w? 
 
Class L 6 n ! f 
 
 Book , H4" - 
 
 GopigfitlS . '. 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2011 with funding from 
 The Library of Congress 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/statemaintenance01hert 
 
STATE MAINTENANCE FOR 
 TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
STATE MAINTENANCE FOR 
 TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 By 
 
 WALTER SCOTT HERTZOG 
 
 BALTIMORE 
 WARWICK & YORK, Inc. 
 
 1921 
 
Copyright, 1921, By 
 
 WARWICK & YORK, INC. 
 
 g»CI.A630354 
 
 SE?24'2I 
 
 -V 
 
H >.it; 
 
V 
 
 <b 
 
 n»- 
 
 & 
 
 A 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 
 A study of this kind is impossible without the assistance 
 of many school officials and other educators. I wish to 
 acknowledge my debt of gratitude to all who have so 
 courteously cooperated in securing the data. In many 
 instances it was not feasible to give the names of those 
 who responded to my requests for information. Educa- 
 tional literature has been used freely in compiling the 
 statements of conditions in various states and countries. 
 
 Whatever measure of success has been achieved in this 
 study is largely due to the personal influence and inspira- 
 tion of Dr. Wm. C. Bagley, of Teachers College, who 
 was the pioneer in advocating subsidies for prospective 
 teachers in the United States. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter I — The Prospective Teacher and the State 
 
 Conditions that make a profession attractive. . . 7 
 
 Teacher-training as a state function 8 
 
 Methods by which the state may provide trained 
 
 teachers 13 
 
 Purpose of this study 23 
 
 Chapter II. — A Survey of Conditions which May 
 Justify Additional Aid for Prospective 
 Teachers 
 
 Introduction 25 
 
 Composition of the teaching population 26 
 
 Statistics of educational development since 1870 43 
 Cost of training at Normal Schools 55 
 
 Chapter III. — Plans for Recruiting the Profession 
 Through Financial Assistance 
 
 In the United States , . 61 
 
 In Canada 69 
 
 In Latin- America . 70 
 
 In Europe 72 
 
 In Asia 78 
 
 In New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. . . 79 
 
 Chapter IV. — Methods of Recruiting other Profes- 
 sions and Occupations Through 
 Financial Assistance 
 
 In industry 83 
 
 In occupations for women (telephone, telegraph, 
 
 stenography, nursing) 83 
 
 Army and Navy — West Point and Annapolis ... 85 
 Scholarships for higher education 88 
 
 3 
 
4 state; maintenance: of te;ache;rs in training 
 
 Traveling scholarships 90 
 
 New York State Nautical School 90 
 
 Church boards of education and the ministry. . 91 
 
 Chapter V. The Advantages and Disadvantages of 
 Subsidies for Teacher Training as an 
 Element in Recruiting the Profession 
 
 Advantages 103 
 
 Disadvantages < 113 
 
 Chapter VI. Conclusions 
 
 Terms of a state subsidy bill 127 
 
 Bibliography 135 
 
 Appendix A. Table of State Situation on Teacher 
 
 Training 139 
 
 Appendix B. Recent or Pending Legislation 141 
 
TABLES AND DIAGRAMS 
 
 Table 
 
 I. 
 
 Table 
 
 II. 
 
 Table 
 
 III. 
 
 Table 
 
 IV. 
 
 Table 
 
 V. 
 
 Table 
 
 VI. 
 
 Table 
 
 vit 
 
 Table VIII. 
 
 Table 
 Table 
 
 IX. 
 X. 
 
 Table XI. 
 
 Table 
 
 XII. 
 
 Table 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Table 
 
 XIV 
 
 Table 
 
 XV 
 
 Table 
 
 XVI 
 
 Preparation of Teachers in Missouri in Years 
 Beyond Elementary Schools 27 
 
 Preparation of Elementary Teachers of 
 Montana 1919-20 31 
 
 Preparation of High School Teachers in 
 Montana 1919-20 3 2 
 
 Prepared Teachers in Public Schools of 
 Montana 191 1 to 1920 33 
 
 Average Salaries of Teachers in Relation 
 to Training — Montana 1919-20 34 
 
 Teacher Shortage in the United States, 
 October, 1920 36 
 
 Comparison of the Development of Normal 
 Schools, High Schools, Colleges and Uni- 
 versities with Population, Wealth, and 
 Public School Systems 44 
 
 New York State Normal Schools— Attend- 
 ance and Graduates 48 
 
 Increase in University Enrollment 1915-1920 49 
 
 Comparison of Intelligence in Pennsylvania 
 Colleges and Normal Schools in Octo- 
 ber, 1919 52 
 
 Comparison of Ability of Freshmen in Nor- 
 mal Schools and Universities as Meas- 
 ured by the Army Alpha Test 53 
 
 Henry C. Frick Educational Commission, 
 Pittsburgh, Pa 69 
 
 Remuneration and Educational Requirements 
 of Nurses in General Hospitals in the 
 United States 86 
 
 Present Occupation of American Rhodes 
 Scholars, 1904-1914 89 
 
 Activities of General Education Board of 
 Methodist Church (Report of 1920) 93 
 
 Activities of General Education Board of 
 Presbyterian Church (Report of 1920) . . 94 
 
 5 
 
state: maintenance: of teachers in training 
 
 Table XVII. Chicago Presbytery — Membership of Churches 96 
 Table XVIII. Chicago Presbytery — Change of Membership 
 
 in last year 97 
 
 Table XIX. Chicago Presbytery— Sunday School Member- 
 ship 98 
 
 Table XX. Chicago Presbytery — Congregational Expenses 99 
 
 Table XXI. Chicago Presbytery — Benevolences 100 
 
 Table XXII. Record of Scholarship Students in Washing- 
 ton and Jefferson College 114 
 
 Table XXIII. Comparative Record of Aided and Unaided 
 
 Students — 'Syracuse University 114 
 
 Table XXIV. Comparative Records from New York State 
 
 College for Teachers 116 
 
 Table XXV. Appendix A. Assistance Rendered by States 
 
 to Prospective Teachers 139 
 
 Diagram 1. Relation of Cost of Living and Change in 
 
 Teachers' Salaries 19 
 
 Diagram 2. Graph for Table VII 45 
 
 Diagram 3. Graph for Table X 51 
 
 Diagram 4. Graph for Table XI 54 
 
 Diagram 5. From Survey of Indiana High School Seniors., no 
 
Chapter I. 
 
 THE PROSPECTIVE TEACHER AND THE STATE 
 
 The public school systems of the several states require a 
 large number of new teachers every year. The factors 
 that determine vocational choice should be studied by 
 investigators for the purpose of discovering what induce- 
 ments the state must offer, in order to attract recruits in 
 sufficient numbers to make suitable selection and ample 
 training possible. 
 
 CONDITIONS THAT MAKE A PROFESSION ATTRACTIVE 
 
 As a young person surveys the possibilities of different 
 professional careers, a factor of importance for his con- 
 sideration is the salary paid. He must be able to live in 
 a manner corresponding to the position he occupies in 
 the community. His earnings must enable him to carry 
 insurance, to save for the future, and to provide for those 
 dependent upon him. Another consideration of great 
 value is the question of tenure. Will employment be 
 regular and permanent, and will successful service be 
 rewarded by promotion? The attitude of society toward 
 the work under consideration counts heavily. May the 
 worker associate with desirable people on a basis of 
 equality on account of the service rendered? What are 
 the opportunities for individual initiative and growth in 
 the work? Before entering the profession it will be 
 necessary to know what preliminary training is required 
 and what kind of supervision is to be expected from those 
 in authority. 
 
 When these questions are correctly answered, the rea- 
 sons are apparent why so many young people are not 
 selecting teaching as a profession. The cost and incon- 
 
 7 
 
8 STATE MAINTENANCE: OF* TEACHERS in TRAINING 
 
 venience of securing preliminary training, inadequate 
 salaries, uncertain tenure, and undesirable social and 
 living conditions, — all contribute to the lack of trained 
 teachers. In rural sections all of these causes are inten- 
 sified by the fact that supervision is usually remote and 
 consequently infrequent. In the larger communities teach- 
 ing encounters the competition of many other occupations 
 which often prove to be more attractive. The resulting 
 shortage in the cities is supplied by drawing from the 
 country districts the best qualified teachers to be found 
 there, or by employing local persons of inferior prepara- 
 tion. Both tendencies produce a situation that has been 
 a persistent menace to the success of the public schools. 
 
 The elements which make a profession attractive are 
 intimately interwoven. If the drawing power of teaching 
 is to be increased, the states must make a united effort 
 to improve all of the factors. 
 
 TEACHER TRAINING AS A STATE FUNCTION 
 
 For many years the states have been endeavoring to 
 prepare teachers for the public schools. By the invest- 
 ment of large sums of public money in grounds, buildings, 
 and equipment for teacher training, the obligation to 
 provide adequately trained teachers has been admitted. 
 Additional evidence of the state's interest in securing 
 trained teachers is supplied by the fact that every state 
 provides free tuition in some form for prospective teach- 
 ers. 1 
 
 The duty of the state has not been discharged when a 
 system of licensing teachers by state authority permits 
 those who have had meager academic training and little 
 or no professional preparation to enter into the vital rela- 
 
 lSee Appendix A. 
 
 2For example, Provisional Certificates in Pa., third grade certificates 
 in Missouri. 
 
THE PROSPECTIVE TEACHER AND THE STATE 9 
 
 tionships of the school room. 2 Citizens should demand 
 that the state perform more completely and more equita- 
 bly its duty of training teachers. 
 
 The needs of the schools are not met if some of the 
 teachers are well trained and others are permitted to 
 remain untrained or undertrained. This situation is not 
 fair to the professional teacher, who has spent time and 
 money in preparation and then is thrown into economic 
 competition with the cheap service of the untrained ama- 
 teur. It is still more unfair to those pupils whose opopr- 
 tunities are thus limited by the inadequacy of a state 
 policy. 
 
 Effective school systems compel the children to attend 
 regularly. This power on the part of the state implies a 
 corresponding duty: namely, that the state provide the 
 conditions upon which the most desirable benefits to be 
 derived from school attendance depend. It is universally 
 admitted that the teacher is the most important element 
 in the success of the school; hence the effective prepara- 
 tion of teachers should constitute one of the important 
 objectives in any program for the development and im- 
 provement of the schools. 
 
 EXTENSIVE TRAINING REQUIRED FOR TEACHERS 
 
 The work of teaching in the elementary school is becom- 
 ing increasingly difficult. The diversity and variety of 
 the subjects included in the curriculum, the expanding 
 knowledge of the laws of learning, and the development 
 of the principles of the fine art of teaching, — all emphasize 
 the need for extensive training. The difficulty and im- 
 portance of teaching demand a proportionate thorough- 
 ness in preliminary preparation. 
 
 IS TEACHING A PROFESSION? 
 
 The requirement of careful and exhaustive training is 
 an essential feature of the learned professions and the 
 
IO STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 tendency has been to prolong professional training in law 
 and medicine. 3 
 
 Teaching possesses many of the characteristics which 
 place it among the professional careers. It deals with 
 human beings rather than with materials ; it is founded 
 upon fundamental principles that regulate procedure. 
 There has not as yet been developed among teachers a 
 code of ethics comparable to those that prevail in law and 
 medicine. "Owing to the large numbers employed in 
 public school teaching, the wide territory over which 
 they are scattered, the inadequate preparation of many 
 of them, and the short period of service characteristic 
 of the teacher, it has been difficult to develop and main- 
 tain a thoroughly well organized professional conscious- 
 ness, expressing itself in the recognition of a definite 
 series of professional ethics." 4 But, notwithstanding 
 this lack, there is a sharp contrast between teaching and 
 the trades, which justifies its classification with the other 
 professions. The state has the power to eliminate any 
 deficiencies which prevent teaching from complete recog- 
 nition as a profession, and at the same time to render a 
 distinct service to the public schools. 
 
 AMOUNT OF TRAINING REQUIRED 
 
 The efforts of the states to improve the teaching per- 
 sonnel are eminently justified by the fact that so large a 
 proportion of the teachers of the nation as a whole have 
 insufficient preparation as measured by the prevailing 
 standards of the professional schools of teaching, — the 
 normal schools. Two years of professional work beyond 
 the four year high school course is less than the require- 
 ment in the other professions and while many normal 
 schools are now offering four years of training leading to 
 
 3) Articles on Law and Medicine — Cyclopedia of Education. — 
 Monroe. 
 
 4) H. Suzzallo, Cyclopedia of Education, Profession of Teaching - , 
 p. 535. 
 
THE PROSPECTIVE TEACHER AND THE STATE II 
 
 collegiate degrees, these extended programs do not enroll 
 as yet an appreciable proportion of the students. It is 
 not possible in a short time, for a sufficient number of 
 teachers to obtain the preliminary training which is ad- 
 mittedly essential to give them professional recognition. 
 As a result, entirely and relatively untrained teachers in 
 large numbers have been employed in order to keep the 
 schools open. 
 
 The elimination of the unfit teachers involves a per- 
 sistent program through a period of years, — a program 
 that makes use of all means that lead to the ultimate goal 
 of a trained teacher in every classroom. Until this rea- 
 sonable ideal is attained, criticism of the public school 
 may be expected, and many of its failures may be con- 
 sidered as unnecessary and preventable. 
 
 TEACHER SHORTAGE 5 
 
 One of the problems that the war forced upon the 
 attention of the public was the distressing shortage of 
 teachers. This lack was caused in part by the large 
 number of teachers who left the profession to take advan- 
 tage of the high salaries paid in many branches of war 
 work. Closed schools 6 and the employment of unquali- 
 fied emergency substitutes 7 were additional evidences of 
 the gravity of the situation. Serious as these conditions 
 were, the supply of teachers prepared by the training insti- 
 
 5) Note: Although many untrained teachers were employed in 
 1914, no article discussing" the problem of teacher shortage 
 was listed under that title in Poole's "Readers Guide to Peri- 
 odical Literature" for that year. In 1919 twelve articles were 
 listed, and twenty-five or more appeared in 1920. Magazines 
 other than those devoted primarily to education have per- 
 ceived the value of informing their readers with reference 
 to the crisis in the public schools. "The Atlantic Monthly," 
 "Scribner's," "The North American Review," "The Yale Re- 
 view," The Survey" and "The World's Work" are among 
 the number. 
 
 5) See Discussion on Conditions in Montana, Chapter II, p. 30. 
 
 7) See N. E. A. Report on Teacher Shortage, October, 1920, p. 36. 
 
12 STATE) MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 tutions was entirely inadequate and contributed to the 
 actual lack of teachers. Necessarily standards were often 
 lowered in order to secure teachers of any kind. It is 
 therefore evident that closed schools are not a complete 
 measure of teacher shortage. 
 
 It is an implied obligation of the state not only that 
 teachers be supplied but that they have the preparation 
 which is recognized as a reasonable minimum. The true 
 teacher shortage is the number needed at any time to 
 replace teachers who lack this minimum preparation. 8 
 The interest of the public in the conditions which caused 
 the lack of competent teachers and in proposed remedies 
 is clearly justified. 
 
 Thousands of children in some of the large cities, such 
 as New York, for example, have been attending but part 
 time, a condition which may result in a reduction in the 
 number of teachers required. Again the number of teach- 
 ers employed does not reveal the fact that the enrollment 
 per teacher may be far in excess of forty, which is a rea- 
 sonable maximum. If these conditions were bettered 
 through additional housing facilities and reduction in 
 size of classes, the resulting demand for teachers would 
 further emphasize the lack of an adequate supply, 
 although no exact figures can be compiled to show how 
 many additional teachers are actually needed. It may, 
 however, be safely assumed that the deficit is always 
 greater than the information obtainable would indicate. 9 
 
 In all of its educational opportunities, the state offers 
 to every child a measure of participation that is limited 
 only by his ability, his ambition, and his attainments. 
 Justice requires that each pupil receive a full day's instruc- 
 tion in a group of not more than normal size, under 
 guidance of a teacher who has had at least two years of 
 
 B) Definition of teacher-shortage used in this study. 
 9) N. E. A. Emergency Commission Series, No. 3, p. 10. 
 
the prospective teacher and the state 13 
 
 professional work beyond a four-year high school course, 
 — the standard of preparation that is now generally 
 accepted as the lowest acceptable minimum. How can 
 these trained teachers be secured? Several factors will 
 contribute toward this desirable goal. Every method that 
 can hasten the process should be utilized. 
 
 REMEDIES EOR TEACHER SHORTAGE 
 
 1. Training teachers in service: 
 
 It has been proposed to solve this problem by employing 
 untrained recruits and by training them in service on an 
 apprenticeship plan. Years of experience with this 
 method have demonstrated that it alone will not produce 
 a trained teacher in every classroom. 10 
 
 In the rural schools where approximately 300,000 
 teachers are employed, training in service fails because 
 supervision is so infrequent and so remote. Training in 
 service cannot succeed in the rural districts because so 
 many teachers move every year and remain in the profes- 
 sion for so short a time. Those teachers who succeed are 
 frequently promoted to better salaried and otherwise 
 more attractive positions in the larger communities. The 
 failures remain in the rural field until they can find some 
 other occupation or until the school board selects some 
 one else, probably no better prepared, to undertake the 
 difficult problems of teaching. Meanwhile, the pupils 
 are being subjected to the unhappy experience of serving 
 as material with which to train these transient recruits. 
 Such a plan is an expedient, the results of which have 
 already condemned it as a controlling policy, for it tends 
 to keep in the profession on its lower levels a large pro- 
 portion of recruits with meager training. 
 
 The training of teachers after they have entered the 
 service is a proposed solution that neglects the fact that 
 teaching is a difficult task, a fine art. It puts a premium 
 
 10) See Quotations from Surveys, Chapter II, p. 38. 
 
14 STATE MAINTENANCE: 0E TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 on the incidental agencies of supervision, teachers' insti- 
 tutes, and summer schools, as substitutes for genuine 
 and basic training in an institution organized and main- 
 tained for this one purpose. 
 
 The employment of unprepared persons as teachers 
 with the expectation of training them in the schools, con- 
 centrates the aim of educational effort upon the personal 
 needs of the teachers, and disregards the fact that the 
 schools exist for the pupils. Parents have Objected occa- 
 sionally to the attendance of their children in practice 
 schools connected with normal schools, where the work 
 of the student teachers is carefully planned and super- 
 vised by skilled experts. It would be far more reasonable 
 for parents to rise in revolt against the undirected work 
 of many rural teachers whose previous preparation is 
 often inferior to that of the student in the normal school. 
 
 Again it has been urged that untrained teachers may 
 take extension courses or correspondence courses and 
 thus acquire the training they lack. A conscientious 
 rural school teacher has so much to do in daily prepara- 
 tion that either these outside and often unrelated courses 
 or his regular work must suffer. Ihis type of training 
 lacks the personal contact with the instructor and with 
 fellow students that is so important an element in insti- 
 tutional life, and cannot result in the value derived from 
 the training school for practice. 
 
 When untrained teachers are placed under close super- 
 vision, in districts where high school graduates without 
 professional courses are admitted as teachers, the results 
 are easily predictable. Such teachers have no professional 
 background upon which to base their judgments; either 
 they become undiscerning followers of directions, depend- 
 ent upon their supervisors, or, restive under control, they 
 desert the profession as soon as the other opportunity 
 offers. 
 
THE PROSPECTIVE) TEACHER AND THE STATE 1 5 
 
 If the state is responsible for the training of teachers, 
 it is a questionable policy to permit the untrained to 
 secure their preparation in the service where the legiti- 
 mate direction and oversight of that function by state 
 authority is impossible. The work of school administra- 
 tors is sufficiently taxing when they have the cooperation 
 of a trained body of teachers. Cities often require both 
 training and experience for admission to the teaching 
 staff, although the opportunity for expert supervision is 
 there superior to that found in smaller communities. The 
 burdens of the supervisory staff are multiplied and its 
 energies diverted from more legitimate duties if it is 
 required to give fundamental teacher training in order 
 to supply the lack of institutional preparation. 
 
 To train teachers in service to the exclusion of prelim- 
 inary training is to perpetuate the transient character of 
 the teaching population and to encourage the employment 
 of the immature and incompetent. Teaching cannot take 
 the place that it should among the professions until it is 
 as difficult for an untrained person to be admitted within 
 its ranks as it is for an untrained person to receive a 
 license to practice medicine. 
 
 Trained teachers have abundant opportunity for growth 
 in the profession and are able to derive from such train- 
 ing benefits that are directly proportional to their prelim- 
 inary preparation. They possess the foundation upon 
 which to build. It is one of the important duties of ad- 
 ministrators to stimulate teachers to self-improvement 
 through self-discipline, through professional reading, and 
 through summer school attendance, but such development 
 should supplement and not supplant preliminary training. 
 2. Larger salaries as a solution for teacher shortage: 
 
 The attractiveness of teaching as a profession has been 
 seriously reduced by the payment of inadequate salaries. 
 Salary schedules have often failed to discriminate prop- 
 
16 state: maintenance of teachers in training 
 
 erly between the merits of the prepared and the untrained 
 teacher. The inequalities in salaries in positions of the 
 same rank under the system of local control that prevails 
 in the public schools, have resulted in injustice and dis- 
 satisfaction. As long as there is an insufficient supply of 
 trained teachers the more attractive salaries in the richer 
 communities will continue to draw the more ambitious 
 and better prepared teachers from those districts that are 
 unable to meet the competition. 
 
 To increase salaries without modifying the certification 
 laws, would not add to the professional equipment of the 
 beginner. To pay higher salaries to unprepared and 
 incompetent persons who desire to use teaching as a step- 
 ping stone, would only intensify and extend the evils now 
 apparent. 
 
 As a result of salary campaigns, many cities now pay 
 living wages to teachers. But the cities were already 
 employing the best prepared teachers, because the most 
 attractive positions gave them the opportunity to select 
 from a larger number of candidates. To give the country 
 sections the same advantages, through salary increases, 
 it would be necessary to overcome the undesirable factors 
 of short school terms and unsatisfactory living condi- 
 tions by paying a sufficient differential. 11 
 
 When the students from the country do attend normal 
 school or college and secure training, the towns and cities 
 almost always obtain their services because of the social 
 and financial advantages of living in the larger communi- 
 ties. In the rural schools of Montana only twelve per 
 cent, of the teachers in 1920 were normal or college 
 graduates, although 32.45% of the elementary teachers 
 of the state possessed those qualifications. 12 
 
 The slowness of states and nations to adjust salaries to 
 new conditions accounts for the wholesale resignations 
 
 11) As in Saskatchewan and Queensland. 
 
 12) See Table II, Chapter II. 
 
THE PROSPECTIVE TEACHER AND THE STATE 1 7 
 
 from the public service during periods of rapid increase 
 in the cost of living. Burgess showed that teachers' 
 salaries in 1920 should have been 100% in advance of the 
 level reached in 191 5 in order to possess equal purchasing 
 power, but as a matter of fact the increases averaged less 
 than a 50% advance over pre-war salaries. Other wage 
 levels doubled the standard of 191 5. 13 
 
 The report of the Commissioner of Education for 1920 
 states that the average salary of teachers in rural schools, 
 based upon data from three typical counties in each of 
 forty-seven states was $635.96. The average for white 
 male teachers was $711.68. The conditions which were 
 most favorable for further increasing salaries have been 
 changed by falling prices, due to deflation and to a reac- 
 tion against high taxes. Salaries in the rural schools are 
 not likely, in the near future, to be increased very much 
 beyond the average of 1920. Such salaries would not be 
 a sufficient inducement for a young high school graduate 
 to invest the necessary time and money on two years of 
 training. 
 
 Diagram No. 1 shows the wide variation between rise 
 in cost of living and increase in salary of the women 
 teachers of Pennsylvania. In the seven years repre- 
 sented, living costs were doubled while salaries were 
 only raised thirty per cent. In order to remove teacher 
 shortage by increase in salary alone, it would be neces- 
 sary for salaries to be so far above the cost of living 
 that the margin of saving would justify the heavy ex- 
 pense of preliminary preparation. It would take an un- 
 known element of time for these acquired margins to be 
 recognized in society at large, to such an extent that the 
 number of recruits necessary to supply the need would 
 volunteer to invest time and money in professional prep- 
 aration. 
 
 13) Burgess, Trends of School Costs, Russell Sage Foundation, 
 New York, 1920. 
 
18 state: maintenance oe teachers in training 
 
 It is especially difficult to persuade prospective teachers 
 to invest in training, when it is possible to receive practi- 
 cally the same salary without incurring the expense of 
 preparation. The two factors of better preliminary train- 
 ing and increased salaries cannot be separated safely in 
 state policy. In periods of business depression, when the 
 offices and factories have reduced the number of their 
 employees, a large group who were teachers formerly 
 will drift back into the school room to seek temporary 
 employment. The schools do not close on account of 
 hard times, hence low standards for certification permit 
 these relatively untrained transients to compete for posi- 
 tions in the more stable occupation of teaching. Without 
 proper legal safeguards, such a group of temporary and 
 untrained persons will underbid the trained and experi- 
 enced teachers and thus undermine the foundations of an 
 adequate salary schedule. 
 
 Higher salaries based upon the amount of preparation 
 are essential to the future of the profession of teaching. 
 The states have not performed their full duty towards 
 the children when they tolerate such inadequate salaries 
 especially in the rural schools. The scarcity of good 
 teachers in those districts is undoubtedly due in part to 
 poor salaries. 
 3. Are more normal schools required? 
 
 The creation of more training institutions is offered 
 as a simple solution for teacher-shortage. But the fact 
 that the facilities of many, — apparently most, — of the 
 existing normal schools are not being utilized to capacity 
 shows that the problem is not to be solved in this way. 
 
 Eventually, when the conditions in the profession are 
 what they should be, many more normal schools will be 
 needed to train enough teachers for all the schools. The 
 tendency of training institutions to draw on their own 
 
THE PROSPECTIVE TEACHER AND THE STATE 
 
 19 
 
 110 
 
 -Mr* 
 
 HO 
 /to 
 
 mi'tt tysw ivt-tf JtUSM* w-t? - iw-ti /?/&? 
 
 no 
 
 JioO 
 
 jSb 
 IHO 
 ,30 
 /uo 
 
 no 
 
 /oo 
 
 C^w^^-^u^tUy A*£^ jvr-^ny^^Tj 
 
 ~JL 
 
 ^^ Sal^ W~ -X^. Tt,t. , Aft jg W .^EL & £~~i^ 
 
 Wl-JZ 
 19/7-/* 
 
 /9/r-ff 
 
 H9-*9. 
 
 loo 
 
 fojjr 
 
 /©as 
 
 J 19 
 130 
 
 I OS 
 
 toe 
 
 JLo 
 /9S 
 
 /oo 
 
 ?* 
 
 no 
 
 XII 
 
 2 ay 
 
 / 00 
 {00 
 
 19 
 III 
 
 *£f 
 
 It? 
 
 3.03 
 
 ^MAcMJ^uJ^ bJUL^>*ApMJ&., 
 
 
20 state; maintenance; of teachers in training 
 
 vicinity for students is used as an argument for increas- 
 ing their number, because it is cheaper for a student to 
 live at home during his period of training. It is also 
 urged that a multiplication of normal schools in a state 
 will more directly influence the neighboring communities. 
 In Indiana, until very recently, the one state normal 
 school was at Terre Haute; it rendered twelve per cent. 
 of its service to the tier of counties surrounding the one 
 in which it is located, although these counties contain 
 only four per cent, of the state population. The region 
 in which the school is located received three or four times 
 the amount of service to which it is entitled on the basis 
 of population. 14 
 
 Portions of states that are remote from normal schools 
 greatly feel the need of their influence. Superintendent 
 Kendall in his report for 191 3 quotes letters from girls 
 in Southern New Jersey of which the following is an 
 example: "The only reason for my not attending the 
 normal school was the expense, on account of the nor- 
 mal school being too far from my home." Since, for the 
 present, the cost of multiplying normal schools may out- 
 weigh other advantages, the state may equalize the oppor- 
 tunities for training by such an expedient as bearing the 
 cost of transportation of students. The attempt to bring 
 the training to the local community through the high 
 school training classes for rural teachers, is a temporary 
 expedient, for it is quite impossible to develop effective 
 professional schools in every center of population. 
 4. Public opinion as a factor in teacher-shortage : 
 
 The attitude of the public and of many teachers them- 
 selves is so critical toward the teaching profession that 
 it has contributed to teacher-shortage. The disparaging 
 and contemptuous attitude of the public to the teaching 
 
 14) Standardizing 1 State Normal Schools, Judd and Parker. U. S. 
 Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 12, 1916. 
 
the prospective; teacher and the state 21 
 
 profession has militated against its effectiveness. It is 
 time that ridicule and caricature meted out to the teacher 
 should be replaced by a genuine appreciation of the im- 
 portance of his work to the state. Public opinion is a 
 force of great influence and a better appreciation of the 
 teacher's service would assist measurably in the recruit- 
 ing of candidates of ability. 
 
 High school and college students have been induced 
 to enter other occupations because of a vague social 
 stigma that has been attached to the profession of teach- 
 ing. "At college reunions successful business men are 
 heralded as 'live wires' and those who still teach are 
 called 'dead ones.' " 15 Now that so many opportunities 
 are opening for women in business and public service, it 
 will be increasingly difficult to secure women of the de- 
 sired ability unless something is done to change the 
 public estimation of the profession. In order to create 
 this attitude the state itself must assist the public by 
 properly evaluating the worth and dignity of the teacher's 
 'work. To this end the unfit teachers should be eliminated 
 by efficient certification laws. A supply of competent 
 teachers should be stimulated by state assistance, the 
 necessity of which it is the aim of this study to prove. 
 After preparation, the state still has a duty to perform 
 in guaranteeing adequate compensation. Preparation, 
 salary, tenure, and pensions, when they become essential 
 elements in a persistent state policy, are the factors which 
 will do much to re-create a proper public attitude toward 
 the teaching profession. 
 5. State subsidy for recruiting teachers. 
 
 Under present conditions great inequalities as to edu- 
 cational opportunity exist between the children in the 
 cities and in the rural sections. The highest salaries and 
 
 15) Lee Russell, "The Crisis in Education," Scribner's, Jan., 1921. 
 
22 STATE) MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 the longest tenure and consequently the best teachers are 
 found in the cities. As a result many parents are leav- 
 ing the country in order to secure for their children the 
 educational advantages of the towns and cities. The 
 safety of the nation requires the stability of the rural 
 population. The rural children deserve a more equitable 
 distribution of the educational privileges provided by 
 public funds. Present state policy does not adequately 
 meet the situation. In addition to the other factors 
 which may tend to remove the undesirable conditions 
 found in the teaching profession, state assistance for 
 prospective teachers is proposed. 
 
 It is the purpose of this study to investigate the extent 
 of teacher-shortage and to discover in favored states the 
 efforts to solve the problem already made which will be 
 suggestive in those states where the problem must be at- 
 tacked more vigorously. Many foreign countries have had 
 experience in the recruiting of candidates for the teaching 
 profession by means of subsidies. The study of the prin- 
 ciples and problems involved in the provision of local and 
 national subsidies for prospective teachers as a part of 
 the larger problem of increasing the supply of trained 
 teachers will accordingly be the chief aim of the following 
 pages. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. Teaching has failed to attract a sufficient supply of 
 recruits to make adequate selection and training possible. 
 State control of education locates the responsibility for 
 teacher training and for the equalization of educational 
 opportunity upon the state. 
 
 2. The policy of training teachers after they enter the 
 service as a substitute for institutional preparation has not 
 been successful, especially in the open country. The 
 unequal salaries paid in the rural schools and in the 
 
the; prospective; te;ache;r and the; state; 23 
 
 cities have drawn the better teachers to the centers of 
 population. 
 
 3. The public attitude toward teaching has reduced 
 the attendance in teacher training institutions. To im- 
 prove the attractiveness of teaching as a profession, the 
 state must use all the plans that experience has proved to 
 be helpful. Additional efforts, especially of an economic 
 and social nature, must be made if the rural schools are to 
 be taught by competent teachers. 
 
 4. The purpose of this present study is to investigate 
 the principles, problems, and practices involved in a sys- 
 tem of subsidies for prospective teachers as one method 
 of recruiting the profession. 
 
Chapter II 
 
 A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS WHICH MAY 
 
 JUSTIFY ADDITIONAL AID FOR 
 
 PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS 
 
 State subsidies for prospective teachers are advocated 
 by those whose main purpose is to supply an essential need 
 in the public school system. If the lack of trained teach- 
 ers is a serious problem in the various states, methods of 
 supplying the deficiency should be found as speedily as 
 possible. One of the great merits of the public school 
 system has been its ability to adjust itself to new condi- 
 tions and to make changes as the demand arose. The 
 curriculum has changed from the three R's of the older 
 days to the complex and greatly enriched programs of the 
 modern school. Free textbooks, compulsory attendance, 
 medical inspection, vocational education, secondary edu- 
 cation, and higher education are examples of changes in 
 policy that states have made in an effort to adjust the 
 schools to the demands of a developing civilization. 
 
 The war focused attention upon several problems re- 
 lated to the schools which require study and solution. 
 Illiteracy, physical inefficiency, and very wide individual 
 differences in native intelligence, were revealed by the 
 examination of the men in the camps. Each has its rela- 
 tion to school practice and efficiency. If the public schools 
 are to solve such problems, the training and selection of 
 the teachers have added significance. 
 
 A study of the teaching population in two typical states 
 will give a basis for further analysis of the problem of 
 the need of state subsidies for prospective teachers. 
 
 25 
 
26 state maintenance; of teachers in TRAINING 
 
 TEACHING POPULATION OP MISSOURI. 1 
 
 In the rural schools of Missouri, in 191 5, only 3% of 
 the 10,500 rural teachers had had the standard prepara- 
 tion of six years beyond the elementary school course, 
 while 63% had had less than a four-year high school 
 course. In the graded elementary schools, omitting those 
 of Kansas City and St. Louis, 84% of the teachers had 
 had less than the six-year course. The training of the 
 secondary school teachers was more nearly adequate in 
 the first and second class high schools. In the lower 
 classes one-eighth of the teachers had had less than a 
 four-year course beyond the elementary school. These 
 conditions have been improved to some extent on account 
 of the influence of the survey but the effect of the world 
 war has been to check, for the time at least, rapid progress. 
 When these two factors are considered, the probability is 
 that these groups now comprise a large proportion of 
 poorly prepared teachers. 
 
 The characteristic rural teacher has attended high 
 school for two or three years and has taken six months 
 of additional secondary instruction together with some 
 professional courses at a normal school. The effect of 
 this normal school training, however brief, is shown to be 
 significant in the salaries paid. Eighty-five per cent, of 
 those who attended state normal schools received more 
 than forty dollars a month, as compared with 66% in 
 the case of high school graduates only, and 50% in the 
 case of high school non-graduates. 2 The median salary 
 of all elementary teachers, trained and untrained alike, 
 was $450.00, while more than one-fifth received $360.00 
 or less. 
 
 According to the Report of the State Superintendent of 
 Public Schools for Missouri for 1918-19, the average 
 
 1) See Table I, pp. 27-28. 
 
 2) Bulletin No. 14, Carnegie Foundation, p. 362. 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 
 
 27 
 
 m 
 
 a 
 o 
 o 
 H 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 tg J-j 
 
 CO >» 
 
 O 
 
 CD vti 
 
 a 
 
 MM- 
 
 
 ■M 
 
 CO 
 
 o O 
 
 s 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 CO 
 
 .as 
 
 CO- 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 I* 
 
 t*3 f) f) 
 
 
 c 
 
 > 
 
 CO 
 
 03 
 eg 
 >> 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 
 fe 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 00 O 0\ 
 
 
 K 
 
 CO 
 
 o o 
 
 
 VD 
 
 VO 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 fc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 §2 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 IX 05 00 
 m CO <N 
 
 8 
 
 
 CO 
 
 O o 
 
 00 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 lO 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 
 fe >> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 B 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 Co 
 
 co g 
 
 si 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 moo co 
 
 
 
 O 
 +j 
 
 > o3 w 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 CN 
 CO 
 
 O c3 
 •0 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 co 
 
 en 
 
 "5 
 
 1-4+3 
 
 (0 
 
 u 
 
 CO 
 >> 
 
 
 
 ?o co G 
 
 S,5| 
 
 . "O 
 
 O cu 
 
 CO 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 +-> 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 J! SJ 
 
 O 
 
 u 
 o3 ^o 
 
 >> 
 
 
 
 Q CO 
 
 c 
 
 ei 
 J3 
 
 <U CO K Q 
 
 S o5^ 
 
 l-l 
 
 CN 
 
 
 o 
 
 % 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ►-< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 
 to c 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 +j 
 
 o to 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 51 
 
 CD 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 
 
 0\h to 
 
 M M )_| 
 
 
 . to 
 
 M.3 
 
 +J CU ^ 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 n 
 
 CN 
 
 o 
 
 CD 
 
 fa 
 O 
 
 
 <u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^■N CO 
 
 
 to _, 
 
 co c 
 cu rt 
 
 
 w 
 
 ^1- 
 
 CO 
 
 CI 
 03 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 Siii 
 
 +j ° 
 
 rt 
 
 U CO 
 
 25S 
 
 
 o3 >> 
 
 O 
 
 h4CO 
 
 P<co 
 
 £h 
 
 
28 STAT£ MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 o* \ooo 
 
 M 01 PO 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 CI VOOO 
 
 
 
 Hh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nine 
 years 
 or 
 
 o 
 E 
 
 ^ 
 
 r^ co ^f 
 
 1— 1 H 1— 1 
 
 
 
 ■+-> tn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .SPS o 
 
 Is 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 initio 
 
 Tj- Tt- Tf 
 
 
 
 w >> 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 /— \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J3j 
 
 Seven 
 years 
 or 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 On C\ 0\ 
 
 
 B 
 
 o 
 
 io>om 
 
 
 ••4 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 HA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 So 
 
 * rt t- 
 
 
 £ 
 
 moo tx 
 
 
 <3 
 to 
 
 ^0>O 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 tx t^ tx 
 
 
 *—s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^2 
 o 
 o 
 
 > rt >- 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 £$& 
 
 
 ►it 
 
 ^ &° 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 fcl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ►s; 
 
 i_ 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 o> 
 
 
 u 
 
 $ 
 
 MD VO VO 
 
 O 
 
 S 
 
 d 
 
 >> 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 1— 1 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »-*l 
 
 tn C •"• 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ►4 tl^H 
 
 J- 
 <L» 
 
 s 
 
 lOiOlO 
 
 
 0\ t^sVO 
 
 co rf n- 
 
 00 Q 
 irjoo 
 
 s 
 
 IT) W 
 
 lO 
 
 w c* 
 
 l-s 
 
 On W Tt 
 CO d 
 
 VO O w 
 
 1 f* 
 
 "5 
 
 
 T3 C 
 
 a 
 
A SURVEY OP CONDITIONS 2Q. 
 
 salaries of teachers of this state have been advancing for 
 several years. In 19 17-18 it was $440.00 for an eight- 
 month term; in 1918-19 it was $528.00, and in 1919-20 it 
 was $592.00. In the meantime the cost of living had 
 doubled so that the increase in salary would not justify 
 expensive training at a normal school as an investment. 
 Again the certification law passed in 191 7 permits the 
 renewal of the third grade certificate once without exam- 
 ination. Inasmuch as previous law permits four such 
 examinations to be taken, eight years may be taught with 
 no better grade of certificate. This is a period far in ex- 
 cess of the average tenure for the rural schools, as returns 
 from these teachers showed that 2400 new teachers, or 
 23%, in this group alone were needed annually. Under 
 these conditions, a trained teacher for every school in 
 Missouri is an impossible ideal. 
 
 TEACHING POPULATION OP MONTANA 
 
 Montana received first rank among the states in educa- 
 tional accomplishment in 191 8 by the index number 
 method applied by Ayres. On account of the state's high 
 standing, the condition of its teaching population has 
 special interest. A state survey quoted at length in the 
 State Superintendent's report for 1920 gives the desired 
 data. Many important factors in school progress were 
 not included in the index number method. Among these 
 were the educational requirements for teachers and the 
 facilities for training teachers. By law, after July 1, 1920, 
 the minimum requirements were fixed at two years of 
 high school and twelve weeks of normal school training. 
 
 In Table II it is shown that 30% of the elementary 
 teachers had unsatisfactory preparation and that 46% 
 of the rural teachers had very little professional training. 
 In the cities about 96% of the elementary teachers have 
 had some professional preparation. The survey shows 
 
30 state: maintenance; of teachers in training 
 
 that 65% of the rural teachers had taken no professional 
 courses within five years, and that 58.3% of the elemen- 
 tary teachers received less than $900.00. 
 
 In Table III 14% of the high school teachers are 
 shown to fall short of standard preparation for their 
 work. A large percentage of the high school teachers 
 are normal school graduates. When the data are com- 
 pared for ten years 4 it is evident that the normal school 
 graduates and the college or university graduates have 
 almost uniformly maintained the same ratio to the entire 
 number of teachers employed. In fact, since 191 7, there 
 has been a gradual decrease in the percentage of each 
 group. 
 
 Table V on average salaries shows that the normal 
 school graduate is preferred in the elementary schools to 
 the college graduate so far as the salary received can 
 show it, while the reverse is true in the high schools. 
 
 Several facts relating to teacher-shortage are disclosed 
 by this survey that work to the disadvantage of the coun- 
 try school. 
 
 1. The cities employ normal school and college gradu- 
 ates to the extent of 73% of their grade teachers, the rural 
 districts only 37%. 
 
 2. The cities pay teachers with experience more than 
 twice the average salary of rural teachers without experi- 
 ence. 
 
 3. The cities pay inexperienced elementary teachers 
 an average of $977.68, which is $144.00 more than rural 
 teachers with many years of experience receive. 
 
 During 1919-20 Montana was short 22^ teachers and 
 in the fall of 1920 there was a shortage of 513 teachers in 
 35 counties and because of the conditions named above 
 the lack was almost exclusively in the rural sections. 
 
 4) See Table IV, p. 33. 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 
 
 31 
 
 >» o 
 
 T-j en en 
 
 c.2!tS 
 
 w 
 K 
 W 
 
 w m en 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 en 
 
 w 
 
 PS 
 
 illage 
 
 hools 
 
 Clas 
 
 stricts 
 
 < 
 
 > w'Hq 
 
 fc 
 
 CO 
 
 W 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 w 
 
 1 S-a 
 
 
 rt Oj: 
 
 fa 
 
 £ y ° 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 bfl 
 
 10 
 
 o\ 
 
 "*■ 
 
 Tf 
 
 
 
 "fr 
 
 
 10 K. 
 
 
 K 
 
 VO 
 
 -4 
 
 ro 
 
 
 Tf o\ 
 
 rs. 
 
 10 
 
 CO 
 
 ts. ro 
 
 oT 
 
 t^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 W ro 
 
 ro 
 
 t^ 
 
 00 CO 
 00 N 
 
 00 vo 
 
 O 
 
 tn i-. 
 
 £ O 
 
 I- • 
 2 5=3 be 
 
 O cu 
 O 
 
 o .2 v-c 
 2 t^ 
 
 OQPh g 
 J3.ti o 
 
 £ 
 
 5^5 
 
 O £ rt 
 
 
 o 
 
 X 
 
 2 K 
 
 X be 
 
 w -a be. 
 
 _ ^.2 n» 53 ■ 
 X c .£ u. o 
 
 
 * ^ 
 
 bfl C o bfl A <l 
 i^C O^ o-o 
 'Ort'S ffi 
 
 3 ^ X >— .5 r< 
 
 O as 'd r— ' be -z 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 +3 « 
 
 0) 
 
 ~ ft 
 
 m 
 
 
32 state; maintenance: of te;ache;rs in training 
 
 co O 
 
 •ogo 
 
 £Q 
 
 rt.43 
 
 CO 
 
 "2 5 
 
 
 £ ON 
 
 # o 
 
 03 
 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 »-« 
 (U 
 
 
 3 « 
 
 _o 
 
 
 
 "5 
 
 
 «-• ^ c 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 £> 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o3 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 m 
 
 E 
 j- 
 o 
 
 -a 
 c 
 
 a> 
 
 be 
 
 o 
 
 co 
 
 -a 
 
 03 
 
 Ih 
 
 h School 
 ith partial 
 ormal Tra 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 1i 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 O 
 
 .£?££ 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 ffi 
 
 1 
 
 
 8 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 
 
 33 
 
 Is 
 So 
 
 ^ <L> 
 
 O bfl 
 
 O o 
 
 ° O 
 
 5 ° 
 
 ►S *• 
 *5 
 
 ^15 
 
 < 
 
 CO 
 
 t-, 
 
 w 
 
 4J 
 
 i-t 
 
 .CO 
 
 
 u a 
 
 a 
 
 n3 >> 
 
 tg 
 
 <v O 
 
 < 
 
 H-E 
 
 Cm 
 
 73 S 
 
 
 5W 
 
 Ph 
 
 o 
 
 
 H 
 
 > 
 
 
 •~< 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 H 
 
 u. 
 
 ^ 
 
 fo^fO, t> ^ ^o >-; oq oq o 
 
 t-^ co 01 N OiiOQ Q \£> C\ 
 
 CO t% -g- O 00 >-> 00 VO fON 
 lo tN,00 o 
 
 0) -rf \r>\0 vo 
 
 01* "tf" iO ioO 01 uS LO Tf 
 
 01 CO Tt iO Tt^O COXK 
 
 O O u-joo r-» h-i 
 Tf x* o r^ oi rovo 
 
 O^ upoq^ t> co t^ 
 
 of of of co ^f ^F in vS.vcTvo 
 
 co O Q m 
 01 VO O 01 
 
 w 01 co T »ovo r^cc Ji o 
 
 ,-IHHI-IHHP-HI-IMMl-lCl 
 
 a o\ o\ c\ Ci Oi o a o, oi 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 8 
 
 o e 
 
34 STATE MAINTENANCE OE TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 §^.& 
 M hi o 
 
 3 g*.£ 
 
 ° ^ S 
 to £ rt 
 
 H 2 w 
 « s c 
 
 <! oj 
 
 w 
 
 Vh re 
 
 ^S re 
 
 O * 
 
 i-r re 
 
 o rt 
 
 ft 
 
 vg 
 
 a 
 
 <N o 
 
 in 
 
 oo r^ 
 
 N 
 
 00 VD 
 
 oo' 
 
 r^ 
 
 hH VO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 01 
 
 O 
 
 n vq 
 
 to 
 
 Tf 
 
 w 
 
 0} 
 
 t^ 
 
 l-C- 
 
 K. in 
 
 00 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 
 fO 
 
 0\ 
 in 
 
 CO 
 
 CI 
 
 0J 
 
 00 
 
 ■4 
 
 hH O 
 
 ON 
 
 ON 
 
 ON 
 
 on 
 
 On 
 
 
 
 
 co 
 
 0) 
 
 'CJD 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 bJD 
 
 C 
 
 '.5 
 
 'rt 
 
 in 
 
 >> 
 
 03 
 
 
 03 
 
 B 
 
 -5 
 
 re 
 
 c 
 
 43 
 
 "o 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 £ 
 
 co 
 
 
 o 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 °rt 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 H 
 
 c 
 
 C 
 
 £ 
 c 
 
 (D'O 
 
 "rt 
 
 C/v 
 
 1X5 
 
 £ 
 
 <L> 
 
 J-. 
 
 
 .C 
 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 J-c 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 > 
 
 
 zk 
 
 
 
 5° 
 
 JC 
 
 03 ^ 
 
 be ° £ 
 
 o o v „-£^ be c 
 
 a 1 © 
 
 §?-§X 
 
 ^Sl.-S ^cn^'.l 
 
 -»-> X 0> r* :> *-" »— 'TO 
 
 «Sg 
 
 *& £ re 
 
 o 2 
 
 C/3U 
 
 »-> £: ii 
 
 T3 
 
 re 
 J-. 
 
 O 
 
 03 
 
 re 
 
 
 re oi 
 
 a S3 
 
 w So 
 
 re 
 
 
 •; re u ••h 
 
 43 JS 03 - 
 
 ~ be g £.C bC„ 
 
 3 o£ as cc 
 
 *- be " 
 
 . <U-^ 03 
 
 y Z gW o bop 
 
 
 m 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 35 
 
 "During the beautiful fall months when country children 
 can reach the school building- without trudging through 
 deep snows or mud, many schools have remained closed 
 for want of teachers." 9 
 
 In a rich state like Montana something should be done 
 to improve the membership of the teaching population. 
 The preparation of these teachers must be greatly ex- 
 tended in order to merit adequate salaries. The em- 
 phasis in an effective policy must be placed upon the wel- 
 fare of future generations as represented by the children. 
 the: national situation with reference to 
 teacher shortage 
 
 The National Education Association published in its 
 Bulletin for November, 1920, the results of a nation-wide 
 inquiry on the teacher situation. Table VI shows that 
 the lack of teachers had not at that time disappeared, and 
 that licenses were issued in large numbers to teachers 
 who were below standard for the year 1920-21. 
 
 Teacher-shortage is not a new problem. The economic 
 situation of 1918-20 only served to make it more acute. 
 Many studies of large groups of teachers have shown how 
 much remains to be done by state authority in order to 
 place a trained teacher in every school. In 191 1 the me- 
 dian number of years of education beyond the elementary 
 school was found to be four years and one-fourth of all 
 teachers in rural schools had two years or less. In ex- 
 perience, the median tenure was two years in the rural 
 schools while 25% had taught but one year. 11 These 
 figures were based upon data from seventeen states. 
 
 Several state surveys were published within ten years 
 after the above quoted study was made, and each one con- 
 
 9) State Superintendent's Report, 1920, p. 37. 
 
 11) Coffman, The Social Composition of the Teaching Population, 
 Tables XII, XVIII. 
 
36 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 '.'J 
 
 
 :- 
 
 <; 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 „ 
 
 W 
 
 u 
 
 ^H 
 
 <u 
 
 
 rQ 
 
 s 
 
 G 
 
 £ 
 
 
 W 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 g 
 
 C/3 
 
 
 +J 
 
 w 
 
 
 cd 
 55 
 
 C 
 
 >, 
 
 ,Q 
 
 H 
 
 en 
 
 C/3 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 
 "■13 
 
 cd 
 
 
 
 
 <C/} 
 
 w 
 
 Eh 
 
 O 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cd 
 
 > 
 
 I~ 
 
 
 03 
 
 w 
 
 O, 
 
 pq 
 
 s 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 r- 
 
 a 
 
 pxepire^s Avopa: put 
 
 p9^JOd9H PJT3PU-B}£ 
 
 AYOieg puu aS^^aoiig 
 
 paveday; pais 
 
 
 papnpui suop 
 •isod jgujip-eai, 
 
 Supaoday 
 J9quinfcj 
 
 s8Jii3Uuot}S9nC) 
 
 ^-00 t(-h NiOO O O N PI 0\ h K -t N Is t|- 
 
 000 h roa^H n\o t^^o 2 >-> 00 ^t- £2 5" 9i 
 
 m 01 o\00 \t-M oi c^qj"*rs.OtOTfo ^00 vo 
 
 10 co co in of n" i-T h-T of t-T 
 
 tj- to co c^oo o^ioH hn owo o 00 Tf 3- 
 
 O lOM lOVO fOiOKH t^VO VO 01 h N>ON5 
 CO00 00 VO f^O t m m tJ- ^t 10 O CA "2 <N MD >0 
 M O\01'-' 1 - 1 co O Ch com^t^ N M h 
 
 On C\ r\i 00 commOi^t-^t-iO^- 1 NmfO^N, 
 NiONO ^ M 01 On O OS CO <0 Q 00 i-h fO oc 
 
 01 01 'tN f)M N h 
 
 01 o 
 
 ^f 01 
 
 NN hh KNfOm\MOTf- fOH O rf 01 O CO £1 
 O co -* 01 MD 00 co ^-vO voOlOO t>0 m 3" ^ N 
 
 (O h (^<ON 
 
 g^co^S" 
 
 CO t-T co Q\ h-Tmd" CO w 1 w~ 
 
 0]CO | -'COCOOO\ v OmO\ 
 
 TfH VOIOIOLOCO'-I IO 
 
 tx ^t-oo 00 fofo co "^ lo^f S3 01 o\ o O\ v ^oo co 
 
 2o cd 
 
 oj.H o U JJ 
 g S £^"^ Id cd-3 ' co cd 
 
 5 e a 
 
 CD ~^ 
 
 §5^ 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 
 
 37 
 
 O NVO -ttOHi/JM 
 
 01 00 covo vq, O 01 IN O^ iO ^ N n "P^ 1, ^ ^^ *5 
 
 m of co of m~ of hh" efiOHt^ of -T rf of covo* 
 
 h \C CI C\ NO 
 
 01 Tj- q <o q^vo co 
 
 lO N PO 
 
 hOO o 
 
 n N co i-i O co fOMD 00 tN "*VO O tN covO M00 C\ N Q VO 00 m 01 iO i-i 
 
 Q (N h00 ^(Oh lOO Tf^N COCO Nh N M O h fiCiNa COCO N 
 
 0\ m ts. f> co 01 VO O i-i toiOO Tt^"0 0\ <N MD 00 lOiOCO O hh omoi co ^i" C\ 
 
 On PO coco ""> PO PO COCO ^"00 t^vo ^ £• 0\ m Tf N ^"VO O\00 N ^00 O coOO 
 
 iflt^jOHK ■* Nq fOCMOfOVO co M 00 PO -.00 0\ iO 
 
 vnfloO'tHmOflOOHoOfoO^OHinh 
 
 M m coj t^CO T U">vO N COCO Ov tO CO CO 0) 
 
 COM3 M 01 m iO - Tfvo PO ^- co 01 In 
 
 VO i-i IOK00 Nf^H NO\coPOO\C\i-i 
 ■^-00 Tf 01 -. 01 <N O 01 lO< 
 01-.VOQ* r-,tN-.lOCO 
 
 h h o , H . Q\00 "* "^ 
 VO iO co i£vo ir)KOI' 
 
 ^- co oi p^o n ■<*■ PO< 
 
 of ^0~vO~ m K" -To 
 
 ovovo co^^moo OnO\oi in u-> m vo vo ^r<N -. oi< 
 
 CMOKio^ma^O O 01 VO m 01 ON -i ts^^l 01 > 
 O^ OWO -i C^ ^00 0\ i-h -i -^ -xt 0\ O <M -^-vo 00^ N00 
 
 oo~ oi -^ -nF r^ po of co of po rf t< -T -T io "^f ^ to 
 
 O\00 O°0 Niof) N >OM 0\h roOO iO N 0\ N fO M "* O m *0 rf ON °^ *0 00 
 tOfOt H >OHiO N h -.^oOlPOOli-ico h ro ^-00 h-. co co M 01 co 
 
 ^Jgco 3"o S3 10 55 
 
 ^00 
 
 h {oO\ io oi 
 —I 
 
 MOO ^^ ^ ^^ m Tj-vo 0\tocoioO p^lonOI 
 M -i Ol-i 
 
 
 
 J3 
 
 0* >> 
 
 
 S^J a w w c _ 
 
 ctf .« .5 . M OT rt *^ 
 
 O o 
 
 £ £ £ £ 
 
 rt 
 
 
 .-3 
 
 I 
 
 u 
 
 bfi 
 
 
 JZJ2 
 
 G 18 rj 
 
 c x 13 
 
 (Ud<uoj u uooj^ i; mj o o""^ 
 
 
 feH kii IH LJ t^ ^ "■' V V *' "* ** ^T V - / J-H' J " >-. "i-'.iH o o "* "J +* .f • ~1 t^ 
 
 ° s 
 
38 state: maintenance of teachers in training 
 
 tributed its group of facts to show the necessity for legis- 
 lation to relieve a situation which has been threatening 
 the success of the public schools, especially in the rural 
 sections. 
 
 QUOTATIONS FROM SURVEYS 
 
 Ohio (State Survey Report, 1914) 12 
 
 Of 8,286 teachers attending institutes in 1913, 15.4% were begin- 
 ners and 71.4% of the beginners had no professional training 
 whatever. 47.5% of 527 rural teachers actually surveyed had no 
 professional preparation. 7,000 new teachers are needed annually 
 and only 10% of that number are trained by existing institutions. 
 Wisconsin (Survey of Normal Schools, 1914) 13 
 
 Of the 6,639 one-room rural school teachers, 48% had no pro- 
 fessional training. 522 had not finished a four-year high school 
 course, and 1,864 were teaching their first year. 
 
 Maryland (Public Education in Maryland, 1915) 14 
 
 Flexner and Bachman say that 10% of the elementary teachers 
 are well trained and that 33 1/3% are untrained. 
 North Dakota (Survey of Higher Educational Institutions) 15 
 
 The experience of 1,156 out of 4,981 teachers in 1916 was less 
 than one year. Less than 5% of the teachers in rural schools have 
 had adequate training, i. e., two years of training beyond the four- 
 year high school course, although more than four-fifths of the 
 children of the state live in the open country. The average age 
 of the rural teacher is 23 with an experience of two years, while 
 the city teachers average 28 years and have had 5.6 years of 
 experience. 
 Alabama (U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 41, 1919) 16 
 
 According to the Alabama Survey, 63% of the rural and village 
 teachers report no professional training whatever. 16% have 
 entered their work from the elementary school, through examina- 
 tion. Of 3,648 rural and village teachers reporting, 17.6% are 
 teaching their first year. 
 
 Virginia (Survey Report, 1919) 17 
 
 In eighteen typical counties, 73-7% of the white teachers in 
 elementary schools had no training beyond the high school course 
 
 12) Ohio State School Survey Report, 1914, Chapter VI, p. 63ff. 
 
 13) Farmer, Conditions and Needs of Wisconsin Normal Schools, 
 
 1914, pp. 574-576. 
 
 14) Public Education in Maryland, 1915, p. 60. 
 
 15) Survey of Higher Educational Institutions, U. S. Bureau of 
 
 Education, Bulletin No. 27, 1916, pp. 80, 197. 
 
 16) Alabama Survey, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 
 
 41, 1919, pp. 347 and 349. 
 
 17) Inglis and others, The Public Schools of Virginia, 1919, pp. 
 334, 335. 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 39 
 
 and more than half of those had only two years or less of high 
 school training. The preparation of the colored teachers in the 
 same counties was even more defective. For the whole state 
 52% had less than a complete high school course as a preliminary 
 training. More than 20% of both white and colored teachers 
 were beginners. 
 
 Delaware (General Education Board, 1919) 18 
 
 In 1918-19, 70% of the teachers had no training beyond the four- 
 year high school course and 25% were teaching their first year. 
 24.2% had completed a normal course or had attended college. 
 
 Pennsylvania (Study by LeRoy King for U. S. Bureau of 
 Education, 1920) 19 
 
 Of the teachers under the supervision of the county superin- 
 tendents 23% were without experience. 25% of the teachers of 
 one-room schools were without any training in high school. At 
 least 76% of these teachers have entered upon their work with- 
 out professional training in state normal schools, by the examina- 
 tion route. 52% of these rural teachers hold the lowest possible 
 type of certificate in order to qualify as a teacher in the state. 
 
 These data show that the states annually employ be- 
 ginners totaling from 10% to 25% of their teaching force 
 and that the preparation of these recruits is very inade- 
 quate. The immediate problem for the states to face is 
 how to supply the lack of trained teachers by means of 
 existing plans and institutions and what new departures 
 to make and additional facilities to create in order to sup- 
 plement former efforts. The progress that state systems 
 of education have made in adjusting themselves to new 
 situations in the past is the basis for the faith that this 
 vital need will be satisfied. 
 
 TENURE RELATED TO TRAINING 
 
 Another fact is apparent in these studies of the teach- 
 ing service. Teaching has been a temporary occupation. 
 It has been most attractive to certain groups of immature 
 people in the country districts, because of the lack of any 
 requirement for institutional preparation for entering the 
 work, and because the employment served to render them 
 
 18) Public Education in Delaware, General Education Board, 
 
 1919, p. 103. 
 
 19) LeRoy King 1 , University of Pa. Bulletin, Schoolmen's Week 
 
 Proceedings, 1920, p. 79ff. 
 
40 STAT^ maintenance oe teachers in training 
 
 self-sustaining for a few years during which the imme- 
 diate rewards in proportion to the little or no investment 
 in preparation for the work were greater than in other 
 available occupations. Besides the public has, unfor- 
 tunately, been more tolerant toward immaturity and lack 
 of preparation in teaching than toward the same faults 
 in other occupations. "In the efficiency of lawyers, physi- 
 cians, and engineers the public, of course, has a vital in- 
 terest; but its interest in the efficiency of its public school 
 teachers is even more fundamental, for here not only does 
 inefficiency affect a wide circle of relatively helpless hu- 
 manity, but it may remain undetected for months or for 
 years." 20 The injury to the children due to poor prepar- 
 ation on the part of teachers is compounded by the brief 
 terms and the consequently frequent change of teachers. 
 Insufficient training and short tenure are closely linked. 
 
 The inefficient teacher easily becomes dissatisfied on 
 account of the difficulties of the task and in most cases 
 seeks the earliest opportunity to change his work or his 
 social position. The school authorities are often unable 
 to secure any one with better training and the children 
 must go through the same type of experience with a dif- 
 ferent person. Unfortunately when the supply of teach- 
 ers is so deficient, some persons will be retained in the 
 schools much longer than their training or ability would 
 warrant, and contrary to their own inclination to leave. 
 Under the pressure of conditions produced by the war 
 many low-grade teachers returned to the schools to the 
 detriment of the service. 
 
 On the other hand, training leads to the satisfaction of 
 a task well done. It looks towards permanence from the 
 beginning. It means a career; and the effect of training 
 upon tenure alone justifies the investment which a state 
 
 20) Wm. C. Bagley, "A Platform of Service." N. E. A. Journal. 
 January, 1921. 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 41 
 
 makes in the preparation of teachers. In Wisconsin the 
 average length of service of those teachers who attended 
 or graduated from the normal schools was 8.4 years, 
 while the average service of all the teachers in the state 
 as given by the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
 tion was between three and four years. 21 In the San 
 Francisco Survey of 1917, the average experience of all 
 the principals and elementary teachers was found to be 
 18.2 years; the average experience for the high schools 
 was found to be 16.6 years. Fifty-five per cent, of all 
 the teachers possessed college or normal school training. 
 The San Antonio Survey in 191 5 gave a table of the ex- 
 perience of the teachers of twenty-seven cities and the 
 median was 9.2 years. 22 The median training of twenty- 
 two cities of this table was found to be 5.4 years beyond 
 the elementary school. 23 For these cities the Pearson 
 co-efficient of correlation of training and experience is 
 .303. Of course with so few cities the P. E. is relatively 
 large, but the relation is positive and significant. In 1920 
 the correlation of experience and training for 81 cities 
 whose population varied from 30,000 to 100,000 was .224 
 with P. E. of .072. 24 More than 46% of the elementary 
 teachers and principals of St. Louis have taught more 
 than ten years. 25 More than 41% of the elementary and 
 86% of the high school teachers have received training 
 equivalent to normal school or college graduation. 26 
 
 It is in the cities, where the trained teachers work, that 
 the basis of a true profession of teaching exists. Such 
 figures as these from the city surveys cannot be dupli- 
 
 21) Farmer, Survey of Wisconsin Normal Schools, 1914, p. 58. 
 
 22) San Antonio Survey, p. 205, 1915. 
 
 23) San Antonio Survey, p. 205, 1915. 
 
 24) J. R. McGaug-hy, Unpublished study of the data secured for 
 National Committee for Chamber of Commerce Cooperation 
 with Public Schools, 1921. 
 
 25) St. Louis Survey, p. 96, 1917. 
 
 26) Carnegie Foundation Report, Bulletin No. 14, 1920, pp. 369, 
 378. 
 
42 STATE MAINTENANCE OE TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 cated in the rural sections where the untrained and im- 
 mature teachers are in the majority. 27 Training means 
 improvement with experience and growth in service; 
 on the other hand, a long tenure for an untrained teacher 
 may involve a mechanical routine of very poor work. The 
 high annual turnover in the personnel of the teaching 
 service is one of its greatest liabilities. 
 
 The state's problem, though, is to provide trained 
 teachers so that immaturity and inexperience may be less 
 characteristic of the teaching population. For if the 
 tenure of trained teachers is longer than that of the un- 
 trained, both of these injurious factors would be greatly 
 reduced through adequate provisions for training. From 
 1839 to 1850, inclusive, seven normal schools in the United 
 States had been organized by the states to provide trained 
 teachers for the public schools. By 1870 this number had 
 been increased to seventy-five. All states now make 
 appropriations which aim to place competent persons in 
 charge of the schools. The data given earlier in this 
 chapter measure the failure of the states in this important 
 activity. 
 
 It would be difficult to overestimate the influence of the 
 normal schools in the development of the profession in 
 America. Often handicapped by inadequate financial sup- 
 port, the normal schools have been responsible for send- 
 ing into the elementary schools the best trained teachers 
 which the latter have received. It has been the obligation 
 and privilege of the normal schools to foster and promote 
 the ideal of professional training, though their product 
 has been submerged in most states by the vast majority of 
 immature and relatively untrained teachers. The latter 
 have predominated in the rural schools and their presence 
 
 27) N. E. A. Emergency Commission Series No. 4, p. 4. 
 
A SURVEY OE CONDITIONS 43 
 
 constitutes the greatest menace to the economic independ- 
 ence of the profession. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 187O-I918 
 
 Table VII shows the development of the public school 
 system in the United States as compared with the growth 
 in population and wealth. It shows, too, the enrollments 
 of normal schools, high schools and colleges. The Table 
 uses 1890 as the basis of comparison. Gains have been 
 made in the enrollment in normal schools and in the num- 
 ber of graduates. The condition of the schools with ref- 
 erence to trained teachers today has been described. The 
 preparation of the teachers of 1870 with the meager nor- 
 mal school courses of that time and the lack of public 
 high schools, can only be imagined. The wonderful de- 
 velopment in national wealth in the past decade indicates 
 that the resources of the nation will be adequate for its 
 educational needs when these are once defined and under- 
 stood. 
 
 The war years have given the normal schools at least a 
 temporary check in their efforts to gain on the situation. 
 The fact which this table clearly shows is that the enroll- 
 ment in high schools, colleges and universities is gaining 
 much more rapidly than in normal schools. When the 
 latter were organized, they offered secondary education 
 to large numbers. Now there is a tendency for students 
 to go from the pubic high schools to the colleges and uni- 
 versities directly, leaving the normal schools with unused 
 facilities though the need for trained teachers was never 
 greater. Something must be done if the schools are to 
 be supplied with prepared teachers, and to lead a proper 
 share of the capable students, who are now overcrowding 
 the colleges, into these state institutions which prepare 
 for so important a branch of the public service. 
 
44 stats maintenance; oe teachers in training 
 
 CO W 
 
 o 
 c 
 
 CO 
 
 " o 
 
 H U 
 
 rj LO 
 
 oo o 
 
 CM VO 
 
 O M 
 
 On 
 
 to 
 
 ^ 
 
 vo o 
 *oco 
 
 O 00 m 
 
 CO ^^ 
 
 .2 § 
 
 CM §^ 
 
 # 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO ^ 
 
 O VC 
 
 CO 3 
 
 On On 
 
 O w 
 
 O r^ 
 
 mvo 
 
 O t^ 
 
 CM CM 
 
 O to 
 
 00 f 
 
 r^ m 
 
 O ^0 
 
 to 
 
 o" 
 
 o" 
 
 CO 
 
 tx 
 
 CM 
 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 NO 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 «s 
 
 ^ 
 
 On O 
 co CM 
 
 CO O 
 
 gs 
 
 IT) "-I 
 
 01 £v 
 
 M ^ w 
 
 00 M 
 
 ^1 M 
 
 t^ CO 
 
 CO 
 
 K 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 "* 
 
 
 CM 
 to 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 £ 
 
 & 
 
 ^ 
 
 INVO 
 
 VO 0) 
 
 CM NO 
 
 CM •£? 
 
 i-i co 
 
 00 04 
 
 \0 i-i 
 
 *^ 9 
 
 io m 
 
 LO l-H 
 
 O M 
 
 O CM 
 
 co" 
 
 to 
 
 CO 
 
 On 
 
 00 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 $ 
 
 £ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO O 
 
 cTg 
 
 CM O 
 
 CM O 
 
 £8 
 
 q, -i 
 
 *-x M 
 
 ON <-> 
 
 ^r ~ 
 
 in 
 
 cv? 
 
 CO 
 
 rt 
 
 vo 
 
 
 VO 
 CO 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 i£ 
 
 ^ 
 
 c£ 
 
 VO 
 CO 
 
 to r^ 
 
 On 
 
 CO On 
 On t>. 
 to 
 
 CM 
 
 On 
 
 cm" 
 
 ^ 
 
 £ 
 
 ^ 
 
 g^ 
 
 s^- 
 
 Q 00 
 oo to 
 
 CM v5 
 
 O co 
 
 o 
 
 co 
 
 CM 
 
 VO^ 
 
 o" 
 
 rC 
 
 d 
 
 M 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CM 
 CM 
 
 
 .s 
 
 •S 
 
 
 
 
 +j 
 
 
 _i 
 
 +-> 
 
 rt co 
 « G 
 
 g 
 
 g*o 
 
 s a 
 
 O rt 
 
 J_ CO 
 
 .G <u 
 
 02*5 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 .2 
 
 o 
 
 PL* 
 
 1" 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 CO 
 
 
 
 ooo 
 o to 
 m co 
 
 md" 
 
 On 
 
 O Tj- 
 
 uVO 
 CM CM 
 
 ^ 
 
 co 
 
 co 
 
 II 
 
 CM VO 
 00 VO 
 
 00 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 o ■« 
 
 few 
 
 ^ 
 
 co r^ 
 
 *! 
 
 CM t^ 
 
 
 On m 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 ■0 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 hJ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 © 
 
 00 8 
 
 +J 
 
 3 
 
 vq m 
 
 .ti 
 
 o <u 
 
 _> 
 
 -M 
 
 '5 
 
 c 
 B 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 o 
 
 rt 
 
 u 
 
 G 
 
 4> 
 
 ft' 
 
 be 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 St) ■ t ~ i 
 
 Sl| 6 S 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 
 
 45 
 
 HW»« 
 
 I69*6M 
 
 IHHOOOo 
 
 JX.0 00 
 
 ILoooo 
 
 jnoooo 
 
 
 y^roooo 
 
 Zf<>< 
 
 /#?« /fo* /<f,0 l<j% 
 
46 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 The normal schools encountered the same tendencies 
 and influences that made it so difficult to secure and hold 
 competent teachers in the public schools. The same rea- 
 sons have reduced the attendance in these institutions 
 from what it was before the United States entered the 
 war ; and both the quantity and quality of the output have 
 been seriously affected. About 18,000 graduates, as a 
 maximum annual product, have gone out from the stand- 
 ard teacher-training schools of the country. 
 
 A most conservative estimate of the annual needs of 
 the schools due to growth of population, expansion of 
 school activities, and replacements needed because of 
 death and resignation, is from 90,000 to ioo,ooo, 33 and 
 during the war period it was much larger. Even if all the 
 beginning teachers who have had any special professional 
 training in normal schools, high schools, or summer 
 schools, be considered as qualified for their work, there 
 still remains a large group of teachers who begin their 
 work each year without any guaranty of success, many of 
 whom have not even had any instruction in high school. 34 
 
 The state has an obligation to define the educational 
 and professional qualifications of those who desire to 
 teach in the public schools. But it must do more than this. 
 It must provide opportunities for this training in its nor- 
 mal schools, colleges of education, and universities. The 
 average annual need for teachers in a state can be deter- 
 mined from reports; and, unless an equal supply is pro- 
 duced, the schools must remain closed or else be taught by 
 persons of inferior preparation. The economic necessi- 
 ties of these unprepared teachers make an appeal to their 
 parents and to school directors because the latter do not 
 
 33) H. W. Foght, Preparation of Rural Teachers, N. E. A. Pro- 
 ceedings, 1915, p. 102. 
 
 34) David Felmley, National Crisis in Education, U. S. Bureau 
 of Education, Bulletin No. 29, 1920, p. 25. 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 47 
 
 understand the aims and purposes of the school as an in- 
 stitution. The school exists primarily for the benefit of 
 the children who attend it; and anything which thwarts 
 this purpose directly or indirectly should demand the 
 immediate attention of the state. 
 
 The diminished attendance at normal schools during 
 the years 1917-20, with few exceptions, makes it evident 
 that it will now be more difficult than ever before to se- 
 cure an adequate supply of trained teachers from that 
 source. In the normal schools of New York State after 
 considerable effort and with a generous salary law enacted, 
 an increase of 328 students or approximately 17% over 
 the previous year's enrollment was noted for the year 
 1920-21. In one of these schools where an intensive 
 campaign for recruits was conducted, the entering class 
 was only one-third of that entering in 191 7. Data ob- 
 tained from seven of the Pennsylvania Normal Schools 
 showed that they graduated only two-thirds as many 
 teachers in 1920 as in 191 7. "One hundred and ninety 
 state, county, city and private normal schools reported 
 11,503 fewer students than they had the year previous to 
 the war. The schools reporting represent 60% of the 
 total normal schools, and on this basis it is estimated that 
 there were 19,000 fewer normal students and 7,000 fewer 
 graduates from normal schools in 1920. Teachers' train- 
 ing courses in college show the same falling off, and the 
 loss of students in some state normal schools indicates a 
 shrinkage in students of 20, 30, and as high as 50 per 
 cent." 35 The most significant fact was that at the same 
 time the colleges and universities were crowded with 
 the largest enrollment in their history. 
 
 The differences in drawing power of institutions which 
 require the same preliminary preparation for entrance 
 
 35) Report of Commissioner of Education for year ended June 
 30, 1920. 
 
I 
 
 no 
 
 
 5 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 c 
 ±J o 
 
 3S 
 
 N 
 
 £ 
 
 ON 
 
 OB 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 0) 
 
 fa 
 
 ** 
 
 >» 
 
 
 ,Q 
 
 
 » 
 
 O 
 
 ei 
 
 ts. 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 o 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 «w 
 
 On 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 Tf 
 
 DO 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 a 
 
 NO 
 
 02 
 
 W) 
 
 
 CO 
 
 >> 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 +■> 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 <D 
 
 
 S 
 
 I 
 
 <s 
 
 3 >> 
 
 =1 
 
 §1 
 
 §1 
 
 Sh ft 
 fa<! 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 
 
 49 
 
 TABLE IX. 
 
 INCREASE IN UNIVERSITY ENROLLMENT IN FIVE YEARS. 
 I9I5-I9203S 
 
 California 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Cornell 
 
 Harvard 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Johns Hopkins 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 New York 
 
 Northwestern 
 
 Ohio State 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Pittsburgh 
 
 Stanford 
 
 Texas 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Washington 
 
 Yale 
 
 Total 
 
 ovember 1, 1915 
 
 November 1, 1920 
 
 io,555 
 
 16,379 
 
 7,968 
 
 n,394 
 
 2,525 
 
 3,523 
 
 11,888 
 
 23,793 
 
 6,351 
 
 7,349 
 
 5,698 
 
 7,786 
 
 6,150 
 
 9,652 
 
 2,347 
 
 3,585 
 
 3,138 
 
 3,585 
 
 1,586 
 
 3,203 
 
 2,806 
 
 4,036 
 
 6,684 
 
 10,158 
 
 5,376 
 
 9,565 
 
 3,356 
 
 5,730 
 
 6,656 
 
 10,522 
 
 4,408 
 
 7,567 
 
 5,45i 
 
 7,799 
 
 7,404 
 
 io,579 
 
 3,569 
 
 5,904 
 
 2,061 
 
 3,134 
 
 3,572 
 
 5,152 
 
 1,008 
 
 3,409 
 
 6,810 
 
 9,506 
 
 1,264 
 
 2,502 
 
 3,303 
 
 3,896 
 
 121,933 
 
 191,376 
 
 Gain 
 
 69443=56+% 
 
 38) School and Society, January 29, 1921, p. 121. 
 
50 state: maintenance: of tkachkrs in training 
 
 indicate that something needs to be done by the state and 
 by society if the demand for prepared teachers is to be 
 satisfied. The impression is prevalent that students of 
 superior ability are avoiding the normal schools in order 
 to attend the institutions that apparently offer greater 
 promise in economic outlook and a greater variety of 
 professional choice. Several tests have been made to de- 
 termine the relative ability of students in the two types of 
 institutions. Table X shows the results of the intelligence 
 test prepared by the Carnegie School of Technology, 
 Pittsburgh, Pa., and given to the freshmen in eleven col- 
 leges and seven normal schools in Pennsylvania in 1919. 
 The median difference of 13 in favor of the college stu- 
 dents is suggestive. 
 
 Table XI shows the results obtained from applying the 
 Army Alpha test to the students in several normal schools 
 and universities. Measured by the army standards both 
 groups are superior but a difference of 16.4 in the median 
 score in favor of the college group confirms the notion 
 that the colleges and universities are drawing the best 
 ability. This difference is equivalent to six or seven 
 months of mental age on the Stanford-Binet scale. The 
 results of these tests in typical and widely scattered insti- 
 tutions is an evidence of the need for additional induce- 
 ments in order to attract ability of the highest grade into 
 the teaching profession. 
 
 In attempting to provide a trained teacher for every 
 school, it is important to inquire what kind of people are 
 choosing the teaching profession. What ability do those 
 possess who decide to teach? What economic conditions 
 surround them? What can they afford in the nature of 
 an extensive preparation for teaching? These questions 
 were answered in 191 1 by Coffman's Study of the Social 
 Composition of the Teaching Population. He found that 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 
 
 51 
 
 
 X 
 
 /«> 
 
 /2& 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^0 
 
 tow£CT 5c«Ri (xw^wfinntE M»iA*Hm'Rflwwi*/AM«r$co«6 
 
 //CoUUE€ES 
 

 52 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 in ^ 
 « S 
 
 II 
 
 u h 
 
 < fa 
 3° 
 
 CO g 
 
 £ O 
 
 fc K 
 w a 
 Ph to 
 
 1-1 o 
 w « 
 
 W <! 
 o o 
 
 £2 
 ° s 
 
 o o 
 « o 
 
 M 
 <J 
 
 Pi 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CU 
 
 u 
 
 & 
 
 
 3 
 
 co 
 
 
 CU 
 
 i~ 
 
 
 co 
 
 ■4J 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 
 nJ 
 
 
 
 
 *0 
 
 
 a.' 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 a 
 
 as 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 •M 
 
 
 en 
 CU 
 
 J3 
 
 CU 
 
 o 
 
 bfl 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 CO 
 
 en 
 
 
 CU 
 
 
 en 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 CU 
 
 
 bfl 
 
 
 J£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 CO CO CN O «0 M u^VO N ON 
 M CO "* iO tJ- CO •-< COCO^-CO 
 
 Tf CN 00 uo t^VO fOP^t H 
 
 hh t^ CO <N "* lOVO t> Q\ co52 
 O\00 ON O\O0 00 ^500 00 00 00 
 
 S^gjfgKSg'&'g 
 
 0\NO\fjHON ►-< \o in i2 
 
 lO CO rtVO CO lO "H »OlOco^ 
 
 CO t^ .-, 
 
 33^8 3ft £cj8 
 
 ^ <pqOfiWftOK.-it-»« 
 
 ^ 
 
 cu 
 
 « g 
 
 *o 6 
 
 VO 00 v§ §>\2 ^vS" 
 
 CN VO Q On 
 KNfsN 
 
 K. 9^J3 m rt io cn 
 ON O 00 00 ChOO o\ 
 
 vooc coo t>svd^ 
 
 
 >-H 
 
 
 O 
 
 •+J 
 
 m 
 
 a 
 
 EH 
 
 r-> 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 8 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 >> 
 
 rt 
 
 
 <o 
 
 H 
 
 rn 
 
 cc3 
 
 Ih 
 
 
 P. 
 
 O 
 
 C 
 
 cp 
 
 S5 
 
 
 fc 
 
 <co 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 
 
 53 
 
 TABLE XI. COMPARISON OF ABILITY OF FRESHMEN IN NORMAL 
 
 SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES AS MEASURED BY 
 
 THE ARMY ALPHA TESTS. 
 
 
 
 Army Rating. 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 135-212 
 
 
 
 Very Superior 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 105-134 
 
 
 
 Superior 
 
 
 
 C— 
 
 75-104 
 
 
 
 High Average 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 45- 74 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 c— 
 
 25- 44 
 
 
 
 Low Average 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 15- 24 
 
 
 
 Inferior 
 
 
 
 D~ 
 
 0- 14 
 
 
 
 Very Inferior 
 
 
 
 Normal Schools 
 
 Cases 
 
 
 Med 
 
 ian Score 
 
 I. 
 
 Cape Girardeau, 
 
 Mo. 
 
 448 
 
 
 
 1 13.6 
 
 2. 
 
 Greeley, Col. 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 
 1 16.6 
 
 3- 
 
 Bloomsburg, Pa. 
 
 (2d year) 
 
 138 
 
 
 
 113.19 
 
 : 
 
 Mankato, Minn. 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 113-75 
 
 11 Normal Students 
 
 727 
 
 
 
 1 13-6 
 
 Universities 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yale _ 
 
 
 
 406 
 
 
 159 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 
 489 
 
 
 147 
 
 
 Purdue 
 
 
 
 588 
 
 
 124 
 
 
 Southern Methodist 
 
 
 128 
 
 
 127 
 
 
 Ohio State 
 
 
 2 
 
 545 
 
 
 130 
 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 
 114 
 
 Dickinson 
 University Freshmen 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 
 141 
 
 4, 
 
 280 
 
 130 
 
54 state maintenance: of teachers in training 
 
 
 
 BL<WMSBURfr,B\. 
 (a*»j yea*) 
 
 hAANKAT6,MlfM. ' 
 
 yALET 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 PURDUE. 
 
 50UTHFHhT/AE 
 
 OHIO STATE 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 
 SJU^^u^ Qr^Jft^i*^ «4 faJbu** /few 
 
 yo fro 
 
 '/VORMALSCH0OLS 
 
 } Aru^aifJLJT^ti. 
 /20 fcO 
 
 VN\VERZlT\t.% 
 
 /ml nqrmav syum/tTS 
 
 ALLUf/lYF RSiTy ST t/OEATS 
 
 H3.1, 
 //6.6 
 
 /Sf 
 
 /a* 
 /Jo 
 
 //y 
 
 mi 
 
 (JA6 
 130 
 
A SURVEY Otf CONDITIONS 55 
 
 the typical teacher comes from a home whose annual in- 
 come was approximately $800.00 which supported a family 
 of six or seven members. 40 How can prospective teachers 
 with such a background pay the cost of adequate training? 
 The cost of preparation has increased in proportion to the 
 increase in the cost of living while salaries have advanced 
 in a smaller degree. 
 
 These facts have combined to prevent prospective teach- 
 ers from securing the necessary preparation for their work 
 so that the children are suffering the consequences of 
 economic and social evils from which they should be pro- 
 tected. Is it not time that an indifferent and careless 
 policy in the matter of teacher training be abandoned? 
 
 COST OF NORMAL TRAINING 
 
 Late in the school year 1919-20, typical normal schools 
 were selected in New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, 
 Texas, Wisconsin, Missouri, Illinois and New Jersey in 
 order to secure from the students themselves an estimate 
 of expenses covering room, board, laundry, clothing, trav- 
 eling expenses, and fees, but no other personal incidentals. 
 The principal was requested to select twenty seniors at 
 random in order to secure representative estimates. One 
 hundred sixty-five reports reveal the fact that expenses 
 range from $300.00 to $1000 and that the general aver- 
 average is $470.43. This means an investment of over 
 $900.00 in a two-year course or $1800.00 in a four-year 
 course. This expense will vary somewhat with changing 
 prices but it is a fair record of the extreme conditions 
 which prevailed in the year in which the data were col- 
 lected. 
 
 As has been shown these costs are prohibitive for 
 teachers in the rural schools where salaries are lowest and 
 
 40) Contributions to Education, Columbia University, No. 41, 
 p. 80. 
 
56 STAT£ MAINTENANCE OE TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 school terms the shortest. The vital problem is to get a 
 superior training for these thousands of rural teachers in 
 order that they may be worthy of a salary commensurate 
 with the importance of the task they are willing to attempt. 
 Can America not profit by the experience of those coun- 
 tries of the world where this difficulty has been overcome 
 to the extent that a large percentage of their teachers are 
 genuine professionally trained men and women. 41 
 
 ADDITIONAL AID DESIRABLE 
 
 Everything that any state has done financially to pro- 
 mote the training of teachers may be considered in the 
 nature of a subsidy to the profession. The important 
 question is whether the state can afford to restrict its 
 activity in rendering aid to prospective teachers before 
 every school enjoys the privilege of employing a trained 
 teacher. It is good business to add to the capital in- 
 vestment in order to increase the dividends ; it is wise 
 public policy to prevent ignorance and inefficiency and to 
 provide equal opportunity to all the children of the state. 
 In order to have a trained teacher in every school, more 
 recruits must be secured for the profession of teaching, 
 more training must be furnished before the difficult task 
 is undertaken, and teachers must be paid a living wage 
 for their work. These desirable goals are within the 
 scope of the state's activities and unless the state acts 
 to protect and promote its own system of free schools, 
 there is little hope for improvement. Even so long ago as 
 1907, J. M. Green, principal of the Trenton Norma] 
 School said : "I have no fault with the high standards for 
 teaching. I hail and welcome them, but I believe if they 
 are maintained, education must thoroughly promulgate its 
 economic requirements. These must be acknowledged 
 and met by the people, both by increasing salaries and by 
 
 41) See New South Wales, Japan, Germany, Denmark, Chapter 
 III. 
 
A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 57 
 
 further decreasing the cost of higher education for teach- 
 ers by additional state aid." 42 
 
 As an indication of the growing interest in this phase 
 of the problem, it is pertinent to state that at the meeting 
 of the Association of Academic Principals of New York 
 State in December, 1919, a resolution was adopted urging 
 additional state subsidies for prospective teachers. Sec- 
 tion XII of the Sterling-Towner Bill now before Con- 
 gress, proposes the appropriation of $15,000,000 "to en- 
 courage the states in the preparation of teachers for pub- 
 lic school service, particularly in rural schools, to provide 
 and extend facilities for the improvement of prospective 
 teachers, and to provide an increased number of trained 
 and competent teachers by encouraging through the es- 
 tablishment of scholarships and otherwise, a greater num- 
 ber of talented young people to make adequate preparation 
 for public school service." 
 
 At the National Citizens Conference on Education held 
 in Washington, D. C, May, 1920, it was resolved that 
 "since the teachers of America come so largely from 
 homes that are economically unable to bear the expenses 
 of the education of their sons and daughters, it may be 
 necessary, in order to secure the best quality of candidates 
 for the teaching profession, that the living expenses of 
 teachers in training will need to be, met by the state, either 
 through scholarships or by means of a loan which may be 
 paid in part or entirely by actual service, in teaching fol- 
 lowing graduation." 43 
 
 There is no doubt that one of the most serious defects 
 in the educational system today is the incompetent teacher. 
 If this problem were solved the conditions in more than 
 50% of the schools would be radically improved, and the 
 
 42) N. E. A. Proceedings, 1907, p. 370. 
 
 43) U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 29, 1920, p. 131; 
 italics mine. 
 
58 STATE) MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 question as to what is the matter with public education 
 could no longer be asked with the same implications and 
 emphasis. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. The public school has been able to adjust itself to 
 new demands and conditions. A remarkable world-wide 
 state of unrest and change as a result of the war has 
 already influenced education and will continue to do so. 
 
 2. A study of the members of the teaching service in 
 typical states shows that a large percentage of the teach- 
 ers, especially in the rural districts, are inadequately pre- 
 pared for the duties of the profession. 
 
 3. The statistics of the enrollment in high schools, 
 colleges and universities, and normal schools show that 
 the profession of teaching is not attracting a sufficient 
 number of recruits. It is significant that the numbers 
 seeking higher education for other vocations are rapidly 
 increasing. 
 
 4. Inadequate attendance in normal schools is also 
 accompanied by the admission of students of somewhat 
 inferior ability as compared with those entering universi- 
 ties and colleges. 
 
 5. The cost of normal school education is too great 
 compared with the salaries of many rural teachers to 
 justify the expense of adequate preparation. 
 
 6. Educational organizations are suggesting in reso- 
 lutions and proposed legislation additional state assistance 
 to prospective teachers as one of the potent remedies for 
 the situation. 
 
Chapter III 
 
 PLANS FOR RECRUITING THE PROFESSION 
 
 THROUGH FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE 1 
 
 One of the essential activities of state educational ad- 
 ministration is that which relates to the preparation of 
 teachers. An annual supply of new teachers, is necessary 
 to fill the vacancies in 10% to 30% of the schools, as 
 shown in the representative states described in Chapter I. 
 Unless the state concerns itself with the preparation of 
 these required teachers, what agency will? The alterna- 
 tive presented is to fill up these schools with the candidates 
 who apply, allowing their preparation to be determined 
 by chance factors. The interests of the children are so 
 vital that the latter policy is unwarranted in a .responsible 
 government. 
 
 In their efforts to meet the demand for better teachers, 
 the states have had a varying experience. To supply the 
 shortage of teachers which some states have felt more 
 keenly than others, several experiments to aid financially 
 in the preparation of teachers have been made. What 
 progress has been made by any state in this endeavor? 
 What are the conditions in state systems of education that 
 should be modified in order to provide competent teach- 
 ers for every child? These are questions that need to be 
 answered before any suggestions can be made, based 
 upon either theory or practice. 
 
 A. IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Free schools on both the elementary and secondary 
 levels are now so nearly universal that it is difficult to 
 realize that this is comparatively a recent achievement. 
 
 1) See Appendix B. 
 
 59 
 
6o state; maintenance; of teachers in training 
 
 It is now possible for thousands of American youth to 
 pursue their studies through the university practically 
 without personal charge for tuition. State maintained 
 institutions generally are free to the residents of that 
 state and in harmony with that policy the state normal 
 schools make no charge for instruction. In this respect 
 the prospective teacher has no advantage from the state 
 over individuals preparing for many other occupations. 
 There is but slight opposition to this policy of offering 
 the widest possible range of training at public expense, 
 but the teacher will be an employee of the state and, there- 
 fore, the interest of the state in the efficacy of his train- 
 ing is greater than it is in training for many other fields 
 of activity. 
 
 Transportation is one of the costly items for prospec- 
 tive teachers in states where the distances are great and 
 the institutions few. Very little has been done by the 
 states in striving to meet this situation. In Wyoming 
 railroad fares in excess of $10.00 are paid by the state 
 to the students in the teacher-training department of the 
 State University. Montana refunds all transportation in 
 excess of $5.00. New Mexico pays all above $3.00 round 
 trip and Rhode Island makes an appropriation to cover 
 all transportation. 
 
 In fifteen states, free textbooks are supplied to the stu- 
 dents who are preparing to teach. 2 In a few cases books 
 may be rented at a low charge and in New Hampshire 
 and Massachusetts supplies are furnished. In many 
 states individual schools are found which maintain loan 
 funds for emergency cases among the students. These 
 funds are. usually maintained by gifts from the classes, by 
 contributions from alumni and faculty, or by private 
 philanthropy. In the Louisiana State Normal School at 
 
 2) See Appendix A. 
 
PLANS FOR RECRUITING THE) PROFESSION 6l 
 
 Natchitoches, money available for this purpose amounts to 
 $20,000.00 in several funds. In Massachusetts, the legis- 
 ture appropriates $4,000.00 per year which may be ap- 
 plied to the transportation of needy students, $30.00 or 
 $40.00 to each. In many schools where no such fund 
 exists, special cases are taken care of by members of the 
 faculty or by local organizations. Many worthy young 
 people who would otherwise have been lost to the pro- 
 fession, have thus been aided. 
 
 Several states have attempted the experiment of offer- 
 ing scholarships in order to secure a sufficient supply of 
 teachers. In Connecticut in addition to free tuition, an- 
 nual scholarships of $150.00 for each student have been 
 available for a number of years, on condition that the 
 graduates teach three years in the rural schools. Out 
 of 100 scholarships available only sixteen were called for 
 in the year 1920-21. The salaries and living conditions in 
 the country were so unattractive that the experiment was 
 almost nullified. It has been proposed that this scholar- 
 ship be raised to $300.00 to make it effective. Louisiana 
 has a plan by which each police jury of the state and each 
 ward of the city of New Orleans may designate one fe- 
 male student to the normal school, whose support, not 
 exceeding $250.00 per year, may be charged against the 
 police jury or ward. The beneficiaries are appointed on 
 the basis of competitive examinations from among needy 
 persons. Less than 50% of the districts are represented, 
 — largely, no doubt, because of the stigma of poverty that 
 attaches to the subsidy. 
 
 In 1920 the State Education Department of Delaware 
 selected certain students from those desiring teacher- 
 training work and granted them scholarships of $150.00 
 per year. As a modification of this plan the department 
 suggests that all expenses of those qualified to train for 
 
62 state; maintenance of teachers in training 
 
 elementary work be paid. The law also allows liberal 
 support for the teachers who take work in summer schools 
 to improve their efficiency in service. 
 
 In Maryland the legislature of 1920 so increased the 
 appropriation to the normal schools that the net cost of 
 board, laundry, books, tuition, and other necessary items 
 to each student was only $100.00 a year. Any high 
 school graduate who pledged two years' service was ad- 
 mitted on these terms. The governor has assented to the 
 policy of relieving all teacher-training students entirely 
 from the costs of . maintenance and the State Board of 
 Education will have the opportunity to work out the de- 
 tails in future legislation. The county boards of educa- 
 tion have been required by law for years to pay $25.00 to 
 any teacher who attends summer school. 
 
 The Normal Board of Regents in Texas offers scholar- 
 ships to the honor students among the boys and among 
 the girls in each fully affiliated high school of the state. 
 This scholarship exempts the students from paying fees 
 and as they may also receive scholarships in the colleges 
 and state university, very few enter the normal schools 
 on this basis. At Huntsville, Texas, only five honor stu- 
 dents were enrolled in 1919-20 and four in 1920-21. A 
 scholarship worth $100.00 is open for students from ju- 
 nior and senior colleges. Several scholarships worth 
 $200.00 or $250.00 are offered by alumni and other indi- 
 viduals. The experience in Texas and in other states shows 
 that students prefer to go to college rather than to normal 
 schools when the scholarships are equal or when the 
 larger subsidy is granted for college attendance. 
 
 In order to make a special provision for rural teachers 
 in New Mexico, there are chosen annually fifty teachers 
 who, possess ability to read and write both English and 
 Spanish, who have taught for ten months on a third-grade 
 
PLANS FOR RECRUITING THE PROFESSION 63 
 
 certificate, and who are between eighteen and twenty-five 
 years of age. These teachers pledge themselves to teach 
 two years in rural districts after completing a prescribed 
 one-year course. When they finish the course in the nor- 
 mal schools, they receive a second-grade certificate good 
 for the two ensuing years. From a special state appro- 
 priation $300.00 is paid to the normal school of his choice 
 for each teacher, selected for this rural course. This 
 grant pays actual and necessary expenses for board, books 
 and school supplies, lodging, matriculation and tuition. 
 The law provides that the amount allowed to each student 
 shall not be less than $20.00 per month for board and 
 lodging and that any balance in the fund shall become 
 part of the maintenance fund in that institution. This 
 plan has several weaknesses. The number is inadequate 
 for the whole state and the preliminary training of such 
 scholarship students should be graduation from the four- 
 year high school course. Principal W. O. Hall, of the 
 Silver City Normal School said of these students that 
 they were superior in responsibility and in diligence in 
 their work though no superiority was noted in its quality. 
 New Mexico realized her need for trained teachers and 
 began a plan which makes progress possible. Along with 
 this state assistance a law has been passed requiring that 
 rural school districts should spend not more than $70.00 
 a month for a teacher holding a third-grade certificate, 
 $90.00 for one holding a second-grade certificate and 
 $110.00 for one holding a first-grade certificate. 3 Ex- 
 State Superintendent Wagner said that salaries for the 
 year 1919-20 under this law were advanced 30% or 40% 
 Hence state subsidy in this case did not prevent increase 
 in salary. 
 
 3) Act to provide for the Training of Teachers for Rural Dis- 
 tricts, approved March 18, 1915. 
 
64 state: maintenance; of teachers in training 
 
 The state of Maine, in order to establish a rural teach- 
 ing profession passed an act 4 which provided for the 
 selection of one hundred rural teachers annually who 
 have had a complete normal school training or its 
 equivalent and successful teaching experience, and who 
 are persons of unusual ability and sympathetic with rural 
 life and work. These persons were to attend a special 
 course of instruction during the summer months, the ex- 
 pense of travel and board being provided by the state. 
 They were then to return to the service of the town from 
 which they were chosen for at least one year, during 
 which they were to act as rural critic and helping teachers. 
 At- the close of the school year, upon satisfactory evi- 
 dence of successful service, the teachers were to receive 
 from the state a bonus of 25% of their regular annual 
 salary. State Superintendent A. O. Thomas said, 5 "The 
 problem is so to motivate the rural phase of education that 
 it will attract the brightest minds and the finest person- 
 alities of the profession. Dignity, wage and service are 
 all essential." An annual appropriation of $20,000.00 is 
 devoted to this work. To accomplish the purpose indi- 
 cated, the state decided to pay for additional training 
 and to pay for the superior service rendered. 
 
 The need for expert teachers of trade, industrial, and 
 technical subjects in the public vocational schools led the 
 state of New York to pass a law in 1919, 6 providing an- 
 nually for twenty-five scholarships at the Buffalo State 
 Normal School in a one-year industrial teacher-training 
 course. Persons completing the course are licensed for 
 life to teach their special trade, industrial, or technical 
 occupation. The law provides that persons chosen for 
 
 4) An Act to provide for the Training- of Rural Teachers, Chap- 
 
 ter 51, P. L. 1919. 
 
 5) Circular letter: Special Training for Rural Teachers, May 
 
 15, 1919. 
 
 6) Section 835 New York Education Law, 1919. 
 
PLANS POR RECRUITING THE) PROPKSSION 65 
 
 these scholarships shall receive $1500,00 if they are with- 
 out dependents, or $2000.00 with dependents. These 
 amounts are paid in ten equal installments. 
 
 The law requires that each of these men must have had 
 not less than five years' practical experience in one of the 
 thirteen occupations listed. Candidates must be not less 
 than twenty-one nor more than thirty-six years old. Good 
 health, moral character, citizenship, residence in New 
 York, and ability to read, write, and speak English were 
 additional requirements. Salaries paid in 1920 to such 
 teachers in New York ranged from $1800.00 to $3500.00. 
 L. A. Wilson, Director of Industrial Education, writes 
 that the state has been able to select some very strong 
 men for these scholarships. 7 
 
 This plan shows what a state feels justified in doing 
 to fill a serious need in a definite department of the work. 
 It also shows that scholarships and relatively high sal- 
 aries after the training are not inconsistent with one an- 
 other. When the soldiers, sailors, and marines came 
 back to civil life after the war, several states, including 
 Oregon, Wisconsin, and New York, passed acts provid- 
 ing scholarships in higher institutions. The New York 
 law provided for 450 such state scholarships. Each en- 
 titled the holder to his tuition, not exceeding $100.00 per 
 year, in any college, university, normal school, technical 
 or trade school of his selection, located within the state, 
 such tuition to be paid by the state, together with an ad- 
 ditional sum of $100.00 a year for the maintenance of the 
 student while in attendance upon instruction. 8 Thirty 
 thousand dollars was appropriated by the legislature to 
 carry out this act. 
 
 7) Personal Letter, October 20, 1920. 
 
 8) Section 78, Article 3, Education Law, New York State, 1919. 
 
66 vSTate; maintenance; of teachers in training 
 
 b. in american cities. 
 More than thirty cities reported to the United States 
 Bureau of Education in 1918 that they were maintaining 
 training schools for teachers to supply at least a part of 
 the annual demand. According to a bulletin of the 
 United States Bureau of Education in 1914, a number 
 of such cities were paying various sums of money to 
 these prospective teachers for the time spent in actual 
 practice teaching. 9 In 1920 in New York City this pay- 
 ment was $2.00 a day; in Baltimore $1.50 a day; in Wa- 
 tertown, N. Y., it was $3.00 a week. In Akron, Ohio, the 
 training school was not getting a sufficient supply of the 
 capable high school graduates of the city. The population 
 had increased very rapidly, and the Board of Education 
 decided to pay the normal school students at the rate of 
 $50.00 per month for the two years of training. The 
 number of students was limited to the capacity of the 
 school and a competitive examination enabled the officials 
 to select from the students possessing the best ability. 
 Superintendent H. B. Fisher, of Streator, Illinois, wrote 10 
 on October 30, 1920: "We are this year trying the experi- 
 ment of giving aid amounting to $150.00 a year to a few 
 graduates of the local high school who are in attendance 
 upon one of the state normal schools. This aid is to be 
 given each year for two years. Each recipient of this 
 aid, each year, gives one note for $100.00 and another for 
 $50.00. For each year that she teaches in the Streator 
 schools a note or notes amounting to $100.00 are can- 
 celled. No interest is payable until after maturity of the 
 note, which is set at a point three years after the com- 
 pletion of her normal training." The beginning salary 
 
 9) Bulletin 47, City Training Schools, Frank Manny, 1914, Ap- 
 pendix E. U. S. Bureau of Education. 
 ICQ Letter to Carnegie Foundation, N. Y. 
 
PLANS FOR RECRUITING TH£ PROFESSION 67 
 
 of these graduates is $1,000.00 with an annual increase 
 of $75-00. 
 
 Cities have done more to encourage teachers to im- 
 prove themselves in service than have other school dis- 
 tricts, because they have had the best trained and more 
 ambitious group of teachers in the past and consequently 
 appreciate the value of training, and because they have 
 the taxable wealth, and are more likely to receive large 
 bequests or benefactions. Indianapolis and Pittsburgh, 
 for example, have the Gregg Fund and Frick Fund, re- 
 spectively. Teachers in both cities are furnished schol- 
 arships at educational institutions in all parts of the coun- 
 try. Some of these scholarships have aided teachers to 
 make journeys to foreign lands in order to gain various 
 advantages for their particular work. In the beginning 
 of the administration of the Frick Fund, the commission 
 paid the entire expense of the teachers who were sent 
 away. Later on it paid two-thirds of their expenses, and 
 thus was enabled to send a much larger number of teach- 
 ers. It has been found in many cases that the teachers 
 who were sent once felt themselves so much benefited by 
 their visits that they subsequently undertook additional 
 training at their own expense. 13 - 
 
 TABEE xtt. henry c. frick educational commission, 
 
 PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Summary of Aid to Teachers 
 
 Number of teachers who have received scholarships I5 11 
 
 Number of teachers who have received training in Social 
 Service work 3*9 
 
 Number of teachers who have received training in Ameri- 
 canization work at the University of Pittsburgh during 
 winters of 1918-1919 and 1919-1920 to date 256 
 
 Number of teachers sent to educational conferences and to 
 
 11) Year Book of Phoebe Brashear Club, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1917, 
 p. 13. 
 
68 STAT£ MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 educational institutions for observation and study of 
 methods 30 
 
 Number of teachers benefited by the Hency C. Frick Educa- 
 tional Commission fund 21 16 
 
 Number of different schools attended by the teachers since 
 
 the establishment of the fund 61 
 
 Until the death of Mr. Frick, this endowment fund 
 consisted of the interest upon $500,000.00. In his will 
 he left the Educational Commission ten shares of his re- 
 siduary estate, which he estimated at $500,000.00 a share. 
 The future training of selected groups of Pittsburgh 
 teachers has consequently been placed upon a very solid 
 foundation. 
 
 Many other cities according to the reports of the city 
 superintendents grant permanent increases in salary to 
 those teachers who are ambitious enough to attend sum- 
 mer school at their own expense. In others a definite 
 appropriation of $25.00 or $50.00 is made toward the 
 expense of teachers attending summer sessions. 
 
 C. IN CANADA. 
 
 In the Province of Quebec in 1920, all Protestant 
 teachers in training at Macdonald College received tuition 
 free and those who agreed to teach three years in the 
 rural schools, received a bonus that covered a consider- 
 able part of their boarding and other expenses. At the 
 Roman Catholic Normal Schools, the government is also 
 providing free scholarships for students who could not 
 afford to put themselves through. 12 In British Columbia 
 and Ontario the traveling expenses of normal school stir 
 dents are paid, while in Ontario only, $1.00 per day is 
 paid toward their living expenses if they have promised 
 to teach for three years in rural schools. 
 
 In May and June of 1919 a survey of the secondary 
 schools in the Province of Alberta was made to ascertain 
 
 12) Personal letter from Superintendent's Office, June 14, 1920. 
 
PLANS FOR RECRUITING TH£ PROFESSION 69 
 
 the probable enrollment at the normal school in Septem- 
 ber. 13 It was found that a number of students were likely 
 to be debarred from entering the teaching profession' be- 
 cause of the increased cost of living away from home, and 
 because of the lengthened course. The government then 
 adopted the policy of extending its loan scheme, created 
 for returned soldiers in 1918, to all persons who wished 
 to qualify as teachers and who would promise to teach 
 two years in Alberta. The maximum sum loaned to any 
 person was $400.00 payable in eight equal instalments. 
 Notes bearing 7% interest were drawn up and signed by 
 guarantors. In the year 1919-20 approximately $28,000.- 
 00 was loaned to students. 
 
 Under this plan an appropriation forms a revolving- 
 fund and continues to assist in the training of teachers 
 indefinitely. It renders aid to those who need it and se- 
 cures a group of trained teachers who, without such aid, 
 would be compelled to begin remunerative work in other 
 occupations. 
 
 D. IN LATIN-AMERICA. 14 
 
 In Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and other Latin-American 
 countries, the great majority of the normal schools are 
 on the secondary level and admit pupils at the age of 14, 
 after they have finished a six-year or seven-year elemen- 
 tary course. These institutions were introduced and fos- 
 tered by the governments and were organized on the 
 same plan as are military schools. The pupils are edu- 
 cated, clothed, fed, and trained at state expense for a 
 specific public service. In return for this aid, the pupil 
 contracts with the government, with the consent of par- 
 ent or guardian, and furnishes a bond that he will serve 
 
 13) Personal letter, G. Fred McNally, Supervisor of Schools, 
 Nov. 17, 1920. 
 
 14) U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 30, 1912, Latin- 
 American Universities and Special Schools, E. E. Brandon. 
 
jo state: maintenance oe teachers in training 
 
 as a primary teacher during a fixed number of years 
 (varying from four to six) in whatever school assigned, 
 or reimburse the state for the expense incurred in his 
 training. 
 
 The scholarships are distributed among the administra- 
 tive units of the district where the normal school is lo- 
 cated and are awarded on competitive examination. In 
 the early days all pupils were state scholars. Now young 
 people living near the schools take advantage of their 
 opportunities. For such the instruction is free or the 
 expense is merely nominal. 
 
 So marked is the discrepancy between remuneration in 
 commercial and industrial pursuits on the one hand and 
 teaching on the other that men have all but disappeared 
 from the profession of primary teaching. Where former- 
 ly there was a host of candidates for every vacant scholar- 
 ship, there are now districts where no men candidates 
 apply. These conditions are found under all circum- 
 stances and in all continents and can be ascribed in large 
 part to the unprecedented industrial advance of the age. 
 This experience shows that a subsidy plan will not supply 
 teachers if a living wage is not paid to the skilled worker. 
 
 The Province of Entre Rios in Argentina of which 
 Parana is the capital founded a special normal school 
 for rural teachers ten miles out in the country on a farm 
 of 400 hectares 15 . Its course was half academic and 
 professional, and half agricultural. The purpose of the 
 school was to train men for the rural schools where a 
 house for the teacher was supplied and four hectares of 
 land about every schoolhouse could be used as a garden. 
 The products of this garden belonged to the teacher to use 
 or sell. The school started with thirty free scholarships 
 in 1905 and the number has been increased as the insti- 
 
 15) One hectare equals 10,000 square meters equals 2.471 acres. 
 
PLANS FOR RECRUITING THE PROFESSION 71 
 
 tution grew. This combination of subsidized training 
 and supplemented salary has worked well in that province. 
 These Latin-American Normal Schools have made a 
 profession of teaching possible in the elementary schools, 
 but the course of study and entrance requirements prevent 
 them from supplying the secondary schools with teachers. 
 Occasionally the failure of students to fulfill their pledge 
 has been winked at and at other times political influence 
 has given scholarships to the unworthy, but the general 
 success of the plan of subsidizing prospective teachers is 
 unquestioned. 16 
 
 Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Chile, Columbia, Costa Rica, 
 and Mexico are some of the countries that have subsi- 
 dized the teaching profession with slight variations from 
 the methods discussed. 
 
 E. in Europe). 
 
 1. France. 
 
 France with its centralized system of public education 
 affords one of the best illustrations of aid for the pro- 
 spective teacher. Each department, corresponding some- 
 what to one of our counties, is required to maintain a 
 normal school for girls and one for boys. These are 
 usually located in the largest towns of the department. 
 The expenses of the schools are divided between the de- 
 partment and the state. The latter pays all salaries for 
 instruction and the living expenses of the pupils, while the 
 department provides the buildings and grounds and 
 maintains them. Some of the wealthier departments pro- 
 vide the pupils with sufficient clothing for the entire 
 course. In the summer, excursions are conducted for a 
 group of pupils half chosen by the faculty and the other 
 half by the pupils. Trips to England, Spain, and Sardinia 
 
 16) E. E. Brandon, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 30, 
 1912, Latin-American Universities and Special Schools. 
 
*J2 STAT£ maintenance; of teachers in TRAINING 
 
 have been taken at the expense of the wealthy depart- 
 ments. Entrance to the normal schools is by competitive 
 examination. In some departments there have been from 
 three to six times as many candidates as there were places. 
 In order to be admitted to the examination the individual 
 must be in perfect physical condition, must be between 
 sixteen and eighteen years of age, and must agree to re- 
 main in the public school service for ten years, and hold 
 the brevet elementaire. 17 He must give bond signed by a 
 responsible relative or guardian agreeing to reimburse the 
 state if the contract is broken. 
 
 From one-half to two-thirds of the elementary teachers 
 are trained in the normal schools under this plan of sub- 
 sidies. 18 The nation maintains two higher normal schools 
 for the purpose of training teachers for the many lower 
 normal schools. All expense of these schools and the 
 pupils was provided by the nation. Some prospective 
 teachers of modern languages have been sent abroad to 
 get a post-graduate year's training in English or Ger- 
 man at government expense. 
 
 The idea of professional education for elementary 
 teachers is firmly implanted among the French, but the 
 conditions which resulted in the Great War compelled the 
 nation to maintain such a large army and navy and to re- 
 quire so much military training that education has suf- 
 fered financially. 
 
 2. England. 
 
 In England teacher training is a serious problem be- 
 cause there are so many different types of schools from 
 which prospective teachers come and because the methods 
 of preparation vary greatly. In 191 2, of the certified 
 
 17) Result of examination based on a standard slightly higher 
 than elementary school. 
 
 18) The Public Primary School System of France, .Farrington, 
 
 1906. 
 
PLANS FOR RECRUITING THE PROFESSION 73 
 
 teachers of England only 57.15% were trained. 19 There 
 is a complete system by which persons intending to enter 
 the teaching profession receive a free education for the 
 purpose. This opportunity means more in England than 
 in America because so many of the better schools are 
 tuition schools. The usual course is for a student to re- 
 main in the secondary school, usually as a bursar until he 
 is seventeen, and then to become a student-teacher, Then 
 he takes the preliminary examination and proceeds either 
 to a training college, where the usual course is two years, 
 or to a university training department where the course 
 is usually three years and leads to a degree. Opportu- 
 nities are provided for additional years of study. Exam- 
 inations are used for selecting candidates for these grants 
 and examinations are the basis of certification at the end. 
 The Board of Education is urging an increase in "main- 
 tenance allowances" by local authorities. Training Col- 
 leges in England are furnishing only half of the 9,000 
 teachers required annually. Before being appointed as a 
 pupil or student-teacher or bursar, a candidate and his 
 parent must sign a declaration that he intends to teach, 
 and before entering a training college he agrees to reim- 
 burse the Board to the extent of the amount paid for his 
 education if he does not successfully finish the course 
 and serve in an approved school for a specified period. 
 The influence of the mother country is very noticeable 
 in the various British Colonies in regard to state aid for 
 prospective teachers. 
 
 3. Scotland. 
 
 In Scotland teacher-training is well centralized. In 
 1905 only 67% of the teachers were certificated and in 
 1912 the number of well prepared teachers had increased 
 to 96%. This was the result of the state's taking con- 
 
 19) Report of Board of Education, 1911-12. 
 
74 state: maintenance oe teachers in training 
 
 trol of the function of training teachers which had been 
 formerly managed by the church. The state equipped 
 the existing colleges with buildings and apparatus and 
 paid the fees of students in the form of grants. 20 The 
 student signs an agreement to complete the course and to 
 teach from two to six years, according to the sums which 
 have been paid him in fees or allowances. These agree- 
 ments are looked upon seriously and the contracts are 
 performed. The result of the plan is that boys and girls 
 from the artisan class and from the homes of small mer- 
 chants are the usual candidates for these stipends. Stu- 
 dents who pay their own fees are welcomed but have no 
 obligation to serve. About 1,400 new teachers are 
 needed in Scotland annually and this is the output of the 
 teacher-training institutions. The education department 
 does not take any responsibility for employment. Judd 
 says, "Subsidies for teachers' salaries in schools of poor 
 communities will have to be provided as the counterpart 
 of the legal demand that the remotest highland school 
 shall employ a teacher whose professional training cannot 
 be completed under most favorable conditions before the 
 candidate is twenty-one." 21 
 
 4. Germany. 
 
 In Germany before 1914 it was impossible to enter the 
 profession of teaching without having an efficient prepar- 
 ation. Each teacher must have satisfied the requirements 
 of a high order in each state, and when he was appointed 
 he became a. member of the service for life or until pen- 
 sioned. A teacher in the Volksschule was trained in those 
 schools for the common people and then he took six years 
 of additional preparation. Small fees were charged but 
 
 20) Training of Teachers in England, Scotland and Germany, 
 Judd, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 35, 1914. 
 
 £1) Chas. H. Judd, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 35, 
 1914, p. 52. 
 
PLANS FOR RECRUITING THE PROFESSION 75 
 
 if the student was capable and yet unable to pay for his 
 maintenance the state made up the deficit. The student 
 promised to pay back all costs of his education if he did 
 not complete the course, or if he failed within the first five 
 years after passing the first teacher's examination to ac- 
 cept the position assigned him in the public school service 
 by the provincial or central authorities. On account of 
 the tenure of these teachers, the annual turnover was not 
 great, and it was possible for the authorities to select 
 from the large number of candidates the best ability for 
 the places in the Lehrerseminare. The profession of 
 teaching was the only one open to these pupils and the 
 stipends made it specially attractive to those coming from 
 the poorer homes. 
 
 In Prussia in 191 1, 78.8% of the teachers in the ele- 
 mentary schools were men. Eighty per cent, of the Ger- 
 man teachers have taught longer than five years, the 
 average American tenure. Forty-five per cent, of the male 
 teachers in cities have served more than twenty years. 
 Fifty-three per cent, of the men in the country schools 
 have taught more than ten years. Along with tenure the 
 salary paid provided the teacher with a comfortable home, 
 education for his children, some opportunity for savings, 
 and a pension. The middle 50% of German teachers were 
 better paid than the same group in the United States. 
 Administrative officers and teachers were more nearly on 
 the same salary level. The best feature of all was that 
 the country schools were as well taught as those of the 
 cities. Most teachers began in the country after they 
 were trained. 22 
 
 5. Portugal. 
 
 In Portugal, by a law which went into effect in Sep- 
 tember, 1919, there were created three normal schools. 
 
 22) Prussian Elementary Schools, Alexander, 1918. 
 
j6 STATE) MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 Others may be established by the government when the 
 general assembly of a district rquires them, it being 
 necessary always that these corporations assume the re- 
 sponsibility for building and equipping the school, leav- 
 ing to the state the payment of salaries of teachers and 
 other employees. 
 
 There is to be granted a scholarship of 120 escudos 
 ($72.00) annually to students who show themselves to be 
 in need of this help, preference being given to children of 
 primary teachers. The number of students who may take 
 advantage of this scholarship in each school year can be 
 raised to one hundred for each normal school. A student 
 who loses a year through failures or through having been 
 suspended, excepting in cases of proved iilness, loses his 
 right to a scholarship. Scholarship students are obliged 
 to teach in the official schools for ten successive years or 
 to return the amount received in scholarship grants, un- 
 der penalty of losing the right to exercise public functions 
 if they fail in one of these obligations. The funds for 
 these scholarships are to come from the grants of the 
 state to the districts for the expenses of primary educa- 
 tion. 24 
 
 23) The Preparation of Teachers in Portugal, L. M. Wilson. 
 Educational Administration and Supervision, January, 1919, 
 pp. 44-46. 
 
 Note: Holland maintained sixty-four normal schools in 1910. 
 The state supplied free books, free tuition and in some cases 
 granted a subsidy to pay part of room and board for students 
 whose parents do not live near the school. 
 
 Denmark provides one hundred annual scholarships for teach- 
 ers at the University of Copenhagen. Norway maintains six 
 public and four private colleges for teachers. Instruction in the 
 public colleges is free and there are a number of free scholarships 
 in the private colleges. The government makes appropriations 
 for teaching scholarships for special teachers and for primary 
 teachers. These courses are given at the State University and at 
 the Bergen Museum. In Sweden in the higher Training College 
 for women tuition is free to all and in addition many poor and 
 deserving students receive scholarships from the state. 24 
 ' --H Modern Education in Europe and the Orient, Cloyd, 1917. 
 
PLANS FOR RECRUITING THE) PROFESSION 77 
 
 F. In Asia. 
 
 In the Orient the normal schools provide the best oppor- 
 tunity for girls to get a higher education. In Japan girls 
 are not admitted to government colleges nor to the univer- 
 sities. The fact that the government furnishes an allow- 
 ance to cover board, tuition and clothing, as well as other 
 incidental expenses, makes a course in preparation for 
 teaching so popular that only about 25% of the candidates 
 are admitted. Some are admitted who are willing to pay 
 their own expenses. The graduates receive certificates and 
 those who are men receive an allowance of one year's mili- 
 tary service instead of nine compulsory years of service. 
 These teachers promise to teach two or three years in 
 schools designated by the government and for periods of 
 one to four years in schools of their own choice. 25 
 
 There are higher normal schools for training secondary 
 teachers where the terms of admission are equally liberal. 
 
 In China the provinces maintain normal schools for the 
 training of elementary teachers where board, tuition, text- 
 books, and in some cases uniforms are furnished at state 
 expense. "This is one of the best phases of the present 
 system of Chinese education." 26 The Central Government 
 has provided training schools at Peking for the training of 
 secondary school teachers. Many teachers are trained in 
 the mission schools where as far as possible everything is 
 free. 
 
 In India students or teachers undergoing training gen- 
 erally receive a stipend or the pay of their post. Be- 
 cause of a lack of students these stipends have been raised 
 during the last five years. In the central provinces they 
 now range from $12.00 to $18.00 a month. Madras also 
 grants an allowance for traveling expenses. 
 
 25) Modern Education in Europe and the Orient, Cloyd, 1917. 
 
 26) Information given by Chinese students. 
 
 Teachers' College Contribution to Education, No. 64, P. W. 
 Kuo, p. 169. 
 
78 STATE) MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 The students pledge themselves to teach two years, 
 if girls, three years, if boys, and to refund the amount 
 of their aid if they fail to render the service. In 
 Madras far more apply for stipends in the normal 
 schools than can receive them. 27 
 
 G. New Zealand, Australia and South America. 
 
 New Zealand grades its prospective teachers with 
 reference to previous training and experience. The 
 best grades receive grants of $450.00 for board and 
 tuition at the university and the others receive $350.00. 
 Provision for further improvement in these allow- 
 ances is at present under consideration. In 1918, the 
 average salary for men was about $1,360.00 and for 
 women, $765.00, making no allowance for exchange. 28 
 
 Provinces like New South Wales, Victoria, and 
 Queensland in Australia give much aid to the prospective 
 teachers. The amounts are based upon standing in com- 
 petitive examinations. After graduation the teachers are 
 members of the state service and are placed where needed. 
 Thus the isolated country children receive trained instruc- 
 tion, for itinerant teachers visit such children in their 
 homes several times a year. In Queensland a zoning 
 system of salaries has been inaugurated by which the in- 
 convenience of living far from the city is neutralized by 
 adding $100.00 per year to the salary for each zone, one 
 hundred miles wide. 29 
 
 Transportation is provided for pupils and prospective 
 teachers in New South Wales. In return for these grants 
 the students must give bond for two years' service. The 
 government supports several post-graduate scholarships 
 
 27) Progress of Education in India, Bureau of Education, India, 
 1912-1917. 
 
 28) New Zealand Government Education Report, 1918. 
 
 29) P. P. Claxton, address New York City, 1921. 
 
PLANS FOR RECRUITING THE PROFESSION 79 
 
 worth $1,500.00 per year. 30 Other provinces have similar 
 plans. 
 
 In South Africa the plans for prospective teachers are 
 like those mentioned in Australia. Scholarships, free 
 transportation and maintenance are offered by some 
 provinces. 31 
 
 Thus around the world in many different countries the 
 government has found it necessary to aid prospective 
 teachers with various types of subsidies. The supply of 
 teachers from this source is only limited by the amount 
 of money available. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 1. Financial assistance for prospective teachers is 
 found in every state. It varies from free tuition to com- 
 plete maintenance during training. 
 
 2. Many foreign countries have secured a portion of 
 their teachers by aiding those who need assistance or by 
 rewarding those who win a limited number of places 
 through competitive examination. 
 
 3. In some countries a larger state investment in 
 training often results in the teacher becoming a state 
 officer who may be assigned in the school system where 
 the greatest need exists. Thus urban and rural edu- 
 cational opportunities become more nearly equalized. 
 
 4. Students who receive aid must obligate themselves 
 to a definite period of service or else refund the sub- 
 sidy to the state. 
 
 5. The number aided is limited by the resources avail- 
 able for the purpose rather than by any evils inherent in 
 the plans of subsidy. 
 
 30) New South Wales Government Education Report, 1918. 
 
 31) Graduate Students' Reports. 
 
 Monroe, Cyclopedia of Education, Article, South Africa. 
 
Chapter IV 
 METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER OCCUPA- 
 TIONS AND PROFESSIONS THROUGH 
 FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE 
 
 Teaching is not the only vocation that has received 
 financial support from the state and nation. The devel- 
 opment of vocational education in the schools is a result of 
 the recognition of the principle that one of the important 
 functions of training future citizens is to render them 
 self-supporting and independent. To create wealth pro- 
 motes the economic stability of the state as well as that 
 of the individual, Vocational education plans to aid the 
 student in discovering his own possibilities and in mak- 
 ing the most of them. Experience has brought the lead- 
 ers in industrial education to conclude that short inten- 
 sive courses in the schools with definite objectives, are 
 better than the more extensive courses which were planned 
 formerly. Such short courses enable the individual to 
 enter his chosen field of labor sooner and permit him to 
 earn while he learns. Promotion comes as he develops 
 ability through his service. The state aids in his prep- 
 aration and he is soon able to help himself. 
 
 In the vocation of teaching, conditions are very dif- 
 ferent. The same need for assistance exists, but it takes 
 much longer to get ready to do a piece of professional 
 work. 
 
 The state has a more vital interest in the preparation 
 of the teacher than in the training of a majority of work- 
 ers because the teacher becomes an employee of the state 
 and because the raw materials of the school, the children, 
 are the hope of the future. The teacher needs a long 
 course of preliminary training since teaching differs from 
 
 81 
 
82 STAT^ maintenance of teachers in training 
 
 the industrial pursuits in that its responsibilities and bur- 
 dens cannot be assumed gradually. In short this is an 
 outstanding contrast between a profession and a trade. 
 If the state should aid individuals to learn trades which 
 require such short preliminary training, how much more 
 should the state prepare recruits for the difficult art of 
 teaching! That is a task which requires a maximum of 
 skill from the first day of actual practice. It needs a 
 breadth of vision that recognizes the desirable outcomes 
 of education. This preparation requires years of study. 
 
 The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of 
 Teaching recommends that normal schools become teach- 
 ers' colleges as rapidly as possible in order that prospec- 
 tive teachers for the elementary schools may be better 
 prepared. 1 There is a marked tendency among the nor- 
 mal schools of the country to accept this recommendation. 
 The normal schools of California and Washington are 
 rapidly moving toward the college basis. Kansas, Mis- 
 souri, Indiana and Michigan in the Middle West maintain 
 several four-year courses, while New York in the East, 
 has changed its standard normal school program from a 
 two-year to a three-year basis to take effect in 1921-22. 
 The more extensive the preparation required for teach- 
 ing, the more necessary will adequate state assistance be- 
 come in order to make it possible for prospective teach- 
 ers to get the training. The movement to extend the 
 time for the preparation of teachers is directly opposite 
 to that of shortening the time for the preliminary train- 
 ing of industrial workers. This difference emphasizes 
 the need of aid for teachers during the long period of 
 preparation to compensate for the wages that other work- 
 ers may earn during their early experiences in industry. 
 
 1) Bulletin No. 14, 1920, Carnegie Foundation for Advance- 
 ment of Teaching. 
 
METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS 83 
 
 SCHOOLS IN INDUSTRY 
 
 Corporations have learned the lesson that specific 
 training is worth while. Employees have been encouraged 
 to attend evening schools, or else to attend classes within 
 the institution. The great electric companies, the West- 
 inghouse and the General Electric Company are notable 
 examples. The Ford works, in Detroit, conduct a large 
 educational department. John Wanamaker's department 
 stores organize classes in salesmanship and in courtesy and 
 hygiene. The great banking institutions train their new 
 workers. The purpose of this instruction is to develop 
 the types of service demanded, and to make promotion 
 possible, and to contribute to contentment and perma- 
 nence of tenure. Young people need help to find them- 
 selves in industry and in society. The continuation 
 schools found in fourteen states are striving to assist 
 these young workers to prepare for advancement. The 
 individual seldom pays all that his training and education 
 cost for a particular occupation or profession. The par- 
 ent assists, then the state, then perhaps the endowed edu- 
 cational institution, and finally the corporation employing 
 the worker. In a comprehensive sense, all of this assist- 
 ance is the effort of organized society to perpetuate and 
 improve itself by preparing the individual to participate 
 in the activities of the group. 
 
 OCCUPATIONS FOR WOMEN. 
 
 Since most of the public school teachers are women, it is 
 fitting to study the situation at present with reference to 
 several occupations that are filled almost exclusively by 
 women. Throughout a period of training for these voca- 
 tions, the workers are paid and the ultimate earning 
 capacity is not reduced because of support during the 
 learning process. 
 
 The telegraph and telephone companies train girls for 
 their work. The Western Union Telegraph Company 
 
84 STATE MAINTENANCE} OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 employed girls in 1913 at $3.50 per week and gave them 
 two hours of instruction every day. At the end of the 
 first year they could receive instruments at $25.00 a 
 month. Skilled operators before the war received $60.00 
 to $70.00 a month. The telephone companies paid from 
 $6.00 to $15.00 a week and gave instruction to beginners 
 for a period of four months. 2 Thus progress was made 
 according to the industry and ability of the individual 
 until in some cases the weekly salary ranged from $23.00 
 to $36.00 and chief operators sometimes received $50.00 
 a week. The corporation gave the training and advanced 
 the worker. According to the Census Bureau 3 for 191 7, 
 more than 155,000 women and girls were employed in 
 this industry. 
 
 In the United States there are more than 600 general 
 hospitals that train women as nurses. The educational 
 requirements of this profession are in many ways anal- 
 ogous to those for teaching. Only 12% of the nurses' 
 training schools permit the graduates of the elementary 
 schools to begin the work, while 28% require complete 
 four-year high school preparation. The courses for train- 
 ing vary in length from a year and a half to three years. 
 Only a small number charge tuition and these are gener- 
 ally post-graduate in character. About 1,400 of these 
 training schools pay their students a cash sum besides 
 furnishing them room, board and laundry. The median 
 remuneration for the first year of training is $72.00; for 
 the second year $96.00; and for the third year, $108.00. It 
 is true that they work while they earn and deserve all they 
 get, but it does not prevent a trained nurse from making a 
 relatively high charge for her services after graduation. 
 Both teaching and nursing are essential for the public 
 
 2) Profitable Vocations for Girls, E. M. Weaver. 
 
 3) 1917 Census of Electrical Industries, Bureau of Commerce, 
 
 issued 1920. 
 
METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS 85 
 
 good. Both require an extensive training in order to do the 
 skilled work that the occupations demand. The rewards 
 for training in both are practically equal. . The median 
 income of 1,000 nurses in New York City without main- 
 tenance in 1903 was between $900.00 and $i,ooo.oo. 4 
 From the economic point of view, which type of training 
 would a young woman choose, the training school for 
 nurses, or the training school for teachers ? 
 
 Another occupation that employs many women, is 
 office work, including stenography. The commercial 
 course of the public high school gives a preparation that 
 admits the worker to this occupation on its lower levels. 
 As a measure of the drawing power of a vocation whose 
 training is obtained" at public expense, enrollment in com- 
 mercial courses in the high schools for the year 1917-18 
 may be fairly taken. Of 278,275 pupils enrolled in com- 
 mercial courses, 173,857 were girls. 6 The wages ranged 
 from $12.00 to $160.00 a month in this occupation in 
 1913. 7 Among twenty-six stenographers who had had 
 high school training only, and who were working in the 
 best type of offices in New York City in 1920, $110.00 was 
 the median salary. 8 As long as such salaries may be 
 earned without a period of training in an institution away 
 from home, and without large personal investment, it is 
 easy to see why the occupation has attracted so many 
 prospective workers. 
 
 TEACHING COMPARED WITH MILITARY SERVICE. 
 
 Teaching is a type of government service that may be 
 compared with that rendered by the officers of the army 
 and the navy. To promote the general welfare in times 
 of peace and to provide for the common defense in times 
 
 4) Vocations for Girls, E. M. Weaver, p. 211. 
 
 6) Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, Bulletin No. 19, 
 
 1920. 
 
 7) Vocations for Girls, E. M. Weaver, p. 126. 
 
 8) Unpublished Study of Russell Sage Foundation. 
 
86 state; maintenance: of teachers in training 
 
 £ utri 
 
 SXK 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 First 
 Year 
 
 H. S 
 
 be £ 
 SO 
 
 
 CA 
 
 
 i-it-iinor^vo h ai-H ro <m >-< cooo 
 
 (U M ^ H H HlO CO00 M lO 
 
 CO^OO'-'MhHMCOOOOO 
 
 CT 1 
 
 t^ h h moo afOi^^ vo h oi inw 
 
 01 M co h-i 
 
 01 Hi >-< CO to 
 
 p r^ co^o vo 3"C0 3" J> 12 i^«S ^cn n m o io 
 t^ oi o «aao o 3 1 t^-vo m m 
 
 o . 
 n , £*» 
 
 531 C rtW- 
 
 n fo Tf vo t->.oo o\0 m to^ invo oo 
 
 *** I ili'l I I il I I I I I 
 
 • ~ MjOj^OSMCOVOt^OVt-iCOlOt^Ql 
 
 O g o 01 co -<f VO tv.00 C\q f) ^ rf m\5 
 
 00 
 
 0) VO( 
 
 S v 2 
 
 G c C 
 
 H'f "g 
 s » § 
 
 igi 
 
 & 
 
 5 c c 
 .2 .2 . rt 
 
 <U <U 0> 
 
 sS 
 
 A3 
 
 M 3 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS 87 
 
 of war, are cooperative purposes of government. Both 
 groups of public servants are essential to the perpetuity 
 of the state. Both are salaried occupations and do not 
 offer the unlimited financial opportunities that are found 
 in law, medicine, engineering or business. 
 
 ''The individual student who might otherwise wish to 
 prepare himself adequately for teaching is likely to be dis- 
 couraged by the relatively small financial returns that he 
 must expect from his investment. On the other hand, if 
 he wishes to enter the service of public defense as an 
 officer in the army or the navy, and if he is successful in 
 securing an appointment at West Point or x\nnapolis and 
 competent to meet the entrance requirements, the govern- 
 ment will not only provide him with board and tuition 
 during his period of preparation, but will also pay him an 
 annual stipend of $6oo.oo." 9 The World Almanac for 
 1 92 1, estimates the investment in each man at West Point 
 at $1,174.20 per year. After graduation the average sal- 
 ary for the first four years of service both in the army and 
 the navy is $1,600.00 per year. These military institutions 
 have succeeded in establishing a reputation that includes 
 social prestige. Merit counts for everything. No one 
 feels disgraced by accepting this government aid. On the 
 contrary, it is considered an honor to be appointed. The 
 plan has little opposition and so far as government aid 
 is concerned, it has been incontestably justified in its 
 success. 
 
 There is practically no similar opportunity offered to 
 those who wish to enter the profession of teaching, 
 though its service is equally necessary. The problems of 
 education are so numerous and so complex that the need 
 for selected ability is just as great as it is in the case of 
 military leaders. Many foreign governments render aid 
 to their prospective teachers because they expect an im- 
 
 9) Commission on Emergency in Education, Series No. 3, p. 12. 
 
88 state: maintenance of teachers in training 
 
 portant public service in return. They select competent 
 persons for the teaching service and train them at public 
 expense. It is even conceivable that a state might ex- 
 ercise its sovereign power to the extent of drafting re- 
 cruits for its teaching service as it does in time of need 
 for its military pursuits. "Is there any more reason why 
 any community should be excused from furnishing her 
 full quota of teachers, than that the community should 
 have been excused during the war for not having fur- 
 nished her full quota of soldiers and sailors ?" 10 
 
 Many state universities and other institutions of higher 
 learning have maintained systems of scholarships which 
 aim to assist unusual ability and to aid those whose 
 financial needs were proving to be a serious handicap to 
 their education. Such scholarships have been looked 
 upon as honors and evidence set forth later in this study 
 shows that these scholarship students have proved worthy 
 of the honors conferred. Men of wealth leave large 
 sums of money for scholarships in these institutions be- 
 lieving that superior ability should be recognized and de- 
 veloped for the good of the nation. For example, the 
 Edward Rector Scholarship Foundation of Depauw Uni- 
 versity, Greencastle, Indiana, provides for 400 scholar- 
 ships for men who were honor students during their four 
 years of high school. 
 
 Cecil Rhodes endowed an extensive system of interna- 
 tional scholarships when he provided for supporting at 
 the University of Oxford for the term of three years each, 
 about 176 selected scholars from the British Colonies, the 
 United States, and Germany. The United States was 
 entitled to send two of its best students from each of the 
 states and territories. The requirements are the com- 
 pletion of at least two years in college and an age limit 
 
 10) Education, May, 1920, pp. 534-5. Supt. H. S. Gruver, Worces- 
 ter, Mass. 
 
METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS 89 
 
 of from 19 to 25 years. The selections are made on the 
 basis of a man's record in school and college according 
 to the four points outlined in the will, — scholarship, char- 
 acter, interest in outdoor sports and interest in one's fel- 
 lows, and instinct for leadership. Between the years 
 1904 and 1914, 351 men were appointed. A recent sur- 
 vey reports that ninety-nine of these have published books 
 or articles. Seventeen are included in "Who's Who," 
 although the group is still under forty years of age. 
 
 The Oxonian summarizes its survey of these men as 
 follows : 
 
 TABLE XIV. PRESENT OCCUPATION OF AMERICAN RHODES SCHOLARS. 
 I904-I914 
 
 Education 114 
 
 College presidents, deans, etc 7 
 
 Other College Teachers 84 
 
 Educational Administration 7 
 
 Secondary School 1 1 
 
 Full time teaching, law, medicine, theology.. 5 
 
 Law 72 
 
 Business ; 38 
 
 Social and religious work (including twelve ministers) 23 
 
 Government service • 15 
 
 Graduate or professional students 10 
 
 Scientific work 10 
 
 Literary and editorial work 8 
 
 Medical work 7 
 
 Miscellaneous 4 
 
 Poor health ■ 2 
 
 Total • .303 
 
 Unaccounted for or dead 48 
 
 351 
 For undergraduates in Columbia University Joseph 
 Pulitzer endowed forty scholarships worth $200.00 each 
 and in recognition of a separate gift to the University, the 
 institution also grants free tuition to these scholars. 
 Many scholarships of a similar type are described in the 
 catalogues of the leading institutions of the country. It 
 
90 STATE MAINTENANCE 0E TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 is not likely that a policy that has resulted in so much 
 good to the individual and to the nation will be aban- 
 doned. 
 
 TRAVELING SCHOLARSHIPS. 
 
 The educational value of travel has long been recog- 
 nized. International exchanges of students have reaped 
 the benefit of the travel involved and of the contact with 
 the best thought in the famous institutions of learning of 
 the countries visited. The selected youth of such coun- 
 tries as Japan, China, and India, after a university course 
 in America or Europe, have returned home to become 
 useful leaders in the public service of their governments. 
 India alone supports 300 state technical scholarships 
 abroad. These students receive £150 a year for two years, 
 so that each student costs the Indian Government about 
 i550. 1:L In China, after the Boxer Rebellion an edict 
 was issued ordering the leading officers in the various 
 provinces to select their most capable students and to 
 send them abroad to master Western learning. Education 
 and business, as well as international relations, will be 
 profoundly influenced by such a policy. These men and 
 women become teachers and administrators in the higher 
 institutions at home and are able to exert more influence 
 than any group of foreigners could hope to do. 
 
 NEW YORK STATE NAUTICAL SCHOOL 
 
 By the provisions of Chapter 322 of the laws of New 
 York, passed in 191 3, the state maintains a school for 
 the education and training of pupils in the science and 
 practice of navigation, seamanship, and steam and electric 
 engineering. This school is intended to prepare the stu- 
 dents to become officers in the merchant marine. The 
 qualifications are very minutely defined and the young- 
 student between 16 and 20 years of age at entrance must 
 
 11) Report Bureau of Education, India, 1912-17. 
 
METHODS OE RECRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS 91 
 
 deposit $50.00 for his uniforms for the two years and 
 also as a guaranty of good faith. Board, lodging, tuition, 
 and all other necessary expenses are paid out of an ap- 
 propriation which was $100,000.00 a year, when the law 
 was passed. 
 
 The school is located on a naval vessel belonging to the 
 government and each year a long cruise to many of the 
 interesting ports of the world is made as a part of the 
 training. These young men are prepared to enter an 
 occupation that requires skill and the financial rewards 
 of which are relatively high. The importance of their 
 future work justified the appropriation of public funds. 
 
 Teaching as a profession for young men enters into 
 competition with such a subsidized occupation possessing 
 the added attraction of life at sea. In drawing power, 
 teaching suffers in contrast with other occupations. The 
 state should be as willing to help prepare the teachers of 
 its children as it is to train the officers of its sea-going 
 vessels. 
 
 GOVERNMENT AID 
 
 The United States government has shown a liberal 
 policy toward the returned soldiers in providing for their 
 education in many different types of institutions. It has 
 provided large sums to aid in training teachers for voca- 
 tional schools under the terms of the Smith-Hughes act, 
 but as yet no well organized plan has been enacted into 
 federal law for aiding in the preparation of the largest 
 group of professional workers in the country, the public 
 school teachers. 
 
 THE MINISTRY AND TEACHING 
 
 The ministry is another profession whose financial re- 
 wards have not been commensurate with the training re- 
 quired or with the importance of the work. But under 
 the conditions prevailing in the theological seminaries of 
 
92 STATE MAINTENANCE O? TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 the country, it is possible for any young man of ability 
 and consecration to take advantage of scholarships that 
 are ample to cover his living expenses. In eighteen 
 prominent theological seminaries chosen at random, the 
 catalogues list 57 fellowships ranging from $150.00 to 
 $1,000.00 with $500.00 as the median, in addition to hun- 
 dreds of scholarships varying from $50.00 to $500.00. 
 The churches would be unable to secure a supply of min- 
 isters if it were not for this aid. They have recognized 
 the need and value of such work to the extent that they 
 have organized responsible boards of education to collect, 
 distribute, and supervise these student funds. In order to 
 continue to receive assistance the individual must main- 
 tain high rank as a student and must pledge himself to 
 repay the aid in service or in money. Believing in trained 
 leadership these church boards do not restrict their help 
 to those who are expecting to enter the ministry or mis- 
 sionary work. They also render aid to those desiring to 
 enter business or the professions. The usefulness of these 
 boards is limited only by the amount of money at their 
 disposal. 
 

 METHODS OE RECRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS 93 
 
 TABLE XV. ACTIVITIES OF GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD OF METHODIST 
 
 church. (Report of 1920.) 
 
 Total number of students aided to Nov. 30, 1919 26,254 
 
 Aggregate sum of money invested in student aid. .. .$3,025,013.53 
 
 Students aided in year 1917-18 1,421 
 
 Money loaned in year 1917-18 $86,865.00 
 
 Callings Aided in 19 17- 18 
 
 Ministry 606 
 
 Missionary 107 
 
 Teaching 381 
 
 Professional 207 
 
 Business 120 
 
 Total 1,421 
 
 Nationalities and Races Aided in 1917-18. 
 
 American (white) 1,113 
 
 American (colored) 173 
 
 English 50 
 
 Norwegian • 10 
 
 Scattering (28) 125 
 
 Total 1,421 
 
 Geographical Distribution 191 7-18. 
 
 North Atlantic States 434 
 
 North Central States • 672 
 
 South Atlantic States 121 
 
 South Central States 123 
 
 Western States 68 
 
 Foreign Countries 3 
 
 Total 1,421 
 
 Loans bear 4% interest and range from $50.00 to $200.00 per 
 year and total $150.00 to $600.00 for any individual student in his 
 whole course. 
 
94 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 TABLE; XVI. ACTIVITIES IN GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD OF PRESBY- 
 TERIAN church. (Report of 1920.) 
 
 Total sum paid to students 1870-1920 $3,317,227.34 
 
 Number of Students Aided 191 5- 1920 
 
 Students aided in 1915 776 
 
 Students aided in 1916 881 
 
 Students aided in 1917 895 
 
 Students aided in 1918 685 
 
 Students aided in 1919 403 
 
 Students aided in 1920 . '. 585 
 
 Total in six years 4,225 
 
 Loans available for candidates for the ministry and 
 mission students range from $90.00 to $250.00 per year. 
 Students give notes at 5%, collectible if course is aban- 
 doned or on failure to give to the service contemplated, 
 the first five years after completing the course. To stu- 
 dents for lay service a credit of 40% of a year's aid will 
 be given for each year of service approved by the board 
 until debt is liquidated. 
 
 Students' Rotary Loan Fund 
 Available for worthy and needy students regardless of 
 intended occupation. 
 
 Conditions. 
 Notes bear 4% interest from first of July after year in 
 which loan was made. Notes mature three years after 
 first of July following graduation. Then the rate of in- 
 terest is 6%. $200.00 is the limit in any year and the 
 total loans vary from $500.00 to $600.00. 
 
 QUALITY OE MEN AIDED BY CHURCH 
 
 The question has been asked whether the students 
 selected for aid by the Church Boards have succeeded, as 
 well as those who were not aided. If a subsidy plan does 
 select the inferior and those who will prove wanting in 
 independence and leadership in their work, the compara- 
 tive record of men in the field under approximately the 
 same circumstances should show it. In order to learn 
 what the facts are, the Chicago Presbytery of the Pres- 
 
METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS 95 
 
 byterian Church was selected as a typical group of min- 
 isters for this investigation. 
 
 After this Presbytery was selected it was found that, 
 among the seventy-two preachers actively engaged in the 
 ministry, thirty had received aid as students from the 
 General Education Board of the Church. Five objective 
 criteria were chosen by which to compare the success of 
 the two groups. These were suggested by the president 
 of the board as fair standards for measuring success in 
 the ministry. They were as follows : — church membership ; 
 gain in membership during the year; membership of the 
 Sunday school; congregational expenses; and amounts 
 raised for benevolences. The facts here tabulated are 
 taken from the Annual Minute Book of the Presbyterian 
 Church for the year 1919-20. In the first comparison, 
 although the median membership of the groups is against 
 the aided men, yet 30% of the aided men were in the 
 upper quartile. In gain in membership, in size of Sunday 
 school and in congregational expenses, the aided men 
 make a better record. In benevolences the unaided men 
 excel the others, and the financial ability of a few fami- 
 lies might determine the difference. 
 
i)6 STATE) MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 TABLE XVII. CHICAGO PRESBYTERY. 
 
 Comparison of Membership of Churches under Ministers Aided 
 by Education Board of the Church and those not Aided. 
 
 
 Membership 
 
 Pastors 
 
 Aided 
 
 Unaided 
 
 
 
 
 — 100 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 IOI 
 
 — 200 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 
 201 
 
 — 300 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 301 
 
 — 400 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 401 
 
 — 500 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 50I 
 
 — 600 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 6oi 
 
 — 700 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 701 
 
 — 800 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 801 
 
 — 900 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 001 
 
 —1000 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 IOOI 
 
 — IIOO 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 IIOI 
 
 — 1200 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1201 
 
 —1300 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1301 
 
 — 1400 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 1401 
 
 —I500 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 501 
 
 — 1600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IOOI 
 
 — 1700 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1701 
 
 — l80O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I80I 
 
 —1900 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IOOI 
 
 — 2000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2001 
 
 — 2100 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 (Total 
 
 72 
 
 30 
 
 42 
 
 300= Median Membership of Group 
 
 240=Median Membership of Aided 
 
 307=Median Membership of Unaided 
 
 Upper quartile contains nine of each group or 30% of aided 
 
 Upper quartile contains nine of each group or 21.43% unaided 
 
METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS 
 
 97 
 
 TABLE XVIII. CHICAGO PRESBYTERY. 
 
 Comparison of Change in Membership in last year of Churches 
 
 under Pastors aided by Education Board of the 
 
 Church and those not aided. 
 
 Change in 
 
 i Membership 
 
 Pastors 
 
 Aided 
 
 Unaided 
 
 Loss 
 
 230 to 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Loss 
 
 99 to 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Loss 
 
 49 to 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 Loss 
 
 24 to 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Loss 
 
 9 to 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Gain 
 
 to 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 Gain 
 
 11 to 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Gain 
 
 21 to 
 
 30 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Gain 
 
 31 to 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Gain 
 
 51 to 
 
 70 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Gain 
 
 71 to 
 
 90 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Gain 
 
 91 to 
 
 120 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Gain 
 
 121 to 
 
 200 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Gain 
 
 201 tO 
 
 300 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Total 
 
 
 72 
 
 30 
 
 42 
 
 Actual Median of Group=gain of 11 members 
 
 Actual Median of Aided— gain of 13 members 
 
 Actual Median of Unaided=gain of 7 members 
 
 30% of aided are in Upper Quartile 
 
 21.43% of unaided are in Upper Quartile 
 
98 state: maintenance; oe teachers in training 
 
 TABLE XIX. CHICAGO PRESBYTERY. 
 
 Comparison of Sunday School Membership in Churches under 
 
 Pastors aided by Education Board of the 
 
 Church and those not aided. 
 
 Members in 
 
 
 
 
 Sunday School 
 
 Pastors 
 
 Aided 
 
 Unaided 
 
 1 — 100 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 101 — 200 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 201 — 300 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 i5 
 
 301 — 400 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 401 — 500 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 501 — 600 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 601 — 700 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 701 — 800 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 801 — 900 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 901 — 1000 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 IOOI — IIOO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IIOI — 1200 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1201 — 1300 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1301 — 1400 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 40 1 — 1500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1501 —1600 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Total 
 
 70 
 
 28 
 
 42 
 
 Actual Median of group=259 
 Actual Median of aided=289 
 Actual Median of unaided=252 
 
METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS 
 
 99 
 
 TABLE XX. CHICAGO PRESBYTERY. 
 
 Comparison of Congregational Expenses in Churches under Pas- 
 tors aided by Education Board of the Church 
 and those not aided. 
 Fiscal Year 1919-20. 
 
 Congregational Expenses 
 
 Pastors 
 
 Aided 
 
 Unaided 
 
 
 
 — $ 1,000 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1,001 
 
 — 
 
 2,000 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 2,001 
 
 — 
 
 3,000 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 3,001 
 
 — 
 
 4,000 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4,001 
 
 — 
 
 5,ooo 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 5,001 
 
 — 
 
 6,000 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 '2 
 
 6,001 
 
 — 
 
 7,000 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7,001 
 
 — 
 
 8,000 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 8,001 
 
 — 
 
 9,000 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 9,001 
 
 — 
 
 10,000 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 10,001 
 
 — 
 
 15,000 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 15,001 
 
 — 
 
 20,000 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 20,001 
 
 — 
 
 25,000 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 25,001 
 
 — 
 
 30,000 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 30,001 
 
 — 
 
 35,ooo 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Over 
 
 
 35,ooo 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 29 
 
 41 
 
 Actual Median of Group =$4,218 
 Actual Median of Aided =' 4,436 
 Actual Median of Unaided = 4,000 
 
ioo state: maintenance of teachers in training 
 
 TABEE XXI. CHICAGO PRESBYTERY. 
 
 Comparison of Benevolences in Churches under Pastors aided 
 by Education Board of the Church and those 
 not aided. 
 Fiscal Year 1919-20. 
 
 Benevolenecs 
 
 Pastors 
 
 Aided 
 
 Unaided 
 
 
 
 
 
 $ 400 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 401 
 
 — 
 
 800 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 801 
 
 — 
 
 1,200 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1,201 
 
 — 
 
 1,600 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 1,601 
 
 — 
 
 2,000 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2,001 
 
 — 
 
 6,000 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 6,001 
 
 — 
 
 10,000 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 10,001 
 
 — 
 
 14,000 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 14,001 
 
 — 
 
 18,000 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 18,001 
 
 — 
 
 22,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22,001 
 
 — 
 
 26,000 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 26,001 
 
 — 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Over 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 30 
 
 42 
 
 Actual Median of Group=$i,237 
 Actual Median of Aided= 801 
 Actual Median of Unaided= 1,498 
 
i. 
 
 METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS IOI 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. The states and the nation have united in promoting 
 vocational education. Teaching is a vocation that re- 
 quires more preliminary training than many others, hence 
 it imposes a greater financial burden upon those who 
 choose to enter it. State control of public education gives 
 a peculiar significance to the profession of teaching. Self 
 interest requires the state to protect itself by securing a 
 sufficient number of trained teachers through offering 
 such inducements as will meet the competitive attractions 
 of other vocations. 
 
 2. Earning and learning are coincident in many indus- 
 tries and occupations. Women now have opportunities 
 for self-support while learning so well paid a profession 
 as that of nursing. 
 
 3. West Point and Annapolis furnish precedents for 
 the use of public money in the support of students who 
 are preparing for public service. State schools of for- 
 estry and seamanship are examples of complete state sup- 
 port for prospective workers. 
 
 4. Scholarships in the leading educational institu- 
 tions, both public and private, establish the value of assist- 
 ing capable or needy students during the critical period 
 of preparation. 
 
 5. The extensive service of Church Boards of Educa- 
 tion in aiding students shows the economic need of such 
 assistance. The experience of these boards in recruiting 
 the ministry through financial asistance suggests a similar 
 policy to the state in order to supply the lack in a salaried 
 profession such as teaching. 
 
 6. The success of aided students in government serv- 
 ice, in the work of the Church, and in the schools at- 
 tended, indicates that suitable persons can be selected for 
 such aid, if the funds are available. 
 
Chapter V 
 
 THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF 
 SUBSIDIES FOR TEACHER TRAINING 
 AS AN ELEMENT IN RECRUITING 
 THE PROFESSION 
 The serious lack of trained teachers in the rural schools 
 of the country has been shown in Chapter II. The re- 
 markable growth of the high school enrollment has 
 created a demand for the best trained teachers produced 
 by the professional schools at such attractive salaries that 
 the supply for the elementary schools, always insufficient, 
 has been still further reduced. To meet the situation, 
 states and cities are experimenting in subsidizing re- 
 cruits for the teaching profession. These efforts indicate 
 that, in addition to the movements for better salaries, for 
 growth in service, and for longer and better training, 
 there is a financial element that should not be overlooked 
 in striving to make the profession of teaching attractive 
 and preliminary training universal. What are the advan- 
 tages and disadvantages of state subsidies for prospective 
 teachers ? 
 
 A. ADVANTAGES 
 
 I. Subsidies will Provide Training. 
 The first advantage to be listed is that a subsidy for 
 teacher-training strikes at the fundamental weakness of 
 the public-school system, — the unprepared teacher. Those 
 persons who are selected and trained at state expense 
 are obligated to render service for a period of years in 
 return for the training received. Under a subsidy sys- 
 tem, the state would be impelled to provide the best train- 
 ing that its institutions could offer and by a continuous 
 policy of subsidy, the number of trained teachers in the 
 
 103 
 
104 state: maintenance; of teachers in training 
 
 state would be increased in proportion to the investment. 
 Eventually, the number to be trained annually would be 
 determined by the growth of the system and the changes 
 due to death and resignations. To the extent that train- 
 ing is a factor in prolonging tenure, the number required 
 would decrease from year to year. 
 
 In the absence of a system of subsidizing teacher-train- 
 ing, the element of chance has determined the character 
 of the instruction received by thousands of children. State 
 subsidy would not only make preliminary training certain 
 but it would place the burden and responsibility for such 
 training upon the state rather than upon the individual. 
 
 In the pioneer days, when new lands were plentiful 
 and the opportunities for expansion were unlimited, 
 many conditions were neglected or ignored by state gov- 
 ernments that need attention in the more stable situation 
 of the twentieth century; Conservation of natural re- 
 sources, enrichment of country life, public health, and a 
 more effective system of public education, are examples 
 of once neglected fields of state endeavor that have long 
 deserved the emphasis and interest that they are now 
 receiving. The local and individualistic tendencies in 
 our educational system are rapidly yielding to state poli- 
 cies which distribute the financial burdens more equitably 
 and secure state-wide benefits which were formerly pos- 
 sible only in the larger communities. 
 
 The training of teachers has received limited state 
 assistance and the results have been unjust and unsatis- 
 factory. A complete system of state subsidies would ul- 
 timately place a competent teacher in every school. Japan 
 has succeeded in supplying subsidized teachers to such an 
 extent that if her professional standards were rigidly ap- 
 plied in this country half of the schools would be closed 
 
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIES IO5 
 
 on account of the lack of teachers possessing the re- 
 quired training. 1 
 
 2. Change of Public Attitude Toward Teaching. 
 
 The effect of subsidies upon the public attitude toward 
 the necessity of training is one of its most desirable fea- 
 tures. States would not train teachers at public expense 
 unless preparation were essential to successful teaching. 
 Such a policy would tend to modify the attitude of the 
 public toward the profession because the selection for 
 training at state expense would honor the individual and 
 emphasize his value to the community in the work for 
 which he is being prepared. The greater the amount of 
 subsidy the keener will be the competition and the more 
 important the effect upon the profession through improve- 
 ment of the personnel. Any method or policy that will 
 make teaching more attractive will tend to have a bene- 
 ficial effect because larger numbers will apply for training 
 and a better selection will be possible. 
 
 So much has been said in recent years about poor sal- 
 aries and poor teachers that the effect upon the public has 
 been to lower the standing of the profession as a pro- 
 spective life work and to lower the status of the individual 
 teacher in the community. If the state adopts a policy 
 that makes the teacher a skilled state officer, these damag- 
 ing attitudes will be modified to the advantage of the 
 teacher, the public, and the school. 
 
 3. Subsidies will Prolong Tenure. 
 
 Another desirable result of universal training secured 
 by state subsidies, would be the effect upon tenure. In 
 the rural districts where training is most deficient, the 
 teachers shift more frequently and the average term of 
 experience is short. 2 It has been shown in the Wisconsin 
 survey and in other studies that training prolongs serv- 
 
 1) Cyclopedia of Education, Paul Monroe. Article on Japan. 
 2) Chapter II, p. 41. 
 
106 state: maintenance oe teachers in TRAINING 
 
 ice. "While the average tenure of service for all public 
 school teachers is between four and five years, the records 
 of the State Normal School at Bridgewater, Massa- 
 chusetts, show that the average graduate teaches between 
 eight and nine years. The graduates of the Warrensburg, 
 Missouri, State Normal School, who had completed only 
 the elementary course, were found in 1897-98 to have an 
 average term of service of about six years, while the 
 graduates of the advanced course had taught on the aver- 
 age at least eight years. Graduates of the Illinois State 
 Normal University numbering 2,451 between i860 and 
 1916 had an average, teaching-service record of almost 
 nine years." 3 The fact that many teachers do leave the 
 profession after so short an experience is a strong argu- 
 ment in favor of subsidizing preliminary training. A 
 school can afford to lose even a good teacher if the state 
 has another well trained for his work, and the trained 
 teacher will stay longer, other things being equal. Train- 
 ing makes for satisfaction in the skillful performance of 
 the task, and the state receives an immediate return upon 
 the investment. 
 
 4. Selection for Subsidy will Secure Better Material for 
 the Profession. 
 
 The selection of good candidates is an essential element 
 of any proper plan of state subsidies. The state cannot 
 afford to waste money on inferior candidates and the 
 nature of the teacher's work requires ability of a high 
 order. General ability as shown in school records, as 
 measured by standardized tests, or as demonstrated in 
 competitive examinations, is a foundation upon which pro- 
 fessional training can be successfully placed. 
 
 Such a plan of selection, made possible by means of 
 sufficient subsidies, would furnish much better candidates 
 
 3) Commission Series, No. 3, p. 11, National Education Associa- 
 tion. 
 
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIES IO7 
 
 than does the method by which any one who is willing to 
 take a school is given a certificate. It is better than to 
 admit to a teacher-training institution any one who has a 
 prescribed number of credits. Any selection should be 
 provisional. The person receiving the assistance must 
 continue to show that he is worthy or else his aid should 
 be discontinued. The more care exercised in selection, 
 the less frequent will be the necessity for such discipline. 
 
 The extensive use of intelligence tests in the army 
 suggests possibilities for the use of similar tests whenever 
 it is desired to determine the relative abilities of indi- 
 viduals. The use of such tests as a supplement to col- 
 lege-entrance examinations and in vocational placement 
 indicates the possibility of making tests one basis for 
 selecting students worthy of state subsidy in teacher- 
 training institutions. It has been shown that normal 
 school students are somewhat inferior to college students 
 as judged by the army tests. 4 If tests preliminary to 
 state subsidy be given, the persons whose intelligence 
 quotient is below ioo could well be rejected. 
 
 The state can adopt a method of selection similar to its 
 plan of selecting students for scholarships in higher edu- 
 cational institutions and not make entrance to a teacher- 
 training institution contingent upon failure to secure 
 state benefits in other institutions as is now true in states 
 like New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. To make 
 the teaching profession as attractive as any other, train- 
 ing institutions must not be discriminated against in this 
 manner. To put a premium on training in certain higher 
 institutions by awarding scholarships to the honor pupils 
 in high schools has certainly had the effect of leaving the 
 the weaker material to the normal schools. 5 It has put 
 the stamp of social approval on the one type of institution 
 
 4) Chapter II, Table X. 
 
 5) Chapter II, Tables X. and XI. 
 
108 state maintenance: of teachers in training 
 
 and, by contrast, has made it less desirable to go to the 
 other. 
 
 To place the method of selection on the basis of finan- 
 cial need alone is unfortunate. An indigent classification 
 is socially degrading and results in harm instead of help. 
 The plan of aiding "needy" persons in Louisiana 6 has 
 not succeeded because of this social discrimination. Other 
 state scholarship appointments are not made upon that 
 basis. Free tuition in the normal schools is quite inde- 
 pendent of the economic condition of the pupils. 
 5. Selection for Subsidy Requires Testing of High 
 School Seniors. 
 
 State subsidies for teacher-training do not involve 
 necessarily the luring of young people away from other 
 essential work. The large numbers who are now gradu- 
 ating from high school can supply the needs of all the 
 occupations requiring such preliminary secondary train- 
 ing. Furthermore the high school attendance has been 
 rapidly increasing and shows every sign of continuing to 
 increase for a long time to come. It is important, how- 
 ever, to discover and select the best ability available for 
 the work of teaching. 
 
 Methods of testing and discovering such ability are 
 now so refined that it is possible to determine how high 
 school pupils rank relatively to each other. Under pre- 
 vailing methods, unfortunately, many of those possess- 
 ing the highest ability do not continue their education 
 because of economic conditions or for other reasons. On 
 the other hand many of those who rank among the lowest 
 in ability do enter higher institutions. 
 
 Indiana has completed a state-wide survey 7 of the high 
 school seniors, with the expressed purpose of discovering 
 and possibly of aiding the superior ability which might 
 
 6) Chapter III, p. 61. 
 
 7) Survey of High School Seniors in Indiana, 1920. 
 
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIES IOO, 
 
 otherwise be lost to the state because of lack of training. 
 When a state undertakes to subsidize its prospective 
 teachers, it will need to find the most worthy and most 
 capable young people for the work, and such surveys will 
 reveal a wealth of capable material that will give a su- 
 perior group as candidates for the teaching profession. 
 
 Diagram No. 5 shows some of the significant facts 
 brought out by the survey of Indiana high school seniors. 
 From 22% to 35% of the best grades of intelligence were 
 not intending to take additional training. Here is a 
 wealth of material from the subsidizing of which the state 
 would derive benefits out of all proportion to the cost. 
 The survey also shows that from 40% to 60% of the 
 lowest grades of intelligence among high school seniors 
 are willing to be trained, but these are doubtful candi- 
 dates for state assistance. 
 
 6. Subsidies Tend to Equalize Rural and Urban 
 Opportunities. 
 
 A large group of expert employes in the public school 
 service would insure the state's interest in a suitable sal- 
 ary schedule and eventually in a pension plan. The dif- 
 ficulties of professional work are not restricted to the 
 cities where the greatest economic rewards are received. 
 The problems of rural education are. even more difficult 
 and complex. Nor are the educational needs of city chil- 
 dren greater than those of country children. Subsidies 
 for prospective teachers might well have the definite pur- 
 pose of providing competent teachers for rural children 
 and as a corollary the compensation must be so fixed that 
 the rural service does not suffer in comparison with the 
 urban. 
 
 Under present conditions, the purpose of public educa- 
 tion may be nullified by the local authorities, who are 
 willing to elect immature and unqualified teachers because 
 
1 10 state: maintenance: of teachers in TRAINING 
 
 
 Su/wt~ ►£ %M*M*. *y£ 2cSL++l Su*Zr*Q~r 
 
 
 10 
 
 u 
 
 SO 
 
 Ho 
 30 
 
 10 f 
 
 /?ATlMeS 
 
 JO 
 
 <T jo 
 
 A* A 8 C+ C C- D E E- F 
 
 C3> 
 
 KMH AoOOiLEG-E SELECTED 
 
 r " 1 G0|/V<?T0 4./8.ARTSG0LLEeF 
 
 H ll l l l li n GO| /WGTO TR0F,AKDTBCH> COLLEGE 
 
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIES III 
 
 they are cheap and because the state has not provided a 
 supply possessing superior qualifications. By restricting 
 teachers' licenses to graduates of training institutions, 
 this injustice to the children of the state could be removed 
 at least in part. But subsidies are apparently necessary 
 to insure enrollment in the training institutions that will 
 be sufficient to provide the requisite number of recruits 
 each year. 
 
 Another democratic advantage of subsidized teachers 
 is that prepared teachers, on account of the improve- 
 ment in their training, will tend to receive salaries more 
 nearly equal to those of their supervisors. This is the 
 experience of other countries that have such systems. 8 
 7. General Effect of Scholarships has been Stimulating. 
 
 The value of competition has long been recognized in 
 education. In an unpublished report 9 to the Regents of 
 the University of New York, Ten Kyck states that, after 
 visiting many of the New York state scholars in the in- 
 stitutions where they were studying and after getting 
 evidence from the high schools of the state from which 
 they were chosen, the unanimous verdict was that the 
 effect of the selection of state scholars by their relative 
 standings with the Board of Regents was very invigor- 
 ating. State subsidies have usually been limited in num- 
 ber and the element of competition will tend to make 
 the training desirable. It may indeed come about that 
 many who do not receive state assistance will enter the 
 training institutions and complete the work at their own 
 expense. This is true now in Japan and in France. 
 
 8. Prospective Teachers Deserve State Assistance. 
 
 The principle of assistance for teacher-training is al- 
 ready established by law and custom. The amount and 
 necessity o f additional assistance constitute the real points 
 
 8) Chapter III, Germany. 
 
 9) On File State Department of Education, Albany, N. Y. 
 
112 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 at issue. Vocational schools, trade schools, and colleges 
 and universities maintained by the state, are institutions 
 through which the state subsidizes a great many occupa- 
 tions and professions. Where special need exists, the 
 state is justified in spending more money. 
 
 Agricultural schools have received a large amount of 
 assistance from the states and the nation. In a very real 
 sense the farmers have been subsidized and little objec- 
 tion has been made to the policy. If the state needs for- 
 esters, it may train them in its own school at its own 
 expense, as does Pennsylvania. When it needs police- 
 men or soldiers, it trains them and remunerates them 
 during the training. Such remuneration is generally 
 recognized as a proper exercise of state power and re- 
 sources. 
 
 The problems of the school compare favorably in sig- 
 nificance with those of the farm or the forest. Universal 
 teacher-training by means of subsidies is justified by the 
 difficulty and importance to both state and nation, of the 
 intricate problems which the teacher must help to solve. 
 Illiteracy, Americanization, and public health are types of 
 national problems with which untrained novices are un- 
 prepared to grapple. With trained teachers the school 
 can aid in the solution of such problems. 
 
 As long as teaching in seeking recruits for its service 
 must enter into competition with other occupations, many 
 of which require less training, the state cannot neglect to 
 offer any possible inducements in the way of assistance. 
 Other industries and occupations have successfully used 
 scholarships, loans, and bonuses. Our states should 
 capitalize the experience of private enterprise in securing 
 skilled workers. - 
 
 Teachers deserve state assistance in their preparation 
 because the salaries have been too low to justify extensive 
 
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIES II3 
 
 preparation at private expense. It becomes a state obli- 
 gation to protect the children from incompetence in this 
 vital relationship in the public school system. 
 
 Those states and nations that have adopted plans by 
 which prospective teachers have been aided, have not 
 abandoned the practice on account of their experience, al- 
 though many of them have been unable to train a suf- 
 ficient number of teachers because of military burdens 
 or for other financial reasons. Public sentiment in Amer- 
 ica is beginning to assert itself in this field as evidenced 
 by pending legislation. 10 
 
 It is not surprising that strong and vigorous objection 
 has been made to a policy that seems to be so radically 
 different from customary procedure as does that of state 
 subsidies for prospective teachers. New departures in 
 education have won their way slowly and safely in the 
 face of such opposition. State systems of free schools 
 were bitterly opposed and long delayed. Compulsory edu- 
 cation, free high schools, higher education for women, 
 continuation schools, and even normal schools were ques- 
 tions for serious debate. It is, therefore, pertinent to ask 
 what the objections to the policy of state subsidies for 
 teachers are, and to determine their validity. 
 
 B. DISADVANTAGES 
 
 I. Subsidies will Select the Weak and Dependent. 
 
 It has been charged that a system of scholarships or 
 subsidies would tend to select those who will always be 
 mediocre in ambition and ability. The records of the 
 Rhodes scholars or of any group of selected students cited 
 in this chapter show that this is not true as a general as- 
 sertion. The record of scholarship holders in one of the 
 better known small colleges of the country, Washington 
 and Jefferson College, will show how successful that 
 
 10) See Appendix B. 
 
1 14 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 institution has been in selecting proper material for 
 these honors. 
 
 TABLE XXII. RECORD OF STUDENTS RECEIVING SCHOLARSHIPS IN 
 
 WASHINGTON AND JEFFERSON COLLEGE, WASHINGTON, 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, FALL SEMESTER, 1 920-2 1. H 
 
 Total Enrollment for the Semester 414 
 
 Total number of Scholarships granted 165 
 
 Average grade of all Students 2.82 
 
 Students holding Scholarships, above average... 125 or 75.7% 
 Students holding Scholarships, below average... 40 or 24.3% 
 
 At Syracuse University a record kept for six years 
 shows how the students aided by the Board of Education 
 of the Methodist Church compared with other students as 
 measured by the election on the basis of scholarship only 
 to the honor society, Phi Beta Kappa. These students 
 aided by the board were not chosen for aid on account 
 of scholarship alone, but for other reasons as well. The 
 record shows that the aided students made a slightly bet- 
 ter record than the others. While 2.4 per cent, is not a 
 large difference, it is clear that the selected group was not 
 inferior to the others. 
 
 TABLE XXIII. COMPARISON OF RECORD OF STUDENTS AT SYRACUSE UNI- 
 VERSITY, AIDED BY GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD OF METHODIST 
 CHURCH, WITH THOSE NOT AIDED, MEASURED 
 BY ELECTION TO PHI BETA KAPPA.!2 
 
 
 
 Unaided 
 
 Students 
 
 
 Aided Students 
 
 Year 
 
 Eligible 
 
 Elected 
 
 % 
 
 Eligible 
 
 Elected 
 
 % 
 
 1915 
 
 188 
 
 32 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 1916 
 
 218 
 
 32 
 
 14 
 
 3i 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 1917 
 
 258 
 
 4i 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1918 
 
 189 
 
 39 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 1 91 9 
 
 197 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 1920 
 
 268 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 29 
 
 Total 
 
 1,318 
 
 216 
 
 16.3 
 
 123 
 
 23 
 
 18.7 
 
 11) Data furnished by Dean R. 
 
 12) Data furnished by Prof. R. 
 
 B. English. 
 A. Porter. 
 
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OE SUBSIDIES 115 
 
 In New York state the law permits the appointment of 
 750 persons each year to scholarships in higher institu^- 
 tions. These scholarships provide $100.00 a year for four 
 years. Owing to withdrawals on account of military 
 service and for other reasons, the group for 1914 con- 
 tained 863 individuals. Of these, eight or less than one 
 per cent, were dropped on account of unsatisfactory 
 work. Of those appointed in 1919 none was dropped on 
 account of poor scholarship. 13 About fifty of these New 
 York state scholars chose the Albany State Teachers Col- 
 lege, thus obtaining in addition to free tuition, $100.00 
 toward living expenses. 
 
 The following table shows the comparison between the 
 success of the two groups of students as measured by the 
 initial salaries of inexperienced teachers so far as the 
 facts were known. Again it appears that the students re- 
 ceiving aid were capable of securing practically the same 
 salaries as the others. Of course, some other factors 
 enter into the amount of salary received. The type of 
 position, the location with reference to the home of the 
 teacher, as well as the age, appearance, and personality 
 of the individual, — all have an influence in the salary ac- 
 cepted and they are quite independent of the question of 
 aid received. Table XXIV shows that the scholars made 
 a better record in their studies than the others in their 
 class. 
 
 2. Other Occupations are not Subsidised. 
 
 It is pertinent to ask why teachers should receive state 
 assistance for their preparation when many other occupa- 
 tions and professions are not aided from the public treas- 
 ury. 
 
 State subsidies for teacher-training are more necessary 
 now than formerly because of a combination of circum- 
 
 13) Data furnished by Charles F. Wheelock, Assistant Com- 
 missioner for Secondary Education, New York State. 
 
n6 state; maintenance; of te;ache;rs in training 
 
 TABLE XXIV. RECORDS FROM NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE EOR 
 TEACHERS. 14 
 
 A. Success of State Scholarship Students Compared with Other 
 Students Without Teaching Experience on Basis of Initial Salary. 
 
 Year 
 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 
 
 State 
 
 
 State 
 
 
 Initial 
 
 1 
 
 Scholar 
 
 Other 
 
 Scholar 
 
 Other 
 
 Salaries 
 
 Grad. 
 
 Grad. 
 
 Grad. 
 
 iGrad. 
 
 $ 650 — 
 
 $ 800 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 801 — 
 
 950 
 
 21 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 95i — 
 
 1,000 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 1,101 — 
 
 1,250 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 1,251 — 
 
 1,400 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 1,401 — 
 
 1,550 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 i,55i — 
 
 1,700 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1,701 — 
 
 1,850 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1,851 — 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Total 
 
 
 40 
 
 64 
 
 35 
 
 60 
 
 Actual Median 
 
 $850 
 
 $850 
 
 $1,100 
 
 $1,200 
 
 Average 
 
 $885 
 
 $879 
 
 $1,170 
 
 $1,221 
 
 Records 
 
 Unknown 
 
 3 
 
 53 
 
 13 
 
 40 
 
 B. Scholarship Record of Class of 1917. 
 
 Average of State Scholars (46 Students) =80.55% 
 
 Average of other Students (66 Students) =78.41 % 
 
 Average of whole Class (112 Students) =79.29% 
 
 4 State Scholars dropped out of class since 1913. 
 
 48 other members of class dropped out since 1913. 
 
 14) Data furnished by Dean H. H. Horner. 
 
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGE S OF SUBSIDIES 117 
 
 stances. As a result of the war, people appreciate more 
 keenly the importance of the schools, the serious nature 
 of the lack of trained teachers, and the necessity of a bet- 
 ter preparation for the difficult problems that confront 
 the nation in the future. To secure a supply of trained 
 teachers is more difficult because of the enlarged oppor- 
 tunities for women in other occupations and on account 
 of the industrial development. In order to promote the 
 public welfare a state may exercise its police powers in a 
 very broad way at any time of stress or strain. If a 
 crisis were to occur in public health extending over a 
 period of years, it is not inconceivable that it would be 
 the duty of the state to subsidize the training of phy- 
 sicians and nurses. 
 
 The schools are the agencies for the state which reach 
 the future generation while it is in the formative period. 
 It is self-defense and preparedness for the future that 
 justifies state control of the schools. The state's interest 
 in the schools is impersonal and impartial. Through this 
 interest helpless children are protected from the greed 
 of parents and promoters. Ultimate responsibility for the 
 school system has thus been placed upon the state. So- 
 ciety has not given the state such exclusive control of 
 other occupations and professions. 
 
 Facts have been cited to show that more than fifty per 
 cent, of the teachers are not worthy to be called profes- 
 sional on the basis of their training. Such an unstable 
 and unorganized group cannot hope, unaided, to lift it- 
 self bodily to a higher professional plane by a declaration 
 of principles or by the cultivation of professional atti- 
 tudes. If barriers are to be erected to keep the untrained 
 out of the profession, the state must do it by law, but at 
 the same time, it must make it possible for a sufficient 
 number of trained men and women to replace those who 
 
n8 state: maintenance: oe* te:ache:rs in TRAINING 
 
 are debarred. Subsidies, training, and better living con- 
 ditions are all factors that will contribute to the supply 
 of teachers, if properly influenced by state action. 
 3. Subsidy is not Justified Because of Short Tenure. 
 State subsidy must be guarded by obligations on the part 
 of those aided. Laws in several states require a pledge 
 of two years' teaching in return for free tuition. As this 
 aid is increased, the service required must be increased. 
 In some countries this service is as long as six, seven, or 
 ten years. As a matter of fact the additional training in 
 combination with proper salary and pension laws will 
 extend the term of service so that short tenure will cease 
 to be a problem. But even if the term of service is to re- 
 main relatively brief, there is all the more reason why the 
 state should train the teachers in order that teachers may 
 make the most of their efforts during the period that they 
 serve. 
 
 4. State Subsidy means Paternalism. 
 
 All the endeavors of the state to promote the common 
 good and to provide for the general welfare meet the 
 same objection. The same argument would demand that 
 the parent should do as he pleases with reference to the 
 education of his children. Representative government 
 has become so well established that it is folly to oppose 
 efforts to improve its efficiency in its distinctive fields of 
 activity. 
 
 State subsidy for prospective teachers has been used by 
 all types of governments in many parts of the world. The 
 conditions in the schools justify its use there without in- 
 volving any necessary extension of the policy to other de- 
 partments of work. 
 
 5. State Subsidy Encourages Extravagance. 
 Most of the scholarship plans in America do not aim to 
 
 supply all of the student's needs. This allows opportu- 
 
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIES 1 10, 
 
 nity for self help and for self direction and control. To 
 turn over to the individual student a large sum of money 
 even on the installment plan would doubtless invite ex- 
 travagance and lead to the wrong attitude toward state 
 assistance. Effective plans for subsidy require the student 
 to give bond or notes for the amount given by the state, 
 so that the state's interests are preserved. These notes 
 must be paid by efficient service or if the individual fails 
 to teach the required number of years, the notes are col- 
 lected. 
 
 6. Subsidies Help in Foreign Countries Only. 
 
 Some who are opposed to state grants for teachers de- 
 clare that the reason subsidies have aided the profession 
 abroad is that society is stratified there and that subsidy 
 affords a great opportunity for those low in the social 
 scale to elevate themselves into positions of relative honor 
 and responsibility. No doubt the teaching profession has 
 been recruited to some extent in foreign countries on 
 this basis. But essentially the same situation exists in 
 society in this country except the stratification is econo- 
 mic rather than social. The democratic effect of a state 
 subsidy that seeks out ability in the lower social groups 
 and conserves it for the benefit of all concerned is just as 
 desirable in America as in any other country. 
 
 Studies of the teaching population show that many of 
 our prospective teachers come from homes the economic 
 and social standards of which are not high. 15 Many are 
 only one or two generations removed from the immigrant 
 class and training at state expense is the only method 
 of preventing such persons from entering the schools 
 without some training that will tend to compensate for the 
 lack of home advantages. 
 
 15) Social Composition of the Teaching Population, Coffman. 
 
120 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 7. Other Remedies will Provide Trained Teachers. 
 
 Before a new policy involving large expenditures of 
 public money is adopted, it is necessary to determine 
 whether any modification of existing methods will pro- 
 duce the desired results. Many investigations in typical 
 sections of the country clearly show that the proportion 
 of trained teachers is shamefully low. What are the ele- 
 ments in educational law and administration that could 
 contribute to the remedy of this national evil? 
 
 Since more training is needed, it seems obvious that 
 the laws should be so drafted that standard minimum 
 preparation in a training institution would be required 
 for certification. Such legislation would close at least 
 half of the schools, if it were applied suddenly. To re- 
 quire two years of professional training beyond the high 
 school would prevent many persons from entering the 
 profession because of economic conditions, although their 
 natural ability might be of a high order. The cost of 
 training at an institution, approximately $400.00 a year, 
 would cause these prospective teachers to enter other 
 occupations as soon- as they left high school. 
 
 Nearly 300,000 teachers are required in the rural 
 schools. It is doubtful whether these schools could be 
 maintained if the typical family as described by Coffman 16 
 were prevented from furnishing the necessary teachers. 
 To avoid this calamity, higher standards of training must 
 be reached gradually and the legitimate function of state 
 subsidy as a means to this end becomes apparent. 
 
 Again since .teachers cannot afford training, the only 
 way to offer additional financial aid is to suggest that 
 under present practice the salaries be increased so that 
 teachers may secure training. It is doubtful whether 
 salaries, especially in the rural districts, can be made high 
 
 16) The Social Composition of the Teaching- Population, Coffman. 
 
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIES 121 
 
 enough to induce a sufficient number of candidates to get 
 the training before entering the profession. 
 
 Salaries and training ought to be definitely related. Ex- 
 tensive preparation should receive its reward in the salary 
 schedule on account of the superior service rendered, re- 
 gardless of the source of the funds which made the prep- 
 aration possible. In other occupations high salaries are 
 not paid to some workers in order to influence others to 
 secure training. On the contrary, skill, experience, and 
 ability receive their due reward. 
 
 The time when the prospective teacher needs help 
 occurs when the high school course is finished and voca- 
 tional choice must be made. Here is a potential worker 
 who may earn in various occupations $50.00 or $60.00 
 per month without any further investment of time or 
 money in preparation. Economic pressure in the home 
 makes the individual feel that he must contribute to the 
 extent at least of supporting himself. The delayed re- 
 turns of a salary schedule which would not begin to be 
 felt for approximately three years (two spent in training 
 and one in teaching) do not compare in drawing power 
 with the immediate rewards of the other vocations. 
 
 State scholarships for teacher training offered at this 
 strategic moment of decision will aid greatly in neutral- 
 izing the attractions of the other occupations. They will 
 bring to the teacher-training institutions a group of well 
 qualified candidates who would otherwise be lost to the 
 profession. 
 
 The effect of such aid would not be to lower the sal- 
 aries of the teaching service. The improved character 
 of the profession would justify higher salaries rather 
 than lower. The question of the source of the funds used 
 in preparation is never asked of teachers in fixing the 
 salary schedule. The aid received in free tuition by those 
 
122 STATS MAINTENANCE} Otf TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 teachers who have attended state normal schools has not 
 resulted in any difference in their salaries as compared 
 with those of teachers who have paid their own tuition 
 for training of equal quality. 
 
 Those states that have already adopted forms of state 
 subsidy do not discriminate against the beneficiaries of 
 such aid. In fact, the tendency is to pay them more on 
 account of their superior efficiency. The Maine law 
 offers a 25% bonus to the rural teachers who take the 
 summer course where all expenses are paid by the state. 
 
 The salaries paid in Germany before the war were on a 
 higher level relatively than were the salaries in America. 17 
 If subsidies are the cause of low salaries, why is it that, 
 in the United States where the subsidy plan is almost 
 negligible in its influence in the teaching profession, the 
 cry for higher salaries is most insistent? Poor prepara- 
 tion and unsatisfactory methods of certification are two 
 of the reasons for the salary situation. 
 
 The public schools need, the united assistance of all the 
 factors which are now at work for their betterment and 
 in addition the help of the state and nation in providing 
 institutional preparation for the teachers before they be- 
 gin their professional career. 
 
 8. Cost of Subsidizing Teacher Training. 
 
 The chief objection to the policy of state assistance for 
 prospective teachers is that it will cost too much. The 
 question of cost is a relative matter. Its justification de- 
 pends upon the value and necessity of the thing pur- 
 chased, as well as upon the ability of the purchaser to 
 make payment. Previous discussion has shown the great 
 need of better prepared teachers in many parts of the 
 country. The policy of non-interference in striving to 
 meet this need has proved to be a failure. Every incom- 
 
 17) Prussian Elementary Schools, Alexander. 
 
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 0E SUBSIDIES 12^ 
 
 petent teacher is evidence of that failure. So far as the 
 children are concerned, the success of the entire school 
 system depends upon the competence of the teachers. 
 Good teachers in some favored communities will have 
 little influence in those less fortunate localities where the 
 untrained teachers represent the state's lack of interest 
 in equality of educational opportunity. It is a natural 
 desire on the part of the parent to have the best teachers 
 that can be employed for his own children. There can be 
 no denial of the vital importance of a well prepared 
 teacher in every school, even in the remotest rural school. 
 The parent must look to the state to protect him from 
 failure and inefficiency in this matter. 
 
 The problem of trained teachers is too large for each 
 community to attempt to solve alone. Its fiscal impli- 
 cations involve not only the state but the nation. Al- 
 ready Federal aid is being used by the states in the prep- 
 aration of teachers under the Smith-Hughes act. Our 
 national wealth is five times as great as in 1890, although 
 population has not gained 100%. 18 Because of late 
 entrance into the world war and because of our vast 
 natural resources, our national debt is not so great as 
 are those of the other great nations. If any nation can 
 afford the expense of training its teachers with public 
 funds that nation is the United States. 
 
 Money spent in making a school system effective 
 should not be looked upon as an extravagance. Ignorance, 
 illiteracy, and poverty are found together. Mexico, Italy, 
 Spain, India, and Russia are examples of countries 
 where public education is not available for the great 
 majority of the common people. Contrast these countries 
 with Switzerland, Norway, Holland, or Scotland. 
 
 18) Chapter II. Table VII. 
 
124 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 Our immigration laws have permitted large groups of 
 aliens to come into the country, bringing the customs and 
 standards of the Old World with them. Within a few 
 years the menace of such unassimilated groups has been 
 clearly recognized. The responsibility for the American- 
 ization of the immigrant and his children has been placed 
 upon the educational system. So serious a burden should 
 not be placed upon the shoulders of the unprepared and 
 inexperienced young women who now form the bulk of 
 the teaching population. The interests of the state are 
 too vital to raise the the question of expense. 
 
 Vast sums of money have been expended by states for 
 good roads, for public health, and for agriculture. All 
 are worthy objects of state assistance but no more neces- 
 sary than are good schools. To insure teacher-training 
 means to protect children from incompetent direction 
 and to aid the prospective teacher when he needs it most. 
 Relatively few teachers remain in the service long enough 
 to earn the benefits of a pension law, but every subsidized 
 teacher gains advantages for himself which can be 
 shared by every community served by a teacher thus 
 aided. 
 
 Approximately 100,000 new teachers are required in 
 the public schools every year. To give these teachers 
 two years of professional training beyond the standard 
 high school course will cost a large sum. It is not essen- 
 tial to pay all the expenses of these students. Most young 
 people have some resources of their own and the honor 
 of being selected by the state will stimulate the individ- 
 ual to provide a part of the cost. Again it is not neces- 
 sary to subsidize all prospective teachers. Many persons 
 who are able to pay their own expenses would still be 
 permitted to do so. It is probable that many of those 
 entering into competition for the scholarships would con- 
 
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIES 1 25 
 
 sider the training so valuable that they would be stimu- 
 lated to go on at their own expense. 
 
 Recent legislation in America seems to regard $300.00 
 as the proper amount of annual subsidy required in ad- 
 dition to free tuition. 19 If 60,000 persons were selected 
 annually for such subsidy the cost for the two groups 
 would be $36,000,000. This is approximately four per 
 cent, of the annual expenditure for public education in the 
 United States, which is now about $1,000,000,000. In 
 1920 the government spent almost four times that total 
 amount on its military enterprises. 20 A wise use of 
 public money would recognize in education a valuable 
 means of building up the national defense. 
 
 The advantages of universal training for teachers far 
 outweigh the disadvantages that have been alleged by 
 those who oppose state subsidy. Experience in the ad- 
 ministration of such a plan would remove most of the dif- 
 ficulties. American ingenuity can solve the problems 
 involved in the operation of state subsidy for prospective 
 teachers. All other plans in use have not succeeded in 
 placing a trained teacher in every school. This ideal may 
 be more nearly achieved by a wise use of additional aid 
 for the preparation of teachers. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 1. State subsidy for prospective teachers extends the 
 policy of assistance already adopted by central authority 
 and proposes to attack vigorously the prevailing lack of 
 sufficient preparation among teachers. By making the 
 profession of teaching more attractive, the state would 
 counteract much of the disparaging attitude which the 
 public now exhibits toward teaching. 
 
 2. Trained teachers are more valuable than incom- 
 petent recruits because they are likely to teach longer as 
 
 19) Connecticut, Illinois, Delaware. See Appendix B. 
 
 20) Rosa, Chart in Survey, January 22, 1921, p. 600. 
 
126 state: maintenance; of teachers in training 
 
 well as more efficiently. Subsidy will attract a sufficient 
 number of candidates to allow selection of those who 
 possess the best ability. State assistance will make it pos- 
 sible to prolong the training of many high school grad- 
 uates whose ability should be utilized by the state but 
 whose economic conditions now compel them to give up 
 further study. 
 
 3. Aid in the form of scholarships, offered in other 
 fields of activity by educational institutions, has proved 
 to be stimulating. Teachers deserve state assistance as 
 much as farmers, foresters, or sailors. States are ex- 
 tending their scholarship plans as a result of their ex- 
 perience in using them, rather than abandoning them. 
 
 4. Students selected for assistance in other fields have 
 proved worthy of such aid. They have been successful 
 in school and in their chosen work. The state's need for 
 teachers which results from its control of public educa- 
 tion, justifies assistance by the state without necessarily 
 extending the policy to other occupations. 
 
 5. The objections of extravagance and short tenure 
 are easily met by the provisions of the law requiring a 
 pledge of service and limiting the use of the mone)^ to 
 definite purposes. 
 
 6. The opportunity for worthy students to improve 
 their social status through state subsidy is just as im- 
 portant in the United States as in the foreign countries 
 where subsidies for teachers have been in use for many 
 years. 
 
 7. Other methods of securing trained teachers have 
 not succeeded. State and national subsidies for prospect- 
 ive teachers will supplement and reinforce the other plans. 
 America can afford the expense and the benefits to be 
 derived justify the investment. 
 
Chapter VI 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 The evidence presented shows that the shortage of well 
 trained teachers still continues in spite of the growth in 
 numbers of normal schools and in the enrollment of col- 
 leges and universities. 
 
 Other occupations and professions have been more at- 
 tractive, because the time for training was shorter or the 
 cost of preparation was less, or the prospective rewards 
 were greater. With the increasing educational demands 
 and the trend toward longer courses of training for all 
 grades of the teaching service, the cost of preparation 
 has materially increased. 
 
 A majority of those who desire to enter the teaching 
 profession do so by means of a system of certification 
 that permits them to avoid the costs of preparation. More- 
 over, the inadequate salaries paid in the rural districts 
 do not secure professionally trained teachers. Those 
 persons who are able to afford the time and money re- 
 quired for standard preparation usually seek employment 
 in the towns and cities. This situation has resulted in a 
 transient, incompetent, and immature body of teachers in 
 the rural schools. 
 
 The differences existing between rural and urban edu- 
 cational opportunities are intolerable in a nation that is 
 devoted to the principles of equity and justice. The 
 problems of the rural teacher require at least as much 
 skill and preparation for their solution as do those of the 
 city teacher who has in addition to a somewhat simpler 
 problem the advantage of expert supervision. The state 
 owes as much to the rural child as it does to the city child. 
 
 127 
 
128 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 Those rural communities that have recognized the dif- 
 ference in living conditions and have been financially able, 
 have paid well trained teachers as much as or more than 
 such teachers would receive in the towns and cities in 
 order to compete for their services. 
 
 There are inequalities in the cost of preparation that 
 should be reduced by a well planned system of state assist- 
 ance, (i) Several states and countries have made pro- 
 vision for transportation charges, thus encouraging a 
 wider range in the selection of students. (2) It would 
 seem equally justifiable to make up from public funds the 
 excess cost of institutional life over home life, inasmuch as 
 the former is one of the most important factors in the 
 training process. -Under present conditions students liv- 
 ing in the immediate vicinity of the professional school en- 
 joy a great economic advantage over those who come from 
 the state at large, but the state loses the advantages of 
 having them live a regulated institutional life during the 
 period of training. It should be possible with liberal 
 state assistance to require all students to live within the 
 institution and thus get the complete benefit of its 
 training. 
 
 The teaching profession continues to draw many of its 
 recruits from the humbler homes. It has been the means 
 by which capable and ambitious young people have tried 
 to improve their social status. However they are often 
 unable to pay for the professional 'training that is neces- 
 sary for efficiency. By state subsidy it is proposed to 
 help such persons to secure adequate training not only 
 because the students need aid but because a trained teach- 
 er in every school is the goal that the state should strive 
 to attain. 
 
 The foundations of a real profession of teaching must 
 rest ultimately upon a broad preliminary training such as 
 
CONCLUSIONS 129 
 
 prevails in medicine, in law, and in the ministry. Equality 
 of educational opportunity for the children requires that 
 the state should work toward this desirable goal by pro- 
 viding teachers with preliminary training equal to a mini- 
 mum standard throughout the state. To accomplish this 
 purpose, an aggressive policy must be adopted. Merely 
 to recognize and state the need will not modify the unjust 
 conditions which now prevail. 
 
 Other occupations, such as telegraphy and nursing, 
 offer financial inducements to those willing to undertake 
 training in order to create a body of skilled workers. 
 Many vocations permit advancement within the service, 
 without specific preliminary training, and thus offer op- 
 portunities for the worker to earn a living wage while he 
 prepares for promotion. Neither of these policies is 
 characteristic of the teaching profession. Little financial 
 assistance has been offered, although the work requires 
 a high degree of skill and a broad preparation before it 
 can be successfully begun. The function of state sub- 
 sidies for prospective teachers is to recognize these dif- 
 ferences and to make the teaching service as attractive 
 as is any other work. 
 
 Another purpose of state subsidy is to counteract a 
 certain amount of social stigma or prejudice that has 
 attached to the profession of teaching, with the effect 
 that many possible recruits have been prevented from en- 
 tering the work. State recognition of the importance of 
 the teacher as expressed in material aid will dignify and 
 honor the profession and the competition for the oppor- 
 tunities offered, will tend to make the occupation more 
 attractive. 
 
 Scholarships in our colleges and universities have suc- 
 ceeded in selecting persons of ability. Many of these 
 students could not have received the advantages of higher 
 
130 STATE) maintenance of teachers in training 
 
 education without this assistance. The precedent of us- 
 ing public money for such a purpose is well established 
 at West Point and Annapolis and in many of our tax sup- 
 ported colleges and universities through the provision of 
 scholarships. The need for trained teachers clearly jus- 
 tifies and demands the extension of this policy to the field 
 of teacher-preparation which has been hitherto so much 
 neglected. 
 
 Additional experience may discover better methods of 
 selection than any yet devised, but school records, com- 
 petitive examinations, and intelligence tests afford the 
 best means at present. It is not maintained that these 
 methods will in every case select those who will make 
 good teachers. The training institutions must eliminate 
 those individuals who lack the traits of character and per- 
 sonality that are required in the profession. 
 
 Teachers in many foreign countries and in a few 
 states in the United States are receiving financial assist- 
 ance toward adequate preparation. The fact that 
 America has done less in this direction than any other 
 great nation and at the same time possesses a teaching 
 population containing so large a proportion of incom- 
 petent teachers, plainly suggests the possibility of great 
 improvement through such a policy. The evidence pre- 
 sented justifies the conclusion that state subsidies will not 
 destroy any desirable characteristics of the public schools. 
 The sole aim of such a policy is to provide an adequate 
 supply of trained teachers. 
 
 The magnitude of this undertaking is recognized in 
 the proposed Sterling-Towner Bill, which, accepting the 
 precedent established in the Smith-Hughes Act, plans 
 for the cooperation of the nation with the states in pre- 
 paring teachers for their work. The state and nation 
 should share this responsibility and burden because their 
 
CONCLUSIONS I3I 
 
 interests in public education are mutual and co-extensive. 
 It is impossible for any state to solve this problem alone. 
 If one state succeeds in training a large group of teach- 
 ers, another adjoining state by means of a fortunate sal- 
 ary schedule may attract the teachers from her neighbor 
 and rob her of her vested interest in the training pro- 
 vided. So long as there is an insufficient supply, there 
 will be competition for those that are trained and the 
 poorer districts are limited to those that are left. 
 
 It is a national problem not alone because it is common 
 to all the states, but because ignorance, illiteracy, and in- 
 competency are a menace to the nation's progress. Hence 
 it is legitimate to secure the financial assistance of the 
 national treasury in an enterprise that promises so much 
 for the improvement of the teaching population. 
 
 The growth of national wealth and resources in the 
 United States is unparalleled in the modern world. There 
 are sources of taxation in every state that are as yet un- 
 tapped. The question is not so much whether the states 
 and nation can afford the cost. Rather the question 
 should be asked whether they can afford to postpone any 
 longer so vital an investment in teacher preparation. It 
 has been estimated that an annual expenditure by all the 
 states of four per cent, of the total now spent for public 
 education would solve this problem within ten years. A 
 group of more than 66,000 teachers could be prepared an- 
 nually by means of an expenditure of $40,000,000 in an- 
 nual scholarships of $300.00 each. Seven states have 
 already made a beginning in this direction and several 
 others have legislation now pending. It is a policy that 
 must be adopted upon the initiative of each state separ- 
 ately. Hence the time required for the policy to become 
 effective is essentially unpredictable. 
 
132 STATS MAINTENANCE) OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 In the meantime every possible agency that contributes 
 to the improvement of teachers must be fully utilized. 
 Teachers in service must be encouraged to go to sum- 
 mer schools, or to go to school on leave of absence. Sal- 
 aries and training should be more nearly adequate and 
 more closely related. In short the teaching profession 
 must be recruited not only through the character of its 
 training, but through the attractiveness of its working 
 conditions as well as through its opportunities for service. 
 SUGGESTED TERMS OF A SUBSIDY UW. 
 
 Scholarships shall be established worth at least $300.00 
 annually, in addition to free tuition, to be devoted to the 
 maintenance of students in the teacher-training institu- 
 tions of the state for two years of professional work. 
 These scholarships shall be payable to the training insti- 
 tutions in semi-annual installments upon the certificate of 
 the president of the institution that the conditions of the 
 law have been fulfilled by the scholarship holders. 
 
 Candidates for scholarships shall be graduates of four- 
 year high school courses or the equivalent, as determined 
 by the State Department of Public Instruction. Each 
 must present a certificate of good health signed by a 
 reputable physician, and be a resident of the state for 
 one year and a citizen of the United States. They shall 
 be selected by competitive examination under regulations 
 adopted by the State Board of Education. 
 
 Scholarship holders shall pledge themselves to teach 
 the next four years after completing the course in the 
 public schools of the state or return a proportionate part 
 of the money granted by the state for the years of service 
 omitted. They shall pledge themselves to complete the 
 course in the training school. 
 
 For the proper performance of the pledge, the student 
 shall give bond signed by a responsible property holder 
 
CONCLUSIONS 133 
 
 covering the entire sum of $600.00. The bond shall be 
 filed in the offices of the State Department of Public In- 
 struction. 
 
 Ill health and failure to carry the work of the training 
 school successfully, will exempt the student from his 
 pledge and the bondsman from liability. 
 
 The state should guarantee the teacher a salary equal 
 to that paid for the same grade of preparation in the best 
 schools of the state. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Alabama Survey, Bulletin No. 41, 1919, U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Alexander, Thomas, Prussian Elementary Schools, 1918. 
 
 Ayres, Leonard, An Index Number for State School Systems, 
 Russell Sage Foundation 1920. 
 
 Bagley, Wm. C, The Nation and the Schools, Keith and Bagley, 
 Macmillan, 1920. 
 
 Book, Wm. F., Preliminary Report — State-wide Survey of High 
 School Seniors, Bulletin of Extension Division of Univer- 
 sity of Indiana, 1920. 
 
 Brandon, Edgar E., Latin-American Universities and Special 
 Schools, Bulletin No. 30, 1912, U. S. Bureau of Education. 
 
 Burgess, W. Randolph, Trends in School Costs. Russell Sage 
 Foundation, 1920. 
 
 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bulle- 
 tin No. 14, 1920. The Professional Preparation of Teach- 
 ers for American Public Schools. 
 
 Centennial of the U. S. Military Academy, 1802- 1902, Vol. II. 
 
 Census of Electrical Industries, Department of Commerce, Bu- 
 reau of Census, 1920. 
 
 Cloyd, David E., Modern Education in Europe and the Orient, 
 Macmillan, 191 7. 
 
 Coffman, Lotus D., Social Composition of the Teaching Popula- 
 tion. Teachers College Contributions, No. 41. 
 
 Commission on Emergency in Education, Series No. 3. 
 
 Delaware Survey, General Education Board. 
 
 Edwards, R., Past, Present, and Future of Normal Schools. 
 N. E. A. Proceedings, 1876. 
 
 Evenden, E. S., Salary Schedules, 1920. 
 
 Foght, H. W., Survey of Schools of Saskatchewan. 
 
 Efficiency and Preparation of Rural School Teachers. 
 U. S. Bulletin, No. 49, 1914. 
 
 Holden, E. S., West Point and the U. S. Military Academy, 1909. 
 
 Judd, Charles H., Training of Teachers in England, Scotland, and 
 Germany, Bulletin No. 35, 1914, U. S. Bureau of Education. 
 Standardizing State Normal Schools, Parker and Judd, 
 Bulletin No. 12, 1916, U. S. Bureau of Education. 
 
 Kandel, I. h., Training of Elementary Teachers in Germany. 
 Teachers College Contributions, No. 31. 
 
 Keith, John, The Nation and the Schools, Keith and Bagley, 1920. 
 
 Manny, F. A., City Training Schools, Bulletin No. 47, 1914, U. S. 
 Bureau of Education. 
 
 135 
 
136 state: maintenance of teachers in training 
 
 Moulton, H. F., Powers and Duties of Education Authorities, 
 London, 1919. 
 
 Monroe, Paul, Cyclopedia of Education. 
 
 New Zealand, Report of Education in 1918. 
 
 New South Wales, Report of Education in 1918. 
 
 National Crisis in Education: An Appeal to the People, Bulle- 
 tin No. 29, 1920. U. S. Bureau of Education. 
 
 Ohio State Survey, 1914. 
 
 Progress of Education in India, Bureau of Education India, 
 1912-1917. 
 
 Public Education in Maryland, General Education Board. 
 
 Public Schools of Virginia, Survey Report, 1919. 
 
 Queensland, Report of Education in 1918. 
 
 Richardson, Robert C, West Point. 
 
 Salisbury, Albert, Teacher Training in Great Britain, N. E. A. 
 Proceedings, 1909. 
 
 Schoolmen's Week Proceedings, Bulletin of University of Penn- 
 sylvania, April, 1920. 
 
 State Superintendent's Report, Missouri, 1919. 
 
 State Superintendent's Report, Montana, 1920. 
 
 Soley, J. R., History of U. S. Naval Academy. 
 
 State Normal School Catalogues. 
 
 State School Laws. 
 
 Survey of Higher Educational Institutions, North Dakota. 
 
 Statesman's Year Book. 
 
 Theological Seminary Catalogues. 
 
 Training Schools for Nurses, Bulletin No. 73, 1919, U. S. Bureau 
 of Education. 
 
 Weaver, Eli, Profitable Vocations for Girls; Profitable Vocations 
 for Boys. 
 
 Wickersham, J. P. History of Education in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Williams, Gus H., Careers for our Sons, London, 1914. 
 
 World's Almanac. 
 
i— i s 
 
 ^1 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 en 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 H 
 
 D "O 03 
 
 id 
 
 CD O 
 
 8 « 
 
 O j_ 
 
 o o.c 
 u">co o 
 
 « s 
 
 of 
 
 £ S ^ 
 
 933 
 
 <£tOtf 
 
 8 & 
 
 
 O 
 o 
 
 <u o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 O O 
 
 fc 8 
 
 co g 
 
 — v w a; ^ ' uj flj rt 1 «\ jc r» r; ^^ '-'J «j wj uj 
 
 >i bn bn Sj ^^^k k 1 ', 1 ', 1 "^ u <" <" V <u 
 
 g » « M M 
 
 W D iu d) w 
 
 2 *- 
 
 TO 
 
 o <l> 
 
 00 N 01 00 
 
 ^OO^OJiOMi-h r^fO 
 
 ££ 
 
 J* >H >H J* ><> £h 
 
 C3 O ^"\0 M VO M 
 
 n5 
 
 s 
 
 rt 
 
 05 
 
 Ut 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 
 _N 
 
 
 «+H 
 
 
 'C 
 
 u 
 
 crt 
 
 < 
 
 <<0 
 
 3 
 
 If*** 
 
 CO C3 .5 
 
 
 rt 03 ^2'S ^ 
 
 i^S £ c e ~ • 
 
 o o <u J2 <u J2 s '2 ^ S S n ca 
 
 03 03 .»* •— .rt ._ O 
 
V C 
 
 (/) 
 
 •a 
 
 43 </} 
 
 5 
 
 0) O 
 
 <v ■ rj 
 
 O 
 
 w g 
 
 
 ©■s 
 
 §^ 
 
 CO 
 
 o o 
 
 §1 
 
 &0- 
 
 <$>> 
 
 3<M 
 
 3° 
 
 >3+J 
 
 "- 1 a 
 
 CO 
 
 0) oi 
 
 4) 4) 4) 
 
 03 0) 
 
 0) 0) 
 
 H 5: 
 
 m , 
 
 
 03 K 
 
 0) 4)0)4)0)4)4)034)4)0) 
 
 0)4)4)4)4)4)4)4) 
 j* fcH $H >H $H H K* t* 
 
 ,N^TiH CD O <>J 1C CO » C5 O 
 
 03 
 
 >>? 
 
 
 ft 
 
 £.2 
 
 
 ■* rit d 
 
 5® 
 
 o 
 
 03 « M 
 
 ►^ 
 
 }H 
 
 t-i cS . 
 
 ££ 
 
 £ 
 
 4) 4) 
 
 0) Q) 
 
 43 
 
 £££ 
 
 ££ 
 
 & 
 
 
 c3 
 
 b d o j> 
 
 C« 
 
 o3 
 
 £ 
 
 ° £ ™ 
 
 oc3h D £ , s5£ 
 
 w '_i 0) 
 
 rt^ 4) 
 
 l^fi 
 
 to 
 
 op^-jUcjag-gs 
 
 « 2 52 og 
 
 S $ 4) ^ ^ ® •- ' **> 
 
 03 O 
 
 4) 03 
 43.-H 
 
 S 4) 
 ££ 
 
 C^ 
 .<_> 4) 
 4) ft 
 
 Boa- 
 
APPENDIX B 
 PENDING LEGISLATION 
 
 CONNECTICUT — 10,21 
 
 An Act Providing for Trained Teachers. 
 
 Section 1066, of the General Statutes is amended to 
 read as follows : The State Board of Education may at ali 
 times maintain, in any of the normal schools, one student, 
 selected on the basis of scholarship and general fitness, 
 from each town in the state, upon the recommendation of 
 the town school committee or board of school visitors 
 of such town; and for students admitted to said schools 
 under the provisions of this section living expenses, not to 
 exceed three hundred dollars for each pupil in any one 
 year, shall be provided by said State Board of Educa- 
 tion free of charge. Every person entering a normal 
 school under the provisions of this section shall enter 
 into an agreement with the State Board of Education to 
 remain at the normal school for two years, unless in case 
 of ill health or dismissal by the school authorities, and 
 to teach in one of the towns whose grand list shall not 
 exceed two million five hundred thousand dollars as last 
 determined by the State Board of Equalization, for a 
 period of three years after graduation unless excused by 
 the State Board of Education. 
 
 Statement. 
 
 The purpose of this act, which changes the grant for 
 living expenses from $150.00 to $300.00 a year is to en- 
 courage more persons to enter the state normal schools, 
 and also to insure greater numbers of trained teachers in 
 the schools of the small towns of the state. 
 
 139 
 
140 state; maintenance; of teachers in training 
 
 delaware — 1 92 1 
 
 An act to establish Free Scholarships at Delaware Col- 
 lege for the training of teachers for the public schools 
 of Delaware and making an appropriation therefor. 
 
 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa- 
 tives of the State of Delaware in General Assembly met : 
 
 Section 1. That the Trustees of Delaware College 
 shall establish in the Women's College, affiliated with 
 Delaware College, fifty (50) free scholarships affording 
 the holders thereof certain tuition, board and lodging 
 during a two (2) years' course of training for teaching 
 in the free public schools of this State. 
 
 Section 2. That the State Board of Education shall 
 award said scholarships; and all applications therefor 
 shall be filed with it. 
 
 Section 3. Every applicant, upon filing her applica- 
 tion, must comply with the following conditions: 
 
 ( 1 ) She shall be at least eighteen years of age on or 
 before the first day of December of the year in which she 
 makes application. 
 
 (2) She shall be a graduate of a standard four-year 
 high school. 
 
 (3) She shall file a certificate of good health by a 
 reputable physician. 
 
 (4) Her application must bear the approval of her 
 Superintendent of Schools and of the State Commissioner 
 of Education. 
 
 (5) She shall sign a bond, provided by the State 
 Board of Education, to complete the course at the 
 Women's College to the best of her ability and upon the 
 completion of the course to teach three (3) years in the 
 public elementary schools of Delaware. 
 
 Section 4. The Department of Education of Delaware 
 College shall renew or terminate each scholarship upon 
 
APPENDIXES 141 
 
 the record of the holder at the end of the first year's 
 course. 
 
 Section 5. The sum of Fifteen Thousand Dollars 
 ($15,000) is appropriated annually for said scholarships 
 out of any money in the treasury and not otherwise ap- 
 propriated ; said sum shall be paid by the State Treasurer 
 to the Treasurer of the Trustees of Delaware College as 
 follows : One-half thereof on the first day of October 
 and the other half thereof on the first day of February 
 in each and every collegiate year; provided that on said 
 dates said Treasurer of the College shall certify that 
 fifty (50) persons, awarded scholarships, are enrolled and 
 pursuing the prescribed course of training; for each 
 scholarship Three Hundred Dollars ($300) shall be an- 
 nually paid and if less than fifty ( 50) persons are enrolled, 
 on any date of payment, there shall be a corresponding 
 abatement in the amount paid. 
 
 THE PROPOSED NORMAL SCHOOL SCHOLARSHIP LAW OF 
 ILLINOIS — 1 92 1 
 
 A Bill for an Act to Provide Scholarships for Students 
 
 Attending the State Supported Institutions for the 
 
 Training of Teachers. 
 
 Section 1. Be it enacted by the people of the State of 
 Illinois represented in the General Assembly: That the 
 State of Illinois hereby agrees within the limits of the 
 annual appropriations provided in accordance with this 
 Act to cooperate with the school districts in the State in 
 providing two-year scholarships for students in the state- 
 supported institutions for the training of teachers. 
 
 Section 2. Said scholarships shall be for $300 per 
 year payable one-half from the District Treasury in Sep- 
 tember, the other half from the state appropriation in 
 January of the two years for which the scholarship shall 
 run. 
 
142 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 Section 3. Said scholarships shall be awarded between 
 May 1 and August 15. The school board awarding the 
 scholarship shall without delay notify the Superintendent 
 of Public Instruction of its act, who shall register the 
 scholarships in the order that the notifications are re- 
 ceived. Within ten days after August 15 the Superin- 
 tendent of Public Instruction shall approve the scholar- 
 ships awarded according to law in the order of their 
 registration except that no county may be deprived of its 
 minimum quota, one scholarship for each fifty teachers 
 or major fraction of this number. No more than 1000 
 scholarships may be approved in any year. Scholarships 
 reported beyond this limit shall not receive state aid. 
 
 Section 4. Said scholarships may be awarded by 
 school boards to residents of the school district, who are 
 graduates of recognized four-year high schools, who are 
 of good moral character and who meet the scholastic and 
 physical standards prescribed by the Superintendent of 
 Public Instruction. Any district may issue at least one 
 scholarship in each biennium. If two or more scholar- 
 ships are issued in any district, the total amount paid for 
 scholarships in any year shall not exceed five per cent, of 
 the annual expenditure for teachers' salaries in that dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Section 5. The person receiving the scholarship shall 
 sign a pledge to attend a state school for the training of 
 teachers in Illinois for two school years and continue his 
 studies until graduation, and after his graduation, to 
 teach two years in the district furnishing the aid and two 
 additional years in the public schools of Illinois, at the 
 salary usually paid where he is employed to teachers of 
 like qualifications, grade, preparation, and experience. 
 
 In guaranty of this pledge the person receiving the 
 scholarship shall sign four promissory notes with security 
 
APPENDIXES 143 
 
 approved by the district school board. Said notes shall 
 be for one hundred and fifty dollars each, payable one at 
 the expiration of each year which the maker is pledged to 
 teach, and shall bear interest after maturity at the rate of 
 six per cent, per annum. Two of th?se notes shall be made 
 payable to the school district issuing the scholarship, two 
 to the Department of Registration and Education. One 
 of these notes shall be cancelled without payment of the 
 principal sum at the end of each year taught in accordance 
 with the pledge. The four years of teaching for which 
 notes are cancelled must be completed within six years 
 after graduation, unless the time is extended by the Su- 
 perintendent of Public Instruction. 
 
 Section 6. Boards of Education and Boards of Direc- 
 tors are hereby authorized to pay out of their fund for 
 operating expenses the amount required for the scholar- 
 ships issued by them. 
 
 Section 7. On or before December 15, the Director 
 of Registration and Education shall report to the Auditor 
 of Public Accounts the names of all students holding 
 valid approved district scholarships who are attending the 
 several state teacher-training institutions, and the Audi- 
 tor is hereby instructed to issue not later than January 
 15, a warrant of $150 in favor of each student reported, 
 said warrant to be delivered to the student upon his 
 filing the promissory note requested by this Act. 
 
 Section 8. The school board issuing a scholarship may 
 release the student who received it from his obligation to 
 teach in that district. The obligation to teach four years 
 in the state remains in force. The Superintendent of 
 Public Instruction shall have power to release any stu- 
 dent from his obligation to teach or to pay the promissory 
 notes he has made, if the school board which issued the 
 scholarship certifies that his physical or mental condition 
 
144 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
 
 is such as to disqualify him for teaching as required in 
 this Act. The death of a student shall release the sureties 
 upon his promissory notes given in accordance with this 
 Act. 
 
 Section 9. To provide funds for carrying out the pro- 
 visions of this Act the sum of $150,000 is hereby appro- 
 priated to the Department of Registration and Education 
 for the year 1921-22, $300,000 for the year 1922-23, or 
 such part of these sums as may be needed. 
 
 Section 10. The Superintendent of Public Instruction 
 is hereby authorized to make such rules as are necessary 
 to carry out the provisions of this Act. 
 


 
 V^vl 
 
 -V> % 
 
 L 
 

 ^ < 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,-\° 
 
 
 I*' 
 
 • nX V <?/>_ 
 
 8 1 A 
 
 . 
 
 <* * 
 
 -7 -^ 
 
 v^' 
 
 ,0o. 
 
 J> "^ 
 
 '<<•■ 
 
 
 .>' ^ 
 
 o. * 
 
 
 <*V ^ 
 
 
 C \ X ^O^^o 
 
 ^ v^' 
 
 
 
 
 .*« 
 
 ^ V* 
 
 \/' 
 
 ^ "%. 
 
 
 
 
 'J"- ,YV 
 
 t> << 
 
 3;, ' 
 
 
 -7 -£> 
 
 
 ^ % 
 
 ,0o. 
 
 N^s 
 
 
 > o> 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 
 V V 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 021 774 734 A