the valve-motion 
 or valves. 
 
 Q. — 22. Can you locate trouble, whether it is a 
 slipped eccentric, loose bolts in the strap, eccentric- 
 rod loose in the strap, or broken valve-yoke? How? 
 
 A. — Yes, by inspecting the bolts in the strap, the 
 bolts holding strap and rods together, and see if 
 rod has moved in the strap ; examine each eccentric 
 to see if it is in the proper place on the axle ; then 
 see if anything is loose about rocker-box or valve-rod 
 and -stem. If not located at any of these points, test 
 the engine for broken or sprung valve-yoke or broken 
 seat. If an eccentric has slipped, or the strap or rod 
 is loose, the engine will be lame in only one motion if 
 worked in full gear; if any thing is wrong with rocker- 
 
388 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 box on shaft, valve-rod, valve-yoke, or valve, she will 
 be lame both going ahead and backing up. 
 
 Q. — 23. Is there anything else not mentioned that 
 would affect the sound of the exhaust? 
 
 A. — If packing-rings break or valve gets cut badly, 
 so she begins to blow; if one tip of a double-nozzle 
 engine blows out, or exhaust-pipe joint leaks on one 
 side. Any of these troubles will affect the sound of 
 the exhaust. 
 
 Q. — 24. Can you set a slipped eccentric? How? 
 
 A. — Yes. After locating the one that was slipped I 
 would place the engine so I could get at the slipped 
 eccentric handy; on the forward center is the most 
 convenient. In this position the go-ahead eccentric 
 
 Forward 
 
 Zoeomotive Engineering 
 
 should be above the axle and inclined a little towards 
 the crank-pin ; the back-up eccentric should be below 
 the axle and inclined the same amount towards the 
 pin. [See Fig. 53]. If one eccentric is slipped, you 
 will have three others to use as guides in locating the 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 389 
 
 slipped one in the same relative position towards the 
 pin. Or if engine is moved till the spoke of the good 
 eccentric for that motion is on the exact center the 
 slipped one (for the same motion) should be moved to 
 the exact quarter; the right-hand one should always 
 lead just a quarter of a turn ahead of the left one 
 for the same motion. For instance, if the spoke or 
 bridge of eccentric-cam that has not slipped points the 
 same way as the center line of frame, the other one 
 for same motion (on opposite side) should point the 
 same way as edge of shoe between driving-box and 
 jaw of frame. [See Figs. 54 and 55.] Or if engine can 
 
 t pi Crank Pin Below 
 
 * 1 I Forward Center 
 
 ^Locomotive Engineering' < 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 be placed on the exact center on disabled side, with 
 go-ahead eccentric slipped, you can hook her in back 
 motion to connect the good eccentric (the back-up) 
 with valve-stem. Mark the valve-stem at edge of 
 gland, then hook her in ahead till link-block is the 
 same distance from nearest end of link it was when 
 mark was made on valve-stem, and move the slipped 
 eccentric till mark comes even with gland again, always 
 remembering that engine must stand on center, and 
 
39° 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 reverse lever for same point of cut-off in each motion 
 to set valve correctly enough to handle a full train. 
 Or with engine on center and reverse-lever in full gear 
 for that motion move the slipped eccentric till just a 
 
 e-Engineering 
 
 Fig. 55- 
 
 little steam will come out of cylinder-cock at end pis- 
 ton is in. 
 
 Q. — 25. How do you tell which one is slipped? 
 
 A. — I know just what position they should be in on 
 the axle; that is one of the first things to learn. If 
 one was hot or the set-screws loose, I would examine 
 that one first. 
 
 Q. — 26. How are they kept in their place on the 
 axle? 
 
 A. — Some are keyed on, some are fastened by set- 
 screws bearing on the axle, some by steel feathers 
 toothed on the lower side to get a good hold on the 
 axle, and held down by set-screws. 
 
 Q. — 27. How do you get the engine on the exact 
 center? 
 
 A. — That cannot be done without trams unless the 
 track is level and the center line through cylinder at 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 39 1 
 
 the same height above rail that centers of axles are. 
 There are several ways of getting very close to the 
 center. Move the engine till the centers of main axle, 
 main pin, and cross-head pin are on the exact same line 
 on that side, or till centers of axles and centers of 
 crank-pins on that side are on the same line, or till 
 a straight-edge on top and bottom of main-rod strap 
 comes the same distance each side of center of main 
 axle. Or measure from center of axle to level of rail 
 and have center of crank-pin in that wheel same dis- 
 tance. Or go to the other side of engine, place her 
 on the quarter, measure from center of back axle to 
 center of main pin and from center of main axle to 
 center of back pin ; move the engine till these dis- 
 tances are the same; she will then be on quarter on 
 that side and center on the other side. If center 
 line of cylinder is higher than center of main axle, 
 these rules place the engine a trifle below the forward 
 center. You cannot rely on the travel-marks on 
 guides ; if length of main rod is changed by wear of 
 brasses and keying up, the end of cross-head will not 
 meet the travel-marks when on center. 
 
 Q. — 28. Which center is most convenient to set 
 eccentrics from? 
 
 A. — The forward center. 
 
 Q. — 29. Where do the eccentrics come in relation 
 to crank-pin on that side of engine? 
 
 A. — If engine is moving ahead, the go-ahead eccen- 
 tric follows the pin, the back-up eccentric leads the 
 pin. If the valves had neither lap nor lead the eccen- 
 trics would be exactly 90 degrees or a quarter of a 
 
39 2 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 circle from the pin. They are moved far enough to- 
 wards the pin to allow for the lap and lead, so the 
 steam-port will be open the exact amount of the lead 
 when crank-pin is on the center. [See Fig. 53.] 
 
 Q. — 30. Where do they come in relation to the 
 eccentrics for the same motion on the other side of 
 the engine? 
 
 A. — They are at right angles with each other. The 
 right-hand one leads or passes the forward center when 
 the left-hand one is on the top quarter. [See Figs. 
 54 and 55.] 
 
 Q. — 31. What generally causes eccentrics to slip? 
 
 A. — When they get hot or cut so fastenings can't 
 hold them in place ; if set-screws work loose or points 
 break off; or if one or both bolts break that hold 
 the parts of the cam together, if it is made in two 
 parts. 
 
 Q. — 32. How do you move the eccentric back to 
 its proper place on the axle ? 
 
 A. — Loosen up set-screws and feathers, if they 
 are used, so eccentric can be moved easily with a 
 wrench. Sometimes the axle and inside of cam get 
 cut, so cam has to be driven back around axle. 
 
 Q. — 33. Would you put water on a hot eccentric 
 or strap ? 
 
 A. — No; cast-iron strap is sure to break from con- 
 tracting unevenly. 
 
 Q. — 34. Are all eccentrics made in one piece ? 
 
 A. — No. Some are made in two pieces. They 
 are held together by bolts made specially for this 
 purpose. If one of these bolts breaks and the eccen- 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 393 
 
 trie is held from turning on the axle by set-screws, 
 you cannot set it, and will have to disconnect that 
 side of engine. 
 
 Q. — 35. What do you disconnect, take off, and 
 block in case of a broken eccentric-strap ? 
 
 A. — Take off both eccentric-straps on that side, tie 
 top end of link to tumbling-shaft arm, and link hanger 
 so it will not tumble over and interfere with reversing 
 engine ; place valve to cover steam-ports, clamp valve- 
 stem so valve cannot move, disconnect main rod, and 
 block cross-head. 
 
 Q. — 36. Can an engine be worked ahead to a 
 station with a full train if back-motion strap is 
 broken ? 
 
 A. — Yes, if worked in full gear ahead and bottom 
 end of link fastened so it cannot swing back and forth 
 when force of eccentric-rod comes on the top end of 
 link. This can be done by fastening bottom of link 
 to some part of engine both front and back, or you 
 can take the back-up rod off the broken strap and 
 fasten it by a bolt through forward strap so both ends 
 of link will be go-ahead. Unless an engine is in a 
 snow-drift or on a bad grade, it will be safer to 
 disconnect. 
 
 Q. — 37. If link-hanger or pin is broken ? 
 
 A. — Yes. Take off disabled link-hanger and work 
 engine in full gear on disabled side ; put a block in 
 link under link-block, full length. The disabled link 
 must be blocked far enough down so tumbling-shaft 
 arm on that side cannot catch on top of blocked 
 link when engine is hooked clear down in full gear, 
 
394 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 or you will break something else. To reverse engine, 
 change the block in link to top end after reverse- 
 lever is changed and take it out before hooking ahead 
 again. 
 
 Q. — 38. If arm is broken off tumbling-shaft ? 
 
 A. — Yes, same as for broken link-hanger. If it is 
 the arm to reach-rod, same as broken reach-rod. 
 
 Q. — 39. With a broken reach-rod ? 
 
 A. — Yes. Block under one link-block and put a 
 very short block in top of link on that side. When 
 engine is moving, one link tends to slip up on its link- 
 block while the other one is slipping down. If both 
 links are blocked solid, top and bottom, the tumbling- 
 shaft has to bend or spring. Some men block on top 
 of link-block only. To reverse, put block in top end 
 of one link to hold them up in back gear. 
 
 Q. — 40. What do you do in case of a broken link- 
 block pin ? 
 
 A. — Take out broken pin and disconnect that side 
 of engine, taking down both eccentric-strap's, as when 
 link-block is not held to rocker-arm by its pin the 
 link can tip over against rocker-arm and catch so as 
 to spring eccentric-rods or move rocker-arm and 
 valve. Although some disconnect valve from eccen- 
 tric by taking out link-block pin and leaving eccentric- 
 straps and link still coupled up and moving, yet it is 
 not safe. 
 
 Q. — 41. With broken piston-gland or stud ? 
 
 A. — If one side of gland or one stud was broken 
 take out some of the packing, so gland could be put 
 into stuffing-box far enough so it would not cant over 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 395 
 
 and cramp the rod, when one stud would hold it. 
 With metallic packing or both studs gone, it is gener- 
 ally necessary to disconnect that side. 
 
 Q. — 42. What would you do with an engine with a 
 broken piston ? 
 
 A. — Disconnect that side, unless piston was gone 
 entirely, in which case main rod could be left up, but 
 valve uncoupled and clamped so it could not move 
 to uncover steam-ports. By "disconnecting" I 
 mean uncouple valve-rod or eccentric-straps so valve 
 will not move, cover the steam-ports and clamp 
 valve-stem, take down main rod and block cross-head 
 solid. 
 
 Q. — 43. With a broken cylinder-head ? 
 
 A. — Disconnect on that side. 
 
 Q. — 44. With a broken valve-yoke ? 
 
 A. — Would locate broken valve-yoke first. When 
 yoke breaks off, the valve stops in front end of steam- 
 chest. If valve is pushed far enough ahead, the 
 exhaust-port will be opened so engine will blow 
 through on that side. If exhaust-port is not uncov- 
 ered, the steam will come out of back cylinder-cock 
 only. If engine is on the quarter you cannot move 
 valve by reversing the engine so steam will come out 
 of front and back cylinder-cocks alternately. Would 
 raise steam-chest cover and block valve at each end 
 so it would stand centrally over the ports, and discon- 
 nect that side of engine. If there was a relief- valve 
 in front side of steam-chest, it could be taken out, 
 valve pushed up against the valve-stem or back part 
 of yoke, which should be clamped in proper place. 
 
39^ LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 A wooden plug of proper length in relief-valve would 
 hold steam-valve solid when relief-valve is screwed up 
 in place. This would save you raising the steam- 
 chest cover. Sometimes valve-yoke or " spectacle" 
 breaks on one side of yoke only, in which case engine 
 will go lame when stem and yoke are pulling on 
 valve ; she will be square when stem is pushing valve. 
 Work her down towards full gear, and with light 
 steam-pressure on back of valve you may get to 
 terminal station before it breaks off altogether. 
 
 Q. — 45. With broken valve-seat? 
 
 A. — If it was a false seat and broken badly, so 
 steam blew through into exhaust-port, it would be 
 necessary to take up steam-chest cover on disabled 
 side, make a tight joint over steam- and exhaust- 
 ports; sometimes a board can be used instead of the 
 valve, in which case valve will have to be taken out 
 and may be left out, holding board down by a block 
 between it and steam-chest cover. In the case of a 
 balanced valve, the top of valve comes so close to 
 pressure-plate that the valve will not go in again 
 with a board under it, nor can broken false seat be 
 taken out and valve dropped down on the old seat on 
 cylinder-casting unless top of valve is also blocked 
 to keep live steam out of exhaust-cavity of balanced 
 valve. Disconnect that side by taking down main 
 rod, blocking cross-head; better take off both eccen- 
 tric-straps also, as the bottom rocker-arm may be bent 
 out, and then, if engine cannot be reversed easily, un- 
 couple link-hanger from the tumbling-shaft arm. It 
 is necessary to locate the trouble and which side it is 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 397 
 
 on first. If it is broken so steam leaks through it will 
 come out of both cylinder-cocks on that side. If 
 valve-rod is bent or rocker-arm sprung you should 
 notice that at once. If false seat is broken and the 
 pieces cannot be fitted together again to be steam- 
 tight, take it all out. Some false seats are fastened 
 down with tap-bolts going into the lands and bridges 
 between the ports, in which case broken seat cannot 
 be taken out, but must be covered so steam cannot 
 get by it. 
 
 Q. — 46. With broken valve-stem gland? 
 
 A. — With one lug broken off or one stud gone 
 would do the same as for broken piston-gland, or 
 gland can be held in stuffing-box with wire or bell- 
 cord around steam-chest. ■ 
 
 Q. — 47. When a valve-seat breaks, does it ever do 
 any damage to other parts of the engine? 
 
 A. — Yes, it is liable to break yoke or valve, bend 
 valve-rod or rocker-arm, bend eccentric-rod, or slip 
 eccentric. A piece of seat may break off small 
 enough to get down through steam-port into cylinder 
 and break piston ; if that side is disconnected it can- 
 not do any other damage going home. If any part 
 was damaged it must be disconnected so it cannot 
 move and do more damage. 
 
 Q. — 48. What would you do with top rocker-arm 
 broken? 
 
 A. — Disconnect that side of engine. 
 
 Q. — 49. How do you fix broken steam-chest if 
 steam leaks out badly? 
 
 A. — If steam-chest is cracked down through one 
 
39 8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 side only, would wedge in between sides of chest and 
 the bolts holding cover down so as to close up the 
 crack tight ; the bolts on side at crack must be slacked 
 off first. 
 
 Q. — 50. How do you keep steam from coming out 
 of dry pipe into broken steam-chest on the different 
 builds of engines on this road? 
 
 A. — If the steam comes through the cylinder-saddle 
 into bottom of chest at the ends, would cover the inlet- 
 ports with blocks of wood and hold these blocks down 
 with the steam-chest cover and bolts. If these bolts 
 are gone make a blind joint in steam-pipe inside 
 smoke-arch. As this is liable to be a long job, it may 
 be better to get towed in. Where steam-pipe con- 
 nects with side of steam-chest, take out such bolts as 
 may be necessary to loosen up chest, take the ball- 
 ring out of joint, slip a piece of board in and tighten 
 up joint. To loosen up chest to get out ball-joint 
 ring, it is sometimes necessary to take out steam-chest 
 cover-bolt that goes through steam-inlet port, all the 
 bolts on opposite side of chest and the one next stuf- 
 fing-box, so chest can be moved away from ball-joint. 
 You may be able to put a piece of thin iron in next 
 the flat side of ball-ring so as to blind the joint and 
 leave ball-ring in there. Disconnect that side. 
 
 Q. — 51. How and where do you block cross-head 
 when disconnecting? 
 
 A. — On standard eight-wheel engines in back end 
 of guides with blocks of hard wood the full size of 
 opening in guides, securely fastened so they can't 
 work out. In case cross-head gets loose it will take 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 399 
 
 out front head only instead of back head, guides, 
 rocker-box, etc. On moguls, or any engine where a 
 crank-pin passes guides and cross-head, it may be 
 necessary to block in front end of guides so crank-pin 
 will clear cross-head. 
 
 Q. — 52. How do you keep packing- rings out of 
 counterbore? 
 
 A. — By blocking cross-head just a little inside of 
 travel-marks on the guides. With standard engines 
 having double guides on each side of cross-head, four 
 guides in all, cut your cross-head blocks as long as the 
 stroke of the piston, then use a wedge of hard wood 
 between guide-block and cross-head to hold cross-head 
 solid. 
 
 Q. — 53. Would you take out cylinder-cock at the 
 end the piston is in? 
 
 A. — Yes, or block it open; then if valve shifts or 
 leaks you will get notice at once by the steam coming 
 out there. 
 
 Q. — 54. What would you do if main-rod strap or 
 cross-head should break? 
 
 A. — Disconnect that side. Block in front end of 
 guide so piston could not move back in cylinder, 
 which it might do if engine stopped very suddenly 
 when coupling on to train. When strap or cross-head 
 breaks, the forward cylinder-head generally gets 
 broken also. 
 
 Q. — 55. What should be done if side-rod or back- 
 pin breaks? 
 
 A. — Take off all broken parts, also side-rod on op- 
 posite side of engine. 
 
400 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 Q. — 56. Can all four-wheel switch-engines be run 
 with their own steam with the side-rods down? 
 
 A. — No; on some builds of engines the forward 
 crank-pin is liable to strike cross-head or the key 
 through piston-rod, as when side-rods are down crank- 
 pin does not always pass the cross-head at the exact 
 place where it will clear, as it must do when side-rods 
 are working. Cut off the end of this key so it will 
 clear, if that is all that is in the way. On some en- 
 gines the eccentrics are not on the same axle the main 
 rods are coupled to ; these engines must be towed in 
 if all side-rods are off. 
 
 Q. — 57. Why do you take side-rods down on the 
 opposite side to the broken one? 
 
 A. — To avoid straining or bending the rods or pins. 
 If forward wheel slips when rod was on center some 
 damage would be done. 
 
 Q. — 58. What is the effect of sanding the rail while 
 the engine is slipping without first shutting off 
 steam ? 
 
 A. — If an engine catches on sand while slipping, it 
 is liable to spring a side-rod, break a crank-pin, or 
 spring the axle. The size of drivers has something to 
 do with this ; it is worse with a large wheel than with 
 a very small one, like a " Consolidation " has. 
 
 Q. — 59. Is it good policy to allow sand to run from 
 one pipe only? 
 
 A. — No; it brings most all the strain on one side, 
 while the power is coming to both sides of engine, and 
 is likely to spring the axle. 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 401 
 
 Q. — 60. How do you block up an engine for a 
 broken driving-spring or hanger? 
 
 A, — If engine was raised with jacks, would block 
 up the end of equalizer that had been connected to 
 broken part, so it was a little higher than before, to 
 allow for settling. It is customary to also block up 
 between driving-box and frame at the box where 
 spring is broken. If this is a forward box, it puts the 
 load on that box, which may be too much ; it is 
 better to block up over back driving-box, whichever 
 spring is broken ; the weight is carried there best. 
 [See question 72.] If engine was raised by running 
 up on blocks or wedges, would put a block on top of 
 box under broken spring first, if possible, run that 
 wheel up on wedge till the engine was raised up so 
 equalizer could be blocked up level again ; then 
 put block over back box also, to carry what 
 weight of engine the spring still at work on that side 
 would not hold up ; take out the broken spring or 
 hanger if necessary. If equalizer is under frame and 
 boxes, block under the end that will hold it in proper 
 place. 
 
 Q. — 61. With a broken equalizer? 
 
 A. — If on a standard eight-wheel engine, do the 
 same work as for broken driving-spring on that side. 
 Take out broken parts, if necessary. If an engine- 
 truck equalizer, block on top of truck oil-boxes and 
 under top bar of engine-truck frame. If it is the 
 cross-equalizer on a four-wheel switch-engine, block 
 up between top of forward boxes and engine-frame; 
 some of these equalizers are located under the bottom 
 
402 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 rail of frame, with the hangers going up outside 
 of frame, in which case you can block between 
 hanger and frame. For broken cross-equalizer be- 
 tween the forward drivers of a mogul, it will be neces- 
 sary to block on top of forward driving-boxes; if 
 equalizer going to center-pin is broken or disabled, a 
 block can be put over cross-equalizer and under boiler, 
 and thus get the use of forward driving-springs. 
 
 Q. — 62. With broken engine-truck spring or 
 hanger? 
 
 A. — If it is a four-wheel engine-truck, block over 
 the equalizers and under top bar of engine-truck frame 
 close to band of spring, high enough so engine will 
 ride level with other side ; with mogul, over the truck- 
 box. If engine-truck center-casting breaks on a 
 standard engine, block across under truck-frame and 
 center-casting and over the equalizers, from one side to 
 the other; a couple pieces of rail four and one-half to 
 five feet long come handy for this. Or you can put a 
 solid block under the engine-frame next to cylinder- 
 saddle and on top of truck-frame on each side. This 
 plan will give you the use of the engine-truck springs, 
 although it does not always hold the center-casting up 
 against male casting under smoke-arch, so engine will 
 track straight. 
 
 Q. — 6$. With broken intermediate equalizer on 
 mogul? 
 
 A. — Block over driving-boxes if necessary, as with 
 the cross-equalizer broken ; under the boiler and over 
 cross-equalizer if engine-truck equalizer is disabled. 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 403 
 
 Q. — 64. With broken engine-truck center-pin on 
 mogul what is to be done? 
 
 A. — Block up same as for broken equalizer, ex- 
 cept that a block is needed over truck-axle and under 
 front end of equalizer; a truck-brass comes handy for 
 this purpose. 
 
 Q. — 65. What should you do when a tire breaks 
 and comes off the wheel on a standard engine? 
 
 A. — If it is a main tire, raise that wheel-center up 
 off the rail a little higher than the thickness of the 
 tire to allow for engine settling when blocked up ; take 
 out oil-cellar, so journal would not get cut on the 
 edges of cellar; put a solid block of wood between 
 pedestal-brace and journal to hold wheel-center up 
 clear of rail ; and block up over back driving-box, so 
 engine could not settle or get down to allow cast-iron 
 wheel-center to strike the rail. It will take consider- 
 able strain off the pedestal-brace to put a block under 
 spring-saddle and on top of frame. Taking out this 
 driving-spring makes a sure job. Take off all other 
 broken or disabled parts; if rods are still in good 
 order, leave them up. If a back tire, block up in 
 the same manner as for main tire, except that block* 
 ing comes next other journals and boxes. If engine 
 is very heavy, it may be necessary to carry part of the 
 weight of back end of the engine on tender. This can 
 sometimes be done by wedging up under chafing-block 
 on engine-deck and over coupling-bar; at other times 
 it may be necessary to lay a solid tie or short rail on 
 top of deck, the end against the fire-box, extending 
 back into tender. Chain around this tie or rail and to 
 
404 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 the frame at back driving-box pedestal, and block up 
 under end that is on tender, so weight of engine will 
 be carried on rail or tie back on tender. [See questions 
 70 and 72.] This plan of blocking leaves three good 
 tires on the rails, and the disabled wheel carried away 
 from the rail. Run wheel on blocks to raise it clear 
 of rail when possible. 
 
 Q. — 66. With front tire on mogul or ten-wheel en- 
 gine? 
 
 A. — Block up under journal of disabled wheel same 
 as described in previous answer ; in addition, it will be 
 necessary to block up to put more weight on engine- 
 trucks. 
 
 Q. — 67. With main tire on mogul? 
 
 A. — Block up under main journal and over back 
 driving-box. If with either tire broken on mogul or 
 ten-wheel engine side-rods have to be taken off, it 
 may be necessary to be towed in if crank-pin in for- 
 ward wheel does not clear cross-head when side-rods 
 are uncoupled. Some mogul and ten-wheel engines 
 have the main tires without flanges, others have the 
 forward pair "bald/' which makes a little difference 
 in keeping them on track when blocked up. [See 
 question 56.] 
 
 Q. — 68. With the back tire on mogul? 
 
 A. — Same as for back tire on any other engine, 
 taking off all broken parts. To hold flanges of the 
 good tire against the rail when running, chain from 
 end of engine-frame and deck (the step-casting is 
 handy for this) across to corner of tender behind 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 405 
 
 the good tire ; this will hold flange over and tender 
 will be used to hold back end of engine on rail. 
 
 Q. — 69. With both back tires on mogul ? 
 
 A. — Raise both wheel-centers up to clear the rail 
 and block under journals to hold them up. Arrange 
 to carry par*- of weight of back part of engine on 
 tender, as per answer to question 65 ; chain back end 
 of engine each way to tenc'er-frame, so main wheels 
 will have no chance to get off track. Or a shoe or 
 " slipper" having a flange on one side can be fastened 
 to wheel-center — a piece of old tire will make a good 
 one — the wheel-center blocked so it will slide, and 
 bring engine in that way. Another way is to take 
 out the back wheels, as in case of a broken axle, and 
 put in a car-truck, blocking up under engine-deck; 
 this is a job for the wrecking-car. With a four-wheel 
 switch-engine with front tire broken, if engine is still 
 on track, front end of engine can be chained to a flat 
 car, which will carry the weight and steer front end 
 of engine. In all cases of broken tire it is understood 
 that other parts of the engine that are damaged must 
 be removed ; the tire generally removes itself. 
 
 Q. — 70. With back tire or back driver broken off, 
 how do you fix engine so you can back around curves 
 when necessary ? 
 
 A. — Chain across from step on engine-deck on 
 disabled side to tender-frame on other side, or put a 
 block from cab-casting or chafing-iron on deck across 
 where the block can brace against tender-frame ; this 
 will hold good flange against rail. Look out when 
 
406 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 going through frogs, as there is nothing to keep 
 flange from leading into point of frog. 
 
 Q.- — 71. At what fixed points is the weight of 
 engine carried when springs and equalizers are in 
 good order ? 
 
 A. — On a standard engine the " permanent bear- 
 ings" or fixed points are the equalizer-centers, one on 
 each side of fire-box, and the center-bearing of engine- 
 truck ; with moguls, where equalizer-centers are fast- 
 ened to frame and to center of cylinder-saddle. With 
 most all four-wheel switch-engines the weight is also 
 distributed to three points, which are the back driving- 
 boxes and middle of equalizer which extends between 
 the forward ends of front driving-springs. Engines 
 are designed to carry their weight on three points, so 
 all wheels will bear evenly on the rail ; equalizers are 
 then used to distribute the weight to all the driving 
 wheels evenly. 
 
 Q. — 72. Where is the weight carried when blocked 
 up over the forward driving-box ? 
 
 A. — If blocked up over forward driving-box solid, 
 this box takes all the weight that was carried on both 
 boxes on that side, and a little more, as the block 
 comes more nearly under the center of the engine 
 than the equalizer-post does. If the block over driv- 
 ing-box carries the weight which was carried by 
 equalizer before, it will have a double load on it. 
 When blocked up solid over a driving-box, as in the 
 case of a broken tire, the weight of entire engine 
 comes on engine-truck center, the equalizer-post on 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. AP7 
 
 good side of engine, and on the block over driving- 
 box on disabled side of engine. 
 
 Q. — 73. When blocked up over the back driving- 
 box ? 
 
 A. — On that box, on the equalizer-post on opposite 
 side of engine, and engine-truck center-casting. A 
 block over back box carries less of the weight than a 
 block over forward box, as the engine-truck carries a 
 larger share of the load. The nearer the center of 
 the weight of an engine the blocking is located, the 
 greater proportion of the total weight the block 
 carries. As, for instance, if a standard eight-wheel 
 engine balances, or has half her weight ahead of and 
 half behind the main axle, if blocked up solid over 
 main axle, in case of a broken axle on both back tires, 
 these blocks over main boxes carry the entire weight 
 of the engine. If all wheels are bearing on the rail 
 and springs still in service, the springs take some of 
 the strain off the blocking. 
 
 Q. — 74. What is the best material to use to block 
 between driving-box and frame? 
 
 A. — Wood or an old rubber spring is most elastic, 
 but it will not hold up a heavy engine ; it is liable to 
 get in the oil-holes and stop them up. An iron block 
 made for that purpose, or extra-large nuts, are the 
 best for heavy engines. 
 
 Q. — 75. If driving-box or brass breaks, so it is cut- 
 ting the axle badly, what can you do to relieve it ? 
 
 A. — Block between spring-saddle and top of frame, 
 so as to take the strain of driving-spring off the dis- 
 abled box ; or take out the driving-spring entirely. 
 
408 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 This last is a very sure way ; the block may work out 
 from under spring-saddle. 
 
 Q. — 76. Do you consider it an engineer's duty to 
 have suitable hard-wood blocks on his engine to use 
 in case of a breakdown ? 
 
 A. — Yes; he should have a set of cross-head blocks 
 for each side of the engine ; two blocks of straight- 
 grained hard wood that can be split to proper size for 
 blocking under driving-axles or over engine-truck 
 equalizers with broken truck-springs, and bell-cord to 
 use in tying up disabled parts. He should have 
 suitable wedges or blocks for running driving-wheels 
 up on in case of broken springs, tire, etc, (See ques- 
 tions 60 and 65.) 
 
 Q. — jj. How do you block up or get to a side- 
 track with a broken engine-truck wheel or axle ? 
 
 A. — If a piece is broken out of wheel, it can be 
 skidded to next side-track by laying a tie in front of 
 that pair of wheels. If axle is broken or wheel broken 
 off outside of box, you can chain that corner of en- 
 gine-truck up to engine-frame, being careful to chain 
 so as to crowd good wheel against the rail. 
 
 Q. — 78. With mogul, with broken engine-truck 
 wheel or axle, what would you do ? 
 
 A. — Take it out if necessary. Chain engine-truck 
 to engine-frame ; block up on top of forward driving- 
 boxes. 
 
 Q. — 79. With broken tender-truck wheel or axle, 
 what would you do? 
 
 A. — If with broken wheel, try and skid it to the 
 next station, so as to clear main line. With broken 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMO IF ON. 409 
 
 axle, take disabled wheels out and suspend that part 
 of truck to tender. Block over the good wheels in this 
 truck and under tender-frame. 
 
 Q. — 80. Is it necessary to take down the main 
 rod if the frame is broken between the cylinder and 
 forward driving-box ? 
 
 A. — Yes, if crank opens up when engine is working 
 steam, and it generally does. Don't let any other 
 engine pull on you while frame is broken. 
 
 Q. — 81. Would you take down either rod if the 
 frame is broken between forward and back driving- 
 boxes ? 
 
 A. — If broken badly, take down side-rods. 
 
 Q. — 82. Where is the frame fastened solid to the 
 other part of the engine ? 
 
 A. — At the cylinder-saddle, solidly; at side of fire- 
 box, loosely, so as to allow of expansion of boiler in 
 length when under steam ; at the guide-yoke, to keep 
 sides parallel, and solidly at the deck-casting. Some 
 engines also have belly-braces from cylinder part of 
 boiler to frame. 
 
 Q. — 83. Would you disconnect an engine for a. 
 broken guide? 
 
 A. — That depends on where the guide was broken. 
 If cross-head would catch on end of broken guide, yes. 
 With some builds of engines it would be necessary to 
 disconnect anyhow, as strain would all come on 
 piston-rod. 
 
 Q. — 84. How do you handle an engine if throttle 
 sticks open, or dry pipe-joint leaks, so steam cannot 
 be shut off from engine? 
 
410 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 A. — Reduce the steam-pressure till engine could be 
 safely handled with reverse-lever and brake. 
 
 Q. — 85. What will you do if throttle is discon- 
 nected and remains shut? 
 
 A. — Notify headquarters to send help to tow you 
 in. If very far to place where repairs could be made, 
 would disconnect at once. For a short distance it is 
 not necessary to disconnect ; you can keep your 
 valves and packing oiled with lubricator, same as if 
 drifting down a hill shut off. Ask the M. M. for in- 
 structions. 
 
 Q. — 86. If a crank-pin brass gets hot, so the babbitt 
 melts, would you cool it off with water before all the 
 babbitt comes out? 
 
 A. — No; throw it all out. If hot babbitt is cooled 
 off with water, it will cut the pin, besides stopping up 
 the oil-holes. 
 
 Q. — 87. Can you take out a tender-truck brass and 
 replace it with a new one? How? 
 
 A. — Yes. Take out the packing, jack up the box, 
 and take out the key or wedge, if one is used. This 
 will let the brass come out over the collar on the 
 journal. Replace old brass with a new one ; also place 
 key or wedge, taking care that it is in the exact proper 
 place before jacking down ; pack the box again. 
 
 Q. — 88. An engine-truck brass? 
 
 A. — Take out cellar; jack up the truck-box with a 
 pony jack till brass will slide out along axle. Put in 
 a new one, let down the box, pack the cellar and re- 
 place it. With a heavy engine, it helps along to lift 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. A 11 
 
 front end with big jacks, to take part of the strain off 
 the pony jack. 
 
 Q. — 89. When a brass does not wear an even thick- 
 ness at both ends, is it apt to run hot? Why? 
 
 A. — Yes; that shows that there is more weight on 
 one end of the brass than the other. When you put 
 in a new one, the weight will not be equally dis- 
 tributed and new one will get hot also. 
 
 Q. — 90. How often do you examine the ash-pan, 
 grates, and dampers? 
 
 A. — Before going out on a trip, always, and when 
 inspecting the engine at end of trip. 
 
 Q. — 91. What are your duties after cutting off from 
 train at the end of the trip? 
 
 A. — Inspect the engine and tender closely, and at 
 every part that is visible ; report all work needed be- 
 fore she makes another trip, this report to be made 
 before leaving engine-house, on the proper book for 
 that purpose. 
 
 Q. — 92. What are your duties in case of a wreck, 
 when your engine is off the track? 
 
 A. — See that proper flags are out. If the engine is 
 in such a position that crown-sheet or flues are not 
 covered with water, get fire out as soon as possible, 
 so fire-box will not be damaged ; then send an in- 
 telligible report to proper officials and get engine 
 ready to be put on the track, as far as possible. Take 
 off such damaged parts as you can. 
 
 Q. — 93. If front end is broken, but flues and steam- 
 pipes in good order, how could you make repairs on 
 it to run in? 
 
412 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 A. — Board up front end of smoke-arch, or close it 
 up in some way, so exhaust would draw air through 
 the flues instead of the broken opening. If the studs 
 in front end are good, it is easily done ; the curtain 
 will help to close the cracks. 
 
 Q. — 94. Do you understand the principle on which 
 an injector works? 
 
 A. — With a lifting-injector a small amount of steam 
 is first admitted through the priming-tube in the in- 
 jector. This forces the air in the injector out through 
 the overflow, and at the same time produces a partial 
 vacuum in the suction-pipe, which is immediately 
 filled by water from the tank, it being forced up by 
 atmospheric pressure on water in tank. This same 
 action of the priming-jet will also start a flow of water 
 through the injector. The steam valve can then be 
 opened wide, when the stream of steam, combining 
 with the stream of water in the " combining-tube," 
 will give the water a velocity that carries it past the 
 delivery-tube against the boiler-pressure, and thence 
 into the boiler. At the same instant the steam gives 
 its velocity to the water it is condensed. This leaves 
 the stream of water solid and in motion at high speed, 
 so the momentum of the water is sufficient to carry it 
 through the delivery-tube against the boiler-pressure. 
 
 Q. — 95. What are the different builds of injectors 
 on this road? 
 
 A. — Note — This varies on different roads. 
 
 Q.—96. What is the combining-tube? 
 
 A. — A funnel-shaped tube through which both 
 water and steam are passing at the instant the steam 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 413 
 
 is condensing and giving its velocity to the water. 
 In some injectors this combining-tube is fixed, in 
 others it is movable. 
 
 Q. — 97. I£ sand or dirt gets in the passages, will 
 the injector work? 
 
 A. — Not if it stops them up. If combining-tube is 
 movable and sand makes it stick so it cannot move 
 and adjust itself to volume of steam and water, it will 
 break every time. 
 
 Q. — 98. In case an injector will not work, when it 
 has always been reliable before, where would you look 
 for trouble in the first place? 
 
 A. — Examine hose, strainers, and supply-pipe, to 
 see if injector could get a proper supply of water 
 promptly; then see if there were any leaks above 
 water-level that would let air into the supply-pipe of a 
 lifting-injector; then see if any foreign substance had 
 got into injector and choked any of the passages up. 
 
 Q. — 99. If it will not prime at all? 
 
 A. — Water is all out of tank, overflow stopped up, 
 check stuck and leaking back through injector, leak of 
 air into supply-pipe, or jet of steam may not pass ex- 
 actly through the middle of tube which exhausts air 
 or starts flow of water. 
 
 Q. — 100. If it primes good, but breaks when opened 
 wide, where would you expect to find the trouble? 
 
 A. — Check- valve stuck shut; not getting a full sup- 
 ply of water to condense all the steam ; air leaking 
 into supply-pipe, or tubes inside the injector loose or 
 bent, so they are not in perfect line. 
 
 Q. — 101. When boiler-check sticks up or leaks, so 
 
414 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 water comes back from boiler, how do you remedy it? 
 
 A. — Jar the check case or delivery pipe a little, so 
 check will settle into seat. If check leaks, get it re- 
 paired. Sometimes something will get into the de- 
 livery-pipe and work under the check-valve, holding it 
 open ; when check is ground in, this foreign substance, 
 which may be something out of the injector, will drop 
 back into delivery-pipe and lay there till injector is 
 worked next time, when it will get under and hold 
 valve up again. Take off the delivery-pipe and clean 
 it out. 
 
 Q. — 1 02. Is there more than one check- valve be- 
 tween the injector and the boiler ? 
 
 A. — Most injectors have a check- valve in the end 
 next delivery-pipe. Some roads put an extra check- 
 valve about half-way between the injector and boiler- 
 check. 
 
 Q. — 103. Will injector work unless all the steam is 
 condensed by the supply of water ? 
 
 A. — Some will not, others will, as some of the 
 water and steam will lift the overflow-valve and come 
 out, steam and water mixed. To remedy this, re- 
 duce the supply of steam or increase the supply of 
 water. 
 
 Q. — 104. Will it sometimes work better if steam- 
 throttle on boiler is shut off, so as to supply only 
 steam enough to work the injector ? 
 
 A. — Yes. That is the only way to work a non- 
 lifting-injector, and it helps most lifting-injectors; 
 makes them work with less noise and more regular. 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 415 
 
 Q. — 105. Will an engine steam any better if this is 
 done ? 
 
 A. — Yes. Try it by shutting off steam-throttle 
 till injector will pick up all the water for lazy-cock 
 full open, and leave it that way unless steam-pressure 
 drops down low, when you will have to open steam- 
 throttle a little, to give enough steam for the lower 
 pressure. 
 
 Q. — 106. How should an engine be pumped — con- 
 tinuously from beginning to end of trip, or would 
 you shut the injector off when pulling out after each 
 stop ? 
 
 A. — Shut off the injector at the same time the 
 throttle is opened to start the engine, and start injec- 
 tor again as soon as lever is hooked up after train is 
 under way, or as soon as steam-pressure begins to 
 raise again after pulling out. By this method the 
 steam-pressure can be held more regular, and be 
 greatest just when you need it to get train under way 
 quickly. When pulling out after a stop, the steam- 
 pressure must be kept up against a large amount 
 being used by the cylinders, the fresh coal put in on 
 a fire that has not been burning fiercely while engine 
 was shut off, and supply of water put in by the injec- 
 tor. As water raises when throttle is opened, with 
 some engines it is an advantage to ease or shut off 
 the injector for a minute or two at the instant of 
 pulling out, and keep injector at work after shutting 
 off, while fire is still burning fiercely, and thus save 
 that heat which would make engine blow off. This 
 
41 6 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 method will help a poor steamer along; if it does 
 that, it will help a good steamer burn less coal. 
 
 Q. — 107. Will an injector take water from the 
 tank if the air cannot get into the tank as fast as the 
 water goes out ? 
 
 A. — No. In cold weather sometimes the water 
 splashing around freezes all the air-holes in top of 
 tender. Then the injector will not work. 
 
 Q. — 108. Is there any advantage in having a boiler 
 moderately full of water when pulling out of a sta- 
 tion, or when starting a hard pull for a hill ? 
 
 A. — Yes. You have a reserve supply of water 
 in the boiler already heated to help hold steam- 
 pressure up. 
 
 Q. — 109. What makes a boiler foam ? 
 
 A. — Any greasy or foul substance in the water, 
 such as animal oil, soap, alkali water, etc. 
 
 Q. — no. How do you remedy it ? 
 
 A. — If boiler does not foam very badly, would 
 handle the engine very carefully, working her easy, 
 with long cut-off and light throttle, so as to raise the 
 water as little as possible. Change the water in the 
 boiler as soon as it can be done safely, by blowing it 
 out — through a surface blow-off cock is best. Would 
 also fill tank with clean water at the first chance if 
 the water in tank caused the trouble. As to the care 
 of boiler while foaming, would shut off steam occa- 
 sionally to see if water-level would stay above the 
 bottom gauge. If water dropped too low, would 
 open throttle, keep engine working steam, put on 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOE PROMOTION. 417 
 
 both injectors and deaden fire till it was certain that 
 there was a safe amount of water on crown-sheet. 
 
 Q. — in. What is the danger when boiler foams 
 badly? 
 
 A. — There is danger of cutting the valves, knocking 
 out cylinder heads, stalling on some grade, or getting 
 on some train's time, because engine cannot be 
 worked to full power ; or, with a bad case, of burning 
 the crown-sheet, when water drops low enough to un- 
 cover it. 
 
 Q. — 112. Does water remain the„same level when 
 the throttle is shut? 
 
 A. — No; it will drop as soon as steam stops flow- 
 ing out of boiler. It will drop if engine is not mov- 
 ing, even if throttle is left open. 
 
 Q. 113. What do you do in case water drops too 
 low? 
 
 A. — Dump fire and get it out of ash-pan, or 
 smother it with green wet coal. 
 
 Q. — 114. What is the least depth of water on 
 crown-sheet that is safe? 
 
 A. — One gauge, as when you have less you do not 
 know how much water you have. 
 
 Q. — 115. How much water on the crown-sheet 
 with one, two, and three gauges respectively? 
 
 A. — That depends on the build of the engine. 
 Some have three inches for one gauge, six inches for 
 two, and nine inches for three gauges of water. 
 Other engines do not have quite so much for one 
 gauge; some have more. 
 
41 8 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 Q. — 116. Do you consider it safe to run an engine 
 with one or more of the gauge-cocks stopped up? 
 
 A. — No. All should be in working order. If 
 there was no water-glass in working order and all 
 gauge-cocks stopped up, the engine would be dis- 
 abled, as far as handling a train safely is considered. 
 Because some men have done it, do not think it is 
 safe. Never try it. 
 
 Q. — 117. Is the water-glass safe to run by if the 
 water-line in the glass is not in sight, and moving up 
 and down when the engine is in motion? 
 
 A. — No. You cannot tell the correct level of the 
 water in the boiler. The cocks may be stopped up or 
 closed. 
 
 Q. — 118. Under what circumstances can it be used 
 to show the height of water if you cannot see the top 
 line of water in the glass? 
 
 A. — If water-level is above top end of glass, open 
 blow-out cock at bottom of glass. If water-level 
 drops and then suddenly raises when this blow-out 
 cock is closed, it is evidence that water is higher in 
 boiler than the glass will show. If below where it 
 will show in glass, open throttle and start engine 
 ahead quickly. The water will raise and show in the 
 glass, but in this last case deaden the fire. 
 
 Q. — 119. If gauge-cocks are stopped up, or the 
 low-water glass-cock is filled up so water does not 
 come into glass freely, what is your duty? 
 
 A. — Get engine and train off the main line, deaden 
 or dump the fire, report condition of engine, and 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 4 19 
 
 clean out gauge-cocks. It is not safe to work an en- 
 gine in that condition. 
 
 Q. — 1 20. Is any more water used when an engine 
 foams than when she carries water well ? 
 
 A. — Yes. The water passes out with the steam 
 like spray. 
 
 Q. — 121. What is the effect of using black oil in 
 the boiler and through the injectors? 
 
 A, — Some kinds of scale are softened by the black 
 oil that is put in boilers; other kinds of scale are 
 not affected by it. In all cases it tends to keep in- 
 jectors and check- valves free from scale and in work- 
 ing order. In some cases the thicker part of the oil 
 will settle against the fire-box sheets and keep the 
 water away from them, so the sheets get overheated. 
 
 Q. — 122. Would you use valve or lard oil for the 
 same purpose? 
 
 A. — No; it would make boiler foam badly. 
 
 Q. — 123. What damage does it do an engine to 
 work water through the cylinders? 
 
 A. — It is liable to break packing-rings, cylinder 
 heads, and do other damage to the engine. It also 
 takes the oil off valve and seat, so they cut quicker. 
 
 Q.— 124. Is it a good plan to let engine slip at such 
 times? 
 
 A. — Never. The practice of slipping an engine 
 when baeking away from the engine-house to ll knock 
 the water out of her steam-passages'' is a very bad 
 one, also certain to damage the engine sooner or 
 later. 
 
420 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 Q. — 125. Is it liable to break the cylinder packing- 
 rings or cylinder heads? 
 
 A. — Yes; it is. 
 
 Q. — 126. In case you got out of water on the road, 
 what would you do? 
 
 A. — If out in the boiler, would draw the fire at 
 once and send for help. If out in the tender, would 
 try and bail into the tank with pail to get to a water- 
 tank and fill up. In a snow-drift you could shovel 
 snow into the tender and melt it with steam from the 
 boiler, keeping one side of tank cold if, possible, so in- 
 jector would work the water without wasting it. 
 
 Q. — 127. When an engine dies on the road in the 
 winter what would you do? 
 
 A. — If it were freezing, would let all water out of 
 tank, leaving both hose uncoupled ; open all joints 
 where necessary to let water out of pipes ; blow steam 
 through pipes, if possible, after opening joints. Let 
 water out of lubricator all around, blow off boiler 
 clean and dry, even if it is necessary to take out wash- 
 out plugs after steam-pressure goes down. Discon- 
 nect engine to be towed in. 
 
 Q m — 128. How will you fill the boiler with water 
 and get the engine alive when fire is drawn on account 
 of low water? 
 
 A, — Take out safety-valve on the top of dome and 
 fill with pails. If another engine is handy, get her to 
 pump your engine up. 
 
 Q, — 129. Can an engine be pumped by towing her 
 with another engine? How? 
 
 A. — Yes. Pump the air out of the boiler, and 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 421 
 
 water from the tender will be forced in by the pressure 
 of the atmosphere. To do this, plug up all open- 
 ings where the outside air can get into the boiler, 
 like the whistle, relief-valves on steam-chests, cylin- 
 der-cocks, overflow-valves on some styles of injectors. 
 Open throttle and steam and water connections to in- 
 jectors or water-pump ; put the reverse lever the way 
 engine is being moved and tow her with another en- 
 gine. She should be towed fast enough to oil the 
 valves through hand oilers, and to form a vacuum in 
 boiler by cylinders pumping air out. Cylinder-pack- 
 ing should be tight. 
 
 Q. — 130. Can she be filled up with water from a 
 live engine, if you have suitable hose and connections? 
 
 A. — Yes; by connecting hose to overflow- or de- 
 livery-pipe of injector and then to suction of injector 
 of dead engine, or through whistle or safety-valve. 
 Some engines have a wash-out plug high enough up 
 to fill boiler to one gauge. 
 
 Q. — 131. How do you take care of an engine with 
 old and tender or leaky flues? 
 
 A.— Pump engine regularly; keep as steady steam- 
 pressure as possible ; have a bright even fire ; use 
 great care that no strong draft of cold air strikes the 
 flues through the door or holes in the fire near the 
 flue-sheet. If possible, when going in the house leave 
 two or three inches of live fire on the grates after 
 shaking down and raking out the old dead fire. This 
 fire will die out slowly, so engine will cool off slowly. 
 Dampers should be shut after going in the house. 
 
 N. B. — If this treatment is necessary to help a leaky engine, it 
 will help keep a good tight engine from leaking. 
 
422 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 Q. — 132. If the top of the stack is covered after 
 the fire is cleaned and engine is in the house, to keep 
 cold air from drawing through the grates and up 
 through flues, will it help to keep flues tight? 
 
 A. — Yes, it pays. On some roads it is a regular 
 practice. They have iron covers like the one on 
 water-tanks. 
 
 Q. — 133. Are you familiar with the working of the 
 lubricator? 
 
 A. — Yes, sir. I can operate it, clean it out, and 
 keep it in order. 
 
 Q. — 134. Explain how the oil gets from the cup to 
 the steam-chest and cylinders. 
 
 A. — Steam from the boiler is connected to the top 
 of the cup, which keeps the condenser or ball at top 
 of cup full of water. This steam also passes down 
 steam-pipes, sometimes located inside the cup, some- 
 times outside the cup, to top-arms over sight-feed 
 glasses, and thence through oil-pipes to steam-chest. 
 A water-pipe leads from the bottom of condenser to 
 bottom of oil-tank, so oil will not come up this pipe, 
 but water can pass down under the oil. The head of 
 water in condenser forces oil out through feed-valves 
 and it rises through water in sight-feed glass to where 
 it mingles with the current of steam from top-arm into 
 oil-pipes and then to steam-chest. To bring the oil 
 from top of oil-tank to sight-feed valve there is a pipe 
 running up to top of tank which takes oil to feed- 
 valve till it is fed out, and water rises to top of this 
 pipe. It requires a head of water in condenser to 
 force oil through feed-valves and a full boiler pressure 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 423 
 
 of steam in the cup to make it feed regular at all 
 times, whether working steam or with throttle shut 
 off. 
 
 Q. — 135. What about the small check- valves over 
 sight-feed glasses; what are they for? 
 
 A. — They are put in by the makers to close down 
 in case a glass bursts, and prevent the escape of 
 steam from that side of cup, so the other side of cup 
 can be used. They become gummed up after they 
 are used, so they do not always operate. If they 
 stick shut, the cup won't feed, as oil cannot pass up 
 by these valves. 
 
 <2.— 136. Are there any other valves between the 
 lubricator and the steam-chest? Why not? 
 
 A. — Not in the lubricators that have these check- 
 valves. The oil-pipe, after leaving the cup, should 
 have a clear passage without any valves in it to ob- 
 struct the passage of oil or steam. The later style of 
 cups have a very small nozzle or " choke " put in the 
 passage where the current of oil and steam leaves the 
 cup. This is to maintain a steady boiler-pressure in 
 the cup, so it will feed regularly, either shut off or 
 pulling a train. If the openings in these nozzles are 
 too large the cup will commence to feed faster as 
 soon as you close throttle so steam-chest pressure 
 falls. 
 
 Q. — 137. After filling the cup, which valve do you 
 open first ? Why ? 
 
 A. — Steam-valve should be opened first, then the 
 valve admitting water from condenser to bottom of 
 oil-tank, and when you want to set cup to feeding, 
 
424 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 with old Detroit No. I, open auxiliaries next, about 
 one-eighth of a turn or less; then feed-valves. With 
 new cups the auxiliary oilers do not regulate the 
 steam-feeds; the nozzles do this. 
 
 Q. — 138. If you should fill the cup with cold oil 
 while in the house, would you open the water-valve 
 or leave it closed ? 
 
 A. — Open it, and also open the valve on boiler 
 enough so steam-pressure would be in cup, unless 
 engine was cold. This steam-valve must be open 
 whenever engine is working steam. If engine is 
 cooling off, leave steam-valve on boiler closed, if you 
 think there is any danger of oil siphoning over into 
 boiler when steam in boiler condenses. 
 
 Q. — 139. How often should lubricator be cleaned 
 out ? Why ? 
 
 A. — If oil is good quality and kept free from dirt 
 while in cans on engine, every two or three months is 
 enough; if gummy oil is used, whenever it does not 
 work freely. 
 
 Q. — 140. Should sight-feed glass or feed-valve on 
 one side become broken or inoperative, can the sight- 
 feed on the other side be used ? 
 
 A. — Yes, if you can shut the steam out of top of 
 broken glass, and oil off at bottom of glass, the other 
 side can be operated. 
 
 Q. — 141. Will any of the lubricators in our service 
 "cross-feed" — that is, feed to the opposite side of 
 the engine ? Why or why not ? 
 
 A. — Yes; some of the old-style cups will. The 
 manufacturers say none of the new-style cups will. 
 
EXAMINATION OF FIREMEN FOR PROMOTION. 425 
 
 A cup can be tested by closing the escape of oil and 
 steam from one side of the cup — say to the right cyl- 
 inder. Then if the right-side sight-feed will operate 
 regularly, the oil must be going across and coming 
 out on left side. In this test we expect the left sight- 
 feed valve is to be shut off. Then test the other side 
 in like manner. 
 
 Q. — 1^.2. Explain the cross-feeding difficulty as 
 experienced in some of the lubricators in service. 
 
 A. — With most of the old cups and some of the 
 new ones, if the steam and oil outlet from cup to 
 steam-chest gets stopped up, the oil will rise up 
 through the steam-pipe and cross over, going down 
 the other steam-pipe to other outlet, so one steam- 
 chest gets all the oil intended for both of them. If, 
 when the outlet from cup is stopped up or shut, the 
 water fills up this steam-pipe or "equalizing tube" 
 till it stands higher than the head of water in the 
 condenser, it cannot cross-feed, as the low head of 
 water in condenser will not force the oil out through 
 feed-valve against a higher head of water in the 
 equalizing-tube. This is the reason the equalizing- 
 tube is coupled to the lubricator at a higher point 
 than the pipe bringing steam from the boiler. Such 
 lubricators will not cross-feed if steam-pipe can drain 
 the surplus water from condenser back to boiler. 
 
 Q. — 143. Is there a possibility of losing the oil out 
 of lubricator after shutting off both bottom feeds to 
 steam-chest, when engine is allowed to cool down ? 
 
 A. — Yes, in very rare cases. Some boilers are so 
 tight that when cooled off there is a partial vacuum 
 
426 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE RUNNING. 
 
 in them, in which case, if both steam- and water- 
 valves are left open, the pressure in oil-tank will force 
 oil up through water-pipe and over into boiler. 
 
 Q. — 144. How would you locate which side the 
 defect was on if balanced valve strips were blowing ? 
 
 A. — Set the valve on middle of seat so that the 
 oil hole on top is immediately above the exhaust 
 port. Block the wheels and give the engine steam. 
 The escaping steam will then pass direct to the smoke- 
 stack and the blow will be distinctly heard. 
 
 N.B. — These questions and answers about lubricators refer to 
 such styles of cups as the Detroit and Nathan. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Accidents : 
 
 To valve-motion 142 
 
 To cylinders and steam connections 146 
 
 To running-gear , 136 
 
 Air: 
 
 Effect of too much 69 
 
 Air-brake : 
 
 Chapter on 247 
 
 Operation of steam-engine of 262 
 
 Slide-valve of 275 
 
 Graduating-valve of 275 
 
 Quick-action, application of 278 
 
 To release 278 
 
 Purpose of leakage-groove of 279 
 
 Pump-governor for 282 
 
 Pressure retaining-valve 284 
 
 Westinghouse high-speed 290 
 
 Record of high-speed 293 
 
 General instruction on 300 
 
 Air-cylinder : 
 
 Operation of 263 
 
 Air-pump : 
 
 Construction of 254 
 
 Steam-engine, part of 257 
 
 Air-compressor, part of 258 
 
 Efficiency of 8-inch 259 
 
 Efficiency of 9^-inch 259 
 
 Illustration of 8-inch 255 
 
 Illustration of 9^-inch 260 
 
 427 
 
428 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Angularity of connecting-rod : 
 
 Effect of 207 
 
 Axles : 
 
 Driving, broken 164 
 
 Boiler : 
 
 Inspection of 30 
 
 Feeding the 64 
 
 Intermittent feeding of 87 
 
 Shortness of water in 93 
 
 Explosion of 119 
 
 Boilers : 
 
 Precautions against scorching 34 
 
 Care of 115 
 
 Factor of safety of 116 
 
 Different forms of locomotive 117 
 
 Anthracite burning 117 
 
 Ross Winans 117 
 
 Zerah Colburn 117 
 
 John E. Wootten 117 
 
 Mother-Hubbard 118 
 
 Preservation of 119 
 
 Causing injury to 120 
 
 Dangers of mud and scale in 121 
 
 Blowing-off 121 
 
 Over-pressure on 122 
 
 Books : 
 
 Value of studying engineering 9 
 
 Brakes : 
 
 Chatelier water , 216 
 
 Clearance : 
 
 Too much piston 88 
 
 Piston 170 
 
 Coal : 
 
 Ingredients of 68 
 
 Collisions: 
 
 Of trains 157 
 
 Combustion : 
 
 To effect perfect 68 
 
 Chapter on 332 
 
INDEX. 429 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Combustion : 
 
 Mastering principles of 333 
 
 Compound locomotives : 
 
 To calculate the power of 315 
 
 Action of 367 
 
 Connecting-rod : 
 
 Care of 167 
 
 Functions of 168 
 
 Angularity of 207 
 
 Crank : 
 
 Attempts to abolish 204 
 
 Crank-pin : 
 
 Broken 148 
 
 Cross-heads : 
 
 Securing 140 
 
 Cut-off: 
 
 Advantage of short 46 
 
 Finding point of 244 
 
 Adjustment of 245 
 
 Cylinder-heads : 
 
 Breakage of 146 
 
 Cylinders : 
 
 Accidents to 146 
 
 Operation of steam in 198 
 
 Back-pressure 198 
 
 Compression in . . . . 200 
 
 Dampers : 
 
 Operating the 68 
 
 Loss of heat from bad 70 
 
 Diaphragm-plate : 
 
 Purpose of 330 
 
 Draft : 
 
 Obstructions to 83 
 
 Draft appliances : 
 
 Chapter on 321 
 
 Driver-brake : 
 
 Use of 158 
 
 Driving axles: 
 
 Broken , , 164 
 
43° INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Driving-boxes: 
 
 Pounding of , 176 
 
 Dry-pipe: 
 
 Bursted 151 
 
 Eccentric: 
 
 Definition of 202 
 
 Eccentrics : 
 
 Position of 134 
 
 Method of setting sliped 135 
 
 Position of, in relation to crank 203 
 
 Angular advance of , 206 
 
 Eccentric-rods: 
 
 Slipped 137 
 
 Breakage of „ 138 
 
 Eccentric-straps : 
 
 Breakage of 138 
 
 Engine : 
 
 How to start with train 44 
 
 Engineer : 
 
 Attributes that make a good 1 
 
 Must be intelligent 3 
 
 Learning duties of 18 
 
 First duties of 37 
 
 Engines : 
 
 Slippery 63 
 
 Hard-steaming . ... 79 
 
 Essentials for good-steaming 79 
 
 Causes of bad-steaming 80 
 
 Running worn-out 125 
 
 Engine Reversed : 
 
 Action of. 212 
 
 Engineer's brake and equalizing discharge-valve : 
 
 Description of 264 
 
 Illustration of 268 
 
 Equalizers : 
 
 Broken 162 
 
 Examination of firemen for promotion : 
 
 Questions and answers for 381 
 
INDEX. 43 1 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Examinations : 
 
 Methods of, for promotion 21 
 
 Exhaust : 
 
 Watching 126 
 
 Warning of 129 
 
 Detecting the cause of lame 137 
 
 Exhaust pipes : 
 
 Functions of 326 
 
 Fire : 
 
 Management of 49 
 
 Fire-boxes : 
 
 Different forms of 115 
 
 Firemen : 
 
 Kind of men who make good 14 
 
 Misconception of duties of 16 
 
 Learning duties of 17 
 
 Methods of promoting 21 
 
 First duties of 35 
 
 Highest type of 51 
 
 Methods of good 55 
 
 Medium 56 
 
 Firemen : 
 
 Hopelessly bad 56 
 
 Travelling engineers' examination of 381 
 
 Firing : 
 
 Conditions that demand good 51 
 
 Systems of 55 
 
 Scientific 334 
 
 Flues : 
 
 Leaky 86 
 
 Frame : 
 
 Broken 164 
 
 Fuel: 
 
 Gases formed by burning 335 
 
 Combining elements of 336 
 
 Heat value of 339 
 
 Air needed for burning 340 
 
 Igniting temperature of 343 
 
43 2 INDEX. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Gauges : 
 
 Watching the water 95 
 
 Grates : 
 
 To prevent burning of 36 
 
 Methods of shaking 53 
 
 Defects of 85 
 
 Igniting-temperature : 
 
 Keep furnace above 52 
 
 Injector : 
 
 Invention of 98 
 
 Principle of action 99 
 
 Elementary form of 102 
 
 Action of 103 
 
 Care of 104 
 
 Injectors : 
 
 Efficiency of 98 
 
 Most common arrangement of. 105 
 
 Care of 106 
 
 Common effects of 106 
 
 Care of in winter 107 
 
 Sellers 108 
 
 Giffard 108 
 
 Nathan's monitor 111 
 
 Little Giant 112 
 
 Metropolitan 113 
 
 Inspection : 
 
 Importance of locomotive 24-32 
 
 Advantages of 126 
 
 Lap : 
 
 Of slide-valve 188 
 
 Link : 
 
 Slip of 230 
 
 Radius of 232 
 
 Links : 
 
 Hooking-up 44-60 
 
 Link motion : 
 
 Chapter on 218 
 
 The invention of 219 
 
INDEX. 433 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Link motion : 
 
 Weak points of ■ 225 
 
 Adjustment of 229 
 
 Locomotive : 
 
 Learning to keep in running order 19 
 
 Inspection of 24 
 
 How to start with train 44 
 
 Locomotives : 
 
 Difficulties of running in bad weather 12 
 
 Improved construction of 20 
 
 Slippery 63 
 
 Hard-steaming . . . . 79 
 
 Essentials for good-steaming 79 
 
 Causes of bad-steaming 80 
 
 Running worn-out , . 125 
 
 To estimate power of 310 
 
 Locomotive engineers : 
 
 Duties of 1 
 
 Public interest in 3 
 
 Increasing duties of 4 
 
 How made 12 
 
 Learning duties of 18 
 
 Lubricators : 
 
 Sight-feed 369 
 
 Main-rod ; 
 
 Breakage of 148 
 
 Nozzles : 
 
 Size of exhaust 90 
 
 Best form of 326 
 
 Oil: 
 
 Quantity required for different bearings 39 
 
 Operating expenses : 
 
 Influenced by skill of enginemen 6 
 
 Petticoat-pipe : 
 
 Purposes of 81,328 
 
 Adjustment of 82 
 
 Pipe : 
 
 Petticoat 81 
 
434 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pipe : 
 
 Leaky steam 85 
 
 Piston : 
 
 Effect of too much clearance 88 
 
 Pistons: 
 
 How to detect leakage of 128 
 
 Striking points of 170 
 
 Clearance of 170 
 
 Piston stroke : 
 
 Events of 211 
 
 Pounding : 
 
 Of working parts 153 
 
 Of driving-boxes 176 
 
 Of wedges 176 
 
 Pressure-retaining valve : 
 
 Description of 284 
 
 Pressure : 
 
 Reduction of, applies brakes 253 
 
 Promotion : 
 
 Methods of giving 21 
 
 Pump-governor : 
 
 Description of 282 
 
 Resistance of trains : 
 
 Particulars about 318 
 
 Rocker-arm : 
 
 Broken 142 
 
 Rocker-shaft : 
 
 Broken ' 142 
 
 Rough riding : 
 
 Causes of 183 
 
 Running-gear : 
 
 Understanding 160 
 
 Sand : 
 
 How to use 61 
 
 Setting of valves : 
 
 Chapter on 236 
 
 Shifting-link : 
 
 Chapter on 218 
 
 Construction of 221 
 
INDEX. 435 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Shifting-link : 
 
 Action of the 221 
 
 Illustration of the 222 
 
 Side-rod : 
 
 Broken 149 
 
 Care of 167 
 
 Purpose of 172 
 
 Adjustment of 173 
 
 Keying of 175 
 
 Sight-feed lubricators : 
 
 Chapter on 369 
 
 Nathan and Detroit 371 
 
 To operate 372 
 
 To prevent over-pressure inside 375 
 
 Single tracks : 
 
 Operating safely 75 
 
 Slide-valve : 
 
 Invention of 185 
 
 Description of 186 
 
 Primitive 185 
 
 Outside lap of 188 
 
 The Allen 192 
 
 Inside clearance of 195 
 
 Lead of 196 
 
 Movement of 205 
 
 Influence of eccentric throw 227 
 
 Smoke-box : 
 
 Extended 84 
 
 Smoke-stack : 
 
 Different kinds of 83 
 
 Badly proportioned 89 
 
 Designs of 329 
 
 Speed : 
 
 Judging train 13 
 
 Spring : 
 
 Broken driving 161 
 
 Stations : 
 
 Duties of enginemen at 72 
 
 Precautions in approaching 73 
 
436 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Stay-bolts : 
 
 Stresses on 119 
 
 Steam : 
 
 Raising 33 
 
 Working expansively 45 
 
 Advantage of high-pressure 47 
 
 Velocity of 102 
 
 Compression of 2^0 
 
 Chapter on 353 
 
 Conditions of 356 
 
 Methods of using 357 
 
 Curve of expanding 362 
 
 Steam-chest: 
 
 Broken 143 
 
 Steam-engine : 
 
 Air-pump 262 
 
 Steam-engine indicator: 
 
 Purposes of 357 
 
 Steam-pipe: 
 
 Burst 144 
 
 Strainers : 
 
 Care of 97 
 
 Striking points: 
 
 Of pistons 170 
 
 Stroke : 
 
 Events of in reverse motion 213 
 
 Temperature : 
 
 Advantage of high furnace 52 
 
 Igniting 52 
 
 Of injected water 101 
 
 Throttle : 
 
 Disconnected . 149 
 
 Various accidents to 152 
 
 Time-table : 
 
 Familiarity with 76 
 
 Tires r 
 
 Broken 164 
 
 Tractive power : 
 
 Chapter on 309 
 
index. 437 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Train : 
 
 Running a fast freight 42 
 
 Train resistance : 
 
 Chapter on 309 
 
 Particulars about 318 
 
 Train rights : 
 
 Knowledge of 72 
 
 Train signaling apparatus : 
 
 Description of 285 
 
 Train speed : 
 
 Difficulty of judging 13 
 
 Travelling engineers : 
 
 Examination for firemen 381 
 
 Triple valve : 
 
 Quick-action 272 
 
 Care of 280 
 
 Plain automatic 281 
 
 Trucks : 
 
 Accidents to 163 
 
 Tubes : 
 
 Leaky 86 
 
 Burst 123 
 
 Tumbling-shaft : 
 
 Broken 141 
 
 Valve : 
 
 Conductor's 253 
 
 Valves : 
 
 How to detect leakage of 128 
 
 Testing the 145 
 
 Valve-motion : 
 
 Aids in studying 10 
 
 Accidents to 125 
 
 Noticing defect of 126 
 
 Interest in 132 
 
 Trouble with 132 
 
 Locating defects of 134 
 
 Accidents to 142 
 
 Chapter on 185 
 
 Aids to study of 209 
 
43 8 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Valve-motion : 
 
 Of a fast passenger locomotive 224 
 
 Valve-setting : 
 
 Chapter on 236 
 
 Best way to learn 237 
 
 Valve-stem : 
 
 Broken 141 
 
 Valve-travel : 
 
 Effect of changing - 224 
 
 Decreasing, increases expansion 226 
 
 Valve-yoke : 
 
 Broken 141 
 
 Velocity : 
 
 Of steam 101 
 
 Water : 
 
 Shortness of 93 
 
 Velocity of flowing 101 
 
 Temperature of injecting 101 
 
 Water-gauges : 
 
 Watching the 95 
 
 Wedges : 
 
 Care of 167 
 
 Pounding of 176 
 
 Setting up 180 
 
 Westinghouse air-brake : 
 
 Efficiency of 157 
 
 Chapter on 247 
 
 Advantage of using 248 
 
 Quick-action 249 
 
 Essential parts of 250 
 
 Automatic feature of 252 
 
 High speed 290 
 
 General instruction on 300 
 
 Wheels : 
 
 Broken 164 
 
 Wheel-slipping : 
 
 Causes of 61 
 
MA?. 18 
 
 1320 
 
'•>,* '